(Hi    i 


i^, 


>< 


Xi 


,^\^[l)(JIVERy/A         vVlOSiWCElfj> 


■< _        _  


J  o 


-^tllBRARYQ^- 


^^tllBRARY(9/c 


^WEUNIVERy/A 


^OJUVJ-JO"*^ 


-,  .  ^  o 


,-\WEl)N'IVERy/A        ^ 

>- 


^^      ^lOS-ANCElfj-^ 


il^i 


<CJ13DNVS01'^ 


.vi;OFCAllF0% 


^OF-CAllFOff^ 


>&Aavaan# 


^OAavaan-^^ 


.5J\EUNIVERy/A 


<rjl3DWS01^ 


n 


^HIBRARYQr^       ^l 


%OJ1TO-J0>' 


'^iOjuvjju-^ 


^^WEUNIVERy/A.       ^Uj 

•< 


1^1  IG 


IX. 

%a3AiNajuv 


^;^tllBRARYQ^^ 


^.JOJIIVDJO'^ 


LOSANCElfj> 


^.OFCAllFOff^ 


?i      \r 


\< 


A 


^OFCAIIFOP;^ 


^. 


^iVAaviiaiiiV'' 


4i; 


^; 


'% 


^OFCAllFOff^ 


^<?Aava8iii^ 


I"! 


--"^    <$; 


.v,lOSANCEl£rx 


^    B 


.vAT-IIRRARY/i/. 


sXfllRRARY^?/ 


^ 


c 


^.i/0 


,5MfUNIVER%       ^10 


o 


.vin^AfJCFlfr.x 

I'll  P^ 


.<.nfTAiiFnpv. 


t-  £r> 


IIS'^ 


.,nprAiiFO/?^ 


.^WEUNIVERJ/A        ^vlO 

■< 


%a 


i}. 


^WE■UNIVERy/A 


ANCElfj>, 


..MNah^' 


ii'JNYS01^^~  '^/jaJAINil-JU~^' 


^^tLIBRARY(V 


<^tllBRARYG/r 


5yEUNIVERSyA. 


mi  rm 


tlff^ 


■  S    = 


'^■fJlj'Jf.V  M) 


^30  ■; 


-ilJAI.N.l  JIW 


^^tllBRARYO/ 


^tllBRARYOc^ 


^iOJUVJ-JO"^ 


^iOJUVDJO"^ 


,\\^F  IINIVFRJ/A         ,v»vlOSA)Jr,flf' 


1^ 


> 


"^/^aiAiNftnv^^ 


v^ 


■mUPYO/: 


^-^  a 


r:  a 


A.OFCA1IFO%        .4.0FCA1IF0%, 


^o^avaaiii^      ^c'AavaaiB^'^ 


V/^,  ^v>;lOS-AHCflfj)> 


i^       "^/^a^AINfllWV^ 


s-OFC 


^FCAIIFOff^ 


3 
•i 


.^\«•UNIVERy/A. 


^lOSANCFlfju 
<5  — ^        ^ 


^^illBRARYQ^        ^^UIBRARY^/ 


%OJI1V3JO>'       '^OJIIVDJO'^ 


^^WEUNIVERy/^       ^lOSMEir 


'^J'ilJDNVSOl^ 


v/ja3AIN(l]AV 


i^OFCAllFOP^      ^OF-CAIIFOR^ 


.^WEUNIVERr 


•JJUJ.'WiUl' 


i   ICV- 


^>MIIBRARYG^ 
S  1    li— '  ^ 


^I'UBRARYOc,  .5,yFPIVfRy/^ 


'^d/OJITVDJO'^ 


^.i/OJIlVDJO'^ 


^lOSANCElfj> 

o 


'*^/585AIN(llWV 


^vM-llBRARYQ^ 


a 


3 


^•OFCAIIFO/?^       ^OFCAllFOff^ 


5-  .^^  '    ^  ti' 

^<?Aavaan# 


^<?Aavaan-^'^ 


.^MEUN1VER% 


"^J-Jlr.. 


CO 


I 


:i?^ 


OF-CAllFOff>' 


AWEUNIVERJ/A 


■^CJIJDNVSOI^ 


^■lOSANCElfj-^ 


,  -< 
%a3AINIl-3WV^ 


^vMllBRARY<v        ^vM-llBRARYQ<- 


^tfOJUVJ-JO"^      ^^ 


V: 


AWEUNIVERy/A 


l^ 


jdiAlNiljWv" 


,\WEl)NIVERy/A 


<rjl]DNVSOl^ 


^lOSAN'CElfj-^ 


%a3AINfl-3WV^ 


^OFCAIIFOR^      ^OfCAllfOff/Jlj;. 

5         P=. 


.^WEUNIVERy/A 

|L5 


^OAavaan-#    '^<?Aavaan#       '^jjujsvsui-'"^      'V/sa^Aisiunv' 


^\tllBRARY(9^,       ^^tllBRARYQA,         AWE  UNIVERS/a        ,vvlOSANCElfj> 


11  irs  I 


i;  V  -  /    ■■ 


'/, 


A 


IlillilUIJ 


^     {{W   < 


((ild.'IIK 


FAEEOWS 

llLITAEY  ENCYCLOPEDIA 

A  DICTIONAIIV  OF  MILITARY  KNOWLEDGE 

WITH  MAPS  AND  ABOUT   THREE    THOUSAND   WOOD   ENGRAVINGS 


BY 


EDWARD   S.  FARROW,  U.  S.  Army, 

LATE   ASSISTANT   INSTRUCTOR  OF  TACTICS  AT  THE    UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY, 

■m:ST   POINT.    NEW   YORK 


"■^Vhat  Is  obvious  Is  not  always  known,  and  what  Is  known  Is  not  alwaj's  present."— JOHSSOX. 


COMPLETE    IN    THREE    VOLUMES.     VOLUME   II. 

NEW  YORK: 

PUBLISHED   BY   THE  AUTHOR, 

240   BROADWAY. 

1885. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1884, 

Bt  EDWARD  S.  FARKOW, 

Assistant  IssTRrcTOB  op  Tactics  at  West  Point, 

In  the  oflSce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


DEDICATED 


TO   THE 


NATIONAL  GUARDS  OF  AMERICA 


%\\  Appreciation  of  tl)civ  (gutcvprisc  nnb  llnlor 


AND  AS  A  TRIBUTE  OF  HOMAGE 


TO 


GALLANT  SOLDIERS. 


PREFATOliY   NOTICE. 


TiiK  tlosigu  of  this  work  is  tliat  of  a  LimtART  of  Military  Kxowxkdge  for  the 
People — not  a  mere  collection  of  elaborate  treatises  in  alplKilntical  (n-iicr,  Imt  a  work  to 
he  readily  consulted  as  a  Dictionary  on  every  military  subject  on  which  jicople  generally 
require  some  distinct  information — no  article  being  longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary. 
The  several  topics  are  not  handled  with  a  view  to  the  technical  instruction  of  those  who 
have  to  make  a  special  study  of  particular  branches  of  military  knowledge  or  art.  The 
information  given  may  bo  characterized  in  many  instances  as  non-professional,  embracing 
those  points  of  the  several  subjects  which  every  intelligent  man  or  woman  may  have  occa- 
sion to  speak  or  think  about.  At  the  same  time  every  effort  is  made  that  the  statements, 
so  far  as  they  go,  shall  be  precise  and  scientifically  accurate. 

Although  about  30,000  subjects  have  been  compiled  from  the  various  publications  and 
records  of  the  War  Department,  Foreign  War  Offices,  and  Military  Works  of  reference, 
more  than  5000  original  articles  have  been  prepared  ])y  specialists  in  America  and  abroad. 
While  the  Tactics,  Ordnance,  Gun  Machinery,  Implements,  and  Equipments  of  all  ages 
and  of  all  military  powers  have  been  fully  described  and  illustrated  under  appropriate  head- 
ings, a  complete  system  of  cross-references  enables  the  military  student  to  quickly  locate 
several  hundred  articles  pertaining  to  the  general  subject  under  investigation.  Thus, 
under  the  article  Magazine  Gun  will  be  found  the  following  references:  Boch,  Buffi,ngton, 
Bullard,  Burf/css,  Burton,  Chafee-liee,ee,  Clemmons,  Colt,  Dean,  Elliott,  Franklin,  Hunt, 
Lee,  Letcis-liiee,  Miller,  Reminx/ton,  Russell,  Spencer-Lee,  Sprinejfidd-Jones,  Tiesing, 
Trabue,  Whitney,  and  Winchester  Magazine  Guns.  Under  each  of  these  articles  are  refer- 
ences to  articles  describing  and  illustrating  all  other  arms  of  the  respective  classes.  The 
Compiler  has  made  special  effort  to  set  forth  in  detail  the  numerous  decisions,  rendered  by 
the  War  Department  and  Tactical  Department  at  West  Point,  on  the  tactical  points  raised 
and  submitted  from  time  to  time  by- the  Officers  of  the  Army  and  National  Guard.  The 
descriptions  and  illustrations  of  more  than  500  varieties  of  Gun  Machinery,  Steam  Hammers, 
Cranes,  etc.,  constitute  a  novel  feature  of  the  work  to  be  appreciated  by  those  wishing  to 
investigate  the  subjects  of  construction,  testing,  etc. 

The  origin.al  plan  has  been  strictly  adhered  to  throughout;  and  if,  as  the  work  pro- 
ceeded, there  has  been  any  change  in  the  method  or  quality  of  the  execution,  it  may  at 
least  be  affirmed  that  the  change  has  not  been  for  the  worse.     After  some  experience,  it 


C  PREFATORY  NOTICE. 


became  easier  to  find  the  person  specially  qualified  to  write  a  particular  kind  of  article,  and 
thus  the  circle  of  contributors  became  widened,  and  the  distribution  of  the  work  moi-e  special 
ized.  It  was  also  seen  to  be  desirable,  in  regard  to  certain  classes  of  subjects,  to  admit  a 
rather  amjjler  selection  of  heads.  This  has  been  effected  without  increasing  the  scale  of 
the  work,  not  so  much  by  less  full  treatment  of  the  subjects,  as  by  increased  care  in  con- 
densing the  statements  and  .omitting  everything  superfluous.  A  great  quantity  of  matter 
l^ertaining  to  Foreign  Armies  has  been  introduced  in  this  work,  so  as  to  enable  the  military 
student  to  compare  the  organization,  arms,  etc.,  of  all  armies  with  those  of  his  own  service. 
The  Encyclopedia  contains  also  descriptions  of  ancient  armor,  and  of  arms,  lately  in  use, 
which  have  become  obsolete,  as  it  may  be  of  some  interest  to  follow  the  changes  which 
have  taken  place  in  the  mode  and  means  of  fighting  from  the  earliest  period  down  to  the 
present  time.  The  insertion  of  veterinary  terms  and  of  remedies  for  the  common  com- 
plaints of  horses  will  be  found  useful  under  conditions  where  a  Veterinary  Surgeon  is  not 
available,  as  is  often  the  case  in  detached  parties  of  Cavalry.  A  description  of  all  tools 
and  machines  found  commonly  in  workshops  may  prove  acceptable  to  Departmental  Officers 
on  their  first  joining  Government  Manufacturing  Establishments. 

Of  the  Sciences,  the  least  adapted  to  encyclopedic  treatment  is  Mathematics.  All 
terms  of  common  occurrence  in  Gunnery,  Reconnoissance,  etc.,  however,  have  been  intro- 
duced, and  a  brief  exposition  of  the  subjects  given,  as  far  as  could  be  done  in  an  elemen. 
tary  way.  Natural  Philosophy  has  received  ample  attention,  and  all  the  leading  doctrines 
and  facts  of  general  interest  will  be  found  under  their  a])propriate  heads,  treated  in  a 
popular  way,  and  divested  as  far  as  possible  of  the  technicalities  of  mathematics.  Chem- 
istry, some  knowledge  of  which  is  becoming  daily  more  indispensable  in  all  departments  of 
military  life,  receives  a  comparatively  large  space.  Prominence  has  been  given  to  those 
points  of  the  subject  that  have  either  a  direct  practical  militarj'  bearing  or  a  special  scien- 
tific interest.  During  the  progress  of  the  work,  several  changes  in  th-5  nomenclature  and 
notation  of  the  Science  have  come  into  general  use;  these  have  been  duly  noted  under  the 
appropriate  headings.  The  new  and  far-reaching  doctrines  of  the  Correlation  of  Forces 
and  the  Conservation  of  Energy  have  produced  vast  changes  in  the  nomenclature  and 
classification  of  the  various  sections  of  Military  Physics;  while  the  more  complete  investi- 
gations into  the  phenomena  and  laws  of  light,  heat,  motion,  and  electricity  have  created 
virtually  new  sections,  which  must  find  a  place  in  any  adequ.ate  survey  of  scientific  prog- 
ress. Mechanical  invention  has,  indeed,  so  kept  pace  with  the  progress  of  Military  Science 
and  the  Art  of  War,  that  in  almost  every  department  of  Physics  improved  machines  and 
processes  have  to  be  described,  as  well  as  new  discoveries  and  altered  points  of  view.  The 
manufacture  of  gunpowder  and  high  explosives  is  a  signal  instance  of  the  extent  to  which 
in  our  day  scientific  discovery  is  indebted  to  appropriate  machinery  and  instruments  of 
observation  and  analysis.  These'  extensive  changes  in  Physics  involve  corresponding 
changes  in  tlie  method  of  their  exposition.  The  scientific  department  of  the  work  is 
consequently  treated  in  .-ill  its  branches  in  the  most  effulgent  manner,  and  over  1000  very- 
fine  engravings  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  illustration. 

True  to  its  projected  pl;in  as  a  T^ihkart  of  Military  Knowledge  for  the  People, 
this  Encyclopedia  will  be  found  to  be  especially  rich  in  notices  of  miscellaneous  military 
matters.     Some   of   the   subjects   introduced   might   jierhaps  be   considered  beneath  the 


PUEFATOIIY  NOTICE. 


dignity  of  a  book  aH])iriiig  to  a  more  Bevcrcly  scientific  eliaraeter;  Init  all  of  tliem  are,  if 
not  instructive,  at  least  curiouo  or  entertaining,  and  likely  to  occur  in  the  course  of  reading 
or  conversation.  During  the  progress  of  the  work,  the  Compiler  has  received  numerous 
assurances  from  parents  as  to  how  higlily  it  was  prized,  even  though  only  partly  issued,  l)y 
their  sons  at  Military  Schools,  as  a  repertory  of  the  kind  of  things  they  are  constantly  in 
search  of  and  often  puzzling  tlieir  elders  about.  This  use  of  the  Encyclopedia  has  been 
steadily  kept  in  view;  and  it  is  gratifying  to  learn  that  it  is  found  efficiently  to  serve  the 
purpose  intended. 

In  conclusion,  the  Compiler  asks  the  indulgence  of  Military  Critics  wherever  errors  or 
discrepancies  have  crept  into  tliis  work,  ;inil  begs  to  acknowledge  the  valuable  heli)  ob- 
tained from  the  works  of  many  authors,  both  military  and  scientific,  through  the  courtesy 
of  Messrs.  John  Wiley  &  Sons  and  Mr.  D.  Van  Nostrand,  publishers,  and  the  assistance  he 
has  received  from  various  friends.  To  General  Stephen  V.  Benet,  Chief  of  Ordnance, 
United  States  Army,  he  is  especially  indebted  for  courteous  assistance  'in  the  preparation 
of  the  work.  To  economize  in  space  and  to  avoid  crowding  up  the  text,  the  name  of  the 
author  from  whom  information  has  been  derived  has  not  been  inserted  after  each  quotation; 
but  a  list  of  all  works  which  have  been  consultedj"  and  from  which  extractions  have  been 
made,  will  be  found  at  tlie  commencement  of  each  volume. 

It  is  intended,  with  the  view  of  meeting  the  changes  which  are  constantly  taking  place 
in  the  materiel  of  armies,  new  processes,  military  inventions,  etc.,  to  issue  a  Supplement  at 
cuitable  intervals,  containing  all  alterations  and  additions. 

United  States  MrLiTARY  Academy, 
West  Point,  Neic  York,  1865 


LIST  OF  WOEKS  CONSULTED  OR  EXTRACTED  FROxU 


Aide-Mijmoire  de  I'Offlcier  d'fitat-Major.    M.  de  Eouvre. 
Aide-Memoire  to  the  Military  Sciences. 
Almanach  de  Gotha,  1876. 
American  Universal  Cyclopedia. 

Ammunition,  Treatise  on,  1874.    Published  by  Enghsh  au- 
thority. 
Analytical  Digest  of  the  Military  Laws  of  the  U.  S.    Scott. 
Aperjus  em  quelques  Details  de  la  Guerre.    Bugeaud. 
Ai'chives,  German  Military. 
Armies  of  Asia  and  Europe.    Upton. 
Arms  and  Anuoiu".    Boutell. 

Army  and  Navy  Pension  Laws.    Mayo  and  Moulton. 
Army  Cu-culars.    Published  by  the  Enghsh  War  OfiSce. 
Art  and  Science  of  War.    Wheeler. 
Artillerist 's  Handbook  of  Reference.    Well  and  Dalton. 
Artillerist's  Manual.    Gibbon. 
Artillerist's  Jlanual,  11th  eiUtion.    Griffiths. 
Artillery  and  Infantry.    Kingsbury. 
Artillery,  Dictionary  of.    Cotty. 

Artillery  Exercises,  Field,  Changes  in.  in  1873.    PMUpotts. 
ArtiUery  Institution  Papers. 
Artillery,  Lectures  on.    Owen  and  Dames. 
Artillery,  Modem.    Owen. 
Artillery,  Treatise  on.    Boxer. 
Art  of  War.    Graham. 

Art  of  War.    Joniini. 

Astronomical  Atlas.    Mihier. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Evidence.    Greenleat. 

Baker's  Elements  of  Mechanism. 

Balfour's  Encyclopedia  of  India. 

Battles  of  the  Revolution,    Carrington. 

Blue  Books  (Parliamentary). 

Bourne  on  the  Steam  Engine. 

Brande  and  Cox's  Dictionary  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art, 
1875. 

Campaign  in  Germany,  1866.    Prussian  Staff. 

Campaigns  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.    Swinton. 

Cape's  Mathematics. 

Cavalry  Manual.    Ainslie. 

Chambers's  Encyclopedia. 

Change  of  Materiel.    Pubhshed  by  the  English  War  Office. 

Chemistry  as  applied  to  the  Arts  and  Manufactures.    Mus- 
pratt. 

Chemistry,  Handbook  of.    Abel  and  Bloxam. 

Chemistry,  Manual  of.    O'Shaughiiessy. 

Classical  Dictionary.    Smith. 

Commentaries,  with  Notes.    Blackstone. 

Conferences  du  Ministre  de  la  Guerre  (France). 

Conferences  Mihtaires  Beiges. 

Construction  of  Dwelling-houses. 

Consulate  and  the  Empire.    Thiers. 

Courts-Martial.    De  Hart. 

Courts-Martial.    Macomb. 

Cross'  and  Hetzel's  Military  Laws  of  the  United  States. 

Cummer  Steam  Engine. 

Customs  of  Service  for  Non-commissioned  Officers  and  Sol- 
diers of  the  Army.    Kautz. 

Customs  of  Service  lor  Officers  of  the  Army.    Kautz. 

Defense  of  Military  Outposts.    Jebb. 

De  la  Tactique  des  Trois  Armes;  Infanterie,  Cavalerie,  Artil- 
lerie.    Decker. 

Dictionary,  Handy,  of  Military  Terms.    Knollys. 

Dictionary,  Milit.iiry  and  Naval.    Bum. 

Dictionary,  Military  and  Naval.    .lames. 

Dictionary  of  Art.s  and  Sciences.    Francis. 

Dictionary  of  Arts,  Manuf.icturcs,  and  Mines.    Ure. 


Dictionary  of  Every  Days  Difficulties.    Shilton. 
Dicionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.    Smith. 
Dictionary  of  Military  Science.    Campbell. 
Dictionary  of  Science,  Literatiu-e,  and  Art.    Brande. 
Dictionary  of  the  Enghsh  Language.    Johnson. 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language.    Nuttall. 
Dictionaiy  of  the  English  Language.    Smart. 
Dictionary  of  the  United  States  Army.    Gardner. 
Dictionary,  Philosophical.    Button, 
Dictioimaire  Mihtaire  Portatif.    Le  Grand. 
Dictionnaire  Portatif  et  Kaisonne.    Couturier. 
Die  Lehre  Vom  Neueren  Festtmgskrieg.    Riistow. 
Dienst-Vorschrif  ten  der  Konighch  Preussischen  Armee.    "Von 

Helldorff. 
Digest  of  Decisions  of  Federal  Comts.    Peters. 
Digest  of  Laws  of  the  United  States.    Dunlop. 
Digest  of  Laws  of  the  United  States.    Gordon. 
Digest  of  Military  Laws.    Mordecai. 

Digest  of  Opmions  of  the  Judge- Advocate  General.  Winthorp. 
Electro-BaUistic  Machines.    Ben^'t. 
Elementary  Lectures  on  Military  Law.    Tulloch. 
Elementary  Principles  of  Fortification.    Hyde. 
Elements  of  International  Law.    Wbeaton. 
Elements  of  Mihtary  Arts  and  Sciences.    Halleck. 
Encyclopedia  Britaimica  1 1875). 
Encyclopedic  Militaire  et  Maritime. 
Field-book  of  the  Revolution.    Lossing. 
Field  Exercise  and  Evolutions  of  the  Army. 
Field  Exercise  (Enghsh),  1870. 

Field  Fortification:  a  Manual  of  Mihtary  Sketching  and  Re- 
connaissance.   Pubhshed  by  English/  authority. 
Field  Fortification.    Macaulay. 
Field  Fortifications.    Mahan. 
Field  Fortifications.    'Wheeler. 
Fortification  and  other  Military  Subjects  as  carried  on  at  the 

Royal  Mihtary  Academy,  Woolwich. 
Fortification.    Ametti. 
Frederick  the  Great.    Carlyle. 
French  Revolution.    Thiers. 
Friend  of  All.    Green. 
Frontal  Attack  of  Infantry.    Laymann. 
Geographic  Phisique.  Historique  et  Mihtaire.    Lava, 
Grand  Mihtary  Operations.    Jomini. 
Great  Campaigns.    King. 
Grundzuge  der  Taktik  der  Drei  Waffen,  Infanterie,  Kavallerie, 

und  Artillerie.    Brandt. 
Gunnery.    Hyde. 
Gunpowder.     Badeley,  Anderson,  Goodenough,  Smith,  and 

Morgan. 
Gurley  on  Mathematical  and  Surveying  Instruments. 
Handbook  for  Field  Service.    Lefroy. 
Handbook  for  Mihtary  Artificers.  1875.    Armstrong. 
Handbook  of  Artillery.    Roberts. 
Handbook  of  Natural  Philosopliy.    Lardner. 
Handbook  of  the  Mechanical  Arts.    Bm-ns. 
Heather  on  Mathematical  Instruments. 
Heavy  ArtiUei*y  Tactics.    Tidball. 
Heerwesemmd  Infantericdienst  der  Koniglich  Preussischen 

Armee.    Wity.l<.^ben. 
Histoire  et  Tactique  des  Trois  Armes,  et  plus  Particulidrement 

de  TArtillarie  de  Campagne.    Fav^'. 
History  of  tlie  Dress  of  the  British  Soldier.    Luard. 
History  of  the  Peninsula  War.    Napier. 
History  of  the  Rebellion.    Tenney. 
Histxiry  of  the  War  in  the  Penmsula  and  in  the  South  of 

France.    Nopicr. 


I,isr   OK   WORKS  CONSULTKl)   Olt   EXTOACTED   FROM. 


9 


Holtzapfters  TurninK  and  Mechanical  Manipulation. 

How  we  any  to  (Jovcrn  OiirKclvtJs.     Fonljlunquu. 

Imiiiin  and  llunuun  Titiiber.s.     Skinnier. 

Inl'aiitry,  Cavalry,  and  Arlillcry  TacticB,  United  Statea  Army. 

lustructions  for  Arniit-s.     IJhIkjt. 

luKtructionH  for  Field  Artillery. 

luHtructious  in  Military  Engineering.  Publislied  by  Engllflh 
authority. 

Infitructions  in  the  Duties  of  Cavalry  reconuoftring  an  Enemy, 
for  tlie  use  ot  Auxiliary  Cavalry. 

Instruments,  Mathematical,  Meteoroloplcal.  etc.    Queen. 

Joniini's  Treatise  on  (Jrainl  Military  opi.'rations,  or  a  Critical 
and  Military  History  of  the  Wars  of  Fredericlt  the  Great. 
Holahird. 

Journals  of  the  Royal  United  Service  Institution, 

Judge- Advocate  and  Recorder's  Guide.    Regan. 

Knight's  Mechanical  Dictionary. 

Kriegsfeuf^rwerkerei  Zmn  Gebraucli  fiir  die  Konigljcb  Preus- 
sische  Artillerie.    Batii. 

Kriegswiirterbuch.    Loehr. 

Law  Dictionary.    Bouvier. 

Law  of  Nations.    Vattel. 

LC'gislation  et  Administration  Militfiires.    Ouillot. 

Lessons  of  War  from  the  (Jreat  Masters.    Soody. 

Life  of  Napoleon.    Jomini. 

Life  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.    Coxe. 

Manual  for  Engineer  Troops.    Duaue. 

Manual  for  Rifle  Practice.     Wingate. 

Manual  of  English  Artillery  Exercises,  1875. 

Manual  of  Instructions  for  Testing  the  Defective  Vision  of 
Soldiers.    Longmore. 

Manual  of  Mihtary  Law.    Pipon  and  Collier. 

Manuel  complet  il  I'Usage  des  Candidats  au  Grade  d'Offlcier 
d'lufanterie.    Turhn. 

Manuel  d'Admiuistration  et  de  Complabilite  il  I'usage  des 
Offlciers  des  Compagnies  ou  Escadron  des  Corps  d'lufan- 
terie et  de  Cavalerie.    Ruffin. 

Maunder's  Treasury  of  Knowledge. 

Maxims  of  War.     Najioleon. 

Mayhew  on  the  Horsp. 

Mechanic's  Magazine. 

M6moire  sur  divers  Perfectionnements  Militaires.    Cavalli. 

Memoirs.    Sherman. 

Method  of  Horsemanship.     Baucher. 

Mihtair  Conversations- Lexikon.    Von  der  LUhe. 

Militaiy  Bridges.    CuUum. 

Military  Bridges.    Haupt. 

MiUtary  Carriages.    Close. 

Military  Carriages.  Treatise  on.    Kemmis. 

Military  Catechism  and  Handbook.    Walshe. 

Military  Commission  in  Europe.    McClellan. 

Military  Dictionary.    Duane. 

Military  Dictionary.    Scott. 

Military  Engineering.    Mahan. 

Mihtary  Gymnastics.    Farrow. 

Military  Law  and  Court-Martial.    Ben^t. 

Military  Law  Authorities.    Hough. 

Military  Law.    Clode. 

MUitai-y  Miscellany.    Marshall. 

Mihtary  Schools  and  Courses  of  Instruction  in  the  Science 
and  Art  of  War.     Barnard. 

Military  Sketching  and  Reconnaissance.  Hutchison  and  Mac- 
Gregor. 

Military  Telegraph  during  the  Civil  War  in  the  U.  S.    Plum. 

Motion  of  Projectiles.    Owen. 

Mountain  Scouting.    Farrow. 

Mutiny  Act  and  Articles  of  "War. 

Naval  and  !\Iilit;iry  Technical  Dictionary  of  the  French  Lan- 
guage.   Biu-ns. 

Naval  Gininery.    Douglas. 

Naval  Ordnance  and  Gunnery.    Cook. 


New  Bayonet  KxerclHe.    Kelton. 

( (peratious  of  War,  yd  and  Sd  editioDB.    Hamley. 

OnUTH  and  (.'orresjiondence  of  General  Wlnfleld  8cott,  Con- 
gressional DfMMUiients,  etc. 

Ordnance  and  Arm(.»r.    Holiey. 

Ordnance  and  Gunnery.    Benton. 

Ordnance  and  Naval  Gunoery.    Bimpflon. 

Outpost.    Malian. 

Outposts.     Ilandey. 

Pictorial  Field-book  of  the  War  of  181^.    I/)fi8iDg. 

Practical  Treutiwe  on  Attack  and  Defense.    Jebb, 

Precis  of  .Mtxiem  Tactics.    Home. 

Principles  of  Guimery.    Sladen. 

Queen's  Regulations,  187y. 

Regulations  and  Instructions  for  Encampmentfl  (EngliBb). 

Report  on  the  Transport  of  Sick  and  Wounded  by  Pack  Ani- 
mals.   Otis. 

Reports  of  the  Cliief  of  Ordnance,  U.  S.  Army,  1872-1884. 

lievue  d'Ailillerie. 

Revue  MiUtaire  de  Kfitranger  (Paris). 

Rifle  Exercises  and  Musketry  Instructions. 

Rifle  Firing.    Laidley. 

Rifles  and  Rifle  Practice.     Wilcox. 

Royal  Artillery,  Hi.story  of.     Duncan. 

Rassian  Campaigns  in  Turkey,  1877-78.    Greene. 

Sandhurst  Papers. 

Science,  La.  des  Personnes  de  Cour,  d'fipf-e  et  de  Robe. 

Shifts  and  Exi>edients  of  Camp-Life.    Lord  and  Baines. 

Short  Notes  on  Field  Batteries.    Browne. 

Simmons  on  Courts-Martial. 

Small's  Veterinary  Taldet. 

Some  Weapons  of  War.    Bartlett, 

Spectateur  Jlihtaire  (Paris). 

Steam  Engine.     Burns. 

Strategy  and  Tactics.    Dufom*. 

Studies  in  Tactics  of  Infantry.    Von  Scherff. 

Sur  la  Formation  des  Troupes  pour  le  Combat.    Jomini. 

Tableau  Analytique.    Jomini. 

Tactical  Deductions  from  the  War  of  1H70-71.    Boguslawski. 

Tactics  and  Strategy.    Twemlow. 

Text-book  for  School  of  Musketry  at  Hythe. 

Text-book  of  Gunnery.    Mackinlay. 

Text-book  of  the  Construction  and  Manufacture  of  the  Rifled 
Ordnance  in  the  British  Service.    Stoney  and  Jones, 

The  Administration  and  Organization  of  the  British  Army,  with 
especial  Reference  to  Supply  and  Finance.    Fonbianque. 

The  Armies  of  Europe.    SIcClellan. 

The  Art  of  Travel.    Galton. 

The  Duties  of  the  General  Staff.    Von  Scbellendorf. 

The  Elements  of  Military  Art  and  History.    Duparcq. 

The  Elements  of  Modem  Tactics.    Shaw. 

The  Law  relating  to  Officers  in  the  Army.    Prendergast. 

The  Military  Laws  of  the  United  States.    CaUan. 

Theory  of  War.    Macdougall. 

The  Soldier's  Pocket-book  for  Field  Service.    Wolseley. 

Tomlinson's  Cyclopedia  of  the  Useful  Arts  and  Manufac- 
tures. 

Treatise  on  Cranes.    Towne. 

Treatise  on  Fortification.    Lendy. 

United  States  Army  Regulations. 

United  States  Bridge  Equipage. 

United  States  Revised  Statutes. 

Voyle's  Military  Dictionary. 

Weale's  Series. 

Weapons  of  War.    Demmin. 

Webster's  Dictionary. 

West  Point;  or.  Information  for  those  about  to  Enter  the 
Academy.    Farrow. 

Wilhelm's  MiUtary  Dictionary  and  Gazetteer. 

Worcester's  Dictionary. 

Youatt  on  the  Horse.    Skinner. 


ABBREVIATIONS    OF    MODEEX   TERMS,    PHRASES   AND   TITLES   EM- 
PLOYED IN  FARROW'S  MILITARY  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


A.A.S.  {Academice  Americance  Socius.) 
Member  of  the  American  Academy. 

A.B.  (Artium  Baccalaurvus.)  Bachelor 
of  Arts. 

A.B.C.F.M.  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions. 

Abp.    Archbishop. 

A.C.    {Ante  Christum.)    Before  Christ. 

A.  D.  {Anno  Domini.)  In  the  year  of 
our  Lord. 

^t.    i^tatis.)    Of  age;  aged. 

Al.     Alabama. 

A.^f.    {Artium  Magister.)       Master  of 

Arts;  {Ante  Meridiem)  Before  noon; 

(^71710  Mundi)    In    the   year   of   the 

world. 
An.    (Anno.)    In  the  year. 
Apr.    April. 
A.R.    {A7ino  Regni.)  In  the  year  of  the 

reign. 
Ai'k.     Arkansas. 
A.U.C.    {Anno  Urbis  Conditce.)    In  the 

year  from  the  foundation  of  the  city. 
Aug.    August. 
Avoir.     Avoirdupois. 

B.  Book:  (6.)  Born. 
B.A.    Bachelor  of  Arts. 
Bal.     Balance. 

Bart.     Baronet. 

Bbl.     Barrel. 

B.C.     Before  Christ. 

B.C.L.    Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

B.D.    Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

Bd.    Bound. 

Bds.    Bound  in  boards. 

Benj.     Benjamin. 

Bk.     Book. 

B.L.  Bachelor  of  Laws;  Breech-load- 
ing. 

B.L.R.    Breech-loading  rifled. 

Bp.    Bishop. 

Brig. Gen.    Brigadier-General. 

C.y  or  Cap.     (Caput)    Chapter. 

Cal.    California. 

Cam.,  or  Camb.     Cambridge. 

Caps.    Capitals. 

Capt.    Captain. 

C.B.     Companion  of  the  Bath 

C.C.F.    Court  of  Common  Pleas. 

C.E.     Civil  Engineer. 

Ce7it.    (Centum.)    A  hundred. 

C.J.    Chief  Justice. 

CO.    Commanding  officer. 

Co.    Company. 

Col.    Colonel;  Colorado. 

Com.    Commodore. 

Conn.,  or  Ct.    Connecticut. 

Cor.    Corinthian. 

Cor.  Sec.    Corresponding  Secretai*y. 

Crim.  Con.  Criminal  Conversation; 
Adulterj'. 

Ct.    Cent. 

Cts.    Cents. 

Civt.    Hundredweight. 

J).,  or  d.    Penny,  or  pence. 

Dan.     Daniel. 

D.A.Q  M.G.  Deputy  Assistant  Quarter- 
master-General. 

D  C.    District  of  Columbia. 

D.  C.  L.     Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

D  J).  (Divinitatis  Doctor.)  Doctor  of 
Divinity. 

Dea.    Deacon. 

Dec.    December. 

Del.    Delaware. 

Dep.     Deputy. 

Dept.    Department. 

Deut.    Deuteronomy. 

Deft..,  or  d/t.    Defendant. 

Dint.     District. 

Dist.  Atiy.    District  Attorney. 

ditto,  or  do.    The  same. 

D.M.    Doctor  of  Music. 

Dols.    f$)    Dollars. 

Doz.    Dozen. 

Dr.    Doctor:  Debtor;  Dram. 

D.  V,    {.Deo  Volvntc.)    God  willing. 


Dwf.    Penn}' weight. 

E.     East. 

Ed.    Edition;  Editor. 

Edw.    Edward. 

E.g.,  or  e.g.  (exempli  graiia.)  For  ex- 
ample. 

Eliz.    Elizabeth. 

E.N.E.     East-North-East. 

Eph.     Ephesians. 

Esq.    Esquire. 

et.  ul.     (et  alii.)    And  others. 

etc.,  or  <^c.     {et  ccetera.)    And  so  forth. 

et  seq.  iet  seqneixtia.)  And  what  follows. 

E.rod.     Exodus. 

Expl.    Explanation. 

Ez.    Ezra. 

Ezek.     Ezekiel. 

F<thr.    Fahrenheit. 

Feb.     February. 

E.G.    Fine  grain;  Field-gnn. 

Fl.,  or  Fl or.    Florida. 

Fred.    Frederic. 

F.R.S.    Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

F.a.    Field- se  IT  ice. 

Ft.    Foot,  or  feet. 

Fur.    Furlong. 

Ga.    Georgia. 

G.B.    Great  Britain. 

G.C.     Gocd  couduct. 

G.C.B.    Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 

Gen.    Giineral;  Genesis. 

Geo.    George;  Georgia. 

Gov.     Governor. 

Gov.-Gen.    Governor-General. 

G.S.    General  service. 

G.S.  W.    General  service  wagon. 

H.,  or  h.     Hour. 

Hab.     Habakkuk. 

H.B.M.    His,  or  Her,  Britannic  Majesty. 

H.  C.    House  of  Commons. 

Heb.     Hebrews. 

Hfid.    Hogshead. 

H.L.    House  of  Lords. 

H..U.     His,  or  Her,  Majesty. 

H.M.S.  His,  or  Her,  Majesty's  Ship,  or 
Service. 

Ho7i.    Honorable. 

Hos.    Hosea. 

H.R.     House  of  Representatives. 

H.R.H.    His,  or  Her,  Royal  Highness. 

Hund.     Hundred. 

I.,  or  Isl.    Island. 

lb..  Ibid.    (Ibidem.)    In  the  same  place. 

Id.    (Idem.)    The  same. 

i.e.    (id  e.'it.)    That  is. 

I.H.S.  (lesus  Hominum  Salvaior.)  Jesus 
the  Saviour  of  men. 

III.    lUinois. 

In.    Inches. 

Incog.     (Incognito.)    Unknown. 

Ind.    Indiana. 

I.N. R.I.  ilesiis  Nozarpnns,  Rex  ludm- 
orum.)  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  Kingof  the 
Jews. 

Inst.    Instant  (the  current  month). 

lo.    Iowa. 

i.q.    {idem  quod.)    The  same  as. 

Is.    Isaiah. 

It.    Itahcs, 

J.    Justice:  Judge. 

Jan.    January. 

Jas.    James. 

Jer.    Jeremiah. 

Jno.    John. 

Jona.    Jonathan. 

Jos.    Josepli. 

Jtish.    Joshua. 

J.I*.    Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Jr.,  or  Jun.    Junior. 

Judg.    Judges. 

Jul.    July. 

Kan.     Kaiwas. 

KB.  Knight  of  the  Bath:  King's  Bench. 

K.C.B.  Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath. 

Ken.,  or  A'//.     Kentuekv. 

KG.     Knight  of  tlie  (Jart'T 

K.G.V.    Knight  of  tlie  Grand  Cross. 


Ki.    Kings. 

Knt.,  or  Kt.    Knight. 

L..  or  lb.     Pound  (weight). 

L.,  I.,  or  £.    Pound  sterling. 

La.    Louisiana. 

Lat.    Latitude. 

L.G.     Large  grain. 

L.  I.     Long  Island. 

Lieut.    Lieutenant. 

LL.B.    Bachelor  of  Laws. 

LL.D.    Doctor  of  Laws, 

L.L.R.     Line  of  least  resistance. 

L.S.     Land  service. 

M.,  or  »i.     Masculine. 

M.A.  Master  of  Arts;  Military  Academy. 

MaJ.     Major. 

Mar.     March. 

Mass.     Massachusetts. 

Matt.    Matthew. 

MC.    Member  of  Congress. 

M.D.    Doctor  of  Medicine. 

Md.     Maryland. 

Mdlle.,  or  MUe.     Mademoiselle. 

M.E.     Mechanical  Engineer. 

Me.    Maine. 

Mem.     Memorandum. 

Messrs.     Gentlemen. 

Meth.    Methodist. 

Mich.    Michigan. 

Min.,  or  inin.     Minute,  or  minutes. 

Minn.    Minnesota. 

Miss.    IMississippi. 

M.L.    Muzzle-loading. 

M.L.R.    Muzzle-loading  rifled. 

MM.     Messieurs. 

Mme.    Madame. 

Mo.  Missouri;  Month. 

Mons.    Monsieur. 

Mos.,  or  mos.     Months. 

M.P.    Member  of  Parliament. 

M.P.P.  Member  of  Provincial  Parlia- 
ment. 

Mr.     Master,  or  blister. 

Mrs.    Mistie.ss,  or  Missis. 

M.S.    Sacred  to  the  Memory. 

MSS.     Manuscripts. 

Mt.     Mount,  or  Mountain. 

M.T.    Mountain  train. 

Mus  D.    Doctor  of  Music. 

iV^.,  or  Ji-    North;  Noun;  Neuter. 

N.A.     North  America. 

Natli.    Nathaniel 

N.B.  New  Brunswick;  (Xota  bene)  Note 
well,  or  take  notice. 

N.C.  North  Carolina;  Non-commis- 
sioned. 

N.C.O.    Non-commissioned  Officer. 

N.E.    North-East ;  New  England. 

Neb.    Nebraska 

N.F.    Newfoundland. 

N.H.    New  Hampshire. 

N.J.    New  Jersey. 

N.L.    North  Latitude. 

N.N.E.     North  North-East. 

N.N.W.     North-North- West. 

No.    ( Nuuiero.)    Number. 

Non  seq.  (Non  sequitur.)  It  does  not 
follow. 

Nos.    Numbers. 

Nov.     November. 

N.P.    Notary  Public;  New  pattern. 

N.S.  Nova  Scotia;  The  New  Style  (since 

17531. 

N.T.    New  Testament. 

N.W.     Nortli-West. 

N.Y.     New  York. 

O.    Ohio. 

Ob.     (Ohiit)    Died. 

06.,  or  Obdt.     Obedient. 

Oct.    October. 

O.F.    Old  I*attern. 

Or.    Oregon. 

OS.     Old  Stvle. 

O.T.    Old  Testament. 

Ox/.,  or  0x071.    (Oxonia.)    Oxford. 

Oz.    Ounce,  or  ounces. 

P.,  or  p.    Page;  Kebble. 


FOUKIGN    WOllUS   AND   PUKASES. 


11 


Pa.,  or  Penn.    Pennsylvania. 

Rev.    Revelation;  Reverend. 

Sun.,  OT  Sund.    Sunday. 

Purl.    Piirliainent. 

R.F.a.     Rule  line  i;raln. 

Supt.    Superintendent 

Pd.    Paid. 

R.li.F.    Royal  nim  factory. 

S.tv.    South- West. 

P.IC.I.    rriiu.'n  Kilwanl  iRlaiid. 

A'./.     Rhode  Island. 

Ten.,  or  Tenn.    'i'enncsMee. 

Percent.    {Per  cfiitum.)    liy  the  hun- 

R L.    Royal  Labfn-atory. 

Tex.    Texas. 

dred. 

R.L  (J.     Rllle  larKe  grain. 

Th.,  or  Tlium.    Thursday. 

Ph. II.    (fhilomplUoi  Doctor.)    Doctor  of 

R  M..L    Royal  Military  Academy. 

Then.    Theodore. 

I'hilosopliv. 

RX.     Royal  Navy. 

Tr.   Translation ;  Trancpoiio;  Treasurer; 

Phil.     i'li]|i|i|iian8. 

Rom.     (toman;  Komans. 

Trustee. 

Phila.     I'liiiadeipllla. 

Rom.  Cath.    Romjin  Catholic. 

Tu.,  or  Tufs.    Tuesday. 

Pinx.,  or  Pxt.    U^ini-it.)    Plaood  after 

R.R.     Railroad. 

Ull.    i Ultimo.)     Ijist,  or  Pertaining  to 

the  painter'8  name  on  pictures:  as, 

Rl.  Hon.    Right  Honorable. 

the  last  month. 

"Turnel*  pxt.'' 

Rt.  Rev.     Right  l^•verend. 

U.S.     United  States. 

Pk.     Peck. 

S.    South;  Signor;  Shilling. 

U.S.A.    United  States  of  America;  Uni- 

PI.   Pluial. 

.S'.^.    .South  America;  Small  arms. 

ted  States  Army. 

Plff.    PlaintllT. 

iJ.A.A.    Small-ur-m  ammunition. 

V.S.M.     United    Slates    Mail;   United 

P..M.    Postmaster;  Past  Master;  (Post 

.S.  .l/r.    South  Africa. 

States  Marine. 

Meridiem)  Atteniooii. 

Sal.    Saturday. 

U.S. MA.    United  States  Military  Aca- 

P.M.il.   Postmaster- (jcneral. 

S.Jt.    Smooth-bore. 

demy, 

P.O.    Post-oaice. 

H.C.    South  Cnrolhui;  Scrap-carriage. 

U.S.y.    United  States  Navy. 

pii.     Pages. 

Sc,  or  Seulp.    (.Srnlpsit.)    Placed  after 

U.S.  V.    United  States  Volunteers. 

P.P.C.    {Pour  Prendre  Concj/.)   Totalic 

the  engravei-'»  ?iame  on  a  picture. 

U.T.    Utah  Territory. 

leave. 

Sell.,  or  Schr.    Schooner. 

V'a.    Virginia. 

Pr.,  or  P.     l,Per.)    By  the. 

Sci7,orSc.   (Scilicet.)  To  wit;  namely. 

V.C     Victoria  Cross. 

Prett.    President. 

Scrijit.    Scripture. 
SK.    South-East. 

Vice-PreH.    Vice-Pi'esident. 

Prof.    Professor. 

Vid.    (Vide.)    See. 

Pro  tern.    (Pro  tempore.)    For  the  time 

Sec.    Secretary;  Section. 

Vifi.,  or  I'itic.    Vi.scount. 

beinpf. 

Sen.    Senate;  Senator;  Senior. 

I'lj.    1  Videlicet.)    Namely;  to  vit. 

Pi-oe.     Proverbs;  l>rovilice. 

Sep..  or  Sept.    September. 

r.n.     Verb  neuter. 

Prox.  (Proximo.)  Next  (the  next  month). 

Sery.    .Sergeant. 

loc.    Vocative. 

P.i>.    (PoKt  iicriplum  )    Postcript. 
Ps.    Psalm,  or  P.sttlms. 

Sere.,  or  .Servt.    Servant. 

I'ol.    Volume. 

S.J.     Society  of  Jesus. 

V.P.    Vice-President. 

I't.     Pint. 

S.J.C.    Supreme  Judicial  Court. 

V.R.     (I'ictoria  Regina.)     Queej  Vic- 

Pub Doe.    Public  Documents. 

S.  Lat.    South  Latitude. 

toria. 

Pu't.     Penriy\veij;ht. 

Sid.    Sailed. 

Vs.    ( Verms )    Against. 

(J.,  or  Oh.    buery;  Question;  Queen. 
y./>.    Queen  s  Bencli. 

Sm.    Samuel. 

IV.    Vermont. 

S.M.I.    (Sa  Majeste  Imperiale.)    Bis,  or 

H'    Week;  West. 

y.C.    Queen's  Council. 

Her,  Imperial  Majesty. 

Wasli.    Washington. 

(J.ED.     (Qnotl  Knit  Demonstrandum.) 

.SO.    Staff  Officer. 

Wed.    Wednesday. 

Which  was  to  be  demonstrated. 

S'oc.    Society. 

W.I.    West  India;  West  Indies. 

f/Jl/.    Quartei-master. 

Sq.    Stjuare. 

W.  Lon.    West  Longitude. 

i^.M.a.    Quartermaster-General. 

Sq.  ft.    Square  feet. 

Wm.    William. 

Qr.    Quarter   (28    pounds) ;    Farthing; 

Sq.  in.    Square  inches. 

W.M.    Worshipful  Master. 

Quire. 

Sq.  rn.     Square  miles. 

W.N.W.    West-North- West. 

Qt.    Quart;  Quantity. 

Sr.    Kir,  or  Senior. 

W.S.  W.    West-South- West. 

Qv.    {Quod  vide.)    Which  see. 

SS.,  or. IS.    (Seilieet.)    Namely. 

Wt.    Weight. 

R.    (Kex)  K'wg;  (Regina)  Qui-en. 

5..S'.    Sea-service;  Sunday  school. 

Xmas.    Christmas. 

B.A.    Royal  Academy,  or  Academician; 

S.S.E.     SoiUh-Sontb-East. 

Y.    Year. 

Rear- Admiral ;      Right     Ascension; 

S.S.  ir.    South-South- West. 

Yd.    Yard. 

Royal  Artillery. 

St.     Saint;  Street. 

Yr.    Your. 

R.C.I).    Royal  Carriace  Department. 

Stilt.    Statute. 

Ztich.    Zachary. 

R.E.    Royal  Engineers. 

S.T.n.  (Social  Theologia: Doctor.)   Doc- 

Zeeh.   Zecliariah. 

Rec.  Sec.    EecorUmg  Secretary. 

tor  of  Divinity. 

Zeph.    Zephaniah. 

FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES  EMPLOYED  IN  FARROW'S  MILITARY 

ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Ah  ante.  (L.)    Before;  previously. 

A  has.  (Fr.)    Down. 

Ah  extra.  (L.)    From  the  outside 

Ab  initio.  (L  )    From  the  beginning. 

Aborigine.  (L.)    From  the  origin. 

Ab  ovo  usque  ad  mala,  (h.)  From  the 
egg  to  the  apples;  from  first  to  last. 
Roman  banquets  began  with  eggs,  and 
ended  witli  apples. 

Abnrbecondita.  (L.)  From  the  founda- 
tion of  the  city. 

.4  coi»p(c.  (Fr.)    On  account. 

Adinjinitum.  (L.)    To  infinity. 

Ad  interim,  (h.)    In  the  menu  while. 

Adlihiluin.  (L.l    At  one's  pleasure 

Ad  nauseiim.  (L.)  To  disgust;  till  dis- 
, gust  is  excited. 

Adpatres.  (L.)  To  hisf.itbers:  ic.dead. 

Ad  refeiendum.  (h.)  Till  further  con- 
sideration. 

Ad  valorem.  (L.)  According  to;  upon 
the  value. 

Affaire  d'amour.  (Fr.)  An  intrigue; 
a  love-affair 

Affaire  d'honnenr.  (Fr.')  An  affair  of 
honor;  i.e..  a  duel 

A  fortiori.  (L  i    With  stronger  reason. 

A  gu.ito.  (Ital.)  To  o.ie's  heart's  con- 
tent. 

Alabonne  heiire.  (Fr.)  In  happy  time; 
at  a  good  horn*. 

A  la  Fran^aise.  (Fr.)  In  the  French 
manner. 


A  la  mode.  (Fr.l  In  fashion :  fashioniible. 

A  PAnglaise.  (Fr.)  In  the  English  man- 
ner. 

.4'/-,-^.>:co.  ata'-'>    In  the  open  air. 

Alia.i  (L.l  Otherwise;  e.!;..Jones,ahas 
the  Count  Johannes. 

4libi   1 1  1    Elsewhere.    A  legal  defense 

"  by  which  the  defendant  attempts  to 
show  that  he  WIS  absent  at  the  time 
and  from  the  place  of  the  commission 
of  the  crime. 

AUons.  (Fr.)    Come  on :  let  us  go. 

Almamater.  (Ij.)  A  nourishing  mother. 
A  name  frequentlv  applied  by  stu- 
dents to  their  college. 

A  Vovlronep.  (Fr.)  To  the  uttermost; 
the  last  extremity. 

Alter  eqo.  ll..)    A  second  self, 

Ahimniis.  11,.)  A  foster-child;  a  pupil. 
The  graduates  of  .\niericau  colleges 
are  often  calleil  ahimni. 

Amende  honorable.  (Fr.)  To  make  the 
amende  honorable  is  to  make  a  suit- 
able apology  for  and  confession  of 
one's  offense. 

Amor  pntricE.  (L.)  Love  of  country; 
patriotism. 

Amnnr  propre.  (Fr."!    Self-esteem. 

^nri'eii  ri'qime.  (Fr.)  The  olil  govern- 
ment; the  French  monarchy  before 
the  Revolution. 

.-linio  Domini.  (L.)  In  the  year  of  our 
Lord. 


Anno  niundi.  (L.)  In  the  year  of  the 
world. 

Annus  mirabillis.  (L.)  The  wonderful 
year. 

Ante  bellum.  (L.)    Before  the  war. 

Ante  meridiem.  (L.)    Before  noon. 

A  posteriori.  (L.)  From  the  latter;  the 
cause  from  the  effect. 

A  priori.  (L.)  From  the  former;  the 
effect  from  the  cause. 

A  propo.i.  (Fr.)  Appositely;  season- 
ably; in  regard  to. 

Arguiiientum  ad  hominem.  (L.)  An  ar- 
gument to  the  man;  i.e..  personal. 

Aiidi  alteram  partem.  (L  )  Hear  the 
other  part;  both  sides. 

An  fait.  (Fr.)  Skilled;  accomplished; 
competent. 

Au  fond.  (Fr.)  To  the  bottom;  thor- 
oughly. 

Ah  reroir.  (Fr.)  Good-by,  till  we  meet 
again.  . ,  .  ^     . 

Anto  da  fe.  (Si>.)  An  act  of  faith;  i.e., 
burning'  heretics. 

Aux  nrnie.«.  (Fr.l    To  arms. 

A  voire  sante.  (Fr.)    To  your  health. 

Bas  bleu.  (Ft.)  A  bluestockmg;  a  ht- 
erary  woman 

Benu  'ideal.  (Fr.)  Ideal  beouty.  The 
absolute  beauty  which  exists  only  m 
the  mind. 

Bean  monde.  (Fr.)  The  gay  world;  the 
wo'ld  of  fashion. 


12 


FOREIGN   WORDS  AND   PHRASES. 


Bel  esprit.  (Fr.)    A  fine  mind;  wit. 

Ben  trnvata.  (Ital.j  Well  found;  "a 
happy  thought." 

Bete  noir.  (Fr.)  A  scarecrow;  a  bug- 
bear. 

Billet-doux.  (Fr.)  A  love-letter;  a 
'■  sweet''  note. 

Bizarre.  (Fr.)  Strange;  eccentric;  fan- 
ciful. 

Blase.  (Fr.)  One  wlio  has  seen  and 
enjoyed  everj'thing.  and  upon  whohi 
pleasure  palls,  is  called  Ithtsi'. 

BonA  fide.  vL.)  In  good  faith;  genuine; 
actual. 

Bon-grt\  mal-gre.  (Fr.)  With  a  good  or 
ill  grace;  willy-nilly. 

Bonhomie.  (Fr.)  Simple,  unaffected 
good -nature. 

Bon-jour.  (Fr.)  Good-day;  good-morn- 
ing. 

Bon-mot.  Fr.)  A  good  word,  i.e.,  a 
witty  saying. 

CcBteris  paribus.  (L.)  Other  things 
being  equal. 

Canaille.  (Fr.)  The  rabble;  the  com- 
mon multitude, 

Carte  blanche.  (Fr.)  Blank  sheet  of 
paper.  To  give  a  person  carte  blanche 
is  to  give  him  an  unconditional  dis- 
cretion. 

Casus  belli.  (L.)  A  case  of  war;  an  act 
which  justifies  war. 

Cedant  arma  togce.  (L.)  Let  arms 
yield  to  the  gown;  i.e.,  military  to 
civil  power. 

Cela  va  san  s  dire.  (Fr. )  That  goes  with- 
out saying:  follows  as  a  matter  of 
course  and  neces.sarily. 

Cha Clin  a  son  gout.  (Fr.)  Everyman  to 
his  taste. 

Chateaux  en  Espagne.  (Fr.)  Castles  in 
Spain:  air  castles. 

Chef  d'ceurre.  (Fr.)  A  masterpiece ;  an 
unequaled  work. 

Che  .sara,  sard.  (Ital.)  What  is  to  be, 
will  be. 

Chevalier  d'industrie.  (Fr.)  An  adven- 
turer; one  who  lives  by  his  wits. 

Chronique  .scandaleiise.  iFr.)  A  record 
of  scandals. 

Cicerone.  (Ital.)  A  person  who  acts  as 
guide  to  sightseers. 

Comme  il  faut.  (Fr.)  Neatly;  properly; 
rightly;  in  "good  form." 

Compai/non  de  voyage.  (Fr.)  Compan- 
ion of  one's  travels. 

Compos  mentis.  (L  )  Sane;  of  sound 
mind. 

Con  amore.  (Ital.)  Earnestly;  zeal- 
ously. 

Con  spirito.  (Ital.)  In  a  spirited  man- 
ner. 

Corps  Diplomatique.  (Fr.)  The  foreign 
ambassadors. 

Corpua  delicti.  (L.)  The  body  of  the 
offense. 

Coup  d'etat.  (Fr.)  A  bold  stroke  in 
pontics. 

Coup  de  grdce.  (Fr.)  A  stroke  of  mercy; 
a  finalblow. 

Coup  de  maiti.  (Fr.)  A  bold,  swift  un- 
derstanding. 

Coup  d'ceil.  (Fr.)  A  swift  glance  of  the 
eye. 

CoAte  (lu'il  coilte.  (Fr.)  Let  it  cost 
what  it  may. 

Cut  bono.  (L.)  To  what  (for  whose)  good. 

Cum  (p-ano  sails.  (L.)  With  a  grain  of 
salt;  not  unqualifiedly. 

Currente  calanio.    (L.)  Kapidly  and  flu- 
ently. 
Da  capo.    (Ital.)    From  the  beginning. 
De  bonne  grdce.     (Fr.)    Readily;    with 

good  will. 
Debut.    (Fr.)    One's  first  appearance  in 

society,  or  on  the  stage. 
De  facto.     (L.)    Actual;  in  fact. 
De  gustibus  7ion  est  disjtutandum.    (L.) 

There  Is  no  disputing  about  tastes. 
De  jure.   (L.)  Rightfully ;  lawfully;  law- 
ful. 
Di:  mortuis  nil  nisi  honum.  (L.)  Say  no- 
thing but  good  of  the  dead. 
Denouement.  (Fr.)  The  catastrophe  of  a 

plot. 
Dc.novo.  (L.)  Anew;  over  again;  afresh. 
Df'O  volentc.     (L.)     If  it  please  God. 
Dernier  ressort.  (Fr.)  The  last  resource. 
De  trop.    (Fr.)  In  the  way;  too  much. 
Dieu  et  nion  droit.    (Fr.)    God  and  my 

rlglit. 
Diitingue.    (Fr.)   Distinguished  in  man- 
ner. 
Distrait.     (Fr.)     I'reoccupied;    absent- 
minded. 


Divide  et  impera.    (L.)   Divide  and  gov- 
ern. 
Dolce  far  niente.  (Ital.i  Sweetdo-noth- 

ing;  luxurious  idleness. 
Double  entente.    (Fr.)  Double  meaning; 
obscenity  in  disguise.     (Often  errone- 
ously written  double  entendre.) 
Douceur     (Fr.)    Sweetness;  compensa- 
tion; a  gratuity.  , 
Dramatis  personm.  (L.)  The  characters 

of  a  drama. 
Dulce  domum.     (L.)    Sweet  home. 
Duni  vivimus,  vivamus.    (L.)    While  we 

Jive,  let  us  live;  enjoy  life  to  the  full. 
Eclat.  (Fr.)  Splendor;'distiuction;  bril- 
.liancy. 
Elan.    (Fr.)    A  spring;   fire;  dash;  im- 
petuosity. 
Embarras  de  richesses.  (Fr.)  Embarrass- 
ment of  riches;  excess  of  anything. 
Embonpoint.  (Fr.)  Phimpness  of  figure. 
Empressenient.  (Fr.)  Enthusiasm ;  eager- 
ness. 
En  famille.    (Fr.)   In  family;  by  them- 
selves. 
Enfant  qdte.     (Fr.)    A  spoiled  child. 
Enfant 'terrible.   (Fr.)  A  terrible  child; 

making  ill-timed  remarks. 
En  grande  toilette.     (Fr.)  In  full  dress; 

toilet. 
En  masse.  (Fr.)    In  a  body. 
En  rapport.  (Fr.)    In  communication. 
En  regli\  (Fr.)    As  itshould  be;  in  rule. 
En  revanche.  (Fr. )    To  make  up  for  it. 
Ell  route.  (Fr.)    On  one's  way. 
En  suite.  (Fr.)    In  company  together. 
Entente  cordiale.  (Fr.)  A  cordial  under- 
standing. 
Entourage.     (Fr.)    Surroundings;    ad- 
juncts. 
Entre  nous.  (Fr.)  Between  ourselves. 
E  pluribus  unu7n.    (L.)   One  of  many. 

Motto  of  the  United  States. 
Ergo.  (L.)    Tlierefore. 
Esprit  de  corps.   (Fr.)    The  spirit  of  the 
l)ody ;  a  feeling  for  the  honor  and  inter- 
est of  an  organization. 
Esprit  fort.    (.Fr.)    A  skeptic;  a  free- 
thinker. 
Et  ccetera.  (L.)    And  the  rest;  etc. 
E.C  cathedra.  (L.)    From  thechair;  with 

authorit}-. 
E.rcelsior.  (L.)    Higher. 
Exeunt  onines.  (L.)   They  all  go  out. 
Ex  nihilo  nihil  fit.  (L.)    From  nothing, 

nothing  comes. 
Ex  officio.  (L.)    By  virtue  of  his  ofifice. 
Ex  parte.  (L.)    From  a  part;  one-sided. 
Ex  post  facto.   (L)    After  the  deed  is 

done. 
Ex  tempore.  (L.)    Off-hand. 
Facile  princeps.  (L.)  Easily  the  chief. 
Facilis  est  descensus  Averni.   vL.)    The 

descent  into  hell  is  easy. 
Fait  accomj}li.    (Fr.)    An  accomplished 

fact. 
Faux  pas.  (Fr.)  A  false  step;  a  mistake. 
Fecit.  (L.)  He,  oj-she,  made.    This  word 
is  put  after  an  artist's  name  on  a  pic- 
ture. 
Felo  de  se.  (L.)  A  felon  of  himself;  a  sui- 
cide. 
Femme  de  chambre.   (Fr.)   A  chamber- 
maid. 
Femmesole.  (Fr.)  An  unmarried  woman. 
Festiiia  lente.  (L.)  Make  haste  slowly. 
Fete  chawjK'tre.   (Fr. )    A  rural  party ;  a 

party  in  the  open  air. 
FeuiUeton.  (Fr.)  AsmalUeaf.    The  bot- 
toms of  the  pages  in  French  news- 
papers are  so  called,  being  given  up  to 
light  literature. 
Fiat  justitia,  runt  co'liim.  (L.^  Let  jus- 
tice be  done,  though  the  lieavens  fall. 
Finis  coronal  ojjus.  (L.)  The  end  crowns 

tlie  work. 
Flagrante  delicto.  (1j.)    In  the  act. 
Fugit  hora.  (L.)    The  bom-  Mies. 
Oamin.  (Fr.)    A  street-urchin. 
(jargon.  (Fr.)    A  waiter. 
(iarde  du  corps.  (Fr.)    A  body-guard. 
Garde  mobile.   (Fr.)    Troops  liable  for 

general  service. 
Gasconnade.  (Fr.)    Boasting;  bragging. 
Oaucherie.  (Fr.)  Awkwardness;  clumsi- 
ness. 
Gendarme.  (Fr.)    An  armed  policeman. 
Geniusloci.  (L.I  The  genius  of  the  place. 
Gentithomme.  (Fr.)  A  gentleman;  noble- 
man. 
Grans  homo.  (L.I    The  himian  race. 
Gloria  in  excelsis.  (L)    Glory  to  God  in 

the  highest. 
Gloria  Patri.  (L.)    Glory  to  the  Father. 
Grand  siicle.  (Fr.)  A  great  ceutm'y. 


Grossikrei^.  (Fr.)   Grossness;  rudeness. 

Habeas  corpus.  (L.)   You  may  have  the 

body. 
Hauteur.  (Fr.)    Haughtiness:  loftiness. 
Hicet  ubique.ih.)  Here  and  every  Where. 
Hicjacit.  (L.)    Here  lies. 
Hoinnie  d'etat.  (Fr.)    A  statesman. 
Honi  soil  qui  mat  II  pense.  (Fr.)  Shame 

to  liini  who  evil  thinks. 
Horribile  dictu.  (L.)    Horrible  to  say. 
Hors  de  combat.  (Fr.)    Out  of  condition 

to  fight. 
Hotel  de  ville.  (Fr.)    A  town-ball. 
Ibidem.  (L.)    In  the  same  place. 
Ich  dien.  (Ger.)  I  serve.    (3Iotto  of  the 

Prince  of  Wales.) 
Ici  on  parte  Fran^ais.    (Fr.)    French 

spoken  here. 
Idetn  sonans.  (L.)    Sounding  the  same. 
Ide.'it.  (L)    That  is;  i.e. 
Ignis  fatuus.  (L.)  A  foolish  fire;  a  delu- 
sion. 
Iqnobile  vulgus.  (L.)  The  ignoble  crowd. 
Ig)iotum  perignotius.  (L.)  The  unknown 

by  something  more  unknown. 
Imprimis.  (L.)    In  the  first  place. 
In  articulo  mortis.  (L.)  At  the  point  of 

death. 
Inde.v  e.rimrgatorius.  (L  )  A  purging  in- 
dex: a  list  of  works  prohibited  to  be 
read. 
7/1  embryo.  (L.)    In  the  rudiments. 
In  esse.  (L.)    Actual:  in  existence. 
In  extremis.  (L.)  At  the  point  of  death. 
In  flagrante  delicto.  (L.)    In  the  very 

act. 
Infra  dignitatem.   (L.)    Beneath  one's 

dignity. 
Infufuro.  (L.)  In  the  future. 
In  hoc  .^igno  vinces.    (L.)    In  this  sign 

thou  shalt  conquer. 
In  loco    (L.)    In  place;  on  the  spot. 
In  medias  res.   (L.)    In  the  middle  of  a 

subject. 
In  pace.  (L.)    In  peace. 
1)1  perjjetuum.  (L.  t    Forever. 
In  projjrid  jjersond.  (L.)    In  one's  own 

person. 
In  re.  (L.)  In  the  thing:  in  the  matter  of. 
Inrem.  (L.)    Against  the  thing. 
In  scEcnld  saculorunij  (L.)    For  ages  of 

ages. 
Instanter.  (L.)    Instantly. 
In  statu  quo.  (L.)    In  the  state  in  wliich 

it  was. 
Inter  alia.  (L.)    Among  other  things. 
Inter  nos.  (L.)    Between  ourselves. 
Inter  se.  (L.)    Among  themselves. 
In  toto.  (L.)    Entirely;  wholly. 
In  transitu.  (L.)  In  the  passage;  on  the 

way. 
In  vino  Veritas.  (L.)    In  wine  there  is 

truth. 
Ipse  dixit.  (L.)    He  said  it  himself. 
Ipso  facto.  (L  )    By  the  fact  itself. 
Je  ne  sais  quoi.  (Fr.)    I  know  not  what. 
Jeu  de  mofs.   (Fr.)    A  play  upon  words. 
Jour  de  fete.  (Fr.)  A  saint's  day;  a  fes- 
tival. 
Jubilante  Deo.  (L.)    Be  joyful  to  God. 
Jupiter  tonans.  (L.)    Jupiter  the  thun- 

(lerer. 
Jure  divino.  (L.)    By  divine  law. 
Jure  huniano.  (L.)    By  human  law. 
Jus  civile.  (L)    The  civil  law. 
Jus  gentium.  iL.)    Tlie  law  of  nations. 
Juste  milieu.  (Fr.)    The  golden  mean. 
Labor  omnia  vincit.    (L.)    Labor  con- 
quers all  things. 
Laissezfaire.  (Fr.)    Let  things  alone. 
Lapsus  lingucp.  (L.)  A  slip  of  the  tongue. 
Lares  et  penates.  (L.)    The  household 

gods. 
La  us  Deo.  (L.)    Praise  be  to  God. 
L'avrnir.  (Fr.)    The  future. 
Lf  beau  monde.  (Fr.)  The  world  of  fash- 
ion. 
L^se  majeste.  (Fr.)    High  treason. 
Lex  loci.  (L.)    The  law  of  the  place. 
Lex  scripta.  (L.)    The  written  law. 
Lex  tahonis.  (L.)    The  law  of  retalia- 
tion. 
Literatim.  (L  )    Letter  for  letter. 
Litterateur.  (Fr.)     A  literary  man. 
Locus  si gi Hi.  (L.)    The  place  of  the  seal. 
Ma  chere.  (Fr  )    My  dear. 
Mafoi.  (Fr.)    My  faith;  upon  my  faith. 
Maqnum  bonum.  (L.)    A  great  good. 
Ma'ison  de  ville.  (Fr.)    The  town  lunise. 
Mai  tred  hotel.  (Fr.)    A  h.ms.' suward. 
Major  domo.  (Hal.)    A  cliit-f  stuwaid. 
Maladiedn  pays.  (Fr.)    llnnie  sickness. 
Materiel.  (F.)    Opposed  to  personnel. 
Mater  ftimitias.  (L.)     The  mother  of  a 
family. 


FOUKION    WOllUS  ANIJ   rilUASKS. 


13 


Mauvaise  haute.  (Fr.)    HasIifuInePH. 

Maximum.  (L.)    Tlio  ^'■''"■•••f^t  puHslblu. 

Mi-Jndice.  (L.)    In  my  Jtalj^nient, 

Mt'iiicnti)  m<iri     (L.)    Keiiieinber  death. 

Mriiinnihilia.  (L.)  Thiugs  dcaerviug  to 
\ni  ifiiifinhered. 

Aff*(.s  .smut  iiL  corpore  snno.  (L.)  A  sound 
mind  in  n  sound  body. 

Mfxua  tt  tiinnt.  (L.)     Mine  and  thine. 

Miiabiie  divtu.  (L.)    Wonderful  to  leil. 

Jdise  en  scene.  (Fr.)  Putting  ou  the 
stage. 

Modus  operandi.  (L.)  The  method  of 
operating 

3fo/i  ami.  (Fr.)    Mv  friend. 

Mot  d'ordre.  (Fr.)  The  password;  coun- 
tersign. 

Multtim  inparvo.  CL.)    Much  in  little. 

^tmine  atntradicenie.  (L.J  No  ouu  cou- 
trttdictlng. 

JVc  pluH  ultra.  (L.)  Nothing  more  be- 
yond; tlie  utmost. 

Nil  admirari.  {L.)  To  wonder  at  no- 
thing. 

iV//  dvsperandum.  (L.)  We  must  not  de- 
spai  r. 

I^il'imnil'avtrc.  (Fr.)  Neither  the  one 
nor  tlie  other. 

N^iinporte.  (Fr.)    Tt  does  not  matter. 

Nisi  jtfius.  (L.)    Unless  before. 

Nohicsse  nhlige.  (P'r.)  Nobility  obliges; 
noble  must  act  noblv. 

Nolens  volrn.9.  (L)     Willy-nilly. 

Null  me  tangere.  (L.)  Don't  touch  me; 
hands  off. 

Nolle  prosequi.  (L.)  To  abandon  prose- 
cution. 

Nom  de  guerre.  (Fr.)    A  war-name. 

Norn  deplume.  (Fr.)  Pen-name;  name 
assumed  by  an  author. 

Non  compos  mentis.  (L.)  Not  In  one's 
right  mind. 

Non  est  inventus.  (L.)  He  has  not  been 
found. 

Non  multn.  .tt-d  multuin.  (L.)  Not  many 
things,  but  much. 

Nota  bene.  (L.)    Mark  well. 

Nous  ai'o?w  chanae  tout  cela.  (Fr.)  We 
have  changed  all  that. 

Nousverrons.  (Fr.)    We  shall  see. 

Odium  theologicum.  (L.J  Theological 
hatred. 

OIlii  poilridit.  (Pp  )    A  mixture. 

Omnid  ri licit  amor.  (L.)  Love  conquers 
alt  things. 

On  dit.  (Fr.)    They  say;  people  say. 

Onus  probandi.  (L.)  The  burden  of 
proof. 

Oro  pro  nobis.  (L.)    Pray  for  us. 

O  iempova!  O  mores,'  (L.)  Oh,  the 
times!    Oh,  the  manners! 

Otium  cum  dignitate.  (L.)  Ease  with 
dignity. 

Outre.  (Fr.)    Extravagant;  extreme. 

Par  excellence.  (Fr.)  By  way  of  emi- 
nence; in  the  highest  degpee. 

Par  hasard-  (Fr. )    By  chance. 

Parijiossu.  (L.)    With  equal  step. 

Parvenu.  ^Fr.)  An  upstart;  a  rich 
snob. 

Pater  familias.  (L.)  The  father  of  a 
family. 

Pater  patrice.  (L.)  The  father  of  his 
country. 

Pax  vobiscum.  (L.)    Peace  be  with  you. 

Peccavi.  (Ij  )    I  have  sinned. 

Peiidente  lite.  (L.)  Wliile  the  suit  is 
pending. 

Per  aji7ium.  (L.)    By  the  year. 

Per  capita.  (L.)  By  the  head;  on  each 
person. 

Per  contra.  (L.)    On  the  other  hand. 

Per  diem..  (L.)    By  the  day;  every  day. 

Perse.  (L,)    By  itself . 

Personnel.  (Fr.)  The  staff;  persons  in 
any  service. 

Petitio  principii.  (L.)  Begging  the  ques- 
tion. 

Petite.  (Fr.)    Small;  little. 


Pifce  dcrdsiBtanre.  (Fr.)  A  joint  of  meat, 
I'iirxit.  (L,)    He.  or  Mhe,  painted  It. 
I'is  allrr.  (Fv.)    A  hwl  expedient. 
I'lrbs.  (L  )    The  common  neople, 
I'orta  iiasritur.nonjit.  (L.) 


A  poet  is 
Point  of  support. 


Ixjrn,  not  made 

J'oint  dUippui.  (Fr.) 

Posh'- com italuH.  (L.)  The  power  of  the 
country;  the  force  that  may  be  sum- 
moned by  the  Sheriff. 

J'oHtr  restantc.  (Fr.j  To  be  left  till  called 
for. 

I'ftst  meridiem.  (L.»    Afternoon. 

I'oHt  mortem.  (L.j    After  deKth. 

Ptist  ubitum.  ih.)    After  death. 

I'imrparler.  (Fr.)    A  conKulttttion. 

Pnur  prendre  conge.  (Fr.)  To  take 
leave. 

Pri'cieuse.  (Fr.)  A  bluestocking;  a  con- 
ceited woman. 

Preux  chevalier.  (Fr.)  A  gallant  gentle- 
man. 

I'rinin  donna.  (ItJil.)  The  first  lady;  the 
printfipal  female  singer  in  an  itaUau 
opei'u. 

Primd  facie.  (L.)  On  the  first  face;  at 
first  sight. 

Primus  inter  jmres.  (L.)  First  among 
his  peers. 

Fro  bono  publico.  (L.)  For  the  public 
good . 

I^oci'svrrbal.  (Fr.)  Verbal  process;  the 
taking  of  testimony  in  wriiing. 

f^ro  et  cou.  (L.)    For  and  against. 

Proformd.  (L.)    For  the  sake  of  form. 

Pro  patrid.  (L.)    For  one's  country. 

JVo  tempore.  (L.)    For  the  time. 

Puuica  fides.  (L.)  Ptmic  faith;  i.e., 
treachery. 

Quantum  sujficit.  (L.)  As  much  as  is 
sufficient. 

Quelque  choee.  (Fr.)    As  if. 

buid  nunc?  (L.)    What  now?  A  gossip. 

Quid  pro  quo.  (L.)    An  equivalent. 

Qui  vice.  (Fr.)    Who  goes  there  f 

Quod  eraf  demou.'itrandum.  (L.)  Which 
was  to  be  demonstrated. 

Quondam.  (L  )    At  one  lime;  once. 

Kara  avis.  (L)    A  rare  bird. 

Rechauffe.  (Fr.)    Warmed  over:  stale. 

Recherche.  (Fr.)    Choice;  elegant. 

Kedncteur.  (Fr.)    An  editor. 

Redivivus.  (L.)    Restored  to  life. 

Reductio  ad  ab.^urdum.  (L.)  Reduction 
to  an  absurdity. 

Rentes.  (Fr.J  Public  funds;  national  se- 
curities. 

Rcquiescat  in  pace.  (L.)  May  he,  or  she. 
rest  in  peace. 

Resgesta'.  (L.)    Things  done. 

liesurgam.  (L.)    I  shall  rise  again. 

Rcvenous  a  nos  m<ntfo}is.  (Fr.i  Let  us 
return  to  our  sheep;  come  back  to  the 
subject. 

Robe  de  chambre.  (Fr.)  A  dressing-gown. 

Roue.  (Fr.t    A  rake. 

Rouge  et  noir.  (Fr.)  Red  and  black  (a 
game). 

Sanctum  sanctorum.  (L.)  The  holy  of 
holies. 

Sangfroid.  (Fr.)  Cold  blood;  self-pos- 
session. 

Sans  culottes.  (Fr.)  Without  breeches  ; 
red  repiiblicans. 

Sartor  resartus  (L.)  The  tailor  patched. 

Saure  qui  peut.  (Fr.)  Save  himself  who 
can. 

Savoir-faire.  (Fr.)  Knowing  how  to  do 
things. 

Savoir-vivre.  (Fr.)  Knowledge  of  the 
world. 

Semper  idem.  {L.>    Always  the  same. 

Semper  paratus.  (L.)  Always  prepared. 

Seqnitur.  iL.i    It  follows. 

Seriatim.  (L  )    In  order. 

Sic  itur  ad  astra.  (L.)  Tlius  men  go  to 
the  stars. 

Sic  semper  tirrannis.  (L.)  Thus  always 
with  tyrants.    The  motto  of  Virginia. 


8ic  trnntHt  gUtrta  mundl.  (L.)  80  pawieR 

the  glory  of  the  world. 
Similia  HimitihuH  curantur.   (L.)    Like 

in  cured  by  like. 
Sine  die.  )L.  i     Without  a  day. 
Sine  qua  non.  (L.)   Without  which,  not; 

an  indispeMKuble  condition. 
,S'ol  diHiinl.  (Fr.)    Kelf-slyled, 
Spirituel.  (Kr.  1    Witty. 
Status  quo.  (L.)    The  btate  In  which; 

the  former  state. 
Strt.  (L.)    I>et  it  stand. 
Suaiutcr  in   modo.  fortiter  in  re.  (L.) 

Oently  in  manner,  bravely  In  action. 
Suh  rosd.  (L  )    Under  the  row;  secretly. 
Sui  generis.  iL.)    Of  its  own  kind. 
Summnm  bonum.    (L.)     The  supreme 

good. 
Talileau  rirnnt.  (Fr.)    A  living  picture. 
T(d>lff  d'hote.  iVv. I    A   public  ordinary; 

dinner  at  a  fixed  price. 
Tabula  rasa.   (L.j    A  smooth  tablet;  a 

blank. 
Tant  mieux.  (Fr.)    So  much  the  better. 
Tant  pis.  ( Fr.)   So  much  the  worse. 
Te  l>eum  laudamus.  (L.j  Thee,  God,  we 

praise. 
Tempora  mutautur.  et  noa  mutamur  in 

itlia.    (L.)       Times    change,    and    we 

change  with  them. 
Tempusfugit.  (L.J    Time  flies. 
Terra  Jinn  a.  (L.)    Solid  earth. 
Terra   incognita.     (L.)       An    unknown 

country. 
Tete-d-tete.  (Fr.)    Head  to  head;  in  pri- 
vate conversation. 
Tiers  etat.  (Fr.)    The  third  estate;   i.e., 

the  commons. 
Totidem  verbis.  (L.)    In  just  so  many 

words. 
Tour  deforce.  (Fr.)    A  turn  of  strength. 
Tout  ensemble.  (Fr.)    The  whole  taken 

together. 
Tout  le  monde.  (Fr.)    Everybody. 
Trottoir.   (Fr.)    The  pavement. 
Tu    quaque.    Brute!    (L.)     Thou,    too. 

Urutus. 
Vtii  Itiiertas.  ibi  patria.   (L.)  WTiere  lib- 
erty is.  there  is  my  country. 
Vbi  .supra   (L. )    As  mentioned  above. 
Ultima   Thule.    (L.)     Uttermost  Thule; 

tlie  end  of  the  earth. 
U.sque  ad  nauseaju.  IL  )    Till  it  was,  or 

is.  absolutely  sickening. 
Utile  dulci.   (L.)     The  useful  with  the 

sweet. 
Ut  infra.  (L  )     As  below. 
Ut  supra.  IL. )    As  above. 
I'ade  mecum.  (L.)    Go  with  me;  a  com- 
panion. 
Vce  victis.  (L,)     Woe  to  the  vanquished. 
Vale.  (L.)    Farewell. 
Valet  de  chambre.  (Fr.)    A  servant. 
Vent,  vide,  vici.  (L.)     I  came,  I  saw,  I 

conquered. 
Verbatim  et  literatim.   (L.)    Word  for 

word;  letter  for  letter. 
Verbum  sat  sapjenti.   (L.)     A  word  to 

the  wise  is  sufficient. 
Vid.  (L  )    By  way  of. 
Vide.  (L.)    See. 
Videlicet.  (L)    Namely. 
Vincidum  matrimonii.  (L.)    The  bond 

of  matrimony. 
Vis  a  vis.  (Fr.)    Face  to  face. 
Vis  inertia".  (L.)  The  force  of  inactivity. 
Vis  viva.  (L.)    Living  force. 
Vivd  voce.   (L.l     By  the  living  voice. 
Vive  la  bagatelle.    (Fr.)       Success   to 

trifles. 
Vive  la  Reine.  (Fr.)  Long  live  the  Queen. 
Vive  VEmpereur.  (Fr.)     Long  live  the 

Emperor. 
Vive  le  Roi.  (Yr.)    Long  live  the  King. 
Voild.  (Fr.i    See  there:  behold. 
Vox.  et  proeterea  nihil.  (L.)     A  voice, 

and  nothing  more. 
Voxpopuli.  vox  Dei.  (L)    The  voice  of 

the  people  is  the  voice  of  God. 


INDEX  OF   MATTERS  NOT  HAVING   SPECIAL  ARTICLES. 


At  the  close  of  Volume  III.  -will  be  found  an  Index  of  Subjects  not  having  Special 
Articles.  It  has  not  been  thought  necessary  to  repeat  in  this  Index  the  titles  of  the 
many  thousand  articles  composing  the  body  of  the  work.  A  person  consulting  the 
Encyclopedia  is  supposed,  in  the  first  instance,  to  look  for  the  subject  he  is  in  quest  of  in 
its  proper  alphabetical  place.  If  it  is  not  to  be  found  there,  or  by  a  cross-reference,  by 
turning  to  the  Index  he  is  likely  to  get  a  reference  to  it  under  another  name,  or  as  coming 
in  for  notice  in  connection  with  some  other  subject.  It  frequently  happens  that  subjects, 
having  articles  of  their  own,  are  further  noticed  under  other  heads;  and  where  it  seemed 
of  importance,  a  reference  is  given  in  the  Index  to  this  additional  information.  The  title 
of  the  article  referred  to  is  printed  in  italics;  and  when  the  article  is  of  considerable 
length,  the  page  is  given  in  which  the  information  is  to  be  found. 


CONTINUED  REVISION. 


The  process  of  revising  Farrow's  Military  Encyclopedia  is  constantly  carried  on, 
thus  keeping  up  the  information  to  the  latest  possible  date.  These  revisions  and  additions 
will  be  supplied  every  few  years  in  the  shape  of  Supplements.  A  few  blank  pages  are 
inserted  at  the  close  of  each  volume  for  the  purpose  of  noting  the  reference  to- the  various 
articles  in  the  Supplements,  which  would  naturally  find  alphabetical  arrangement  in  the 
respective  volumes. 


LIST  OF  MAPS  AND  FULL  PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  11. 


PACK 

India, 90 

Indians — Amebican,            ..........  91 

Indians — Mandans  and  Ceebokees.  .........  92 

Lreland,       ............  126 

LiATHE,    .............  178 

Magnetism,              ...........  249 

MiNiNO,              ............  363 

New  Zealand,         ...........  412 

Palestine,         ............  472 

Physics,       .            .           .            .            .            .           .            .            ...           .            .  517 

Prussia,             ............  600 

Pullet,         ............  604 

Queensland,      ............  621 

Roman  Empiee,        ...........  7.54 

Russia,      ............  803 


HABEAS  CORPUS.  -A  writ  of  Itdhens  Corpus  is  an 
oriU'r  ill  wriliiii;.  signed  by  the  .ludu'c  who  urnnts  the 
same,  sealed  with  the  seal  of  the  Court  of  which  he 
is  Judge,  and  issued  in  the  name  of  a  (Sovereign  j 
Power  where  it  is  granted,  liy  sueli  a  Court  or  a  i 
Judge  thereof  liaving  lawful  authority  to  issue  the' 
same,  direeled  to  any  one  having  a  jierson  in  his  cus- 
tody or  under  his  restraint,  couunaiiding  liim  to  pro- 
duce sueli  person  at  a  certain  lime  and  jihu'c.  .'Uid  to 
state  the  reason  why  he  is  held  in  custody  or  under 
restraint.  A  State  Judge  has  no  jurisiliction  to  issue 
a  writ  of  Hubeas  Corpim,  or  to  continue  proceedings 
under  the  writ  when  issued,  for  the  discharge  of  a 
person  held  under  the  authority,  or  claim  and  color 
of  the  authority,  of  the  United  States,  by  an  otlieer  of 
that  (tovernment.  If  upon  the  application  for  the 
writ  it  ajipears  tliat  tlie  party  alleged  to  be  illegally 
restrained  of  liberty  is  held  under  the  authority,  or 
claim  and  color  of  the  authority,  of  the  United 
States,  by  an  officer  of  that  Government,  the  writ 
should  be  refused.  If  this  fact  do  not  thus  appear  \ 
the  State  Judge  lias  a  right  to  intinire  into  the  cause 
of  imprisonment,  and  ascert,-dn  by  what  authority  the 
person  is  held  within  tlie  limits  of  tlie  State  :  and  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  JIarshal,  or  other  officer  having  the 
custodj'  of  the  prisoner,  to  give,  by  a  proper  return, 
information  in  this  respect.  But  after  he  is  fully  ap- 
prised by  the  return  that  the  (larty  is  held  by  an  officer 
of  the  United  States,  under  tlie  authority,  or  claim  , 
and  color  of  the  authority,  of  the  Uuiteil  States,  he  j 
can  proceed  no  further.  These  principles  applied  to 
a  case  where  a  Hnhraa  Cm-pus  was  issued  by  a  Court  . 
Commissioner  of  one  of  the  Counties  of  Wisconsin 
to  a  recruiting  officer  of  the  United  States,  to  bring 
before  him  a  person  who  had  enlisted  as  a  soldier  in 
the  Army  of  the  United  States,  and  whose  discharge  i 
was  sought  on  the  alleged  ground  that  he  w^as  a  | 
minor  imder  the  age  of  eighteen  _years  at  the  time  of 
his  enlistment,  and  that  he  enlisted  without  the  con- 
sent of  his  father.  The  petition  for  the  writ  alleging 
that  the  prisoner  had  enlisted  as  a  soldier  and  been 
mustered  into  military  service  of  the  Xational  Gov- 
ernment, and  was  detained  by  the  officer  as  such  sol-  i 
(lier — this  Court  held  that  the  Court  Commissioner 
bad  no  jurisdiction  to  issue  the  writ  for  the  discharge 
of  the  prisoner,  as  it  thus  appeared  that  upon  tlie 
petition  that  the  prisoner  was  detained  under  claim 
and  color  of  authority  of  the  United  States  by  an 
otTicer  of  that  Government  :  and  that  if  he  was  il- 
legally detained,  it  was  for  the  courts  or  judicial  offi- 
cers alone,  to  grant  him  release.  Should  a  writ  of 
Hahens  Corpus  be  served  upon  an  Army  Officer  by  a 
Civil  Magistrate  or  Court  of  any  State,  commanding 
him  to  produce  an  enlisted  man,  or  show  cause  for 
his  detention,  the  officer  makes  respectful  return 
that  the  man  is  a  duly  enlisted  soldier  of  the  United 


States,  and  that  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  has  decided  in  such  case,  that  a  Magistrate  of 
a  Court  of  a  Slate  has  not  jurisdiction. 

HABERGEON.— A  short  coat  of  mail,  consisting  of 
a  jacket  without  .sleeves.  In  early  times,  the  haber- 
geon was  composed  of  chain  mail :  but  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  a  baberijeon  of  ])late-arinor  was  worn 
over  llie  h:iulierk.      See  lliinhirh. 

HABILIMENTS  OF  WAR.— In  ancient  statutes,  ar- 
mor, harness,  utensils,  et<'..  without  widcli  it  was  sup- 
posed lliere  could  be  no  abilitv  to  maintain  a  war. 

HACHE  DARME.— A  battle-axe  with  a  narrow 
handle  armed  with  a  sharp  blade  in  the  form  of  a 
crescent,  very  much  curved,  terminating  in  two 
points  approaching  the  handle  on  one  side :  the  other 
side  terminating  in  a  point  or  hammer;  when  both 
sides  were  armed  with  a  lilade  it  was  called  liimigne. 

HACHEE. — The  ignominious  punishment  of  carrj'- 
ing  a  saddle  or  dog,  to  which  soldiers  were  formerly 
subjected  in  France. 

HACKAMORE.— A  halter  used  by  packers.  It  con- 
sists of  a  long  leather  or  rope  slraji  and  head-stall.  It 
is  used  when  leading  the  pack-animal,  also  to  make 
the  animal  fast,  usually  to  the  ajiarejo,  while  prepar- 
ing to  pack.  On  the  march,  the  strap  is  wrapped 
around  the  animal's  neck  and  made  fast  to  the  head- 
.stall. 

HACK  BUSH-HAOK-BUSS.— A  heavy  hand  can- 
non, with  butt  and  serpentine  lock.  It  behmgs  to  the 
second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  match  is 
no  longer  loose,  but  fi.xed  to  the  serpentine,  which 
springs  liack  by  means  of  a  trigger.  This  sort  of 
canniui  is  about  40  inches  in  length,  and  it  is  usually 
provided  with  a  hook,  so  that  when  it  is  placed  on  a 
wall,  it  cannot  slip  back.  Without  the  hook  it  is 
sometimes  called  Arquebuse  with  Matchlock.  See 
Hak, . 

HACQUETON.— A  stuffed  coat  or  cloak,  generally 
of  leather,  mounted  with  metal,  formerly  worn  in 
France  by  certain  Knights  of  the  King's  Guards  call- 
ed Gardes  lie  la  Manclw.  It  came  into  use  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  V.,  and  was  discarded  during  the 
Revolution  of  17S9. 

HACQUET-WAGON.— A  four-wheeled  wagon  used 
in  the  Prussian  service  to  carry  pontons.  The  under- 
frame  of  this  carriage  is  built  like  that  of  a  chariot, 
by  which  means  it  can  turn  without  diffieultv. 

"  HADDAN  RIFLING.— This  plan  of  centering'airainst 
the  bore  consists  of  3  large  and  shallow  elliptical 
grooves,  which  in  the  earlier  forms  were  about  1-0  in. 
deep  and  took  away  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  surface 
of  the  bore.  The  projectile  is  rotated  by  8  wings 
formed  on  the  front  of  the  shot,  straight  with  its  axis. 
In  the  earlier  projectiles,  the  rear  tapereil,  anil  had  a. 
shoulder  for  a  ring-wad  to  stop  the  windage.  The 
later  projectiles  have  merely  a  wooden  sabot.     As  the 


HADLEY     FIRING  PIN. 


HAKK 


wings  are  on  the  front  part  of  the  projectile,  the  rifiina; 
is  carried  only  to  within  one  calilier  of  the  powder- 
chamber,  and  hence  is  not  a  source  of  weakness  at 
that  point. 

HADLEY  FIKING-PIN.— A  simple  device  for  using 
rim-tire  cartridges  in  rifles  adapted  for  central-flre 
ammunition.  It  was  invented  for  and  specially  ap- 
plied to  the  JlaTOard  rifle.  This  rifle  is  conflned  to 
central-flre  amni\inition  in  each  and  all  of  the  calibers, 
excepting  the  22 :  but  by  this  device  rim-flre  cart- 
ridges from  22  to  38  calilier  may  be  used.  The  draw- 
ingshows  the  nature  and  simplicity  of  the  invention. 
It  consists  of  a  cap  attached  to  the  breech-piece  by 


Boszonneny.  The  total  population  is  about  03,000, 
all  Magyars,  and  f(jr  the  most  part  belonging  to  the 
Reformed  Church.  In  1870  this  district  was  incor 
porated  with  portions  of  two  adjoining  districts  into  a 
new  administrative  division  (called  Ilaidvkfncimiitiit) 
with  Debreczin  for  its  capital.  In  course  of  the  pre- 
sent century',  the  name  Haiducks  has  Iiegim  to  lie  ap- 
plied to  the  Macers  of  Hungarian  Courts  and  the  Hal 
berdiers  of  the -Hungarian  Magnates:  also  to  the 
Lackeys  and  other  Attendants  in  German  Courts. 
Also  written  Jl'/jduka,  Ilnidnkn.  and  Hayduks. 

HAIL. — A  term  in  military  parlance,  meaning  to 
challenge,  accost,  or  salute.     A  sentinel  hails  any  one 


Hadley  Firing-pin. 


two  small  screws,  in  which  is  a  disk  with  a  flring-pin 
projecting  through  the  cap  at  such  a  point  from  the 
center  as  to  strike  the  rim  of  the  cartridge.  This  disk 
plays  freely  in  the  cap,  and  is  driven  forward  by  the 
tiring  pin  in  the  breech-piece.  To  use  the  central-flre 
cartridges  it  is  only  necessary  to  remove  the  cap, 
change  firing-pins,  and  insert  the  latter. 

HAGBUT. — An  arquebusc,  of  which  the  butt  was 
bent  or  hooked,  in  order  that  it  might  be  held  more 
readily.  Also  written  Ilagg  and  Haguebut.  See 
JTark-hiixIi. 

HAGNER  MAGAZINE.— General  Hagner  proposed 
that  a  projection  lie  formed  on  the  under  side  of  the 
stock,  between  the  lower  band  and  the  guard,  in 
which  three  cartridges  might  lie  placed,  with  their 
heads  to  the  rear.  This  magazine  differs  from  the 
BenUm  fixed  Mngnzhie,  merely  in  its  location,  and 
hcildini;  tliree  cartridges  instead  of  five. 

HAIDUCKS.— Originally  a  designation  of  cattle- 
lierds  in  Hungary.  Afterwards,  the  word  came  to 
signify  a  class  of  mercenary  foot-soldiers  ready  to 
accept  pay  from  any  one  who  would  employ  their 
services,  but  displaying  great  gallantry  on  the  field 
of  battle.  Tlic  remarkable  constancy  wiih  wliicli  they 
stood  by  Bocskai  throughout  the  War  of  the  Ilevolu- 
tion.  was  rewarded  by  that  Prince  with  a  grant  of  a 
district  as  their  own  possession,  and  at  the  same  time 
witli  the  privileges  of  nobility.  This  grant  was  made 
by  a  public  decree  of  Dec.  13.  ItSlt.'i,  anil  coiitirnicd  by 
the  Diet  in  KiKi.  E.\ce]il  tlie  privilege  of  e.xeiniilion 
from  ta.xes,  which  Charles  III.  took  away,  the  llai- 
<!ucks  enjoy  all  the  rights  of  Nobles  to  the  present  day. 
Their  residence,  the  Haiduck  district,  remains  inde- 
pendent of  the  country  authorities,  and  is  luider  the 
direct  aiiiiiiiiistration  of  the  National  Goveriunent. 
The  Haiduck  district  lies  within  tjii'  country  of  North 
liiliar.  Iietween  tlie  Theiss  and  Transylvania,  has  an 
area  of  about  51)4  .square  miles  and  si.x  principal  Hai- 
duck towns.     The  capital  of  the  district  used  to  be 


approaching  his  post  between  taps  and  reveille  with, 
"  Who  goes  (or  comes)  there  'i  " 

HAIR. — A  spring  or  other  contrivance  in  a  rifle  or 
pistol-lock,  which,  being  unlocked  by  a  slight  pres- 
sure on  the  trigger,  strikes  the  tmnbler-catch,  and 
unlocks  the  tumbler. 

HAIR-CLOTH.— A  species  of  cloth  made  of  horse- 
hair, laid  upon  the  floors  of  magazines  and  labora- 
tories to  prevent  accidents.  It  is  usually  made  up  in 
pieces  14  feet  long  and  11  feet  wide,  each  weighing 
36  pounds. 

HAIR  TRIGGER.— A  trigger  so  constructed  as  to 
discharge  a  flre-arm  by  a  very  slight  pressure,  as  by 
the  touch  of  a  hair.  It  is  connected  with  the  tumbler- 
catch  by  a  device  called  the  Jfnir.  One  of  the  latest 
improvements  in  sporting-arms  is  the  addition  of  a 
set,  or  liair-trigger.  This  differs  from  the  ordinary 
hair-trigger,  in  that  it  can  be  used  precisely  as  if  this 
trigger  was  not  on  the  gun.  if,  as  in  hunting,  it  is  not 
wanted.  For  fine  shooting,  as  in  target  practice,  it  is 
made  available  thus  :  After  setting  the  hammer  at 
full-cock,  the  trigger  shotdd  be  pressed  forward 
slightly,  and  it  is  thus  set.  If  it  is  found  too  delicate, 
or  not  delicate  enough,  it  can  be  adjusted  to  suit  the 
wislies,  liy  turning  a  set  screw  in  or  out.  This  screw 
will  be  found  by  the  side  of  the  trigger. 
I  HAKE. — An  old  term  for  a  hand-gun,  used  in 
I  ancient  times,  and  usually  fired  on  a  rest  by  the 
manual  ap|iIiciition  of  a  match.  When  the  weight  of 
these  instruineiUs  was  reduced,  and  a  lock  appended, 
so  llial  that  they  miglil  be  fired  without  a  rest,  they 
were  called  (•(ilhem.  Hand-guns  of  this  description 
are  mentioned  as  having  been  first  ti.sed  at  tlie  Siege 
o*  Arras,  in  1414.  An  inquisiti<in  taken  at  Hunter- 
'  combe,  in  Yorkshire,  in  laT."),  the  record  being  in  the 
Chapter-house.  Westminster,  mentions  the  attack  on 
Alaiior-liouse  of  lluntercombe  by  40  men  armed, 
among  other  W'Capons.  with  "  gonnes  " — sujiposed  to 
be  hand-gum,. 


HALBEBD. 


HALF  HOOK. 


HALBEKD— HALBERT. — A  wciipnii  borne, up  to  the 
<-l(mc  lit'  III!'  ri;;htc(iilli  ciTitiiry.  l)y  nil  sfri,'i';iiils  of 
fool,  urIilliTy,  iiiiil  II liiri Ill's,  luiil  by  roin|iiuiii's  of  biil- 
brnlirrs  ill  Ibr  viirious  ri'niiiiriils.  II  ruiisislril  of  a 
Htn.il;^  wooili'ii  sluifl  jiboiit  (1  fi-i-1  ill  Irn;^lli,  siir- 
nioimli'il  by  an  inslniiiirnt  miifli  rcsriiiblini;  a  bill- 
book,  (•onslniclcd  alike  for  culliii;;  anil  llinisliiiij, 
Willi  a  eross-pieee  of  Hleel,  less  sliarp,  for  the  jmrpose 
of  piisliinj;  ;  one  end  of  this  oross-pieee  was  liirneil 
down  as  a  liook.  for  use  in  (eariiii;  down  works 
aj;ainst  wliii-b  an  allack  is  made.  'I'lie  lionor  of  in- 
ventin}^  tlie  halberd  is  contesled  by  Ibe  Swiss  and 
Danes,  but  probably  eacli  prodiieed  sonielliini;  re- 
si'inblini;  it.  Its  iinine  appears  to  be  derived  from 
the  Teulonie  hilil.  batlli',  and  hnrd.  axe.  The  iinlberd 
appears  tirst  in  Eni;land  about  the  time  of  I  [enry  VII., 
and  maintained  its  position  for  upwards  of  two  cen- 
turies. Now  it  is  rarely  seen  except  on  certain  cere- 
monial oeeasions. 

Old  llalberil  is  a  familiar  term  formerly  used  in  the 
British  Army,  to  sitjnify  a  jierson  who  liad  gone 
tbrouiih  the  dilTerent  j^railatioiis,  and  risen  to  the 
rank  of  a  eomiuissioned  oHieer. 

HALBERDE.  -A  term  frei(uently  ^iven  to  the  tjuis- 
arw-,  or  to  one  of  its  moditieations,  in  the  middle 
nLres. 

HALE  WAR  ROCKETS.  —The  L'eneral  construc- 
lioii  of  the  1^  and  )34-|ioiinders  are  the  same, 
dilVerini;  only  in  i;eneral  dimensions  and  the  num- 
ber of  vents  and  curved  shields  or  walls,  the  12- 
poiindcr  having  3  and  the  2-1-pouniler  5.  The 
rocket  consists  of  four  pieces.  A  head,  conoi- 
dal  in  sliajie,  of  cast-iron,  hollow  for  bursting, 
having  a  cylindrical  hole  in  the  base  about  ]i;incli 
diameter,  wilh  screw-threud  for  fuse;  there  is  also 
a  small  hole  in  front,  used  for  tilling  slii'll  with  com- ; 
biistible  material,  closed  Iiy  a  screw,  liut  into  which 
can,  if  desirable,  be  fitted  a  nijiple  and  cap  for  igni- 
tion by  percussion ;  the  head  is  turned  down  at  the 
rear  f  inch  .so  as  to  enter  the  body  of  the  case  about 
Y^   inch,  and   to  which  it  is  secured  by  six  pins  or 


swivel ;  to  the  chain  is  attached  the  life-line.  Tliis 
rocket  is  tired  from  an  ordinary  V'-sliapeil  trough, 
which  may  lie  given  any  desired  elevation.  As  the 
chain  is  hardly  long  enough  to  prevent  llie  l)uriiing 
oir  of  the  rope  by  the  gas  escaping  from  the  vcnlB, 
it  is  safest  to  wet  about  two  fathoms  of  the  rope 
next  to  the  chain.     See  liackHn. 

HALF  BASTION.  A  demi-bastion.  In  fortllication 
thai  half  ipf  a  basiion  cut  olT  by  the  cai)ital,  cou-sisting 
of  one  liasc  and  one  front. 

HALF  BATTA.-  An  extra  allowance  which  was 
graiileil  to  Hie  whole  of  the  officers  belonging  to  the 
Hrilish  Ivist  Indian  Army,  except  liengal.  when  out 
of  tin- Conipany's  district  in  Province  of  Oiide.  In 
the  ui)i)er  I'rovinces  (hmhlfhiiWi  was  allowed.  All 
above  full  was  paid  by  the  native  Princes,  as  the 
troops  stationed  in  that  quarter  are  considered  as 
Auxiliaries.     See  Jinttn. 

HALF-BLOCKS. — These  areof  the  same  dimensions 
as  bbn'kn.  except  that  the  cross-section  is  usually 
4  X  K  inches,  in  place  of  H  inches  square.  They  are 
used  for  the  same  ]iiirposes  as  wliole  blocks  ;  but, 
when  the  distance  through  which  the  iiiece  is  to  be 
rai.sed  is  only  half  of  wliat  it  is  when  the  whole  block 
is  used. 

HALF-CAPONNIERE.  -In  fortitication.acommimi- 
catioii  ill  a  dry  ditch  wilh  one  side  prepared  for  de- 
fense, liaviii'.'  bill  one  panqiet  and  i;lacis. 

HALF  CHESS.— A  sliorl  i7/<.y.i  or  platform  board  of 
a  mililarv  bridge.     See  I'ontiin. 

HALF  COCK —T)ie  jiosition  of  the  cock  of  a  gun 
when  retaiiiid  bv  the  tirst  notch.     See  finck. 

HALF  DISTANCE.— Half  the  regular  interval  or 
space  betwiin  troops  drawn  up  in  the  ranks  or 
standiiiic  i-nliiiiin. 

HALF  DOUBLE  SAP.— This  is  an  ordinary  line  of 
sa])  pushed  forward  in  a  position  where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  temporary  cover  on  the  reverse  of  the 
trench,  from  a  slant  tire  by  gabions  tilled  with  sand- 
bags. The  distance  between  the  two  rows  of  gabions 
in  this  case,  is  only  5  feet  6  inches,  the  single  sajj- 


Hale  W'rtr-rocket. 


screws.  A  cylindrical  hudy  of  sheet-iron  about  ^ 
inch  thick,  with  edges  lapped,  riveted,  and  brazed 
at  the  longitudinal  joints.  A  thick  iron  disk  or  an- 
nular ring  titled  in  and  fixed  by  screws  or  pins 
closes  the  liase.  A  tail-piece  of  cast-iron  containing 
the  vents  and  shields  or  walls  is  screwed  into  the 
disk  which  closes  the  base.  The  vents  themselves 
are  conical,  the  apex  pressing  against  the  curved 
shields,  each  placed  in  the  same  relative  position 
to  one  of  the  vents,  keeps  the  rocket  point  foremost 
in  its  tiight,  and  gives  the  rotary  motion  on  the 
turbine  principle.  The  composition  which  is  sei)a- 
rated  from  contact  with  the  iron  by  pasteboard  to 
prevent  oxidation,  consists  of  saltpeter,  sulphur, 
and  charcoal,  in  tlie  propurlions  of  TO,  16,  and  33, 
and  is  introduced  into  the  case  in  successive  pellets 
and  pressed  by  hydraulic  power;  it  is  afterward 
bored  out  in  a  cone  for  about  two-thirds  of  its 
length.  The  war-rockets  are  tired  from  a  trough 
mounted  on  a  stand,  either  singly  or  in  groups  of 
seven,  by  means  of  an  ordinary  friction-tube  and 
lanyard. 

The  Hale  Life-Saving  Kocket  differs  from  the 
above  only  in  that  the  head,  instead  of  being  of  cast- 
iron,  is  of  wood,  and  in  the  addition  of  a  piece  of 
chain  about  3  feet  long  which  is  connected  to 
the  center  of  the  bottom  of  the  tail-piece  by  a  double 


roller  covering  in  front  this  interval  from  enfilading 
tire.     See  Sap.  and  Wing  Traversm. 

HALF-FACE.— A  movement,  in  the  School  of  the 
Soldier,  in  order  to  take  half  the  usual  distance  be- 
tween the  right  or  left  face  and  front,  to  give  an 
oblique  direction  to  the  line,  or  to  fill  up  a  gap  at 
the  corner  of  a  square. 

HALF-FILE  LEADER.— The  foremost  of  a  rank 
entire.     The  Cliefde  Demi  file  in  France. 

HALF- FILES.— Half  the  given  number  of  any  body 
of  men  drawn  up  two  deep.  They  are  so  called  in 
cavalry,  when  the  men  rank  off  singly.  i 

HALF-FULL  SAP. — In  siege  operations,  when  the 
sappers  have  only  a  flank  fire  (coming  in  a  direction 
nearly  perpendicular  to  that  of  the  sap)  to  fear,  the 
sap-roller  may  be  dispensed  with.  The  first  sapper 
then  covers  himself  with  the  last-tilled  gabion  wjiilsl 
placing  and  filling  the  new  one.  This  species  of  sap 
is  called  the  half-full  sap. 

HALF  HITCH.— A  form  of  hitch  much  used  in 
mechanical  maneuvers.  It  is  made  by  passing 
the  end  of  a  rojie  round  its  standing  part,  and  bring- 
ing it  up  through  the  bight.    See  C'ardage  and  Kn^its. 

HALF-MERLON. — That  solifl  portion  of  a  parapet 
which  is  at  the  right  or  left  extremity  of  a  battery. 

HALF  MOON.— In  fortification,  aii  outwork  that 
has  tw(i  faces  which  form  a  salient  angle,  the  gorge 


HALF-PAY. 


haloxtl™. 


of  whicli  resembles  a  crescent.  It  owes  its  original 
invention  to  the  Duteli,  who  used  it  to  cover  the 
points  of  their  bastions.  This  kind  of  fortitication 
is,  however,  defective,  because  it  is  weak  on  its 
flanks.  Half-moons  are  now  called  ravelins,  which 
species  of  work  is  constructed  in  front  of  the  curtain. 
HALF-PAY. — An  allowance  given  in  the  British 
Army  and  Navy  to  Commissioned  Officers  not  act- 
ively employed  in  the  rank  to  which  half-pay  has 
reference.  It  corresponds  to  the  French  denu'-solde, 
or  pay  of  non-acUvite.  It  lias  Ions  been  a  disputed 
point  whether  lialf-pay  is  given  to  otHeers  as  a  re- 
taining fee,  to  keep  tliem  at  hand  for  the  time 
when  their  services  may  be  again  required,  or  an 
award  on  account  of  services  already  rendered  :  but 
whatever  the  terms  of  the  original  grant,  tliere  can 
be  little  doubt  that,  under  the  present  regulations, 
half-pay,  except  when  distinctly  named  retired  half- 


Officers. 


Yearly  Pay  of  Officers  in  Active 
Service. 


Major-general 

Brigadier-general 

Colonel 

Lientenant-colonel 

Major 

Captain  (mounted)... 

"  (not  mounted) 
1st  Lieut,  (mounted).. 

"  (not  mounted). 
2d  Lieut,  (mounted).. 

*■  mot  mounted). 
Chaplain 


1st 
5  yrs. 


$7,500 
5,500 
3..W0 
3,000 
2,500 
2,000 
1,8«) 
1,600 
1,500 
1,500 
1,4m 
1,.500 


After 
5  yrs. 


$3,830 
3,300 
2,750 
2,200 
l,9rtO 
1.7150 
1,650 
1,6.50 
1,.M0 
l,6,iO 


After 
10  yrs. 


$1,200 
3.600 
3,000 
2,400 
2,160 
1,920 
1,800 
1,800 
1,680 
1,800 


After 
15  yrs. 


3,900 
3.2,50 
2,600 
2,340 
2,080 
1,950 
1,950 
1,820 
1,950 


After 
20  vrs. 


$1,500 
4,000 
3..50O 
2,800 
2,520 
2,240 
2,100 
2,100 
1,960 
2,100 


Officers. 

Pay  of  Retired  Officers 

1st 
5  yrs. 

After 
5  yrs. 

After 
10  yrs. 

After 
15  yrs. 

After 
20  yrs. 

$5,625 
4,125 
2,625 

2,2.50 
1,875 
1,500 
1,.3.50 
1.200 
1.125 
1.125 
1.050 
1.350 

Brigadier-general 

Co'onel 

Lieutenant  colonel 



$2,887 
2,475 
2.062 
1,6.50 
1.485 
1..320 
1.237 
1,237 
1,155 
1,485 

$3.V5b' 
2,700 
2,250 
1,800 
1,620 
1,440 
1,350 
1,250 
1,260 
1,620 

'$3,375 
2,925 
2,4;W 
1,950 
1,755 
1,560 
1,462 
1,462 
1,365 
1,755 

'$3.'3'75 
3,000 
2,625 

Captain  (mounted) 

'■     (not  mounted) 

let  Lieut  (mounted) 

"    (not  mounted) 

2d  Lieut.  (n|ounted) 

"    (not  mounted) 

Chaplain 

2,100 
1,890 
1,680 
1,575 
1,575 
1,470 
1,890 

pay,  is  in  the  nature  of  a  retaining  fee.  This  allow- 
ance is  on  quite  a  ditterent  footing  in  the  Navy  and 
Army.  In  the  Royal  Navy  of  Great  Britain,  olHcers 
are  merely  appointed  to  serve  during  the  period  a 
certain  ship  is  in  commission;  when  this  expires, 
their  employment  ceases  and  they  revert  to  a  state 
of  non-activity.  As  there  are  always  many  more 
Naval  Officers  than  appointments  for  them  to  till,  a 
considerable  numlier  arc  at  all  times  on  the  non- 
effective list.  These  are  placed  on  half-pay  until 
again  called  upon  to  serve ;  the  amount  of  such 
half-pay  being  usually  about  tiO  ])er  cent,  of  the  full 
pay  of  each  grade.  Half-pay  is  thus  in  the  Navy  a 
recognized  condition  for  all  officers  not  immediately 
wanted  afloat.  In  the  British  .Vrmy,  the  case  is  dif- 
ferent: there,  an  officer  on  johiing,  is  posted  to  a 
particular  regiment,  with  whicli,  in  theory,  he  is 
supposed  to  serve  until  removed  from  it  on  attaining 
the  rank  of  (ieueral.  Consequently,  no  fund  like 
the  naval  half-pay  list  is  in  any  degree  admitted. 
Army  half-pay  is  of  two  natures — temporary  am\  (so. 
cnWcd)  permmunt  half-pay.  The  former  is  limited 
to  officers  incapacitated  by  ciisual  sickness,  to  those 
who  are  without  occupaliim,  in  consequence  of  any 
redui'lion  of  the  corps  in  which  Ihey  were  serving, 
and  to  those  serving  in  certain  staff  appoint nu'uts. 
Permanent  half-jiay  can  be  demanded  by  any  nffieer 
who  has  served  30  years  ;  it  is  also  given  to  Majors 


and  Lieutenant-colonels  who,  after  serving  for  5 
years  with  a  regiment  in  those  ranks,  are  not  re-em- 
ployed. Since  the  abolition  of  purchase  and  sale  of 
commissions,  this  last  class  may  be  expected,  for 
the  .sake  of  promotion  in  the  lower  ranks,  to  increase 
considerably.  The  cost  of  half-pay  is  already  very 
great ;  in  1877-78.  it  was  £31.5,500  for  the  Army. 
Till  lately,  a  large  proportion  of  the  recipients  were 
officers  placed  on  the  list  at  the  great  reduction  after 
the  peace  of  1815.  There  is  a  sfightlv  different  sys- 
tem or  practice  in  the  United  States.  There  ia 
sometimes  a  distinction  between  officers  on  active 
duty  and  those  awaiting  orders.  Officers  on  leave, 
beyond  the  time  allowed  by  law.  are  put  on  half- 
pay  ;  and  officers  retired  from  active  service  receive 
three-fourths  of  their  full  pay.  Th<'  salaries,  at 
present,  from  Major-general  downwards  are  graded 
as  in  the  above  tables.     See  Pay. 

HALF- PIKE. — A  short  pike,  formerly  carried  by 
infantry  officers.     See  Spontoon. 

HALF-KOLLER.— This  roller  has  the  same  dimen- 
sions as  the  long  roller,  but  is  round  only  on  one 
side,  square  on  the  opposite  side,  and  lias  no  groove. 
It  is  used  resting  on  the  square  .side,  when,  instead 
of  rolling  the  gun,  the  object  is  to  have  a  firm  sup- 
port on  which  the  gun  can  have  its  ends  alternately 
raised,  as  in  mounting  a  gun  on  its  carriage  by 
means  of  blocks. 

HALF-SUNKEN  BATTERY.— A  battery  having  its 
interior  space  or  terre-pleiu  sunk  some  inclies  below 
the  natural  surface,  and  its  parapet  composed  of  the 
earth  thus  obtained  and  that  taken  from  a  narrow- 
ditch  in  front.  This  description  of  battery  admits 
of  being  more  quickl}'  constructed  than  any  other, 
as  the  diggers  can  work  both  in  front  and  rear  at 
the  same  time. 

HALF-SWORD.— A  figure  within  half  the  length  of 
a  sword  :   a  close  fiirht. 

HALF-WROUGHT  MATERIALS.— In  artillery,  the 
several  parts  of  gun-carriages  in  the  rough,  or  partly 
shaped  to  the  form  required.  Supplies  of  these 
materials  are  kept  in  every  Arsenal,  and  are  issued  to 
batteries  on  indent.  Each  battery  in  the  field  in 
England,  is  allowed  the  following  lialf-wroughts  ; — 

Beam 1 

Cheeks 2 

Perch  wagon 1 

Splinter-bar 2 

Shafts,  spare 2,  complete. 

Felloes 12 

Spokes 24 

But  as  a  spare  carriage  is  allowed,  there  is  no  ne- 
cessity to  carry  such  ponderous  articles  as  lieams, 
etc. ;  the  officer  commanding  a  troop  or  battery  will, 
therefore,  use  his  discretion,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  service  on  which  lie  may  be  going,  as  to  half- 
wrought  materials  he  will  carry,  any  in  excess  of  the 
number  allowed  being  provided  at  his  own  expense. 
On  leaving  a  station  where  there  maj'  be  an  Arsenal, 
he  can.  if  lie  thinks  fit,  return  into  store  such  half- 
wroughts  as  he  may  not  wish  to  carry  on  the  march, 
receiving  from  the  Ordnance  Officer  a  receipt,  which 
will  be  his  voucher  for  obtaining  others  free  of 
charge  at  the  next  Arsenal.  The  above  instructions 
have  reference  to  the  artillery  in  India,  wherever  tlie 
carriages  are  of  the  old  pattern,  viz.,  of  wood.  The 
new  field-carriages  lieing  made  of  iron,  the  supply  of 
lialf-wroughts  as  shown  in  the  above  list  is  not  re- 
quired, except  'for  the  wheels  and  other  woodea 
parts  of  Die  carriage. 

HALLECRET.— Liglit  armor  iiiucli  used  in  the  six- 
leentli  century  liy  the  Swiss.  It  consisted  of  lireast- 
])lale  iind  gussets,  often  reaching  to  the  middle  of  the 
Ihi'jii.  ini(i  somelimes  below  the  knees. 

HALOXYLIN.  -The  name  of  a  new  kind  of  ex]ilo- 
sive  material  <ir  blasting-powder  which  has  been  in- 
vented in  Styria  bylwc)  brothers,  and  is  described 
as  incapable  of  spontaneous  ignition,  and  as  quite 
free  from  smoke  and  noxious  gases.  It  is  composed 
of  non-resinous  sawilusl,  charcoal,  niter,  and  ferro- 


HALT. 


HAMMER  CLOTH. 


cvnniilc  of  potnssiiim.  iinil  is  twice  the  liulk  of  tjiin- 
povvilcr,  hill  Diif-imlf  iiiorc  powerful.  For  lilustiiii; 
jiriil  riiijiirii;  |iiir|)Oses  it   is  cousidercil  un   preferable 

to  n;inipoWller. 

HALT.— Mlerally,  lo  stop ;  ii  term  well  known  to 
soldiers.  It  is  the  word  of  eoiniiiiind  uiveii  to  ii 
body  of  men,  or  to  a  reixiinenl  or  an  army,  on  the 
move,  to  diseoiiliniie  its  march.  In  the  march  of  a 
body  of  soldiers  halls  an'  very  necessary  for  the  com- 
fort of  the  men,  lo  enable  them  to  rest  themselves. 
On  the  usual  daily  march  of  a  rejjiment  in  India, 
halts  are  made  half-way.  and  colTcc  is  served  out  to 
the  men.  This  is  a  very  desirable  arraiiL'^cmeiil.  see- 
iuLT  how  earl)'  a  regiment  commences  its  march  in 
thai  country. 

HALTER. — A  litad-stall  and  strap  by  which  an 
animal  is  hitched  to  a  stan<'liion  or  maniter.  The 
halter  was  anciently  used,  .-md  is  ohown  in  tlie  sculp- 
tures of  Nimroud.  The  army  is  represented  in  the 
act  of  crossing  a  riviT,  and  Ibe  horses  ar<'  hallered 
behind  the  sterns  of  Ibi'  boats,  swinuning  iu  the 
wake. 

HALTING  DAYS.- Till'  days  in  the  week  usually 
allotted  for  repose,  when  troops  are  upon  the  inarch, 
and  there  is  not  any  particular  necessity  for  exertion 
or  dispatch. 

HALYARDS. — The  ropes  used  in  hoisting  and  low- 
ering Hags.  Signal  halyards  arc  running  cords  of  the 
best  wliilc  lieni]),  (lassing  through  a  pulley  at  the  lop 
of  the  llag-slalT  ;  the  Hags  wbcMi  attached  lo  them  are 
rolled  up.  and  then  hoisted  and  expanded  to  the 
wind  by  a  jerk  when  the  ])roper  moment  arrives. 

HAMATA. — A  tle.xible  cuiras  composed  of  metal 
cliains,  .Mnd  first  worn  by  cavalry  soldiers  in  the  time 
of  I'lilybius.     See  Oiiinmnnd  Mtiil. 

HAMES. — Two  pieces  of  iron  encircling  a  horse's 
collar,  cdimected  at  the  bottom  by  an  iron  loop,  and 
at  Ihe  top  by  a  strap  ami  buckle.  .\lla<-hed  to  the 
liamcs  are  iron  luiis  lo  wliich  the  traces  are  linked. 
HAMMER.— 1.  That  part  of  a  gun-lock  which 
strikes  tlie  percussion-cap  or  tiring-pin.  It  works 
on  a  spring  called  the  liiimmer-spring.  i.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  instruments  in  very  general 
use  for  driving  and  drawing  nails,  beating  out 
metals,  etc.  For  many  puri)oses,  hammers  are  re- 
(juired  of  greater  weight  than  man  could  wielil : 
and  a  great  variety  of  power-hammers  are  used. 
These,  for  the  most  part,  are  masses  of  iron  raised 
by  steam  or  other  power,  and  then  allowed  to 
fall  by  their  own  gravity  upon  the  work.  The 
helve  or  shingling  luimme>\  tised  for  compressing 
the  mass  of  iron  drawn  from  lite  puddling  fur- 
nace, and  the  tilt-hammer,  used  iu  the  manufactur- 
ing of  shear-steel,  are  important  examples  of 
such  hammers.  The  first  is  a  heavy  l)ar  of  cast- 
iron  about  10  feet  long,  weighing  3  or  4  tons  and 
upwards,  to  which  is  attached  a  head  of  wrought- 
iron  faced  with  steel,  weighing  nearly  half  a  ton 
more.  It  works  upon  an  a.xis  at  the  end  of  the 
l)ar  furthest  from  the  head,  and  is  raised  by  cams 
attached  to  a  heavy  wlieel  set  in  motion  by  steam 
or  water-power;  these  cams  strike  or  "lick"  a 
projection  extending  beyond  the  head,  and  thus 
raise  it  about  18  or  20  inches  at  the  rale  of  TO 
to  100  times  per  minute.  The  tilt-hammer  is 
similar,  but  much  lighter,  and  is  adapted  for 
striking  above  300  blows  per  minute.  In  order 
to  obtain  this  velocity  a  short  "tail"  extends 
■■A'ilh  a  downward  inclination  beyond  the  axis,  and 
the  cams  strike  tliis  downwards,  and  thus  lift  the 
longer  arm  of  the  lever  to  which  the  head  is  at- 
tiuiied.  These,  when  worked  by  steam,  as  they 
usually  are  in  this  country,  are,  of  course,  steam- 
hammers  ;  but  when  the  term  steam-hammer  is  used 
without  qualification,  it  applies  to  another  and  more 
elaborate  machine  of  very  different  construction, 
invented  by  ]\Ir.  James  Xasmyth  in  1842.  and  sub- 
sequently modified  and  improved  in  some  of  its 
minor  details.  In  this,  the  hammer  is  attached  to 
the  bottom  of  a  heavv  mass  of  iron,  the  "hammer- 


block,"  rapahle  of  rising  and  falling  between  upright 
bars  or  "  guides  ";  this,  again,  is  lixed  lo  the  rod  of 
a  piston,  which  works  in  a  cylinder  ]>laced  per- 
pendicularly over  the  hammer-block,  hammer,  and 
anvil.  As  Ihe  [)islon  rises  in  the  cylinder,  it  lifts  the 
attached  mass,  which  is  then  allowed  to  fall  from 
varying  lieights,  according  to  an  adjustment  whicli 
can  be  made  by  an  attendant  simply  toinhing  u 
handle.  The  adjustments  are  so  perfect  that  il  may 
be  nuide  to  crush  u  mass  of  iron,  anri  at  the  next 
blow  to  crack  a  nut  held  in  the  fingers  without 
damaging  eilher  kernel  or  fingers,  or  to  crack  tlie 
top  of  an  <'gg  in  an  egg-cup.  as  might  be  rlone  with 
the  bowl  of  a  n|)oou.  The  mechanism  by  which 
this  is  effected  is  loo  elaborate  lo  be  described  hero 
in  detail.  (Jne  novel  contrivance,  vi/.,  the  "  latch," 
which  reverses  the  action  of  the  .steam  valves  at  the 
precise  moment  required,  is  of  remarkable  ingenu- 
ity.     See  StiinnJiinnvier. 

"hammer  cloth.— When  the  aparejo  is  placed 
on  the  back  of  a  i)ack-iinimal,  it  is  covered  with  a 
piece  of  canvas  or  matting,  made  to  lit  it.  called  tin- 
lIiDniiier-i-bith.  Two  pieces  of  hard  wood,  about  1 
inch  thick.  2  inches  wide,  20  inches  long,  round  on 
the  outside  and  beveled  to  an  edge  at  Ihe  ends,  are 
placed  about  (i  inches  from  the  end  of  the  cloth. 
Leather  caps  are  stitched  over  the  ends  rif  the  wood. 
To  secure  the  hammer-cUith,  aparejo  anil  Ihe  blan- 
kets beneath  it  lo  the  animal,  a  wide  girth.  <alle(l  a 
cincha  or  cinch,  is  used.  It  is  made  of  hide  or 
strong  canvas,  about  0  feet  long  (a  lillle  too  short 
to  go  around  the  nude's  body  over  the  aparejo),  from 
1,5  to  20  inches  wide,  and  so  folded  as  to  bring  tin; 
edges  and  stitching  in  the  center.  A  .semi-circular 
piece  of  leather,  provided  with  holes  or  a  ring,  is 
stitched  on  one  end,  and  two  loops  of  strong  leather 
and  a  slider  of  hard  wood  on  the  other.  The  cinch 
is  tightened  by  drawing  the  two  ends  together,  by 


means  of  what  is  known  as  the  latigo.strap — made 
of  strong  bridle-leather  about  0  feet  long,  an  inch 
and  one-half  wide  at  one  end  and  tapering  to  one- 
half  inch  at  the  other.  When  the  strap  is  suflicienlly 
drawn,  a  loop  is  formed  in  the  free  end  and  the  bow 
is  pulled  under  the  front  and  back  lashings  of  the 
strap.  To  relax  the  cinch  and  set  all  free,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  pull  on  the  free  end  of  the  strap.  For 
very  small  animals  a  short  cinch  fone  end  furnished 
with  a  ring  and  the  other  with  a  stick,  bent  into  the 
shape  of  a  hook),  attached  to  a  rope  at  the  ring  may 
be  used.     See  Aparejo  and  Packing. 


HAMMEE-NAIL. 


6 


HAND-ABMS. 


HAMMER-NAIL.— The  pin  securing  the  cock  to 

the  jilate  of  the  irun-lock.  It  is  freqvie'ntly  called  the 
hx'k-nic'l. 

HAMMER -PIKE.— A  long-shafted  weapon,  like 
the  icar-fuimm^r.  It  was  carried  by  the  subalterns 
in  charge  of  the  flag  under  the  First  Empire  (1804- 
1814). 

HAMMER-SPRING.— The  spring  of  a  hammer  in  a 
gun-lork.  Its  parts  are  the  play-side,  the  i<Uid-side. 
the  turn,  the  flitwer.  tlie  xtnd,  and  the  eye  ;  through 
the  latter  passes  the  rod  of  the  spriug-pin. 

HAMMOCK. — A  kind  of  bed  suspended  on  land, 
between  trees  or  posts  ;  on  board  ship,  between  hooks. 
Each  soldier  proceeding  to  sea  on  board  a  troop  or 
transport-ship  is  entitled  to  have  a  hammock  told  off 
to  him  as  a  resting-place  of  a  night.  The  hanmiock 
suspended  forms  a  sort  of  bag  capable  of  containing 
the  soldier's  mattress,  his  blankets,  and  himself,  as 
soon  as  he  has  acquired  the  far  from  easy  knack  of 
climbing  into  it.  The  lunumocks  are  taken  below 
at  sunset,  and  hung  in  rows  about  3  feet  apart,  in 
the  men's  portion  ()f  the  ship.  When  done  with  in 
the  morning,  the  bedding  is  carefully  tied  up  within 
each,  and  the  whole  stowed  in  the  hammock-netting, 
which  is  generally  in  the  bulwarks  of  the  waist.  If 
the  weather  be  not  sufficiently  dry,  however,  to 
allow  of  this,  the  hammocks  are  left  lielow.  Stowed 
thus  in  the  netting,  the  hammocks  form  a  strong 
barrier  against  small  shot. 

HANAPIER. — The  front  part  of  a  cuirass,  or  iron 
breast-plate  worn  by  light-armed  soldiers.  Also 
written  Hanepier. 

HAND. — 1.  The  small  of  a  gun-stock.  2.  A  mea- 
sure four  inches  in  length.  The  height  of  a  liorse  is 
comp\ited  by  so  many  bauds  and  inches. 

HAND -ARBALEST  .—A  portable  balista  used  in 
ancient  Greece,  very  much  like  the  cross-bow  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

HAND-ARMS. —Hand-arms  arc  usually  divided 
into  three  classes,  depending  on  their  mode  of  opera- 
tion. 1st.  Thfustlng-i\Tms,  which  act  by  the  point. 
2d.  Ontting-nTma,  which  act  by  the  edge.  3d. 
Thrusting  and  Cutting-arms,  which  act  cither  way. 
The  object  of  all  hand-weapons  is  to  penetrate, 
directly,  the  person  of  an  enemy.  They  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  distinct  parts,  viz.  :  1st.  The  point, 
or  edge,  which  attains  the  object ;  2d.  The  body,  or 
blade,  which  constitutes  the  mass  of  the  weapon, 
and  transmits  the  force  of  the  hand  to  the  object; 
and,  3d.  The  handle,  or  point  of  application  of  the 
motive  force.  The  meclianical  principles  to  which 
they  may  be  referred,  are  lever  and  wedge.  With 
a  given  force  of  the  hand,  acting  against  a  given 
object,  the  penetration  of  a  thrusting-weapon  de- 
pends upon  the  power  of  the  H-edge  formed  at  its 
point.  The  effect  will  be  modified,  however,  by  the 
position  of  the  axis  of  the  wedge,  for  if  it  do  not  co- 
incide with  the  direction  of  the  impelling  force, 
tliere  will  be  a  component  force  which  acts  to  turn 
the  point  to  one  side.  The  blade  of  a  thrusting- 
weapon  should,  therefore,  be  straight,  and  should 
taper  to  a  point.  To  guide  it  easily,  the  center  .of 
gravity  should  be  found  in  or  near  the  handle  ;  this 
may  be  accomplished  by  grooving  the  blade,  by 
making  the  handle  heavy,  or  by  adding  a  counter- 
poise to  it. 

The  principal  thrusting-wcapons  are  the  straiglit 
KWird,  hinn,  and  li'iyinat.  The  straight  swords  as 
well  as  other  swords,  are  composed  of  the  Idude,  thi' 
'  hilt,  and  the  guard.  The  blade  is  divided  into  the 
point,  the  middle,  the  reinforce,  the  shovldfr,  the 
tnng,  or  portion  which  is  inserted  into  the  handle, 
and  the  grunves,  the  number  of  which  is  equal  to  the 
number  of  faces,  or,  from  two  to  four.  The  length 
of  blade  varies  from  30  to  33  inches,  the  widlli  is 
from  I  to  ■;  of  an  inch,  an<l  the  weight  I  to  \l  ll)s. 
The  hill  is  (lividi-d  into  the  1,-n'ih,  and  the  gri)ie  ;  the 
gripe  is  generally  ma<leof  wood,  covered  with  leather 
or  sheel-brass,  and  wrapped  with  wire  to  give  it 
roughness,  and  prevent  it  from  slipping  in  the  hand. 


The  guard  is  composed  of  the  rjirvid  branch  and  cross- 
piece,  and  the  plate,  all  joined  in  one  piece.  The 
object  of  the  guard  is  to  protect  the  hand,  tlie  plate 
to  ward  fiff  the  point,  and  the  brancli,  the  edge  of 
the  enemy's  sword.  The  irounds  made  by  thrusting- 
swords,  particularly  those  with  three  or  four  concave 
sides,  are  very  dangerous,  as  they  close  up  externally 
and  suppurate  internally.  In  experienced  hands  the 
straight  sword  is  well  adapted  to  encounter  one  of 
its  kind,  but  it  is  too  weak  to  parry  the  blows  of  a 
saber.  It  is  now  but  little  used  in  this  country,  ex- 
cept for  ornamental  purposes :  the  saber  being  pre- 
ferred as  a  service  weapon,  even  for  infantry  officers. 
The  lance,  or  pike,  is  composed  of  a  sharp  steel 
blade,  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  long  and  slender  handle 
of  wood.     The  bleide  is  generalh-  from  8  to  10  inches 

j  long,  and,  in  order  that  it  may  combine  stiffness 
with  lightness,  is  grooved  after  the  manner  of  the 
common  bayonet,  leaving  three  orfoiir  ridges.     The 

,  base  of  the  blade  has  a  socket,  and  two  iron  straps, 

■  for  securing  it  to  the  handle.  Three  small  .staples 
are  sometimes  fastened  to  the  handle,  below  the 
blade,  for  the  purpose  of  attaching  a,  pennon,  which 
serves  as  an  ornament,  and  to  frighten  the  enemy's 
horses.  The  handle  is  made  of  strong,  light,  well- 
seasoned  wood.  The  lower  end  is  protected  with  a 
tip  of  iron,  and  a  leather  loop  is  attached  opposite  the 
center  of  gravity,  to  enable  the  arm  to  carry  and 
guide  the  lance.  The  total  length  of  a  lance  varies 
from  8j  to  11  feet,  and  the  weight  is  about  4i  lbs. 
On  horseback,  and  when  not  in  use,  the  lance  may 
be  carried  in  two  ways  :  1st.  Bj'  placing  the  lower 
end  in  a  leather  boot  attached  to  the  stirrup,  and 
passing  the  right  arm  through  the  leather  loop.  2d. 
By  placing  the  lower  end  in  the  boot  and  strapping 
the  handle  to  the  pommel  of  the  saddle.  The  first 
mode  enables  the  horseman  to  take  his  lance  with 
him  when  he  dismounts,  and  is  well  sinted  to  liglit 
lances.  The  second  mode  is  necessary  to  heavy 
lances.  In  the  first  shock  of  a  cavalry  charge,  and 
in  the  pursuit  of  a  flying  enemy,  the  lance  is  a 
superior  weapon  to  the  saber,  as  it  has  a  greater 
penetration,  and  attains  its  object  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance :  but  in  the  hand-to-hand  conflict  following 
a  charge,  the  latter  is  superior  to  the  former.  Hence, 
it  has  been  customary  in  certain  services  to  arm  a 
portion  of  both  light  and  heavy  cavalry  with  the 
lance.  In  the  Russian  service,  the  front  rank  of  the 
cuirassiers,  a  species  of  heavy  cavalry,  is  armed  with 
the  lance,  and  the  rear  rank  with  thehmg  two-edged 
saber :  and  in  nearly  every  Etiropean  service,  the 
lancers  constitute  an  inqiortant  part  of  the  cavalry 
organizatiim.  It  is  also  a  favorite  weapon  with  the 
mounted  Indians  of  this  country. 

The  bayonet  is  a  pointed  blade,  attached  to  the 
end  of  the  fire-arm,  to  ccmvcrt  it  into  a  pike.  The 
mode  of  attachment  should  be  such  that  the  bayonet 
will  not  interfere  with  the  loading,  aiming,  and 
firing  of  the  piece  :  and  it  shotdd  be  so  secure  as 
not  to  be  disengaged  in  conflict.  The  inusk(t-hayo. 
net  is  c<Hiii)osed  of  a  blade,  a  socket,  and  a  ela.tp.  The 
blade  of  this  bayonet  is  made  of  steel.  18  inches  long, 
and,  to  give  it  lightness  and  stiffness,  its  three  faces, 
are  grooved  in  the  direction  of  the  length.  The 
grooves  arc  technically  called  flutes.     The  blade  is 

i  joined  to  the  socket  by  Die  «(rt,  which  should  be 
si  rung,  and  free  from  all  defects  of  workmanship. 
Tile  s'ickit  is  made  of  \vroughl-iron,  carefully  bored 
oul  to  fit  the  barrel  of  the  jiirce  easily,  and  at  the 
same  time  closely.  It  is  secured  by  a  stud  (brazed 
on  the  barrel),  wlu<'h  fits  into  a  crooked  channel,  or 
groore.  cut  in  the  socket,  and  by  a  movable  ring 
called  the  cla-tp.  Short  artns  such  as  carbines  and 
musketoons  are  sometimes  furnished  with  bayonets 
<if  sullicieni  length  to  enable  lliese  arms  lo  resist  a 
charge  of  infantry  or  cavalry.  .Sucli  bay<inels  are 
generally  made  in  the  form  of  a  sword.  The  back 
of  the  handle  has  a  groove  which  fits  upon  a  stud  on 

i  the  liarrel,  and  the  eros.s-piecc  of  the  handle  is  per- 
forated   so   as   to   encircle   the   muzzle-end   of   the 


HAND  ARMS. 


/ 


HAND  ABM8. 


barrel  'Plu'  biiyimct  is  prcvciilcd  from  slippint;  ofV  fixcil,  niiiy  be  uscil  «h  a  poiKnanl,  for  the  personal 
bv  a  spriin' iiiK'li.  The  handle  is  made  of  a  solid 'defense  of  I  licr  soldier.  The  bayoncd  <-ontribiile» 
nie<c  .)f  l.n.ss,  wilh  a  liole  runninir  Ihrou;;!.  il  for  ,  very  much  lo  the  elllcieney  of  a  military  (ire-arm, 
the  lanir  of  Ihe  l)lade,  which  is  secured  by  riveiin};  1  particularly  as  il  enables  infantry  to  resist  cavalry, 
down  the  poinl.  The  l)»ck  of  the  blade  "is  turned  i  Too  much  attention  cannot  be  paid  in  t.'a.hing 
toward  the  barrel,  and  the  body  is  bent   outward,  I  troops  the  use  of  this  arm,  and  inspiring  them  with 


Fig.  1. 


that  neither  may  interfere  with  Ihe  hand  in  loadins. 
Its  length  is  about  28  inches,  and  its  breadth  1^ 
inches.'  The  sirdrd-hnyontt  is  too  heavy  to  be  car- 
ried habitually  fixed  to  the  barrel:  ordinarily  it  is 
carried  as  a  side-arm.  for  which  purpose  it  is  well 
adapted,  as  it  has  a  curved  eulliuLl-edire,  as  well  as 


confidence  in  it.  for   it  verj'  often  decides   the  fate 
of  a  battle. 

That  edge  of  a  cutting-arm  will  have  the  greatest 
penetration  which  opposes  the  fewest  points  to  its 
object :  a  lilade  with  a  convex  edge,  will,  therefore.  • 
have  sreater  penetration  than  a  straight  one.     The 


a  sharp   point.     The   regulatiuu  bayonet,  when  not    effect   of  a   cutting-blade  will  be  moditied  by  the 


HANS  ABMS. 


8 


HAND-ABKLS. 


manner  it  is  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  object ;  an 
oblique  stroke,  for  iuslauce.  will  make  a  deeper  cut 
than  a  direct  one.  If  the  edge  of  the  sharpest  blade 
be  submitted  to  a  microscope,  it  will  present  to  the 
eye  numerous  asperities,  which  give  it  the  appear- 
ance of  the  cutting-edge  of  a  saw ;  it  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  the  motive  force  should  act  obliquely 
to  the  cutting-edge  of  the  blade,  as  that  enables  it  to 
rupture  the  layers  of  flesh  upon  which  it  acts,  in  de- 


glirtn  of  the  Arabs,  the  shape  of  which  is  that  of  an 
elongated  letter  S.  The  facility  of  handling  a  saber, 
and  the  eileet  of  its  blow,  depend  upon  the  relative 
positions  of  the  lidiiiUe.  the  center  of  gnirity.  the 
point  iif  contact,  and  the  cmter  of  percussion.  The 
nearer  the  center  of  gravity  is  to  the  point  of  contact, 
the  more  powerful  will  l)e  the  blow  ;  but  the  dif- 
liculty  of  handling  increases  with  the  distance  of  the 
center  of  gravity  from  the  handle.     As  the  force  of 


tail,  and  without  expending  its  force  U]ion  the  elas- 
ticity of  several  layers  at  oiiec.  which  \vo\dil  lie  the 
case  were  it  to  act  directly  upon  tlie  objccl.  When 
the  curvature  of  a  blade  is  convex  on  tlie  cutting- 
side,  the  iiart  near  the  point  makes  a  deeper  cut 
wh(ii  it  is  pushed  from  the  hand  that  moves  it,  as 
will  l)e  the  case  with  the  l)lows  delivered  in  a  charge 
of  cavalry.  On  the  contrary,  a  conrnrr  cutting-edge, 
like  th.-it  of  a  sickle,  acts  most  favorably  when  it  is 
drawn  toward  the  person  using  it ;  such  is  the  yatn- 


the  blow  is  the  iinportant  consideration  in  a  saber, 
anil  the  facility  of  hiindling  in  a  tlirusling-sword,  it  is 
cusloiiiary  to  r.iake  (he  point  of  the  lilaile  heavier, 
and  tlie  handle  lighlcr,  in  llie  former  than  in  the 
latter.  In  cerl'iin  light  cavalry  sabers,  the  center  of 
gravity  is  placed  about  three  or  four  inches  from  the 
handle.  In  order  that  no  part  of  the  force  be  lost, 
the  point  of  contact  should  coincide  with  the  center 
of  percussion;  the  position  of  the  latter  point,  how- 
ever, depends  upon  the  weight  of  the  soldier's  arm. 


HAND  BABBOW. 


HAND  OBENADE. 


if  motion  lakes  i)la(i-  iiimiMil  llic  shoulder,  and  it 
therefore  varies  in  piirlieiilar  cases.  'I'he  |)riiiei|)al 
{•ultiiiL^- weapon  is  Ihe  sah<T.  The  eutt.iiijj:-e(li;<-  is 
ftenerally  convex  ;  anil  Ihe  deijree  of  its  cnrvatnre  is 
the  charaeleristie  fi-alnre  of  th<'  weapon.  The 
nonienclatnre  of  Ihe  salier  is  nearly  Ihe  same  as  for 
tlie  sword,  the  principal  dilTereni'c  bc'in;.;  in  Ihe 
strueliire  of  the  uuard,  which  is  maile  liLdiler  or 
lieavier,  as  llie  salier  approximales  Ihe  character  of  a 
<Miltinv:  or  llirustinL!:-weapon.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  sabers  used  in  the  Iniled  Stales  service,  viz.: 
ihv  riirii/n/  «ii/>i  r.  and  the  l'i/lil-iifl!ili'n/  mlii'r.  The 
cniui/n/  sii/iir  lieiii','  nscd,  to  a  certain  extent,  for 
pointinj;  as  well  as  eutlini;.  has  only  a  moderate  de- 
gree of  curvature,  a  lon^  blade  (Hti  inches;,  and  a 
"basket-hilt"  to  protect  the  hand  from  the  point  of 
the  eiH'iny's  sword,  and  to  carry  Ihe  center  of  j;rav- 
ity  toward  the  handle.  The  irnard  is  coniposi'il  of 
the  front,  iiiithllr.  and  Inich  bninches.  The  icrijie  is 
covered  with  calfskin,  and  bnnnd  with  wire.  The 
liglit-iirtilli I'll  H'llfr  beinir  used  more  particularly  ff)r 
hand-to-hand  contlicls.  has  a  shorter  CM  inches')  and 
more  curved  blade,  and  a  lighter  handle  than  the 
cavalry  saber.  The  ;;nard  is  composed  of  a  sins;le 
piece  of  brass,  terminatin!;  in  a  scroll.  The  blades 
of  all  sabres  arc  grooved,  to  sjive  them  lightness.  In 
cerlain  services  it  is  customary  to  arm  the  heaviest 
cavalry,  or  cuirassiers,  with  swords  which  are  capa- 
ble of  coping  with  the  liayonet  or  lance.  The  blades 
are  long  (from  ;jti  to  40  inehcsj,  liglit,  and  straight, 
and  they  have  a  sharj)  [loint,  and  a  single  cutting- 
edge.  The  hilt  is  heavy,  and  of  the  basket  form. 
The  only  weapon  of  the  thrusting  and  cutting  class 
used  in  the  United  States  service  is  the  foot-artillery 
,swi>rd,  which  resembles  Ihe  short  Homan  sword  in 
its  character.  The  blade  has  two  I'ulting-edges,  is 
liglitened  toward  Ihc'  handle,  and  is  19  inches  long. 
Tlie  guard  is  a  simple  cross-piece,  formed  of  the 
same  piece  as  the  handle,  which  is  made  of  brass. 
Fiirures  1  and  'I  represent  a  variety  of  hand-arms,  as 
manufactured  in  Ihi'  I'nited  States.     See  Small-dnnn. 

HAND  BARROW.— A  wooden  frame  which  is  car- 
ried around  liy  Iwo  men, instead  of  being  rolled  for- 
ward, like  a  wheel-barrow.  Those  empioyed  in  Ihe 
<>rilnani-e  Department  are  very  useful  in  the  erec- 
tion of  forlitications,  as  well  as  carrying  shells  and 
shot  along  the  trenches.  Tiie  ends  of  the  side-rails 
are  rounded  and  form  the  handles.  Hope  netting 
pas.ses  thnnigh  lioles  in  the  side-rails  and  joins  them. 
The   weight   of  this   barrow  is  about  20  pounds. 

HAND  BOARD.  A  board  used  in  the  laboratory 
in  rolling  pn'rt-tire  cases  and  similar  work. 

HAND  CANNON.  -.\  rudely  made  weapon  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  It  was  made-of  wrought. iron, 
iin  1  fastened  to  a  piece  of  rough  wood,  so  that  it 
could  not  be  t)rought  to  Ihe  shoulder.  At  first,  the 
touch-hole  was  on  top  of  the  cannon,  and  had  a 
covering  plate  on  hing<'s  to  preserve  it  from  damp. 
A  little  later  the  touch-hole  was  placed  to  the  right 
of  the   cannon.     See  Ilnrl,h}iKli. 

HAND  CART.— .\  light  hand-truck  used  for  the 
transpcirlalion  of  light  stores  from  one  part  of  a  work 
to  another.  That  for  carrying  powder,  fuses,  and 
such  like  articles  has  an  arched  lid-cover  to  keep  ofl 
rain  and  prevent  accidents  from  tire.  The  form 
mostly  used  in  the  United  States  service  consists  of 
a  light  body  with  shafts,  nuiunted  on  two  wheels. 
The  shafts  are  joined  together  at  the  ends,  and  sup- 
ported immediately  in  front  of  the  body  by  iron  legs. 
It  weighs  ISO  jiomids,  and  is  very  handy  for  the 
transportation  of  light  stores  in  siege  and  garrison 
service.  The  drawing  shows  a  very  convenient  cart, 
having  two  main  fixed  wheels  and  two  heavy  cast- 
ors. This  form  is  much  used  in  transporting  the 
heavier  stores  about  the  Armorv  and  Arsenal. 

HANDCUFF.— A  fetter  to  secure  the  hands  togeth- 
er. IlanileulTs  are  maih'  of  iron,  ring-shaped,  with 
a  lock  attached,  ami  just  large  enough  to  keep  on 
the  wrists  without  hurting  them.  Men  who  have 
deserted   the   service   are   usually  manacled  in  this 


iminner  wiien  being  removed  from  one  place  to  uii- 
olher. 

HAND  CULVERIN.  A  small  well-made  cannon  of 
Ihe  llfleirilli  reiilury.  The  nialch  was  fasteni'il  to  the 
weapiiM  il;>eir,  and  was  held  by  the  Sfrjitntiii,  a  sort 
of  small  lin-liick. 

HAND  FEED  MILLING-MACHINE. -A  machine 
much  used  in  the  Armory  for  the  rapid  manipulation 
of  small  work,  in  tlu'  fabrication  of  fire-arms.  etc. 
The  machine  is  llie  same  as  the  automatic  machine, 


<■(!  Milliiii:  maclinie. 


with  the  exception  of  the  automatic-feed  being  re- 
])laeed  by  the  hand-feed,  which  is  operated  by  a  lever 
fastened  to  the  pinion-shaff,  giving  a  very  direct  mo- 
tion and  (|nick  return.  Adjustable  stops  are  placed 
on  the  table  for  regulating  the  motion.     The  machine 


Hand-cart. 

is  usually  funiished  with  a  vise  and  a  dividing-head, 
and  is  arranged  for  cutting  gears  anil  jiinions  either 
on  centers  or  in  a  spring-chuck.  The  counter-shaft 
hangers  are  generally  adjustable  and  self-oiling.  See 
Milling. 

HANDFUL. — A  term  used  figuratively,  in  a  military 
sense,  til  denote  a  comparatively  small  mmiber ;  as, 
".\  handful  of  men." 

HAND  GALLOP. — A  very  slow  and  easy  Gallop,  in 
which  the  haml  ])resses  the  bridle  to  hinder  increase 
of  s[>eeil. 

HAND  GRENADE.-.Hand-grenades  consist  of  small 
cvliudrical-shaped  shells,  with  conical  ends,  fitted 
with  a  plunger  at  the  striking-end,  and  a  directing- 
feather  at  the  other.  The  plunger  tits  loosely  info 
the  cavity  in  the  forward  part  of  the  shell,  and  is 
made  to  project  two  or  three  inches  beyond  its  face, 
being  retained  in  place  by  a  light  spring :  it  has  at- 
tached to  its  outer  end  a  circular  piece  of  sheet-iron 
several  inches  in  diameter.  .Vt  the  bottom  of  tlie 
cavitv  in  which  the   ])Umger  is  placed    a  nipple  is 


HAND  LATHE. 


10 


HAHD-IEVEL. 


fixed,  conimunicatmg  with  the  bursting-charge,  on 
Avliich  is  placed  an  ordinary  pereussion-cap,  whicli 
is  exploded  when  the  plunger  is  driven  in  violently, 
thereby  igniting  the  charge.  There  are  three  sizes 
of  grenades,  1,  3.  and  5  pounds,  and  are  intended 
to  be  thrown  by  the  hand,  and  may  be  very  effect- 


of  the  13-inch  engine-lathe.  Hand-latlies  swinging  13 
inches,  are  of  similar  construction,  with  the  excep- 
tion that  the  boxes  are  of  the  same  material  and  st3'le 
as  those  of  the  8-incli.  The  holes  through  the  centers 
of  the  spindles   are  for  12-inch  lathes,   ,"j-inch  dia- 

Countershafts  should 


ivelv  used  in  repelling  attacks  by  boats  or  by  persons 
well  sheltered  against  others  completel.y  exposed. 

Ketchiun's  liand-grenadc,  which  has  lately  been 
intr(jduced  into  the  American  service,  is  a  small, 
oblong  percussion  shell,  which  explodes  on  striking 
a  slightly  resisting  object.  To  prevent  accidents, 
the  "plunger,"  or  piece  of  metal  which  communi- 
cates the  shock  to  tlie  percussion  cap,  is  not  inserted 
in  its  place  imtil  the  moment  before  the  grenade  is 
to  be  thrown.  See  Grenade,  Projectiles,  and  Ra/m- 
part-grennde. 

HAND  LATHE.— A  small  lathe  mounted  on  a  bench 
or  till  lie  and  lurned  by  a  hand-crank  or  by  a  bow. 
It  is  usually  portable,  and  may  be  secured  by  a  clamp 
to  the  bench.  It  is  extensively  used  in  the  Armory 
in  making  the  sm.all  parts  of  small-arms.  The  draw- 
ing shows  the  Pratt  and  Whitney  8-inch  hand-lathe, 
as  employed  in  most  gun-factories  in  the  United 
States.  The  cone  has  fovir  grades,  for  li-inch  belt ; 
the  spindle  has  extra  large  bearings,  in  gun-metal 
boxes,  and  has  a  hole  through  its  center  i|-inch  in 
diameter.  The  boxes  are  seated  in  tapering  recesses, 
and  are  s]ilit,  so  that  any  possible  wear  may  be  taken 
up  by  means  of  cap-nuts.  The  caii-nuts  contain  felt 
linings,  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  dust,  or  <if 
emery,  when  the  lathe  is  used  for  polishing.  A  hand 
lever  for  actuating  the  foot-stock  spindle  is  furnished, 
in  addition  to  the  hand-wheel  and  screw,  or  without 
hand-wheel  iind  screw.  The  lathe  with  3()-inch  bed, 
receives  12  inches  between  centers,  and  weighs,  with 
the  countcrsliafi,  340  lbs.  Speeil  of  countershaft. 
with  7  by  2.1-inch  tight  and  loose  pulleys,  320  revolu- 
tions per  minute.  Larger  lathes  of  this  pattern  are 
also  used  on  the  larger  parts  of  small-arms.  A  15- 
inch  hanil-lathe  has  a  cone  carrying  a  2|-inch  belt. 
The  head-spindle  has  large  bearings,  in  cast-iron 
boxes  lined  with  Babbit-metal  of  the  best  quality. 
The  face-plate  and   centers  interchange  with  those 


have  speed  as  follows  •  For  12-incTi  lathe,  tight  and 
loose  pulleys  6  or  8  by  %k  inches,  200  to  250'revolu- 
tions  per  minute ;  for  LVinch  lathe,  tight  and  loose 
pulleys  8  or  13  by  three  inches,  ITf)  to  2.50  revolu- 
tions per  minute.     See  Lathe. 

HAND-LEVEL.— A  small  and  portable  instrument 
for  indicating  a  horizontal  line,  or  determining  the 
positicm  as  to  borizontality  of  an  object  or  surface  to 
whicli  it  is  applied.  The  drav%ing  represents  Locke's 
Iiand-Ievel.  a  very  accurate  and  suitable'  instrument 
for  general  reconnaissance-work.  It  consists  of  a 
brass  tube  about  six  inches  long,  having  a  small 
level  on  top  and  near  the  object  end.  there  being  also 
an  opening  in  the  tube  beneath,  through  which  the 
bubble  can  lie  seen,  as  reflected  by  a  glass  jirisiii, 
immediatelv  under  the  level.     Both  ends  of  the  tul  e 


HnncM.'vel 

are  closed  by  plain  glass  settings  to  exclude  the  dust, 
and  there  is  in  the  inner  end  of  the  sliding  or  eye- 
tube  a  semicircular  convex  lens,  which  serves  to 
magnify  the  level-liubble,  and  cross-wire  uiiderneath, 
wliile  it  allows  the  object  to  be  clearly  seen  through 
11ieo]ien  lialf  of  the  tulie.  'I'lie  cross-wire  is  fastened 
to  a  little  frame  moving  under  the  level-tube  and  ad- 
justed to  its  place  by  the  small  .screw,  shown  on  the 
edge  of  the  level  case.  The  level  of  any  object  in 
line  with  the  eye  of  the  oliscrver  is  determined  by 
sighting  upon  it  through  the  tidie  and  bringing  the 
air-liublile  of  the  level  into  a  position  where  it  is  bi- 
sected by  the  cross-wire.    A  short  telescope  is  some 


HAND  MALLET. 


11 


HAMS    TBAV2UN0  CKANE. 


tiriii-H:i|i|ilic(l  in  place  of  the  phi  in  iiliisHcnilH,  thus  cna- 
bliiiLC  l<'vcls  U>  he  laki'ii  ill  ij;ri-iilcr  disliiiicc  iiml  with 
incrrMscd  arcurac\'.     See  ('l/fi"iftitrr.  and   )'  Lit'ii. 

HAND  MALLET.  -A  vvorjilcii  haMiincr  with  a  han- 
dle. Id  ilrivi'  I'lises,  (ir  picki^lH,  etc.,  in  iiiakiii^  fas- 
cines III'  naliion  lialleries. 

HAND  RUBBING.  - 'Ph(^  inani|)iiliili(in  which  a 
horse'rt  Icsih  uiiderL;c)  on  th<!  inarcii  ami  el.Mcwlicrc, 
chielly  at  f<'ediiii;  time,  and  which  shmild  \n:  con- 
tinued fur  alii>ul  Ull  niinutcH  at  eai-li  meal. 

HAND  SLING  CART.  -  A  two-wheeled  c,irriaK<' 
,  made  entirely  of  iron,  except  the  pole,  which  is  of 
Louk.    The  axlu-lrce  ia  arched  to  make  it  stronger, 


llftiul  SliilK-cart. 

and  connected  with  the  pole  by  strong  wrouiiht-iron 
straps  and  linices.  In  tlie  rear  of  the  axle  a  jirojec- 
tion  is  welded  to  receive  the  end  of  a  stronir  hook. 
The  end  of  the  iiole  terminates  in  a  ferrule  and  an 
eye.  The  eye  serves  the  ])urpose  of  attaeliin;;  to  thi' 
carl,  when  neee<-;:ir\ ,  a  liniheror  a  horse.     'I'lie  liiaiii- 


raisinj;  heavy  weijrhts  and  in  movinj;  (funs  into 
position  for  loading;  and  lirin;^.  The  <r«/niandspike 
for  Held  carriai;es  is  .IIJ  inches  in  len;;lli ;  the  rnaii- 
KiiKiriiKj  handspike  for  garrison  and  sea-coast  ear- 
riaffcs  ami  for  ]f^\\\*  is  f!()  inches;  for  siejfir  and  other 
heavy  work  it  is  made  84  inches  lonj;  and  12  llis. 
weight;  the  kIukI  liandspike  is  particularly  useful  in 
the  service  of  mortars  and  casemate  anil  harhette 
carriages;  tlie  tnifk  handspike  for  casemate  car- 
riages, of  wrought-iron ;  the  mllr  handspike,  for 
casemate  carriages.  It  is  made  of  iron,  1  imh 
round,  the  point  conical,  whole  length  IM  inchi'S. 

HANDSPIKE  RINGS.  The  tliiiiil.les  (,n  llie  trail 
transoms  nf  ;;uii-.  for  the  handspike, by  which  they 
are  inaneu\ered. 

HAND  TRAVELING  CRANE.— The  most  satisfac- 
tory const  ruction  of  this  crane,  us  exhibited  in  the 
engraving,  has  the  mechanism  attached  to  one  end 
of  the  bridge  so  that  the  operator  is  somewhat  re- 
moved from  the  load,  thus  adapting  it  es]iecially  to 
foundry  use.  The  bridge  is  arranged  to  travel 
lengthwise  upon  the  longitudinal  tracks,  and  the 
trolley  to  move  transversely  upon  the  bridge,  so  that 
the  entire  rec'tangiilar  space  between  the  tracks  is 
covered  by  the  i-rane.  Cranes  of  this  design  are 
liuilt  of  any  desired  capacity  up  to  10  tons,  and  of 
any  span.  The  crab  containing  the  operating  me- 
chanism is  permanently  secured  to  the  under  side  of 
tlie  bridge  at  one  end,  and  is  located  entirely  below 
il,   ...j    lli:it     llii-    liriil'M'    1:111    111'    |il:irrd    clu-r    to    the 


n.infl  Trav 

eter  of  the  wheel  is  six  feet.  The  hand  sling-cart 
is  designed  for  moving  light  weights  and  siege-pieces 
in  the  trenches  by  hand.  The  weight  is  raised  by 
first  attaching  to  it  a  sling,  and  then  applying  to  the 
sl'ug  the  hook  upon  the  rear  of  the  a.xle,  by  raising 
the  pole  of  the  cart.  The  pole  is  used  as  a  lever, 
the  axle  and  wheels  being  the  fulcrum.  It  may  be 
nsed  for  any  weights  not  exceeding  6.000  pounds. 
See  (Inrrisnn  Slhi(]-''<trt  and  Sling-cnrt. 

HANDSPIKE.— A  wooden  or   iron  lever,  flattened 
at  one  end  and  tapering  towards  the  other,  used  in 


plinir-criino. 

underside  of  roof  or  ceiling.  The  trolley  travels  upon 
tracks  on  top  of  the  bridge,  and  its  sides  extend 
downward  close  to  the  bridge,  with  the  chain 
sheaves  contained  between  them,  thus  giving  the 
maximum  amount  of  hoist.  The  Weston  tixed- 
cable  system  is  employed  to  effect  the  squaring  of 
the   bridge   and  its    lougiludinal    motion  upon    the 

i  overhead  tracks.  The  travel  of  the  trolley  upon  the 
bridge  is  effected  by  an  independent  mechanism, 
ojierated   by  an  endless   hand-chain  from  the  floor 

I  below,  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  employed  in  the 


HANDLE. 


12 


UARBOE   DEFENSES. 


jili  cranes.  Motion  of  the  bridffc  is  also  effected  by 
an  endless  liand-chiiin  or  rope  passinsr  over  another 
rope-wheel.  Pnllin;:;  one  side  of  this  chain  causes 
the  bridge  to  move  in  one  direction,  and  pulling  the 
other  causes  it  to  move  in  the  opposite  direction. 
At  each  end  of  the  crab,  or  housing  containing  the 
operatmg  mechanism,  are  similar  rope-wheels,  o- 
ver  cach^of  which  passes  an  endless  rope  or  chain. 
Pulling  either  of  these  in  one  direction  causes  hoist- 
in",  and  in  the  other,  lowering.  One  is  larger  than 
the  other,  thus  giving  two  speeds ;  while,  by  pulling 
both  simultaneously,  an  additional  speed  is  obtained. 
The  several  motions  of  hoisting  or  lowering,  and  of 
moving  the  bridge  or  trolley,  may  each  be  effected 
independently  or  simultaneously. 

The  hoistiiig-gear  consists  of  cut  steel  worms  en- 
gaging with  cul  worm-wheels,  with  provision  for 
thorough  lubrication.  The  main  hoisting-chain  is 
endles.s"  and  passes  over  pocketed  chain-wheels,  by 
wliich  it  is  driven,  the  arrangment  of  parts  being 
such  as  to  distribute  the  wear  equally  throughout 
the  entire  length  of  this  chain.  A  safety  device,  con- 
sisting of  automatic  friction-ratchets  in  combination 
with  flie  worm-shafts,  is  employed,  so  that  the  load 
is  always  self-sustained  in  any  position  and  cannot 
ruji  down.  Lowering  is  effected  by  reversing  the 
motion  of  the  hoisting-chains.  The  location  of  the 
mechanism  at  one  end  of  the  bridge  removes  the 
operator  from  proximity  to  the  load,  which  is,  of 
course,  desirable  in  handling  ladles  of  hot  metal,  and 
in  lifting  large  flasks,  etc.  While  particularly  de- 
signed for  foundry  use,  this  type  of  crane  is  equally 
siutable  for  use  in  forges  and  for  many  <3f  the  same 
purposes  as  other  cranes.  See  Cranes,  Power  Tror- 
veUng-'-rnni',  and   Travel! ng-crnrif. 

HANDLE.  —The  portion  of  a  tool,  or  implement,  by 
which  it  is  grasped.  As—Mveoi  a  hammer  or  axe: 
the  haft  of  a  knife  ;  the  hilt  of  a  sword :  the  stock 
of  a  drill,  bit,  or  gun:  the  nhaft  of  a  spear,  lance,  or 
hiirpoon :  the  rniii/c  of  a  winch  or  crab  :  the  pommel  of 
a  saddle;  the  trigger  of  a  gun-lock  :  and  the  dolphin 
of  a  gun.  In  bronze  guns  of  the  old  construction 
hanifles  were  usually  cast  over  the  center  of  gravity 
of  the  piece,  for  convenience  of  handling  and  sling- 
ing. These  were  made  in  the  shape  of  a  fish,  and 
hence  were  called  dolphins. 

HANDLE  ARMS.— In  the  earlier  tactics,  a  word  of 
comiuiind  (when  the  men  were  at  ordered  arms),  by 
whir'h  tile  soldier  was  directed  to  bring  his  right 
luiiid  brisklv  to  the  muzzle  of  his  lire-lock. 

hanged!  drawn,  and  QUAfiTEEED.— The  de- 
scription of  the  capital  sentence  on  a  traitor,  which 
consisted  of  drawing  him  on  a  hurdle  to  the  place  of  | 
execution,  and  after  hanging  him  dividing  the  body  ; 
into  quarters.  This  punishment  was  substituted, 
for  the  ancient  more  barbarous  sentence  of  disem- 
boweling alive,  but  the  Crown  has  power  to  reduce 
the  sentence  to  simple  lieheading. 

HANGER. —  .V  term  applieil  to  a  short  broadsword, 
inrurvaled  towards  the  ]ioint.  The  hanger^  was  a 
Tiirkisli  sword  formerly  worn  by  the  Janissaries. 

HANG  FIRE.—Tlie  term  is  applied  when  a  gun  is 
slow  in  discharging  itself,  from  the  flame  being 
checked  in  its  passage  to  the  charge,  either  from  the 
vent  lieing  fouled  or  the  charge  being  damp.  The 
former  c:in  scarcely  happen  now,  :is  the  friction  tube 
<-oiivi-ys  llic  flame  "to  tlie  cliarge  with  great  certainty. 

HANTE.  — The  Frcixli  name  for  an  ornamental 
pikr,  having  a  lianniT  iittached. 

HAQUETON.  -A  padded  or  quilted  tunic  worn  by 
arriiiil  warriors  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  worn 
bi'iii;ith  the  mail  and  was  slightly  longer  than  the 
h'i>ih:'rk. 

HAR.—  A  syllable  used  in  composition  usually  as 
a  prilix,  and  signifying '//•/«//:-  -occurring  in  various 
form-,  as  liore.  Ii 


Tl 


;in   arrn\. 

HARANES 
gariaii  Militia. 

HARASS.     In  th 


and  here;  as  liarisvalt,  leader  of 
French  designation  of  the  Ilun- 
militarv.  Iln'  a'i  of  :nniovingand 


incessantly  pursuing  or  lianging  on  to  the  rear  and 
flanks  of  a  retreating  force,  so  as,  if  possible,  to 
prevent  its  attaining  its  object,  and  perhaps  over- 
coming the  enemy  altogether.  Kotwithstandingtlic 
disadvantage  which  a  retreating  army  has  under 
these  circumstances,  history  affords  us  examplea 
that  if  the  retreat  be  conducted  by  an  able  Com- 
mander, he  has  it  in  his  power,  by  his  ingenuity  and 
other  military  qualities,  to  avoid  the  enemy.  1)y  get- 
ting into  inaccessible  places,  or  by  so  disposing  of 
Ills  troops  as  to  make  it  hazardous  for  a  pursuing 
army  to  follow  him  up.  or  any  'onger  to  endeavor 
to  harass  liini. 

HARBOR  DEFENSES.-  The  entrance  to  a  harbor 
may  be  considered,  and  is  in  fact,  a  defile,  the  de- 
fense of  which  follows  the  rules  applicable  to  defiles 
generally.  The  means  usually  emjiloyed  to  prevent 
the  passage  of  hostile  ships  ;ire  diviiled  into  three 
classes,  viz.:  1st.  Forts  and  land-liatteries  ;  2d.  Sub- 
marine mines :  3d.  Floating  defenses.  Whenever 
practicable,  batteries  sliould  be  well  strung  out  in 
groups,  the  strength  of  which  should  increase  as  they 
are  approached  from  the  outside.  This  arrangement 
has  a  peculiarly  discouraging  effect  on  an  enemy. 
The  first  batteries  will  at  least  damage  him  and 
cause  confusion,  thus  weakening  his  attack  on  the 
stronger,  and  when  his  discomfiture  finally  takes 
place,  the  batteries  already  passed  will  prevent  his 
return  and  insure  his  total  destruction.  The  islands, 
headlands,  and  narrows  usnall_y  found  at  the  en- 
trances of  harbors  will  generally,  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  enable  this  arrangement  to  be  carried  out. 
Experience  teaches  that  where  the  channel  is  unob- 
structed steam-vessels  can  run  past  shore  batteries, 
however  well  the  latter  may  lie  served.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  where  obstructions  to  their  rapid  transit 
exist,  thej'  have  not  the  endurance  and  aggressive 
power  to  effect  much  damage  to  land  defenses.  In 
the  smoke  of  battle  and  tideway  of  the  channel  they 
become  immanageable,  get  agroimd,  or  collide  with 
each  other. 

It  is  a  well-settled  fact  that  a  hostile  fleet,  by  con- 
centrating its  fire  on  an  open  work,  may  temporarily 
silence  its  guns.  For  this  reason  the  accunnilation 
of  guns  in  works  exposed  to  such  concentration 
should  be  avoided  by  distributing  them  in  batteries, 
each  containing  but  few  pieces,  due  regard  being  had 
to  their  security  from  assault  and  capture  by  any 
force  that  may  be  landed  for  that  purpose.  The  best 
arrangement  is  to  place  them  in  detached  batteries 
of,  say.  2,  4,  or  6  pieces  each,  well  secured 
from  the  enemy's  fire  by  earthen  ei^aulments  and 
traverses.  This  arrangemert  makes  it'  difficult  for 
the  enemy  to  discover  the  exact  position  of  the  guns, 
and  every  peculiarity  of  ground  should  be  taken  ad- 
vantage of  to  increase  this  difficulty.  Whatever 
tends  to  make  batteries  ditlicult  to  see,  and  conse- 
quently to  hit.  is  as  much  a  protection  as  that  which 
makes  them  capable  of  resisting  a  hit  when  made. 
G\uis  thus  dispersed  have  greater  freedom  of  lateral 
range  of  fire,  and  do  not  interfere  so  much  with  each 
other  l)_y  reason  of  their  smoke  as  wdien  concen- 
trated—a matter  of  no  little  importance  with  heavy 
artillery,  which  emits  such  volumes  as,  in  certain 
conditions  of  the  atmos]ihere,  to  irrcatly  interfere 
with  accuracy  of  :iim.  When  batteries  are  extended, 
a  larger  ;ire:i  will  hv  swept  by  their  converging  fire 
tliiui  when  the  guns  are  assembled  eii  iiiOKxe.  An  ad- 
dition;U  advantage  conferred  by  distrilmting  the  gims 
is.  that  while  obtaining  concentrated  fire  on  an  im- 
portant or  decisive  )ioint.  a  similar  fire  cannot  be 
directed  in  return.  Tliis  arrangement  woidd.  fur- 
thermore, tend  to  neutralize  the  power  which  a  fleet 
nughl  have  of  fornung  or.  a  wide  arc  of  a  circle,  and 
moving  slowly  under  steam,  so  as  to  render  the  task 
of  hitting  the  individual  shijjs  more  dillicult,  throw 
a  converging  fire  upon  the  works  on  shore. 

In  the  design  of  such  works,  it  is  of  primary  im- 
portance that  conjoint  action  of  the  various  parts 
should  be  maintained;  and  to  jirevent  the  individual 


HARBORING    AN    ENEMY. 


13 


HARD  LABOR. 


Imltcrii'S  from  hciriir  fnplurcd  by  cuvp  ilr  mam,  Hniall 
inclosed  carlli-works,  liciivily  Htockadcd  to  ri'Mist 
t'scaliidc,  and  riicli  ariiicd  vvilli  lirld,  nlrv^f,  and  iiia- 
cliinc  LTiiiiH,  and  --iiiic  niorlars,  slioiddjic  con-^triiclcd 
HO  as  to  have  ((iniplcMc  I'ojriniand  over  all  land  ap- 
pniaclics.  Tlwsc  farlli-worku  should  contain  the 
infantry  supports.  In  this  manner  most  of  the  exist- 
iuu;  sea-coast  forts  may  lie  utilized,  niakiiiLj  of  tliem 
protectin/j;  works  for  exterior  earliien  batteries.  The 
defenses  of  a  liarbor  should,  in  every  instance,  be 
capable  of  repiilsini;  all  attacks  that  the  enemy  is 
likely  to  make  on  lliem.  The  power  and  persistency 
of  these  attacks  will  depend  upon  the  importaiu-e  to 
him  of  the  object  to  be  ijained.  f.ar^re  and  opulent 
cities,  naval  establishments,  and  ship-yards  are 
anion!!;  the  lirst  prizes  sought  for.  The  ajrfrressive 
power  of  modern  navies  is  such  us  to  make  it  quite 
impracticable  to  elVectually  fiuard  every  harbor  on 
an  extended  coast.  It  is.tlicrefore,  belter  toentirely 
abandon  those  that  are  unimportant  to  the  enemy, 
for  whatever  use  he  may  make  of  them,  than  by 
feebly  jiuardini;  tliem  to  invite  his  attacks  and  thus 
ali'ord  luin  thi'  moral  ellect  and  consolation  of  cheap 
victories,  and  to  the  coimtry  the  mortitication  and 
disadvanta;;*'  of  defeat  and  loss  of  prestige. 

The  number  of  troo]is  ri'(|uired  fortlie  maiminffof 
a  work  erected  for  liarbor  defense  d<'i)ends  chiefly 
npon  the  nature  and  amount  of  armament  contained 
therein.  Works  of  this  nature  are  armed  princi]ially 
■with  |iicces  of  the  heaviest  caliber,  but.  for  reasons 
hereafter  given,  all  kinds  should  generally  lind  place. 
The  amount  of  armament  <lepends  upon  the  extent 
of  the  work  and  the  part  it  is  to  phiy  in  the  scheme 
of  defense.  Three  full  detachments  are  necessary 
for  each  piece.  Knowing  the  number  of  jiieces  in 
the  work  and  the  niimlicr  of  men  rci|uired  for  the 
service  of  each,  the  entire  strength  required  is  ob- 
tained. Three  relief  detachments  are  necessary,  for 
the  reasons  that  the  labor  of  manipulating  and  serv- 
ing heavy  artillery  is  very  great,  and  when  a  rapid 
and  continuous  Hrc  is  to  lie  maintained,  strong  fatigue 
parties  are  reiiuircd  in  carrying  ammunition  from 
the  service  magazines  to  the  pieces :  damages  done  i 
to  the  worlvs  during  tlie  (lay  havi^  to  be  rejiaired  at  i 
night,  and  casualties  occurring,  whether  from  the 
lire  of  the  enemy  or  from  accidents,  must  be  pro-  j 
videtl  against,  so  tliat  at  any  moment  an  eflieient  de- 
tachment may  be  at  every  piece.  xVs  a  general  rule, 
liattcries  shoulil  not  he  encumbered  by  an  attempt  to 
include  musketry  defense  within  their  limits.  The 
place  for  this  arm  is  on  the  Hanks  of  the  batteries, 
and  in  strength  sufficient  to  prevent  an  enterprising 
enemy  from  landing  and  assaulting  the  work,  and 
from  apjiroaching  to  keep  down  the  fire  of  the  guns 
while  his  vessels  run  liy  it.  However  well  it  ma}- 
have  answered  with  the  old  style  of  artillery  to  have 
the  troops  serving  batteries  charged,  in  addition, 
with  musketry  duty,  it  certainly  is  not  advisable 
with  the  artillery  of  the  present.  Steam-propelled 
iron-clads,  carrying  guns  of  enormous  power,  range, 
and  accuracy,  demand  the  undivided  attention  in 
action  of  those  using  the  only  weapons  eflfective 
against  such  adversaries.  The  labor  of  handUng 
and  caring  for  the  kind  of  artillery,  ammunition, 
material,  and  machines  now  used,  altogether  with 
tlie  construction,  preservation,  and  repair  of  batter- 
ies, will  require  all  the  time  and  the  whole  attention 
of  the  troops  serving  guns  in  war.  The  care  of  in- 
fantry arms  and  equipments,  together  with  the  drills 
and  parades  incident  thereto,  have  ,i  tendency  to 
draw  awav  the  attention  of  officers  and  men  and 
prevent  them  from  keeping  in  an  efficient  state  of 
readiness,  the  only  safeguard  that  stands  between 
an  enemy  and  the  oliject  for  which  he  may  desire  to 
enter  a  harbor.  When  a  work  containing  batteries  1 
for  harlior  defense  is  inclosed,  the  amount  of  mus- 
ketry necessary  for  it  is  determined  by  allowing  two 
muskets  for  each  lineal  yard  of  parapet  not  occupied 
by  the  batteries.  Artillery  being  the  main  feature 
in  such  works,  the  command  should  be  vested  in  an  | 


Artillery  Ollicer.  Wliire  there  are  several  forts  and 
batteries  guarding  the  entrance  to  a  harbor  or  con- 
stituting a  line  of  works,  they  should,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  adminstration  and  command,  be  united  in 
groups,  each  group  Ix-iiig  under  an  .\rtillery  Odicer 
of  appropriate  rank,  and  the  whole  combined  and 
commanded  by  theSeniorOHicer  of  Artillery  present. 
My  this  means  tliorough  co-operution  is  seeured 
throughout  the  entire  system.  In  onler  to  avoid 
the  weakening  effect  of  divided  responsiliility,  sub- 
marine mines,  when  employed  in  conjunction  with 
a  fort  for  the  defense  of  a  channel,  should  be  under 
the  (control  of  the  Commanilanl  of  the  fort,  who 
should  select  from  his  command  the  proper  number 
of  officers  and  men  to  be  instructed  in  the  method 
of  working  this  branch  of  defense.  No  more  troops 
than  are  necessary  to  carry  out  the  foregoing  rules 
should  be  crowderi  into  a  work:  otherwise,  un- 
necessary casualties  from  the  lire  of  the  enemy  will 
be  added,  stores  consumed,  and  unhealthiness  en- 
gendered; and,  besides,  in  lime  of  war.  when 
troops  are  not  required  in  any  one  place,  their  ser- 
vices are  generally  needed  elsewhere.  The  high 
standard  of  practical  gunnery  reiiuired  of  artillery 
demands  a  projiortional  degree  of  intelligence  and 
capacity  for  instruction  in  the  individual  soldier. 
Artillerymen  should  be  selected  with  a  special  view 
to  this,  artisans  and  mechanics  forming  a  large  pro- 
portion. Steam-power  and  tlie  apl>lication  of  labor 
and  lime-saving  niacliinery  should,  wherever  prac- 
ticable, be  introduced  to  assist  in  making  the  de- 
fensive abilily  of  fortified  places  more  perfect.  In 
conducting  the  defense  of  a  work,  too  much  im- 
portance should  not  be  attached  to  the  battering  of 
it  by  an  enemy ;  for  experience  leaches  that  a  place 
is  formidalile,  if  resolutely  defended,  long  after  it 
has  lost  all  semblance  of  the  form  and  symmetry 
possessed  by  it  when  it  came  from  tlie  hands  of  the 
constructing  engineer.     See  Jlifuixe. 

HARBORING  AN  ENEMY.— A  crime  prohibited  in 
military  law  and  severely  punished  under  all  circum- 
stances. The  Articles  of  War  provide  that  whoso- 
ever  relieves  the  enemy  with  money,  victuals,  or 
ammunition,  or  knowingly  harbors  or  protects  an 
enemy,  shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other  puuishment 
as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

HARCARRAH.  — In  India,  a  messenger  employed 
to  carry  letters,  and  otherwise  intrusted  with  mat- 
ters of  consequence  that  require  secrecy  and  punctu- 
ality. They  are  very  often  Brahmins,  who  are  well 
acquainted  with  the  neighboring  countries:  they  are 
sent  to  gain  intelligence,  and  are  used  as  guides  in 
the  field. 

HARD  BREAD. — A  component  of  the  army  ration, 
generally  issued,  instead  of  Hour,  to  troops  while 
campaigning.  When  hard-bread  is  put  in  bo.xes, 
(the  best  packages  for  Jield  transportation),  they 
should  be  made  of  fully  seasoned  wood,  of  a  kind  to 
impart  no  taste  or  odor  to  the  bread,  and  as  far  as 
practicable  of  single  pieces.  "When  two  pieces  are 
used  in  making  the  same  surface,  they  should  be 
tongued  and  grooved  together.  A  Ixix,  2()XlTx 
11  inches,  exterior  measure,  is  an  average  bo.x  for 
hard-bread,  under  the  usual  circunislanccs  of  land 
transportation.  The  ends  of  a  bo.x  of  this  size  should 
be  made  of  inch,  and  the  remainder  of  five-eighths 
slutT.  the  package  well  strapped  with  green  hickory 
or  oljier  suitable  wood.  Hard-bread,  after  t/icroi/g/i 
cooling  and  drying,  should  be  pressed  closely  in  its 
packages,  each  package  containing  a  uniform  weight 
iifbrerid.  for  the  convenience  of  calculation.  It  can 
be  re-dried  in  boxes  without  removal  therefrom,  by 
being  exposed  for  about  forty  hours  to  a  temperature 
of  l-iO  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Ilard-tnfk.  Pib't-brend, 
and  Sea-bread  are  common  names  of  the  article.  See 
Rntiim . 

HARD  LABOR.— A  military  punishment  frequently 
awarded  by  C'ourls-JIartial.  This  punishment  is 
now  firmly  established  in  the  Unitid  Kingdom;  and 
by  express  statute,  the  power  of  adding  bard-labor 


HARDNESS. 


14 


HARNESS. 


to  tlie  punishment  of  imprisonment,  has  been  given 
in  most  oasen.  l)Oth  as  to  indictable  otfenses  and  tlie 
more  disscraeeful  offenses  whieli  are  punishable  sum- 
marily. The  kind  of  labor  is  prescribed  by  the  rules 
of  the  jail  or  prison,  where  provision  must  l)e  made 
of  the  proper  materials  for  the  purpose.  Picking 
oakum,  working  the  tread-mill,  etc.,  form  part  of 
this  labor  ;  and  m  general,  the  number  of  hours  for 
such  labor,  unless  in  case  of  sickness,  is  ten  hours 
dailv. 

HARDNESS.— Tlie  hardness  of  a  body  is  measured 
by  its  power  of  scratching  other  substances.  Varia- 
tions in  the  degree  of  hardness  presented  by  different 
crystalized  bodies  often  furnish  a  valuable  physical 
sign  by  which  one  mineral  may  be  readily  distin- 
guished from  others  closely  resembling  it.  Mohs 
selected  ten  well-known  minerals,  each  succeeding 
one  being  harder  than  the  preceding  one,  and  tluis 
formed  the  scale  (if/iardne.iti.  which  has  been  generally 
adopted  by  subsequent  Mineralogists.  Each  mineral 
in  the  following  table  is  scratched  by  the  one  that 
follows  it.  and  "consequently  by  all  the  subsequent 
ones,  and  tlie  hardness  of  any  mineral  may  be  de- 
termined by  reference  to  the  types  just  selected, 
TliiLs,  if  a  body  neither  scratches  nor  is  scratched  by 
feld.spiir,  its  hardness  is  said  to  be  6:  if  it  sliould 
scratch  felds^iar  but  not  quartz,  its  hardness  is  be- 
tween 6  and  7— the  degrees  of  hardness  being 
numbered  from  1  to  10.  "The  figures  on  the  right 
indicate  the  number  of  known  minerals  of  the  same 
or  nearly  the  same  degree  of  hardness  as  the  sub- 
stance opposite  to  which  they  stand : 

8CALE  OP   HARDNESS   OF   MINERALS. 

1.  Tulc 2.3    6.  Feldspar  (cleavable) 26 

2.  Comp't  gypsum,  or  r'k-salt  90    7.  Limpid  quartz 26 

3.  Cnlcspaficlenvable  variety)'!     8.  Topaz .5 

4.  Fluor-spar 5.3    9.  Sapphire,  or  corundum..  1 

ri   Apatite 43  10.  Diamond 1 

The  cause  of  the  varieties  of  hardness  observed  in 
different  bodies  is  not  known.  The  same  substance 
— as.  for  example,  a  piece  of  steel — inaj-.  under  the 
influence  of  different  circumstances,  be  so  soft  as  to 
take  impressions  from  a  die,  or  may  be  nearly  as 
hard  as  a  diamond.  Without  a  certain  degree  of 
hardness,  the  shape  of  the  bore  will  be  rapidly  altered 
by  the  compressive  force  of  the  powder  and  jiro- 
jectile.  and  the  accKracy  and  safety  of  the  piece  will 
be  destroyed.  In  rifle  cannon  liardness  is  particularly 
necessary,  to  enable  the  spiral  grooves  to  resist  this 
action;  at  least,  the  surface  of  t!ie  bore  should  be 
relatively  harder  than  the  projectile.  Steel  is  gene- 
rally hardened  by  heating  it  until  the  scales  of  o.xide 
are  loosened  (heat  to  about  a  cherry-red),  and  plung- 
ing it  into  a  liquid  or  placing  it  in  contact  with  some 
cooling  substance  which  suddenly  chills  the  metal, 
rendering  it  liard  and  brittle.  The  degree  of  hard- 
ness will  depend  upon  the  heat  and  the  rapidity  of 
coolim;. 

HARE  CARTRIDGE-BLOCK,— A  block  recessed  for 
any  cnnvcnieiil  number  of  cartridges  in  one  row. 
On  one  side  is  fixed  a  leather  strap,  between  which 
and  the  Iilock,  the  left  hand  is  to  be  passed,  the  back 
of  the  liand  being  next  to  the  block  and  holding  it  in 
a  convenient  position  for  loading.  For  convenience 
the  block  is  curved,  and  the  surface  next  to  the  liand 
<'ovcreil  with  sheepskin.  The  cartridge-holes  are 
bushed  as  in  the  Benton-block.  This  block  is  jier- 
jnanenl  in  its  nature,  and  intended  to  form  a  part  of 
the  soldier's  equipment. 

HARMOSTES.— .V  City  Governor  or  a  Prefect  ap- 
])oinl(ii  Ijy  tile  Spartans  in  the  cities  subjugated  by 
tlieill. 

HARNESS. — t.  The  iron  covering  or  dre.ss  which  a 
.soldier  formerly  wore,  and  wliicli  was  fastened  to 
the  body  by  strajjs  and  Imckles:  the  whole  accou- 
terments,  offensive  and  defensive.  3.  The  e(]uip- 
meiits  of  a  draught-horse.  The  liest  method  of 
attaching  liorses  to  a  r'arriage  is  that  which  enables 
each  one  to  perform  a  given  amount  of  work  with 
the  leant  fatit/ue  ;  or,  in  other  words,  no  horse  should 


be  restrained  by  the  efforts  of  another,  and  the  di- 
rection of  the  traces  should  be  most  favorable  for 
draught.  Besides  these  conditions,  artillerv-harne.ss 
should  lie  so  constructed  that  it  can  be  put  on  and 
taken  olf  promptly,  by  night  as  well  as  liy  day,  in 
all  states  of  the  weather,  and  in  cases  of  danger, 
when  the  drivers  would  be  liable  to  lose  their  pres- 
ence of  mind.  The  fall  of  one  horse  should  not  in- 
terfere with  another;  a  dead  or  a  wounded  horse 
should  be  easily  replaced,  whatever  may  be  his  posi- 
tion in  the  team.  The  absence  of  some  of  the 
horses,  the  unhitcliing  or  cutting  of  some  of  the 
traces  should  not  arrest  the  movement  of  the  car- 
riage. Finally,  the  drivers,  who  are  mounted  for 
tilt  better  command  of  their  horses,  should  not  be 
incommoded  by  the  pole  of  the  carriage. 

There  are  three  general  modes  of  attaching  horses 
to  artillery-carriages,  and  upon  the  employment  of 
any  one  of  which  depends  the  construction  of  the 
harness.  In  the  first  method  the  wheel-horse  is 
placed  between  two  shafts,  by  which  he  guides  and 
regulates  the  motion  of  the  carriage.  The  horses 
may  be  arranged  in  single  or  doulile  file.  The  former 
arrangement  was  much  in  vogue  in  artillery  before 
the  days  of  tirilieauval.  but  at  present  is  only  em- 
ployed iu  the  mountain  service.  This  method  has 
the  merit  of  being  well  suited  for  drawing  heavy 
loads  over  smooth  roads,  liut  is  not  adapted  to  rajjid 
movements  over  ordinary  roads,  as  much  of  the 
tractile  force  is  lost  b}'  the  continued  change  in  the 
line  of  traction  incident  to  long  columns.  The  force 
thus  lost  is  expended  in  a  great  measure  on  tlie 
shaft-horse,  which  bj'  constant  fatigue,  is  soon  ren- 
dered unserviceable.  In  the  English  light  artillery 
the  horses  are  arranged  in  double  file,  tlie  cj^' wheel- 
horse  being  placed  in  shafts. 

In  the  second  method  the  horses  are  arranged  in 
double  file — a  wheel-horse  being  placed  on  each  side 
of  the  pole,  which  is  attached  to  the  first  axle-tree. 
The  pole  is  supported  and  kept  steady  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  body  of  the  carriage  on  the  mreep-hnr, 
which  projects  in  rear  of  the  front  axle-tree.  The 
leading  horses  are  attached  to  the  ximng-tree  which  is 
fastened  to  the  pole,  and  the  'wheel-iiorses  are  at- 
tached to  a  mmable  splintfr-ltai;  the  center  of  whicli 
is  in  the  axis  of  the  pole.  The  object  of  making  a 
splinter-bar  movable  is  to  equalize  the  drauglrt  be- 
tween two  horses,  one  of  which  works  more  freHy 
than  the  other.  This  system  of  attachment  is  used 
in  most  carriages  of  commerce,  and  so  far  as  Uie 
draught  alone  is  concerned,  is  superior  lo  all  others. 
It  is  also  used  in  all  siege-carriages  and  baggage- 
wagons  of  the  military  service,  except  that  iu  tlie 
former  the  splinter-bar  is  fixed. 

In  field-carriages  of  late  jiattern  the  stceep-bar  is 
omitted,  to  facilitate  attaching  and  detaching  the 
rear  carriage  in  time  of  action  ;  aiul  the  pole  is  stip- 
ported  by  two  yokes  attached  to  the  collars  of  tlie 
horses.  The  wheel-horses  are  attached  to  a  fixed 
splinter-bar,  which  is  strong  and  simple  in  its 
construction  ;  and  the  traces  of  the  leading  horses 
are  attached  directly  to  those  in  the  rear,  giving  a 
continuous  line  of  traction,  communicating  directly 
with  the  carriage.  This  method  of  attaching  artil- 
lery-horses in  line  is  extremely  simple,  and  at  the 
same  lime  it  fulfils  nearly  all  the  conditions  reipiisite 
for  artillery  harness.  Its  iirincijial  defect,  however, 
is  that,  from  the  want  of  a  sweeii-bar  the  weight  of 
the  carriage-pole  is  borne  on  the  necks  of  the  wheel- 
horses,  wiiicii  is  a  serious  inconvenience  wheu  ma- 
king long  marches. 

Artillery  luirness  is  composed  of  the  Jund-ifiar.  to 
guide  and  hold  the  horse;  the  sadille.  for  the  trans- 
portation of  the  driver  and  his  valise;  the  ilraiiglit- 
liarxcns.  which  enables  the  horse  to  move  the  <'ar- 
riage  forward  ;  and  the  hrifrhiiig.  which  enables  him 
lo  hold  it  back,  stoj)  it,  or  move  it  to  llie  re;ir.  The 
collar  prevents  the  liorse's  shoulders  from  bi-ing  hurt 
by  the  two  curved  pieces  of  ircm  called  the  liamen: 
to  each  hauie  is  fastened  a  short  leather  tug  ending 


HARNESS. 


15 


HABNESS. 


iu  ail  iron  rinc;,  to  wliioli  the  front  trarc-fliaiii  Im  at- 
tadicd.  Tlic  loail  is  piillcil  by  slroiiL";  li'atliiT  straps 
callcil  trarrx,  to  tlir  mil  of  wliicli  cliaiiis  ari'  faslciicil ; 
till'  front  tracc-fliaiii  pliys  l>ack  ami  forth  in  the  liii;. 
riiiLj,  and  makes  the  wheel-horse  imlepeiideiil  of  the 
horses  in  front:  tlie  rear  Iraee-ehaui  lan  lie  len^rlli- 
eneil  or  shortened  at  will  so  as  to  adapt  the  harness 
to  dilTereiit  horses.  The  pole-yiikf  is  supported  liy  a 
chain  allaehed  to  the  hanie-clasp  and  to  a  rim;  which 
slides  aloni;  the  yoke;  the  branches  of  the  pole-yoke 
are  jointed  to  acollar  near  the  end  of  the  pole  in  snch 
a  way  th.-it  they  vm\  only  play  in  a  plane  passinj; 
throniih  the  axis  of  the  jinle:  this  device  einiblesthc 
horse  to  kee|)  the  pole  steady  without  constraiuiug 
Ids  motion.  j 

The  hni'ching  forms  a  part  of  the  whet'l-liarnes.s 
only  ;   it  coni])letely  encirel<'S  the  horse,  and  is  held  j 
up  in  the  rear  by  a  strap  passinir  over  the  hijis.  The  ! 
traces  of  the  wheel-horses  are  iisnally  hitched  to  the  j 
splinter-bar;  the  traces  of  the  lead  and  swinir-hor.ses  j 
are  hitched  to  those  of  the  horses  in  the  rear,  uivinsr 
a  ciinlinuiius  line  of  traction  from  horses  tocarriau;e. 
Will  n  wheel-horses  are    hitched    to    a    splinter-l)ar 
trace,  there  is  always  an  equal  beariuLr  on  both  sides 
of  the  collar;  this  .saves    their  necks  from  a  i^reat 
deal  of  chatim;,  particularly  hi  changiug_direction.  | 


for  pole-straps.  Off  mddle  (31),  including  hunk  for 
reins,  and  i-ii liiir.Hti'fip  Ci'i).  \'iiliKe  C<ty).  duupUnij. 
riiii.  Wliip,  including  uluck  and  /«*//.  l^g-guurU, 
including    l>"tly,    uiutir-Htrap,  Ug-ttrnps,    and  pl/ile. 

NuHf.-llllfJ. 

A  storehouse  for  harness  should  be  well  ventilated 
-  not  too  dry,  liut  free  from  ilanipness.  The  differ- 
ent arlicles  should  be  arranged  in  bundles,  according 
to  kind  and  class,  without  touching  the  wall  or  each 
other.  Harness  should  be  examined  four  times  a 
year,  at  least.  The  leather  parts  are  brushed  and 
greased  with  neatsfoot  oil  as  often  as  condition  re- 
ijiiircs :  if  they  have  a  reddish  hue.  add  a  little 
lamp-black  in  the  oil.  The  hair  side  of  the  leather 
should  be  wet  with  a  sponge  dipped  in  warm  water, 
and  the  oil  applied  before  the  surface  is  drj'.  Tlie 
iron  parts  which  are  not  japanned  should  be  covered 
with  tallow. 

To  Harness. — Each  wheel-driver  places  on  and 
buckles  the  collar  of  his  off  horse,  smoothing  the 
mane  under  the  cnlhir  and  adjusting  the  collar  to  tlie 
shoulders  ;  folds  and  jiuts  on  the  saddle-bliinket,  and 
then  resumes  his  post  in  front  of  his  harness.  (2) 
He  seizes  the  saddle  by  the  girth-straps,  his  hands 
close  to  the  saddle;  raises  it  from  the  peg;  holds  it 
over  his  head,  arms  half  extended;  approaclics  the 


As  the  limber  has  no  sweep-bar,  the  weight  of  the 
pole  comes  on  the  uecks  of  the  whecl-horscs ;    this 
defect  is  somewhat  lessened  when  the  limber-chest  \ 
is  loaded,  its  position  over  the  axle  being  such  as  to  [ 
decrease  the  weight  at  the  end  of  the  pole.  , 

The  following  is  the  nomenclature  of  the  harness, 
reference  being  made  to  Figs.  1  and  2 :  Hnlter, 
composed  of  liead-stall  and  hitchi.ng-strap  (1);  the  j 
head-stall  includes,  crown-piece  (2),  cheek-strap  (3),  ! 
hrnir-haml  (4),  nose-band  (T>).  ch/n-strap(6),  throat- \ 
strap  (7),  and  t'troat-lash  (or  throat-hand)  (8).  liridle, 
composed  of  hi  ad-stall,  curb-bit,  and  reins;  the  head- 
stall includes, '■;vjir;(-;»>(!c.  cheek-strap,  brmc-hand,  and 
throat-lash;  the  cnib-bit  is  of  iron  and  brass-plated; 
it  includes  mouth-piece,  branches,  cross-bar.  curb-chain 
(or  curb-strap),  and  curb-chain  hook.  Near  saddle 
(9',  including  saddle-tree,  .neat,  saddle-.tkirts.  stirrups, 
>\ni\  girth  (\0):  the  saddle-tree  consists  of  pommel, 
cantle,  ;ind  side-bars;  the  girth  consists  of  two  straps 
of  uucipial  length.  Collar  (11),  including  rim.  Iielli/. 
pal,  collar-straps,  billets.  Ilames  (12),  including 
branches,  double-joint  loops  for  trace-tugs,  links  for 
breast-straps,  hame-rings,  hame-climp,  chain  and 
toggle  (13),  safes  (14),  trace-tugs  (l.")),  tru.<isi ng-strnps 
(16),  home-strap  (17),  and  collar-strap  (18).  Traces 
(19) :  front-trace  chains  (20) ;  rear-trace  chains  (21) ; 
trace-loops;  trare-togglei  (22)  ;  belly-band;  loin-strap 
(23).  Crupper,  including  back-strap  (24),  bod.i/  (2,5), 
and  dock  (36).  Breeching  including  breech-strap (2'). 
hip-strap  (28),  breast-strap  (29),  and  sliding-loops  (30) 


horse  on  the  near  side,  and  places  the  saddle  in  its 
proper  position,  taking  care  not  to  rumple  or  dis- 
place the  blanket,  and  keeping  the  right  arm  extended 
over  the  horse's  back  to  adjust  the  "girth  and  traces. 
(3)  He  goes  to  the  front  of  the  horse :  passes  the 
breast-strap  cai'efully  over  the  horse's  head :  adjusts 
the  haraes  to  the  collar:  clasps  them  together  at  the 
b'^ttom,  and  tightens  the  hame-strap.  (4)  He 
goes  to  the  near  side  of  the  horse  ;  lifts  the  breeching 
over  the  cantle :  steps  to  the  rear,  and  pulls  it  over 
the  horse's  croup:  arranges  the  loin-strap  :  and  ad- 
justs and  buckles  the  crupper,  taking  care  that  no 
hairs  remain  lietween  the  crupper  "and  tail.  (.5) 
He  sees  that  the  harness  is  properly  arranged, 
buckles  and  tightens  the  girth,  and  then" buckles  the 
belly-baud.  (6)  He  bridles  the  horse  and  ties  the 
coupling-rein  to  the  manger.  Lead  and  swing-drivers 
harness  and  unharness  in  the  same  manner  as  wheel- 
drivers,  with  such  omissions  as  are  required  bv  the 
difference  in  the  harness.  If  there  be  uo  stalile  the 
liorses  are  taken  at  the  picket-line,  and  the  harness 
from  the  rack  near  the  carriage  to  which  it  belongs. 
Each  driver  standi  to  horse  as  soon  as  he  has  liar- 
nessed. 

To  iTuhar/ifss. — Each  wheel-driver  ties  the  coup- 
ling-rein fast  to  the  manger:  takes  off  the  leg- 
guard,  and  hangs  it  up  :  unbridles  his  near  horse, 
and  hangs  up  the  bridle.  (2)  He  unbuckles  and 
frees  the  crupper:  raises  the  breeching  from  the 
croup,  and  lays  it  over  the  cantle.  resting  its  middle 


HAHNESS-DRESSING. 


16 


HASKELL  MULTI  CHABGE  CANNOH. 


on  tlie  seat,  (3)  He  goes  to  the  front  of  tlie 
horse,  draws  the  breast-s^rap  well  forward  through 
the  links,  loosens  the  hame-strap,  unclasps  the  hani'es 
at  the  bottom;  passes  the  breast-strap  up  over  the 
horse's  head,  and  laj'S  it  and  the  hamcs  over  the 
pommel.  (4)  He  unbuckles  the  belly-band,  and 
then  the  girth,  takes  off  the  saddle,  places  it  properly 
on  its  peg  or  rack,  and  covers  it  with  the  blanket. 
(3)  He  then  removes  and  puts  up  the  collar  and 
secures  the  horse  hv  the  halter. 

HARNESS- DEESS'lNG.— A  preparation  for  the  care 
and  protection  of  harness,  and  the  leather  parts  of 
the  accouterments.  A  variet}'  of  dressings  are  in 
common  use,  but  the  following  (ingredients  for  two 
gallons  of  the  compound)  is  mostly  used  in  the  ser- 
vice :  1  gallon  of  neat's-foot  oil,  2  pounds  of  bay- 
Ijerry  tallow,  2  pounds  of  beeswax,  and  2  pounds  of 
beef  tallow.  Put  the  above  in  a  pan  overamoile- 
rate  tire  and  let  them  remain  one  hour  until  thorough- 
ly dissolved ;  then  add  2  quarts  of  castor  oil  and 
stir  well  until  the  mass  comes  to  a  boil  so  that  the 
ingredients  may  become  thoroughly  mixed :  after 
which  add — 1  ounce  of  lamp-black  and  stir  well  for 
ten  minutes ;  then  strain  the  liquid  while  hot 
through  a  cotton  cloth  to  remove  sediment  of  bees- 
wax, tallow,  and  lamp-black,  and  put  aside  to  cool. 
Apply  this  mixture  to  saddles  anil  harness  with  a 
woolen  cloth  and  leave  until  next  day,  when  they 
shoidd  be  wiped  off  with  a  woolen  cloth  to  remove 
the  surpertiuous  lamp-black.  For  "russet"  or  fair 
leather,  use  the  same  mixture  without  the  lamp- 
black, 

HARNESS-PEGS.— In  artillery  staliles,  harness- 
pegs  for  each  pair  of  horses  are  arranged  in  the  walls 
of  the  harness-room,  also  in  the  heel-posts  of  the 
stalls.  The  peg  for  the  off  harness  is  above  the  peg 
for  the  near  harness;  a  small  peg  for  the  bridles  is 
placed  beneath  the  near  harness-peg.  The  following 
arrangement  is  observed :  Pommels  of  the  saddles 
against  the  wall  or  heel-posts ;  breeching  hanging 
over  the  cantles ;  breast-straps  and  hames  over  the 
pommels :  traces,  which  are  trussed,  over  the  seat ; 
whip  ou  the  hook  of  the  off  saddle ;  collars  lying 
horizontally  ou  the  saddles,  collar-straps  against  the 
heel-posts ;  bridles  and  leg-guard  hanging  on  their 
peg :  the  whole  covered  bylhe  harness-sack  properly 
secured.  Tlie  blankets  are  kept  by  the  drivers  in 
their  quarters,  but  may  be  put  away  in  the  harness- 
room,  or  other  safe  place.  A  trace  is  trussed  by 
passing  the  rear  trace-chain  through  the  trussing- 
strap,  from  rear  to  front,  and  securing  the  trace  by 
drawing  down  the  sliding-loop. 

HAROL, — An  ludian  term  signifying  the  oflScer 
who  commands  the  van  of  an  army.  It  sometimes 
means  the  van-guard  itself. 

HARFE. — A  species  of  drawbridge  used  among 
the  ancients,  and  deriving  its  name  from  the  musi 
cal  instrument.  This  bridge,  which  consisted  of  a 
wooden  frame,  and  hung  in  perpendicular  direction  ! 
against  the  turrets  that  were  used  in  those  times  to 
carrj'  on  the  siege  of  a  place,  had  a  variety  of  ropes 
attached  to  it,  and  was  let  down  upon  tlie  wall  of 
a  town  by  means  of  pulleys.  The  instant  it  fell,  the 
soldiers  left  the  turret,  and  rushed  across  the  tempo- 
rary platform  upon  the  rampart. 

HARPOON  GUN.  — Agun  used  for  shooting  whales. 
Il  is  frcqiK  iitly  eiiiplciyed  to  great  advantage  when 
necessary  to  throw  lines  across  rivers  and  the  like. 
It  is  very  similar  to  the  small  swivel-guns,  weighing 
with  stock  comiilete  75  lbs.,  3  feet  long  in  (lie  iiarrel 
and  of  li  inch  bore.  The  charge  is  very  siiiall,  barely 
sufficient  to  project  the  arrow  and  line  from  the 
gun. 

HARPY, — A  fabulous  creature  in  Greek  mytliology, 
considered  as  a  minister  of  the  vengeance  of  the  gods. 
Various  accounts  are  given  of  the  numbers,  and 
parentage  of  the  harpies.  Homer  mentions  but  one, 
ilesioil  enumerates  two— Aello  and  Okypele,  daugh- 
ters of  Thaumas  by  the  Oceanid  Electra,  fair-haired 
and  winged  maidens,  very  swift  of  llight.     Three  are 


sometimes  recognized  by  later  writers,  who  call  them 
variously  daughters  of  Poseidon  or  of  Typhon,  and 
describe  them  as  hideous  monsters  with  wings,  of 
fierce  and  loathsome  aspect,  tlieir  faces  pale  with 
hunger,  living  in  an  atmosphere  of  filth  and  stench, 
and  contaminating  everything  that  they  approached. 
The  most  celebrated  tradition  regarding  the  harpies 
is  connected  with  the  blind  Phiueus,  whose  meals 
they  carried  off  as  soon  as  they  were  spread  for  him; 
a  plague  from  which  he  was"  delivered  by  the  Ar- 
gonauts, «u  his  engaging  to  join  in  their  quest.  The 
Boreads  Zetes  and  Calais  attacked  the  harpies,  but 
spared  their  lives  on  their  promising  to  cease  from 
molesting  Phineus.  A  harpy  in  Heraldry  is  repre- 
sented as  a  vulture,  having  the  head  and  breast  of  a 
woman. 

HARQUEBTJSE. — An  old  fire-arm  resemliling  a  mus- 
ket, whicli  was  supported  on  a  rest  by  a  hook  of  iron 
fastened  to  the  barrel.  Many  of  theYeomen  of  the 
Guard  were  armed  with  this  weapon,  on  the  first 
formation  of  that  Corps  in  148.5.  The  harquebuse 
being  frequently  fired  from  the  chest,  with  the  butt 
in  a  right  line  with  the  barrel,  it  was  diflicult  to 
bring  the  eye  down  low  enough  to  take  good  aim ; 
but  the  Germans  soon  introduced  an  improvement 
by  giving  a  hooked  form  to  the  Vnitt,  which  elevated 
the  barrel.  Soldiers  armed  with  this  weapon  were 
desitrnatcd  Haquebutters,  and  were  common  in  the 
time" of  Henry  VIH. 

HARROW. — An  obstacle,  in  fortification,  formed 
by  turning  an  ordinary  harrow  upside  down  with  the 
teeth  upward,  and  the  frame  buried.  This  imple- 
ment consists  of  a  frame  of  a  scjuare  or  rhombic  form 
in  which  are  fixed  rows  of  teeth,  or  tine.-<.  projecting 
downwards.  The  harrow  is  very  ancient,  having 
been  in  use  beyond  the  dawn  of  history ;  but  as  in 
earh'  times  only  the  lighter  soils  were  cultivated,  it 
often  consisted  of  bushes,  or  branches  of  trees,  which 
merely  scratched  the  ground.  Subsequently,  we  find 
.a  wooden  frame  and  wooden  tines  in  use ;  next,  the 
wooden  frame  with  iron  tines,  a  form  of  the  instru- 
ment very  much  used  at  the  present  day,  and  espe- 
cially in  favor  for  light  soil,-'.  For  heavy  soils,  the 
harrow  constructed  wholly  of  iron  is  most  used,  as 
it  is  heavier  and  does  more  execution ;  and  of  this 
sort  the  zigzag  form  mac^e  by  Mr.  Howard,  of  Bed- 
ford, is  preferred. 

HARSEGAYE. — A  kind  of  demi-lance, introduced  a- 
bout  1114.     It  is  now  obsolete. 

HASKELL  MDLTI  CHARGE  CANNON.— The  Lyman 
accelerating-gun,  patented  in  1!S5T,  is  worked  on  the 
principle  of  giving  to  the  projectile  a  gradually  in- 
creasing velocity  while  in  the  bore  of  the  gun.  Bom- 
ford's  method  of  measuring  powder-pressures  at 
different  points  in  the  chamber  of  a  cannon  dis- 
closed the  fact  that  the  great  pressure  on  that  part  of 
the  chamber  occupied  by  the  powder-charge  rapidly 
diminished  as  the  shot  approached  the  muzzle,  and 
that  lateral  pressures  were  not  dangerously  great  on 
the  gun  after  the  shot  was  under  way,  unless  some- 
thing happened  to  wedge  the  projectile. 

Lyman  reasoned  that  if  he  could  continue  to  in- 
crease the  ]iowder-pressure  he  might  make  the  muz- 
zle end  of  a  gun  as  strong  as  the  breech,  and  utilize 
the  added  strengtli  to  increase  the  velocity  of  a  pro- 
jectile in  regular  ratio  up  to  the  very  instant  of  its 
leaving  the  muzzle.  He  accomplished  something  in 
this  direction  with  his  earlier  gun,  which  was  a 
cast-iron  piece  with  tubes  branching  from  the  bore 
at  a  point  between  the  breech  and  the  trunnions. 

The  Lyman  gun,  as  iuqiroved  liy  ■].  K.  Haskell, 
is  a  cast-iron,  ste<'I-liiied  rille,  having  a  miniber  of 
pockets,  each  formed  in  a  block  <if  steel,  which  is 
screwed  into  an  enlargeiiu'iil  of  tlie  easl-nielal  body 
of  the  gun.  Over  each  pocket  there  is  a  priming 
hole  extending  out  through  the  upper  portion  of  the 
gun.  This  hole  is  stopped  by  a  bronze  metal  plug, 
which  screws  into  place  to  close  the  hole  entirely, 
making  a  smooth  surface  with  the  steel  bore-tube 
when  ilie  plugs  are  screwed  home.     The  steel  pock- 


HAST  ATI 


17 


HASTT  INTRENCUUENTS. 


etH,  :vs  a  f^ciicrrul  tiling,  liavfi  clenning  pings  at  thf  npfn  country,  iirt- the  rifle  pits  iiml  tiiii<  lies.     Ilusly 

lintldiii.  iiilrciii'ljMii'nts  were  niiicli  usimI   by  bolli  of  Ihi-  (;oii. 

Tlic  piece  is  loadorl  by   |)lacing  a  projectile  and  linilin;;  arniie«  in  tlii'  littc  war  in' lli<t  United  iSlateM. 

cartridi,'e  of  slow-biirnin;;  powder  in  the  brcecli,  and  TJK'y  were  nsed    so    friMjnenlly,    and    found    so  elti- 

a  charge  of   (juiek-biiniin^  powder  in  each  of   the  cacioiis.  that  the  men  acquired  the  hal)it  of  inlrench- 

poc]<ets.    The  projectile  tits  the  bore  tightly,  so  that  ing  Iheir  line  ininii-dialcly  upon  halting  after  a  day's 
no  gas  can  leak  past.     When  the  breech-clmrgc-  is  ;  march,  if  tlie  enemy  was  near.     No  compulsion,  no 


Haaki-ll  Millti 

tired  it  starts  the  projectile  at  a  moderate  velocity, 
which  is  rapidly  increased  after  the  shot  passes  the 
])ockels  by  tlie  explosion  of  the  |iowilcr  in  the  pock- 
els,  ignition  being  elleeteil  from  Ibe  i)rimary  charge. 

The  gun  in  course  of  construction  at  the  Scott 
Fomulry.  Heading,  Pa.,  now  nearly  completed,  was 
made  under  Mr.  Haskell's  superintendence.  The 
gun  is  (i  inches  bore,  2.'j  feet  long,  and  weighs  '3.5 
tons.  The  lining  tube  is  2i  in<'lies  thick  to  a  ])oint 
forward  of  the  front  pocket;  from  there  to  the  muz- 
zle it  is  3  inches.  There  are  four  pockets  in  the 
gun,  each  intended  for  a  eliarge  of  28  pounds  of 
ipiick  powder.  The  breech  charge  will  be  about  18 
pounds  hexagonal  powder.  A  projectile  three  cali- 
bers in  length  will  weigh  101)  lbs. — one  of  four  (cali- 
bers. l.W  lbs. 

^Mr.  Haskell  expects  to  get  an  initial  velocity  of 
3,(100  feet  per  second  with  pressure  nowhere  exceed- 
ing 80,000  i)ounds  jier  inch,  and  to  obtain  a  penetra- 
tion eqtial  to  24  inches  of  iron.  In  view  of  the  result 
of  past  experiments  there  is  little  doubt  that  very 
good  penetration  wili  be  obtained,  and  if  such  veloc- 
ities can  l)e  had  from  the  moderate  pressures  pro- 
posed by  J[r.  Haskell,  any  armor  now  in  existence 
can  be  ]iierced  by  guns  nuich  lighter  than  tlie  11-ton 
monsters  used  in  tlie  Italian  or  liritish  Navy. 

HASTATI.— Up  to  the  lime  of  Marius,  by  whom 
the  germ  of  the  decadence  of  tlie  military  art  among 
the  Romans  was  sown,  a  Consular  Army  consisted  of 
two  Ltfgiims;  and  of  two  Wiiigx  composed  of  social 
trpops.  The  legion  was  composed  of  infantry  of  the 
line,  light  infantry,  and  cavalry.  The  infantry  of 
the  line  was  divided  into  three  classes.  1.  The 
Hiixtnti.  2.  Priiiripes.  .S.  Triiirii.  These  classes 
wore  a  very  comjilete  defensive  armor  ;  they  were  all 
armed  with  the  short  straight  Spanish  sword;  the 
J'iliim.  a  kind  of  javelin,  about  seven  feet  in  length, 
used  equally  to  hurl  at  a  dist;in<e  ;ind  in  hanif-to- 
hand  engagements,  was  added  to  it  for  the  twolirst  ; 
and  the  Triarii  carried  the  ]iike. 

HASTY  INTRENCHMENTS.— Extemiiorized  shel- 
ters which  are  quickly  constructed  from  materials 
found  upon  the  spot  where  the  slielter  is  needed.  In 
consequence  of  the  efTectiveness  of  modern  tire- 
arms  a  body  of  troops  can  not  ret;iin  a  close  forma- 
tion for  a  singhc  ho\ir  even,  if  in  the  presence  and  ex- 
p:ised  to  the  tire  of  an  enemy  in  force.  The  men 
;ire  forced  to  seek  shelter,  by  lying  down  on  the 
ground,  or  by  crouching  behind  any  slight  inequality 
which  niiiy  exist  in  the  surface,  or  behind  some  kind 
of  screen  which  they  may  be  ;ible  to  construct.  The 
screen  may  be  two  or  three  logs  rolled  together:  a 
he;ip  offence  rails,  a  slight  mound  of  earth,  or  any- 
thing whatever  its  nature  which  will  hide  the  soldier 
from  the  enemy's  view. 

The  simplest  forms  of  /nuti/  intrenchmenU,  in  an 


■elmrcc  Cannon. 

'  orders,  even,  were  necessary  for  the  men  to  begin 

this  work;  the  main  dilficiilty  was  to  make  them 
delay  enough  to  allow  !i  proper  trace  to  be  marked, 
;  by  which  they  might  be  guided  in  the  construction 
of  their  line.  Instances  are  known,  where  the  men, 
not  having  intrenching-tools,  executed  the  trench 
with  the  bayonet  or  Hie  tin  cup.  These  shelter 
trenches,  thus  rudely  constructed,  were  deepened 
and  strengthened  unlil  they  were  able  to  resist  field 
artillery,  if  the  |)osition  was  to  lie  occupied  for  any 
I  length  of  time.  Slight  as  these  defenses  were  during 
I  the  early  stages  of  tlieir  construction,  thev  formed, 
when  defended  by  good  troojis.  an  obstacle  difficult 
to  overcome;  and  they  were  captured  only  by  ex- 
traordinary effort,  accompanied  by  a  great  loss  of 
life  on  the  part  of  the  attacking  forces.  " 

It  will  frequently  happen  that  cover  can  be  sjieed- 
ily  obtained,  and  positions  rendered  defensible  in  a 
very  short  time,  by  taking  advantage  of  the  hedges, 
ditches  ;ind  walls, 
■which  niiiy  be  met 
with,  or  of  the  ob- 
stacles which  may 
be  presented  by 
natural  features  of  ■ 
the  ground.  No 
fixed  rules  for  pro- 
ceeding under   all 

the  numerous  cir-  Fu;.  i 

cumstances  which  may  occur  can  be  given,  but  the 
drawings  will  show  what  may  be  effected  in  certain 
cases,  and  indicate  the  character  of  the  o])erat!ous 
u.sually  required.  Fig.  1.  represents  the  ccmimon 
hedge  and  ditch  turned  into  a  breastwork  to  be  de- 
fended from  the  hedge-side.  If  the  hedge  be  thick 
and  planted  on  a  bank,  as  is  generally  the  case,  and 
especially  if  the  ditch  be  tolerably  deep  and  contain 
water,  the  breastwork  will  be  rendered  strong  at  the 
expense  of  little  labor.  A  shallow  trench  should  be 
excavated  behind  the  hedge,  iind  the  earth  thrown 
up  to  raise  the  bank  sutliciently  to  form  a  rough 
breastwork  some  18  inches  thickat  the  lop.  Should 
the  hedge  be  more 
than  (i  feet  high,  it 
should  be  cut  to  that 
height,  having  the 
branches  interwoven 
with  the  lower  part 
to  strengthen  it.  A 
hedge  to  be  defended 
from  the  ditch-side 
Fig.   ".i,    is   ;i   ready-  f""' 

made   trench  and  breastwork,   and 
convenient  work  by  a  little  scraping 
widening  and  levelling  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch, 
and  by  the  addition  oif  a  banquette.     See  WalU. 


will  become  a 
if  the  sides  and 


HATCHET 


18 


HAUBERK. 


HATCHET. — A  small,  light  .sort  of  a.xe,  with  bevel 
edge  on  the  left  side,  and  a  short  handle.  It  is  used 
by"  soldiers  for  cutting  wood  to  make  fascines,  ga- 
bions, pickets,  etc.  A  brass  slide  and  snap  com- 
bined is  slipped  upon  the  belt,  and  has  a  snap  on  the 
outer  side,  from  which  the  hatchet  can  be  hung. 
There  is  also  a  safetj'  attachment  through  which  the 
handle  is  passed,  making  a  convenient  and  secure 
way  of  carrying  the  implement.  To  take  up  the 
haUhet  among  the  Indians  is  to  declare  war  and  com- 
mence hostilities.  7'((  A); ;-_y  <//*■/»/<(!/;«'<,  is  to  make  peace. 
HATCHMENT.— 1.  An  ornament  formerly  much 
worn  on  tlie  hilt  of  a  sword.  2.  The  funeral  escutch- 
eon placed  in  front  of  the  house  of  the  deceased,  or 
in  some  other  suitable  place,  setting  forth  his  rank 
with  otlier  circumstances.  It  is  in  the  shape  of  a 
lozenge,  and  in  its  cen-  ^ 

ter  are  the  arms  of  the 
deceased,  single  or  quar- 
tered, as  the  case  may 
be.  The  achievement  of 
ji  liai^hehr  represents  his 
arms  in  a  shield  com- 
plete,accompanied  with 
helmet,  crest,  mantling, 
motto. and  various  other 
le.xternal  ornaments  tt> 
which  he  may  be  enti- 
tled, on  n  black  ground. 
In   the  achievement  of 

an  unmarried  lady,  her  HatdunEnt  of  Husband. 
arms  are  |)laced  in  a  lozenge  on  a  black  groimd,  but 
without  external  heraldic  ornaments,  except  in  the 
case  of  a  peeress,  when  her  supporters,  robe  of  es- 
tate, and  coronet  are  added. 

Tlie  achievement  of  a  husband  whose  wife  sur- 
vives, impales  his  arms  with  his  wife's  in  a  shield 
with  the  external  ornaments  to  which  he  is  entitled, 
the  ground  of  the  hatchment  being,  under  his  side 
of  tiie  shield,  black,  and  under  his  wife's,  white.  If 
the  wife  lie  an  heiress,  her  arms  are  not  impaled, 
but  carried  in  an  escutcheon  of  pretense.  The  ex- 
ternal ornaments  are  appended,  except  the  insignia 
of  any  order  of  knighthood  having  a  circle  or  collar, 
with  whicli  heralds  do  not  consider  it  proper  for  a 
knight  to  encircle  his  wife's  arms.  On  this  account 
the'achieveraent  of  a  knight  has  two  shields  placed 
side  by  side,  one  containing  the  husband's  arms  only, 
encircled  by  the  collar,  ribbon,  etc.,  of  the  order, 
the  other  containing  those  of  hu.sband  and  wife; 
the  ground  is  divided  perpendicularly  in  the  middle 
of  the  second  shield,  and  painted  black  and  white. 
When  the  wife  is  a  peeress  in  her  own  right,  there  are 
also  two  shields — the  dexter  containing  the  arms  of 
the  husband,  with  the  lady's  arms  on  an  escutcheon 
of  pretense  ensigned  with  lier  coronet ;  the  sinister 
lozense-sliaped  with  the  lady's  alone,  and  each  ac- 
companied with  its  i)roper  external  decorations. 
The  ground  is  divided  black  and  white  in  the  middle 
of  tlie  dexter  escutcheon.  The  arms  of  a  wife 
whose  husband  survives  are  impaled  witli  her  hus- 
))and's  arms  in  a  shield,  or,  in  the  case  of  an  heiress, 
borne  on  an  escutcheon  of  ]iretense.  There  is  no 
helmet,  crest,  or  m<-intliug,  b\it  a  ])c-ercss  is  entitled 
to  her  robe  of  estate.  The  groimd  under  tlie  dexter 
side  of  the  shield  is  white,  and  under  tlie  sinister, 
black.  The  achievement  of  a  widower  ditTers  prin- 
ci|ially  from  that  of  a  husband,  in  the  ground  being 
entirely  black.  The  achievement  of  a  widow  dif- 
fer- frnm  that  of  a  wife,  both  in  having  the  ground 
entirely  black,  and  in  the  form  of  the  eseulcheon, 
which  ("except  in  the  one  case  of  an  escutcheon 
of  pretense),  is  lo/cuge-shaped.  The  anus  are  en- 
circled bj-  a  silver  cordon  or  cordi'lii're.  the  symbol 
of  widowhood.  On  the  decease  of  tlie  last  of  a 
family,  a  death's  head  surmounts  the  shield  in  place 
of  a  crest.  The  achievement  of  a  reigning  King  or 
Queen,  whether  married  or  not,  represents  the  royal 
arms  complete  on  a  ground  entirely  black.  That  of 
an  Ari'hiiishop  or  Bishop  has  the  insignia  of  his  Sec 


impaled  with  his  paternal  arms,  and  the  whole  sur- 
mounted by  a  miter,  and  the  ground  is  per  pale  ar. 
and  sa.  The  Dean  of  a  Cathedral  or  Collegiate  Church 
and  a  King  at  Arms,  also  impale  the  arms  of  office 
with  their  family  arras.  In  the  achievement  of  the 
wife  of  a  Prelate,  there  are  two  shields — the  first 
containing  the  impaled  arms  of  the  See  and  the 
Bishop,  surmounted  by  a  miter  ;  and  the  second,  the 
family  arms  of  the  Bishop  with  those  of  his  wife. 
The  ground  is  all  white,  except  that  part  which  is 
under  the  arms  of  the  wife.  The  funeral  escutcheon 
of  Scotland,  France,  and  Germany  differs  consider- 
ably from  that  in  use  in  England ;  it  indicates  not 
merelj-  the  deceased's  right  to  a  coat-of-arms,  but 
his  gentility  of  descent.  The  liatchment  is  much 
larger,  consisting  of  a  lozenge  above  6  feet  square  ; 
and  the  arms  of  the  deceased,  which  occupy  the 
center,  are  surrounded  by  those  of  the  8  or  IG  families 
from  whom  he  derived  his  descent,  the  paternal 
quarterings  on  the  right  side,  and  the  maternal  on 
the  left.  The  deceased  is  not  entitled  to  an  achieve- 
mcait  unless  all  these  families  had  a  right  to  bear 
arms.  On  the  four  corners  are  death's  heads  and 
the  initials  and  title  of  the  deceased,  the  black  inter- 
stices are  powdered  with  tears.     See  Hernldry. 

HAUBEKGIEK.— An  individual  who  held  a  tenure 
by  Kniglit's  service,  and  was  suliject  to  the  feudal 
system  which  formerly  existed  in  France,  and  by 
whicli  he  was  obliged  to  accompany  the  Lord  of  the 
itsmor  in  that  capacity  whenever  the  latter  went  to 
war.  lie  was  called  Fief  de  Hniibert,  and  had  the 
privilege  of  carrying  a  halbert.  All  vassals  in  ancient 
times  served  their  Lords-paramont  as  Squires,  Hau- 
bergiers,  Lancemen,  Bow-men,  etc. 

HAUBEKE. — A  long  blouse-like  garment,  having 
short  sleeves  descending  to  the  middle  of  the  upper 
arm,  which  sometimes  was  formed  of  interwoven 
rings,  or  chain  work,  but  more  generallj-  was  con- 
structed of  a  stout  woven  fabric,  upon  which  were 
fixed  rows  of  iron  rings  or  plates  of  metal,  in  their 
form  either  square,  triangular,  or  circular.  This 
mail-shirt  was  fitted  tightly  to  the  pers(m ;  and  at 
the  bottom  it  was  divided,  so  that  the  wearer  when 
mounted  might  wrap  one  division  of  it  round  each 
thigh,  or  when  on  foot  might  have  his  limbs  covered 
by  the  cleft  extremities  of  liis  hauberk  without  any 
impediment  to  his  free  movements.  The  hauberk 
i  was  used  by  the  Saxons,  as  early  as  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, as  defensive  body  armor,  and  called  liy  them 
the  tunic  of  rings,  but  by  the  Normans  the  hiiuberk. 
Besides  the  hauberk  of  rings,  there  are  some  marked 
with  transverse  lines,  so  as  to  give  the  idea  of  being 
quilted,  or  stiched  in  chequers,  or  covered  with 
small  lozenge-shaped  pieces  of  steel  instead  of  rings, 
;  known  about  this  period,  .\.d.  1066-1087,  by  the 
name  of  mascled  armor,  from  its  resemblance  to  the 
,  meshes  of  a  net.  Other  descriptions  of  armor  were 
in  use,  and  in  some  instances  hauberks  appear  to 
be  composed  of  rings  and  mascles  mixed  :  in  others, 
the  body  is  diamonded,  and  the  cowl  and  arms  cov- 
ered with  rings.  On  referring  to  a  work  entitled 
I  "  The  Conqueror  and  his  Companions,"  by  Jlr.  J.  K. 
Planche.  Somerset  herald,  the  hauberk  as  worn  by 
William  the  Con(|ueroris  thus  spoken  of  :  "  In  the 
Bayeux  tapestry  we  behold  him  armed  in  his  hau- 
berk, wliich  was  not  the  coat  of  chain-mail  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  liut  the  gerhighrd  hi/rnk  of  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth,  consisting  of  iron  rings,  not 
linked  together  and  forming  a  garment  of  themselves, 
but  sewn  iir  strongly  fastened  Hat  upon  a  tunic  of 
leather  or  i|uilted  linen.  Iiiickram.  canvas,  or  some 
strong  material  desceiuliiig  to  the  mid-leg,  and  which, 
being  open  in  the  skirts  both  liefnrc  and  behind  for 
convenience  in  riding,  gave  it  the  ajipearance  of  a 
jacket  with  short  breeches  attached  to  it,  if,  indeed, 
such  was  not  actually  the  case  in  some  instances. 
The  sleeves  were  loose,  and  reached  only  just  below 
the  elliow."  The  habergeon  of  plate-armor  was 
generally  worn  over  the  hauberk.  i^vt:  Hiiturgrun 
and  Plntf-nrtnor. 


BAUBIANI. 


19 


HAY. 


HAURIANT. — A  term  in  licnuiiry  appiicil  to  a  fish 
placi'il  ii|iriir|it  !is  if  ti>  refri'sli  itself 
]}\  MicUiiit;  !iir.  Gules,  tlin-e  lueies 
^tlie  iiiicieiit  imiiie  (if  pikesj  liiiiiiiiiMt 
in  fess  ari;eiil,  the  urms  (if  ii  family 
iif  tlie  name  of  Lucy  in  Hertfordshire. 
pee  Ifi  riildry. 

HAUSSE.— A  LTaduated  piece  at- 
taelied  lip  the  barrel  neartlie  lireeeh, 
vhicli  has  a  slidiiiir  jiiece  retained  in 
its  place  by  a  thunili-screw,  nr  by  the  sprinj;  of  the 
(<li(h'r  itself.  'Phis  sliihT  (uiirht  to  have  an  openinir 
Ihriiiiirh  wliich  the  L,nin  can  l)c  eoMvcniently  ainie(l  : 
lind  is  raised  to  such  a  heiiibt  as  we  Ibiiik  will  i;ive 
tlie  necessary  elevation  for  the  distance.  The  term 
coarse  siiiht  means  a  larf;e  portion  of  the  front  sijfht, 
fts  seen  above  the  liotloni  of  the  rear-siijht  notch; 
find  a  tine  sii;ht  is  when  but  a  small  portion  i.<  seen. 
The  f.ft'ect  of  a  coarse  .si};ht  is  to  increase  the  ranm- 
of  the  projectile.  The  hreirh-ni(/lit.  the  tiingint-ni-dlf. 
And  the  pendidnin-lnuinKe  arc  merely  dilTerent  forms 
of  this  device,  the  latter  bavins;  a  liulb  at  the  bottom 
which  keeps  it  in  a  vertical  position  when  the  two 
wheels  of  the  carriage  are  not  on  tlie  same  level. 
Tlie  taiii;ent-scale  has  steps,  correspondiivu  in  height 
to  the  graduati(ms  on  tlie  breech-sight  for  guns  of 
tlie  same  caliber  and  pattern  ;  and  is  only  applied  to 
the  gun  at  the  moment  of  sigliting. 

HAUSSE  COL.— An  ornamental  phite  similar  to  the 
goriret.     It  was  formerly  worn  bv  infantrv  otticers. 

HAUTES-PAYES.— Soldiers  formerly  selected  by 
Ihe  Captains  of  companies  to  attend  them  personally, 
for  which  service  they  received  something  more 
than  the  common  pay.  Unute.pny  became  after- 
wards a  term  to  signify  the  subsistence  which  any 
body  of  men  superior  io,  or  distinguished  from  the 
private  soldier  were  allowed  to  receive. 

HAUT  LE  PIED.— A  term  used  to  distinguish  such 
persons  as  were  formerly  employed  in  tlie  French 
armies  without  having  any  permanent  appointment. 
Ciitam!»H<irin{  hduU-li-pied  were  known  in  the  artil- 
lery during  the  Monarcliy  of  France.  They  were 
usuallv  under  the  (Quartermaster-general. 

HAVELOCK.— A  light  cloth  covering  for  the  head 
and  neck,  used  bj-  soldiers  as  a  protection  from  sun- 
stroke. This  covering  derived  its  name  from  Huve- 
lock,  a  distinguished  English  General. 

HAVERSACK. — A  bag  of  strong  coarse  linen,  in 
which,  on  the  march,  each  soldier  carries  his  own 
bread  and  provisions.  It  is  borne  on  the  left  side  by 
ft  strap  passing  over  the  right  shoulder,  and  is  only 
used  in  the  tield  and  in  cantonments.  The  haversack 
of  the  Roman  soldier  was  an  osier  basket  with  a  long 
neck;  sometimes,  as  on  the  column  of  Trajau.  a 
wallet  carried  on  the  spear.  Its  contents  were  salt 
meat,  cheese,  onions,  and  olives.  It  held  sufficient 
for  three  days.  The  term  haversack  is  also  applied 
to  the  leather  bag  used  in  artillery  to  carry  cartridges 
from  the  ammunition-chest  to  the  piece  in  loading. 

HAVILDAR.— The  highest  rank  of  Non-commis- 
sioned Officer  among  native  troops  in  India  and  Cey- 
lon. In  the  Hong-Kng  Gun  Lascars  (a  corps  now 
disbanded),  the  Havildar  received  Is.  3d.  per  diem; 
but  in  India  his  pay  is  somewhat  less.  The  Hnvil- 
d(ir-rii(ijiir  is  the  Sergeant-major  of  each  native  regi- 
ment of  infantry. 

HAVOCK. — A  cry  originally  used  in  hunting,  but 
afterward  in  war  as  the  signal  for  indiscriminate 
slaughter.  The  term  hamc  is  used  in  the  sense  of 
wide  and  general  destruction,  devastation,  or  waste, 
hence  the  orisin  of  hamrk-. 

HAWK.— the  Hawk  fre- 
quently occurs  as  a  charge 
in  Heraldry,  and  may  be 
hilUd,  jesxtd,  and  rnvcdtd. 
The  hitirk\'<  Ml,  itself  used 
as  a  separate  charge,  is  at- 
tached to  the  leg  of  the  bird  BeU.  Lure. 
by /('.v.if .1  or  thongs  of  leather.  Vnrreh  are  riuirs  at- 
tached to  the  end  of  the  jesses.     The  hairk'ir lure. 


also  a  heraldic  charge,  consists  of  two  wings  joined 
with  the  line,  to  the  end  of  which  is  attached  u  ring. 
The  line  is  sometimes /("(Or/ or  knotted. 

HAWSER.  A  rope  made  of  three  strands  :  it  is 
c(jiled  u|i  righl-handed,  or  what  is  termed  '•  with  tlie 
sun."  It  is  one  (jf  the  ropes  used  in  lifting  ordiiunce. 
See  Cordar/i  ;ind  llopi , 

HAXO  BASTION  SYSTEM.- The  siege  of  this  svslcrii 
of  forlilicilioii  i-  calculated  to  last  fifty  davs  and 
there  are  five  distinct  periods  of  breaching  tiat"teries  • 
1"  Against  the  reduit  of  the  salient  place  of  arms 
and  the  Kavelin.  2^  Against  the  reduit  of  the  re- 
entering place  of  arms,  the  cou|iures  and  the  reduit 
of  ravelin.  S"  Against  the  bastionet  and  the  counter- 
guard.  4^  Against  the  retrenchment.  .5"  Against 
Ihe  bastion.  Tlie  front  is  H(iO  vards  long.  The  per- 
pendicular is  only  40  yards,  and  the  faces  72  yards. 
The  Hanks  are  perpendicular  to  the  lines  of  defense. 
The  bastions  contain  interior  retrenchments  entirely 
.separated  from  the  rear  by  a  ditch.  A  chemin-dtH- 
nrndn  surmounts  the  scarp  of  the  enciente.  The 
tenaille  is  not  revetted,  and  it  has  flanks  that  can 
mount  three  guns.  The  main  ditch  is  twentv  yards 
wide.  The  ravelin  is  made  verv  salient;  with  a"case- 
mated  traverse  in  capital,  and  C()upures  cut  across  it-S 
faces.  In  rear  is  a  reduit  of  the  ordinarv  outline, 
and  behind  is  a  casemated  caponiere  or  bastionet, 
the  roof  of  which  carries  ten  guns.  The  counter- 
scarp of  the  main  ditch  is  produced  to  within  ten 
yards  of  this  bastionet,  and  in  front  of  it  slants  a 
glacis,  which  closes  the  ditch  of  the  ravelin  and  tliat 
of  the  reduit.  The  bastionet  sweeps  the  interior 
glacis  and  co-operates  with  the  Hanks  of  the  inner 
works  to  impede  the  construction  of  the  counter- 
batteries. 

HAXO  CASEMATE.— A  work  built  inside  the  para- 
pet, arched  and  covered  with  ciirtli.  opeuimr  in  the 
rear  to  the  terreplein.  The  iruns  are  ])rotected  from 
the  enemy's  tire,  and  can  be  entirelv  hidden  by  mask- 
ing the  embrasures. 

HAY.— A  very  important  article  of  forage  in  most 
armies.  The  management  of  the  natural^srasses  of 
which  most  hay  C(msists  is  somewhat  different,  and 
the  process  is  seen  to  perfection  in  Middlesex'  and 
various  Counties  about  London.  The  sreat  matter- 
too  generally  overlooked  in  Scotland-^is  to  preserve 
the  color  and  Havor  of  the  arass  ;  and  this  can  only 
be  done  by  keeping  it  constantlv  turned,  and  havin(r 
It  rapidly  dried,  if  possible,  without  the  deteriora'^ 
ting  washing  of  repeated  rains.  ArtiHcial  drvinc 
best  attains  this  end.  but  is  of  course  impracticable 
on  a  large  scale.  In  the  best  style  of  Ensrlish  hay- 
making, the  grass,  after  being  cut  with  a  "scythe  (ir 
machine,  and  as  soon  as  the  dew  is  off,  is  shaken  and 
spread  out  liy  means  of  forks  or  of-a  teW/«j?-machine 
drawn  by  a  horse.  It  is  not  allowed  to  lie  lonn-  ex- 
posed to  the  sun,  hut  before  evenins,  is  drawn  to- 
getlier  by  rakes  into  vind-nnr^,  which,  if  there  is 
any  prospect  of  rain,  are  made  up  into  small  heaps 
or  cocks.  It  is  again  spread  out  ne.\t  mornin^'-,  or 
on  return  of  favorable  weather;  and  when" the 
operations  are  e.vpedited  by  wind  or  sun,  the  bay 
will  be  ready  for  the  rick  by  the  second  or  third  day. 
There  is,  however,  much"  difference  in  the  time 
during  which  the  hay  requires  to  lie  out;  the  bulk 
of  the  crop  and  the  quality  of  the  land  must  be  es- 
liecially  considered.  'When  the  srrasses  are  cut,  as 
they  should  be  when  in  blooni,  and  before  their 
seeds  ripen  and  their  stems  sret  rough  and  hard 
they  contain  the  greatest  amount  of  moisture,  and  re- 
quire careful  making,  but  produce  a  very  nutritive 
and  ]ialatable  h;iy.  As  soon  as  thorou'dily  dry  it 
should  lie  put  at  once  into  the  stack  or  rick."!i'iid 
well  trodden  down.  A  certain  amount  of  heating 
improves  the  flavor,  and  renders  the  hay  more  pala" 
table  to  every  sort  of  stock.  When,  as  "is  sometimes 
the  case,  it  is  imperfectly  made,  or  picked  up  too  soon, 
it  gets  over-heated,  and  becomes  dark  brown  or 
black,  its  nutritive  properties  are  diminished  ;  it  is, 
moreover,   apt  to  disagree    with  both    horses  and 


HAZAREE 


20 


HEADING-LATHE. 


cattle,  and  can  only  be  profitalily  used  when  mixed  | 
witli  straw  and  cut  into  cluitf .  Hay  put  togetlier 
when  damp  from  rain  or  dew  dcjes  not  heat,  as 
when  it  contains  an  undue  amount  of  natural 
moisture,  but  speedily  molds.  When  hay  has  been 
injured  and  weathereii  by  repeated  rains,  it  may  be 
rendered  more  palatable  by  scattering  a  little  com- 
mon salt  over  the  rick  whilst  it  is  being  built.  { 
Throughout  Scotlaml  eight  or  ten  pounds  of  salt  to 
the  ton  is  very  generally  used  alike  for  clover  and 
grass  hay.  In  the  midland  and  southern  districts  of 
England" the  best  hay  is  generally  got  up  in  June; 
but^in  Scotland,  little  is  carried  until  the  middle  of  ' 
July.  When  the  crop  is  good,  and  everything  done 
well,  the  cost  of  hand  and  horse  labor  expended  upon 
the  hay  before  it  is  safely  ricked  will  approach  30s. 
per  ton.  The  cro]5  averages  from  one  to  two  tons 
per  acre.  Hay  that  has  stood  for  seed  is  tougher 
and  less  nutritive  than  that  cut  earlier,  for  the  sugar, 
gum.  and  glutten  of  the  matured  seed. have  beeu  ab- 
stracted from  the  stems,  which  are  tlien  apt  to  be 
little  better  than  straw. 

HAZAREE. — An  Indian  term  signifying  the  Com- 
mander of  gun-men.  It  is  derived  from  Jiraar, 
whieli.  in  its  literal  interpretation,  signifies  a  thou- 
sand. 

HEAD. — In  gunnery,  the  fore  part  of  the  cheeks  of 
a  gun  or  howitzer-carriage.  The  term  htdd  is  em- 
ployed with  other  words,  in  varioits  militaiy  phrases 
as,  the  head  nf  a  imrk.  in  fortification,  or  the  front 
next  to  the  enemy,  and  farthest  from  the  place  ;  head 
iif  an  unity,  or  the  front,  whether  drawn  up  in  lines 
or  on  a  march,  in  column,  etc.;  head  nf  a  camp,  or 
tlie  ground  before  which  an  army  is  drawn  up.  The 
hradoi  a  double  tenaille  is  the  salient  angle  in  the 
center  and  the  two  other  sides  which  form  the  re- 
entering angles. 

HEADER.  In  a  revetment,  a  brick,  stone,  or  sod 
laid  witli  its  eud  outward.     See  Sad  Revetment. 

HEADING. — 1 .  The  device  of  the  sign.al-rocket ; 
such  ;is  a  .■<tar-heading.  or  a  huinice-headiiig.  2.  In 
mining,  tlie  end  of  a  drift  or  gallery;  the  line  of  an 
intended  tunnel,  especially  one  of  relatively  small 
size,  which  forms  a  gullet  in  which  the  workmen 
labor ;  also  a  horizontal  passage  between  the  shifts 
or  turns  of  the  working  parties. 

HEADING-LATHE.— A  lathe  used  for  turning  down 
gun  castiusxs,  and  for  prepariui:  them  for  the  boring- 
machine.  The  cascabel-beariug.  base  of  breech,  and 
a  section  of  the  chase  are  all  turned  down  to  finished 


muzzle  is  introdticed  and  projects  several  inches 
l)eyond  the  face  of  the  muzzle-ring,  in  which  po.sitioD 
it  is  approximately  centered,  and  held  firmly  in  jjlace 
l)y  adjustable  screws  in  the  chuck  and  muzzle-ring. 
The  bretch  is  adjusted  by  placing  a  sharp  pointed 
instrument  in  the  rest,  and  bringmg  it  in  c(mtacl 
with  the  surface  of  the  casting  liear  the  base-line, 
and  while  turning  the  gun — which  is  done  by  ma- 
chinery— the  screws  in  the  chuck  are  moved  until 
coincidence  of  the  line  around  the  gun  is  obtained. 
At  the  muzzle  a  bar  of  iron  is  laid  upon  blocks,  so 
tliat  it  shall  be  just  inside  the  bore,  and  nearly  in 
contact  with  its  interior  surface.  As  the  gun  turns, 
the  distance  between  this  point  and  the  metal  of  the 
bore  is  observed,  and  equalized  approximately,  by 
the  screws  in  the  muzzle-ring  bearing.  A  wooden 
disk  turned  to  fit  the  bore  accurately,  bearing  a  string 
attached  to  its  center,  is  then  pushed  to  the  bottom 
o,f  the  bore,  and  made  to  assume  a  position  in  a  plane 
perpendicular  to  its  axis.  The  string  from  the  center 
of  the  disk  is  long  enough  to  reach  some  distance 
outside  the  muzzle ;  the  outer  end  being  made  fast 
to  an  upright  the  same  height  as  the  inner  end  or 
center  of  disk ;  the  string  is  now  hauled  perfectly 
taut,  and  the  gun  again  turned,  a  square  lieing  placed 
upon  blocks  about  one  foot  in  front  of  the  muzzle, 
close  to  the  string ;  and  as  the  gun  revolves,  the 
distance,  if  any,  which  the  string  deviates  from  the 
square,  is  o])served  and  corrected  by  again  moving 
the  screws  in  the  muzzle-bearing.  When  properly 
centered,  the  string  will  remain  in  the  same  position 
in  the  square  and  be  the  same  distance  from  the  in- 
terior surface  of  the  gun,  throughout  an  entire  revo- 
lution, showing  that  the  axis  of  the  gun  and  lathe 
coincide.  With  the  hollow-cast  gun  it  is  necessary 
that  it  should  be  centered  from  the  bore,  as  it  some- 
times happens  that  its  axis  does  not  coincide  with 
the  axis  of  the  casting,  which  is  one  reason  for  cast- 
ing them  above  the  true  size,  to  admit  of  being 
finished  by  the  interior,  or  so  that  the  axis  of  the 
cast  bore  shall  coincide  with  that  of  the  gun  when 
turned.  The  gun  being  centered,  the  turning  com- 
mences at  the  muzzle ;  this  is  done  by  placing  a  tool 
in  the  rest,  which  is  brought  in  contact  with  the 
surface  at  tlie  desirad  point,  the  metal  being  turned 
off  as  tlie  gun  revolves.  The  re»t.  or  support  which 
holds  the  tool,  is  arranged  to  move  in  two  directions, 
one  towards  the  gun,  or  at  right  angles  to  the  axis 
of  the  lathe,  by  which  means  the  depth  of  cut  is  regu- 
lated, and  the  other  in  line  parallel  with  the  a.xis, 


Ilt'juliii 

dimensions  wliile  in  this  lathe,  as  the  chase  and 
inunded  pari  of  the  cascalic'l-knob  form  the  bearings 
for  the  boring-lathe.  The  cut  at  th,'  muzzle,  or  place 
where  tlie  ninkiiig-head  is  to  be  broken  off.  is  also 
made  in  this  lathe.  Tli.;  bearing  in  which  this  muz- 
zle-ring revolves  is  a  heavy  casting,  the  bottom  of 
which  fits  into  grooves  in  the  rack,  and  can  be  moved 
to  or  from  the  chuck,  being  adajjtable  to  long  or 
short  gtins.  To  maki^  the  ailjustnient  in  the  lathe, 
the  sun  is  lowered  into  place,  the  scpiare  knob  in 
rear  of  the  cascabel  fitting  into  tlie  chuck,  while  the 


that  is  from  muzzle  to  breech.  The  last  movement 
is  elTeeted  by  means  of  a/"/,  the  motion  being  given 
by  a  fork  attached  to  cine  of  the  trunnions,  ami  at 
every  revolution  of  the  gun  the  rest  is  made  to  ad- 
vance. The  first  cut  is  usually  an  inch  deep,  com- 
mencing at  the  muzzle  where  the  sinking-head  is  to 
be  cut  "off  and  extending  30  inches  towards  the 
trunnions.  The  second  and  third  cuts  are  com- 
menced at  the  same  jioint  as  the  firsi,  and  are  about 
one  and  one-eighth  iiie'ies  deep;  increasing  as  the 
tool  advances  in  the  cun.  other  cuts  are  made  until 


HEADLESS  SHELL  EXTB&CTOB. 


21 


HEAUME. 


Tii'B. 


tin'  inctal  is  rcdiicfd  to  llic  flnisliiiiL'  (Ii;iiiictir.  Tlir 
cut  111  the  imi/.y.lc,  or  llic  |il;ici-  where  Hie  "siiiUiiiL'- 
liciid"  it  tci  lie  lirokcii  oil',  is  next  iiiuile;  its  deplli 
is  usually  ididut  seven  inches,  or  to  within  tlirc'e  or 
four  inches  of  the  ciist  bore.  The  nun  is  nrtw  taken 
from  the  liithe,  and  the  '•  sinkini^-heiid  "  hroken  or 
wedijed  oil',  at  wliicli  time  the  appearance  of  the 
mclal  at  the  fracture  should  licexaiuined  as  t<i  color, 
form,  and  size  of  crystals,  texture,  and  whether  sharp 
to  the  touch  :  it  is  also  necessary  to  ascertain  its  de- 
gree of  hardness  and  how  the  metal  works  under  the 
tools,  ill  the  ditlereiit  stages  of  its  fabrication;  all 
of  which  should  lie  duly  noted  and  form  ]iart  of  the 
record  of  the  nun.      See  Fininliinri  and  Liithi'. 

HEADLESS  SHELL  EXTRACTOR.  -'Phis  implement, 
devised  liy  l.iiulcniint-cojonel  A.  U.  liiitHnnt"'!. 
United  States  Army,  for  the  SprinL'ticId  rille  and 
carbine,  consists  of  two  parts  of  teinpereil  steel,  the 
extractor  proper,  Fij;.  2,  and  small  cyliiiilrical  drift, 
Fi.n-  •'•  f'"'  setting  out  the  prfinns,  carried  screwed 
Into  end.  A,  of  extractor.  Fiir.  I  shows  them  to- 
gether as  they  should  be  habitually  kept  and  used  for 
(ill  extract  ions  from  the  linn  of  the  rille.  Tlie  extractor 
proper  is  a  hollow  cylinder,  ritled  on  the  exterior  to 
correspond  with  the  ritlinir  of  the  ritlc  barrel,  with 
four  transverse  grooves  to  the  ik'pth  of  the  ritlinir. 
Inside  it  is  shaiied  at  the 
pronji-cnd  to  receive  tlie 
point,  (',  of  drift  and  permit 
a  limited  expansion;  at  the 
Other  end  it  is  tiipped  for  the 
Bcrew-lhread,l).of  the  drift. 
Three  cuts  longitudinally  di- 
vide one  end  into  'A  prongs, 
F.  around  which  is  ;i  screw- 
tliread,  15,  for  takiiii:  hold 
of  the  shell  irh(  ii  in  thi  rhiiii,. 
her.  The  drift  is  ;i  cylindri- 
CkI  piece  of  three  diameters  : 
the  head,  E,  thread  D,  am 
point,  C.  The  head  is  suf 
hclently    small   to  allow   it 

to  pass  throiurli  tbe  bore;  the  cavity,  G,  in  it  pre- 
vents injury  to  tirinn-pin.  The  thread  secures  it  to 
extractor.  Tlie  point,  when  driven  lietween  the 
prongs  of  extnictor  as  far  as  possible,  sets  them  out 
enfflciently  to  remove  a  shell,  but  not  far  enough  to 
touch  the  walls  when  passed  into  the  empty  chamber. 

The  i)arts  shoulil  lie  kept  screwed  toirether  and 
never  se|)arated  for  use,  in  niiy  rime,  until  after  ])ass- 
ins  it  iis  a  whole — solid  (drift)  end  foremost  throuirh 
the  liore  from  the  muzzle — and  failing  to  remove  the 
shell.  Passin;:  it  thus — iisinn  larsjer  end  of  hammer 
to  do  so — will  remfive  any  shell  or  part  of  shell  in 
the  bore,  or  sliirlitly  protruding  into  it  from  the 
chaml)er.  Failing  to  do  so,  nnscrew  the  drift ;  in- 
pert  the  extractor,  pronn  end  foremost,  into  the 
chamber;  close  the  breech;  pass  the  drift,  ])oint 
foremost,  into  the  bore  at  the  muzzle  ;  follow  it  vvitli 
the  hirner  end  of  ranuner;  drive  it  iiently  "  home  " 
lietween  tlie  pronns  of  extractor;  open  the  breech 
and  drive  out  the  shell.  After  the  shell  is  out.  the 
two  ]«irts  either  separate  or  can  lie  separated  by  the 
finiters,  and  tlie  shell  removed  from  the  extractor. 
The  prouiTs  beinsr  in  the  mouth  of  the  chaml)er.  the 
point  of  drift  invariably  enters  between  them  if  the 
drift  be  passed  thnuiLTh  the  bore  as  directed.  In 
case  of  aecumuhited  or  liardened  fouling  or  dirt  in 
the  bore,  the  extractor  as  a  whole,  as  directed,  may 
lie  piissed  through  it  with  advautaire  either  as  a  pre- 
liminary to  cleiuiinu  or  wiping,  or  to  remove  the 
cauw  of  swelled  and  burst  barrels.  In  the  latter 
case  it  should  be  used  just  before  each  shot  when 
at  the  target,  or  :is  often  as  convenient  when  himt- 
tns  or  in  battle.     See  Sprinf/field  Hifie. 

HEAD -QUARTERS.— A  term  senerally  imderstood 
to  me;in  the  residence  of  the  t'omm;aider-in-('liief. 
whetluT  in  camp  or  elsewhere.  It  is  also  applicable 
to  the  place  where  the  officer,  commandinsrany  in- 
dependent position  or  body  of  troops,  resides  ;  hence. 


till'  center  of  authority  tir  order.  The  headquarters  of 
the  whole  British  Army  isat  the  Horse  (Jiiiirds.  where 
the  Coinmaniler-iii-Chief  has  his  permanent  offlces. 

HEADSTALL. —Tliat  part  of  the  briille  which  en- 
comp;isse>  ilie  head;  the  bridle  minus  the  bit  anil 
rein  ;   the  halter  minus  the  hitchinfr-Htrap. 

HEAD  STOCK.— Tiiat  i.orlion  of  a  lathe  which  con- 
tains the  mandrel  or  l/ri-  spindle  on  which  the  work 
is  clunked  or  to  which  it  is  downed,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  <«//-stock  which  contains  the  (lend 
spindle.  The  livr-hciul  as  distinguished  from  the 
(/«;'/-head. 

HEARSAY  EVIDENCE.— Evidence  (.'iveii  at  second- 
hand, where  Ihi  witness  states  not  what  he  himself 
saw  or  heard,  but  what  somebody  else  said.  TliiB 
evidence  is,  as  a  freneral  rule,  inadmissible.  becaiiHe 
the  axiom  is,  that  the  best  evidence  that  can  be  had 
iiuist  be  produced,  and  therefore  Ciich  witness  must 
be  confined  to  stating  what  he  knows  of  his  own 
personal  knowledge,  or  what  he  has  Iciirncil  by  the 
aid  of  his  own  senses ;  and  as  he  is  sworn  to  the 
truth,  his  truthfulness  is  tlius  secured,  as  far  as  hu- 
man testimony  can  be  so.  If  evidence  were  once 
admitted  at  second-hand,  there  would  be  no  limit  to 
its  uncertainty,  and  there  would  be  thus  introduced 
vairue  statements  of  absent  persons,  who.   not  bein;; 


15^3 


CT-1 1 


Headless  Hhell-extructor. 
sworn  when  they  made  them,  are  therefore  incapa- 
1)le  of  beinn  punished  if  they  speak  falsely,  and  can 
not  be  cross-examined.  Thouirh  such  is  the  sren- 
eral  rule,  yet  there  are  a  few  exceptions  which  are 
unavoidable,  owing  to  the  nature  of  tlie  thing.  Thus, 
in  proving  pedigrees,  the  hearsay  evidence  of  per- 
sons connected  with  the  family,  and  those  onlv,  is 
admitted  in  Enghind  ;  Imt  in  Seoflanil  it  is  admitted 
though  tlie  persons  were  not  connected  with  the 
family.  A  remarkat)le  exception  also  exists  in  the 
ease  of  dying  declarations,  i.  e..  statements  made  Iiy 
persons  mortally  wounded  and  in  the  prospect  of 
death ;  but  in  England  such  evidence  is  only  ad- 
mitted in  criminal  cases,  on  a  charge  of  manslaughter 
or  murder.  In  Scotland  .such  declarations  are  ad- 
mitted in  all  cases  of  violence,  and  though  the  party 
at  the  time  did  not  lielieve  he  was  dying.  There  is 
another  exception  to  the  non-admissiiiility  of  lie;irsay 
evidence  allowed  in  Scotland,  but  not  in  EnLdami, 
viz.,  where  the  person  wlio  made  the  statement  is 
dead,  and  therefore  cannot  be  produced  as  a  witness. 
In  England  there  is  no  help  for  such  a  state  of  thing.s, 
and  the  statements  of  the  dead  person  cannot  be  ad- 
mitted :  but  in  Scotland,  if  there  was  no  reason  to 
suppose  the  contrary,  it  is  presumed  the  dead  wit- 
ness spoke  the  truth,  and  what  he  said  may  be  sriven 
in  evidence  for  what  it  is  worth,  both  inclvil  and 
crimin;d  cases. 

HEAUUE. — A  word  derived  from  the  German, 
which  formerly  signified  ningtif,  or  helmet.  The 
heaume  has  lieen  sometimes  called  anions  tlie 
French  .vilnde.  armet.  and  celntr  from  the  Latin  word 
which  means  engraved,  on  account  of  the  different 
figures  which  were  represented  upon  it.  The  heaume 
covered  the  whole  of  the  face,  except  the  eyes, 
which  were  protected  by  small  iron  liars  laid  cross- 
wise. It  served  as  an  armament  or  helmet  in  coats 
of  arms  and  armorial  bearings;  it  is  still  preserved 


HEAVE. 


22 


HELIOGEAPHY. 


iu  Hcralilry,  ami  is  a  distinguishiujr  mark  of  nobility. 

HEAVE. — A  command  given  wlieu  lifting  heavj- 
weiglits  or  moving  guns  into  position.  Tlie  hand- 
spikes being  in  position  and  manned,  at  the  com- 
mand. henFe.  all  bear  down  or  up  on  the  handspike 
simultaneously. 

HEAVIES.— The  common  expression  for  European 
heavy  cavalry.  They  receive  tlieir  name  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  light  cavalry,  from  their  equip- 
ment and  weight  being  greater  tlian  the  latter.  In 
the  British  service  there  are  7  regiments  of  Hmi'iat. 
viz.,  the  dragoon  guards.  The  weight  the  horse  of 
HenvUs  has  to  carry  is  over  19  stone.  See  Heavy 
Troops. 


HEDGES. — A  thin-set  hedge  cannot  be  placed  in  a 
good  state  of  defense,  and  should  tlierefore  be  de- 
stroj-ed,  to  prevent  its  interfering  in  any  manner 
with  the  defense.  At  the  best  this  defense  will  only 
serve  as  a  screen,  the  hedge  holding  tlie  earth  up. 
A  thick-set  hedge,  if  over  six  and  a  lialf  feet  liigli, 
should  be  cut  down  to  this  height,  and  the  cuttings 
be  set  into  the  hedge  to  back  the  earth  better ;  a 
small  ditch  is  dug  in  front  of  the  hedge,  the  earth 
from  which  serves  to  form  a  banquette  and  a  slight 
parapet,  which  are  thrown  up  against  the  hedge.  If 
the  liedge  is  less  than  six  and  a  half  feet  high  it  is 
cut  down  to  the  height  of  four  and  a  quarter  feet ; 
a  ditch  or  trench,  about  three  feet  wide  at  bottom. 


Section  of  Parapet  behind  a  Hedge  and  a  Ditch  in  front  of  it 

HEAVT-AEMED  INFANTRY.— Among  the  early 
soldiery,  sucli  of  the  infantry  as  wore  complete 
armor,  and  engage<l  with  broad  shields  and  long 
spears.  They  were  the  flower  and  strength  of  the 
Grecian  armies,  and  had  the  highest  rank  of  military 
honor.     See  Infuntn). 

HEAVY  MASCHING  ORDER  —An  expression  ap- 
plied to  troops  equipped  for  permanent  field  service 
with  arms,  accouterments,  knapsacks,  canteens,  and 
haversacks. 

HEAVY  METAL. — Large  guns  carrying  balls  of  a 
lar^e  size  ;  also,  large  balls  for  such  gims. 

HEAVY  ORDNANCE.— Ordnance  of  great  weight 
and  caliber.  In  the  United  States  the  term  is  re- 
stricted in  the  land  service  to  sea-coast  ordnance. 
See  fJrflndiire. 

HEAVY  TROOPS. — The  troops  which  compose  the 
three  prhtcipiil  (inns  are  generally  subdivided  into 
two  classes,  hffiry  and  light;  partly  arising  from  the 
nature  of  their  weapons,  and  partly  from  their 
destination  on  the  field  of  battle.  This  subdivision 
is  less  marked  in  the  infantry  than  in  that  of  the 
other  arms ;  for  although  in  most  foreign  armies,  a 
portion  of  the  infantry  carries  a  salier  with  the  mus- 
ket, still  this  additional  weapon  is  of  rather  question- 
able utility  ;  for  the  musket  is  the  one  which,  under 
all  circumstances  of  attack  and  defense,  will  be  re- 
sorted to.  All  infantry  now  receive  the  same  in- 
struction ;  but  whether  a  portion  of  it  ought  not  to 
be  reserved  especially  for  the  duties  consigned  to 
light  troops,  is  still  a  disputed  point.  As  the 
functions  of  heavy  cavalry  are  to  bear  down  all  op- 
position, and  present  an  impassable  wall  to  the 
enemj''s  efforts,  its  duties  are  confined  to  the  battle- 
field ;  there,  placed  in  the  reserve,  it  is  held  in  hand 
\mtil  the  decisive  moment  arrives,  when  it  is 
launched  forth  to  deal  a  blow  from  which  the  enemy 
hopelessly  struggles  to  recover,  either  to  achieve 
victory,  or  to  fend  off  utter  defeat.  To  light  cavalry 
are  intrusted  the  imiiortanl  duties  of  securing  from 
surprise  the  flanks  of  the  heavy  ;  to  watch  over  the 
safety  of  liorse  artillery,  and  to  ])erform  the  services 
re(iuired  of  tliem  by  infantry  divisions,  and  those  of 
detachment  service  in  general.  The  arlillery,  which 
had  for  a  long  jieriod,  and  even  still,  preserves  the 
cliaracter  of  eminent  respectability,  has  of  late  years 
begun  to  infuse  a  <lash  of  dare-ilevil  spirit  of  the 
cavalier  into  its  ranks.  If  it  has  not  yet  taken  to 
charging  literally,  it  has.  on  some  recent  occasions 
in  our  service,  shown  a  well-considered  recklessness 
of  obstacles  and  dangers,  fully  borne  out  by  JMstly 
deserved  sticcess.  The  distinction  between  liglit 
anil  heavy  in  this  arm  arises,  not  only  from  the  dif- 
ference of  calilier  in  tlie  jiieces,  but  also  in  a  differ- 
ence of  their  tactical  application. 


Section  of  a  Hedge  Defense  with  Trench  in  rear. 

and  two  feet  deep,  is  dng  behind  the  hedge,  and  the 
earth  is  thrown  up  against  it.  as  in  the  last  case.  A 
width  of  two  or  three  feet  should  be  left  between  the 
trench  and  the  earth  thrown  against  the  hedge  to 
serve  as  a  banquette.  A  simple  ditch  behind  a  hedge 
will  often  serve  as  a  good  cover  for  light  troops 
without  any  other  preparation.     See  Walls. 

HEEL. — That  part  of  a  thing  corresponding  in 
position  to  the  human  heel ;  the  lower  back  part,  or 
part  on  which  a  thing  rests.  In  a  small-arm  it  is  the 
corner  of  the  butt  which  is  upwards  in  the  firing 
position.  The  heel  of  a  sword  is  the  uppermost  part 
of  the  blade,  next  to  the  hilt.  It  is  generally  larger 
and  more  massive  than  the  rest  of  the  blade. 

HEEL-PIECE.— The  armor  for  the  heels  ;  also,  the 
plate  on  the  butt-end  of  a  gun-stock.  This  is  some- 
times called  the  heel-plate. 

HEGEMONY. — Leadership:  preponderant  influence 
or  authority ;  usually  applied  to  the  relations  of  a 
Govermment  or  State  to  its  neighbors  or  confeder- 
ates. 

HEIRESS. — In  Heraldry,  a  lady  is  accounted  as  an 
heiress  if  she  has  no  lirothers  who  leave  issue.  The 
husband  of  an  heiress  is  entitled  to  bear  her  arms 
in  an  escutcheon  of  pretense,  1.  e.,  a  small  escutch- 
eon in  the  center  of  his  paternal  shield,  and  the 
children  of  an  heiress  may  quarter  her  arms  with 
their  paternal  coat.  Neither  practice  is  of  very 
early  introduction  in  Heraldry.  See  Marshaling  of 
Arms. 

HELEFOLIS. — In  the  ancient  art  of  war,  a  machine 
for  battering  down  the  walls  of  a]  place  besieged. 
Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 
Diodorus  Siculus  says  that  each  side  of  the  helepolis 
was  4.50  cubits  broad,  and  90  in  height ;  that  it  had 
nine  stages,  or  floors,  and  was  carried  on  four  striing 
solid  wlieels,  8  cubits  in  diameter  ;  that  it  was  armea 
with  huge  battering-rams,  and  had  two  roofs  capable 
of  supporting  them;  that  in  the  lower  stages  there 
were  different  sorts  of  engines  for  casting  stones,  and 
in  the  middle  they  had  large  catapults  for  launching 
arrows. 

HELIOGRAPHY.— The  name  applied  to  the  method 
of  communicating  between  distant  points  in  which 
visual  signals  are  ol)tained  by  reflecting  the  rays  of 
the  Sim  from  a  mirror  or  combination  of  mirrors  in 
the  reipiired  direction.  This  method  can  be  only 
employed  to  advantage  in  places  where  the  sky  is 
free  from  clouds  and  the  almosplicrc  dear  for  con- 
siderable )ieriods  of  lime,  and  the  fact  that  an  atiiios- 
])heric  change  may  in<lertiiitely  delay  the  Iransmissioll 
of  a  message  is  an  insu]ieralile  objection  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  ])crmaiien1  lieliographic  stations  in 
most  climates.  In  suitable  localities,  however,  heli- 
ography  possesses  important  advantages  for  military 


HELIOGHAPHY. 


28 


HELIOGHAPHY. 


siiiiialliiii;  over  cither  mcdiodr*,  llic  principnl  licinu 
the  ]ii)rliiliility  of  llic  iiiiimriiliio,  llur  f;rcal  distimc-c 
t.i)  which  MicssiiK<'X  ''lui  hi;  sent,  wilhoiil  rclriinsiiiis- 
sicin,  and  the  fact,  that,  th('  sifjiialw  arc  visihh'  t<i  those 
only  who  are  on  tlie  <lirect  line  of  siL'nallini;.  An 
intere-itini;  and  instrmtive  ])aper  entitled  "The 
Elc'iiieuts  of  the  lleli(jgrapli,"  hy  Lieutcuaiit  Fred- 


erick K.  Ward,  United  States  Army,  has  lieen  pul)- 
lished  in  Signal  Service-  Notes,  No.  XI;  and  to  this 
paper  we  are  indebted  for  the  substance  of  the  fol- 
iowinr;  discussion. 

A  complete  instrument  consists  essentially  of  'two 
plane  mirrors  and  a  sightinji-rod,  and,  when  a '  'stand- 


Fig.  ■!. 

ing  flash  "  is  used,  a  screen.  Tlie  mirrors  are  firmly 
supported,  usually  on  a  tripod,  and  are  fitted  with 
vertical  and  horizontal  tangent-screws.  By  means 
of  the  tangent  screws  the  mirrors  can  be  turned  on 
.their  supports  so  as  to  face  in  any  desired  direction 
toward  the  sky.     When  a  movable  flash  is  used,  one 


\ 


/ 


,/ 


Fig.  .3. 
of  the  mirrors  is  so  mounted  that  a  motion  of  three 
or  four  degrees  about  its  horizontal  axis  can  be  given 
it  indeiiendently  of  the  tangent-screw,  so  that  the 
flash  can  be  thrown  on  and  otl'  the  receiving-station 
at  will,  and  quickly.  The  screen,  when  used,  is  on 
a  separate  support,  in  order,  when  working,  to  avoid 


I 

any  shaking  of  the  mirrors.  Both  mirrors  are  used 
wlii'U  tlur  signalman  facing  the  receiving-station  lias 
the  sun  in  his  riar.  When  the  sun  is  in  his  front,  or 
ni'arly  at  his  right  or  left,  only  oik;  mirror  is  used 
Tlu'  sight  in L'-r<jd,  as  its  name  implies,  is  an  auxiliary 
used  with  the  tangent-screws,  to  put  and  keep  the 
mirrors  in  such  a  position  that  the  Hash  can  be 
thrown  with  certainty  on  the  receiving-station. 

Till'  principles  involved  in  the  heliogra|ih  arc  few 
anrl  simpler:  l.,et  .S,  Fig.  1.  represent  the  sun,  and 
.1  /i  a  ])lain  mirror.  C'imsider  first  the  light  from  the 
sun  incident  on  A /I  at  a  single  point,  r.  Only  two 
outside  rays  are  shown  in  tjie  ligure.  Since  angles 
of  inciilcnce  and  retlcction  are  always  equal ,  the  angle 
«'  is  eipial  to  tin'  angle  «,  and  it  is  apparent,  without 
further  explanation,  that  the  converging  cone  of 
light  from  S,  incident  lan,  becomes,  after  reflection, 
a  diverging  cone  of  precisely  the  same  dimensions. 
\  sixctator  anywhere  within  this  diverging  cone 
will  see  th(^  reflected  light  on  looking  toward  c.  The 
incident  r'onc  is  aright  cone  with  a  circular  liase; 
therefore  a  right  secti<in  of  the  rellected  cone  will  lie 
a  circle  whatever  may  bt-  the  angle  of  incidence. 
The  radius  of  the  circle  will  be  equal  to  the  natural 
tangent  of  in,  or  the  natural  tangent  of  the  sun's, 
semi-diameter  to  a  radius  eijual  to  the  distance  from 
(■  to  the  plane  of  the  section.  This  will  be  apparent 
from  Fig.  2. 

Now,  suppose  Ali  to  be  a  sipiare  mirror,  and  con- 
sider next  the  four  cones  of  light  reflected  from  the 
four  corners.  The  angle  at  the  sun  subtended  l)y 
the  diameter  of  the  mirror  would  be  inappreciable, 
therefore  the  axes  of  these  four  cones  are  sensibly 
parallel.  The  cones  themselves  evi<lently  define  the 
figure  of  illumination.  Pass  a  plane  perpendicular 
to  the  axes  and  they  will  pierce  it  in  four  points,  de- 
fining a  parallelogram,  the  sides  of  which  will  not 
exceed  those  of  the  mirror  in  length.  The  axes  pro- 
ceed obliquely  from  the  mirror,  therefore  the  par- 
allelogram will  be  oblifjiie.  This  parallelogram  is 
represented  in  full  in  Fig.  3.  The  cutting-plane 
makes  a  right  .section  ot  the  cone  surrounding  each 
axis,  and  we  have  already  seen  that  this  section  is  a 
circle  having  a  radius  equal  to  the  natural  tangent 
of  the  sun's  semi-diameter  to  a  radius  equal  to  the 
distance  from  the  cutting-plane  to  the  apex  of  the 
cone  on  the  mirror.  With  these  radii  describe  cir- 
cles about  the  comer  points,  and  join  these  circles 
by  tangents.  The  resulting  enclosed  figure  is  a 
right  sectiim  of  the  solid  of  illumination.  Now, 
since  the  axes  of  the  four  cones  are  parallel,  the  di- 
mensions of  the  parallelogram  will  be  constant  for 
all  positions  of  the  cutting-plane.  The  radii  of 
the  four  circles  increase  with  the  distance  from  the 
mirror.  The  mean  value  of  the  semi-diameter  of 
the  sun  is  about  16  minutes,  the  natural  tan- 
gent of-which  to  a  radius  of  one  mile  is  24^ 
feet,  very  nearly.  The  mirrors  used  in  helio- 
graphs are  usually  from  4  to  G  inches  in  di- 
ameter. Therefore  at  a  distance  of  one  mile, 
the  circles  will  overlap  and  the  figure  of  il- 
lumination will  be  sensibly  a  circle  49  feet  in 
diameter.  At  a  distance  of  10  miles  from  the 
mirror  to  the  cutting-plane,  or  from  the  send- 
ing to  the  receiving-station,  the  circle  of  il- 
lumination is  490  feet  in  diameter.  And,  gen- 
erally, the  diameter  of  the  flash  at  the  receiv- 
ing-station, in  feet,  is  equal  to  49  multiplied 
by  the  distance  lietween  the  stations  in  miles. 
As  the  diameter  of  the  flash  increases  directly 
with  the  diflference  lietween  the  stations,  the 
adjustment  of  the  instrument  is  no  more  diffi- 
cult for  a  very  distant  station  than  for  one 
comparatively  near,  jirovided,  of  course,  that 
there  is  some  distinguishalile  landmark  to  adjiisl  by. 
In  all  patterns  of  the  heliograph  yet  made  the  mir- 
ror is  kept  in  adjustment  bv  means  of  what  is  called 
the  "dark  spot."  To  explain  this,  let  AB.  Fig.  4. 
rejircsent  a  glass  mirror,  fnmi  which  the  silvering 
i  has  been  removed  from  a   small  circle  representee! 


HEUOGRAPHY. 


24 


H£LIOG£APHY. 


by  cd.  about  the  center  of  motion  of  the  mirror. 
The  center  of  the  motion  must  lie  in  the  plane  of  the 
silvered  surface,  and  it  is  usually  at  the  center  of 
the  mirror.     Let/c/  aud  prfjr,  represent  the  cones 


Fig.  4. 

of  light  reflected  from  r  and  d,  respectivelj'.  Be- 
tween '■  and  ('  very  little  light  is  reflected,  and  a 
dark  cone  represented  b}'''<rf  is  formed,  the  angle 
red  beiui;  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  sun.  To 
deduce  a  general  expression  for  the  length  of  the 
dark  cone,  let  c  e  d.  Pig.  5.  represent  the  cone,  and 
m  €  its  axis,  the  length  of  which  represent  bj-  L. 
From  m  draw  m  ii  perpendicular  to  the  reflecting 
surface.  The  angle  i  is  equal  to  the  mean  angle  of 
reflection  or  incidence.  Let  d  represent  the  dia- 
meter of  the  unsilvered  spot  cd.  and  »  the  angle 
rfd,  which  is  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  sun. 
Then, 

j-_id,  cos  (i — h) 
~        sin  y 
TJeturniug  to  Fig.  4,  it  is  evident  that  the  axis  of  the 
dark  cone  is  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cone  of  re- 


Fig.  5. 

fleeted  light,  therefore  the  direction  of  the  reflected 
lisht  is  indicated  by  the  dark  cone.  The  sighting- 
rod  has  a  small  white  disc  at  its  ujjper  end.  Place 
the  rod  so  that  the  center  of  the  white  disc  shall  be 
between  e  and  c  d  on  the  axis  of  the  dark  cone  as 
represented  in  Fig.  6.  A  dark  spot  will  then  be 
seen  on  the  white  disc.  Leave  the  sighting-rod  in 
this  position.     In  about  one  minute  the  dark  spot 


Fig.  (;. 
■will  have  moved  to  one  side  of  the  disc,  because  of 
the  apparent  motion  of  tlie  sim.  It  can  be  returned 
to  the  center  of  tlie  unsilvered  spot  througli  the 
center  of  the  white  disc.  SutHcient  exactness  in  this 
iidjustmeni  is  not  diflicull  to  attain,  for,  as  already 
sliown,  the  circle  of  illumination  at  the  receiving- 
station  is  quite  large,  and  the  flash  is  visible  from 
liny  point  within. 

To  open  communication  with  a  (<istiint  station,  the 
mirror  being  on  its  support,  tlie  sightiug-rod  must  l)e 


so  placed  that  the  centers  of  the  unsilvered  spot  of 
the  white  disc,  and  of  the  receiving-station,  shall  be 
on  the  same  straight  line.  This  may  be  done  by 
looking  through  the  unsilvered  spot  at  the  station 
y,  and  placing  the  white  disc  to  cover  it.  In  prac- 
'-'  tice,  however,  it  is  found  easier  to  set  the  sight- 
ing-rod by  looking  into  the  mirror,  so  placing  the 
y  eye  that  the  unsilvered  spot  exactly  covers  the 
,  reflectioji  of  the  distant  station,  and  then,  with- 
^^  out  moving  the  eye  or  the  mirror,  bringing  the 
,  sighting-rod  into  view  by  reflection,  and  so  ad- 
'^  justing  it  that  the  reflection  of  its  disc  is  also  cov- 
ered by  the  unsilvered  spot.  Then,  if  the  mirror 
is  turned  by  its  tangent-screws  so  as  to  throw  the 
reflected  sunlight  past  the  sighting-rod  in  such  a 
direction  as  to  show  the  dark  spot  on  the  disc, 
the  flash  will  be  visible  from  the  distant  station. 
If  the  instrument  gives  a  standing  flash,  the  screen 
must  now  be  placed  st)  as  to  hide  or  cut  off  the  flash 
except  when  it  is  given  to  view  by  the  operator 
working  the  screen.  If  the  instrument  gives  a  mov- 
able flasli,  the  mirror  must  be  so  turned  that  the 
dark  spot  will  appear  on  the  white  disc  when  the 
key  provided  to  work  the  mirror  is  pressed  down. 
When  the  key  is  not  pressed  down,  the  dark  spot 
will  be  on  the  sighting  rod  a  little  below  the  disc, 
and  the  flash  will  not  then  be  visible.  No  particular 
value  of  the  angle  of  incidence  has  yet  been  con- 
sidered. It  is  necessary  to  consider  what  would  be 
the  effect  if  the  light  from  the  sun  should  fall  very 
obliquely  upon  the  mirror.  It  has  already  been 
shown  that  the  dimensions  of  the  flash  are  sensibly 
independent  of  the  angle  of  incidence.  But  the  case 
is  different  as  regards  the  strength  of  the  flash, 
and  on  this  the  range  of  the  instrument  depends. 
As  the  obliquity  increases,  the  mirror  intercepts  less 
and  less  light,  the  reflected  flash  becomes  corre- 
sjiondingly  weaker,  and  the  maximum  distance  from 
which  it  can  be  seen  distinctly,  that  is,  the  range  of 
the  instrument,  is  decreased :  and  further,  the  ex- 
pression for  the  length  of  the  dark  cone  shows 
that  the  length  decreases  as  the  angle  of  incidence 
increases,  becoming  practically  zero  when  the  angle 
of  incidence  is  nearly  ninety  degrees.  The  dark 
cone  would  then  fail  to  reach  the  sighting-disc  and 
tliere  would  be  no  longer  any  means  for  keeping  the 
flash  on  the  receiving-station.  These  difficulties  are 
avoided  by  the  use  of  a  second  mirror.  Fig.  7  ilhis- 
trates  how  the  two  mirrors  are  made  to  serve  the 
purpose.  The  figure  needs  no  explanation.  The 
mirror  which  faces  the  receiving-station  is  usually 
called  the  second  mirror.  The  preliminary  adjust- 
ment with  two  mirrors  is  very  similar  to  that  with 
one.  In  the  explanation  for  the  single  mirror,  men-  ■ 
tion  was  made  of  cones  of  diverging  reflected  rays 
only.  That  there  are  also  converging  reflected  raya 
will  be  evident  by  supposing  the  eye  placed  in  front 
of  the  mirror  and  looking  into  it.  There  would  then 
be  visible  an  image  of  the  sun  (see  Fig.  8).  This 
imaginary  sun  takes  the  place  of  a  real  sim  situated 
back  of  tlie  first  mirror  on  the  straight  line  through 
the  centers  of  the  two  mirrors.  The  first  mirror 
gives  the  light  to  the  second  from  a  fixed  direction ; 
therefore,  after  the  ])reliminary  adjustment  of  liotli 
mirrors  is  completed,  the  second  should  not  be 
touched.  The  flash  is  kept  on  the  distant  station  liy 
the  tanirent-screws  of  tlie  first  mirror. 

With  the  sun  at  the  zenith  the  angle  of  incidence 
would  be  about  4.1^.  Should  the  angle  of  incidence 
willi  a  singli-  mirror  approach  60^,  the  second  mirror 
would  be  broiiglit  into  use  to  decrease  it.  (iO"  then 
may  be  assumed  as  the  maxiniuin  angle  of  incidence. 
Th('  maximum  of  tlie  sun's  semi-diameter  is  1(>'  and 
18".  The  diameter  of  the  unsilvered  spot  is 
usually  about  f,,  of  an  inch.  These  values  in  the 
exjiression  for  //,  give  10  and  {■;,  inches  as  the  length 
!  of  the  dark  cone.  It  follows  that  when  the  un- 
silvered spot  is  |Y,  of  an  inch  in  diatiieter,  llie  ilistance 
from  the  center  of  the  mirror  to  the  sighting  disc,  or 
from  the  center  of  the  first  mirror  to  the  center  of 


HELIOSTAT. 


25 


HELIOSTAT. 


tlic  sccdricl,  must  not  exceed  nine  inches,  in  order 
Dial  llierc  simll  idwiiys  be  ii  dislinci  <liirl<  spot 

It  u\:i\  lie  of  iMl(  rest  to  dclcriiiini-  llu-  tiL'ure  and 
size  of  jilimi-  mirror  re(|insilc  to  iiivi-  the  muxinium 
stnii'.'th  of  fliisli.  liet  A /I.  Fij:.  ».  represent  a  plane 
mirror  situated  a  sliort  distance  from  tlie  eye  nt  f 


Zfffntfvcrr'. 


loolviug  at  tile  imailinary  iuuiL^e  of  tlie  sun.  formed 
by  retiectiou.  Tlie  imai^e  will  seem  to  cover  a  part 
of  the  surface  of  A  I!  represented  by  mn.  With  a 
very  small  anirle  of  incidence  mn  will  be  sensibly 
a  circle  from  every  point  of  which  light  is  reflected  to 


\ 


^ 


Kig.  S. 
the  eye.  That  portion  of  the  mirror  e.vterior  to  mn 
reHectsuoli;:lit  to  the  eye.  and  therefore  adds  nothing 
to  the  slreiigtli  of  the  Hash.  The  diameter  of  mn  evi- 
dently deijcuds  upon  tlie  diameter  of  the  sun  and 
tlie  distance  from  the  mirror  to  the  eye.  The  angle 
of  incidence  always  has  a  sensible  value,  and  there- 
fore  11(11  would  be   an  ellipse,  of   whicli   the  shorter 


than  the  tiajj.  The  extreme  range  of  the  Hag  with- 
out glasses  IS  not  over  two  miles,  and  with  a  lele- 
scojie  having  a  power  of  W  diameters  it  cannot  lie 
read  more  than  twenty  'iiiles.  At  the  latter  distance 
it  is  only  when  the  atmosphere  is  exceptionally  clear 
that  till- flag  can  be  seen  at  all.  The  average  speed 
ill  the  transmission  of  messages  by  Hag  is  about 
Ihrcc  words  per  ininuti-,  and  the  labor  of  swing- 
ing is  by  no  means  lii;ht.  A  man  well  jiraetieed 
in  the  use  of  the  lieliograjih  call  send  eight  words 
per  minute,  and  no  manual  labor  is  involved.  It 
is  more  tiresome  to  receive  from  the  heliograiih 
than  from  a  Hag,  because  the  concentration  of 
attention  required  and  the  strain  upon  the  eyes 
are  greater.  The  latter  trouble  may  be  niucli 
lessened  by  the  use  of  colori-d  glasses,  or  better 
still,  of  a  screen  which  will  cut  otV  the  glare  of 
the  sky  and  ground  without  obstructing  anv  of 
the  ligiil  from  the  distant  instrument.  The  flash 
from  a  Held  instrunient  can  be  seen  with  the  naked 
eye  from  85  to  TiO  miles,  and  that  from  a  larger  in- 
strument having  H  or  !)  inch  mirrors,  could  be  seen 
80  miles  or  more  without  glasses.  Permanent  sta- 
tions should  be  sujiplicd  with  both  sizes.  The  dust 
of  a  command  can  lie  distinguished 
.■it  gri'at  distances  with  glasses.  The 
Hash  being  then  thrown  on  the  ad- 
vance, the  command  wOuld  be  almost 
sure  to  see  it  before  having  moved 
across  and  out  of  it.  for  at  a  distance 
of  80  miles  it  is  nearly  one-third  of  a 
mile  wide.  It  would  most  certainly 
be  seen  by  some  one  if  the  whole  com- 
mand was  instructed  to  be  generally 
on  the  watch  for  such  signals.  With 
each  command  there  should  be.  of 
course,  a  heliograph.  By  halting  a 
short  time  the  t'ommauding  Officer 
might  obtain  information  of  the  great- 
est value,  and  at  the  same  time  give 
for  transmission  to  other  commands 
or  to  lieadi|uarters  such  information 
as  he  niiglit  possess.  In  a  section 
where  the  natural  features  are  favor- 
able, it  is  easy  to  see  how  a  few  per- 
manent stations  could  cover  a  large  extent  of  terri- 
tory and  keep  several  commands  in  communication 
with  each  other,  enablin;:  them  to  operate  in  cimcert 
and  to  accomplish  wliat  would  otherwise  have  lieeii 
iinpossilile.  See  Iltliimtiit  and  Lmkiug-gUtxa  Hlg- 
niiliiifi. 
HELIOSTAT. — Heliostat  and  heliotrope  are  names 


axis  would  be  double  the  natural  tangent  of  the  sun's  |  applied  to  instruments  used  by  surveyors  for  render- 
semi-diameter  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  distance  from 
the  receiving  to  the  sendiug-station.  The  longer 
axis  would  increase  with  tlie  angle  of  incidence. 
From  this  it  appears  that,  at  a  distance  of.  say,  10 
mile-,  a  mirror  400  feet  in  diameter  would  be  re- 
quired for  the  niaximum  strength  of  Hash.  But  that 
would  be  impracticalile.  and  indeed  it  would  never 
be  desirable,  for  the  Hasli  from  a  4-inch  mirror  has 
been  seen  with  the  naked  eye  at  a  distance  of  over 
3.5  miles,  and  that  from  a  1.5-incli  mirror  has  been 
seen  with  the  aid  of  a  small  telescope  at  a  distance 
accurately  determined  to  lie  102  miles. 

The  mirrors  of  a  heliograph  should  he  of  glass. 
Metallic  mirrors  would  be  lianl  to  keep  liright  in 
service,  and  they  are  open  to  a  still  more  serious 
objection.  It  is  necessary  that  mirrors  should  be 
as  nearly  i^lane  as  possible.  If  of  metal  they  would 
lie  liable  to  liecome  bent  or  indented.  The  injury 
might  be  so  .slight  as  not  to  be  ajiparent  and  still  be  ing  the  distant  stations  distinctly  visible.  This  is 
sufficient  to  make  it  impossible  to  give  a  good  Hash  managed  by  placing  a  mirror  at  the  distant  station, 
to  the  receiving-station.  (iliiss  mirrors  are  free  and  adjusting  it  so  that  at  a  particular  hour  of  the 
from  these  objections,  and  experience  has  shown  that  day  (arranged  beforehand),  the  light  of  the  sun  shall 
those  of  the  small  size  needed  are  not  likely  to  be  be  reflected  from  the  mirror  directly  to  the  survey- 
broken.  .\nd.  too,  in  the  field  it  would  be  easier  or's  station.  The  surveyor  must  make  his  obser- 
fo  replace  a  glass  mirror  than  one  of  metal.  The  vation  at  tlie  instant  he  sees  the  glancing  of  the  mir- 
heliograpli.  by  the  reason  of  its  greater  range,  is  a  ror,  as  the  constant  change  of  the  sun's  position  in 
much  more  valuable  iustruintp.t  for  Held  signaling   the  heavens  produces  a  corresponding  change  in  the 


HELM. 


26 


HELM. 


direction  of  tlie  rays  reflected  by  tlie  mirror.  Gauss 
invented  sucli  an  instrument  about  1831,  which  is 
mucli  used  in  America,  for  Geodetic  Surveys,  and 
is  said  to  possess  sucli  power,  tliat  a  mirror  1  incli 
square  is  visible  eiglit  miles  off,  in  average  sunny 
weather,  and  appears  as  a  brilliant  star  at  a  distance 
of  two  miles ;  while  some  heliotropes  have  been 
used  so  powerful  as  to  be  visible  nearly  80  miles  off. 
The  term  heliostat,  applied  by  Captain  Drummoud 
to  an  instrument  invented  by  him  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, more  properly  belongs  to  an  instrument  invent- 
ed by  S'Gravesande,  consisting  of  an  equatorial  re- 
volving on  its  polar  axis,  so  that  the  sim,  when 
once  accurately  in  the  focus  of  the  telescope,  con- 
tinues steadily  fixed  there.  Drunimond's  heliostat 
is  chiefly  used"  iu  Britain.  The  drawing  shows  the 
instrument  as  made  by  Fauth  &  Co.,  United  States, 
for  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey.  The  telescope 
body  is  an  iron  tube  ;  a  wood  screw  with  a  joint  is 
attached  at  the  middle,  so  that  the  instrument  can 
be  screwed  to  anv  tree  or  post.     See  Heliography . 

HELM.  HELMET.— 1.  In  Heraldry,  the  represen- 
tation of  a  helmet  over  shields  or  coats  of  arms. 
From  the  early  simple  form  known  as  the  Norman, 
the  helmet,  at  a  later  period,  came  to  vary  in  shape 


use  in  Continental  Heraldry.  A  Helmet  is  never 
placed  over  the  arms  of  any  woman  except  the  Sov- 
ereign. 

3.  A  covering  of  metal  or  leather  to  protect  the 
head  in  warfare.  The  earlier  Greek  and  Roman 
helmets,  as  shown  in  many  extant  sculptures,  were 
surmounted  by  plumes,  but  unlike  their  modem  suc- 
cessors, did  not  protect  the  face.     During  the  Middle 


lU'lmct  of  the  Middle  Ai^ee. 

according  to  the  degree  of  the  person  who  wore  it, 
and  helmets  were  set  over  coats  of  arms  to  bear  the 
crest,  and  indicate  by  their  form  the  rank  of  the 
bearer.  The  part  of  the  helmet  which  opens  to 
show  the  face  is  called  the  vimr  or  beaver  (to  allow 


Fieltl  Officers'  Helmet  with  Plume. 

Ages,  helmets  were  made  of  the  finest  steel,  often  in- 
laid with  gold,  and  provided  with  liars  and  tiaps,  to 
cover  the  face  in  action,  and  to  allow  of  being 
opened  at  other  times.  As  the  employment  of  flre- 
arms  became  more  general,  helmets  naturally  lost 
their  utility,  especialTy  as  regarded  the  face.  Those 
still  remaining  are  in  military  matters  limited  for  the 
most  part  to  heavy  cavalry,  afford  no  protection  to 
the  face,  and  must  be  considered  as  rather  for  orna- 
ment than  use.  Firemen  wear  a  heavy  head-piece 
of  leather  and  brass,  to  protect  them  as  far  as  pos- 
sible from  falling  ruins  at  conflagrations.     In  India 


Line  Officers'  Ilelmet,  U.  S.  Army. 


Privntes'  Felt  Helmet,  U.  S.  Army. 


.Siniiiu.jr  Ileliiiet,  with  spike. 


of  drinking).  Tlie  followinir  forms  of  helnu't  are 
in  use  in  Knglish  Heraldry  :  1.  The  helmet  assigned 
to  the  King  and  Princes  of  the  blood-royal,  which  is 
full-faced.  com|)osed  of  gold  lined  with  crimson, 
and  has  the  vizor  divided  by  six  projecting  bars. 
2.  The  helmet  of  the  nobility,  of  steel,  with  five 
bars  of  L'old.  When  placed  on  the  'shield,  it  is  ex- 
liibitcd  in  profile.  ;!.  Kiiiglils  and  Baronets  have 
the  full-faced  steel  hcliiict  with  the  vi/.or  thrown 
Ijack  and  witliout  bars.  4.  The  luliiiet  of  Ksi|iiircs, 
always  represented  in  profile,  of  steel  willi  the  vizor 
closed.  These  distinctions  are  of  comparatively  re- 
cent date.    A  much  greater  variety  of  helmets  is  in 


and  other  hot  climates,  helmets  of  white  felt,  with 
the  additional  screen  of  rolls  of  linen,  are  constantly 
worn  by  military  men,  to  protect  them  from  the  rays 
of  tlie  sun. 

In  the  United  States  army,  light  helmets  of  the 
following  descriptions  are  worn  as  a  part  of  the  full 
dress : 

IlelmeU  for  Field  Officers— The  body  :  of  cork  or 
otlicr  suitable  material,  covered  with  black  cloth, 
or  of  black  felt,  at  the  oiition  of  the  wearer.  Trim- 
mings :  cord  and  tassels,  top-iiiece  and  plume-socket, 
chain  chin-strap  and  hooks,  eagle  wtth  motto, 
crossed  cannon,  rifles,  or  sabers,  all  gilt,  with  the 


HELM  GUN. 


27 


HEMP. 


nuiiibrr  cif  the  regiment  on  the  Bliic-ld  in  wliite: 
pluiiic  of  Iji'iHiilo-lmir,  wliite  for  infantry,  ycDiiw 
for  ciivalry,  and  red  for  artillery.  UiimiU  fur  uthcr 
Miiiiiitfd  OJi'irn  tind  OJfi'-d'n  of  thr  Sii/ndl  <!itrpn— 
Same  as  aliovc  e.vcept  that  the  color  of  plume  i.** 
oranije  for  Sii;;iial  Corps.  IhlmiU  fur  oljiir  Offl'rri 
iif  h^ii'it  Troiipt — Same  lis  aliovc,  exeept  that  the 
trimiiiiiiijs  are  as  follows  :--'rop.pieee  spike,  chain 
chin-strap  with  hooks  and  side  Imltons.  eaijle  with 
motto,  crossed  ritles  or  cannon,  all  irill,  with  the 
iiiiiuber  of  the  reiriment  on  tin;  shield  in  ivliili'. 
Offi-irs'  Siniuiifr  HiIiiiiIh — IJ(jdy:  of  cork,  covered 
with  white  facini;  elolli :  top-piece  spike,  chain  chin- 
strap,  and  hooks  all  i^ilt.  The  helmet  cords  are 
attacheil  to  the  left  side  of  the  helmet  an<l  come 
down  to  the  left  shoulder,  where  they  are  held 
loL;ellier  by  a  slide;  one  cord  then  passes  to  the 
front  and  the  other  to  the  rear  of  the  neck,  crossini; 
upon  the  rii^hl  shoulder  and  passinii;  separately 
around  to  the  front  and  rear  of  the  rii^ht  arm,  where 
they  arc  ai^ain  united  and  held  toi^etlier  by  a  slide 
under  the  arm ;  the  united  cords  then  cross  the 
l)re  isl  and  are  looped  up  to  the  upper  button  ou  the 
left  side  of  the  coat. 

IltiiDfUfir  (ill  M'liiiited  Tnx'ps — Body:  of  I)lack 
felt,  with  ieatlier  chin-strap,  hirije  crossed  cannons 
or  sabers,  letter  of  company  and  number  of  rei;i- 
meut,  plain  side  buttons,  top-piece  and  i>lume- 
socket,  all  brass  ;  horse-liair  pbimes  and  cords,  and 
ban  1  with  rinss  of  the  color  of  the  arm  of  service. 
Helmetn  fir  nil  Foot  Trmipn — Of  same  pattern  and 
material  as  for  mounted  troops,  with  leather  chin- 
strap  ;  and  plain  side  buttons,  top-|iiece  and  spike,  of 
})rass.  Triiixinhujx — Commissary  Serireants.  a  cres- 
cent of  white  metal ;  Hospital  Stewards,  a  wreath  of 
brass,  with  letters  U.  S.  in  white  metal  ;  Engineers. 
a  castle,  with  letter  of  company  ;  Onlnance,  a  shell 
and  Hame;  Artillery,  crossed  cannons;  Infantry, 
crossed  ritles,  and  letter  of  company  and  ninnlier  of 
regiment,  all  in  brass.  Cork  helmets  are  supplied 
only  to  troops  servinu;  in  extremely  hot  climates, 
in  the  first  and  third  years  of  their  enlistment, 
and  these  only  in  lien  of  the  campaign  hat.  The 
necessity  for  such  issue  must  in  all  cases  be  certified 
to  by  tiie  Department  Commander.  See  (HHipmu 
HniK. 

HELM -GUN. — A  breech-loading  small-arm,  h;iving 
a  fixed  chamber  closed  by  a  movable  barrel,  whicli 
rotates  about  an  axis  p;ir;dlel  to  the  axis  of  the 
barrel.  The  peculiar  feature  of  this  arm  is  the  con- 
nection of  the  tuml)ler  with  a  movable  butt-phite. 
so  arranged  that  by  pressing  the  piece  against  the 
shoulder,  in  aiming,  the  hammer  may  be  simul- 
taneously cocked.  The  cylinder  also  can  be  con- 
veniently removed  from  the  side,  and  replaced  by  a 
loaded  one,  if  desired. 

HELOTS. — The  population  of  ancient  Sparta  was 
divided  into  four  classes,  the  lowest  of  whicli  was 
formed  of  serfs  or  slaves,  called  Helots  (probably 
meaning  i-nptieeii.  from  helein,  to  capture).  These 
Helots  are  generally  siipposed  to  have  formed  the 
original  population  of  the  country,  and  to  have  been 
reduced  to  bondage  by  their  Dorian  conquerors,  the 
muubers,  however,  being  swelled  fr<im  time  to  tinu- 
by  the  conquest  of  enemies.  They  tielonged  to  the 
State,  which  liad  the  power  to  set  them  at  li!)erty  ; 
Imt  they  toiled  for  individual  proprietors,  and  were 
IiiiiiikI  to  the  xoH.  i.e..  they  could  not  be  sold  away 
from  the  place  of  their  labor.  They  were  the  tillers 
of  the  land  (for  which  they  paid  a  rent  to  their  mas- 
ters), they  served  at  the  public  meals,  and  were  oc- 
cupied on  the  public  works.  In  war  tliey  served  as 
light  troops,  each  free-born  Spartan  who  bore  heavy 
armor  Iieing  accompanieil  to  battle  by  a  number  of 
them,  sometimes  as  many  as  seven.  On  rare  occa- 
sipus  they  were  used  as  heavy-armed  soldiers.  It  is 
a  matter  of  do\ibt  whether  after  emancipation  they 
could  ever  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of  Spartan  citi- 
zens. They  were  treated  with  much  severity  by 
their  masters,  and  were   subjected   to   degradation 


anil  indignities.  They  wen;  whippcil  every  year  to 
kei'p  them  in  mind  of  their  si'rvile  state;  they  were 
obliged  to  wear  a  distinctive  dress  fdolhesof  sheep- 
skin, and  a  cap  of  dog's  skin),  anil  to  into.\icatn 
themselves,  as  a  warning  to  the  Spartan  youth;  and 
when  multiplied  to  an  alarming  extent,  lliey  were 
often  massacred  with  the  most  barbarous  cruelty. 
On  one  occasion,  2000  of  tlniu,  who  iuid  behavi-d 
bravely  in  war,  were  encouraired  to  rome  forward 
for  emancipation,  and  were  then  most  treacherously 
put  to  death.  The  Spartans  organized,  as  fiften  a.s 
necessity  required  it,  Seerit  Servlcf.  <'umpiiuuit  of 
young  men,  who  went  itbroad  over  the  coimtry 
armed  with  daggers,  and  both  by  niL'ht  and  day 
assassinated  the  unfortunate  Helots,  selectini;  as 
their  special  victims  the  strongest  and  most  vigo- 
rous of  the  oj>presseil  race. 

HELVE. — 1.  A  tilt-hammer,  used  for  shingling 
the  balls  as  they  come  from  the  ])uddling-funiace. 
2.  The  wooden  handle  of  entrenching  tools,  such 
as  axes  (felling  and  pick.)  hatchets,  kodalies, 
shovels,  spades;  also  the  handle  of  certain  artificers' 
tools,  axes,  and  slediri-hanuners. 

HELVETU.-  .V  Celtic  people  inhabiting,  accord- 
ing to  Ca'sar,  the  region  between  the  mountains  of 
.lura  on  the  west,  the  Khone  on  the  south,  and  the 
Hhine  on  the  east  and  north,  the  region  correspond- 
ing pretty  closely  with  modern  Switzerland.  They 
had  12  towns  and  400  villages.  The  great  and  fa- 
tal event  in  their  history  is  their  attempted  irrup- 
tion into  and  conquest  of  Southern  (Jaul.  in  which 
they  were  repulsed  liyCiesar  with  frightful  slaugh- 
ter. The  story  of  this  expedition  is  circumstantially 
narrated  by  the  Roman  Commander.  They  col- 
lected 3  months'  provisions,  burned  their  12  cities, 
400  villages,  and  all  isolated  dwellings,  and  made  a 
general  rendozvous  by  Lake_Leman  in  the  spring  of 
.58  B.  c.  Caesar  hastened  to  Geneva,  destroyed  the 
bridge,  raised  two  legions  in  Cisalpine  (Jaul.  and  wlien 
the  Helvetians  sent  delei;ates  to  demand  a  passage, 
delayed  them  until  he  had  built  a  \v:dl  along  ijie 
Khone,  16  feet  high  and  about  lit  Koman  miles  in 
length,  flanked  with  redoubts.  Having  vainly  at- 
tempted to  pass  this  barrier,  the  Helvetii  took  an- 
other route,  but  were  followed  and  defeated  with  a 
terriljle  slaughter  at  Bibracte  (modern  Autun,  in 
Burgundy),  and  the  remnant  obliged  to  return  to 
their  own  country,  where  tliev  became  subject  to 
the  Romans.  Of  308,000  who  left  their  homes,  in- 
cluding 92,000  fighting-men,  only  110,000  returned. 
In  the  commotions  which  followed  the  death  of 
Nero,  the  Helvetians  met  with  another  terrible  ca- 
tastrophe. Remaining  faithful  to  Oalba.  they  were 
fallen  upon  by  Cacina.  a  General  of  Vitellius.  who 
gave  them  to  the  rapacity  of  his  legions.  They 
were  massacred  by  thousands,  multitudes  were 
sold  into  slavery,  and  their  towns  pillaged  and 
burned,  their  Capital  destroyed,  and  their  Governor 
executed.  From  this  time  they  scarcely  appear  as 
a  distinct  peo|)le. 

HEMERODEOMI.— In  Grecian  antiipiity,  runners 
or  couriers,  who  could  hold  out  to  run  all  day.  In 
a  coiuitry  like  Greece,  where  the  roads  were  few 
and  bad,  the  Hemerodromi  were  indispensable  for 
the  rapid  diffusion  of  important  news.  Every  Greek 
State  made  a  point  of  training  a  number  of  these 
men  who  could  travel  great  distances  in  an  incredi- 
bly short  space  of  time,  and  at  every  dangerous 
crisis  they  were  stationed  ou  commanding  points  to 
observe  and  report  at  head-quarters  what  it  was  ne- 
cessary for  the  authorities  to  know.  In  the  service  of 
the  Persian  Kings,  these  men  were  called  Angori, 
and  the  service  Angerdoii.  Among  the  Romans  they 
were  known  as  Crir.virtK. 

HEMP. — The  fiber  of  certain  plants  grown  both  in 
Europe  and  India,  known  as  the  ( 'n imtifn's  mtir/i  and 
iiidloi.  which  have  been  pronounced  identical  plants. 
In  various  notices  of  Indian  libers,  we  frequently 
meet  with  the  word  nuiiii  as  indicating  a  particular 
kind  of  hemp.     Sometimes  we  find   it  called  Indian 


HENCHMEN. 


28 


HEPTARCHY. 


hemp,  aud  we  ma}'  often  .see  hemp  enumerated  as 
one  of  the  exports  from  India,  at  other  times  we  may 
see  either  the  same  or  another  tilier  mentioned  by 
the  name  of  brown  hemp.  Tliese  various  names  are 
sometimes  applied  to  tlic  fiber  of  one  or  two  diflferent 
plants,  or  are  employed  to  distingidsh  the  tlber  of 
three  distinct  plants,  all  of  which  are  grown  for  their- 
fibers,  and  have  been  and  mioht  be  exported  from 
India;  though  onh'  two  of  them  are  now  usually  to 
be  foiinil  among  the  exports  from  that  couutr)-. 
Hence,  to  avoid  ambiguity,  it  is  necessary  to  notice 
the  plants  to  which  these  several  names  are  correctlj' 
applicable.  The  true  hemp  ( C'anmibix  fuitien).  gtinja 
of  the  natives,  is  everywhere  ctdtivated  in  the  plains 
of  India,  not  on  account  of  its  libers,  but  for  its  in- 
toxicating leaves  and  their  secretions.  In  the  Hima- 
layas, however,  the  tiber  is  separated  for  economic 
purposes,  aud  was  exported  from  India  to  England 
during  the  last  war,  and  this  has  been  the  ease  for 
many  years.  Tlie  tiber  of  the  xiinn  or  tmig  {dotal, 
(ifiii  jilncen)  is  often  called  Indian  hemp,  but  incor- 
rectly. It  is  the  kind  most  generally  cultivated  all 
over  India  on  account  of  its  fiber,  and  is  that  usually 
mentioned  in  the  exports  from  Calcutta  under  the 
name  of  hemp,  l)ut  also  as  mnn.  The  plant  nia_y  be 
distinguished  by  its  flowers  being  of  a  bright  )-ellow 
color,  aud  of  the  form  of  the  pe^i  and  of  "the  labur- 
num, while  the  leaves  are  entire  and  lanceolate.  The 
tiber  alluded  to  is  very  valuable  for  cordage,  canvas, 
twine,  etc.  Madras  aud  Bombay  both  export  large 
([uautifies  of  hem]i.  "" 

HENCHMEN.— The  name  given  to  the  soldiers  who 
guarded  the  King's  jterson  in  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.  The  word,  sigulfyiug  a  page  or  servant,  is 
now  obsolete  or  rare." 

HENKY  KIFLE. — This  magazine-gun  is  now  gen- 
erally known  as  the  Winchester.  iT  may  be  used  as 
a  single-loader  or  a  repeater.  As  a  repeater,  the 
motion  of  the  lever  withdraws  the  spent  shell  of 
the  previous  charge,  raises  the  hammer,  recharges 
the  gun,  aud  reloc'ks  the  l)reech  mechanism.  WUh 
single  loading,  the  cartridge  is  placed  in  the  carrier- 
block,  anil  a  single  motion  puts  it  in  order  for  firing. 
See  Wincluxtr)-  liiflr. 

HEPBURN  REMINGTON  RIFLE.— This  rifle  is  de- 
signed especially  ftir  long-range  target  shooting,  and 
for  general  n.se  as  a  sportsman's  aud  hunter's  rifle, 
being  constructed  with  a  special  reference  to  the 
use  of  a  reloading-shell.     It  has  a  solid  breech-block 


are  all  made  with  pistol-grip  stocks :  which  hereto- 
fore have  been  furnished  only  with  the  higher  priced 
rifles,  and  are  chambered  for  the  straight  38  and  40 
cal.  aud  4?)  eal.  shells,  using  either  a  patched  or 
cannelured  liullet.  The  sectional  drawing  .shows  the 
arm  with  the  lireech  closed. 

To  take  the  gun  apart ;  Remove  the  iippfr-xrrew 
in  the  left-hand  side,  and  the  hreech-hlai-k  may  Ije 
taken  out.  To  take  out  tlie  /mtiimer.  remove  the 
next  upper  screw  aud  sli|)  the  hnmmer  forward  into 
the  breech-block  hole.  To  fake  out  the  extractor, 
remove  the  forward  .screw  on  left-hand  side.  The 
lever  which  operates  the  breech-lilock  passes  through 
the  ri'Cker-nleew  with  a  sqiuire  stud,  and  is  held  in 
place  by  a  set  screw  directly  under  the  fure-ntdrk, 
whicli  must  be  removed  if  it  is  ever  desired  to  take 
off  the  lever.  If  necessary  to  remove  the  guard,  it 
can  be  done  by  taking  off  the  hutt-^tork,  and  taking 
out  the  i:ide-screir.s  in"  the  usual  way.  The  barrel 
should  not  be  unscrewed  from  the  frame,  except  by 
experienced  liands  and  with  proper  appliances. 
When  uecessarj'  to  unscrew  ihe  frame,  the  extractor 
should  be  taken  out,  and  the  breech-block  and  guard 
put  back  in  place,  l)efore  putting  on  the  wrench. 
If  at  any  time  the  primer  should  be  driven  Ijack  into 
tlie  firing-pin  hole,  so  as  to  make  the  breech  open 
stiffly,  it  can  be  relieved  by  snapping  the  hammer 
against  the  firing-pin.  The  military  long-range  rifle 
has  been  adopted  by  the  National  Rifle  Association, 
who  recommend  it  to  competitors  for  the  American 
Team.  It  has  a  heavy  barrel,  with  new  sj'sfein  of 
rifling,  chambered  for  3yV  inch,  44  caliber,  straight 
shell,  using  from  8.5  to  100  grains  of  powder  aud  wa- 
ter-proof patched  bullet  .530  and  550  grains  of  lead. 
See  Re)iiingt(in  Rifle. 

HEPPAH. — A  New  Zealand  fort,  or  space  sur- 
rounded with  stout  palisades.     Also  written  Hippa. 

HEPTARCHY. — The  name  given  to  seven  kmg- 
doms  said  to  have  been  established  by  the  Saxons  in 
England.  The  common  idea  is,  that  these  seven 
kingdoms  were  contemporaneous :  but  all  that  can 
be  safely  asserted  is,  that  England,  iu  the  time  of 
the  Saxous,  was  peopled  by  various  tribes,  of  which 
the  leading  occupation  was  war ;  and  tliat  some- 
times one  was  conquered,  sometimes  another.  At  no 
time  was  there  a  counterpoise  of  power  among  seven 
of  them,  so  that  they  could  be  said  to  have  a  sepa- 
rate, much  less  an  independent  existence.  Still, 
seven  names  do  survive  (some  authorities  adding  an 


with  direct  rear  support,  side-lever  action,  and  re-  [  eighth).  The  king  of  the  one  that  had  the  fortune 
bounding  liauuner.  so  that  the  arm  always  stands  [  to'  be  most  powerful  for  the  finu'  lieing,  was  styled 
with  the  trigger  iu  the  safety  notch,  thus  rendering  Bretwalda  or  Ruler  of  Uritaiu,  but  in  most  instances 
premature  discliarge  impossible,  anil  is  believed  to  the  power  of  this  sujiposed  Huler  beyond  the  limits 
be  the  best  in  use  for  the  iiurpose  described.     They  '  of  his  own  Tcrritorv  must  have  been  verv  snudl. 


HERALD 


L'i) 


HEKALDRY. 


IJiiiliT   Ei|;l)t'rt,   Wcssex   rose   to   ]n:   »iii)n;iiif,   ami 
virlimlly  swiillowrd  up  tlu;  otliors. 

HERALD. -  An  olMccr  whose  iluty  consists  in  the 
reniiliiliiin  of  iirnioriiil  hi'iiriiiirs,  tlii>  niarslmlliiii^  of 
professions,  anil  llie  siiperinleiulence  of  piiblie  cere- 
inoni<>s.  In  llic  Miilillc  A'^^es,  lleralils  were  liiiilily 
lioniired,  anil  enjoyeil  important  privile)j;i)M ;  their 
fiinelions  also  incluileil  the  liearini;  of  niessai^es. 
wliether  of  eourtesy  or  lU'tianee,  lietween  royal  or 
knii;lilly  persouai^es;  tlie  superinteiiilini;  anil  reijis- 
terin^■  of  trials  l)y  battle  tonrnanienls.  jousts,  anil  all 
<!hivalrie  e.vereises;  the  eonipulatioii  of  tlie  slain 
after  battle;  anil  the  reciirilin'j;  nf  ihe  valiant  acts 
of  the  fallini;  or  survivini;  innilialanls.  The  olliee 
of  lleralil  is  prolialily  as  olil  as  the  origin  of  eoat- 
iinnor.  The  prineipal  heralilie  ollieers  are  ilesii;nateil 
Kini;s-of-Arnis  nr  Kinijs-at-Arins.  anil  the  novitiates 
or  learners  are  slyled  Pursuivants.  lleralils  were 
originally  ereateil  with  niueh  eeremony  ;  tliey  are 
iiiiw  api)ointeil  by  the  Earl  Marshal  in  Eni;lanil, 
anil  by  the  Lyon  Kinii;  of-Arins  in  Senilaiul.  There 
are  now  in  Eniilaml  tiiree  Kinu,s-iif-Arins.  nanieil  by  ! 
their  otliees  (iarter,  Clareneieu.x.  anil  Xorroy  :  si.x  | 
Heralds— Somerset,  Chester,  Windsor.  Riehmonil.  j 
Lancaster,  and  York  :  and  four  I'ursuivanis,  Roujie 
Drai^an,  Portcullis,  Blue  Mantle,  and  Houije  ('roi.x. 
There  have  been  at  ilitTerent  periods  ollu-r  Heralds, 
whose  titles  are  now  laid  aside  ;  Heralds  extraordi- 
nary have  also  sometimes  been  created,  as  Edmonson, 
by  the  title  of  Mowbray,  in  1704.  In  Scotland,  the 
princijial  heraldic  ntticer  is  Lyon  Kinir-of-Arms  ;  and 
there  were  till  lately  six  Heralds — Snowdoun,  Alban\' 
Ross,  Rothesay,  "Marchmont,  and  Hay;  and  six 
Pursuivants — Unicorn,  C'arrick,  Kinlyre,  Orniond, 
Dingwall,  and  Bute.  Recently  the  jierinanent  num- 
ber of  Heralds  ;ind  Pursuivants  in  Scotland  has  been 
reduced  to  three  of  each.  Ireland  has  one  Kins;-of- 
Arms.  Ulster;  two  Heralds.  Cork  and  r)ul>lin  ;  and 
two  Pursuivants,  of  whom  the  senior  bears  the  title 
of  Athlone,  and  the  other  is  called  the  Pursuivant  of 
St.  Patrick.  The  official  costume  of  a  Herald  t'on-  i 
sists  of  an  embroidered  satin  tal)ard  or  surcoat  of  | 
the  royal  arms,  and  a  collar  of  SS.  See  Oollcge-nf- 1 
-Ir/z/i.    /v'nf/-i/t-A  r/n.\  liud  Pi/rsn/rtfttt. 

HERALDRY.  — Heriddry  is  properly  the  knowledge  ! 
.if  the  whole  multifarious  duties  devolving  on  a 
Herald  ;  in  the  more  restricted  sense,  in  which  we 
shall  here  consider  it.  it  is  the  science  of  armorial 
bearini'S.  After  occupying  for  ages  the  attention 
of  the  learned,  and  forming  an  important  branch  of 
a  princely  education,  the  study  of  Heraldry  fell,  in 
latter  limes,  into  neglect  and  disrepute,  and  was 
al)andoned  to  coach-painters  and  undertakers,  a 
degradation  owing  in  part  to  tlic  endless  tissue  of 
follies  and  niystiticatious  that  hud  been  interwoven 
with  it.  -Modern  criticism  has  rescued  Heraldry 
from  the  pedantrii's  and  follies  of  the  Heralds,  and 
imparted  to  it  a  new  interest,  as  a  valuable  aid  to 
historical  investigations.  Though  we  have  instances 
in  remote  times  of  nations  and  individuals  dis- 
tinguishing themselves  by  particular  emblems  or 
ensigns,  nothing  that  c;ui  properly  be  called  armo- 
rial bearings  existed  before  the  middle  of  tlie  I'Jtli 
century.  The  shields  of  the  French  knights  in  the 
First  Crusade  presented  a  plain  face  of  polished 
metal,  nor  is  there  any  evidence  of  heraldic  devices  I 
having  been  in  use  in  the  Second  Crusade  in  1147. 
But  the  Anglo-Xornum  poet  Wace,  who  tiourisheil 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  mentions  de- 
vices or  cognizances  as  being  in  use  among  the 
Normans,  "  that  no  Nornum  ndght  perish  by  the 
hand  of  another,  nor  one  Frenchman  kill  anolher"; 
and  Wace  is  curiously  corroliorated  b\-  the  Hayeux 
tapestry  of  the  twelfth  century,  where  there  are  fig- 
ures of  animals  on  the  shields  of  the  invaders,  while 
the  Saxon  shields  have  only  borders  or  crosses.  The 
rude  devices  on  these  shields  have  nothing  approach- 
ing to  an  armorial  form  or  disposition,  yet  it  is 
probable  that  systematic  Heraldry  sprang  out  of 
them,  but  it  is  ditiicult  to  sav  when  thev  assumed 


that  hereditary  character  which  is  essential  to  the 
idea  of  armorial  bearings.  Some  sort  of  armorial 
insignia  were  depicted  on  the  shields  used  in  the 
Third  Crusade,  which  took  place  in  llH'.t;  and  in  the 
same  half-ci.-ntury  originated  the  fleurs-de-lis  of 
France  and  the  lions  of  England.  The  Iransnnssion 
of  arms  from  father  to  son  seems  to  have  been  fully 
Recognized  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  in  the  prac- 
tice then  introduced  of  embroidering  the  family  insig- 
nia on  the  sunroat  worn  over  the  hauberk  or  coat  of 
mail,  originated  the  expression  mat  'if  iirmx.  Arms 
were  similarly  embroidered  on  the  jupon,  cyclas, 
and  tabard,  which  succeeded  the  surcoat,  ajjractice 
which  survived  till  the  time  |of  Henry  VHI.,  when 
the  tabard  came  to  be  entirely  disused  except  by 
Heralds,  who  still  continue  to  wear  on  their  tabards 
the  Royal  Arms.  It  was  by  slow  degrees  that  the 
usage  of  arms  grew  up  into  the  sj-stematized  form 
which  it  .-issinnes  in  Ihe  w'orks  of  the  established 
writers  on  I^Taldry.  The  principal  existing  data 
for  tracin;;  its  |irogress  are  English  rolls  of  arms  yet 
extant  of  Ihe  limes  of  Henry  HI..  Edward  I.,  and 
Edward  HI.  The  earliest  formal  treatises  dale  no 
further  back  tli;in  the  end  of  Ihe  fourteenth  century, 
before  which  time  the  whole  historical  part  of  the 
subject  had  been  obscured  by  a  tissue  of  gratuitous 
fictions,  which  has  misled  most  subsequent  writers 
up  to  a  very  recent  jieriod.  The  Professors  of  the 
science  represent  the  Heraldry  of  the  tenlh  and  four- 
teenth  centuries  as  equally  sharply  defined  with  that 
of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth.  The  arms  of  William 
t he  Conqueror  ;ind  his  sons  are  desiTibed  with  .-ill  their 
dilTerences;  arms  are  ascribed  to  Ihe  Saxon  Kings  of 
England,  to  Charlemagne,  and  even  to  half-mythical 
persons  and  heroes  of  classical  times.  It  is" rather 
surprising  to  find  this  fictitious  Heraldry  understood 
and  systematized  early  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  arms  traditionally  considered  lo  be  those  of  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor  were  sculptured  in  Westminster 
Abbey  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II. 

In  the  infancy  of  Heraldry,  every  knight  assumed 
what  arms  he  pleased,  not  consulting  the  Sovereign 
or  King-at-Arms.  Animals,  plants,  imaginary  mon- 
sters, tinugs  artificial,  and  objects  familiar  to  Pil- 
grims, were  all  fixed  on  ;  and  whenever  it  was  possi- 
ble, the  object  chosen  was  one  whose  name  bore  suf- 
ficient resemblance  in  sound  to  suggest  the  name  or 
title  of  the  bearer  of  it.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  early  arms  were  generally  iiiinex  parkintex, 
though  the  allusion  has  in  many  cases  ceased  to  be 
intelligible  from  the  old  name  of  the  object  iK-inii  for- 
gotten. The  charge  fixed  on  was  used  with  great 
latitude,  singly  or  repeated,  or  in  any  way  which  the 
bearer  cho.se.  or  the  form  of  his  shield  suggested. 
But  as  coats  of  arms  became  more  mimerous,  con- 
fusion often  arose  from  different  knights  adopting 
the  same  symbol :  and  thus  confusion  was  increased 
by  a  practice  which  ere))!  in  of  sovereigns  or  feudal 
chiefs  allowing  their  arms,  or  part  of  them,  to  be 
l)orne  as  a  mark  of  honor  In'theirfollowers  in  battle. 
Hence  ditt'erent  coats  of  arms  came  in  many  instan- 
ces so  closely  to  resemble  each  other  that  it  was  im- 
perative, for  distinction's  .sake,  that  the  fancy  of  Ihe 
bearer  shoidd  be  restrained,  and  regulations  laid 
down  regarding  the  numtier  and  position  of  the 
charges,  and  the  attitudes  of  the  animals  represented. 
This  necessity  led  in  the  course  of  time,  to  the  sys- 
tematizing of  Heraldry,  a  process  which  the  rolls 
alluded  to  show  us  was  going  on  gradually throngh- 
out  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  By  The 
time  that  Heraldry  was  consolidated  into  a  science,  its 
true  origin  had  been  lost  sight  of,  and  the  credulity 
and  fertility  of  imagination  of  the  Heralds  led  them  to 
i.ivest  the  most  common  charges  with  mystical  mean- 
ings, and  to  trace  their  original  adoption  to  Ihe  de- 
sire of  commemorating  the  adventures  or  achieve- 
ments of  the  founders  of  the  families  who  bore  them. 
The  legends  ascribing  an  origin  of  this  sort  to  the 
early  armorial  bearings  have,  in  nearly  all  instances 
wherein  it  has  been  iiossitile  to  investigate   them. 


HERALDRY. 


30 


HERALDRY. 


turned  out  to  be  fabrications.  It  was  oclj-  when 
Heraldry  began  to  assume  the  dignitj'  of  a  science 
that  augmentations  of  a  commemorative  character 
were  granted,  one  of  the  earliest  known  instances 
beina  the  heart  added  tothe  coat  of  Douglas,  in com- 
menroratiou  of  the  good  Sir  James's  pilgrimage  with 
the  heart  of  King  Robert.  After  the  science  became 
thoroughlj'  systematized,  augmentations  and  new 
coats  were  often  granted  with  the  reference  to  the 
supposed  sjTiibolical  meanings  of  the  charges.  In 
England,  the  assumption  of  arms  bj'  private  persons 
was  first  restrained  by  a  proclamation  of  Henry  V., 
which  prohibited  every  one  who  had  not  l)ornearms 
at  Agiucourt  to  assume  them,  except  in  virtue  of  in- 
heritance or  a  grant  from  the  Crown.  To  enforce  the 
observance  of  this  rule.  Heralds'  visitations  or  pro- 
cessions through  the  countries  were  instituted,  and 
continued  from  time  to  time  till  the  reign  of  William 
and  Mar}'.  Jurisdiction  in  questions  of  arms  is  ex- 
ccnted  by  the  Heralds' College  iuEngland,  the  Lyou 
Court  in  Scotland,  and  the  CoTlege-of-Arms  in  Ireland. 
No  one  within  the  United  Kingdom  is  entitled  to 
bear  arms  without  a  hereditary  claim  by  descent,  or 
a  grant  from  the  competent  authorit}-;  and  the 
wrongful  assumption  of  arms  is  an  act  for  which  the 
assumer  may  be  subjected  to  penalties.  The  use  of 
arms,  whether  rightfuUj'  or  wrtmgfuUy,  subjects  the 
bearer  of  them  to  an  annual  tax.  It  is  illegal  to  use 
without  authority  not  only  a  coat  of  arms,  l_iut  even 
a  crest.  Any  figure  or  device  placed  on  a  heraldic 
wreath,  is  considered  a  crest  in  questions  with  the 
Heralds'  College  or  Lyou  Court,  as  well  as  in  ques- 
tions with  the  Commissioners  of  Inland  Revenue.  It 
shows  how  deeply  the  passion  for  outward  distinc- 
tion is  implanted  in  human  nature,  when  we  find 
people  in  countries  such  as  the  Uuited  States,  where 
all  differences  of  rank  are  theoretically  repudiated, 
assuming  heraldic  devices,  each  man  at  his  own  hand. 
Besides  individuals.  Communities  and  States  are  en- 
titled to  the  use  of  arms,  and  Heralds  have  classified 
arms,  in  respect  of  the  right  to  bear  them,  under  the 
following  ten  heads:  1.  Armsof  dominion  ;  thearms 
borne  by  Sovereigns  as  annexed  to  their  territories. 
2.  Arms  of  pretension,  which  Sovereigns  havebome. 
who,  though  not  in  possession,  claim  a  right  to  the 
territories  ^o  which  the  arms  belong.  Thus,  Eng- 
lan  1  bore  the  arms  of  France  from  the  time  of 
Edward  III.  till  1801.  3.  Arms  of  community;  the 
arms  of  Bishops'  Sees,  Abbeys,  Universities,  Towns, 
and  Corporations.  4.  Arms  of  assumption;  arms 
which  one  has  a  right  to  assume  with  the  approba- 
tion of  the  Sovereign.  Thus,  it  is  said,  the  arras  of 
a  prisoner  at  war  may  be  borne  by  his  captor,  and 
transmitted  by  him  to  his  heirs.  .5.  Arms  of  patron- 
age ;  added  bj'  Governors  of  Provinces,  Lords  of  the 
Manor,  Patrons  of  Benefices,  etc.,  to  their  family 
arms,  as  a  token  of  superiority,  right,  or  jurisdiction. 

6.  Arms  of  succession,  borne  quartered  with  the 
family  arms  by  those  who  inherit  fiefs  or  manors, 
either  by  will,  entail,  or  donation.  Thus,  the  Dukes 
of  Athole,  as  having  been  Lords  of  tlie  Isle  of  Man. 
quarter  the  arms  of  that  Island,  and  the  Duke  of 
Argyle  quarters  the  arms  of  the  Lordship  of  Lome. 

7.  Arms  of  alliance,  taken  up  by  the  issue  of  heir- 
esses, to  show  their  maternal  descent.  IS.  Arms  of 
adoption,  borne  by  a  stranger  in  blood,  to  fulfil  the 
will  of  a  testator.  The  last  of  a  family  may  adupt  a 
stranger  to  l)ear  his  name  and  arms  ami  possess  his 
estate.  Arms  of  ado|)lion  can  only  be  borne  with 
permission  of  Sovereign  or  King-at-Arms.  i).  Arms 
of  concession:    augmentatiims  granted  by   a  Sove- 

•  reign  of  part  of  his  royal  arms,  as  a  mark  of  distinc- 
tion, a  usage  which,  we  have  already  observed,  ob- 
tained in  tlie  earliest  days  of  Heraldry;  and  hence 
the  prevalence  among  armorial  bearings  of  th<'  lion, 
the  tleur-de-jis,  an'l  the  eagle,  the  bearings  of  the 
Soverci'.:ns  of  England  anil  Scollanil.of  l''rane<'.  and 
of  Germany.  10.  Paternal  or  hereilitary  arms,  trans- 
mitted by  "the  first  possessor  to  his  descendants.  A 
coat  of  arms  is  composed  of  charges  ilejiicted  on  an 


escutcheon  representing  the  old  knightly  shield- 
The  word  escutcheon  is  derived  froui  the  French 
ecunson,  which  signified  a  shield  with  armorial  bear- 
ings, in  contradistinction  from  ecu,  a  shield  geuerallj'. 
The  shields  in  use  in  England  and  France  in  the  11th 
and  13th  centuries  were  "In  shape  not  unlike  a  boy's 
kite,  a  form  which  seems  to  have  been  borrowed 
from  tiie  Sicilians  ;  but  when  tliej- 
became  the  recipients  of  armorial 
bearings,  they  were  gradually  flat- 
tened and  shortenecl.  From  the 
time  of  Henry  III.,  the  escutcheon 
has  Vieen  most  frequently  repre- 
sented on  seals  as  of  something 
approaching  to  a  triangular  form, 
with  the  point  downwards,  the  ex- 
ceptions being  that  the  shield  of  a  Fig.  l. 
lady  is  lozenge-shaped,  and  a  knight-banneret  square. 
To  facilitate  description,  the  surface  or  field  of  the 
escutcheon  has  been  divided  into  nine  points,  as  in 
(Fig.  1),  technically  distinguished  bv  the  following 
nanies:  A,  the  dex'ter  chief  point ;"  B,  the  middle 
chief;  C.  the  sinister  chief;  D,  the  honor  or  collar 
point;  E,  thefess  point;  F,  the  nombril  or  naval 
point;  G,  the  dexter  base  point  ;  H,  the  middle 
base;  and  I,  the  sinister  base  point.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  dexter  and  sinister  sides  of  the 
shield  are  so  called  from  their  position  in  relation 
not  to  the  eye  of  the  spectator,  but  of  the  suppo- 
sed bearer  of  the  shield. 

Coats  of  arms  are  distinguished  from  one  another, 
not  only  by  the  charges  or  objects  borne  on  them, 
but  by  the  color  of  these  charges,  and  also  of  the 
field  on  which  they  are  placed.  The  field  may  be 
of  one  color,  or  m"ore  than  one,  divided  by  a  "par- 
tion-line  or  lines  varying  in  form.  The  first  thing, 
then,  to  be  mentioned  in  blazoning  a  shield — that  is, 
describing  it  in  technical  languaire — is  the  color,  or, 
as   it   is   heraldically  called,  fhe  «m(-«»/-f  of  the  field. 


VCRF     'fURCURi;     ERMINE        VAIR'      POItNl  C  f. 

Fig.    i. 

Tinctures  are  either  of  metal,  color  strictly  so  called, 
or  fur.  The  metals  used  in  Heraldry  are  two — gold, 
termed  w,  and  silver,  urgent — represented  iu  paint-, 
ing  by  yellow  and  white.  The  colors  are  five — red, 
blue,  black,  green,  and  purple,  known  as  gules, 
azure,  mhle,  vert,  and  purpure.  Metals  and  colors 
are  indicated  in  uncolored  heraldic  engravings  by- 
points  and  hatched  lines,  an  invention  ascribed  to 
Father  Silvestro  di  Petrasaucta,  an  Italian  Herald  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  0;',(Fi!i.  2)  is  represented  by 
points;  for  urgent,  the  field  is  ^eft  plain.  Gule.'<  is 
denoted  by  perpendicidar,  and  nzure,  by  horizontal 
lines ;  sable,  by  lines  perpendicular  and  horizontal 
crossing  each  other ;  rtrt.  by  liiagonal  lines  from 
dexter  chief  to  sinister  l)ase  ;  purpure.  by  diagonal 
lines  from  sinister  chief  to  dexter  base.  The  fur» 
were  originally  but  two,  erminei\ni\  mh-.  The  former 
is  represented  by  black  spots  reseml)ling  those  of  the 
fur  of  the  animal  called  the  ermine,  on  a  white 
gro\ind.  Vn'r.  said  to  have  ))een  taken  from  the 
fur  of  a  squirrel,  bluish-gray  on  the  back  and  white 
on  the  belly,  is  exjiressed  by  bliU'  and  wliite  sliiclds, 
or  bells  in  horizontal  rows,  the  bases  of  the  white 
resting  on  the  bases  of  tlu'  blue.  If  the  vair  is  of 
any  other  colors  than  whiti-  and  blue,  they  must  be 
specified.  Various  modifications  of  these  furs  were 
afterwards   introduced,  among   others   ermines,   or 


HERALDRY. 


31 


HERALDRY. 


cTiiiiiU' with  the  ficlil  sable  iiml  the  spots  iir;;cnt : 
enninitt'Jt,  with  a  red  hair  on  each  si(k-  of  tin-  l)la(;k 
spot;  ptrii,,  witli  tlie  titlil  «al)li!,  anil  the  spots  or; 
ciiaiUer-vdir,  or  vair  with  tlie  hells  of  one  tincture 
I)laee(l  l)asi-  to  base;  and  ]>"tiiit  nji/Hti'r-p"tj'iU,  vair 
with  enit<'h-shaped  fiirures  inslc'ad  of  hells.  It  is 
an  estahlislied  rule  of  Heraldry  lliat  metal  should 
not  tie  placed  on  metal,  nor  color  on  color;  u  rule 
more  ri;;i<lly  adhered  to  in  EuLdish  than  in  foreign 
Heraldry.  We  have  one  remarkal)le  transgression 
of  this  in  the  arms  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem 
founded  by  the  Crusaders,  which  are  argent,  a  cro.ss 
potent  between  four  crosses  or.  A  recognized  ex- 
ception exists  wherever  a  charge  lies  over  a  Held 
p:irtly  of  metal  and  partly  of  color,  or  wliere  an  ani- 
mal is  (see  Infrii)  iittired,  armed,  uiigule<l,  crowned, 
or  cliained  with  a  tincture  dilTcrcnt  from  that  of  his 
body,  Marks  of  cadency,  chiefs,  cantons,  and  bor- 
(hires  are  also  occasional!}'  exempted  from  the  gen- 
eral rule,  being,  according  to  some  Heralds,  not  laid 
on  the  shield,  but  coiisti,  or  sewed  to  it. 

Everything  contained  in  the  tield  of  an  escutcheon 
is  called  ii  c/uirf/e.  Charges  !ire  divided  by  Heralds 
into  the  three  classes  of  honoridile  ordinaries,  subor- 
dinaries,  and  common  charges.  Under  the  name  of 
ordinaries  or  honorable  ordinaries  are  included  cer- 


tive  is  the  liar,  containing  the  fifth  part  of  the  liehl; 
and  there  are  also  the  di/uft,  one-half  of  the  l)ar,  und 
the  harrukt,  one-half  of  the  closet,  the  latter  seldom 
borne  singly.  0.  The  r/uvron  (Fig.  H),  composed  of 
two  strips  clescending  from  the  center  of  the  shield 
in  diiigonal  dirc'cliims  like  the  rafli-rs  of  a  roof.  Its 
diminutives  (ire  the  /■/iirrnni I  of  half,  and  the  rouplr. 
i:loiu\  one-fourth  its  width,  the  latter  borne,  as  ilx 
name  implies,  in  pairs,  and  generally  accompanj^ing 
the  chevron— ou  ettcli  side  of  it.     7.  The  crota  ( 


•4*4'  #■ ! 


^ 


tain  old  and  very  frequent  bearings,  whose  true  pe- 
culiarity seems  to  be  that,  instead  of  being  taken 
from  extraneous  objects,  they  are  representations  of 
the  wooden  or  metal  strengthenings  of  the  ancient 
shields.  Thej-  are  ten  in  number,  viz  :  1,  The  chief 
(Fig.  3).  the  upper  part  of  the  shield  separated  frrtm 
the  rest  by  a  horizontal  line,  and  comprising,  accord- 
ing to  the  requirements  of  Heralds,  one-third  of  it, 
though  this  proportion  is  seldom  rigidly  adhered  to. 
Its  diminutive  is  the  tillet,  supposed  to  take  u])  one- 
fourth  the  space  of  a  chief,  in  whose  lowest  part  it 
stands.  2.  The  ptle  (Fig.  4).  a  band  or  stripe  from 
top  to  bottom,  said,  like  the  chief,  to  occupy  one- 
third  of  the  shield.  It  has  two  diminutives,  the 
pullet,  one-half  in  breadth  of  the  pale,  and  the  indttrse, 
one -half  of  the  p;dlet.  S.  The  /'iiifl  (Fig.  •')),  !i  simi- 
lar band  crossing  the  shield  diagonally  from  dexter 
chief  to  sinister  V)ase.  Its  diminutives  are  the  hendlet 
or  giirti'r,  one-half  of  its  breadth  ;  the  CMt  or  roti.ie, 
one-half  of  the  bendlct :  and  the  ribuinl.  one-half  of 
the  cotise.  The  bend  is  sometimes  borne  between 
two  cotises,  in  which  case  it  is  said  to  be  mtiMd.  a 
term  sometimes  applied  with  doubtful  propriety  to 
the  other  onliuaries  when  accompanied  with  their 
diminutives.  4.  The  Acrtrf  ,«'««£(';■,  a  diagonal  band 
from  sinister  chief  to  dexter  base.  Its  diminutives 
are  the  acarpe.  oue-half  of  the  bend  sinister  ;  and  the 
hdti'n  (Fig.  6).  one-half  of  the  scarpe.  The  baton 
stops  short  of  the  extremity  of  the  tield  at  both  ends, 
and  has  been  considered  a  mark  of  illegitimacy.  .5. 
The/..v.v  (Fig.  7).  a  horizontal  bjuul  in  the  middle  of 
the  shield,  said,  like  the  ordinaries  :dreaily  enumer- 
ated, to  occupy  one  third  of  it.     Its  principal  diminu- 


Fig- 


Fit's.  l.V- ?-'. 

9),  uniting  the  pale  and  fess,  an  ordinary  which  was 
originally  like  the  rest,  composed  of  the  clamps  ne- 
cessary to  the  strength  of  the  shield,  but  had  also  the 
deeper  meaning  of  the  symbol  of  the  Christian  faith. 
Besides  its  plain  form,  the  cross  was  varied  in  nu- 
merous ways,  most  of  these  varieties  being,  how- 
ever, rather  common  charges  than  ordinaries.  Of 
the  39  lesser  crosses  mentioned  by  (Juillim,  and  109 
by  Edmonson,  a  few  of  the  most  frequently  ocoir- 
ring  are  the  following :  The  r/v«,i  moliiie  (Fig.  10), 
with  the  ends  turned  round  both  ways;  the  cronx 
fieury  (Fig.  11),  of  which  each  limb  terminates  in  a 
Heur-de-lis  ;  the  croxx patonee  (Fig.  12),  each  limb  of 
which  has  three  points;  the  ervsn  potent  (Fig.  13), 
crutch-shaped  at  the  ends;  \\\c  croaH  pattee  {¥\a:.  14), 
small  in  the  center,  but  widening  toward  the  ends; 
and  the  cmaK  cromlet  (Fig.  l.'j).  crossed  at  the  ends. 
The  latter  is  the  most  frequent  of  all.  and  borne 
oftener  in  numbers  than  singly.  Any  of  these  crosses 
is  said  to  be  titchee  when  the  lower  limb  terminates 
in  a  sharp  point,  as  in  Fig.  IG.  There  is  also  the 
crw.is  Maltese,  whose  limbs  have  each  two  points,  and 
converge  to  a  point  in  the  center  of  the  cross  :  thoui;U 
not  frequent  as  a  heraldic  charge,  it  derives  an  im- 
portance from  being  the  badge  of  the  Knights  of 
Malta  and  of  many  other  orders.  M.  The  Mittit-t,  or 
St.  Andrew's  Cross  (Fig.  17).  formed  by  a  junction 
of  the  bend  dexter  and  bend  sinister.  9.  The  pile 
(Fig.  18).  a  wedge  with  point  downwards.  A  single 
uncharged  pile  should,  at  its  upjier  part,  occupy  one- 
third  the  breadth  of  the  shield,  but  if  charged,  it 
may  be  doul)le  that  width.  10.  The  f/uurter'.  con- 
sisting of  the  upper  right-hanil  fourtli  jiart  of  the 
shield  cut  otY  liy  a  horizontal  and  a  jierpeudicular 
line.  Its  diminutive  is  the  (•«/(<</«  (Fig.  19).  Armo- 
rial figures  may  be  depicted  on  any  of  these  ordina- 
ries, but  not  on  their  diminutives,  with  the  exception 
of  the  canton. 

We  observed  that  the  tield  of  an  escutcheon  may 
be  of  two  different  tinctures,  divided  by  a  partition- 
line,  which  line  may  vary  in  direction.  When  di- 
vided by  a  partition-line  in  the  direction  of  one  of 
the  ordinaries, the  shield  is  said  to  \k  party  jnr  that 
ordinary ;  thus  we  may  have  (Figs.  20)  a  shield 
party  per  pale.  bend,  fess,  chevron,  or  saltire.  An 
escutcheon  divided  as  by  a  cross  is  said  to  be 
quartered.  A  shield  divided  into  anj-  number  of 
parts  by  lines  in  the  direction  af  a  pale.  bend,  or 
biir,  is  said  to  be  paly,  hendy.  harry,  the  number  of 
pieces  being  specified,  as  in  the  example  Fig.  21, 


HERALDRY. 


32 


HERALDRY. 


barrv  of  six,  argent  auc]  gules.  When  the  field  is  of 
metal  and  color  separated  by  any  of  the  lines  of 
partition,  and  the  charge 
placed  on.  it  is  said  to 
be  ritiintfr-rhnngeii:  this 
means   that  the  part  of 


'ENGRAILED 
iNVECTED 


'-  VJkVY 


■Ln_n_n_n_  embattled 

/VWWNAA.    INDENTED 
/\A/\/      DAHCETTf 


the  charge  which  is  on 
the  metal  is  of  the  color, 
and  vice  Ter.ia.  as  in  Fig. 
22.  the  arms  borne  by 
Chancer  the  poet,  per 
pale  argent  and 'gules, 
a  bend  counter-changed. 
The  partition-line,  or  the 
boundary-line  of  an  or-  Fis  •i:i. 

dinary,  is  not  always  even.  Fig.  23  shows  the  com- 
monest forms  of  irregular  partition-lines  in  use,  viz., 
the  (ngrntled,  iiietcUd.  iravy,  ne/nile,  einliattled,  in- 
deiiUd.  and  djuireUe.  An  ordinary  engrailed  has  the 
points  of  the  engrailed  line  turned  outwards,  and  an 
ordinary  invected,  inwards.  Dancette  differs  from 
indented  by  the  partition-line  being  marked  with 
only  three  indentations.  The  ^tihurdiimriex,  or  sub- 
ordinate ordinaries,  are  generally  enumerated  as  the 
following,  though  there  is  no  very  broad  line  of  de- 
markation  between  them  and  the  common  charges. 
1.  The  gy run.  When  a  shield  is  at  Duce  quartered 
and  party  per  saltire,  as  in  Fig.  24.  the  '  division 
is  called  gi/n>iiiiy  "f  light  (from  gyrnx  a  circle),  and 
one   of  the   triangles,   or  at   least   that  triangle   in 


dexter  chief  is  a  gyron.  Gyronny  of  si.\,  ten,  or 
twelve  also  occasionally  occur,  so  called  according 
to  the  number  of  the  triangles.  3.  The  fret 
(Fig.  2.5)  is  a  cognizance  derive.',  from  the  banding 
or  ornamenting  of  the  shield,  and  a  shield  covered 
with  this  lattice-work  decoration  (Fig.  26)  is  said 
t(i  }Kfritty.  3.  The  hurdiire.  or  border(Fig.  27)  is  a 
.stripe  encircling  the  shield.  It  is  much  used  to  dis- 
tinguish different  branches  of  a  family,  and  is  often 
charged  with  small  devices,  on  which  account  it 
has  sometimes  been  reckoned  an  lionorable  ordinary. 
4.  The  iirle  (Fig.  28)  differs  from  a  bordure  in  not 
touching  the  extremity  of  the  shield,  .'i.  The  i/r.i- 
sii.re.  regarded  as  a  dimimitive  of  the  (irle,  is  generally 
borne  (jouble,  and  fliiry  couulerflory.  as  in  the  arms 
of  Scotland,  or  a  lion  rampant  witliin  a  tn'ssure 
fiory  countertlory  gules  (Fig.  2!)).  (3.  The  pall 
(Fig.  30),  the  archiepiscopal  ornament  of  that  name, 
sent  from  Uome  to  metropolitans,  and  resembling 
in  form  the  letter  Y.  7.  The  Jt/iiir./,e.i  (Fig.  31), 
the  de.xter  anil  sinister  sides  of  the  shield  cut  off  by 
a  curved  line.  Flanches  are  always  Ixirni^  in  pairs, 
.•ilid  sometiincs  chargeil.  H.  The  hisnigi .  a  tigure 
of  four  eijua!  sides,  with  the  upper  and  lower  angles 
acute  and  the  others  obtuse.  !l.  The  fiiKil  (Fig. 
33),  longer  and  more  ac-ute  than  the  lozenge.  10. 
The  ruKtre  (Fig.  33),  a  lozenge  pierced  nnnid  in  the 
center.  U.  The  miutrle  (Fig.  34),  a  lozenge  per- 
forated, and  showing  a  narrow  border.  Mascles 
were  probably  originally  links  of  chain-armor.     A 


field  is  said  to  be  hyzengy  (Fig.  3.'5),  pisilly  or  mait- 
ciiUy  when  divided  by  diagonal  lines  in  the  direction 
of  these  subordiuaries.  A  field  divided  by  horizon- 
tal and  perpendicular  lines  into  squares  of  different 
tinctures  is  said  to  be  i-iifcky  ;  in  the  case  of  apsn 
chei-ky  there  are  three  such  rows  of  the  squares. 
Among  the  subordiuaries  are  sometimes  reckoned 
certain  circular  charges  called  nmndtU  or  niiindleti. 
distinguished  in  English  Heraldry  by  very  different 
names  according  to  their  tinctures.  When  of  or, 
they  are  called  hezfintu ;  of  argent,  plntex  ;  of  gules, 
torteaux :  of  azure,  hurts;  of  purpure,  gnlpen ;  and 
of  sable,  ogre-sseit,  or  pelletn. 

We  now  come  to  the  third  class  of  figures  occur- 
ring in  armorial  bearings.  We  have  seen  that  the 
ordinaries  and  subordiuaries  are  for  the  most  part 
purely  heraldic  figures,  connected  in  their  origin 
with  the  shield  itself;  the  romiiniii  rh/irgex,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  representations  more  or  less  con- 
ventional of  familiar  objects,  which  have  no  neces- 
sary relation  to  the  shield ;  but  are  in  some  way 
emblematic  as  concerns  family  or  individual  history 
and  character.  The  knights,  in  the  early  days  of 
Heraldry,  ransacked  the  animal,  tlie  vegetable,  and 
tlie  mineral  kingdom,  as  well  as  tlie  range  of  things 
natural  and  artificial,  for  cognizances  which  would 
be  distinctive,  and  at  the  same  time  suggestive,  of 
the  name  or  title  of  the  bearer  of  them.  We  can 
only  enumerate  a  few  of  the  charges  of  most  fre- 
quent occurrence.  Of  the  beasts,  the  liifii  requires 
special  mention.  The  king  of  beasts  is  one  of  the 
most  frequent  of  heraldic  devices,  and  is  made  to 
assume  a  great  variety  of  attitudes,  for  which  see 
Lion.  Lions  and  other  beasts  of  prey  are  said  to 
be  iirmed  or  langued  of  any  tincture  when  their 
teeth  and  claws,  or  their  tongue,  is  of  that  tincture. 
With  some  change  of  color  or  position,  the  royal 
lieast  came  to  be  used  by  all  who  coidd  claim 
kindred,  however  remote,  with  royalty,  and  lions 
were  further  multiplied  by  augmentations  granted 
by  the  Sovereign  to  favorite  followers.  The  heraldic 
leopard,  which  has  been  the  subject  of  much  con- 
troversy, was  originally  but  another  designation  for 
the  lion  passant-gardant.  Bears,  boars,  bulls,  stags, 
are  favorite  heraldic  beasts.  A  stag  walking  is  saiil 
to  be  trippiint ;  he  is  at  gaze  when  a  lion  would  be 
statant-gardant  :  he  is  attired  of  any  tincture  when 
his  horns  are  of  that  tincture.  The  animals  that 
possess  horns  and  hoofs  are  said  to  he  armed  and 
'//((/«7frf  in  respect  of  them.  The  heads  and  limbs 
of  animals  are  often  borne  as  charges,  and  they  may 
be  either  cnuped,  cut  oft'  in  a  straight  line,  or  i  rased, 
cut  oft'  with  jagged  edge.  Of  birds,  we  have  first 
the  eagle.  The  sovereign  of  birds,  and  sj'mbol  of 
imperial  Jove,  was,  next  after  the  lion,  the  most 
favorite  cognizance  of  royal  personages,  and  was 
adopted  by  the  German  Emperors,  who  claimed  to 
be  successors  of  theCa'sars  of  Rome.  The  imperial 
eagle  had  at  first  but  one  head  ;  the  monstrosity  of 
a  second  head  seems  to  have  arisen  from  a  dimidia- 
tion  of  two  eagles,  to  represent  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Empire.  The  eagle  of  Heraldry  is  most 
generally  displayed,  i.e.,  its  wings  are  expanded  ; 
sometimes  it  is  preying,  or  standing  devouring  its 
prey.  The  alrrivn.  the  cognizance  of  the  Duchy  of 
Loraine  and  tlie  family  of  Jlontmiirency.  was  orig- 
inally l)Ut  a  synonym  for  the  eagle  assumed  as  an 
anagram  for  the  word  Loraine,  but  modern  Herahls 
have  degraded  it  into  a  nondescript  creature  without 
beak  or  claws.  The  martlet  was  originally  a  mar- 
tin, a  species  of  the  swallow,  wliicli  has  also  in 
course  of  time  been  deprived  liy  heralils  of  its  legs 
and  beak.  The  ]ielican,  the  swan,  tlie  cock,  the 
fak'oii,  the  raven,  the  parrot  or  popinjay,  and  the 
peacock,  are  all  of  tolerably  frequent  occurrence. 
The  pelican,  has  generally  her  wings  indarsed.  or 
placed  back  to  back,  and  is  depicted  pecking  her 
lireast.  When  in  her  nest  feeding  her  y.oung,  she 
is  called  a  i)elican  in  her  piety.  A  peacock  borne 
aflronte  with  his  tail  expanded  is  safd  to  be  in  hi.i 


HEBALDBT. 


33 


HEBALDB'  COIXEGK 


pride.  Birds  of  prey  are  armed  of  tVie  Bame  color  of 
whicli  tlicir  liciik  and  talons  are  rcpri'scntc<l.  Siidi  uh 
liuve  no  tiiloHH  are  heuktd  and  iiirmhcrid.  The  curk  is 
said  to  he  armed,  created.  a.m\  jellojied ,  tlie  latter  term 
referring  to  his  com!)  and  nills.  Birds  liaving  the 
power  of  flight  are,  in  respect  to  tlicir  attitude,  clone, 
rialiuj,  or  tulant.  Fishes  anil  reptiles  occur  as 
charges:  tlie  former  are  said  to  In-  miiant,  if  drawn 
in  a  horizontal,  and  hniiriunt,  if  drawn  in  a  |)crpcn- 
diculur  position  ;  and  tlie  dolphin,  in  reality  straight, 
is  conventionally  txirne  em,h<med  or  bent.  The  en- 
enllup  nhdl  is  of  frecpient  occurrence,  and  is  said  to 
be  the  hadge  of  a  pilgrim.  Soinetinies  the  con- 
ventional heraldic  form  of  an  animal  differs  from 
its  true  form,  as  in  the  case  of  tlie  antelope  of 
Heraldry,  which  has  the  head  of  tlie  stag,  a  uni- 
corn's tail,  a  tusk  issuing  from  tlie  liji  of  the  nose, 
a  row  of  tufts  down  tlie  liack  of  the  neck,  and  sim- 
ilar tufts  on  the  tail,  the  chest,  and  thighs.  Of 
"  animals  phantasticall "  we  have  among  others  the 
griffin,  wyvern,  dragon,  unicorn,  basilisk,  harpy. 
We  have  the  human  l)ody  in  whole  or  part,  a  naked 
man,  a  savage,  or  wild  man  of  the  woods,  also  arms, 
legs,  hearts,  Moor.s'  heads,  Saracens'  heads,  and 
that  strange  heraldic  freak,  the  three  legs  conjoined, 
carried  in  the  escutcheon  of  the  Isle  of  Man. 

Of  plants,  we  have  TOSffl,  trefoils,  cinqxiefitiU,  leawn, 
giirbx  (sheaves  of  corn),  trees,  often  erndirat^'d  or 
friKtiKited  of  some  other  color,  and,  above  all,  the 
celebrated yfc'«'-rff-W.v,  used  as  a  badge  by  Louis  VII. 
of  France,  before  Heraldry  had  an  existence.  When 
a  plant,  or  an  animal,  or  otlier  charge  is  bla/.one 
propi  r,  what  is  meant  is  that  it  is  of  its  natural  color. 
The  heavenly  bodies,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  are 
also  pressed  into  the  service  of  Heraldry,  as  are  things 
inanimate  and  artificial  without  number,  particularly 
such  as  were  familiar  to  the  warriors  and  pilgrims 
of  the  13th  and  13th  centuries.  Helmets,  Iiuekles, 
shields,  hatchets,  horseshoes,  swords,  arrows,  batter- 
ing-rams, pilgrims'  staves,  mullets  (for  spur-rowels), 
and  water-bougets,  or  bags,  in  which  in  crusading 
times  water  was  carried  a  long  distance  across  the 
desert,  also  the  clarion  or  war-trump,  generally  or 
erroneously  called  a  rest.  Even  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  have  been  used  as  charges.  Charges  may 
be  placed  either  simply  on  the  field  or  on  one  of  the 
ordinaries ;  in  some  instances,  one  of  the  ordinaries 
is  placed  over  a  charge,  in  which  case  the  charge  is 
said  to  be  dehruisedhy  the  ordinary.  Three  charges 
of  one  kind  are  placed  two  above  and  one  below, 
unless  blazoned /ft /<"■•<■•<  or /«  7ot/<-.  In  the  14th  and 
IStli  centuries,  the  simplicity  of  early  Heraldry 
began  to  be  departed  from  by  accumulating  a  variety 
of  charges  on  one  shield,  and  in  later  times  we  have 
sometimes  a  charge  receiving  another  charge  like  an 
ordinary.  The'growing  complexity  of  shields  arose 
from  the  augmentations  granted  to  distinguish  the 
younger  branches  of  a  family,  or  charges  assumed 
from  the  maternal  coat  by  the  descendants  of  an 
heiress.  In  the  end  of  the  last  and  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  a  practice  prevailed  for  a  time  of 
introducing  .  into  armorial  bearings  matter-of-fact 
landscapes,  representations  of  sea-fights,  and  of 
medals  and  decorations  worn  by  the  bearer,  setting 
all  heraldic  conventionalities  at  defiance,  and  deal- 
ing in  details  not  discernible  on  the  minutest  inspec- 
tion. Such  charges  are  frequent  in  the  arms  of  the 
heroes  of  the  old  wars;  as,  for  an  example,  in  the 
augmentation  granted  to  Sir  Alexander  Campbell, 
bart.,  in  addition  to  his  paternal  arms — viz.,  "A 
chief  argent  charged  with  a  rock  proper,  subscrilied 
G/iraWnr,  between  two  medals:  and  on  the  dexter 
representing  the  silver  medal  presented  to  Sir  X. 
Campbell  by  the  Supr^ie  Government  of  India,  for 
his  services  at  the  storming  of  Seringapalam,  in 
1799;  that  on  the  sinister  representing  the  gold  medal 
presented  to  him  for  his  services  in  the  battle  of 
Talavera."  The  grants  proceeding  from  the  present 
Kinss-of-Arms  are  made  conformable  to  the  usages 
of    Heraldry,  and  do   not    stand   in  need   of    such 


lengthened  explanations  to  make  them  intelligible. 

The  arms  of  the  dilTerent  members  of  a  family  have 
been  distinguislied  from  one  another,  somelimes  by 
the  use  of  a  bordure  or  othir  ililferi'nce ;  and  some- 
times,  especially  by  Knglish  Heralds,  by  the  use  of 
certain  figures  ralleil  marks  (}f  cadency,  the  label,  ereH. 
cent,  mullet,  inartlit,  an n,iilet,  jUar-de.-lis,  to  designate 
the  clilest,  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth  son 
and  his  ilescenilants  an  invention  originating  about 
th(^  timi^  of  Henry  V'H.,  but  which  cannot  consi.s- 
tently  be  carried  througli  all  the  ramifications  of  a 
family  for  a  succession  of  generations.  lileiionry 
is  an  e.ssential  part  of  the  science  of  arms.  To  blazon 
a  coat  is  to  so  describe  it  that  any  one  with  an  ordinary 
knowledge  of  Heraldry  will  be  able  to  ilepict  it  cor- 
rectly. In  the  language  of  blazonry,  all  tautology 
must  be  avoided.  The  tincture  of  the  Held  is  first 
mentioned;  the  ordinary,  if  any,  follows,  unless  it 
be  a  chief;  then  the  charges  between  which  the 
ordinary  is  placed.  The  charges  on  the  ordinary 
follow,  and,  lastly,  we  have  a  canton  or  chief,  and 
marks  of  cadency.  Besides  tlie  heraldic  devices 
depicted  on  the  shield,  there  are  the  following  borne 
external  to  it— the  helmet,  the  mantle,  the  wreath, 
the  crest,  the  motto  and  scroll,  the  supporters,  and 
the  coronet.  The  helmet,  originally  a  i)iece  of  de- 
fensive armor,,  became  in  the  course  of  time  one  of 
the  usual  accompaniments  of  the  shield  ;  and,  placed 
over  the  arms,  it  came  by  its  form  to  mark  the  rank 
of  the  wearer.  For  these  distinctions,  which  are  of 
comparatively  recent  date,  and  ap|)licable  only  to 
British  Heraldry,  see  Helmkt.  The  muntling  is  an 
embellishment  of  scroll-work  flowing  down  on  both 
sides  of  the  shield,  and  originating  in  the  cuintoise, 
or  scarf,  wrapped  round  tjie  body  in  the  days  of 
coat-armor.  From  the  center  of  the  helmet,  within 
a  tcrenth  of  two  pieces  of  silk  of  the  first  two  colors 
of  the  armorial  bearings,  issues  the  crest,  originally 
a  special  mark  of  honor  worn  only  by  heroes  of 
great  valor,  or  advanced  to  a  high  military-  command ; 
now  an  inseparable  adjvmct  of  the  co.at  of  arms  in 
English,  though  not  in  Continental  Heraldry,  and 
often  assumed  and  changed  arbitrarily  without  the 
proper  authority.  The  scroll,  placed  over  the  crest 
or  below  the  shield,  contains  a  motto  bearing  in  many 
cases  an  illusion  to  the  family  name  or  arms.  Sup- 
porters  are  figures  or  animals  standing  on  each  side 
of  the  escutcheon,  and  seeming  to  support  it.  They 
were  in  their  origin  strictly  ornamental  devices, 
which  only  gradually  acquired  a  heralilie  character. 
In  England,  the  right  to  use  supporters  is  confined 
to  the  Royal  Family,  Peers,  Peeresses,  and  Peers  by 
courtesy.  Knights  of  the  Garter,  Knights  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Bath,  and  a  very  few  families  whose  an- 
cestors bore  supporters  before  their  general  use  was 
restricted.  In  Scotland,  supporters  are  also  used  by 
the  Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia  and  the  chiefs  of  various 
families.  The  crown  of  the  Sovereign,  the  miter  of 
the  Bishop,  and  the  coronet  of  the  Mobility  are  ad- 
juncts appended  to  the  shield  of  those  whose  ditrnity 
and  office  entitle  them  to  that  distinction.  The  sub- 
ject of  marshaling  arms,  or  arranging  various  coats 
in  one  escutcheon,  is  explained  iifa  separate  article. 
Here  it  may  suffice  to  lay  down  a  few  general  rules. 
A  husband  is  entitled  to  impale  the  arrns  of  his  wife, 
i.e.,  to  place  them  on  the  same  shield  side  by  side 
with  his  own.  When  the  wife  is  an  heiress,  the 
husband  bears  her  arms  in  an  esctitrheon  "f  pretense, 
or  small  escutcheon  in  the  center  of  his  own  shield, 
and  the  descendants  of  the  heirese  may  quarter  her 
arms  with  their  paternal  coat.  A  Sovereisrn  also 
quarters  the  arms  of  his  several  States,  and  feudal 
arms  are  quartered  by  subjects.  An  elective  King 
may  place  his  herditary  arms  on  an  escutcheon  of 
pretense  over  the  insignia  of  his  dominions. 

HEBALDS'  COLLEGE.— A  collegiate  l)ody,  founded 
by  Richard  III.  in  1493,  consisting  of  the  heraldic 
officers  of  England,  who  were  assigned  a  habitation 
in  the  Parish~of  Allhallows-the-Less,  in  the  city  of 
London.     See  College  of  Arms. 


HERBORT  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. 


34 


HEROES. 


HERBORT  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— In  this 
system. the  auiili's  iif  the  polyirdii  ;ire  covered  by  case- 
mated  reduits,  surri)uuded  by  barracks  loop-hnled 
for  musketry  and  artillery.  These  are  flanked  by  two 
redoubts,  covered  by  a  glacis,  before  which  stands 
a  counter-guard.  The  extremities  of  these  course- 
faces  forma  low  flank  before  the  redoubts.  Defen- 
sive barracks  connected  by  an  earthen  parapet  form 
a  general  retrenchment.  An  envelope  of  counter- 
guards  flanked  by  lunettes,  which  have  also  their 
glacis,  casemates,  extra  flanks,  etc.,  surrounds  the 
whole.  The  system  is  ingenious ;  but,  the  outlay  is 
enormous.  The  uurevetted  parapets  and  the  flanks 
rising  in  tiers  would  expose  it  to  an  attack  of  vive 
force,  and  it  would  also  suffer  much  from  ricochet. 

HERCOTECTONIQUE. — A  term  in  fortification  sig- 
nifying that  branch  of  military  architecture  which 
specifically  points  out  the  best  means  of  defense 
and  the  surest  method  of  providing  stores.  The 
wf)rd  is  derived  from  the  Greek. 

HERCULES  POWDER.— A  mixture  of  carbonate  of 
magnesia  with  carbonizing  and  oxidizing  materials, 
cornbined  with  nitro-gh'cerine  in  varying  propor- 
tions, to  produce  different  grades  of  explosivcness. 
Although  Sobrero  well  established  the  fact  that 
Ditro-glycerine  was  a  powerful  explosive — and  about 
18.53  fhe  French  Academy  made  several  practical 
tests  showing  it  was  an  agent  of  great  importance, 
and  scientificinen  occasionally  wrote  upon  the  sub- 
ject— the  article  of  glycerine  had  not  yet  been  pro- 
duced in  large  quantities,  mostly  on  account  of  the 
expense  attending  its  manufacture,  which  was  still 
in  its  infancy ;  and  hence  the  manufacture  of  nitro- 
glycerine had  remained  wholly  impractical,  for 
x-ommon  mining  and  engineering  purposes,  until 
about  the  year  1863.  The  Hercules  Powder  Com- 
pany, well  knowing  that  nitro  glycerine  had  been 
used  as  mixed  with  gunpowder  many  years  before, 
commenced  the  manufacture  of  a  high  explosive,  in 
1868,  compounded  in  that  mannel'.  But  it  was 
found  that  all  these  mixtures  of  the  nitro-glycerine 
compounds  were  faulty  in  two  particulars,  viz: — 
1st.  A  tendency  to  decomposition  when  exposed 
to  much  summer  heat,  or  long  storage  or  use  in 
very  hot  mines,  etc.,  in  consequence  of  some  small 
particles  of  nitric  acid  remaining  in  the  nitro-glycer- 
ine, rendering  it  more  or  less  dangerous  from  de- 
composition. 2nd.  The  noxious  fumes  arising 
from  this  decomposition,  both  in  storehouses  and  in 
the  mines,  causing  nausea  and  headache  and  in  some 
cases  weakening  the  quality  of  the  powder.  As  a 
remedy  for  the  first,  the  carbonate  of  magnesia  en- 
tirely neutralizes  any  free  acid  that  may  chance  to 
remain  in  the  nitro-glycerine,  and  converts  it  into 
nitrate  of  magnesia,  which  is  explosive,  and  renders 
it  so  perfectly  free  from  anj'  liability  to  spontaneous 
combustion  that  it  may  be  safely  stored,  for  manj' 
months,  in  the  hottest  weather,  or  be  transported 
through  the  longest  voyages  in  the  tropics,  without 
undergoing  any  chemical  change.  The  remainder 
of  theinixture  is  compounded  upon  strict  chemical 
principles  to  neutralize  noxious  fiunes  that  would 
otherwise  be  generated.     See  High  Exploniven. 

HEREFARE. — An  old  term  from  the  Saxon,  signi- 
fying thi-  same  as  warfare. 

"  HEREGELD.— A  term  derived  from  t)ie  Saxon,  sig- 
nifying a  lax  which  was  formerly  levied  for  main- 
tainiuic  an  army. 

HERESILIA.  — A  term  derived  from  the  Saxon, 
signifying  a  soldier  who  abandons  his  colors,  or  de- 
serts the  service.     Also  written  Ilerisl/tn. 

HERETOCH.  -The  leader  or  the  comnumder  of  an 
army.  The  term  frequently  means  a  C<instable  or 
Marshal,  ajid  is  sometimes  written  Ilrrit";/. 

HERETUM.  -A  court  in  which  the  guards  or  mili- 
tary retiime  that  usually  attended  the  old  British 
Noliilily  and  Hislioiis  were  accustomed  to  draw  up. 

KERGATE.  A  term  derived  from  the  Saxon  sig- 
nifying a  tribute  which  was  paid  in  ancient  times 
to  the  Lord  of  the  Soil,  to  enable  him  to  carry  on  war. 


HERISSON.— A  formidable  hedge  or  chev;iux-de- 

frise.  It  is  made  of  one  stout  beam  fenced  by  a 
number  of  iron  spikes,  and  which,  being  fixed  upon 
a  pivot,  revolves  in  every  direction  upon  its  being 
touched,  alwavs  presenting  a  front  of  spikes. 

HERLIN  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— This  sys- 
tem proposes  an  enciente  uf  detached  bastions  and 
javelins,  and  divides  the  town  into  quarters  lij' 
double  cavaliers  erected  behind  the  gorge  of  the  bas- 
tions. The  ramparts  are  casemated  with  a  double 
parapet  and  a  fausse-braye. 

HERMANDAD. — An  Association  of  the  principal 
cities  of  Castile  and  Aragon,  bound  together  by  a 
solemn  league  and  covenant  for  the  defense  of  their 
liberties  in  seasons  of  trouble.  These  Confederacies 
were  sanctioned  by  the  Sovereigns,  as  agents  for  sup- 
pressing the  increasing  powers  of  the  Nobles,  and 
for  maintaining  public  security  through  the  land 
with  no  cost  to  the  Government.  In  Aragon,  the 
first  Hermandad  was  established  in  the  middle  of 
the  13th  century,  and  in  Castile  about  30  years  later  ; 
while  in  1295,  35  cities  of  Castile  and  Leon  formed 
a  joint  Confederacy,  and  entered  into  a  compact,  by 
which  the}'  pledged  themselves  to  take  summary 
vengeance  on  every  Noble  who  had  either  robbed  or 
injured  a  member  of  their  Association  and  refused 
to  make  such  atonement  for  the  wrong  ;  or  uponanj' 
one  who  should  attempt,  even  by  the  order  of  the 
King,  to  levj'  an  unjust  tax.  During  the  long  period 
of  Anarchy  in  which  the  Christian  Rulers  of  Spain 
were  impotent  to  maintain  order  in  their  own  Do- 
minions, the  Santn  Hermandad,  or  Holy  Brother- 
hood, had  presented  the  only  check  against  the  un- 
bounded license  of  the  Nobles  ;  and  Isabella  of  Cas- 
tile, seeing  the  beneficial  effects  which  an  extension 
of  the  Insfitution  was  capable  of  producing, obtained 
the  sanction  of  the  Cortes  for  its  thorough  reorgani- 
zation and  extension  over  the  whole  Kingdom  in 
1496.  The  crimes  reserved  for  its  jurisdiction  were 
all  acts  of  violence  and  theft  committed  on  the  high- 
roads or  in  the  open  country,  and  the  penalties  at- 
tached to  each  misdemeanor  were  specified  with  the 
greatest  precision  in  the  codes  of  laws  which  were 
enacted  at  different  times  in  the  3'early  assemblies 
of  the  deputies  of  the  Confederate  cities.  An  annual 
contrilmtion  was,  moreover,  assessed  on  every  hun- 
dred householders  or  vecinoa  for  the  equipment  and 
maintenance  of  the  horsemen  and  the  gnndriUeros  or 
officials  of  the  Brotherhood,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
arrest  offenders  and  enforce  the  sentence  of  the  law. 
Although  the  Hermandad  was  regarded  with  much 
disfavor  by  the  aristocracy,  it  continued  for  many 
years  to  exercise  its  functions,  until  the  country  was 
cleared  of  the  banditti  and  the  Ministers  of  Justice 
enabled  to  discharge  their  duties  without  hinderance 
from  lawless  disturbers  of  the  peace.  In  1498,  the 
objects  of  the  Hermandad  having  been  obtained  and 
public  order  established  on  a  firm  basis,  the  Brother- 
hood was  disorganized,  and  reduced  to  an  ordinary 
police,  such  as  it  has  existed,  with  various  modifica- 
tions of  form,  until  the  present  century.  The  laws 
enacted  at  different  times  in  the  Juntas  or  Assem- 
blies of  the  Hermandad  were  compiled,  in  1485,  into 
a  code,  known  as  the  Qtuuhrnn  de  Ian  Leyes  niievas 
de  la  Hermaiuhul,  which  was  first  printed  at  Burgos 
in  1.527. 

HEROES.— In  the  Homeric  period.  Kings,  Princes, 
Generals,  Leaders,  all  brave  Warriors,  and  men  wlio 
excelled  in  strength,  courage,  wisdom,  and  experi- 
ence. Many  of  these  had,  im  account  of  such 
qualities,  a  fabled  origin,  half  human,  half  divine, 
and"  were  honored,  after  death,  with  a  kind  of  ado- 
ration or  inferior  worship.  These  heroes  and  denti- 
gods  were  recognized  as  the  special  patrons  or  |)ro- 
tectors  of  |iarticular  countries  or  cities,  and  to  them 
were  raised  temples  and  altars.  These  examples  of 
heroic  character,  beldupconstantly  to  the  admiration 
and  imitation  of  peoples,  tended  to  strengthen  their 
pecidiar  character,  and  to  impress  them  with  the 
greatness  and  glory  of  courage,  contempt  of  danger, 


HERRISON. 


35 


HEXAGONAL    POWDER. 


and  nubility  of  purpose.  Poetry  cxalti'il  tlic  heroie 
Btiiliineat  tJi  suliliiiiity  ;  mid  poems  wliicli  celeljriitecl 
tlie  deeds  of  heroes  lire  themselves  termed  lieroir. 
The  inmiriimry  time  when  heroes  iiiiil  other  semi- 
divine  lieini;s  lived  on  eiirtli  wus  commonly  culled 
the  lleroie  Aire. 

HERRI80N.  — In  Heraldry,  the  hedijehof:,  ii  clmrKe 
allusively  home  liyfiimilies  of  the  iiiinie  of  Iliirris. 

HERSE.— Ill  fortitieiition,  ii  kind  of  giite  or  |)ort- 
cuUis,  with  iron  bars  like  a  harrow,  set  in  with  iron 
pikes,  placed  above  gates  and  lowered,  to  impede 
the  advance  of  an  enemy.  It  is  usually  hung  liy  a 
rope  and  is  fastened  to' a  moulinet,  which  is  cut  in 
case  of  a  surprise,  or  when  the  first  L'ate  is  forced  by 
a  petard,  so  that  it  may  fall  like  a  portcullis  and 
stop  the  passage  of  agate  or  any  other  entrance  of  a 
fortress. 

HERSILLON. — A  strong  beam,  whose  sides  are 
stuck  full  of  spikes,  wliicli  is  thrown  across  the 
breach  made  by  an  enemy  to  render  it  impassable. 
See  Ifirxf. 

HERULI.— A  nomadic  and  warlike  German  tribe, 
who  iiiliabited  the  north  shores  of  the  Black  Sea, 
Imt  afterwards  divided  into  sections  and  wandered 
into  dilferent  parts  of  Europe.  They  first  appear  in 
history  in  tlie  third  century  as  taking  part  with  the 
Goths"  in  their  excursions  against  the  eastern  prov- 
inces of  the  Komau  Empire.  In  the  fourth  century 
they  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the  Gothic 
King  Ermanric,  but  when  Attila,  King  of  the  Huns, 
made  his  descent  upon  (Jaul.  they  joined  his  stan- 
dard. After  the  overthrow  of  the  lluns,  in  which 
tliey  suffered  considerably,  they  establislied  an  or- 
ganized and  distinct  Confederacy  on  the  banks  of  the 
Danulie,  and  under  the  leadership  of  Odoacer,  assist- 
ed in  47()  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Western  Empire. 
Under  their  King  Rudolph  they,  in  the  beginning  of 
tlie  sixth  century,  attempted  the  subjugatiun  of  the 
Longobardi,  but  were  defeated  and 
dispersed,  some  of  them  proceeiiing 
to  Scandinavia,  and  others  lieing  al- 
lowed bj'  the  Emperor  Anastasius  to 
settle  on  the  south  bank  of  tlie  Dan- 
ube. In  the  time  of  Justinian  some 
of  them  embraced  Christianity.  A 
large  portion  of  tliem  afterwards 
joined  the  Gepidte  in  their  wars  a- 
gainst  the  Eastern  Empire;  but  oth- 
ers fought  with  Justinian  against  the 
Vandals  and  East  Goths.  Towards 
the  end  of  tlie  sixth  century  they 
were  merged  into  other  nations,  and 
disappeared  from  historical  records. 
Tlie  Heruli  were  bold,  hardy,  and 
extremely  pugnacious.  For  a  con- 
siderable period  they  retained  their 
strong  individuality,  and  presented 
a  firm  resistance  to  the  influences  of 
civilization.  Thej'  are  said  to  have 
offered  human  sacrifices.  Also  writ- 
ten ^■Ertili,  and  Eruli. 

HESSIANS.— Troops  belonging  to  Hesse-Cassel, 
Prussia.  They  have  been  frequently  liired  in  Great 
Britain,  particularly  in  the  war  of  American  Inde- 
pendence, when  they  were  sold  at  t'40  sterling  a 
head,*!)  of  which  was  to  be  repaid  if  returned  alive. 

HETMAN.— The  title  of  the  Head  or  General  of  tfie 
Cossacks,  now  retained  only  among  the  Cossacks  of 
the  Don.  From  the  earliest  times  the  Iletmau  was 
elected  by  the  voice  of  the  assembled  people ;  the 
mode  of  election  being  by  throwing  their  fur-caps  at 
the  candidate  they  preferred,  and  the  one  who  had 
the  largest  number  of  caps  was  declared  duly  elected. 
The  ]iower  of  the  Hetman  was  very  great,  and  ex- 
tended over  life  and  death.  When  the  Cossacks 
in  1644.  submitted  to  the  Russians,  the  Hetman  was 
permitted  to  retain  his  rights  as  formerly.  The  Em- 
press Catherine  entirely  abolished  the  dignity  of 
Hetman  of  the  Ukraine,  and  substituted  a  Govern- 
ment consisting  of  eight  members.      The  Don  Cos- 


sacks liave,  indeed,  retained  their  Hetman,  and  even 
he  possesses  but  the  shadow  of  his  former  power. 
The  latest  elective  Hetman  was  Count  I'lalotf.  who 
played  a  prominent  pari  in  tluf  wars  with  France 
(1h"i2"14j.  After  his  death  the  Hetman  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  Czar,  and  ulliiiiately  the  title  was 
made  hereditary  in  the  Grand  Duke,  the  heir  to  the 
llimiii-.     Also  written  At'iyimn. 

HEURTEftUIN8.~Two  pieces  of  iron  resembling 
a  knocker,  which  are  placed  over  tlie  trunnions,  or 
axis  of  a  cannon. 

HEUSE. — An  iron  shoe,  sometimes  called  ptdieux, 
attached  to  the  greaves  of  ancient  armor.  Iiaving  an 
iron  sole,  and  tlie  upper  fomposed  of  mail. 

HEXAGONAL  POWDER.  -Kxperimeuts  were  made 
at  Fori  Monroe  in  1S72  and  \x~'i  with  what  is  known 
as  hexagonal-grained  powder,  inanufactured  by  tlie 
Messrs.  Duponl  &  Co  ,  of  Wilmington,  Del.,  which 
demonstrated  its  superiority  for  heavy  ordnance, 
giving  low  maximum  pressures,  with  good  velocities 
and  great  uiiiforniity  of  action.  One  of  the  samples 
was  selected  for  proof  of  the  converted  8  and  0- 
inch  rifled  guns  in  1874.  Hexagonal  jiowder  has 
been  employed  since  that  date  in  trial  and  proof  of 
all  8.incli  converted  guns.  The  uniform  size  of 
grain,  and  their  j)olyhedral  shape,  insure  great  uni- 
formity in  position  and  size  of  the  interstices  in  the 
make-up  of  the  cartridge  :  this  insures  with  a  uni- 
form densit}-  of  grain  a  high  degree  of  uniformity 
in  pressures  and  velocities  from  given  charges  of 
powder  and  weights  of  projectiles.  The  drawing 
shows  the  shape  and  dimensions  of  this  powder,  the 
specific  gravity  being  1.7.')11. 

The  proportions  of  the  ingredients  of  hexagonal 
powder  conform  to  the  United  States  standard,  and 
up  to  the  completion  of  the  incorporation  in  the 
wheel-mill,  its  manufacture  is  like  that  of  ordinary 
powder.      Mealing — Tlie  wheel  mill-cake  is  revolved 


in  a  cylinder  of  wire-wove  cloth,  with  wooden-lialls, 
until  it   is  mealed.     Pressing — The  mealed   jiowder 

1  is  then  carefull)'  pressed  between  horizontal  metallic 
plates  or  dies.  The  powder  comes  out  in  a  sheet  or 
cake  of  polyhedral  granules  united  along  their  ver- 
tical edges,  the  diesbeing  nearly  perfect  dodecahe- 
drons. "  Graining — The  press-cake  is  passed  be- 
tween rollers  armed  with  brass  cutting  teeth  at  an 

!  angle  of  from  60"  and  120"  to  the  axis,  which  cut 
the  cake  into  granules,  tlieir  cross-section  being 
almost  heiagimal.  whence  the  powder  derives  its 
name.  Glazing — The  powder  is  then  sent  to  the 
glazing-mill  and  glazed.  Brus/iing — The  powder 
is  next  passed  repeatedly  through  the  brushing-raa- 
chine.  This  consists  of  a  frame  with  brushes  re- 
volving near  an  inclined  plane  along  which  the 
powder  passes  liy  the  motion  of  the  lirushes.  Dry- 
ing— The  brushing  ended,  the  powder  goes  to  the 
dry-house  where  It  is  dried.     The  powder  is  now 


HIBEKNIAN  ROYAL  SCHOOL. 


HIGH  TREASON, 


iiiiuutely  examined,  its  specific  gravity  is  taken,  and 
a  count  made  of  the  granulation";  a  variation  of  two 
granules  to  the  pound  being  enough  to  condemn 
the  powder.  Re-br'ishing  and  re-drying — If  satis- 
factory, the  powder  is  again  passed  through  the 
brushing-machine,  re-dried,  and  then  receives  a 
third  brushing.  Packing — The  i^owder  is  finally 
packed  in  barrels  and  is  ready  for  inspection.  See 
Gunpowder. 

HIBERNIAN  ROYAL  SCHOOL.— A  School  establish- 
ed in  Great  Britain  for  tlie  maintenance  of  350 
children  of  military  officers  who  are  supported  and 
educated  at  the  School,  at  an  expense  of  £7,000  per 
annum  to  the  country. 

HIDE-BOUND.— A  term  which,  when  applied  to  a 
horse,  signifies  that  his  skin  cannot  be  pulled  up  or 
raised  from  his  ril)s  and  back ;  caused  from  bad 
keep,  poverty,  internal  disease.-  The  remedy  con- 
sists in  good  grooming  and  diet,  with  gentle  medi- 
cine and  keeping  the  animal  warm. 

HIDES.— The  "skins  of  buflfaloes,  cows,  bullocks, 
and  other  animals.  Buffalo-hides  are  used  in  India 
for  the  manufacture  of  buflf  accouterments,  belting 
of  machinery,  etc.;  bullock  or  cow-hides  for  mend" 
ing  cartouches  aud  priming-pouches,  and  a  variety 
of  other  leather-work.  Buffalo-hides  which  have 
urtdergone  the  process  of  tanning  are  used  for  cover- 
ing the  floors  of  powder-houses  and  charge  maga- 
zines. 

HIERARCHY.— The  essential  element  for  the  gov- 
ernment and  service  of  an  Army  is  a  military  hier- 
archy or  the  creation  of  different  grades  of  rank,  to 
which  different  functions  and  powers  are  assigned, 
the  lower  in  regular  subordination  to  the  next  higher 
in  the  ascending  scale.  It  should  be  founded  oil  the 
principle  tliat  every  one  acts  in  an  Army  under  the 
orders  of  a  Superior,  who  exercises  his  authority  only 
within  limits  established  by  law.  This  authority  of 
the  Superior  should  be  greater  or  less  according  to 
rank  and  position,  and  be  proportioned  to  liis^  re- 
sponsibilities. Orders  should  be  executed  without 
hesitation ;  but  responsibilities  should  be  confined 
to  him  who  gives  orders  in  virtue  of  the  superior 
authority  with  which  he  is  invested  ;  to  him  who 
takes  the  initiative  in  an  order ;  to  him  who  does  not 
execute  an  order  that  he  has  receive<l ;  and  to  him 
who  usurps  a  command  or  continues  illegally  to 
exercise  its  functions.  The  military  hierarchy  is 
determined  and  consecrated  within  its  sphere  of 
acticm  by : — 1.  Grades  of  rank  created  by  military 
laws ;  3.  By  other  laws  regulating  the  exercise  of 
rank  ;  3.  By  military  insignia  ;  4.  By  military  hon- 
ors :  and  •').  Bv  the  military  oath. 

HIGH-ANGLE  FIRE.— Tlie  fire  from  gtms.  howitz- 
ers and  mortars  at  all  angles  of  elevation  exceeding 
l-"".^.     See  Fir,. 

HIGH  EXPLOSIVES.— The  name  given  to  the  vari- 
ous nitro-glycerine  compounds.     The  value  of  these 


plosives  in  the  United  States,  and  the  percentage  of 
nitro-glycerine  contained  in  the  powder  they  rop- 
resent.     See  Exph'site  AgenU. 

HIGHLAND  REGIMENTS,— The  origin  of  the  fust 
of  these  regiments,  the  't2d,  has  been  given  under 
the  head  IJlack  AVatch.  The  valuable  services  of 
this  regiment  encouraged  the  Government  to  aug- 
ment the  force  ;  and  accordingly  seven  other  High- 
land Regiments  have  been  raised  from  time  to  time 
—viz.,  the  71st,  in  1777;  the72d,  or  Duke  of  Albany's 
Own,  in  the  same  year  ;  the  74th,  in  1787;  the  78th, 
or  Ross-shire  Buffs,  in  1793;  the  79th,  or  Cameron 
Highlanders,  in  1805;  the  92d,  or  Gordon  Highland- 
ers, in  1796:  and  the  93d,  or  Sutherland  Highland- 
ers, in  1800.  The  uniform  of  each  of  these  corps  is 
the  Highland  dress,  including  a  distinctive  tartan. 
The  soldier  wears  a  coatee  of  "scarlet,  a  kilt  (in  most, 
but  not  all,  of  the  regiments),  a  plaid  across  the 
shoulders,  a  plume,  and  the  other  attribtites  of  the 
Gaelic  costume.  In  an  array  where  officers  are  ap- 
pointed by  general  competition,  nationalitj'  is  neces- 
sarily disregarded :  but  these  Corps  are  those  in 
which  Scotch  gentlemen  most  frequently  seek  ap- 
pointments, and  a  large  proportion  of  the  officers 
are  Scotch.  Of  the  men,  at  least  79  per  cent,  are 
Scotch,  11  per  cent.  English,  and  10  per  cent.  Irish. 
The  regiments  are  recruited  at  Stirling,  Aberdeen, 
Perth,  Fort  George,  and  Lanark. 

HIGH  SEAS.— the  open  sea,  including  the  whole 
extent  of  sea  so  far  as  it  is  not  the  exclusive  proper- 
ty of  any  particular  country.  The  rule  of  interna- 
tional law  is  that  every  country  bordering  on  the  sea 
has  the  exclusive  sovereignty  over  such  sea  to  the  ex- 
tent of  three  miles  from  its  shore  ;but  all  beyond, and 
which  is  not  within  three  miles  of  some  otlier  coun- 
try, is  open  or  common  to  all  countries.  The  part 
of  sea  within  three  miles'  distance  is  generally  called 
the  territorial  sea  of  the  particular  country,  or  mare 
clausum.  The  distinction  has  little  effect  on  tlie 
right  of  navigation,  but  as  regards  fishing  it  is  other- 
wise. Thus,  for  example,  foreign  fishermen  have 
no  right  to  fish  within  three  miles  of  the  British 
coast  without  a  license  from  the  Crown,  or  unless 
some  special  treaty — as  for  example,  the  French  and 
English  treaty — has  laid  down  other  arrangements. 

HIGH  STEEL.— For  the  construction  oif  cannon, 
steel  may  be  divided  into  high  and  h(P  steel,  the 
difference  being  that  the  former  contains  more  car- 
bon that  the  latter.  High  is  very  hard  aud  lias  a 
great  ultimate  tenacity.  It  has  but  little  extensibili- 
ty either  within  or  without  its  elastic  limit;  it  is 
therefore  too  brittle  for  use  in  cannon,  unless  used 
in  such  large  masses  that  the  elastic  limit  will  not 
be  exceeded  by  the  explosive  force  of  the  powder. 
It  melts  at  a  lower  temperature  than  wrought-iron, 
and  is  difficult  to  weld  as  its  w-elding  temperature  is 
but  little  less  than  that  at  which  it  usually  melts. 
See  Steel. 


ATLAS. 
(Standard). 

HERCULES. 

(IIANT. 

-ETNA. 

HECLA. 

JUDSON. 

BRAND. 

Per  Cent 
N.  a. 

BRAND. 

Per  Ceut 

N.    G. 

BRAND. 

Pnr  Ceut 
N.  0. 

BRAND. 

Per  Cent 

N.    G. 

BRAND. 

Per  Cent 

N.   G. 

BRAND. 

Per  Cent 
N.  0. 

R.  E.  P. . 

F 

5&  under 
10 
15 
20 

F+ 

B, 

E-h 

15 
20 
25 

No. 5 

■      16- 

FP 

FFF 

No.  4 

No.  4S,-. 

20 
25 

M 

20 

No.  3 

No.  3X.. 

26 
25 

N0.4X... 

25 

XXX 

27 

D,.- 

30 

No.  3,.... 

30 

No.  2,.... 

30 

N0.2C,.. 

No.' 2', '.'.!.' 

No2  Extra 
New  No.l 

33 

"'46" 
45 
50 

D+ 

c 

.35 
40 
45 
50 
(to 

No.  3S,.. 

No.  2 

N0.2S,.. 
No.  2  8S. 
No.  2  SSS 
No.  1,.... 
No  1  X  X 

35 
40 
45 
50 
55 

ns 

75 

No.  8X... 
No.  2,.... 

35 
40 

No.  2X.. 
No.l 

35 

40 

C+ 

3 

No.  2x  X 

50 

No.lx... 

50 

B+ 



No.l,.... 

65 

A m 

No.l 

75 

No.  IX X 

7.5 

compounds  depends  in  a  very  great  measure  upon  1 
the  quantity  of  nitro-glycerine  contained  in  them. 
The  table  herewith  ltivcs  tlie  distinguishing  marks 
adopted   by  liie  leadimi  manufacturers  of  high  ex- 1 


HIGH  TREASON.— Treason  against  the  State  or 
the  security  c)f  the  Sovereign,  whether  by  imagina- 
tion, word,  or  deed.  In  the  United  States,  treason 
is  confined  to  the  actual  levying  of  war  against  the 


HILT. 


37 


HITCHCOCK  FOBOIRO. 


Unittil  States,  or  any  adlieriii!;  to  their  enemies, 
givinir  tliein  aid  aiul  comfort.     See  'J'rm'ini. 

HILT.— TIk'  Imiidle  of  u  cuttin;;  instruineiit,  es- 
iK'iiiilly  of  a  tciiifc  or  sword.  Ililtid  i.s  a  term  used 
in  Heraldry,  In  indicate  the  tincture  of  the  luiudlc  of 
a  sword. 

HINNY.— Tiie  liyhrid  produced  hclwcen  a  horse 
ami  u  female  ass.  It  is  smallcrlhiinamidi-,  butthe 
body  is  more  bulky  in  iiroportion  to  tlic  leirs.  and 
Its  s'trenirlh  is  inferior.  Il  is  less  valuable  than  the 
mule,  alihoui;h  it  is  nniredocih'.  The  hiiuiy  is  rare. 
It  was  described  l)y  some  of  tlie  earlier  naturalists 
»9,  a  hybrid  between  the  o.\  and  the  ass,  and  even 
BulTdii  sccins  to  have  entertained  this  notion. 

HIPPODROME.— The  (ireek  name  for  the  place  set 
apart  for  licjrsc  and  chariot  races.  Its  dimensions 
were,  accoriiini;  to  the  conuuon  opinion,  half  a  mile 
iu  lenirth  and  one-eii:lilh  of  a  mile  in  breadtli.  In 
construction  and  all  impnrlant  [loints  of  arrange- 
ment, it  was  the  counterpart  of  the  Roman  circus, 
with  the  exception  of  the  arranirement  of  the 
chariots  at  the  starting-place.  In  the  hi|>podrome, 
the  chariots  were  arranged  so  as  to  form  two  sides 
of  an  isosceles  triangle,  with  the  apex  towards  the 
goal  and  a  little  to  the  right  side.  But  as  this 
would  have  given  the  chariots  on  the  left  side  a 
longer  course  than  those  on  the  right,  the  hippo- 
drome was  constructed  with  the  right  side  longer 
than  the  other.  The  start  was  efTected  by  setting 
free  the  chariots  on  the  extreme  right  an<lleft.  when 
they  came  opposite  the  next  two,  by  setting  them 
free  also,  and  so  on  till  all  were  in  motion.  The 
hippodrome  was  also  much  wider  than  the  Roman 
circus,  to  allow  rooni  for  the  greater  number  of 
chariots,  for  though  we  have  no  iirecise  information 
as  to  the  nund)er  that  usually  started  in  one  race, 
we  know  that  Alcibiades  on  one  occasion  sent  seven  : 
Sophocles  mentions  ten  chariots,  as  competing  at 
the  Pythian  games;  and  the  number  at  the  Olympic 
games  must  have  been  considerably  greater.  There 
IS  a  beautiful  description  of  a  chariot-race  in  Homer 
(Iliiid,  xxiii.  2(i'3-().'50).  The  golden  age  of  the  hi]i|io- 
drome  was  during  the  lower  Greek  Empire.  The 
blue  and  green  factions  in  the  hijipodrome  carried 
their  animosity  into  all  departments  of  the  public 
service,  and  laid  the  fcmndation  of  that  perpetual 
disunion  which  rendered  the  Byzantine  Empire  a 
prey  to  every  aggressor. 

HIRCARRAH. — An  Indian  term  for  a  messenger, 
guide,  footman,  or  a  spy.  Sometimes  written  ffir- 
carriK 

HIRING  OF  DUTY.— Hiring  of  duty  is  forbidden 
in  all  Armies.  In  the  United  States,  the  Articles  of 
War  provide  that  no  soldier,  Ijelongiug  to  any  regi- 
ment, troop,  battery,  or  company,  shall  hire  another 
to  do  his  duty  for  him.  or  be  excused  from  duty,  ex- 
cept in  cases  of  sickness,  disability,  or  leave  of  ab- 
Bence.  Every  such  soldier  found  guilty  of  hiring 
his  duty,  and  the  person  so  hired  to  do  another's 
duty,  shall  be  pimished  as  a  Court-JNlartial  directs. 
Every  Non-commissioi  ed  Officer  who  connives  at 
such  hiring  of  duty  shall  be  red\ieed.  Every  Officer 
who  knows  and  allows  such  practices  shall  be  pun- 
ished as  a  Court-Martial  mav  direct. 

HIR?INI.— A  people  of  Italy  who  inhabited  the 
south  portion  of  Samnium.  They  have  been  con- 
sidered by  some  autliorities  as  merely  a  Samnite 
tribe,  while  by  others  they  are  looked  upon  as  an 
independent  nation.  The  country  they  inhabited 
was  the  wild  and  mountainous  district  traversed  by 
the  Sabatus,  Calor,  and  Tamarus.  trilmtaries  of  the 
Vulturnus.  and  on  the  east  side  of  llie  Apennine 
ridge,  the  upper  course  of  the  Autidus.  In  the 
early  history  of  Rome  the  Hirpini  are  found. identi- 
fying themselves  with  their  Samnite  neightiors 
against  their  common  foes.  They  seem  to  have 
been  snbdued  in  the  early  part  of  the  third  century 
B.  c,  as  iu  268  b.  c,  Heneventum,  the  ke.y  of  all 
their  military  postions.  was  colonized  by  Roman 
settlers.     They  appear  iu  history  for  the  "first  time 


as  an  independent  people  after  the  second  Piinin 
War.  Revolting  from  their  old  Comiuerors.  they 
joined  the  Carthaginian  Invaders,  and  though  tliey 
were  unable  to  retake  the  stronghold  of  IJeneven- 
tiun.  they  kept  faithful  to  Hannibal  till  defeat  at 
the  Melaurus  restored  the  Empire  of  Italv  to  his  op- 
ponents. In  the  year  of  that  event  the  Hirpini  made 
peace  with  their  old  masters  by  br'traying  into  their 
hands  the  garrisons  of  their  Allies.  f'roin  this 
time  till  the  outbreak  of  the  Social  War,  the  Hirpi- 
ni seemed  to  have  continued  steailfasl  in  their  al- 
legiance. On  that  occasion,  however,  they  set  tlie 
example  of  revolt  to  the  Allies,  and  might  have  be- 
come fortnidable  enemies,  had  not  the  rapiil  suc- 
cesses of  Sulla  induced  them  to  repair  their  error  by 
a  comiilele  submission.  At  the  closeof  this  war  the 
Hirpini  obtained  the  franchise,  and  do  not  again  ap- 
pear in  history  as  an  independent  people.  Their 
towns  were  Beneventum.  Aeculanum.  Equus,  Tuti- 
cus,  Trivicum.  Murirantia.  and  Aquilonia. 

HISTORY.— Military  history  may  be  defined  as  a 
narrative  or  description  of  the  several  military  trans- 
actions, as  campaigns,  battles,  sieges,  marches,  etc.. 
of  armies.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  this  liranch  of 
history  is  necessary  to  make  the  military  man  apt  in 
his  profession,  self-reliant,  and  capable  of  (command. 
It  is  indeed  the  secret  of  many  a  Commander's  suc- 
cess in  the  varied  positions  he  is  placed  in  his 
career,  as  in  the  study  of  military  history  he  finds  a 
precedent  for  every  strategic  emergency,  and  a  so- 
lution of  the  man)'  ditticult  problems  in  the  art  of 
war,  wliich  great  Generals  have  overcome.  The 
stiiily  of  military  history  further  tends  to  createlugh 
aspirations  after  military  glory,  from  the  peru.sal  of 
deeds  of  valor  performed  by  men  who  have  devoted 
and  virtually  sacriticed  their  lives  for  the  good  of 
their  country. 

HITCH. — I'lie  name  given  to  certain  knots,  such 
as  the  timber-hitch,  cliree.hitch.  and  others.  Tliese 
knots  are  verj'  valuable  for  artillery  and  engineer 
purposes,  the  advantage  being  that,  as  long  as  the 
strain  is  kept  ujion  them,  tliey  never  give  way. 
Hitches  may  be  described  as  overlaying  a  part  of  a 
rope  with  itself  in  such  a  manner  that  a  loop  or 
loops  are  formed  to  jam  on  each  other.     See  Kimtx. 

HITCHCOCK  FORGING.— This  system  of  forging  is 
designed  to  insure  sound  welding  in  the  fabrication 
of  large  cannon.  The  iron  is  heated  in  a  reverbera- 
tory  furnace,  to  avoid  its  contact  with  sulphur  and 
other  impurities  of  coal.  The  gun  is  forged  of  rings 
of  wrought-iron,  or  low-steel  made  witlur.it  welds, 
i»nd  upset  or  butted]together,  as  by  Ames's  process. 
The  rings  are  so  formed  as  to  be  united  first  in  the 
center,  that  the  superfluous  cinder  may  be  squeezed 
out.  An  anvil  is  seated  on  the  piston  of  a  liydro- 
static  press,  so  as  to  be  lowered  as  the  successive 
rings  are  added.  A  furnace  is  situated  l>etween  the 
anvil  and  a  steam-hammer,  and  so  arranged  that  the 
rings  project  into  it  from  below,  and  the  liammer 
drops  into  it  from  above.  The  ring  to  form  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun  is  laid  upon  the  movable  anvil 
and  projected  sufflciently  into  the  furnace  to  allow 
the  flame  to  raise  it  to  the  welding  heat.  Mean- 
while, in  another  part  of  the  furnace,  the  rings  are 
heated  to  welding  in  the  same  time,  by  proportion- 
ing the  heat,  by  means  of  dampers  to  the  relative 
bulks  of  the  two  parts.  'Without  removing  the 
parts  from  an  atmosphere  in  which  there  is  verv  lit- 
tle i^  any  o.xygeu.  they  are  laid  together  ami  instant- 
ly welded  by  a  few  strokes  of  the  steam-hammer. 
The  anvil  is  then  lowered  by  the  thickness  of  an- 
other ring,  and  the  same  process  is  repeated. 

Although  the  gint  may  be  of  any  size,  the  jiarts 
actually  united  at  one  operation,  may  be  made  so 
light  by  reducing  their  thickness,  that  the  pressure 
of  a  hammer  of  moderate  weight  will  be-  adequate. 
And  when  the  whole  operation  of  upsetting  is  con- 
fined to  one  joint,  exactly  the  requisite  pressure  for 
that  joint  can  be  applied:  and  there  is  no  fear  of 
injuring  other  parts  by  setting  it  up  soundly,  because 


HOBBLE 


38 


HOISTING  APPAEATU8. 


the  mass  of  the  gun  below  it  is  cold,  and  forms  a 
rigid  pillar — practically  a  continuation  of  the  anvil. 
It"  would  appear  that  all  the  conditions  of  sound 
welding  may  tlius  Ije  attained,  if  tlie  process  can 
be  practically  carried  out.  This  process  was  in- 
tended especially  for  fabricating  guns  of  low-steel, 
the  rinss  to  be  made  witliout  wetds,  by  bein^  ori- 
srinally  cast  in  the  form  of  small  thick  rings,  and  then 
rolled",  in  a  modification  of  tlie  tire-rolling  machine, 
to  a  larger  diameter  and  a  smaller  section.  Tliis 
treatment  would  develop  an  endless  grain  in  the 
riuirs,  in  tlie  direction  of  the  circumference. 

HOBBLE— HOPPLE. — A  fetter  for  horses,  or  other 
animals,  when  tiirned  out  to  graze— chiefly  used  in 
the  plural.  Wlien  in  the  vicmity  of  tlie  enemy  or 
horse-thieves,  the  stock  may  be  iiermitted  to  graze, 


and  at  tlie  same  time  be  secured  by  means  of  the 
hopplcH  or  side-lines.  They  are  likewise  of  inesti- 
mable value  for  use  on  animals  prone  to  stray  far 
away  from  the  camp  or  herds.  The  drawing  shows 
the  usual  fiirm  of  their  construction,  the  fetlock 
straps  being  made  of  a  tliick  leather,  the  inside 
smooth  and  soft,  and  tlie  sewn  edges  uppermost 
wlien  on  the  animal's  legs.  For  military  purposes, 
it  is  decidedly  better  to  have  the  leglets  made  of 
steel,  with  a  lislit  connecting  lock  and  chain  of  the 
same  material.  Leather  hopples  deteriorate  in 
strength  upon  exposure  to  moisture  and  the  weather, 
and  may  be  readily  cut  and  removed  by  the  enemy 
or  robbers.  Steel  hopples  have  the  advantages  of 
beino-  less  cumbersome,  mucli  more  secure,  lighter 
in  weight,  and  can  be  placed  on  or  taken  off  the  ani- 
mal wfth  greater  facility,  by  those  having  the  means 
of  unlockfna:  them.  In  the  absence  of  this  very  im- 
portant eqfupment,  tlie  soldier  may  successfully 
liiipple  his  horse  with  a  stirrup-leatlier,  by  putting 
its  middle  round  one  fetlock,  then  twisting  it  half-a- 
dozen  times,  and  finally  buckling  it  round  the  other 
fetlock. 

HOBILERS. — An  inferior  variety  of  cavalry  used  or 
raised  ill  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  Tliey  were  sta- 
tioned at  Portsmouth  and  at  otlier  maritime  places, 
and  bound  to  keep  a  little  flag  for  the  purpose  of 
"■iviuLr  notice  of  invasion.  They  wore  an  aketon  or 
armor  of  plates,  a  baseinet.  iron  irauntlets,  a  sword, 
knife,  and  a  lance.     Also  written  Ihiheliers. 

HOBITS.- Small  mortars  of  (i  or  8  inclies  bore. 
iiiouiiled  on  gun-carriages ;  they  were  in  use  before 
tlie  howitziT. 

HOCHE  BOS.— Certain  soldiers  among  the  ancient  s. 
wlio  were  so  called  from  tlieir  brandisliing  the  pike. 
Tliis  term  lias  likewise  been  applied  to  the  pike  it- 
self. 

HODOMETER.— An  instrument  for  measuring  the 
distance  traveled  over  by  any  conveyance,  and  con- 
sisting of  an  arrangement  of  toothed  wheels,  like 
clock-work,  fixed  on  one  side  nf  a  machine,  and 
connected  with  the  axle,  from  which  motion  is  com- 
iiiunicated  to  it.  An  index  and  dial  show  the  ex- 
act distance  the  vehicle  has  traveled.     See  Odomthr. 


HOG-GUM, — The  name  given  in  the  West  Indies 
to  a  resinous  substance,  which  is  there  extensively 
used  as  a  substitute  for  pitch  to  tar  boats  and  ropes, 
also  for  strengthening  plasters,  etc.,  and  internally 
as  a  diuretic,  laxative,  and  stimulant  medicine.  It 
is  still  disputed  what  tree  produces  the  true  hog- 
gum  ;  some  ascribing  it  to  morunohtd  coccinea,  of 
the  natural  order g iittiferir  ;  some  to  rhtismetupium.  a 
species  of  sumach  of  the  order  anacardinfecB  ;  and 
others  to  Uelirigia  bnUnmifeni,  of  the  order  nmyri- 
dfiteee.  The  probability  seems  to  be  that  all  these — 
and  perhaps  other — trees  yield  resinous  substances 
of  very  similar  quality,  and  commonly  designated 
by  the  same  name. 

HOIST.— 1.  The  perpendicular  height  of  a  flag,  as 
opposed  to  the. //^,  or  breadth  from  the  staff  to  the 
outer  edge.  2.  A  machine  for  hoisting  ores,  metals, 
castings,  workmen,  etc.,  in  mines  and  foundries.  A 
very  primitive  hoisting-machine. wliicli  resembles  the 
modem  capstan,  is  used  in  the  Convent  of  St.  Cath- 
arine, at  the  foot  of  Mount  Sinai,  to  raise  travelers 
to  a  door  in  the  second  story.  This  is  a  somewhat 
inconvenient  and  tedious  operation,  but  is  used  in  a 
land  where  robbers  go  on  horseback.  It  is  also 
worthy  of  remark,  that  the  people  of  the  land  have 
no  idea  of  the  value  of  time,  and  so  set  six  men  to 
help  another  in  at  the  door.  The  obelisks  in  ancient 
Egypt  may  have  been  raised  Viy  gradually  lifting  the 
apex  and  scotching  up  by  introducing  earth  beneath 
them.  The  Stonehenge  blocks  were  very  probably 
raised  in  the  same  way.  When  Chersiphon  built 
the  Temple  of  Ephesus.  in  the  time  of  Amasis  of 
Egypt,  lie  raised  the  architrave  by  surrounding  the 
columns  with  liags  of  earth,  which  served  as  an  in- 
clined plane. 

HOISTING  APPARATUS.— In  designing  and  build- 
ing machinery  for  hoisting  ami  transferring  light 
loads,   many  of  the   same  problems   are   presented 


Fin.  1. 
which  occur  in  the  construction  of  heavy  cranes, 
and  the  exiierieuce  gained  in  one  is  available  in  the 
other.  Too  much  has  heretofore  been  left  to  "  rule 
of  tnunib  "  jiracticein  the  designing  cf  light  hoisting 
niacliinery,  and  frecpient  accidents  to  life  and  limb 
still  needlessly  occur  from    continued  j.'dherence  to- 


HOISTING  APPARATUS. 


39 


HOISTING  APPARATUS. 


old  types  iif  niiicliiiics  in  wliirli  wifely,  bolli  of  per- 
son and  load,  (lei)ends  upon  I  lie  care  mid  iiilelli^eiH'e 
of  the  operator.  It  is  possilile  to  so  coiistriiel  liaiid- 
lioisting  inacliinery  that  aeeideiils  arisiiii;  from  nirc- 
lessness  in  its  use  are  praeti<-idly  iuipossilile.  Sueli 
construction  involves  no  saeritiee  of  simplicity  or 
I'fflciency.  and  no  material  increase  in  civst.  To  ad- 
here to  the  old.  therefore,  is  loassumeneeilless  risks 
to  property  and  unjustitialih'  risks  to  human  life. 
The  risks  referred  to  ari.se  chielly  from  two  causes  ; 
Jir^t,  a  deficiency  of  material  in  ])arts  subject  to 
strain  :  and.  sinmi!,  the  iise  of  ratchet-wheels  to  hold 
the  load  suspended,  and  of  non-automatic  brakes  to 
efl'ect  lowerini;.  The  tirst  defect,  a  want  of  jiroper 
kind  or  amount  of  material,  arises  from  unskilful 
desinnini;  luid  from  the  etVort  after  cheapness.  The 
second  is  adherent  in  the  elements  of  mechanism 
employed,  and  can  only  be  avoided  by  the  use  of 
new  and  better  devices,  so  constructed  as  to  be 
automatic  in  all  functions  where  carelessness  is  po- 
tent to  produce  harm. 

The  active  openition  of  /iw'.st/ni/  is  usually  free 
from  danifer  in  any  machine  of  sufficient  strength. 
It  is  the  (Ir.ir.eni  of  the  load,  whether  by  intent  or  I)y 
accident,  that  involves  danirer.  During  the  act  of 
hoisting  the  o|)erator  slowly  expends  power,  wddch 
is  stored  up  as  latent  energy  in  the  mass  he  has 
raised,  and  which,  if  expended  or  given  back  sud- 
denly, as  in  falling,  is  cap.'iblc  of  working  serious 
mischief.  The  mechanism  should,  therefore,  he 
so  constructed  that  the  load,  when  lifted,  shall  be 
sustained  independently  of  the  operator,  so  that 
should  he  cease  his  efforts,  or  even  suddently  let  go 
the  rope  or  handles,  the  load  will  simply  cease  to 
move  and  will  remain  suspended.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances should  the  loa<l  be  permitted  to  descend 
by  gravity  unaided  by  the  controlling  hand  of  the 
operator.  This  principle  of  construction,  namely, 
the  control  of  the  load,  at  all  times  and  under  all 
conditions,  by  reliable  automatic  devices,  is  em- 
bodied in  all  of  the  hoisting  appliances  described  in 
this  work,  designed  and  built  by  the  Yale  and  Towne 
Manufacturing  Company. 

Winding-drums  or  barrels  shoidd  have  a  diameter 
and  length  such  as  will  enable  them  to  receive  the 
whole  length  of  rope  or  chain  to  be  hauled  in  by 
winding  it  upon  their  surface  in  one  coil,  without 
overlapping.  In  large  cranes  the  load  is  usually 
carried  upon  four,  six,  or  even  eight  parts  of  rope 
or  chain,  so  that  the  length  to  be  wound  up  anioimts 
to  four,  si.\,  or  eight  times  the  effective  hoist,  and 
the  dimensions  of  the  barrel  thus  bec(jme  very  large. 
Moreover,  this  barrel  must  either  be  caused  to  travel 
longitudinally  on  its  shaft,  so  that  the  rope  or  chain 
as  it  leads  off  shall  be  alwa_ys  in  the  center  of  the 
crane  and  hoisting  mechanism  (which  methixl  of 
construction  involves  a  serious  complication  and 
greatl)'  widens  the  space  occupied  by  the  gearing), 
or  the  rope  or  chain,  as  it  vmcoils,  be  permitted  to 
vary  in  position  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  the 
barrel,  in  which  ca.se  it  is  nearly  o>it  of  center,  thus 
Inducing  objectionable  lateral  strains  and  causing 
greater  friction  and  wear.  Fig.  1  shows  a  simple 
arrangement  of  gears  and  crank,  winding  the  lifting 
rope  on  drum  or  cylinder.  It  may  be  easily  fasteneil 
on  any  post,  or  part  of  a  building,  or  used  in  con- 
nection with  a  crane  as  shown. 

t'haiu-wheels  require  a  width  only  slightly  greater 
than  a  single  part  of  the  ch.ain.  and  a  diameter 
merely  snthcient  to  give  the  proper  engagement  with 
it,  so  that  both  dimensions  become  much  smaller 
than  in  a  winding-barrel,  and  the  total  sjiace  occu- 
pied is  l)ut  a  small  fraction  of  that  required  for  the 
latter  device.  The  chain-irhifl  is  fixed  in  direct  line 
witii  the  chain,  and  all  lateral  strains  are  avoided, 
while  the  flat  bearings  afforded  for  the  chain  by  the 
pockets  preserve  the  shape  of  the  links  and  protect 
them  from  bending  strains.  The  slack  chain,  after 
passing  over  the  wheel,  falls  into  a  proper  receptacle 
below.     From  this  anahsis  of  the  facts  is  deduced 


the  proposition  that  chains,  if  well  maile,  constitute 
the  iiest  form  of  flexible  <(ird  for  sustairdng  the  load 
in  a  crane,  anil  that  a  well  construcli'd  rlitiin-irhnl 
Ois  contradistiuLniislic-cl  from  a  winiling-barrelj  is  the- 
best  form  of  device  for  hauling  in  and  paying  out  the 
chain  ;  and,  theri'fore.  that  thi-best  method  of  crane 
construction  involves  the  use  of  these  two  elements. 

When  using  the  chain-wheel  system,  great  effort 
must  be  nuide  to  secure  chains  of  perfectly  uniform 
pitch.  Chain-making  is  one  of  the  few  remaining 
manual  trades  in  which  modern  machinery  has  not 
to[a  greater  or  less  extent  displaced  tin-  skill  of  the 
individual  workman.  .Many  atteinpts  have  been 
made  to  jjroduci;  chains  by  machinery,  and  allhoitgh 
simie  success  has  been  attained,  no  nuichine-made 
chain  has  yet  been  produced  having  sufficient  relia- 
bility and  tmiforuuty  of  quality  to  adapt  it  to  use  in 
cranes.  The  all-important  opc^ration  in  chain-mii- 
king  is  the  process  of  w<0<ling  the  links,  and  in  this 
the  personal  element  seems  indispensable  to  a  per- 
fect result,  no  machine,  however  perfect,  taking  the 
place  of  the  skill  and  intelligence  of  the  workman. 

As  used  in  the  Weston  cranes,  the  pitch-chains  of 
the  smaller  sizes  are  made  entirely  of  Norway  iron, 
while  for  the  larger  sizes  either  the  Xorway  iron 
or  American  iron  of  high  elasticity  and  rluctility,  is 
used.     Each  link  is  forged  and  welded  with  great 


Fig.  2. 

care,  and  much  more  time  and  labor  is  expended  on 
this  part  of  the  work  than  is  the  case  with  common 
chain.  All  of  this  pitch-chain  is  made  under  a 
j  patented  process,  which  consists  in  forging  the 
chain  slightly  under  pitch,  after  which  it  is  tirst 
cleaned  and  brightened  by  "  rattling,"  and  then 
stretched  in  a  special  machine  to  the  final  gauge  or 
pitch.  The  lirst  process  causes  the  several  links  to 
come  into  more  perfect  contact  or  bearing  by  remov- 
ing the  scale  and  other  slight  asperities  from  th-dr 
surfaces.  The  second  process  assists  in  bringing 
their  adjacent  surfaces  into  closer  contact,  tends  to 
strengthen  the  sides  of  the  links,  and  gives  the  iron 
a  sliglit  initial  set  by  straining  it  to  a  degree  some- 
what greater  than  that  which  will  be  caused  by  the 
load  which  it  is  intended  to  ciirry.  The  final  step 
in  the  process  is  a  carefid  and  rigid  inspection  of 
each  link  of  the  chain  and  the  removal  of  any  which 
are  at  all  imperfect.  As  a  result  of  this  treatment, 
a  chain  is  obtained  which  is  accurately  uniform  in 


HOISTING  APPARATUS. 


40 


HOISTING  APPARATUS. 


pitch,  and  which,  when  used  within  tlie  intended 
limit  of  load,  will  not  stretch  or  alter  its  pitch.  It  is 
l)elieved  that  the  chain  thus  produced  is  more  perfect 
and  reliable  than  any  made  heretofore. 

In  determining  tlie  diameter  of  iron  for  the  several 
sizes  of  chain,  those  sizes  ha%'e  been  adopted  which 
will  limit  the  stress  upon  the  liuks  of  the  chain  to  a 
ma.ximum  of  from  9,000  to  10,000  lbs.  per  square 
inch  of  cross-section  when  carrying  the  full  load. 
As  the  pitch-chain  was  designed  primarilyforu.se  in 
the  Weston  Differential  Pullej'-blocks,  in  which  the 
lc«id  is  always  carried  upon  two  parts  of  chain,  the 
nominal  capacity  of  the  several  sizes  indicates  in 
each  case  the  maximum  load  intended  to  be  carried 
upon  two  jmrts  of  the  chain.  A  single  part  is,  of 
course,  capable  of  carryiug  a  load  of  one-half  the 
amount  given  in  the  "table.  The  following  table 
gives  the  dimensions  of  the  several  sizes  of  the  pitch- 
chain  above  described. 


Nom'al  cap'y,Tons* 

* 

A 

J. 

4 

1 

\^   2 

3 

7 

4 

5 

e 

8 

H 

10 

Diam.  iron,  inch's... 

♦The  upper  line  indicfites  tlie  load  which  can  be  safely  carried 
on  two  parts  of  the  chain,  i.e.,  as  used  in  a  one-sheave  taciile- 
block.  Each  part  of  the  chain  thus  carries  one-half  ot  the  total 
load.  If  the  load  is  to  be  carried  by  a  single  chain,  select  a 
chain  of  a  nominal  capacity  of  twice  the  intended  load. 

Fig.  2  gives  a  sectional  view  of  a  double-chain 
screw  hoisting-machine. 

JIauy  advantages  accrue  from  the  use  of  worm- 


of  automatic  brakes  where  necessary.  In  well  pro- 
portioned worm-gearing  with  cut  teeth,  friction  can- 
not be  relied  upon  to  hold  a  suspended  load  from 
running  down,  but  a  very  moderate  lirake  resistance 
applied  to  the  worm-shaft  will  accomplish  this  re- 
sult. If  a  load  suspended  through  a  train  of  spur- 
gearing  be  allowed  to  rim  down,  it  will  do  so  at  an 
accelerating  velocity  approximating  to  that  of  a  fall- 
ing body.  With  the  worm-gearing,  however,  very 
little  acceleration  takes  place  after  certain  speed  has 
been  attained,  and  gearing  of  this  kind  thus  be- 
comes a  safet}'  device  which  prevents  undue  accel- 
eration of  the  load  even  when  running  free,  and  is 
a  most  valuable  means  of  preventing  accidents,  both 
to  the  mechanism  and  to  those  operating  it. 

The  ordinary  ratchet-wheel  is  a  disc  with  teeth  or 
indentations  on  its  periphery,  and  in  practice  it  is 
employed  in  combination  with  a  pawl  or  a  dog  ar- 
ranged to  engage  with  its  teeth  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  ratchet-wheel,  being  attached  to  a  rotating 
shaft,  is  entirelj'  free  to  revolve  in  one  direction, 
but,  by  the  action  of  the  pawl,  is  prevented  from 
rotation  in  the  contrar}'  direction.  Thus  arranged 
it  is  generally  attached  to  the  primary  shaft  of  a 
winch,  or  other  hoisting-gear,  so  that,  while  it  op- 
poses no  resistance  to  rotation  of  the  shaft  in  the 
direction  necessary  for  hoisting,  it  effectively  pre- 
vents motion  in  the  contrary  direction.  When  it  is 
desired  to  lower  the  load  the  pawl  Jis  thrown  out  of 
engagement  with  the  ratchet-wheel,  and  the  load 
then  lowered  b}-  turning  the  cranks  backward,  or  by 
letting  go  of  the  cranks  and  controlling  the  descent 
of  the  load  by  a  brake  applied  to  the  shaft . 

Both  of  these  arrangements  are  dangerous,  and 


Fig.  3. 


gearing  in  the  construction  of  lioi.sting  machinery.  I  are  productive  of  serious  accidents.  Where  lower- 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  its  compactness  as  |  ing  is  elfected  by  turning  the  cranks  backward  with 
compared  with  spur-gearing,  the  ability  to  operate  i  the  pressure  due  to  the  load  upon  them,  it  freiiueutly 
shafts  at  right  angles  to  each  other  without  resort  j  hai)pens  that  a  heavy  load  overcomes  the  operator, 
to  bevel  gears,  and  great  facility  in  the  ai)plication  !  in  which  case  the  cranks  begin  to  revolve  with  great 


HOLD. 


41 


HOLDFASTS. 


violiiicc,  unci  often  strike  the  opi/rator  liefore  he  ciin 
esciipi;  from  their  readi.  WiifTO  a  luakc  is  used, 
there  is  less  (l!ini.'er,  hut  even  the  safe  descent  of  the 
Iniiil  is  eontinirent  upon  the  skill  with  wliich  the 
lirake  is  used,  and  any  lack  cjf  skill  or  watchfulness 
will  result  in  a  rapid  descent  of  the  load.  In  tlii.s 
ease,  it  the  motion  is  not  checked  the  load  may  de- 
scend so  rapidly  as  to  cause  dauiaire.  wliile  if  its 
motion  l)e  suddenly  arrested  hy  the  brake,  the  Hhock 
and  strain  thereby  induced  are  apt  to  diininge  tlie 
crane. 

A  friction  ratchet  is  one  in  which  the  action  of 
friction  is  sulislituted  for  the  teeth  and  jiawl  of  the 
coinnion  ratchet,  so  that  the  retaininir  action  of  the 
ratchet  will  lake  place  instantly  and  in  all  |)iisitions. 
A  safety  ratchet  may  be  delined  as  one  in  which 
loweriivi:  of  the  loud  is  ell'ecled  liy  reversini.'  the 
motion  of  the  shaft  to  which  the  rat<'het  is  attached 
without  any  disentcajrement  of  the  pawl  or  ilssul»<ti- 
tule,  the  construction  beini;  such  that  so  loni;  as  this 
backward  motion  is  continued  the  load  will  descend, 
but  that  when  it  is  discontinued  the  load  will  auto- 
matically come  to  rest,  from  which  it  follows  that 
with  a  safety  ratchet  the  craidis  or  handles  of  a 
hoistiniT-machine  may  be  "let  iro "  .Mt  any  time, 
eitJier  in  hoistini:  or  in  lowerintc,  the  ratcliet  there- 
upon aulomatieally  holdini;  tlie  load  suspendeil  and 
jireventin;;  "  riuuiina:  down"  or  descent  of  the  load. 
Tlie  jjreat  desirability  of  so  important  a  result  luiB 
lomc  been  conceded,  but  most  of  the  devices  liere- 
tofore  invented  for  its  accomplishment  have  been  so 
<omplicate(l,  or  so  uucertaui  in  action,  as  to  find  lit- 
Ui-  favor. 

In  cranes  operated  by  power  one  or  more  clutches 
are  essential  to  the  convenient  oiK-ration  of  the 
nieclianism.     Experience  has  demoiLstrated  that  the 


and  wear  upon  keys  and  feathers,  which  i»  a  serious 
defect  in  most  hoistinK-cn^^ines,  cuusiug  Ilie  shafts 
to  split  at  key-way.  This  engine  is  wHl  suited  for 
all  liard  duty,  such  as  pile-driving,  haiding  logs, 
bridge-building,  and  iriany  other  kinds  of'  work 
where  engines  are  liable  to  be  broken  by  suiiden 
strains.  The  clutch  can  be  set  so  as  to  do'thework 
Uie  ropes  are  safe  at.  and  then  will  slip,  and  save 
Uie  engine  and  gearing  from  breaking.  The  motion 
to  operate  the  clutch  is  ea.sy  and  natural,  and  with 
a  powerful  straji-brake  we  can  hold  or  lower  care- 
fully any  load  we  can  hoist.  See  Crunen,  Differen- 
tiiil  Pi(Ufy.liliirk,  and  Menhnnicnl  M/meuvem. 

HOLD.— A  plaeeof  security  ;  a  fortified  place,  fort, 
or  castle.  Often  called  a  stronghold.  The  expres- 
sion tn  hiild.  isfretpieutly  employed  to  mean  the  fact 
of  being  in  military  possession  of  anyplace:  while 
tnlidld  nut  means  to  maintain  any  place,  ground,  etc., 
against  an  enemy. 

HOLDALL.— A  iiortable  ease  for  holding  small  ar- 
ticles recjuired  by  soldiers.  Leather  bags  or  cases 
are  generally  used  for  carrying  implements  for  the 
equipment  of  guns,  and  are  known  as  "  of!"  and 
"  near."  Each  has  links  at  the  back  for  Iiangini;  it 
on  the  saddle. 

HOLDFASTS,— The  most  essential  subjects  to  be 
considi  nd  before  any  heavy  weight  is  moved  or  sus- 
pended, are  the  nature  and"eondition  of  the  securing 
points,  together  with  the  strain  that  will  be  Ijrouglil 
on  them.  Natural  holdfasts— such  as  the  piers  of 
casemates,  pintles  for  guns  of  position,  trees,  etc.— 
mjiy  freciuently  be  found,  around  which  straps  may 
be  placed.  In  such  eases  all  corners  should  l)e  jiro- 
tected  by  wood,  or  the  rojie  itself  ptnxuhtl  to  ])revenl 
chafmg.  In  places  where  holdfasts  can  lie  driven  or 
sunk,  the  oriliiiary  picket-post  can  be  made  use  of, 


Fi;:.  1. 


Fig.  a. 


Fig.  .3. 


Fig.  4. 

best  and  most  reliable  clutch  for  this  jxirpose  is  that 
invented  and  patented  by  Jlr.  TlionKis  A.  Westou, 
M.  E..  and  lirst  fully  descriljed  in  a  paper  read  by 
him  before  the  British  Institution  of  Mechanical 
Engineers.  The  essential  basis  of  the  Westou  clutch 
or  coupling  consists  of  two  series  of  friction  discs 
arranged  alternately  with  eacli  other  upon  a  common 
axis,  one  series  being  carried  by  one  shaft,  and  the 
other  series  connected  to  the  other  shaft  or  wheel 
which  is  required  to  be  coupled  with  the  first  shaft. 
The  great  advantage  arising  from  this  alternate  ar- 
rangement of  the  discs  is  that  the  frictional  effect  of 
anypressure  applied  to  coiqile  them  is  repeated  as 
many  times  as  there  are  discs  in  the  two  series,  that 
is.  the  number  of  all  the  discs  is  a  cimstant  multi- 
plier for  the  friction  produced  between  a  single  pair 
of  the  rubbing  surfaces  by  any  given  pressure. 

A  most  perfect  and  an  effective  hoistiug-cngiuc, 
made  by  Messrs.  Frisbie  &,  Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  is 
represented  in  Fig.  3.  A  distinctive  feature  of  this 
engine  is  the  manner  of  eonnectinir  the  spur-gearing  to 
fri>ti'rii,-d?->im!i  by  bolting  directly  to  the  rim  of  the 
drum.     This  does  away  with  all  torsion  of  the  shaft 


F)L'.  .5. 

I  but  only  when  light  weights  have  to  be  dealt  with. 
In  scouring  to  a  iioldfast  from  which  it  may  become 

!  necessary  to  ease  off,  at  least  one  complete  turn 
must  be  taken  before  making  fast ;  otherwise,  when 
the  strain  is  on  it,  it  is  difficult  to  cast  off.  Precise 
rides  cannot  be  laid  down  as  to  the  description  of 
holdfast  best  suited  for  particular  operations,  but  it 
sliould  be  liorne  in  mind  that  it  will  .save  much 
time  and  trouble  to  make  it  iu  the  first  instance  con- 
siderably more  secure  than  seems  to  be  absolutely 

'  necessary,  as  when  a  holdfast  once  liegins  to  sive, 
it  is  difficult  to  strengthen  it.  Whatever  holSfast 
niay  be  used,  the  strain  should  be  taken  by  the  eu- 

i  tire  structure  at  once  :  otherwise  it  might  srive  way 
in  detail  when  it  would  not  do  so  as  aVhole.  The 
drawings  represent  some  of  the  methods  of  custom- 
ary holdfasts,  using  pickets,  anchors,  heavy  cannon, 
etc.  When  the  strain  to  be  sustained  is  very  sjreat. 
tlie  holdfast  shown  in  Fig.  2,  may  be  used  to  ad- 

I  vantage  :  a  h  c  d  h  ti  trench  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet 
long  and  two  to  four  feet  in  width  and  depth.  It  is 
dug  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  strain. 
Several  heavy  stakes  are  driven  into  the  trench  far 


HOLLOW  BALLS. 


42 


HOLY  SEPULCHEK. 


eaouffh  from  the  side  to  luimit  plauks  lieiug  placed 
between  them  and  the  earth.  A  heavy  beam,  with 
the  bight  of  a  chain  around  it,  is  then  laid  on  at  the 
bottom  of  the  irench  against  the  stakes,  the  ends  of 
the  cliain  being  brought  up  between  tlie  planks  along 
a  trench,  rising  gradually  to  the  surface  so  that  there 
will  be  no  tendency  to  lift  the  beam  up  when  the 
strain  is  on  it.  The  whole  trench  is  then  tilled  in 
and  rammed. 

HOLLOW-BALLS.— In  military  pjTotechny,  many 
varieties  of  balls  are  made,  diffe-iug  in  purpose  from 
bomb-shells,  but,  like  them,  tilled  with  ignitible 
composition.  They  are  used  either  to  give  light, 
to  produce  very  dense  smoke,  or  to  diffuse  a  suf- 
focating odor.  Some  of  them,  althougli  designated 
bails,  are  not  globular  in  shape.  IJght-hnUn  consist 
of  canvas  stretched  over  a  skeletou-frame,  and 
painted ;  the  frame  is  filled  with  a  composition  of 
saltpeter,  sulphur,  resin,  and  linseed-oil,  rammed 
down  hard  ;  and  is  provided  with  a  fuse,  the  length 
of  which  determines  the  time  that  will  elapse  before 
the  composition  ignites.  These  light-balls  weigh 
from  5  lbs.  to  70  lbs.  each,  according  to  their  size. 
Tliey  are  intended  to  give  out  a  brilliant  light,  which 
may  reveal  the  operations  of  the  enemy,  during 
night,  at  a  siege  or  iu  the  field.  Smoke-bulls  are 
made  of  several  thicknesses  of  paper,  shaped  by 
means  of  a  globular  core  or  a  mould.  They  are  fill- 
ed with  gunpowder,  saltpeter,  powdered  sea-coal, 
Swedish-pitch,  and  tallow;  and  are  calculated, 
after  being  fired  oflf,  to  send  out  a  dense  smoke  for 
nearly  half  an  hour,  in  order  to  blind  or  incommode 
the  enemv.  Stiiik-hdlh  are  filled  with  a  composi- 
tion which,  when  ignited,  diffuses  an  odor  almost 
intolerable.  Some  of  the  contrivances  of  Captain 
Norton  and  other  inventors  at  the  present  day,  are 
extensions  of  the  same  principle  as  these  inflam- 
mable balls.  It  may  here  be  added,  that  most  of 
these  projectiles,  esp"ecially  light-balls,  and  smoke- 
balls,  are  fired  from  mortars  rather  than  from  guns. 
See  Pyrotecliny. 

HOLLOW  OF  THE  AKM.— An  expression  for  the 
slight  inclination  of  the  a.xle-tree-arms  downwards 
(when  the  wheels  have  dish),  so  that  the  lowest 
spoke  of  each  wlieel  may  be  vertical. 

HOLLOW  PROJECTILES.— Under  the  head  of  Hol- 
low Projectiles  are  included  shells  for  guns,  howit- 
zers, and  mortars.  Tliese  are  usually  made  of  cast- 
iron,  and  are  classified  according  to  the  diameter  of 
the  l)ore  of  the  piece.or  their  weight. 

A  shell  is  a  hollow'  projectile  filled  with  gunpow- 
der, which  is  ignited  by  a  fuse  at  the  reiiuired  mo- 
ment, the  bursting  of  the  shell  causing  destruction 
by  its  explosive  force  and  by  the  fragments  and,  if 
the  object  be  combustible,  by  setting  it  on  fire.  The 
thickness  of  metal  must  be  such  that  the  shell  may 
contain  as  large  a  bursting  charge  as  possible,  but 
that  it  be  strong  enough  to  withstand  the  shock  of 
the  discharge  within  the  bore  of  the  gun.  The 
thickness  of  metal  in  a  spherical  shell  is  about  one- 
sixth  of  the  diameter,  and  the  weight  of  the  shell  is 
about  tliree-fourths  that  of  the  solid  shot  of  the  same 
calilier.  The  shell  of  a  rifle-gun  being  elongated,  is, 
by  giving  it  a  greater  length  than  the  shot,  brought 
up  to  the  same  length  as  the  latter. 

^Mortar-shells  are  fired  from  mortars  at  high  angles, 
being  intended  to  fall  upon  and  set  fire  to  buildings, 
vessels,  or  other  (•om1)Ustible  constructions;  to  de- 
stroy earthworks,  or  by  their  great  penetration  be- 
fore bursting,  to  explode  magazines  protected  from 
other  projectiles.  Tliey  are  fitted  with  two  liniH. 
placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  fuze-hole,  which 
serve  for  attaching  a  pair  of  ditll-honkti.  The  fuze- 
holes  of  mortar-shells  are  larger  in  diameter  than 
those  of  other  common  shells,  and  I  hey  arc  not 
counter-Slink  or  boucbed  with  composition.  See 
l'i-ij>i-tJlix  and  .S//,,'/.v. 

HOLLOW  REVETMENT.— AVhen  arches  are  con- 
structed from  one  counterfort  to  the  ne.\t,  tlie  name 
/ujlloin  or  wiinter-atvlied  revetment  is  given  to  the 


disposition,  which  is  both  excellent  and  economical 
for  hi^li  scarps. 

HOLLOW  SQUARE.— The  form  in  which  a  body  of 
foot  is  drawn  u])  with  an  empty  space  in  tiie  middle 
for  the  colors,  drums,  baggage,  etc.  A  body  of 
troops  formed  into  a  squad  to  resist  the  charge  of 
cavalry  on  critical  occasions. 

HOLLOW  TOWER.— A  rounding  made  of  the  re- 
mainder of  two  brisures,  to  join  the  curtain  to  che 
orillou,  where  the  small  shot  are  placed,  that  they 
may  not  be  so  much  exposed  to  the  view  of  the 
enemy. 

HOLSTER.— The  leather  case  which  holds  the  pis- 
tol. Holsters  are  either  worn  on  the  belts,  or  are 
affixed  to  the  pommels  of  the  saddles.  In  the  latter 
instance,  they  are  frequently  covered  with  wool  or 
fur,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  riders  in  the  event  of 
being   thrown  forward  upon   them.     The   drawing 


shows  the  form  and  construction  of  the  regulation 
holster.  In  the  English  service.  Lancers  and  Kon- 
commissioned  Officers  of  cavalry  have  two  bolsters 
attached  to  the  front  part  of  their  saddles.  Wallets 
have  been  introduced  iu  lieu  of  holsters  for  the  Stalf 
and  certain  rciriments  of  the  service. 

HOLY  ALLIANCE.-  A  league  formed  after  the  fall 
of  Napoleon  by  the  Sovereigns  of  Russia,  Austria, 
and  Prussia,  nominally  to  regulate  the  relations  of 
the  States  of  Christendom  by  the  principles  of 
Christian  Charity,  but  really  to  preserve  the  power 
and  influence  of  the  existing  Dynasties.  .Alost  of 
the  other  European  Rulers  acceded  to  it,  and  the 
treaty  was  formerly  made  public  in  the  Frnnkford 
Journnl,  February  2,  181(3.  It  was  in  virtue  of  this 
league  that  Austria,  in  1831,  crushed  tlie  Revolutions 
in  Naples  and  Piedmont,  and  that  France,  in  1823, 
restored  Absolutism  in  Spain.  Subsequently,  both 
France  and  England  seceded,  after  which  it  became 
a  mere  nominU  umbra.  A  special  article  of  the 
treaty  excluded  forever  the  memliers  of  the  Bona- 
parte Family  from  anv  European  throne. 

HOLY  LEAGUES.— The  name  ajiplied  to  certain 
l^olitical  alliances  iu  Eurojje ;  the  jirincipid  are  as 
follows:  1.  In  l.ill,  between  the  Pope,  Spain,  and 
Venice,  the  object  being  to  expel  the  French  from 
Italy.  3.  In  1538,  lietween  Charles  V.  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  Princes  of  Germany  in  opposition 
to  the  league  of  Schmalkend.  3.  In  1.571,  the  Pope, 
Spain,  and  Venice  against  the  Turks.  4.  Of  the 
Guise  family,  tlie  Pope,  Spain,  and  tlie  French  Par- 
liament against  the  Huguenots.  5.  In  lliO!),  lietween 
the  Pojie  and  the  Roman  Catholic  States  of  Swabia 
and  Bavaria,  (i.  In  1()84,  of  Poland,  Germany,  and 
Venice  airaiiist  the  Turks. 

HOLY  SEPULCHER.— The  Knights  of  the  Holy 
Sepulcbcr  ((iiislituled  an  Order  oif  Knighthood  insti- 
tuted, jirobably,  by  Pojie  Alexander  VI.,  for  the 
guardianship  of  the  Holy  Scpnlcher,  and  the  relief 
and  iirolcction  of  iiilgrims.  Tlie  Pope  was  origi- 
nally tlie  (Jraiid-inasler,  but  '.le  suliseqiiently  ceded 
his  riiilits  to  the  Guardian  Father  of  the  Holy  Scp- 
nlcher. The  Kniglits  must,  by  the  rules  of  the 
Order,  be  all  of  noble  descent;   they  were  bound  to 


HOLY  WATER  SPRINKtEE. 


43 


HOUINO  PIGEON 


liwir  muss  iliiily,  to  li^lit,  to  live,  nnil  to  dir  for  the 
Clirisliaii  faith,  etc.  In  return  for  these  (hilies,  Ihi' 
Kni'j;hls  hiiil  the  most  imiisiml  and  extraordinary 
privih'iies  conferred  upon  them:  tiiey  were  e.\em]il 
from  taxation,  eonid  inarrv,  and  yet  possess  ehnreli 
prnpiTty,  lenilimize  liaslards,  an<l  ent  down  and 
liiuy  the  liodies  of  eriminuls  who  had  lieen  lniiit;ed. 
On  the  recapture  of  .(erusalem  l)y  tlie  Tnrl<s,  tlie 
Kni^dils  retired  into  Italy,  and  settled  at  Perugia. 
After  a  temporary  union  with  the  Hospitalers,  the 
Order  was  reconstructed  in  1S14  both  in  France  and 
in  Poland,  and  is  still  in  existence  within  a  vi'ry 
small  circle  of  Ivninhls  electeil  by  the  (Juardian  Fa- 
ther from  the  most  respectable  pilgrims  who  come 
to  .liTUsaleni. 

HOLY  WATER  SPRINKLER  —A  name  applied  to 
thi-  Jliiil,  l)oth  from  its  sha])e  anil  from  the  drops  of 
blood  which  started  from  those  u])on  whom  it  was 
usc'd. 

HOMAGE. — The  service  or  a  show  of  respect  due 
from  .a  kniglil  or  vassal  tohis  Lord  in  feudal  times. 
The  word  is  derive<l  from  the  form  of  expression  used 
in  doin^  the  service,  whicli  was — ji"  ili  riiijue  eoKtn 
/iimw — f  become  your  man.  Since  the  abolition  of 
tenures,  the  word  has  no  siil)stantial  legal  meaning 
in  the  law  of  England,  except  in  a  limited  sense  as 
to  copyhokLs,  to  denote  the  kind  of  acknowledgment 
made  by  a  tenant  to  the  Lord  of  the  Manor.  The  Ho- 
mage ,Iury  consisted  of  the  tenants  who  did  Inmiage, 
and  their  presence  was  necessary  to  attest  some  acts. 
IliiiiKijiiiiiii  ri'ddcre  was  the  expression,  now  obsolete, 
signifying  a  solem  renunciation  of  homage  or  fealty 
to  the  Lord,  and  a  detiauce  of  him.  The  word  ho- 
mage is  not  used  in  Scotch  law.  though  the  feudal 
system  is  not  obsolete  in  Scotland  in  many  otlier  re- 
pects. 

HOME. — In  artillery,  tlie  term  used  to  express  the 
]iosition  of  a  sliot  when  the  gun  is  loaded.  Thus, 
"  Is  the  shot  well  lumie?"  is  a  common  expression 
amongst  artillerymen. 

HOMICIDE. — The  killing  of  one  human  being  by 
another  either  innocently  or  feloniously.  To  say  that 
there  has  been  a  iKjmicide  does  not  necessarily  imply 
tliat  a  crime  has  been  committed  :  for  though  every 
murder  is  a  homicide,  every  homicide  is  not 
a  miinler.  The  law  permits  a  man  to  kill  an- 
other in  self-defense  when  his  own  life  is  as- 
sailed or  threatened  ;  but  the  danger  must  be 
real,  or  in  good  faith  and  for  sound  reasons 
deemed  so  by  the  person  threatened.  A  man 
may  lawfully  kill  another,  after  due  warning, 
in  defense  of  his  property,  or  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  one  wlio  has  committed  felony.  An 
Officer  of  Justice  charged  with  tlie  duty  of 
arresting  a  criminal  or  with  tlie  performance 
of  any  other  lawful  act,  may  kill  a  person  who 
resists  or  attempts  to  thwart  him  liy  force. 
A  person  charged  with  felony,  seeking  to  es- 
cape after  arrest  or  any  one  Heeing  to  avoid  cap- 
ture, may  be  lawfully  killed  by  an  officer  if  he  can- 
not otherwise  be  taken,  A  person  engaged  in  com- 
mitting a  felony  may  be  lawfully  killed  by  an  eye- 
witness if  there  be  no  other  way  of  preventing  ihe 
crime.  The  keeper  of  a  prison  may,  if  necessary, 
prevent  the  escape  of  a  prisoner  by  taking  his  life. 
In  all  such  cases,  however,  it  must  appear  that  the 
killing  was  resorted  to  as  a  last  alternative.  Justi- 
fiable homicide  is  the  term  applied  by  law  iu  all  such 
cases.  Where  one  kills  another  by  accident,  without 
any  intention  to  do  him  injury,  and  while  exercising 
a  proper  degree  of  caution,  the  law  deems  it  an  ex- 
cusable homicide ;  as,  for  example,  when  a  man 
driving  in  the  highway  in  the  darkness  runs  over 
and  kills  another  without  knowing  it,  or,  discover- 
ing the  danger,  has  yet  no  time  of  power  to  avert 
the  calamity.  The  line  between  justifiable  and  ex- 
ou.salile  homicide  is  vague  and,  in  a  legal  sense,  not 
important,  since  neither  the  one  or  the  otherexposes 
a  man  to  punishment.  In  some  of  the  States  of  the 
Union  no  distinction  is  made  between  them. 


HOMING  PIGEON.— The  result  of  tlie  investigation 
into  till;  i)raclicability  of  using  pigeons  to  curry  mes- 
sages in  time  of  war  is  not  so  encouraging  as  was 
hoped.  Althoutrh  there  are  instgnces  wdien  they 
have  been  usi-d  to  great  advantagi',  and  when  they 
have  been  the  only  means  of  communication,  there 
seem  to  he  obstacles  to  their  certain  and  systematic 
u.se  in  the  time  of  actual  hostilities.  It  is  a  fact 
that,  despite  tlie  greatest  care  in  training,  tlie  iiigcon 
sometimes  fails  at  the  critical  moment.  When  il 
succeeds,  however,  the  stake  is  generally  very  great. 
To  attain  one  success  it  may  be  worth  while  to  suf- 
fer many  failures.  For  ,this  reason.  perhai)s,  those 
Nations  who  devote  most  time  and  money  to  the 
perfecting  of  their  military  systems,  still  .system- 
atically train  lari^e  numbers  of  pigeons  for  use  in 
war.  When  Paris  was  about  to  be  besieged  in  1870, 
the  pigeon-fanciers  in  that  city  suggested  to  the 
military  authorities  that  the  pigeons  within  the  city 
limits  be  sent  out,  and  that  others  from  the  pro- 
vinces be  sent  into  the  city.  The  latter  proposition 
was  acted  upon,  but  the  former  was  not,  until  bal- 
loons were  used,  when  there  was  an  opportunity  to 
send  out  pigeons  in  the  balloons,  it  being  intended 
that  the  birds  sliould  return  with  mes.sages.  Pigeons 
had  been  declared  contraliand  of  war  early  in  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870.  There  was  taken  out 
of  Paris,  in  l)alloons.  303  pigeons.  Of  this  numlier, 
fifty-seven  only  returneil.  'f  hese  bore  letters,  photo- 
graphed in  finest  characters  upon  scraps  of  paper 
so  minute  that  300  of  them  weighed  only  one-eii:litli 
of  a  grain.  Newspapers,  reduced  Ijy  piiotography 
to  micro.scopical  characters,  were  carried  by  these 
pigeons.  The  magic-lantern  was  made  use  of  to  en- 
large the  letters,  wdiich,  thrown  ui)ou  a  prepared 
surface,  were  read  by  the  public.  These  .'57  birds 
were  not  the  only  ones  sent  into  Paris  during  the 
siege.  A  pigeon  post  service  was  established  at 
Tours,  for  the  purpo.se  of  conveying  messages  into  the 
Capitol.  The  regular  rates  for  this  service  made  it 
possible  for  one  bird  to  carry  §.500  worth  of  de- 
spatches, but.  during  the  latter  days  of  the  siege,  the 
Ciermans  introduced  trained  hawks  that  were  used 
to  destroy  the  pigeons.     These  instances  show  suf- 


ficiently, that  while  the  pigeon  has  been  used  for 
carrying  messages,  many  causes — some  understood 
and  others  not  understood — unite  to  make  them  un- 
certain and  untrustworthy  means  of  communication. 
The  reason  why  the  pigeon  seeks  its  home,  the 
fact  that  makes  possible  its  use  a  carrier,  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  given,  and  its  discussion  involves 
the  most  interesting  incjuiry  concerning  the  bird. 
Some  have  believed  the  action  of  the  bird  due  to  in- 
stinct, others  to  training,  while  one  of  the  most  ex- 
perienced and  practical  French  fanciers  has  recently 
advanced  the  theory  that  the  pigeon  is  guided  iu  its 
flight  I.iy  currents  of  electricity  in  the  air.  or  by  other 
atmospheric  influences  ;  others,  again,  differing  from 
all  these,  believe  that  instinct,  intelligence,  and  care- 
ful training,  combined,  account  for  the  action  of  the 
birds.  What  is  instinct  ?  To  this  there  may  be 
many  answers.  l)ut  when  considered  in  connection 
with  the  flight  of  liirds.  instinct  is  illustrated  by  the 
stork,  which,  traveling  only  at  night,  flies  North  in 
the  spring  and  returns  in  the  fall.  Swallows  and 
wild  geese,  and  many  other  birds,  move  North  and 


HOMME  D'ABMES. 


44 


HOMME  D'ABMES. 


South  at  the  same  seasons.  They  do  not.  however, 
confine  all  their  movements  to  tlie  night-time.  All 
these  move  by  what  we  term  instinct.  Whatever 
that  may  be,  it  is  all-powerful  in  its  influence  on  the 
birds.  "But  it  is  not  so  with  the  homins  pigeon. 
Experience  shows  that  the  flight  of  that  bird  is  not 
certain  unless  it  has  been  trained,  and  unless  atmos- 
pheric conditions  are  favorable  to  its  flight.  Not- 
withstanding this,  however,  there  are  sometimes  cir- 
cumstances that  give  color  to  the  theory  that  the 
bird  flies  b_v  instinct  alone. 

The  message  should  be  adjusted  to  the  middle 
feather  of  the'tail,  tirst  shaving  both  sides  to  within 
an  inch  of  the  end ;  then  lasli  the  message,  with 
waxed  silk,  lirmly,  so  that  the  bird  cannot  pick  it  off. 
One  person  must"  hold  the  bird  to  prevent  it  from 
fluttering  while  another  attaches  the  message.  Mes- 
sages should  be  written  with  lead  pencil  (ink  runs  if 
wet)  on  a  very  flne  tissue  or  manifold  paper,  and 
folded  very  tight.  Messages  should  be  sent  off  on 
several  birds,  and  if  of  very  great  importance,  on  ten 
or  fifteen,  so  that  some  will  be  sure  to  reach  the  fort. 
The  message  on  the  miildle  feather  of  the  tail  will 
not  annoy  the  bird,  for  when  he  is  at  rest  it  folds  on 
top.  It  will  not  do  to  tie  the  message  on  the  legs, 
as  it  is  necessary  for  the  bird,  in  flving,  to  hide  the 
feet  in  the  breast  feathers  so  as  not  to  offer  a  resist- 
ance to  the  air.  Fig.  1  shows  the  best  manner  of 
holding  the  pigeon,  when  attaching  the  message,  or 
when  handling  the  bird  for  other  purposes. 

There  are  numerous  varieties  of  homing  pigeons 
remarkable  for  their  powers  of  flight  and^  their  at- 
tachment to  the  home  in  which  they  have  been 
reared  and  first  flown.      Prominent  amongst  these 


are  the  Dragon,  the  well-known  Hying  Tumbler,  and 
the  Skimmer,  or  a  mongrel  race  between  these  two 
breeds.     Among  the  pure  breeds  that  can  be  flown 

good  distances  may  be  mentifmed  that  called  the 
iwl  pigeon.  But  the  varieties  in  which  this  homing 
facultyis  developed  to  the  highest  degree  is  unques^ 
tionably  the  different  races  of  Belgian  birds,  which 
are  termed  in  England  l)_v  the  general  name  of  Ant- 
werps,  and  in  Belgium  are  known  as  Smerles,  Cumu- 
Itts.  Demi  Bees,  etc.  Of  these  varieties  the  Smerles 
are  the  most  important.  They  are  rather  small  birds, 
and  kiok  very  much  as  if  they  liad  been  originallv 
lired  from  a  rather  coarse  lilue  Owl  ]iigeon,  crossell 
with  a  Blue  Hock.  The  head  is  arched  and  tlie  skvdl 
capacious,  indicating  a  full  development  of  brain, 
and  offering  a  striking  contrast  to  tlie  flat  narrow 
skull  of  the  English  fancy  Carrier.  The  most  strik- 
ing characteristic  of  these  birds  is  the  firmness  and 
great  breadth  of  the  flight  feathers  of  the  wings. 
These  overlap  eacli  other  to  a  great  extent,  ami  afford 
a  strong  firm  wing  wilh  which  the  flight  is  urged. 
The  keel  of  the  lireast-bone  is  deeji  and  well  covered 
with  strong  muscles  ;  and  tliere  is  altogether  an  ab- 
sence of  any  ofl'al  or  large  develo])ment  of  any  part 
not  used  in  flight. 


Of  all  the  pigeon-tribe  the  Pouter,  shown  in  Fig. 
2,  in  appearance  perhaps  the  most  strange,  is  the 
furtherest  removed  from  the  ancient  dove  or  common 
typical  pigeon  of  the  universe.  Tliis  remarkalile 
variety  of  our  domesticated  pigeon  seems  to  be  the 
extreme,  the  very  utmost  point,  the  greatest  stretch 
of  latitude  to  which  the  fertile  imagination  of  man 
can  be  carried,  or,  indeed,  to  which  the  almost  in- 
exhaustible resources  of  nature  might  be  expected 
to  sport,  or  culture  lie  extended.  Here  we  have  a 
pigeon  which  is  a  pigeon,  but  does  not  look  like  a 
pigeon — an  estimable  variety  whose  merits  have 
been  extolled  b.y  its  admirers — a  kind  whose  peculi- 
arities are  the  cause  of  frequent  surprise,  doubt,  and 
even  ridicide.  There  are  nine  recognized  kinds,  or 
rather  sub-varieties  of  the  Pouter,  viz.:  black,  red, 
yellow,  blue,  silver,  mealy,  creamy,  blue-checkered, 
and  white. 

The  Jacobin  shown  in  Fig.  3,  is  a  most  popular 
variety,  and  its  fanciers  number  some  of  the  most 
earnest  and  painstaking  breeders.  It,  as  a  bird,  has 
proved  to  be  a  great  lioue  of  contention,  and  the  va- 
rious contestants  have  held  so  firmlj-  to  their  opin- 


Fifi.  3. 

ions  and  objections  that  for  a  long  time  there  existed 
several  types.  These  differences  the  National  Peris- 
terouic  Societj-  finally  arranged.  Twenty  years  ago 
the  name  was  not  known  :  it  is  an  innovation  and  an 
eyesore  to  those  who  have  seen  the  inire-bred  bird. 

The  home  of  the  pigeon  should  be  as  cons])icii- 
ous  as  possible.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
flag  at  posts  will  geuerallv  make  the  home  of  the 
birds  in  the  military  service  noticeable  at  a  long  dis- 
tance, it  is  suggested  that  when  it  is  possible  the^flag- 
staff  be  surmounted  bj-  a  large  spherical  reflector,  or 
a  large  white  ball.  That  their  arrival  from  a  voyage 
may  lie  quickly  known,  they  should  announce  them- 
selves. This  could  be  arranged  by  connecting,  liy 
means  of  a  light  wire,  the  door  of  their  house  or  loft 
through  which  the}'  enter  with  a  bell  in  a  room  that 
is  to  lie  habitually  occupied.  The  wire  need  only  be 
attached  when  messengers  are  expected.  It  there- 
fore appears  the  Medical  Department  at  posts  should 
have  charge  of  the  pigeons  in  the  military  service, 
and  that  tlieir  loft  be  near  the  hospital.  Not  only 
will  they  then  be  most  likely  to  receive  constant  care, 
but  judicious  attention:  and  in  return  maybe  ex- 
pected to  interest  and  to  lie  a  direct  lienefit  to  tl  e 
Iiatients  in  hospital.  Although  it  is  important  to 
send  the  same  message  by  several  birds,  they  sliould 
not  lie  sent  off  togetlier,  but  tossed  up  at  intervals 
of  five  or  ten  minutes.  When  thrown  off  together, 
especially  if  in  good  condition,  they  sometimes  play 
and  loilcr.     Sci'  ('nrritr-piginn. 

HOMME  D'ARMES.— A  military  phrase  among  the 
French,  signifying'  ;i  gi'iillemen  or  cavalier  who  be- 
longed to  one  of  the  old  companies.,  who  was  arm- 
ed Cap-a-pie.  and  always  fought  on  horseback.  In 
ancient  times,  every  man  of  this  description  was  ac- 
companied by  two  horsemen  indepeudeully  of  his 


HOMOGENEOUS, 


45 


H0N0B8  PAIS  BY  X£0OF8. 


scrvimts.  One  of  lliu  nionntfil  attcinliiiits  wiiH  iirined 
Willi  tlic;  criisM-ljow,  mid  the  dilicr  willi  n  coniiiinii 
l)(i\v  nr  11  lHitU(.--a.\c ;  so  llml,  100  Jloiniiim  d'Ariiu-K 
coiiip  iscd  a  body  of  800  liorsc.  Il  was  a  spccicH 
(if  cavalry  wliicli  fxislcd  from  the  rt-if^n  of  Louis 
XI..  iiiiiii  till'  rci^ii  of  IIiMiry  II. 

HOMOGENEOUS.— A  term  applied  to  various  sub- 
Hliuiecs  to  denote  that  they  eoiisisl  of  similar  parts, 
or  of  parts  of  the  same  nature  and  kind  ;  thus,  the 
suhstaiiec  of  a  solid  shot  may  lie  said  to  be  homo- 
geneous when  the  metal  is  of  the  same  density  and 
te.\ture  throughout.  In  any  perfectly  homogeneous 
shit,  the  center  of  ligure  and  the  center  of  gravity 
of  the  mass  are  coincident. 

HONES. — A  particular  class  of  stones  used  for  the 
|)ur|iiise  of  sharpening  all  edge-tools  and  weapons, 
riiey  are  usually  cut  into  pieces  about  a  foot  in 
length,  and  from  an  inch  to  two  inches  thick, 
and  either  left  sijuare  or  rounded,  according  to  their 
inteniled  uses.  The  tinest  kind  of  hones  are  those 
called  oil-stones:  these  are  hard,  compact,  and  so 
very  silicious  that  they  readily  wear  down  the  hard- 
est steel  ;  they  are  varieties  of  slate,  ilerived  from 
the  argilhu-eous  schists  of  the  paleoz<iic  period.  The 
best  are  those  brought  from  Turkey  :  Hohemia  is 
also  celebrated  for  its  hones  ;  and  very  e.vcellcnt  ones 
are  discovered  in  Persia,  in  the  Ilartz  Jlountains,  in 
Syria,  in  America,  Spain,  Peru,  and  in  Siberia.  In 
Great  Britain  several  localities  yield  hone-stones  of 
e.xcellenl  quality,  and  none  better  than  the  cele- 
brat<'d  Water-of-Ayr  stone,  whicli  is  much  used  for 
polishing  copper-plates,  as  well  as  for  liones.  The 
Welsh  oil-st(me  or  Idwall  stone,  and  llu'  cutler's 
greenstone,  are  olitained  from  Snowilon  in  Wales: 
and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tavistock  the  Devon- 
shire oil-stones  are  procured.  Tlie  hones  used  for 
sharpening  scytlies,  etc.,  are  usually  made  of  coarse- 
grsiined  sandstone. 

HONEYCOMBS.— Flaws  or  defects  in  guns  resem- 
bling the  cells  made  by  bees,  worked  in  the  metal 
Uirousjh  the  action  of  exploded  gun  powder.  They 
sprea  1  rapidly,  and  with  continuous  tiring,  so(m  eat 
into  the  metal  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  the 
fiirllier  usi'  of  the  gun  dangerous. 

HONORABLE  ARTILLERY  COMPANY.— The  oldest 
existing  volunteer  corps  in  lirilain.  Four  military 
bo. lies — the  Artillery  Cuinpuni/.  the  SergeiiiiUat- 
Arnix,  the  Veomen  of  the  (fiturd,  and  the  Gentle- 
men, PeiixiiHiern.  were  established  as  far  back  as 
tlie  time  of  the  Tudors;  all  these  organizations  still 
exist,  but  under  greatly  altered  circumstances.  In 
l.')37.  Henry  VIII.  granted  a  patent  to  three  jicrsons, 
appointing  them  "  Overseers  of  the  Scienc<'  of  Artil- 
lery," for  long-bows,  cross-bows,  and  hand-guns. 
They  were  to  constitute  a  guilil  or  a  fraternity  for 
this  puriiose,  with  power  to  appoint  assistants  and 
successors,  to  purchase  lands,  and  to  use  a  common 
seal;  and  their  formal  otHcial  name  became  "The 
JIasters.  Ilulers,  and  Commonalty  of  the  Fraternity 
or  Guild  of  Artillery  of  Long-bows,  Cross-bows,  and 
Hand-guns."  The  freemen  of  the  guild  or  company 
were  empowered  to  keep  arms,  and  exerci.se  them- 
selves in  shooting.  In  1(50.1  a  patent  was  granted 
l)y  James  L,  intended  chietly  to  effect  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  shooting  and  praci  icing  grounds  around 
London  for  the  Artillery  Company.  In  l(i$5  a  Com- 
mission was  appointed  by  Clmrles  L,  still  further  to 
insure  this  oliject.  In  1(!38  the  Corporation  of  the 
City  of  Loudon  presented  to  the  company  the  plot  of 
ground  ever  since  called  tlie  .\rtillery  Ground,  near 
Moortields,  as  a  Held  for  military  exercise.  Royal 
Princes  frequently  enrolled  themselves  as  members 
of  the  Company,  usually  as  '■  Captain  General."  In 
171!),  George  I.  issued  an  order  that  all  commission 
and  stall  officers  of  the  City  Train-bands  (a  metro- 
politan niilitia)  shoidd  become  members  of  the 
Artillery  Company,  and  exercise  with  the  other 
members  at  all  convenient  times.  The  word  "  artil- 
lery "  hail  heretofore  been  considereci  as  apiilyiug 
to  bows  and  arrows  as  well  as  to  tireanns  :  but  the 


members  of  the  Company,  like  other  marksmen,  had 
also  abandoned  arcliery,  without,  however,  making 
any  change  in  their  designation.  In  a  summons  to 
the  Company  to  meet  for  exercise  on  a  particular 
day  in  IDHS,  it  is  said  :  ■"Those  genlleinen  that  on 
that  day  hanille  muskets  are  desired  to  take  care 
that  their  arms  are  clean  and  well  lixed,  and  that  they 
bring  with  them  line  dry  powili'r,  and  even  matcli." 
The  Company,  like  many  other  city  guilds,  has 
nearly  outliveil  its  original  purpose.  In  1780,  when 
the  "Lord  George  (iordoii  riols  "  atllicted  the  me- 
tropolis, the  members  of  tiie  Artillery  Comjiany  ef- 
fectually protected  the  Hank  of  Kngland  :  in  1848, 
wlieu  Cliartist  riots  were  apprehended,  the  Company 
was  (m  the  alert  to  render  good  service  if  neerled  ; 
and  in  the  spring  of  18;')!),  when  an  uneasy  feeling 
l)revailed  in  Kngland  concerning  the  designs  of 
France,  the  members  polished  their  arms  and  lookeil 
forward  to  eventualities ;  l)ut  the  Company  has 
never  been  engaged  in  an  actual  warfare  with  an 
enemy.  The  Artillery  Company  consists  of  members 
elected  by  ballot,  who  pay  one  guinea  annual  sub- 
scription, and  sujiply  themselves  with  dress,  amis, 
and  accouterment.s.  These  payments,  together  with 
the  rental  received  from  a  small  amount  of  real 
property,  constitute  the  fund  out  of  which  the  ex- 
penses are  defrayed.  The  members  leani  ritle- 
shooting  as  well  as  artillery  practice;  there  are  cer- 
tain days  of  meeting  at  Moortields  ;  and  every  sum- 
mer there  are  certain  days  of  drill  and  jjractice  at 
Seaford.  The  Corps  comprises  six  infantry  com- 
panies, a  grenadier  company,  a  light-infantry  com- 
pany, a  ritie  company,  and  an  artillery  company. 
Until  1.84!),  the  members  elected  their  own  officers; 
but  since  that  year  the  Crown  has  apijointed  them 
on  the  nomination  of  the  Lieutenancy  of  the  City 
of  London.  The  Lieutenant-colonel  appoints  the 
Non-coinmissioiied  Otticers.     See  Artillery  f'i/rp«. 

HONORS  OF  WAR.— The  term  employed  to  express 
the  privileges  allowed  to  a  garrison  surrendering, 
cither  in  consideration  of  a  brave  defense,  or  from 
some  other  cause.  Many  degrees  of  honor  may  bs 
paid  to  a  vanquished  enemy,  according  to  the  gen- 
erosity or  judgment  of  the  victorious  Commander- 
in-Chief.  In  some  cases,  the  gan'ison  is  allowed  to 
inarcli  out  with  all  its  arms,  drums  beating,  colors 
flying,  etc.  :  at  another  time,  the  conquered  force 
will  only  be  permitted  to  advance  silently  to  the 
front  of  their  works,  there  to  ground  or  pile  arms, 
and  then,  facing  about,  to  return  to  their  lines  as 
prisoners  of  war.  Occasionally,  the  capitulation 
will  provide  that  the  garrison  shall  deposit  their 
arms  and  warlike  stores  at  some  specified  spot,  and 
then  march  on  to  their  own  territory  on  [jarole  of 
not  serving  during  the  existing  war  against  the  vic- 
tors or  their  allies. 

HONORS  PAID  BY  TROOPS.— The  following  officers 
are  received  with  standards  and  colors  dropping, 
the  officers  and  troops  saluting,  and  the  bands,  trum- 
pets, or  lield-music  jilaying,  as  is  indicated  in  each 
case:  \.  The  President.  Slusic  :  "  The  President's 
March."  2.  The  General  Commanding-in-Chief. 
Music:  "The  General's  March."  3.  The  Lieuten- 
ant-general. Trumpets  sounding  the  flourishes,  or 
drums  beating  the  ruffles.  4.  A  Major-general. 
Two  flourishes,  or  two  ruffles.  .5.  A  Brigadier- 
general.  One  flourish,  or  one  ruffle.  Officers  of 
\  the  Navy  are  received  with  the  honors  due  their 
assimilated  rank,  which  is  as  follows :  Admiral, 
General ;  Vice  admiral,  Lieutenant-General ;  Rear 
admiral,  Jlajor-general  ;  Commodore.  Brigadier- 
general  ;  Captain.  Colonel  ;  Commander,  Lieuten- 
ant-colonel ;  Lieutenant-commander,  Major ;  Lieu- 
tenant. Captain:  Master.  First  Lieutenant.  :  Ensign, 
Second  Lieutenant.  Officers  of  Marines,  and  Officers 
of  Volunteers  and  Militia  in  the  service  of  the 
L'nited  States,  receive  the  honors  due  to  their  rela- 
tive rank.  To  the  Vice  President,  the  members  of 
the  Cabinet,  the  Chief  Justice,  the  President  of  the 
Senate,  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives 


HOOD. 


4G 


HOOKS. 


of  the  Unitcil  States,  aud  to  Governors,  within  their 
respective  States  aud  Territories,  the  same  )ionor.s 
are  paid  as  to  a  General  Commauding-in-Chief .  Amer- 
ican aud  Foreign  Euvo.ys  or  i\Iiuisters  are  received 
witli  tlie  compliments  due  to  a  Lieutenant-general. 
Officers  of  a  foreign  service  are  complimented  with 
the  honors  due  to'their  rank.  The  national  or  regi- 
mental colors  passing  a  guard  or  other  armed  body 
are  saluted,  the  trumpets  sounding,  and  the  drums 
beating  a  march.  No  honors  are  paid  when  troops 
are  tn  route,  on  marches,  or  in  trenches ;  aud  no 
salute  is  rendered  when  marching  in  double  time,  at 
trot  or  gallop.  The  Commanding  Officer  is  saluted 
by  all  dommissioned  Officers  in  command  of  troops 
or  detachments.  Courtesy  among  military  men  is 
indispeusal.ile  to  discipline ;  respect  to  superiors  is 
not  confined  to  obedience  on  duty,  but  extended  on 
all  occasions. 

All  officers  salute  each  other  on  meeting,  and  in 
making  or  receiving  official  reports.  When  under 
arms,  fhe  salute  is  made  with  the  sword  or  saber,  if 
drawn ;  otherwise  with  the  hand.  A  mounted  officer 
dismounts  Ijefore  addressing  a  superior  not  mounted. 
In  all  cases  the  junior  first'salutes.  On  official  oc- 
casions officers  when  under  arms  indoors,  do  not  im- 
cover,  but  they  salute  with  the  sword  or  hand,  ac- 
cording as  the  sword  is  drawn  or  in  the  scabbard  -, 
when  indoors  and  not  vmder  arms  they  uncover  and 
stand  at  attention,  but  do  not  salute.  A  Non-com- 
missioned Officer  or  private  in  command  of  a  detach- 
ment without  arms  salutes  all  officers  with  the  hand. 
If  the  detachment  be  on  foot,  and  armed  with  the 
rifle  or  carbine,  he  brings  the  pieces  to  a  carry,  and 
salutes  as  prescribed  for'a  Sergeant.  The  Command- 
ing Officer  is  saluted  Ijy  all  Commissioned  Officers  in 
command  of  troops  or  detachments.  The  Sergeant'K 
Salute  is  also  used  liy  privates  out  of  ranks  armed 
with  the  musket,  and  by  sentinels  in  saluting  all  of- 
ficers not  entitled  to  a  present.  Whenever  a  Non- 
commissioned Officer  or  soldier  without  arms  passes 
an  officer,  he  salutes  him,  using  the  hand  farthest 
from  the  officer.  A  Non-conunissioned  Officer  or 
soldier  being  seated,  and  without  particular  occupa- 
tion, rises  on  the  approach  of  an  officer,  faces  toward 
him  and  salutes ;  if  standing,  he  faces  toward  the 
officer  for  the  same  purpose.  If  the  parties  remain 
in  the  same  place  or  on  the  same  ground,  such  com- 
pliments are  not  repeated.  If  actuallj-  at  work, 
soldiers  do  not  cease  it  to  salute  an  officer  unless  ad- 
dressed by  liim.  A  Nou-commissoned  C)fflcer,  or 
soldier,  with  musket  or  drawn  sword,  makes  the  pre- 
scribed salute  witli  the  musket  or  sword  before  ad- 
dressing an  officer ;  he  also  makes  the  same  salute 
after  receiving  the  reply.  A  Non-commissioned  Of- 
£Ecer,  or  soldier,  with  sword  or  bayonet  in  the  scab- 
bard, and  when  unarmed,  salutes  witli  the  hand.  In- 
doors, a  Non-commissioned  Officer  or  snldier,  when 
imarmed,  uncovers  aud  stands  at  attention,  but  does 
not  salute  ;  in  all  other  cases,  he  salutes  as  just  pre- 
scribed, without  uncovering.  A  mounted  soldier 
dismounts  before  addressing  an  officer  not  mounted. 
An  officer  moimted  dismounts  Ijefore  addressing  a 
superior  officer  not^nounted.  When  an  officer  enters 
a  room  wliere  there  are  soldiers,  the  word  ■' dtten- 
thin  "  is  giveu  by  some  one  wlio  perceives  him, 
when  all  rise,  remain  standing  in  the  position  of  the 
soldier,  and  |)reserve  silence  until  the  officer  leaves 
the  room  ;  if  at  meals,  thej'  do  not  rise.  Soldiers  at 
all  times,  and  in  all  situations,  \i\\y  the  same  compli- 
ments to  officers  of  the  Army,  Navy,  and  JIarines, 
and  to  all  officers  of  tha  Volunteers  and  jMilitia  in 
the  service  of  the  United  States,  as  to  officers  of  their 
own  partic\dar  regiments  and  corps.  Officers  in 
citizens'  dress  are  saluted  in  the  same  manner  as 
when  in  uniform.  Officers  will  at  all  times  acknowl- 
edge the  courtesies  of  enlisted  men.  When  return- 
ing tlie  .salute  of  the  enlisted  men,  officers  salute  as 
prescribed  in  the  tactics.  When  several  officers  in 
comiiany  are  salutetl,  all  who  are  entitled  In  the  sa- 
lute return  it. 


Officers  arriving  at  Head-quarters  of  a  Military 
Geographical  Divisiim,  or  Deiiartmeut,  or  of  any  or- 
ganized ]\Iilitar_y  Command,  or  at  a  Milifarj-  Post,  as 
soon  thereafter  as  maj-  be  practicable,  call  upon  the 
Commander  thereof,  and,  if  there  be  time,  register 
their  names  in  the  office  of  the  Assistant  Adjutant- 
general  or  Adjutant  of  the  command.  If  the  visit- 
ing officer  be  senior  to  the  Commander  the  former 
may  send  a  card,  when  it  will  become  the  duty  of 
the  Commander  to  make  the  first  call. 

HOOD, — A  term  applied  to  the  leather  cover  for 
tlie  stirrup  of  a  saddle.  It  is  the  same  as  the  Span- 
ish Tiipiidera. 

HOOF  PAD. — A  device  attached  to  the  hoof  of  a 
horse  to  keep  the  foot,  or  the  shoe  of  the  foot  to 
which  it  is  attached,  from  cutting  the  fellow  foot  or 
the  fetlock.     A  device  to  prevent  interfering. 

HOOFS. — The  healthy  soundness  of  the  horse's  foot 
is  mainly  preserved  b}'  permitting  it  to  grow  un- 
injured by  the  rasp  and  knife  (see  Hokse-shoeing), 
whilst  its  toughness  is  secured,  and  undue  drjTiess 
and  evaporation  is  prevented,  b}'  smearing  daily  the 
crust,  sole,  aud  frog  -with  a  little  glycerine,  or  a 
mi.\ture  made  by  melting  together  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  each  of  tar,  honey,  beeswa.x,  and  glycerine, 
with  a  pound  of  lard.  Softness  and  1>rittleness  of 
the  hoof,  which  are  fruitful  sources  of  cracks  aud 
corns,  may  be  remedied  by  the  regular  use  of  such 
dressings,  by  placing  the  feet  for  several  hours 
daily  in  thick  woolen  swabs,  kept  cool  and  moist  l.iy 
frequent  applications  of  cold  water,  and  by  en- 
couraging a  more  healthy  growth  of  horn  by  occa- 
sional mild  blisters  round  the  corouarj-  band.  Cracks, 
or  sand-cracks,  as  the)'  are  termed,  mostly  occur 
amongst  horses  much  upon  the  road,  cause  lameness 
and  constitute  unsoundness.  When  serious  and  re- 
cent, poulticing,  thinning  away  of  the  crust  about 
the  crack,  and  perfect  rest  are  essential.  After  the 
earlier  heat  aud  tenderness  are  removed,  a  hot  iron 
should  be  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  crack,  lioth 
above  and  fjelow,  so  as  to  separate  the  diseased  fnim 
the  sound  horn.  Waxed  thread  or  fine  wire  should 
be  wound  round  the  hoof,  and  a  sound  growth  of 
horn  stimulated  Ijy  a  blister  round  the  coronet. 

HOOKS. — A  small  liut  important  element  of  the 
suspending  apparatus  of  a  crane  or  hoisting-machine 
is  the  hook  which  terminates  it,  and  by  which  the 
hoisting  mechanism  is  attached  to  or  is  connected 
with  the  load  to  be  lifted.  Investigation  has  shown 
that  the  strains  developed  in  hooks  are  of  an  ex- 
ceedinglj-  complex  character,  and  the  determiuatioQ 
of  the  correct  proportions  of  the  several  parts  was 
only  reached,  after  much  study  and  discussion,  by 
means  of  mathematical  calculations  of  much  in- 
tricac}'  aud  liased  upou  the  results  of  numerous  ex- 
periments. Without  undertaking  here  to  disclose 
the  intermediate  steps  of  the  investigation,  we  will 
simply  give  the  final  results  in  the  form  of  the  work- 
ing formula;.  The  drawing  represents,  to  a  scale  of 
one-sixth  natural  size,  a  .5-ton  hook  of  the  dimensions 
and  shape  determined  by  the  following  formuhc, 
which  give  the  dimensions  of  the  several  parts  of 
hooks  of  capacities  from  3.50  lbs.  (or  oMe-eiiihth  of  a 
ton)  up  to  20,000  lbs.  (or  10  tons).  For  liooks  of 
larger  sizes  the  fonnuUe  become  slightly  difTerent, 
the  general  proportions,  however,  remaining  the 
same.  For  economy  of  manufacture  each  size  of 
hook  is  made  from  some  regular  commercial  size  of 
round-iron.  The  basis,  or  initial  point,  in  each  case 
is,  therefore,  the  size  of  iron  of  which  the  hook  is 
to  lie  made,  which  is  indicated  liy  the  dimeusion.  A, 
in  the  diagram.  The  diineusion.  D,  is  arl)itrarily  as- 
sumed. The  other  dimensions,  as  given  by  the 
formula',  are  those  wliich,  while  preserving  a  pro- 
per bearing-face  on  the  interior  of  the  liook  for  the 
ropes  or  chains  which  may  be  passed  through  it, 
give  the  greatest  resistance  to  spreading  aud  to 
ultimate  rupture,  which  the  amount  of  inaterial  in 
the  original  bar  admits  of.  The  symbol  .i  is  used 
in  the  forniulie  to  indicate  the  nominal  ciipiicity  of 


HOOK  SWIVEL. 


47 


HOOFES  LIFE  SAVING  EOCKET. 


the  iKiok  ill  Idiis  of  2,000  pounds.  The  formiiln- 
wliicli  ili'liTiniiic  the  lines  of  the  other  parts  of  tlie 
lioolis  of  the  dilVereiil  sizes  are  iis  followH,  the 
ineiisurements  lieiiiL'  all  expressed  in   inches: 

D=.r>  A  -)-  i.2r,.  E=.(i4  A  -|_  i.(i(),  K=.:j3  a  _|_  .^.i, 
H=1.0MA,  1=1. 33A.  .]  =  ).20A,K=l.lHA.<i=.7r.  I), 
()=..8(i8  ^+  .(1(1,  (2=.(i4-i -}- l.(iO,  L=l.()r>A,  AI= 
.50A,  N=.8r,I5— .10.  lT=.t<(i((A. 

The  dimensions.  A,  are  ixTcssarily  based  upon  the 
ordinary  merchant  sizes  of  round-iron.  The  sizes 
which  it  has  been  found  liest  to  .select  are  the  fol- 
hiwiug  ;  Capacity  of   Hook,  j),  j,  \,  1,  U,  2,  3,  4,  5, 


6,  8,  10  tons ;  Dimension  A,  §,  {i,  J,  l^V,  U,  ^,  IJ, 
2,  i\,  2+,  2J,  3j  inches.  The  formulfe  which  jrive 
the  sections  of  the  liook  at  the  several  points  are  all 
expressed  in  terms  of  A  and  can  therefore  be  readily 
ascertained  by  reference  to  the  foregoius  scale. 

E.xperiiuent  has  sliown  that  hooks  made  according 
to  the  above  formula'  will  i;ive  way  first  by  o]H'ning 
of  the  jaw,  which, 
however,  would  not 
occur  excejit  with  a 
loud  much  in  excess 
of  the  nominal  ca- 
pacity of  the  hook. 
This  yielding  of  the 
hook  when  loaded 
to  excess  becomes  a 
source  of  safety,  as 
it  constitutes  a  sig- 
nal of  danger  which 
cannot  very  readily 
be  over-lookefl,  and 
winch  must  proceed 
to  some  considerable 
distance  before  rup- 
ture will  occur  and 
the  load  be  droji- 
ped.  A  comparison 
of  these  hooks  with 
most  of  those  in  or- 
dinary use  will  show 
that  the  latter  are, 
as  a  rule,  badly  pro- 
portioned, and  frequently  dangerously  weak.  Hooks 
proportioned  by  the  above  fornudx-  are  used  in  all 
the  Weston  cranes.     See  C'rnntfx. 

HOOK-SWIVEL.— A  device  intended  for  dispensing 
with  the  necessity  of  the  triangular  bayonet  in  stackl 
ing  arms.  It  is  of  great  value  in  connection  with 
the  trowel-bayonet,  the  use  of  which  in  digging, 
would  dejirive  the  muskets  of  the  mesuis  of  stacking 
them  when  necessarily  set  aside  for  this  purpose. 
The  swivels  are  so  attached  to  the  upjier  bands,  that 
it  is  easy  to  insert  each  hook  into  the  swivels  of  the 
two  remaining  gvms  necessary  to  complete  the  stack. 

The  process  of  stacking  is  very  simple.     The  men 


being  at  irrder  ii/rniH,  bayonets  unfixed,  the  Instructor 
commands : 

1.  St>x'k,  2.  Arms. 

At  the  command  itiick,  each  even  number  of  the 
front  rank  turns  his  piece,  barrel  to  the  front  Ohe 
barrel  turning  to  the  left),  and  inclines  his  piece 
slightly  forward,  grasping  it  with  the  left  hanil  at 
the  upper  hand,  (he  thumb  and  forefinger  raising  the 
hook-swivel  ;  each  even  mimber  of  the  rear-rank 
then  passes  his  piece  to  his  tile-leader  who  grasps  it 
between  the  bands  with  his  right  hand  and  throws 
it,  barrel  to  the  rear,  two  feet  in  front  of  his  own 
piece,  the  right  hand  slipping  to  the  up])erband.  the 
thumb  and  foretinger  raising  the  hook-swivel,  which 
he  engages  with  that  of  his  own  piece,  and  inclines 
both  to  the  right.  Each  odd  number  of  the  front 
rank  grasps  his  piece  with  the  right  hand  between 
the  bands,  the  left  hand  guiding  the  hook-swivel, 
which  he  holds  near  the  hook-swivels  of  the  other 
]iiec('S. 

At  the  command  uriiix.  each  odd  number  of  the 
front  rank  engages  the  hook  of  his  piece  with  the 
free  hook  of  tlie  piece  of  the  even  number  of  the  rear 
rank.  He  then  turns  the  barrel  downward  and  to 
the  right  l)etween  the  other  two — so  that  it  shall  rest 
upon  (heir  intersection — and  rests  the  butt  about 
fifteen  inches  in  front  of  his  right  foot. 

If  in  single  rank,  number  two  of  each  four  makes 
the  stack,  using  (he  piece  of  nuniljer  three  as  ex- 
plained for  the  even  numbered  rear-rank  man; 
number  one  using  his  own  piece  as  explained  for  the 
odd  numbered  front-rank  man.  and  the  loose  pieces 
are  passed  and  laid  on  as  before.  In  breaking  the 
stack  the  loose  ])ieces  are  passed  as  before,  and  the 
stack  is  broken  as  when  in  two  ranks,  numtjer  two 
taking  his  own  jnece  in  ins  right  hand  and  that  of 
nimiber  three  in  his  left,  which  he  passes  to  him  on 
breaking  the  stack.  Number  one  grasps  his  own 
piece  with  his  right  hand. 

HOOKUM. — An  Indian  word,  signifj'ing  order  or 
command.  Honkmnmnnmeh  signifies  a  letter  of  in- 
structions, or  the  paper  that  contains  orders. 


HOOPER  LIFE  SAVING  ROCKET.— This  rocket  is 

a  moditiealion  of  the  Hale  rocket.  The  body  is 
cylindrical  in  form,  and  is  of  sheet-metal  0".l(i.5 
tluck.  The  point  of  the  rocket  or  head  is  ogival  in 
form,  made  of  wood,  and  has  a  cylindrical  tenon 
I'M  in  length,  which  is  inserted  into  the  front  end 
of  the  body.  The  head  is  held  in  position  by  seve- 
ral screws  passing  tlirough  the  rocket-case  into  the 
tenon.  The  rear  end  of  the  case  is  closed  by  a  me- 
tallic base  carrying  a  double-swivel  and  perforated 
with  five  vents  or  gas  escapes,  each  one-half  an  inch 
in  diameter.  On  one  side  of  these  vents  are  fiuted 
projections    extending  2". 3    towards   the  rear,    so 


HOPLITAL. 


48 


UOEN  WOEK. 


curved  as  to  leave  the  opposite  sides  open  for  the 
unimpeded  escape  of  the  gases  evolved  by  combus- 
tion. The  object  of  this  arrangement  is  to  produce 
a  motion  of  rotation  about  the  longer  axis  of  the 
rocket,  and  thus  secure  greater  steadiness  of  flight. 
This  cast-iron  base  is  held  in  position  by  pins  pass- 
ing through  the  case.  To  the  swivel  is  attached  a 
chain  a  little  over  3  feet  long,  to  which  the  line  is 
made  fast.  The  rocket  is  fired  bj'  lireaking  the 
paper  covering  of  one  or  more  of  the  vents,  and  in- 
serting a  piece  of  slow  match  and  igniting  the  outer 
end. 

The  following  are  the  principal  dimensions  and 
weights  of  the  rocket : 


Inches. 


Length  of  body 

Diameter  o,  body...  {^Si;;^---;:::;: 

r Total  length 
Length  of  ogival  part. 
Head -;  Diameter 

[Tenon  :{{^re''ter;;:: 

Length  of  base  outside  of  case 

Total  length  of  rocket 

Length  filled  with  composition 

Diameter  of  vents 

Number  of  vents 

Length  of  chain  and  swivel 


Average  weight  of  rocket  and  chain. 


The  following  directions  should  be  observed  when 
using  this  rocket  and  its  stand.  1.  The  elevation 
required  for  the  stand  to  be  ascertained  by  means 
of  a  small  quadrant :  35'^  will  carrj-  the  line  300 
yards  with  ease.  2.  It  is  suggested,  in  order  to 
save  time,  that  every  rocket-line  should  be  spliced 
to  a  spring-swivel  that  it  might  at  once  be  attached 
to  the  end  of  the  rocket-chain.  3.  In  all  cases  three 
fathoms  of  the  rocket-line  to  be  wetted  before  being 
attached  to  the  chain.  4.  Place  the  rocket  in  the 
trough  or  stand  with  its  shoulder  against  the  small 
iron  projection  at  its  base,  and  have  the  chain  haug- 
in^  down  through  the  slot.  5.  To  fire  the  rocket : 
With  a  pointed  stick  break  the  oil-paper  covering 
each  of  the  flange-holes,  insert  into  one  of  them  a 
slow  match,  light  and  retire  to  an  angle  of  45°  to  the 
rear  of  the  stand.     See  Life-xating  Rockets. 

HOPLITAL.  —  Foot-soldiers  among  the  Greeks, 
who  bore  heavy  armor,  and  engaged  with  broad 
shields  and  long  spears.  These  took  precedence  of 
all  other  foot-soldiers,  and  never  went  into  action 
except  in  their  own  proper  positions  in  the  phalanx. 

HOPPEK. — A  device,  employed  in  machine-guns, 
very  nearly  of  the  form  of  a  cartridge,  and  tapered 
downward.  Its  sides  serve  to  guide  the  cartridges 
into  the  carrier  singly,  so  that  they  can  be  removed 
one  by  one.  The  front  end  of  the  aperture  is  pro- 
jected downward  nearly  into  the  carrier  next  the 
barrels,  and  thus  serves  to  cut  off  the  entrance  to 
that  particular  l)arrel  which  is  in  front  of  it  while  in 
this  position,  and  the  cartridge  which  lies  upon  the 
one  already  in  the  groove  from  sliding  forward  and 
prematurely  entering  the  opposite  barrel.  See  Gnt- 
ling  a  tin. 

HOPPEfi-PLATE.— A  component  part  of  most  ma- 


hopper,  K,  through  which  the  cartridges  descend  to 
their  places  in  the  grooves  of  the  carrier-block ; 
whereupon  they  are  instantly  taken  possession  of  by 
the  locks,  forced  into  the  barrels,  and  fired.  A 
short  distance  in  front  of  the  hopper  is  an  upright 
pin,  /',  on  which  the  feed-drum  rests  and  revolves. 
The  upper  side  of  the  plate  is  flat  and  circular.  See 
GatUng  Gun. 

HOBDE. — A  wandering  troop  or  gang  ;  especially 
a  clan  or  tribe  of  a  nomadic  people  possessing  no 
fixed  hal)itations  but  migrating  from  place  to  place 
for  the  sake  of  pasturage,  plumler,  or  like  cause. 

HORDEABIUM.— The  money  which  the  Romans 
gave  their  cavalrj'  for  the  sustenance  of  their  horses. 

HORION. — A  term  which  formerly  signified  a  hel- 
met, and  which  in  the  vulgar  acceptation  of  it  at  the 
present  time  among  the  French,  means  a  blow  upon 
the  head. 

HORIZON. — The  circular  line  formed  by  the  ap- 
parent meeting  of  the  earth  and  sky  :  this,  in  astro- 
nomical phrase,  is  called  the  sensible  horizon.  The 
rational  horizon  is  the  circle  formed  by  the  plane 
passing  through  the  center  of  the  earth,  parallel  to 
the  sensible  horizon,  and  produced  so  as  to  meet  the 
heavens. 

HORIZONTAL  FIEE.— In  gunner)-,  the  fire  of  guns 
and  howitzers  imder  low  angles  of  elevation.  See 
Fire. 

HORIZONTAL  RANGE— In   gtinnery,  the  distance 

to  which  a  piece  of  ordnance  will  project  a  ball  on 

a  horizontal  plane.     Supposing  no  resistance  from 

.  the  atmosphere,  the  greatest  range  would  be  when 

I  the  piece  is  elevate3  at  an  angle  of  45°,  and  in 

I  all  other   positions  the   horizontal  range   would  be 

as  the  sine  of  twice  the  angle  of  elevation.     In  a  re- 

I  sisting  medium  the  maximum  horizontal  range  re- 

(  quires   the   elevation   to   be  less   than  45°.      It   is 

found  by  experience  that,  with  ordinary  velocity, 

a  cannon-shot  ranges  farthest  when  the  elevation  of 

the  piece  is  about  S0°. 

HORIZONTAL  VELOCITY.— A  projectile's  velocity 
at  any  point  resolved  in  the  horizontal  direction. 
Thus,  if  V  be  the  velocity  of  a  projectile  moving 
at  an  angle  E  to  the  horizon. 

Horizontal  Velocity =V  cose. 

HORN-WORK.— That  work,  in  fortification,  having 
one  front  only,  thrown  out  beyond  the  glacis  of  a 


Qom'woflc;  eornifis  a'Batiai), 

fortress;  with  a  view,  1.  To  strengthen  any  weak 
chine-guns.  It  is  a  brass-curved  plate,  /,  hinged  to  salient  in  the  general  outline :  2.  To  occupy  a 
the  frame-work  of  the  gun  on  the  right  side,  and  plateau  in  advance  of  the  place,  or  to  protect  build- 
covering  the  carrierMock.      It  is  provided  with  a    ings,  the  including  of  which  in  the  original  enceinte 


HOBS  D£  COMBAT. 


49 


H0B82. 


would  have  oxtondod  it  to  an  inronvpniont  dofrroo ; 
3.  To  occupy  a  toutruc  of  luiid  proti-ctcd  dii  its 
sides;  4.  To  Imr  h  (Ictilc;  T).  To  (-over  the  liciid 
of  at)rid(;e;  6.  To  oicupy  risiiij;  j;round,  I  lie  pos- 
session of  which  would  rcndi-rlhc  enemy  more  than 
necessarily  dangerous.  The  front  rif  a  horn-work 
consists  of  two  demi-liastions  connected  by  a  cur- 
tain, and  usually  defended  in  front,  as  in  the  fortress 
itself,  by  a  tenaille.  ravelin,  and  covert-way.  The 
flanks,  protected  by  ditches,  run  struitrhl  upon  the 
ravelin,  bastion,  or  curlain  of  the  main  defenses,  so 
that  tlie  <litch  mav  be  swept  by  the  tire  of  the  latter. 
The  flanks  shoidtf  not  be  too  Ion;;  for  easy  musketry 
range.  In  most  of  the  earlier  works  of  this  nature, 
the  ditch  of  the  horn-work  was  united  with  the 
ditch  of  the  main  works  by  beini;  cut  throiiirh  the 
glacis  and  covert-way.  but  in  modern  works  the 
hom-woik  is  constructed  entirely  beyond  the  ulacis. 


inR  to  diflferent  ooiintries.  are  questions  also  un- 
certain; and  the  last  of  them  is  verv  sinnlar  to  that 
which  is  so  much  afritated  respeelint;  the  dog,  al- 
though it  must  be  admitted  that  the  iliversities  arc 
not  so  great  as  in  that  case.  The  lijis  and  teeth  of  a 
horse  adapt  it  for  crop|)ing  the  short  hi-rbage  of  dry 
plains  or  hills,  so  that  it  tinds  abundance  w'here  the 
o.\  would  be  very  insufHcienlly  supplierj.  The  feet 
arc  also  adapted  to  dry  rather  than  to  soft  orswampy 
ground.  On  soft  ground,  not  only  is  the  foot  apt  l<> 
sink,  not  being  very  broad,  but  the  homy  foot  is 
softened,  and  a  diseaseil  state  of  the  feet  is  the  re- 
sult, as  in  th<-  c;ise  of  a  great  many  dray-hor.ses  in 
London,  reared  in  the  alluvial  distrirts  of"  the  east  of 
Kngland.  The  horse,  however,  reijuires  a  liberal 
supi)lv  of  water  ;  and  during  the  dry  season,  in  the 
hot  plains  of  Soiuh  America,  great  troops  of  wild 
horses  often  rush  furiously  to  the  rivers,  and  as  they 


Occasiiuially,  horn- works  are  very  useful ;    but  all  I  approach  the  drinking-place,    trample  one  another 


•  Love  "  to  a  company 


modern  Engineers  generally  prefer  constructing  de 
tached  and  advanced  works.     See  Cn/wit-iritrk. 

HOBS  DE  COMBAT.  -The  French  term,  literally 
meaning  "beyond  the  battle,"  used  tosignify  a  com- 
batant, or  body  of  combatants,  so  completely  beaten 
either  Ijy  physical  force  or  strategy,  as  to  be  incapa- 
ble of  further  action  in  the  struggle  which  is  act- 
ually under  consideration. 

HOBSE.  —  1.  A  military  term  foraliody  of  Cavalrj-. 
2.  We  can  go  back  35  centuries,  to  Job  the  afflicted 
Inhabitant  of  Uz,  for  the  most  wonderfully  ()i>etical 
description  of  the  true  horse.  Solomon,  later,  does 
not  hesitate  to  compare  his 
of  horses  in  Pharaoh's  cha- 
riots. Homer  portrays  the 
horse  as  a  sensitive  being, 
and  relates  that  the  steeds  of 
Achilles  wept  at  the  death  of 
that  hero.  Virgil  tells  us 
that  the  charger  of  FalUis 
followed  the  remains  of  his 
master  to  his  burial,  his  eyes 
filled  with  tears.  Pliny,  the 
naturalist,  positively  asserts 
that  horses  often  bewail  the 
loss  of  their  masters.  Buf- 
fon,  a  hundred  years  ago, 
said :  '•  The  noblest  con- 
quest achieved  by  man  is 
that  of  this  proud  and  met- 
tlesome animal,  which  shares 
with  him  alike  the  hard- 
ships of  war  and  the  glory 
of  a  conflict.  He  likewise 
shares  his  pleasures  in  the 
chase,  in  tournay,  in  the 
race ;  he  glows  with  brilli- 
ancy and  ardor."  The  na- 
tive country  of  the  horse  is 
uncertain.  Some  contend 
for  Asia,  and  some  for  Af- 
rica ;  some  suppose  that  the 
horse  was  first  domesticated 
in  Egypt,  and  quote  Scrip- 
ture in  support  of  their  opin- 
ion, but  to  no  better  purpose  j 
than  to  show  that  at  a  very  j' 
early  period  it  was  in  use  as  3.  Throat 

a  domesticated  and  valued  i-  fj^^^,'.- 

,  ..  .      .  5.  shoulder, 

animal  among   the   ancient 

Egyptians:  whilst  others  adduce  arguments  not  more  \  has 
conclusive  to  show  that  it  was  originally  domestica- 
ted in  the  north-east  of  Asia ;  some  thiiik  it  not  im- 
probable that  Europe  also,  and  even  Britain,  had  in- 
digenous horses.  Whether  certain  wild  races  of  Cen- 
tral Asia  and  the  north  of  Africa  are  indigenous  to 


under  foot,  vast  numbers  of  skeletons  remaining  to 
bleach  in  the  sun. 

Wild  horses  are  found  on  the  plains  of  Central 
Asia.  Some  also  inhabit  mountainous  or  hilly  dis- 
tricts both  there  and  in  the  north  of  Africa.  They 
abound  still  more  in  the  gra.ssy  plains  of  North  and 
South  America,  although  they  were  first  introduced 
into  America  by  Europeans  ;  and  certain  tribes  of 
Indians,  both  in  North  and  .South  America,  have 
become  at  least  as  equestrian  in  their  habits  as  any 
of  the  Tartars  of  the  East.  Wild  horses  are  also 
found  in  the  Falkland  Islands,  into  which  they 
were  introduced  by  Europeans,  and  a  peculiar  breed 


Forehead. 
Jaw. 


&  Arm. 

7.  Larje  Pastern. 
8   Small  Pastern. 
9.  Withers. 
10.  Baclc. 


X05IE!JCI,ATURE. 

11.  Loin. 

12.  Hip. 

13.  Stifle. 

14.  Thieh. 

15.  Hamstring. 


16.  Point  of  the  Hock- 

17.  Hock. 

18.  Croup  or  Rump. 

19.  Doclc. 

30,  Cannon-lwnes. 


been  found  in  a  wild  state  in  the  Island  of 
Celebes.  The  races  or  varieties  of  the  horse  have  an 
evident  relation  to  the  climate  of  the  countries  in 
which  they  occur.  Those  of  cold  and  stomij' 
regions  are  comparatively  small  and  rough-haired  ; 
those  of  more   favored   climates,   lar^e   and  sleek. 


the  regions  in  which  they  are  found,  or  the  offspring  There  are  differences,  more  evidentlv  to  be  ascribed 
of  animals  which  have  escaped  from  domestication,  ,  to  domestication,  according  to  which  certain  breeds 
like  those  of  Aiiierica,  and  whether  the  origin  of  the  \  of  horses  are  particularlv  suited  to  certain  kinds  of 
domestic  horse  is  to  be  referred  to  one  original  form,  work  some  excellins  in  fleetness.  some  in  endurance, 
or  to  several  forms  somewhat  different,  and  belong- ,  some  in  mere  strength  for  burden  or  draught.     The 


HOKSE-ARTILLEKY. 


50 


H0BSE-GUAHD3. 


slender  form  of  the  race-horse  or  hunter  contrasts 
almost  as  strongly  with  the  pomlcrous  solidity  of 
the  dray-horse,  as  the  great  size  of  the  latter  does 
with  the  dirainutiveness  of  the  Shetland  pony.  Wild 
horses  generally  congregate  in  troops,  sometimes 
small  in  number,  but  sometimes  of  many  hundreds. 
Tlie  males  have  fierce  contests  for  tlie  supremacy, 
and  males  that  have  contended  unsuccessfully  are 
often  driven  off  to  a  solitary  life.  On  the  appear- 
ance of  danger,  the  chief  stallion  of  a  small  troop 
seems  to  direct  the  movements  of  all,  and  even  the 
largest  troops  seem  instinctively  to  move  in  a  Ivind 
of  concert,  so  that  when  they  arc  assailed,  the 
stronger  animals  oppose  the  enemy,  and  protect  the 
younger  and  weaker.  Wolves,  even  wlien  in  packs, 
attack  witli  success  only  weakened  stragglers,  and 
even  the  jaguar  is  repelled.  In  fighting,  horses 
either  raise  tliemselves  on  tlieir  hind-feet,  and  bring 
down  the  fore-feet  with  great  force  on  the  enemy,  or 
wheeling  about,  kick  violently  with  the  hind-feet. 

The  tarpaii  of  Tartary  is  one  of  those  races  of 
Tvild  horses  whicli  are  sometimes  regarded  as  o- 
riginal,  and  not  as  descended  from  domesticated 
-animals.  It  is  of  a  reddish  color,  with  a  very  black 
stripe  along  the  back,  and  black  mane  and  tail.  The 
eye  is  small  and  vicious.  Tarpans  are  sometimes 
caught  liy  the  Tartars,  but  are  with  great  difficulty 
reduced  to  subjection.  In  some  of  tlie  steppes  of 
Central  Asia,  are  wild  horses  of  a  white  or  dappled- 
gray  color.  The  wild  horse  of  South  America  is 
there  called  the  rnuMang.  It  exhibits  considerable 
'diversity  of  color,  but  bay-brown  is  the  most  prev- 
alent. It  .is  strong  and  active,  and  is  often  taken 
with  the  lasso,  and  employed  in  the  service  of  man. 
A  curious  metliod  is  practiced  by  some  Indian 
trilies  of  promptly  subduing  its  wild  nature,  and 
Tendering  it  tractable,  by  blowing  strong!}'  with  the 
mouth  into  its  nostrils.  .  By  other  tribes,  it  is  suli- 
dued  more  rudely.  It  is  thrown  on  the  ground,  and 
ere  it  can  recover,  a  man  gets  upon  its  back,  whom, 
when  it  rises,  it  cannot  shake  off,  and  who  retains 
his  seat  until  it  is  quite  submissive.  Tlie  koomrah 
of  North  Africa  is  regarded  by  Col.  Hamilton  Smith 
as  a  distinct  species.  It  has  no  forelock,  but  woollj" 
hair  on  the  forehead,  is  of  reddisli-liay  color,  with- 
out stripe  on  the  back  or  any  white  about  the  limbs, 
has  limbs  of  somewhat  ass-like  shape,  and  the  tail 
covered  with'  a  short  hair  for  several  inches  at  the 
root.     It  is  an  inhal>itant  of  mountainous  regions. 

When  full  mouthed,  the  horse  will  have  forty 
teeth,  twenty  in  each  jaw.  Tlie  mare  possesses 
only  thirty-six.  The  age  of  the  horse  may  be  deter- 
mined by  observing  the  teeth,  the  times  at  which 
they  appear,  are  shed  and  replaced,  and  the  altera- 
tions in  their  form  and  markings; — 3  years,  all 
milch  teeth,  which  are  easily  distinguished  from  the 
permanent  by  being  smaller,  whiter,  and  In'  having 
necks; — 3  years,  two  permanent  teeth,  central  in- 
cisors ; — 4  j'cars,  four  permanent  teetli,  central  and 
lateral  incisors ; — 5  years,  all  are  permanent  teeth. 
From  this  time  on,  the  age  of  the  horse  is  decided 
by  the  marks  on  the  teeth  ; — 6  years,  the  marks  on 
tlie  central  incisors  are  worn  out,  and  the  points  of 
the  tushes  are  Iilunted  ; — 7  years,  the  marl<s  on  the 
<-ontral  and  lateral  incisors  are  worn  out,  tho.se  on 
tlu'  corner  incisors  still  showing; — 8  j-ears,  all  the 
<:avilics  are  filled  up.  Beyond  this  age  the  criteria 
are  uncertain.  For  the  military  service  the  horse 
should  possess  the  general  features  shown  in  the 
aliove  drawing,  and  should  not  b(^  less  than  14  nor 
more  than  1(5  hands  liigh  ;  weigh  not  less  than  T.'iO, 
nor  more  tluin  1.100  lbs.;  age  not  less  than  . 5  or  more 
than  H  years  ;  head  and  ears  small  ;  forehead  broad  ; 
eyes  large  and  prominent ;  the  shoulders  long  and 
sloping  well  back;  fore-legs  straiglit  and  standing 
well  under;  chest  broad  and  dee]);  barrel  large. 
and  increasing  from  girdle  to  Hank;  withers  ele- 
vated ;  ba(^k  sliort  and  straight:  loins  anil  haunches 
broad  and  muscular:  hocks  well  bcnl  and  undertlie 
lior.sc  ;  pasterns  sianting  ;  and'feet  small  and  sound.  ] 


In  the  matter  of  the  treatment  and  qualities  of  the 
horse,  we  can  not  do  better  than  remember  a  few 
axioms  and  aphorisms  current  among  a  people  with 
whom  tlie  raising  and  training  of  horses  are  matters 
of  religion,  and  to  whom  the  Prophet  has  said, 
"Whoever  raiseth  and  traineth  a  horse  for  the 
Lord  is  counted  in  the  number  of  those  who  give 
alms  night  and  day."  "  Make  your  horses  work, 
and  make  them  work  again.  Inaction  and  fat 
are  the  great  peril  of  a  horse,  and  the  main  cause 
of  allhisvicesanddisea.se."  "  As  you  would  shun 
the  plague  so  shun  a  horse  with  shrunken  breast  and 
straight  shoulders.  But  one  whose  croup  is  as  long 
as  his  back  and  loins  together  take  with  closed 
eyes."  "If  you  would  know  at  a  glance  the  value 
of  a  horse,  measure  him  from  the  last  joint  of  the 
tail  to  the  middle  of  the  withers,  and  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  withers  to  the  tip  of  the  upper  lip,  on  a 
line  between  the  ears.  If  the  hind  measure  is  the 
longer,  the  horse  is  of  little  worth ;  but  if  the  fore- 
part is  longer,  rest  assured  the  animal  has  distin- 
guished qualities,  and  the  greater  the  difference  the 
greater  will  be  his  value."  "  Never  run  your  horse 
up  or  down  hill  if  j-ou  can  avoid  it."  "  To  prepare 
a  too  fleshy  horse  for  fatigues  make  him  thin  by 
exercise ;  never  by  withholding  his  food."  '  •  Do  not 
beat  your  horses,  nor  speak  to  them  in  a  loud  tone 
of  voice ;  do  not  be  angry  with  them,  but  kindly 
reprove  their  faults  ;  they  will  do  better  thereafter, 
for  they  understand  the  language  of  man  and  its 
meaning.  If  by  chance  you  meet  with  a  horse  in- 
sensible to  kindness,  hesitate  not  to  employ  the 
power  of  your  spurs,  but  in  such  wise  that  he  never 
forgets  the  punishment."  "  The  man  who  gives  not 
a  steady  walk  to  his  liorse  excites  pity.  The  walk 
is  the  gallop  of  always."  See  Cavalry-hirrses,  Ar- 
tillery-jSoraes,  Pack-animals,  and  Draught-anhnals. 

HORSE-AETILLEKY.— A  portion  of  the  artillery 
which  generall}'  serves  with  cavalry.  One  of  the 
mounted  branches  of  the  British  service  is  Horse- 
artillerj'.  The  formation  of  this  branch  dates  back 
to  the  year  1793,  when  two  troops  were  raised  at 
Woolwich.  Each  troop  consi-sted  of  4  guns,  but  in 
November  of  the  same  year  2  more  troops  were 
added,  and  each  troop  had  6  guns.  Subsequently  it 
was  raised  to  12  troops.  This  branch  of  the  service 
has  been  further  augmented  to  the  extent,  at  the 
present  day,  of  ti  brigades,  of  5  batteries  each,  each 
batter}'  having  6  guns.  The  present  equipment  of 
the  Horse-artillery  is  made  up.of  9-pdr.  M.L.R.  guns. 
The  gun  is  made  of  a  steel  tube  with  a  wrought-iron 
jacket:  caliber.  3  indies  :  weight,  (i  cwt.  ;  length  of 
rifling,  62'3  inches;  rifling,  three  grooves,  with  a  uni- 
form pitch  of  1  lo  30  calibers;  charge,  1.75  lb  The 
carriages  for  these  guns  are  of  wrought-iron. 

The  Horse-artillery  is  held  in  hand  for  all  deci- 
sive moments.  When  launched  forth,  its  arrival 
and  execution  should  be  unexpected  and  instanta- 
neous. Ready  to  repair  all  disasters  and  partial  re- 
verses, it,  at  one  moment,  temporarily  replaces  a 
battery  of  foot,  and  at  the  next  is  on  another  point 
of  the  field,  to  force  back  an  enemy's  column.  In 
preparing  the  attacks  of  cavalry,  tliis  arm  is  often 
indispensable  and  aways  invaluable  ;  brought  with 
rapidity  in  front  of  a  line,  or  opposite  to  squares  of 
infantry,  witliin  tlie  range  of  canister,  its  well-di- 
rected fire,  in  a  few  discliiirges.  opens  a  gap,  or  so 
shakes  the  entire  mass,  that  the  cavalier  finds  but  a 
feeble  obstacle,  where,  without  this  aid,  he  would 
in  vain  have  exhausteil  ;dl  his  jiowers. 

HORSE  GRENADIERS. -The  Flying  Grenadiers, 
who  fighl  both  on  foot  and  on  horseback.  They  were 
first  established  in  France  by  Louis  XIV.,  in  107G. 
formed  in  scjuHdrons,  and  called  (In  iiiiilii  i-k   Vnlaim, 

HORSE  GUARDS.  1.  '["he  name  aiiplied  to  a  liirge 
public  oflice  in  \\'hitehall,  appropri:ited  to  the  de- 
parlinents  under  the  General  Coninianding-in-Chief. 
Th(^  word  Horse-gU!irds  is  used  conventionally  to 
signify  the  Military  Anlhorities  at  the  lieacl  of 
Army  Alfairs,  in  contradislinction  to  the  Civil  Chief, 


HORSEMANSHIP. 


51 


HORSEMANSHIP. 


or  the  Socrctiiry  of  Stiitr  for  War.  2.  Tlic  I{ojiil 
HorHt'-^uiirds,  or  Oxford  lilucs,  is  the  lliinl  heavy 
cavalry  rct^iinent  of  the  llouHcliold  IJrijiadc.  Tin; 
regimi'iil  was  riiiscd  in  Kitil  from  tin'  rciiiiiaiitM  of 
the  disbanded  Army  of  the  lute  Commonweiillh.  It 
has  ever  proved  a  loyal  (•i)r])H,  althou<;h  it  ri'adily 
transferred  its  alleirianee  from  .lames  II.  (r>  William 
III.  U  look  part  in  .MarlbdnniLrh's  caniiiaifins ; 
gerv<Ml  under  the  Duke  of  Welliii^rton  in  tlie  I'en- 
insida  and  at  Waterloo,  and  has  always  been  con- 
(tiilered  one  of  the  finest  heavy  cavalry  eorps  in  the 
world.  The  Onards  of  State  for  the  Sovereij,'n  are 
taken  either  from  its  ranks  or  from  those  of  the 
Life-i;uards.  Tlie  jiresent  nniforn\  consists  of  a 
Hteel  helmet,  with  iiliiiiie,  a  steel  cuirass  over  a  blue 
coatee,  leather  breeches,  and  knee-boots  ;  the  horse.s 
are  black.  The  establishment  of  the  rej;imenl  con- 
sists of  1,302  of  all  ranks,  with  825  horses,  exclusive 
of  ollii'crs'  (■liiir^:ers.     See  Cavalry  and  Dnir/nim. 

HORSEMANSHIP.— Throughout  history  the  art  of 
msumnin.!;  the  horse  and  ridiiif;  on  his  back  has  rank- 
ed hi.nh  amon^  useful  and  (graceful  accomplishments. 
Aceordinj;  to  Ca-sar  and  Livy,  the  Niimidians  and 
Mauritanians  rode  their  horses  wilhonl  either  bit  or 
Middle,  and  guided  them  solely  by  using  a  small 
switch, which  was  applied  to  either  side  of  the  neck, 
iiccordino;  as  they  wished  to  turn.  The  Persians 
trained  their  horses  to  kneel  to  receive  their  riders, 
and  were  the  first  to  introduce  saddles.  Stirrups 
■were  used  in  the  .Tth  century,  but  were  not  common 
even  in  the  12th.  The  two  essentials  for  riding  are 
a  firm  seat  and  a  light  hand,  as  without  a  combina- 
tion of  the  two  no  one  can  become  a  good  horseman. 
In  every  description  of  riding,  the  light  or  delicate 
"  hand,"  just  feeling  the  mouth  of  tlie  horse,  and 
playing  the  bit  in  accordance  with  his  movement, 
will  insure  success ;  and  it  is  to  this  delicacy  of  wrist 
that  we  must  attribute  the  ease  and  skill  with  which 
ladies  so  often  ride  the  most  high-spirited  anima)K, 
which,  in  rougher  hands  woidd  be  umuanageable. 
The  first  lesson  in  horsemanship  is  to  learn  to  mount 
safely  and  easily  ;  and  the  ordinary  and  on  the  whole 
least  objectionable  way  is  as  follows :  Stand  at  the 
shoulder  of  the  horse,  looking  towards  his  tail,  aixi 
taking  the  reins  in  the  right  hand,  divide  them  by 
tlie  middle  finger  of  the  left  till  you  feel  the  horse's 


well  down  in  his  sadille,  with  his  body  erect,  the 
seat  being  preservi'd  more  by  balance  than  by  a  tight 
hold  by  the  leg  or  thigh.  In  rapiil  movi^ments  or 
when  charging  over  irregular  tielils,  a  very  firm  seat 
is  necessary  ;  tlw  slirrup-lealhers  are  then  about  two 
holes  shorter,  and  the  feel  pressed  "home"  in  the 
stirrups,  which  otherwise  would  be  apt  to  be  lust  in 
jumping:  the  li'g  from  lliigh  to  thi'  knee  well  for- 
ward, and  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  u])pfr  jiarl  of 
the  body  inclined  forward  ;  the  legs  |>erpendicular, 
the  heel  well  down,  and  the  toe  pointing  nearly 
straightforward.  This  seat  the  trooper  has  in  com- 
mon with  all  eipiestrian  nations,  as  the  Arabs,  Tar- 
tars, Persians,  Kgyptians,  Cossacks,  Magyars,  anrl 
Circassians,  the  last  mentioned  nation  carrying  it  to 
such  an  extreme  that  thi'leg  assinnes  the  form  of  the 
letter  V,  having  the  knee  for  the  apex.  In  rid- 
ing at  the  bars  or  hurdle  "collect"  the  horse  into 
the  pace  at  which  he  goes  with  most  ease  to  himself  ; 
i  keep  him  straight  at  the  fence  till  he  rises  :  "  ease" 
his  mouth  by  leaning  forward  ;  take  especial  care 
not  to  confine  it  when  he  is  making  his  elTort,  or 
you  will  |)idl  him  into  the  fence  as  he  descends  :  lean 
well  back  in  the  saddle,  and  gently  take  hold  of  his 
mouth  to  support  him  when  landing.  Do  nf)t  gallop 
with  a  loose  rein  (except  down  hill,  when  the  horse 
requires  his  head  free),  for  the  horse  will  go  with 
a  straggling  pace,  which  is  very  undesirable.  For 
rapid  iiiovements,  the  essentials  are  a  good  and 
powerful  seat,  good  "  hands,"  a  great  knowledge  of 
pace, 'and  quickness  to  take  advantage  of  any  chances 
of  sticcess. 

As  the  strongest  part  of  a  horse,  and  also  the  center 
of  action,   is   situated   at"  a  point   just   behind   his 
shoulder-blades,  the  nearer  we  can  ride  to  this  the 
better,  and  riding  rather  forward  in  the  saddle  is  a 
relief  to  the  horse,  while  leaning  back,  as  it  bears 
tipon  his  loins — his  weakest  part — is  a  cause  of  fatigue. 
The  grip  in  riding  should  be  maintained  by  the  knees, 
1  the  thighs,  and  the  calves  slightly.     The  thigh  is  the 
I  most  essential  part  of  a  good  and  strong  seat.     Few 
I  riders  who.se  thighs  are  short  and  roimd.  have  a  good 
j  seat ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  jockeys  and  tall  thin 
men,  whose  thighs  are  long,  and  more  or  less  hol- 
lowed on  the  under  side,   are  generally  very  firm. 
1  No  one  pretends  to  horsemanship  without  a  knowl- 


niouth  ;  then  take  hold  with  the  left  hand  of  a  lock  of 
the  mane,  lift  the  left  foot  into  the  stirrup,  and  using 
the  mane  as  a  slight  hold,  spring  into  the  air,  taking 
hold  of  the  back  of  the  saddle  to  assist  in  getting  the 
right  leg  easily  over  the  horse,  steadying  the  fall  of 
the  body  by  the  right  hauil  on  the  ponunel,  and  then 
arranging  the  stirrups.  In  dismounting  exactly  the 
reverse  of  this  process  is  followed,  or  both  feet  may 
be  disengaged  from  the  stirrups  at  once,  and  the 
rider  may  vaidt  from  tlie  saddle  to  the  ground  with 
great  rapidity,  and  less  risk  of  falling  if  the  horse 
chance  to  move  on. 

There  are  four  different  styles  of  riding  practiced 
among  modern  civilized  nations — viz.,  the  military, 
road,  hunting,  and  racing  styles.  The  military  style 
differs  in  many  particulars  from  the  others,  as,  owing 
to  the  long  stirrups  used,  the  soldier  is  obliged  to  sit 


edge  of  the  proper  action  for  emergencies.  If  a  horse 
runs  away,  do  not  exhaust  yourself  by  vain  pulling, 
but  guide  him  out  of  danger,  and  let  "him  run  till  he 
is  tired.  A  Bucephalus  noseband  is  a  great  security 
against  bolting.  If  a  horse  rears,  loosen  the  reins, 
and  lean  forward;  in  hunting,  the  "  art  of  falling" 
consists  in  getting  clear  of  your  horse.  In  case  of  a 
horse  kicking,  keep  his  head  up  as  much  as  possible, 
and  sit  firm  in  the  saddle.  The  art  of  riding  teaches 
and  shows  the  position  to  be  taken  on  horseback,  so 
as  to  be  there  with  the  greatest  security  and  ease. 
It  at  the  same  time  affords  the  means  of  leading  and 
directing  the  horse  with  the  utmost  of  facility,  and 
of  obtaining  from  him  by  the  simplest  method  and 
with  the  least  fatigue  the  most  exact  and  perfect 
obedience  in  everything  which  his  strength  and  con- 
formation allow.     He  is  the  good  horseman,  there- 


HORSE  MEDICINES. 


52 


HOBSE-SHOE. 


fore  wlio  firm  and  easy  in  his  seat,  has  acquired  ■  timates  of  most  celelirated  Engineers  differ  widely 
botli  the  knowlediie  of  what  he  may  asli  of  his  horse  from  each  other  ;  Boulton  and  Watt,  basinfj  their 
andthepracticeof  the  best  means  of  enforcing  obedi- I  calculations  upon  the  work  of  London  dray-horses 
ence  And  that  is  the  well-trained  horse  which  j  (working  eight  hours  a  day),  estimated  it  at  33,000 
understands  the  intentions  of  his  rider  from  the  foot-pounds  per  minute.  D'Aubuisson,  taking  the 
sli-rhtest  of  his  movements,  according  to  sriven  priu-  !  work  done  by  horses  in  whims  at  Freiberg,  estiraa- 
ciples   and  executes  them  with  promptne^ss,  agility,    ted  the  work  at  16,440  foot-pounds,  working  dght 


and  vii;i  ..  . 

HORSE  MEDICINES.— In  a  military  pomt  of  view, 
the  medicines  issued  to  an  army  or  command  for 
the  treatment  of  diseased  or  disabled  animals.  A 
Siippli/  Table  is  usually  authorized  for  an  army,  the 


hours  a  day  ;  under  all  similar  circumstances,  Desa- 
guliers's  estimate  was  44,000;  Smeaton's  22,000; 
and  Tredgold's  37,500  foot-pounds  ;  17,400  is  thought 
to  be  near  the  truth.  It  matters  little,  however,  what 
number  is  assumed,  provided  the  same   be  always 


medicines  are  all  procured  on  requisition,  and  the  j  used:  and  accordingly  the  original  estimate  of  Watt 
Veterinary  Surgeons  dispense  them.     The  following  j  is  still  counted  a  horse-power.      In  calculatmg  the 


Name  of  Drug. 

Aloes. 
Alnm. 
AnUe  Seed. 
Aqua  Ammonia. 
Ar-'t^nic. 
Ast  -iio^tida. 
Bicarbonate  of  ( 
Potash.  1' 

Bismnth. 
Blacl.  vntimony. 
Blue  Vitriol. 
Calomel. 
Camphor. 
Cantharides. 
Carbolic  .\cid. 
Castor  Oil. 
Cayenne, 

Chlorate  of  Potash 
Copperas. 
Croton-oil. 
DigitaliP  leaf. 
Epsom  .Salts. 
Ether. 

Fowler's  Solution. 
Gentian  Root. 
Ginger. 
Glauber  Salts. 
Iodide  of  Potassium 

Linseed-oil,  raw. 
Magnesia. 
Mercurial  Ointment 

Nux  Vomica. 
Opium. 


Action  aud  Use. 


Dose. 


Antidote. 


Laxative  and  Tome. 

Astringent. 

Aromatic  and  Stomachic. 

Stimulant  and  Antacid. 

.\lterative  and  tonic,  used  for  Paralysis,  Mange,  etc. 

.\nti-8pa8modic.  Coughs,  etc. 

Diuretic  and  Antacid.    Good  for  Rheumatism. 

For  Chronic  Diarrhcea.  etc. 

Promotes  the  Secretiona. 

Astringent  aud  Tonic. 

Cathartic. 

.\nti-spasmodic. 

Diuretic  and  Stimulant. 

Externally  and  Disinfectant. 

Cathartic. 

Stimulant  and  Carminative. 

biur<tic.     Given  for  bloating,  etc 

Tonic  and  Astringent. 

Powerful  purgative. 

Sedative  ana  Diuretic. 

Cathartic  and  febrifuge. 

.\nti-spasmodic. 

L'sed  for  skin  diseases.     See  Arsenic. 

Tonie. 
(Tonic,  Stimulant,  and  Stomachic.    Used  for  flat-1 
(    ulent  colic,  dyspepsia,  etc.  / 

Cathartic. 
(Diuretic  and  .\lterative.  Employed  for  Rheuma-) 
\     tism.  Dropsy,  Enlarged  Glands,  etc.  j 

Cathartic  and  Nutritive. 

For  colts  as  an  antacid  and  laxative. 

Used  for  Mange,  itch,  lice,  and  other  parasites. 

Nervous  stimulant— used  for  Paralysis. 

(Anodyne  and  .\nti-spasmodic.    Given  in  Colie.l 
(    Inflammation  of  Bowels,  Diarrhoea,  etc.  / 

Prepared  Chalk.        Antacid. 

Quinine.  Tonic,  given  during  convalescence. 

Saltpetre.  Diuretic  and  Febrifuge. 

Soda  Bicarh.  Simil..r  to  Bicarb.  Potash. 

Soda  Sulphite.  .\ntiseptic  and  Alterative,  used  for  blood  diseases. 

Soluiion  of  Lime.     !.\ntacid.  used  as  an  antidote  to  poisoning  by  acids. 
Spirits  of  Chloro-  /.   ^„ndyne  and  Anti-spasmodic. 
form.  I  ,     r,      ,     . 

Tonic  and  Stimulant.     Used  for  Paralysis. 
( Alterative   and  Laxative.    Used  for  Skin  disea- 1 
'(    ses  and  Rheumatism.  ) 


)^  to  1  oz. 

2  to  3  drs. 
X  to  2  cze. 
1  to  4  drs. 

1  to  5  gre. 
1  to  3  dre. 

3  to  5  drs. 

>^  to  1  oz. 
"^  to  xr  dr. 
>i  to  1  dr. 
10  to  40  gre. 
X  to  1  dr. 
3  to  6  grs. 


><;  to  1  pt 
5  to  S5  gre. 

1  to  a  drs. 
>i  to  IX  drs. 
10  to  15  drops  I  Opium. 
to  to  20  grs.     Stimulate. 

2  to  H  ozs. 


Vinegar. 
Magnesia  and  oil. 

Vinegar  and  raw  Linseed-oil. 

Infusion  of  oak  bark.   Give  also  Lins'd-oll 
Eggs.  Milk,  etc. 
Eggs  and  Milk. 


Eggs;  soap;  gruel. 


Strychnia. 
Sulphur. 

Sweet  Spirits  of) 
Niter.  / 

Tannic  Acid. 

Tartar  Emetic. 

Tincture  of  Aco-> 
nite  Root.  (" 

Tincture  of  Can-i 
tharides.  / 

Tincture  Ergot. 

Tincture  Iodine. 

Tincture  Iron. 

Tr.  Nux  Vomici. 

Tincture  Opium. 

White  Vitriol. 


Diuretic  and  Diaphoretic. 

Astringent. 

Sedative  and  Alterative. 

Sedative.    Used  for  lung  fever,  etc. 
Stimulant  and  Tonic. 


X  to  2  ozs. 
1  to  4  drs. 

1  to  2  drs. 

2  to  5  drs. 

6  to  12  ozs. 

)4  to  iX  drs. 

1  to  2  pts. 
,V  to  1  oz. 

15  to  25  grs. 

a  to  1  dr. 

Mto  1  oz. 
IB  to  so  gre 

1  to  3  drs. 

3to8dre. 
|<  to  I  oz. 
4  to  6  oz. 

1  to  2  oz. 

X  to  1  gr. 

>^  t3  2  ozs. 

X  to  JXoze. 

20  to  40  grs. 
'a  to  >..  dr. 

15  to  35  drops 

1  to  2  ozs. 
1  to  2  ozs. 


■i?  to  1  oz. 
2  to  4  drs. 
1  to  2  ozs. 

5  to  15  grs. 


Hydrated  peroxide  of  iron. 


(Give  very  freely  starch  or  flour,  with  wa- 
(    ter  largely. 


Whites  of  eggs  with  milk  given  freely. 

\  Saleratus.followed  quickly  by  copperae, 
)     both  dissolved  in  water. 

(Belladonna,  strong  coffee,  brandy  and 
<     ammonia.    Dash  very  cold  water  on 

(    and  keep  the  horse  moving. 

Linseed-oil  largely.    Raw. 


Tobacco. 


Tannic  Acid. 
(Give  small  doses  of  Nux  Vomica,  use 
\    stimulants  largely,  and  keep  moving. 


See  Nux  Vomica 
See  Opium. 

Milk,  eggs,  and  flour. 


Parturient. 

Used  externally. 

Tonic  and  Astringent.    I'sed  for  Typhoid  diseases. 

Tonic.     Stimulant  ill  Paralysis  and  Dyspepsia. 

Anodyne  and  Anti-spasmodic. 

/Astringent.    Us-  d  for  cuts,  wounds,  aud  sores,! 

(    in  solution.  j 

For  a  colt  one  month  old.  give  one  twenty-fourth  of  the  full  dose  for  an  adult  horse  as  given  above;  three  months  old,  one 
twelfth :  six  months  old.  one-sixth  :  one  year  old,  one-third ;  two  years  old,  one-half ;  three  years  old,  three-fourths. ^ 

power  of  a  steam-engine  in  terms  of  this  unit,  the 
general  rule  is  to  multiply  together  the  pressure  in 
pounds  on  a  square  inch  of  the  jiislon,  the  area  of 
the  piston  in  inches,  the  Icngtli  of  the  stroke  in  feet, 
and  the  number  of  strokes  per  minute  ;  the  result 
obtained  by  this  operation,  divided  by  33,000.  will 
give  the  horsc-pciwer.  It  is  generally  necessary  to 
deduct  about  one-tenth  of  the  whole,  as  an  allow- 
ance for  friction. 

HORSE  SHOE.— In  fortification,  a  very  small  round 
or  oval  work,  with  a  parapet;  generally  made  in  a 
ditch,  or  marsh. 


doses  for  the  horse,  prescribed  by  the  eminent  Vet- 
erinarian, Dr.  Kendall,  are  found  on  all  Army  Sup- 
ply Tables,  and  may  be  administered  by  any  intelli- 
gent soldier,  in  tlic  absence  of  the  Veterinary  Sur- 
geon.    See  V(t( riiiary  Art. 

HORSE  POWER.  — .\  term  used  in  expressing  the 
force  of  II  iiiolive  power.  It  is  liiised  upiiu  the  as- 
suiiiplioti  thai  horses  ill  general  perform  a  certain 
constant  amount  of  work  in  a  specilicd  lime  :  an  as- 
Bumiilion  whicli  is  evidently  erroneous.  The  funda- 
menlal  unit  of  work  is  the  foot-pound;  but  in 
measuring  the  work  of  a  horse  by  this  unit,  the  es- 


HOKSE  SHOEING. 


53 


H0B8E  SHOE  NAUS. 


HORSE  SHOEING.— Till'  ordinary  sysicni  of  liorsc- 
sIkk'Iiii^  is  null'  ami  irrationiil,  ami  is  the  main  cause 
of  iiiDsl,  lamciicHses  and  of  llic  iiiajorily  of  falls  in 
ridiiii;  and  drivinij;.  Chief  anion^ist  its  faults  are  the 
nttelupts  to  tit  the  foot  to  the  shoe,  instead  of  the 
shoe  to  the  foot,  and  the  wholesale  euttini;  and  rasp- 
in;.;,  and  eonsequent  injury  of  the  seviTal  parts  of 
till-  foot.  After  the  eaulious  removal  of  the  old 
shoe,  the  erust,  on  vvliieh  it  rested  i;enerally  reipiires 
to  he  ])ared  down  with  a  dniwiim-knife,  and  its 
ed.se  afterwanls  rounded  with  the  rasp.  Any  nii;- 
ged  ))ortions  of  the  fro^  may  also  be  taken  o(T,  and 
tliis  inelinh'S  the  whole  of  the  allowahle  parini;  or 
dressing  of  the  horse's  foot.  The  horny  sole  in- 
tended as  a  coverini;  and  jirotection  of  (hc>  sensitive 
parts  lieneatli  :  the  tough  elastic  frog,  an  insensible 
pad  which  obviates  concussion,  luid  |)reserves  the 
foot  wide  and  free  from  contraction  :  the  bars,  an 
Involution  of  the  crust,  which  help  it  to  support 
weight,  and  give  it  lateral  sujiport.are  idl  too  valu- 
able to  be  ruthlessly  cut  away,  and  in  all  ordinary 
cases  must  be  scrupulously  preserved  from  both 
knife  and  ras]i.  For  sound  healthy  feet  treated  as 
ddvised,  a  plain  shoe  is  preferalile  forsadilk'  or  har- 
ness horses  ;  the  web  need  not  exceed  three-fourths 
of  an  inch,  must  tit  the  crust  closely  and  accurately 
nil  the  way  round  to  tlie  heels,  where  its  inner  edge 
■will  rest  upon  the  strong  luicut  bars.  Nowhbre 
must  there  be  any  overlapping,  which  only  renders 
the  shoe  more  apt  to  cut  the  opjiosile  limb,  and  be 
torn  olT  in  heavy  ground.  To  lessen  the  chances  of 
tripping,  and  make  the  shoe  wear  e(pially.  it  should 
for  the  fore-feet  lie  turned  nj)  very  slightly,  and  its 
ground  surface  hollowed  out  a  little  at  the  toe,  so  as 


powers  without  so  much  risk  of  sli|)pin);.  Instead 
of  the  tive  nails  used  for  the  lighter  liorscH,  seven  or 
eight  are  reipiisite. 

Figure  1  shows  an  excellent  form  of  front  shoe 
and  the  proper  positions  of  nail-holes;  «,</,  are  the 
heels,  of  th<-  same  thickness  as  the  rest  of  the  slioe  ; 
'/,'',  are  the  points  at  whicli  Ihi'  heels  of  the  hoof 
terminate:  c.c,  sIkjw  the  seating;  and  '/.<'.  the  posi- 
tions of  nail-heels.  Figure  2  represents  tlie  ground 
surface  of  the  hoof  |)repareil  for  I  lie  shoe;  «,  «  1,  a3, 
show  the  front,  inner,  and  outer  toe  ;   hi,  1/2,  the  in- 

';  ner  and  outer  (juarter;  c  1,  cS,  the  inner  and  outer 
heel;  (l.(/,f/,  the  sole;  I'.f,  tlie  crust  or  wall  of  the 
hoof;  fj",  the  bars;  f/.f/.  the  commissures  ;  fi.kj,  the 
frog  (■//  being  directly  luider  the  navicular  joint); 
and  /,'.  the  liulbs  of  the  heels. 

Horses  with  weak,  tender,  or  bruised  soles  may 
for  a  time  recpiire  leatli<-r  or  water-proof  pads,  liut 
as  the  sole  grows,  these  should  be  discontinued,  and 

]  are  never  refjuired  in  healthy  feet,  where  the  sole, 
which  is  the  best  and  most  natural  protection,  is  al- 
lowed to  grow  luidislurbed  by  the  knife.  Horses 
with  corns  should  luive  their  shoes  made  with  a  wide 
inside  wel>,  which  rests  upon  the  bjirs,  or  h;ive  for  a 
time  a  bar-shoe.  The  last  nail  on  the  inside  should  ai.so 
be  dispensed  with,  and  the  seal  of  the  corn  or  bruise 
carefully  pared  out,  but  without  injtiring  frog  or 
bars.  If,  from  constant  cutting,  the  bars  are  unfit 
to  aid  the  crust  in  carrying  tlie  shoe,  it  will  often  be 
advisalile  to  shoe  for  a  time;  with  tips  or  half-shoes, 
keeping  the  horse  as  much  as  is  possible  on  soft 
ground,  and  waiting  the  healthy  growth  f)f  the  foot. 
In  troublesome  cases  of  thr\isli.  such  tips  ari'  also 
most  serviceable,  allowing  the  frog  the  natural  and 


Fi:;.  !. 

to  present  the  appearance  of  an  ordinarv-  shoe  which 
has  been  worn  for  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks ;  and 
which,  as  every  one  knows,  is  therefore  rendered 
more  safe  and  comfortable.  By  turiug  up  at  the  toe,  i 
these  advantages  are  secured  at  once.  For  saddle 
and  light  harness  work  three  nails  on  the  out — and 
two  on  the  inside  will  lirmly  secure  any  well-made, 
well-titting  shoe.  The  nail-lioles  should  be  counter- 
sunk, be  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  web.  and  pass 
straight  throtigh  it,  thus  giving  the  nails  a  tinner 
hold  of  the  stout  luirasped  crust.  The  points  of  tlie 
nails  when  ilriven  home  should  be  broken  over  and 
laid  down  with  the  hammer,  but  not  touched  with 
the  ras)).  The  rasping  of  the  crust  which  smiths 
fondly  reganl  as  their  tinishingand  polishing  stroke. 
is  very  injurious,  removes  the  vmetuous  iiroti'cting 
portion  of  the  crust,  and  renders  it  weak,  brittle. 
and  liat)Ie  to  crack.  Shoes  should  be  replaced  every 
three  weeks  or  a  month  at  furthest.  In  shoeing  the 
hind-feet  the  outside  web  is  generally  turned  slightly 
down  behind,  whilst  to  give  an  equal  bearing  the 
inside  heel  is  thickened.  For  hi-avy  driiught.  both 
hind  and  fore  shoes  slniuld  h;ive  moderate  tips  and 
heels,    which  enable  the  horse  to  exert   his   entire 


ca  . 


Fis;.  a. 

healthy  pressure  for  which  it  is  intended,  and  with 
astringents  and  cleanliness  greatly  expediting  a  cure. 
Groggy  horses  should  have  the  toe  shortened,  and 
turned  up,  as  already  advised ;  the  frog  and  sole 
must  be  untouched,  and  the  shoes  made  light  and 
nicely  fitted.  Over-reach,  or  cutting  of  the  heel  of 
the  fore-foot  with  the  shoe  of  the  hind,  is  remedied 
Iiy  tiling  round  the  posterior  edge  of  the  offending 
toe,  and  keeping  that  shoe  as  far  back  as  possible  on 
the  foot.  For  speedy  cut,  which  is  commou  in 
horses  with  in-turned  knees,  the  shoe  should  be  care- 
fully titled  and  no  projecting  portions  be  left:  the 
clinches  must  also  be  well  hammered  down.  See 
Chiirlier  System  uf  JIorse-Hhneiiig.  Seymour  Shoe,  and 
Siimr-shin . 

HORSE  SHOE  NAILS.— The  nail  for  a  horse's  foot 
differs  materially  from  every  other  kind  of  nail,  not 
only  in  shape,  but  also  in  the  quality  of  iron  from 
which  it  is  made,  as  well  as  the  process  of  nnuiufac- 
ture.  The  slightest  deviation  from  shape  and  (pnil- 
ity  of  the  iron  renders  the  horse-shoe  nail  compara- 
tively useless.  From  the  days  of  Tubal  Cain  to  the 
present  time  tire  has  been  the  only  element  with 
which  iron  could  be  properly  wrought.   Everj-  other 


EOBSE-TAIL. 


54    . 


HOSE-TBOnOH.- 


methoci  has  resulted  in  producina:  articles  of  great 
inferiority  where  strength  and  durability  are  re- 
quired, and  in  no  place  are  these  two  requisites 
more  necessary  than  in  the  horse's  shoe-nail.  The 
Ancients  used  only  charcoal  in  the  working  of  iron, 
thus  avoiding  all  sulphurous  gases,  hence  the  supe- 


removed.  It  the  sheer  is  so  fortunate  as  to  draw  it 
out  without  hrenking,  the  lameness  will  disappear, 
but  not  until  the  horse  has  been  laid  up  for  a  con- 
siderable time.  Should  the  nail  break,  the  result  is 
far  more  serious. 

It  requires  but  little  observation  and  reflection  to 
arrive  at  the  conclusion  as  to  the  kind  of  nails  to  be 
used  in  the  horse's  foot,  whether  a  mangled  piece  of 


riority  of  their  weapons.  The  old  Damascus  blades 
owe  their  superiority  in  part  to  the  use  of  asphalt 
when  being  forged,  thus  avoiding  the  presence  of 
sidphur.  which  is  so  ruinous  to  all  kinds  of  iron  and 


Bteel.     Profiting  by  this  knowledge,  the  manufac- 
turers of  the  Putnam  nail  avoid  tlie  use  of  coal  and  ] 
coke  in  forging,  use  only  pure  carbon  gas  made  from 
petroleum, "and  thereby  obtain  a  much  higher  tem- 


perature in  the  working  of  the  iron.  This  hot-forg- 
ed nail, when  made  of  pure  iron,  has  no  equal  in  the 
known  world. 

The  first  drawing  shows  a  cross-section  of  iron 
from  which  the  cold-punched  and  sheard-nails  are  ' 


(^ 


made  by  forcing  blanks  therefrom  by  means  of  a 
punch.  These  blanks  are  put  through  a  series  of 
rollers  and  drawn  into  the  form  of  A,  with  an  in- 
dentation on  the  thin  end  for  the  scarfed  points, 
which  conduct  the  nail  out  of  the  h(5of.  B  repre- 
sents the  piece  which  is  removed  by  shearing  the 
blade  of  A.  so  as  to  leave   the  nail,  C,  complete. 


The  rolling  of  iron  ri>ld  produces  lamination,  caus- 
ing the  iron  to  separate  in  layers,  as  shown  in  D. 
But  as  the  compression  of  shearing  holds  the  edges 
together,  it  does  not  show  itself  until  driven  into  the 
hoof,  when  the  horny  fibers  cause  them  to  separate 
while  being  driven,  and  one  portion  is  forced  into 
the  foot  and  the  other  oi/t  through  the  wall  of  the 
lir)of,  thus  causing  lameness,  lock-jaw,  and  dealli, 
as  the  records  of  State  courts,  tin  well  as  the  testi- 
mony of  horse  owners,  abundantly  show. 

One  of  these  nails  made  hy  the  ndd-cut  process, 
and  slivered  when  being  driven  in  by  the  shoer,  is 
shown  at  E.  The  pain  caused  by  a  slight  sliver  of 
wood  under  the  fing<T-nail  will  give  one  a  slight 
idea  as  to  liow  ]iainful  such  a  nail  must  be  in  the 
foot  of  the  horse,  there  to  remain  until  the  shoe  is 


iron,  rendered  dangerous  by  the  fvld-ndling  and  rnt\ 
ting  process,  or  one  made  from  the  rod  at  a  welding 
heat,  where  all  the  fibers  remain  intact,  and  a  per- 
fect cnenem  maintained,  making  it  utterly  impossible 
to  sliver;  likewise  a  greater  amount  of  tenacity an<t 
ductility  is  obtained,  by  which  the  shoes  are  retained 
on  the  feet  for  a  much  longer  time. 

Having  selected  the  best  nails,  the  shoer  .should 
drive  as  small  and  few  nails  as  will  hold  the  shoe 
firmly  and  securely  to  its  place.  He  should  see  that 
the  nails  fill  the  holes  and  the  heads  the  crease,  leav- 
ing little,  if  any,  to  project  beyond  the  ground  sur- 
face when  finished,  thus  preventing  the  clinch  from 
rising  when  brought  in  contact  witli  stones,  and  sav- 
ing the  injuring  of  the  ankle.     See  Putnam  Nail. 

HOKSE-TAIL,— Turkish  Standard  Commanders  are 
distinguished  by  the  number  of  horse-tails  carried 
before  them,  or  planted  in  front  of  their  tents.  Thus, 
the  Sultan  has  seven,  the  Grand  Vizier  five,  and  the 
Pashas  three,  two,  or  one. 

HOESFALL-GTJN. — This  gun  is  a  solid  forging  of 
wrought-iron,  bored  out.  The  trunnions  are  forged 
upon  a  separate  ring, which  is  held  in  place  by  a  key- 
The  dimensions  of  the  gun  are  as  follows: — Length, 
15  ft.  10  in. :  the  diameter  over  the  chamber,  3  ft.  7 
in.;  length  of  bore, 13  ft.  4  in.;  diameter  of  bore,  13.014 
in.  The  weight  is  53,846  lbs.  The  usual  windage  is 
J  of  an  inch,  and  the  gun  is  not  rifled.  The  unequal 
shrinkage  of  the  solid  breech  of  this  gun,  during  its 
fabrication,  caused  a  crack,  which  was  afterwards 
covered  with  a  breech-plug,  or  false  bottom  in  the 
chamber,  to  prevent  the  lodgment  of  any  burning 
material.  This  gun  is  noted  for  its  remarkable  en- 
durance, and  terrible  effect,  at  short  range,  in  target 
practice  at  Shoeburyness. 

HORSLEY  POWDER.— An  explosive  agent,  com- 
posed of  chlorate  ofpotassa  and  gall-nuts,  in  propor- 
ti»n  by  weight  of  three  to  one,  used  principally  in 
charging  torpedoes.  Its  disruptive  action  in  relation 
to  the  best  gunpowder,  volume  for  volume,  is  about 
15t(>l. 

HORTON  LATHE  CHUCK.— A  chuck  of  theimiver- 
sal  type  variously  emjiloyed  in  the  Arsenal.  The 
drawings  present  a  view  of  the  device  together  and 
in  its  parts.  The  jaws  are  moved  to  and  from  the 
center  simultaneously  by  means  of  the  geared  screws 
and  the  circular  rack,  which  is  enclosed  in  the  deep 
groove  or  recess  in  the  bilck-plate,  the  center  faces 
of  the  front  and  baek-plates  making  a  perfectly  tight 
casing  for  the  gearing,  so  that  no  <lirt,  chips,  etc., 
can  possibly  get  into  them  to  clog  and  injure  the- 
chuck.  When  the  rack  is  taken  out,  especiidlv  from 
the  fore-jaw,  it  makes  a  sujierior  independent  jaw- 
chuck,  niakinir  two  chucks  in  one.     See  Cliiirk. 

HOSE  TROUGH.  The  hnsc-trough  is  a  small  wood- 
en channel,  in  wliirh  is  placed  a  linen  b.-ig  termed 
the  jKiirdt  r./iiiKr ,  tilled  with  ]iowd(T,  to  lire  the  charge. 
The  bag  should  be  of  <-lose  texture,  and  well  sewed- 
The.s"  troughs  are  made  li  in.  square  in  the  clear. 
The  four  pieces  of  which  they  are  composed,  the  sill, 
sides,  and  top,  or  cover,  are  from  |  to  ^  in,  each  in 
thickness.  A  trough  shoidd  penetrate  the  powder- 
case  about  4  in.,  and  sb.oidd  exactly  fit  the  opening 
left  for  it.     It  is  fastened  to  the  floor  of  the  branch 


HOSPITAL. 


55 


KOSPITAI. 


tiy  niiils,  tliroiif;Ii  the  si 
driven  ti)  riceivc  lliciii. 

troiii;li  lire  cfiiiliiicd  by  pirUcis  In  prcvrnl  it.  I)cin;; 
(lisliirhcil.  'I'lic  liilVcTciil  li'ii;r||is  of  llic  Irouuli 
sliDiilcl  he  cut  lo  til  t-xaclly.  Kacli  pcirliiiii  nf  the 
Irou^rli  sliuuld  liiivc  i(s  cdvi-r  well  lilti-d  iind  scciiri-d 
Willi  one  |)cir  only,  in  order  tliiil  il  nmy  rciidily  he  rc- 
iiiovimI  lo  iiilrodiice  tlio  powdcr-liosc"  The  Irougli 
is  sai<l  to  tiiiil<e  nil  eltiow  wlicii  it  clmi-ges  its  direc- 
tion. Tlie  ))ic(i-s  foniiiiin  "n  elbow  slioiild  be  solid- 
ly yet  Biiiiply  coiuieclcd.  Wlieii  severiil  mines  are 
to  be  fired  at  llie  s;mie  uiiiiiu-iii,  it  is  necesMary  so  to 


proportion  llie  trains  to  explode  them,  that,  startinir  , 
from  the  same  point,  the  distances  in  time  from  that 
point  to  the  charges  may  be  all  equal.     Tlie  follow- 
ing cases  show  the  manner  of  obtaining  this  result 


whicii  enter  small  pickets    try),  and  perfectly  tight,     in  rcgaid  to  the  walls, 
.Somelimes  the  sides  of  the    tiiere  are  dilferences  of  ()|)inion,    but   it   is   proba- 
ble that  a  plastering  of  mortar  over  juths,  white- 
washed with  milk  of  lime,  is  the  best,  on  account  of 
ils  absorbing  power,  noxious  gases  lieing  undoubt- 
edly disposi-il  of  ill  Ibis  way  by  oxidation  williin  the 
porous  spaces.    A  plan  of  iiosi,;tal  was  nol   unusual 
la  the  armies  during  the  late  War  of   the  Kehellion 
in  America,  in  which  Ihe  w.irds  or  pavilions  were 
disposed  in  a  radiating  form  around  a  circular  court, 
from  10(1  lo  !.')(»  feet  in  diameier.  according  to  the 
size  of  tlie  bospilal.    A  plan  of  Kicks  Hospital  near 
Baltimore.  .Md.,  issonie- 
liiiies  given  as  a  model. 
This  has  a  mess  dining- 
room  in  one  of  the  radi- 
ating buildings,   ralher 
larger  than  tlie  others, 
and  oflices  and  other  ad- 
iiiiiiistralive     buildings- 
in  the  court.      A  better 
plan  was  carried  out   in 
the    hospital    at    Point 
Lookout.  .Md..  in  which 
the  Administration    A- 
partments,   Dispensary, 
JIcss- rooms,   and   Sur- 
geons'    Quarters    were 
placed  in  a  large  build- 
ing occupying  a  site  a- 
mong  the    other  radia- 
lingliuildings.    The  ad- 
vantage is  apparent  in 
the  open  court   that   is 
unobstructed  in  res^ard 
to  currents  of  air.  and  in 
the   great    cheerfulness 
of     such    arrangement, 
whicli  admits  of  a  free 
view  from  one  ward  to 
all  the  others,  allowingthe  convalescent  patients  who 
may  be  sitting  in  tlieir  respective  porticoes  to  greet 


tlorton  Lfltlie-rhuck. 


each  other;    for  wounded  and  sick  soldiers,  wlien 
they  are  able  to  be  so,  are  a  very  social  fraternity. 


For  two  charges  place  a  trough  on  the  shortest  line  The  central  court  can  then  be  laid  out  in  plats  of  gras.s 
from  the  one  to  the  other,  mark  the  center  of  it,  and  |  and  flower-beds,  in  the  care  of  which  the  pat'lents 
let  the  principal  trough  join  it  at  that  point.  For  take  great  pleasure  during  their  often  Ioul' contine- 
three  charges  connect,  as  above,  the  two  which  are  nient  and  absence  from  faniily.  The  plan  lif  the  Lin- 
nearest.  Let  a  trough  lead  from  the  middle  point  i  coin  Hospital  at  Washington  was  the  arrangement 
of  this  to  the  third  charge  ;  bisect  the  whole  length  of  the  wards  in  the  form  of  an  isosceles  triangfe,  they 
of  trough  lietween  this  third  charge  and  either  of  the  1  being  placed  en  e^/ielon,  \vith  the  base  of  the  triangle 
others  ;  then  let  the  principal  trough  be  joined  to  I  being  left  open.  The  triangular  space  between  t1ie 
this  last  point.  For  four  charges  first  connect  them  i  wards  was  occupied  by  the"  various  Administration 
two  and  two,  then  join  the  central  points  and  pro-    Buildings. 

ceed  as  above.  The  elbows  of  a  trough  impede  the  In  England  there  are  several  grades  of  hospitals, 
communication  of  the  lire,  for  whiciran  allowance  The  smallest  is  the  Regimental  Hospital,  under  the 
must  be  made  when  proportioning  the  trains,  each  Medical  Officers  of  the  Regiment :  next,  there  is  the 
elbow  being  valued  at  3  in.  Square  elbows  impede  Divisional  Hospital,  presided  over  by  Staff  Medical 
somewhat  more  than  oblique  ones.  Officers,  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  Corps  in  the  Divi- 

HOSPITAL.— The  principles  of  hospital  construe-  sion :  and,  lastly,  there  is  the  General  Hospital,  ap- 
tionwere  pointed  out  by  a  Commission  of  the  French  I  plicable  to  the  whole  force.  In  these  hospitals  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1778.  and  improved  in  sev-  i  -Medical  Officers  are  responsible  directly  to  the  Sec- 
eral  details  by  Miss  Nightingale.  Galton.  and  others,  retary  of  State  for  War  for  all  purely  medical  func- 
and  in  the  late  American  and  Franco-German  wars.  !  tions".  With  regard  to  discipline,  inspections,  and 
The  general  principles  maybe  gathered  from  the  ,  other  military  dtnies, the  principal  ;>Iedical  Officer  is 
following  directions.  The  most  important  part  of  a  ,  responsible  to  the  Commandant  of  the  Regiment  or 
hospital  is  the  ward ;   that  is,  the  special  apartment.  I  Division,  who  in  his  turn  is  answerable  tothe  Gen- 


or  system  of  apartments,  for  the  reception  and  care 
of  the  patients.  It  sliould,  if  large,  be  arranged  in 
separate  pavilions  of  one,  or  at  most  not  more  than 
two  stories.  These  buildings  should  be  about  2o 
feet  wide,  14  feet  high,  and  of  a  length  allowing  not 
less  than  100  square-feet  per  bed.  In  warm  climates 
the  height  should   be  greater,  and  also  the  floor- 


eral-in-Chief  for  the  state  of  the  hospitals  iu  his 
command.  Soldiers  while  in  hospital  are  subjected 
to  a  stoppage  of  7d.  a  day  from  their  pay.  unless  in 
hospital  on  accoimt  of  wounds  received  in  actifm  or 
on  service  in  the  field :  but  their  whole  pay  is  stopjied 
if  detention  in  hospital  be  certified  to  have  become 
necessary  from  their  own  misconduct.     There  are 


space,  allowing  at  least  130  square-feet  per  bed.  No  I  some  large  Military  Hospitals  at  home,  such  as  Net- 
one  ward  should  contain  more  than  33  beds.  The  ley.  Fort"  Pitt,  for"  lunatic  soldiers.  Woolwich,  etc. 
windows  should  be  opposite,  reaching  from  3  feet  i  In  the  French  Army  the  service  of  the  Field  Hos- 
above  the  floor  to  one  foot  from  the  ceiling,  and  oc-  pitals  forms  part  of  the  intendance  of  the  Army,  the 
cupy  (Uie-lhird  of  the  wall-space.  The  fioors  should  Medical  Officers  in  charge  being  under  the  supreme 
be  of  hard  pine  or  oak  (Georgia  pine  in  this  coun- ,  control  of  the  Intendaut-generaT. 


HOSPITALEKS. 


56 


HOSFODAB. 


HOSPITALERS.— Cliaritablf  brntherlioods  fouiulecl 
at  variiius  times  and  in  iliffcrcnl  countries  for  the  care 
of  the  sick  in  hospitals.  The  vow  to  devote  them- 
selves to  tliis  work  of  mercy  is,  iu  all  these  brotlier- 
hoods,  superadded  to  the  ordinary  vows  of  poverty, 
chastity,  and  oliedience,  which  are  common  to  all 
the  reliiiious  orders  in  the  Church  of  Rome.  One  of 
the  earliest  recorded  instances  of  a  hospital  served 
hy  such  a  brotherliood  is  that  of  Constance  in  the 
13th  century.  The  Knights  of  St.  John,  of  Jeru.sa- 
lem.  as  also  the  Teutonic  Kniyhts  were  originally 
Hospitalers.  The  Hospitalers  of  Our  Lady  of  Chris- 
tian Charity  were  founded  near  Chalons  iu  the  end 
of  the  13th  century  by  Guy  de  .Joinville ;  a  smaller 
body  at  Paris  in  1294":  anil  the  Hospitalers  of  Our 
Lady  Delia  Scala  about  the  same  time  at  Siena.  The 
historj-  of  the  Brethren  of  Mercy,  founded  by  St. 
John  of  God,  will  lie  found  interesting.  There  are 
manv  other  local  institutes  or  congregations,  all  of 
which,  however,  recognize  the  same  general  rules, 
and  follow  the  same  general  organization. 

HOSPITAL  FLAG,— A  flag  used  ,to  indicate  the  lo- 
cation of  a  hospital  or  ambulance.  These  flags  iu 
the  United  States  Army  are  as  follows :  For  general 
hospitals,  yellow  bunting  9  by  5  ft.,  with  the  letter 
H,  24  in.  long,  of  green  bunting,  in  center.  For  post 
and  field  hospitals,  yellow  bunting  (5  l)y  4  ft.,  with 
letter  H,  24  in.  long,  of  green  bunting,  in  center.  For 
amliulance  and  guidons  to  mark  the  way  to  fleld  lios- 
pitals,  yellow  l)unting.  14  by  28  in.,  witli  a  border,  1 
in.  deep,  of  "jreen. 

HOSPITAL  FOR  INSANE  SOLDIERS.— The  Insane 
of  the  military  service  are  sent  by  Department  Com- 
manders, under  proper  escort,  to  Wasliiugton,  where 
the  patients  are  reported  to  the  Adjutant  General  of 
the  Army  to  procure  the  order  of  the  Secretary  of 
War,  The  application  for  admission  to  the  Hospi- 
tal should  be  forwarded  in  time  to  reach  the  Adjut- 
ant General  at  least  one  day  before  the  arrival  of  the 
patient  iu  Washington.  The  application  sets  forth 
a  full  description  o^  the  patient,  and  is  accompanied 
by  a  certificate  from  a  jNIedical  Officer  as  to  duration 
of  insanity,  whether  developed  before  enlistment  or 
employment  iu  the  military  service,  and.  if  possible, 
a  diagnosis  of  the  case.  If  the  patient  l)c  a  soldier, 
his  descriptive  list  and  clothing  account  is  also  fur- 
nished. On  the  departure  of  the  patient  from  his 
station,  the  Commanding  Officer  gives  stich  orders 
to  the  person  in  charge  as  will  provide  for  the  trans- 
portation of  the  necessary  attendance  to  the  Institu- 
tion and  back  again  to  their  posts,  and  for  their  sub- 
sistence, either  in  kind  or  bj-  commutation,  during 
their  absence.  To  obtain  the  release  of  a  patient 
when  cured,  or  his  delivery  to  the  care  of  friends, 
application  is  made  to  the  Adjutant  General,  accom- 
panied by  the  recommendation  of  the  Superintend- 
ent of  the  Hospital.  After  si  soldier  has,  in  the  usual 
manner,  been  reported  a  fit  subject  for  admission  to 
the  Government  Hospital  for  tjie  Insane,  and  is  or- 
dered to  l)e  sent  to  Washington,  his  Company  Com- 
niandi-r  forwards,  with  his  "  descriptive  list,"  cer- 
tificates of  disability  made  out  and  signed  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  man  is  not  discharged  at  the 
post,  nor  is  the  order  given  for  his  discharge  by  the 
Department  Commander,  but  his  discharge  is  order- 
ed from  tlie  Adjutant  General's  Office,  after  his  ar- 
riv:d  at  llie  Itosjiilal. 

HOSPITAL  FUND.  The  saving  arising  from  an  eco- 
nomical use  of  the  rations  of  the  sick  and  attendants  in 
a  hos])ital  c<mstitute  the  Hospital  F\md.  The  amount 
ispaidovertothesenior>Ic<lical  Officer  at  the]stat ion. 
and  is  accounted  for  and  expended  by  him  exchis- 
ively  for  the  benefit  of  the  men  in  the  hospital,  in 
the  purchase  of  such  articles  of  diet,  comfort,  or  con- 
venience as  may  be  required,  according  to  instruc- 
tions received  from  the  Surgeon  (ieneral. 

HOSPITAL  SHIPS.  -Ships  fitted  out  as  hospitals  in 
all  c\pcilil;oiis  'i.-yond  the  sea,  for  the  care  of  the 
sick  and  wounded  :  they  have  liccn  found  invaluable 
iu  many  foreign  expeditions.   In  China, in  18G0,four 


were  fitted  out,  and  ships  for  this  purpose  formed 
part  of  the  expedition  to  the  (jold  Coast  in  1874. 
They  serve  either  as  stationary  hospitals  or,  if  sick 
accumulate,  can  sail  home  to  the  nearest  station,  dis- 
charse,  and  return  to  fill  aiiain. 

HOSPITAL  STEWARD.— A  Non-commissioned  Otfl. 
cerof  tlie  (ieneral  StatT  whose  duty  consists  in  making 
tip  prescriptions,  administering  medicines,  and  in  a 
general  supervision  of  the  sick,  under  the  instruc- 
tions of  some  Army  Medical  Officer,    In  the  L'niled- 


States  Army,  there  is  one  Hospital  Steward  for  each 
millitary  post,  and  the  Secretary  of  War  may  appoint 
from  the  enlisted  men  of  the  Army,  or  cause  to  lie 
enlisted,  as  man}' Hospital  Stewards,  as  the  service 
may  require,  Thej'  are  graded  as  1st,  2ud,  and  Srd 
class,  are  permanent!}' attached  to  the^Medical  Corps, 
under  such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  War  may 
prescribe.  The  chevron  worn  by  the  Hospital  Stew- 
ards is  shown  iu  the  drawing.  The  senior  Medi- 
cal Officer  of  a  hospital  requiring  a  Steward  may  re- 
commend a  competent  Xon-commissioned  Officer  or 
soldier  to  be  appointed,  which  recommendation  the 
Commanding  Officer  forwards  to  the  Adjutant  Gen- 
eral of  the  Army,  with|his  remarks  thereon,  and  with 
the  remarks  of  the  Company  Commander.  Antl,  as 
the  object  of  these  more  permanent  apiioiirtnients  is 
to  procure  the  services  of  a  more  competent  body  of 
Hospital  Stewards,  no  soldier  nor  citizen  must  be 
recommended  for  appointment  who  is  not  /t'limrn  to 
be  temperate, 'honest,  and  in  every  way  reliable,  as 
well  as  sufficiently  intelligent,  and  skilled  in  Pharm- 
acy, for  the  proper  discharge  of  the  responsible  duties 
likely  to  be  devolved  upon  him. 

HOSPITAL  TENT.— A  large  tent  used  for  liospital 
purposes.  It  is  usuall}' made  of  heavj' cotton-duck. 
In  the  United  States  service  it  is  14  feet  long.  1.5  feet 
wide,  and  I.')  feet  high  (center);  with  a  wall  4i  feet 
high,  and  aXv  of  appropriate  size.  The  ridge-pole 
is  made  into  two  sections,  and  measures  14  feet  when 
joined.  This  tent  accommodates  from  8  to  10  per- 
sons conifiirtalily. 

HOSPITAL  WABON.— .V  carriage  on  four  wheels, 
having  four  or  six  springs,  used  for  carrying  the 
wotmded  of  an  Army.  The  Prussian  hospital  wag- 
ons are  fitted  up  with  coml)ination  ca.ses,  in  which 
are  packed  everything  supposed  to  be  ue('essary  in 
a  hospital  for  woimded,  including  bandages,  splints, 
drugs  and  amesthetics,  blankets,  and  an  amputaling- 
table,  besides  an  assortment  of  tags,  on  one  of  which 
the  surgeon  writes  his  orders  as  to  what  is  to  be 
done  in  each  case,  attaches  it  to  the  patient,  and 
leaves  him  to  the  care  of  others.  Five  ambulances, 
three  sujiply-wagons  (carrying  food,  bedding,  and 
tents),  and  two  Surgeons'  wagons  constitute  a  lios- 
pital-train  for  a  division,  and  will  accommodate  200 
|)atients.  rc(|uiring  13  Surgeons  and  74  men  for  their 
care. 

HOSPODAR.—  A  Slavonic  title  once  very  commonly 
given  to  the  Governors  of  Moldavia  and  Walachia, 
whereas  the  I'rincc  of  Kouniania  is  now  known  un- 
der the  native  Homani<'  title  of  Dnmiiii.  Another 
Slav<inic  term.  ll''7V)r<«/,  was  also  given  to  the  Hos- 
podar,  the  term  NVojcwod  signifying  the  right  and 
dignity  of  leading  flic  Army  (being  thus  identical 
with  IJukeJ, while  tlieNospodar  (Uospodar.  Gospod, 


HOSTAGE. 


57 


HCTCHKISS  MAGAZINE  GUN. 


Gospiidiii.  ill  I  111-  various  SliiVDiiic  iliulrrts;  inciiiis 
simply,  Master  CDoiiiiinisj.  KorniiTly,  (hi-  I/illiiiii- 
niiiii  I'rinces  were  likewise  riillcd  J/iin/iniliirM.  iiwil  llic 
I'olisli  Kiiiiis.dowii  to  the  lime  of  Soliieski.  lissiimed 
this  title  ill  their  diploiiiiilic  iie;ic)liiitions  with  Hiis- 
niii.  H'lKiidiir  (Huler.  Moiiareh)  is  even  now  the  title 
of  the  Kiiiperor  of  Kussiu,  and  in  couvtrsutiou  si;:- 

Jlilics   MiisliT. 

HOSTAGE.— A  person  areepted  as  a  jiU'iljie  for  the 
lierfiiriiiaiiee  of  eouditions.  When  a  town  capilu- 
lales,  vii-lors  and  van(|iiished  usually  K've  into  the 
custody,  one  of  the  other,  several  otheers,  us  |)ledf;es 
that  I'aeli  party  will  duly  earry  out  the  terms  sti])!!- 
lated.  Wlieii  the  terms  are  fultilled.  the  h(istai;es 
are  exrhanned  :  but  if  tlu'  terms  be  evaded,  the  op- 
])osite  side  holds  the  risjlit  to  jiut  to  death,  or  other- 
wise luiiiish,  the  hostages  in  its  possession.  It  is 
needless,  however,  to  aihl  that,  in  modern  civilized 
warfare,  the  circumstances  would  have  to  be  very 
remarkable  indeed  to  be  held  to  .justify  so  cruel  a 
lueasure  as  the  execution  of  a  lio.stage. 

HOSTILITIES.  A  rupture  between  the  natives  of 
dilVereul  countries.  The  tirst  hostile  deed  that  is 
coinmilled  liy  either  party  is  considered  the  com- 
ineiicemeut  of  liostilities.  Between  n.'itives.  the  rtrst 
act  of  hostility  pi'esup]ioscs  a  drcl.Mr.it inn  of  war. 

HOTCHKISS  BREECH  LOADING  MOUNTAIN  RIFLE. 
■ — This  guu,  haviug  been  devis<-d  especially  with  re- 
ference to  the  niountain  service,  is  made  as  light  as 
praclicalile.  It  weighs  only  IKi.d  lbs.,  and  one  man 
is  alile  to  place  it  upon  the  back  of  a  mule.  The 
weight  of  the  carriage  being  but  i'ii)  lbs.,  the  pack- 
ing, unpacking,  and  mounting  of  the  gun  and  its 
carriage  require  only  two  men.  For  transportation 
the  material  is  distributed  as  follows:  One  mule  car- 
ries the  piece  and  tw'o  small  chests  <ontainiiig  a(!ces- 
sories  ;  another  mule  carries 
the  carriage  and  shaft,  and 
others  carry  the  ammunition- 
chests.  The  construction  of 
tlic  Hotchkiss  gun  is  based 
u])on  the  use  of  a  metallic 
cartridge,  by  which  the  ob- 
turation of  the  breech  is  ac- 
complished. Tlie  extraction 
of  t  he  cartridge-case  is  effect- 
ed automatically  by  the  open- 
ing of  the  breech.  The  gun 
is  made  of  Wliitworth  steel,  compressed  in  tlie  tluid 
state.  The  mechanism  of  the  lireech  consists  simply 
of  a  prismatic  liolt,  with  a  cam,  entering  a  cavity  re- 
cessed in  the  breech.  It  is  operated  by  a  lever  with 
hanrlles.  by  which  the  bolt  is  withdrawn,  or  the  re- 
verse. As  "metallic  cartridges  are  employed,  a  close  tit 
of  the  breech-block  is  unnecessary,  and  the  bolt  is 
adiusted  freely  to  its  slot,  which  is  an  advantage  over 
other  breech-loading  systems,  which  recpiire  great 
liicety  in  the  tit  of  the  breecli-mcchanism  in  order  to 
insure  a  perfect  obturation.  The  cartridge-extractor 
is  a  simple  prismatic  piece  of  metal,  bearing  at  its 
forward  extremity  a  hook;  it  is  guided  in  a  cavity 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  breech,  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  piece ;  on  its  lower  face  is  fitted  a  tenon,  wliicli 
slides  in  a  groove  cut  in  the  upper  face  of  the  breech- 
block. The  groove  is  straight  on  the  sides  towards 
the  handle,  but  curved  at  the  other  extremity— to.  | 
wards  the  opening  for  charging — so  that  in  withdraw- 
ing the  breech-block  the  tenon  of  the  extractor  slides 
for  a  time  in  the  straight  part  of  the  groove,  but  as  I 
soon  as  the  lilock  is  so  far  withdrawn  that  the  open-  j 
ing  for  charging  comes  against  the  face  of  the 
chamlier  the  tenon  becomes  engaged  in  the  inclined 
portion  of  groove,  and  is  suddenly  drawn  liackwards, 
by  which  motion  the  empty  case  is  thrown  out  of 
the  gun.  The  movement  of  the  breech-block  is  ar- 
rested by  a  stop-screw  sliding  in  the  recess  upon  the 
upper  fiice  of  the  block.  The  ammunition  is  com- 
posed of  a  inetallic  case  which  contains  the  powder, 
and  is  united  to  the  projectile — an  explosive  shell — 
by  •'choking,"    in   the  same  maimer  as  the  cart- 


ridges for  modern  small-arms.  The  cartridge  is  of 
brass;  the  hiail  being  strengthened  by  cup-shiipirl 
reinforces.  It  is  not  primed,  l>ut  is  ignited  by  the 
ordinary  friction  primer.  In  the  base  of  the  cart- 
ridge is  a  valve  formed  liy  the  cup  reinforces;  the 
gas  from  the  primer  opens  the  valve,  whirli  closes 
automatically,  after  the  ignition  of  the  charge,  by 
the  pressure  of  the  gas  inside,  thereby  preventing 
the  escape  of  gas  through  the  vent.  The  cartridge 
can  be  recharged,  on  an  average  about  eight  times. 
The  projectile  is  of  a  cylindro-ogival  form,  about  3^ 
calibers  in  length;  it  licing  fiirnisheil  with  a  mid- 
dle band  of  a  soft  brass,  which  takes  the  rilling, 
rpon  the  cast-iron  body  of  the  prfijeclile  are  lunied 
a  number  ot  grooves,  of  little  depth  and  width,  be. 
tween  which  are  narrow  and  shar)>  ridges.  The 
band  covers  this  portion  of  the  ))rojeetile.  and  at  the 
inoment  of  firing  the  pressure  of  the  gas  which  siir- 
soiinds  the  iirojectile  in  the  chamber  molds  exactly 
upon  the  brass  the  corresponding  grooves  and  ridge.* 
that  are  on  the  cast-iron.  This  method  of  banding 
olTers  the  advantage  of  securing  a  jjcrfect  iidlierence 
between  the  brass  band  and  the  projectile,  and  also 
liermits  regiilatiiiir  with  great  nicety  the  forcing 
wlieieb}'  the  friction  necessary  to  produce  rotation 
may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  band  of  brass 
obviaic?  the  fouling  of  the  bore.  The  piece  can  be 
tireii  a  great  many  times  witlioul  any  necessity  for 
using  the  spoiige.  ,  The  shells  are  fitted  with  percu-s- 
sionfuscs  of  the  ilotchkiss  pattern.  Tlie  following 
are  the  principal  w'cights  and  dimensions : 

t'aliber  l.Go  inches. 

Length  of  bore 24.72  calibers. 

Weight  of   piece    IKi.tiO  pounds. 

AVeight  of  carriage  220.00  pounds. 

Weight  of  cartridge  complete  2  pounds  10  oz. 

ElTeclive  range  4.200  yards. 

Number  of  helicoidal  grooves  10 

Twist  (to  the  riglit)  49.21  inches 

Depth  of  ffrooves  (uniform  ) 0.12  inches 

HOTCHKISS  MAGAZINE  GUN.— This  gun.  invent- 
ed by  Jlr.  B.  B.  Ilotchkiss,  an  American,  lately  re- 
siding in  Paris,  was  tirst  brought  to  this  country  by 
him  in  the  spring  of  187G,  and  exhibited  at  the  Cen- 
tennial, at  Philadelphia.  It  was  found  necessary  to 
make  many  changes  in  the  arm  originally  introduced 
by  Mr.  ilotchkiss,  and  for  these  improvements  pat- 
ents have  since  been  granted.  The  gun  thus  im- 
jiroved  has  been  approved  by  two  Boards  of  ( llticers, 
apjiointed  by  the  Chief  of  Ordnance  of  the  -Vrmy, 
for  the  purpose  of  examining  small-arms.  As  now 
offered,  it  was  a  second  time  recommended  for  trial 
in  the  hands  of  the  troops  by  the  Ordnance  Board  of 
1881-82.  It  embodies  the  experience  of  six  years' 
manufacturing. and  the  valuable  suggestions  of  many 
experienced  officers  who  have  used  it  in  the  tield. 
It  is  a  most  simple  and  solid  repeating-gun,  capable 
of  doing  good  service  under  the  most  disadvauta- 
geous  circumstances.  The  drawing  shows  the  work- 
ing parts,  with  nomenclature,  of  the  latest  improved 
model  of  1883. 

The  operation  of  tlie  gun  is  very  simple.  1.  To 
open  the  breech-bolt  :  llold  the  slock  lirmly  with 
the  left  hand  a  little  in  front  of  tiic  receiver:  and 
with  the  right  hand  niise  the  handle,  and  draw  baik 
the  bolt,  making  but  one  motion.  2.  Close  the  bolt 
by  an  inverse  motion.  This  operation  cocks  the 
piece.  3.  To  cock  the  piece  without  withdrawing 
the  bolt :  Raise  the  handle  as  before,  and  immedi- 
ately turn  it  down.  4.  To  load  the  magazine  :  Raise 
the  handle,  and  draw  back  the  bolt.  Take  a  cart- 
ridge between  the  thumb  and  middle  finger,  placing 
the  point  of  the  fore-hnger  on  the  bullet ;  insert  the 
head  of  the  cartridge  in  the  receiver,  just  in^ront  of 
the  point  at  which  it  narrows  down,  and  press  it 
back  in  the  magazine  until  a  distant  click— the  head 
jiassing  the  cartridge-stop — is  heard.  Repeat  the 
operation  until  five  cartridges  have  been  inserted. 
.\notlier  may  then  be  placed  in  the  chamber. 

The  magazine  may  be  unloaded  in  two  wavs:- 


HOTCHKISS  MAGAZINE  Onn. 


58 


flOTCHKISS  MAGAZINE  GLN. 


1.  Raise  the  handle,  and  draw  back  the  bolt:  the 
cartridge  will  be  then  thrown  out.  Holding  the 
muzzle  of  the  arm  well  up,  push  forward  the  bolt 
(d»  not  turn  it  down),  the  tluimb  of  the  right  hand 
pusliing  the  knob  of  tlie  cockiug-picce,  and  pull  the 
trigger.  Draw  back  the  bolt  by  the  knob  of  the 
cooking-piece  :  and  the  cartridge  will  be  pushed  for- 
ward, and  remain  in  the  receiver.  Remove  the  cart- 
ridge, and  proceed  as  before.  3.  Rai.se  the  handle  ; 
place  the  wrist  of  the  right  hand  against  the  handle 
of  the  lock-tube,  the  thumb  being  extended  across 


NOMEMCL.\TURE. 

1.  Receiver. 

2.  Guard-plate. 

3.  Guard-plate  Screw  (rear). 

4.  Guard-plate  Screw  (froDl). 

5.  Side-screws  (2). 
0.  Cockiug-piece. 
T.  Locking-tube. 
R  Bolt-head. 
9.  Firing-pin. 

10.  Firing-pin  Screw. 

11.  Extractor. 

12.  Main-epring. 
1.3.  Bolt-lock. 

14.  Bolt-lock  Spring. 

15.  Bolt-l'>ck  Spring  Screw. 

16.  Magazine  Cut-off. 

17.  Magazine  Cut-off  Spring. 

18.  JIagazine  Cut-off  Spring  Screw. 

19.  Magazine  Tube. 

20.  Magazine  Spring. 

21.  jSlagazine  Nut. 

22.  Cartridge  Follower. 
•ii.  Cartridge-stop. 

24.  Cartridge-stop  Screw. 
■io.  Cartridge-stop  Roller. 

25.  Cartridge-stop  Stop-pin. 

27.  Trigger. 

28.  Trigger-screw. 

29.  Upper  Tang-screw. 

30.  Butt-plate. 

31.  Butt-plate  Screws  (2). 


;  It   Will 
piv,.t. 


the  bolt  in  front  (if  the  liaiidle,  and  the  fore-tinger 
resting  upon  the  barrel.  Draw  back  the  bolt  (kcep- 
inL'  the  hand  in  the  same  position)  by  pressing  the 
back  of  tile  tliiinib  near  the  wrist  against  the  front 
of  the  handle:  remove  the  cartridge  with  the  lluimb 
and  lingers,  whicli  are  thus  at  liberty  to  receive  it. 
Push  forward  the  bolt  (do  not  turn"it  down),  and  !  and  turning 


pull  the  trigger.  Withdraw  the  bolt  with  the  back 
of  the  thumb  as  before,  and  stop  the  cartridge  com- 
ing from  the  magazine  with  the  fore  or  inde.x  finger. 
Remove  the  cartridge,  and  proceed  as  before  until 
the  magazine  is  exhausted. 

Tlie  magazine  cut-off  is  found  on  the  right  of  the 
piece,  just  in  the  rear  of  the  bolt-handle.  It  serves 
to  lock  the  magazine  so  that  the  arm  may  be  used  as 
a  single  loader  while  the  contents  of  the  magazine 
are  held  in  reserve.  When  the  thimib-piece  is  pushed 
forward,  however,  the  arrangement  of  the  meclianism 
is  such  that  no  cartridges  can 
escape  from  tlie  magazine  to 
the  chamber,  and  tlie  weapon 
is  practically  a  single  loader. 
The  bolt-lock  is  placed  on  the 
left  side  of  the  receiver,  oppo- 
site the  magazine  cut-off,  and 
serves  at  the  same  time  to  lock 
the  bolt  and  the  trigger  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  bolt  cannot 
be  turned  or  drawn  back,  nor 
the  arm  fired.  To  lock  the  bolt 
and  trigger  push  forward  the 
thumb-piece  of  the  liolt-lock; 
this  can  only  be  done  when 
the  bolt  is  clo.sed  and  the  gun 
cocked.  To  unlock  the  bolt, 
push  back  the  thumb-piece  of 
the  bolt-lock. 

To  dismount   the  gun  : — 1. 
Take  out  the  bolt.  To  do  this, 
raise  the  handle, and  draw  back 
the  boit  until  the  forward  end 
of  the  cocking-piece  just  clears 
the   rear  end  of  the  receiver; 
then  after  letting  go  the  han- 
dle, take  hold  of  the  cocking- 
piece,  and  turn  it  down  to  the 
right  until  the  projection  on 
the  bolt-head  leaves  the  groove 
under    the   front  end   of   the 
locking-tube.     The  latter  may 
then  be  drawn  out  at  the  rear, 
and  the  bolt-head  removed  at 
the  front  of  the  receiver.     To 
return  the  bolt,  the  head  must 
be  inserted  from  the  front,  and 
the  other  part  from  the  rear. 
2.  Take  off  the  butt-plate,  by 
removing   the   two  butt-plate 
screws.    3.  Take  out  the  mag- 
azine nut.  4.  Take  out  the  ma- 
gazine spring  and  follower.  .5, 
Take  out   all  the  guard  side- 
screws.  6.  Take  out  the  guard- 
screws  and   the    upper    tang- 
crew.     7.  Take  off  the  butt- 
;|ock,  by  drawing  it  backward 
from  between  the  guard  and 
$  u])per  tang,  and  off  from  the 
S  magazine  tube.     8.  Take  out 
^  the  guard.     9.  Take  out  the 
^  liolt-lock  anil  magazine  cut-ofT 
springs.     It   will   aid   persons 
unaciiuaintcd    with    the    gun, 
when  endeavoring  to  replace 
these  parts,  to  remember  that 
the  Hat  sides  of  tlie  springs  lie 
next    the   receiver,     1(1.   Take 
out  the  boll-lock  and  magazine 
cut-olT.     While  these  parts  re- 
semble cacli  other  exteriorly, 
be   observed  that  the   bolt-lock  has   a  short 
and    is  assembled  on  the  right    of  Ihe  arm, 
while  the  magazine  ciit-olT  has  a  much  longer  pivot, 
and   is   assembled  on    the  left.       11.    Take  out   the 
magazine  tube.     This  is  accomplished  liy  drawing 
back  the  masrazine  lube  from  its  seat  in  the  frame, 
it  slightly  to  the  right,  so  that  it  may 


a 


HOTCHKI88  PEKCUSSION  FUSE 


59 


H0TCHKI88  EEVOLVIHO  CANNON. 


pass  llic  trifippr.     12.  Take  mil  the  \vipin}:-rod.     18.  | 
Take  "f  tlic  Ijiimls.    14.   Itcinovc  the  tip-stock.    Tlii.s  i 
in  licst  (lone  by  sej)araliiii;  tlic  tip-stock,  or  for(-nriii,  j 
from  the  liarrcl  ;   first  at  tlic  forward  end  of  tlic  tip-  [ 
stock,  .sc|iiiraliiiLC  tlimi  uiilil  tlic  stud  on  the  receiver 
i.s  willidrawii  from  the  slot  in  tljc  rear  end  of  the  ti]i- 
Rlock.      \r>.   Take  out  the   IriLC^'cr.    by   removiiii;   tile 
tiinner-screw.     1(!.  Take  oil' the  barrel.     This  should 
be  altempted  only  by  ])ersoiis  |irovidcd  with  proper 
tools,  as  the  barrel  and  receiver  are  very  lirmly  as- 
soiiiblcd  tofjether.     17.  The  cartrid;xi-sto)i  may  be 
dismounted  from  IIk^  nuard.  by  unscrewing  the  cart- 
ridijc-slop  screw,  and  driving  out,   from  the  left  to 
the  riiiht,  the  slop-pin. 

To  dismount  the  brccch-bolt  :  —  1.  Remove  the 
boll-head.  To  do  this,  hold  the  cockinir-piccc  firmly 
in  the  left  hand,  and  willi  the  rifjlit  turn  down  tlie 
lianilles  as  in  the  act  of  lockiiis;  tlic  bolt.  The  head 
will  Ihenslip  off.  2.  Turn  <iut  the  liring-pin  .screw. 
3.  Slip  the  bolt-head  partly  on  the  I'.rojcc'tinj;  end  of 
the  tirini;-pin,  and  use  it  as  awri'iich  to  unscrew  the 
jnii.  The  main-spriiiLC  may  then  be  removed.  4. 
Keniove  the  extractor  by  tappinir  gently  on  its  pro- 
jectini;  end  with  a  piece  of  wood.  To  assemble  pro- 
ceed in  the  inverse  order  of  Ihe  operations  given 
above.      See  Mnqasi m -qint . 

HOTCHKISS  PERCUSSION  FUSE.— This  fuse  con- 
sists of  a  metal  body,  A,  clos<'d  at  the  front  end  with 
a  screw  cap,  li.  It  has  a  conical  hole  in  the  rear, 
which  is  closed  with  a  lead  plug,  <'.  (the  safety-plugj, 
pressed  in  very  tightly,  so  that  llie  plug  iirojects  a 
iiltle  through  the  base  of  the  body-case,  toward  tlie 
inside.  The  plunger,  I),  is  composed  of  lead  cast 
into  a  brass  casing  to  strengthen  it,  and  to  prevent 
the  lead  being  upset  by  the  shock  of  discharge.  Two 
brass  wires,  /''.cast  into  Hie  lead  on  opposite  sides  of 
tiie  plunger,  liolil  it  suspended  in  the  case,  the  wires 
going  through  the  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  case, 
and  being  held  securely  in  position  by  the  safety- 
plug.  TIk'  ])luni:er  has  a  nijiple  cast  into  the  lead, 
ami  is  primed  with  an  ordinary  percussion-cap  ;  in 
its  axis  it  has  a  powder-chamber. 
"  O,  which   contains    the   igniting- 

charge.  The  operation  of  the  fuse 
is   thus  :     The  safety-iilug  is  dis- 
lodged backward  into  the  interior 
of  tlie  projectile  by  the  shock  of 
l-D  discharge  ;   the  wires  then  being 
not  held  so  tight  in  the  hole,  the  ! 
plunger  is  di.sengagedand  rests  on  : 
the  bottom  of  the  fuse-<:a8e,  and  j 
is  free  to  move  in  the  'ine  of  a.\is. 
When  the  flight  of  the  projectile 
is  suddenly  retarded  by  its  strik- 
ing iui  object,  the  ]ilunger.  in  con- 
seciuence  of  its  inertia,  is  driven 
forward,  and  the    primer   strikes 
against  the  screw-cap,  thus  igniting  the  powder  in 
tJie  channel,  and  so  tiring  the  bursting-charge  of  the 
]iroje(iile.      See  F'lsr. 

HOTCHKISS  PROJECTILES.— Projectiles  of  this  sys- 
tem, as  shown  in  the  drawing,  are  composed  of  three 
parts.  The  Iwdy.  15.  and  the  mii.  ('.  are  of  cast-iron, 
iuid  the  n'liy.  U,  of  lead.  The  ring  is 
locked  into  the  body  and  the  cup  by 
the  grooves  (b)  and  (c).  all  the  parts  be- 
ing thus  hehl  securely  together.  The  j 
acVion  of  the  charge  is  to  drive  the 
cup  forward,  thereby  expanding  the 
soft  metal  into  the  rilling  of  the  gun, 
and  at  the  same  time  liinding  the  lead 
so  that  it  caniKit  revolve  ujion  the  pro- 
jectile ;  this  last  is  assisted  by  a  few 
grooves  on  the  cast-iron  under  the 
lead.  The  amount  of  expansion  is 
controlled  liy  the  distance  tlie  cup  can 
move  before  coining  in  contact  with 
the  end  of  the  body.  All  those  projectiles  with 
which  time  fuses  arc  used  have  three  "longituilinal 
grooves  on  the  outside,  to  insure  the  passage  of  the 


flame  to  the  fuse.  The  ring,  being  placed  miidi 
nearer  the  <entcr  of  gravity  of  Ihe  projectile  ilian  if 
at  the  ba.se,  tends  to  steady  the  projectilr^  in  the  bore, 
and  iricnase  the  accuracy  of  tire.  A  ilotclikiss  pro- 
jectile, lately  introduced  for  brr^ech-loailing  guns.  iH 
of  cast-iron,  in  one  piici' ;  a  banri  of  soft  brass,  alioiit 
one  caliber  long,  is  forced  into  a  reciss  in  the  pro- 
jectile, situati'd  well  over  the  center  of  gravity  :  two 
longitudinal  grooves  prevent  the  banil  from  turning. 
Upon  till!  outside  of  the  band  is  cut  a  niimbiT  of 
saw-toolhed  grooves,  to  reduce  the  strain  due  to  com- 
pression of  the  brass  as  the  projectile  is  forced  into, 
the  bore.      See  Kj-jiii ntlinii  I'riijertHis»,ni\  l'r'ijrrl,itin. 

HOTCHKISS  REVOLVING  CANNON.  The  Holcli- 
kiss  revolving  cannon  caiinol  be  classed  with  mitrail- 
leuses in  Ihe  ordinary  sense  t,f  the  latter  tr-rm.  as 
explosive  shells  are  fired  with  the  forinir.  and  it  has 
a  range  equal  to  that  of  field-artillery.  The  .system  of 
this  gun  may  be  explained  as  follows  ;  Five" barrels, 
grfiuped  around  a  common  axis,  are  revolved  in 
front  of  a  solid  breech-block,  which  has  in  one  part 
an  opening  to  introduce  the  cartridges,  and  another 
opi'iiing  through  which  to  extraci  the  empty  shells, 
while  the  cartridges  are  fired  after  being  revolved 
and  while  motionless  in  frfnil  of  the  solid  portion  of 
the  breech.  Fig.  1.  The  exterior  aspect  of  this 
revolving  cannon  resembles  the  Galling  mitrailleuse, 
it  being,  on  the  other  hand,  entirely  different  in  its 
interior  mechanism.  The  system  is  composed  of 
two  distiiu't  jiarts,  viz.,  the  barrels  with  their  disks 
and  shaft,  and  the  frame  and  breech  containing  the 
mechanism.  The  live  barrels,  made  of  the  iinest 
oil-lemiiered  cast-steel,  are  mounted  around  a  com- 
mon axis,  between  two  disks,  on  a  central  shaft. 
The  series  of  barrels  are  in  this  way  placed  in  a  rec- 
tangular frame,  which  is  attached  to  the  breech,  the 
near  end  of  the  shaft  penetrating  the  same  to  receive 
the  rotary  motion  from  the  driving-gear.  Fig.  2. 
The  breech  of  the  revolving  cannon  is  composed  of 
a  solid  cast-iron  breech-block,  weighing  about  ;5Hfj 
lbs.  This  absorbs  the  greater  part  of  the  recoil.  It 
has  a  door  at  the  rear  end,  which  can  be  easily 
op<'iied,  so  that  the  nK'cIianism  is  freely  accessible, 
and  can,  if  necessary,  be  dismounted  and  ]iut  back 
into  its  place  in  a  few  minutes,  without  tlie  aid  of 
any  special  tools.  A  peculiar  feature  of  this  gun 
consists  in  the  barrels  remaining  «J(7/  during  the  dis- 
charge, so  that  there  is  no  movement  of  any  kind  to 
impede  the  accuracy  of  the  tire.  This  stop  or  lost 
motion  is  obtained  by  tlie  shaping  of  the  driving- 
worm,  which  is  so  constructed  that  the  inclined 
driving-thread  only  covers  half  its  circunifcrence, 
the  other  half  of  the  thread  being  straight.  The  ef- 
fect of  this  is  that  the  barrels  only  revolve  during 
half  a  revolution  of  the  worm,  and  stand  still  during 
the  other  half  revolution.  The  combination  of  the 
mechanism  is  so  arranged  that  the  loading,  tiring, 
and  extracting  takes  place  during  this  pause.  This 
feature  is  of  great  importance  for  the  accuracy  of 
tire  and  the  durability  of  the  system.  The  worm- 
shaft  projects  through  the  breech  on  the  right  side, 
and  has  a  crank  with  which  the  whole  system  is 
moved;  on  the  left  side  of  the  worm-shaft  a  small 
crank  is  attached,  by  which  the  loading  and  extrac- 
tiiui  of  the  cartridge-shells  are  effected  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  On  the  interior  face  of  the  left  side  of 
the  breech  a  cog-wheel  is  mounted,  with  two  hori- 
zontal racks,  the  one  being  placed  above  the  other 
under  this  cog-wheel,  and  parallel  to  tlie  axis  of  Ihe 
barrels,  so  that  in  moving  either  of  these  racks  tlie 
other  is  moved  by  the'  cog-wheel  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection. I'art  of  the  lower  rack  forms  a  vertical 
slot,  in  which  the  small  crank  on  the  left  side  of  the 
worm-shaft  works.  The  rotation  of  the  latter  con- 
seipiently  gives  an  alternating  and  opposite  move- 
ment to  the  two  racks,  so  that  while  the  one  is  going 
forward  the  other  moves  back,  and  reciprocally. 

The  under  rack  forms  the  extractor  ;  the  upper 
one  moves  a  piston  which  drives  the  cartridge  into 
the  barrels,  the  cartridge  being   placed   before  the 


HOTCHKISS  BEVOLVING  CANNON. 


60 


HOTCHKISS  REVOLVING  CANNON. 


piston,  in  the  trough  in  which  it  moves;  and  during  !  ridges  are  piled  one  upon  the  otlier,  the  opening  of 
the  time  the  barrels  are  motionless  it  is  introduced  the"  introduction-trough  is  closed  hy  a  little  door, 
into  the  one  standing  before  the  trougli.  The  cart-  ,  which  goes  down  by  the  weight  of  the  cartridges, 
ridge  is  not  "  driveifhome"  entirely,  but  its  head  is  '  the  tirsT  of  which  drop;*  into  the  trough,  and  then 
in  view  of  au  inclined  plane,  cut  into  the  metal  of  i  the  piston  in  moving  forward,  raises  the  same  door 


Fig.  1.     Side  Elevation. 

the  breech,  on  which  it  slides  when  it  is  moved  by  and  allows  no  more  cartridges  to  enter  until  at  the 
the  rotation  of  the  barrels.  This  completes  the  iii-  :  proper  time.  All  parts  of  the  mechanism  are  very 
troduction  of  the  cartridsre  into  its  chamber.  The  \  strong  and  durable,  and  hardly  exceed  in  number 
piston  itself  is  a  simple  cylinder  connected  with  the  |  those  of  an  ordinary  small-arm,  there  being,  besides 
rack,  and  running  in  a  slot  in  the  couducting-trough.  |  the  group  of  barrels,  thirteen  parts,  viz.  :— 1,  2.  The 
When  the  racks  are  in  their  extreme  positions  tliey   breech-block,  with  its  door  for  closing  the  rear  end. 

3,  4,  5.  The  crank-shaft,  with  its  worm  for  moving 
the  barrels,  and  small  crank  for  working  the  loader 
and  extractor.  6.  The  crank.  7,  8.  The  firing-pin 
and  spiral  spring.  9.  The  extractor.  10,  11.  The 
loading-piston  and  rack  for  moving  it.  12.  The 
cog-wheel  for  transmitting  the  movement  of  the  ex- 
tractor to  the  loading-piston.  13.  The  door  for  reg- 
ulating the  feed  of  cartridges. 

The  operation  of  the  mechanism  may  be  described 
as  follows,  supposing  the  crank  to  lie  in  continual 
motion  :  A  cartridge  is  placed  in  the  introduction- 
trough,  the  piston  pushes  it  into  the  barrel,  then  the 
barrels  begin  to  revolve,  and  the  cartridge  is  carried 
on  till  it  arrives  before  the  tiring-pin,  wliich  pene- 
trates the  solid  part  of  the  breech,  and  which  has  in 
the  meantime  been  retracted  by  action  of  the  cam. 


Fig.  2.    Vertical  Section  through  AB. 


remain  still  a  moment.      This,  stop  is  obtained  by  '  Fig.  3.     Then,  as  soon  as  the  cartridge  has  arrived 
giving  the  slot  in  its  center  part  a  circular  shape  con-  j  into  this  position,  the  barrels  cease  to  revolve,  and 

■    '  the  primer  of  the  cartridge  is  struck  by  the  tiring- 


centrically  to  the  shaft  of  the  crank.  This  is  neces- 
sary, because  at  the  moment  of  the  barrels  arriv- 
ing" at  the  end  of  their  course  the  head  of  the 
cartridge-case  becomes  engaged  in  the  hooks  of  the 
extractor,  which  would  not  be  possible  it  it  were  in 
motion  at  the  time.  The  extractor  is  a  large  double 
hook  at  the  end  of  the  bottom  rack;  it  is  very  solid. 


Fig.  .S.    Longitudinal  Section  Thron^'h  the  line  of  Axis. 

and  its  proper  working  is  certain  under  all  circum- ,  crank  ; 
stances.     jVfter  the  cartridge  is  extracted  from  the 
barrel  it  strikes  against  an"  ejector,  which  pushes  it ! 
out    of   the   extractor,  and   it   falls  to   the   groimd 
tlirongh  an  ojieiiing  in  the  under  part  of  the  l)reecb. 
Tlie  firing-pin  has  an  elongation.  ]iointing  downward, 

wliich.  i)V  file  operation  of  a  s]iring,  is  pressed  I  maimer  that  without  ilisiilacing  the 
against  a  "cam  on  the  worm,  and  as  the  worm  rotates,  tain  amount  of  laleral  niolion  as  well 
liic  cam  drives  the  liring-])in  back  and  compresses  ,  may  be  given  to  the  gun.  Thus  the  gun  is  made  to 
the  spring.  Tlie  moment  the  tiring-pin  becomes  .  sweep  horizontally  along  a  line,  by  adjuslment,  lie- 
liberated,  it  strikes  the  primer  of  the  cartridge  and  i  tween  each  single  shot,  or  during  rapid  discharge, 
the  discharge  lakes  place.  To  obviate  the  difflcul- [  The  ammunition  for  Ihe  revolving  caimon  con- 
lies  which  exist  in  other  systems,  when  Ihe  cart- 1  sists  of  a  center-tire  metallic  cartridge  of  special  con- 


pin  and  discharged ;  then  the  revolution  of  the  bar- 
rels begins  again,  and  the  fired  cartridge-shell  is  car- 
ried on  until  it  comes  to  the  extractor ;  this,  in  the 
meantime,  has  arrived  up  to  the  barrels  and  the 
cartridge-head  rolls  into  it.  As  soon  as  the  head  is 
laid  hold  of  by  the  extractor,  the  barrels  again  cease 
to  revolve,  and'during  this  jieriod  the 
cartridge-shell  is  withdrawn  and  drop- 
ped to  the  ground.  As  during  every 
stoppage  of  the  barrels  the  gun  is  sup- 
plied with  a  new  cartridge,  and  the  fir- 
ing and  extraction  is  also  performed, 
during  this  time  a  continvious  but  slow 
fire  is  kept  up.  By  supplying  the  gun 
in  this  manner  with  single  cartridges, 
about  thirty  rounds  per  minute  may  be 
fired.  Should  rapid  firing  be  required, 
the  gun  is  then  supplied,  not  with  single 
cartridges,  but  with  "feed  cases,"  con- 
taining groups  of  ten  cartridges  each, 
and  in  this  manner  from  sixty  to  eighty 
rounds  per  minute  can  be  fired,  with  only 
three  men  to  work  the  guu:  viz. — one 
man  to  train  the  gun  and  revolve  the 
one  man  to  place  the  "  feed-cases  "  contain- 
ing the  cartridges  into  the  "feed-trough";  and  a 
third  man  at  the  ammunition-chest  to  charge  the 
"  feed-cases"  and  to  hand  them  to  the  charger.  At- 
taciied  to  the  frame  is  a  lurii-table  whichVoniiects  the 
camion  to  Ihe  "  trumiiou-saddle,"  arranged  in  such 

carriage  a   (-er- 
as of  elevation 


HOTCHKISS  REVOLVING  CANNON. 


61 


H0XCHK188  KEVOLVINO  CANNON. 


Blniclidii,  liolilinj;  in  (•.■tcli  one  the  powder,  the  jiro. 
jrclilr,  1111(1  the  luhriciitiiift-wail,  !irniii;;iMl  like  llir 
Kiiiiilar  iiMiiMiinilioii  t'cncriilly  iisril  f(ir  Hiimll-itriii.H. 
Two  (lilTiTcnl  kiriils  of  |irojcclili-s  iiri'  iiscd,  llic  one 
<«u  explosive  slicll  und  the  oilier  ii  ease-shot.  No- 
tliiiii;  iiec'd  be  saiil  of  the  latter,  as  it  does  not  dilTer 
from  the  eoinmoii  eas<'  or  eaiiister-shot  used  in  ordi- 
nary cannon.  The  shell  is  of  a  novel  eonstrnelioii ; 
il  is  of  cast-iron,  of  a  eylindro-o^rival  sliape,  slijjhtly 
rounded  at  the  rear  end.  The  packing  consists  of  a 
hrass  coat  of  alioiil  oik'  caliber  in  linirth.  and  placed 
tqiiidistantly  from  the  center  of  jrravity.  This  coat 
is  of  soft  brass  iMbini,',  contracted  with  irreat  jirc'S- 
mire  lover  the  body  of  the  projectile,  it  bein;;  pro- 
vided with  longitudinal  f;rooves,  and  two  jirooves 
encirclini;  il  at  the  top  and  bottom  ends  of  the  pack- 
inj;.  Tlie  coatinj;  is  forced  into  these  i^rooves,  and 
any  disturbance  of  it  ou  the  body  at  starting  is  thus 


jectile,  and  the  rilling'  is  impressed  on  tlie  riljM  only 
covered  by  the  tubiiiL'.  Its  dimensions  and  weifrlits 
are  as  follows  :  l,eni;tli  of  body,  li.tili  inches  ;  entire 
liiiL'lh  with  fuse,  4.27  inches;  lenKlli  '>f  brasscoat- 
int;,  1..')  inches. 

The  carlrid^re-case  is  composed  of  a  spirally-rolled 
tube  of  sheet-brass,  strengthened  at  the  head  with 
an  inside  and  outsirle  cup.  The  head  is  punched 
out  of  sheet-iron,  and  is  fastened  to  the  cups  with 
three  rivets.  The  primer  consists  of  a  casi;  holding 
the  anvil,  and  is  closed  at  the  bottom  end  by  the  cap 
containing  fwlminati-  ;  it  is  lilted  into  a  hole  which 
penetrati-s  tli<-  hea<l  and  both  cups,  and  it  projects 
through  into  the  inside  of  tin-  cartridge-case.  This 
cartridge,  which  can  be  manufactured  with  great 
farility,  on  account  of  its  simplicity,  has  jjroved 
itself  to  be  of  a  very  durable  (pialily.  and  it  can  be 
used  repeatedly,    Iht  construcliuu  of  the  body  of 


Fifr.  4.  Hotchkies  Revolving  Cunnon.  with  Shou 
obviated.  These  grooves  serve  at  the  same  time  as 
breaking-lines  of  the  shell.  After  the  coating  is  at- 
t4iched  to  the  projectile,  some  small  saw-tooth-like 
grooves  are  cut  into  it.  to  reduce  the  strain  while 
being  forced  through  the  rifling  of  the  barrel.  These 
grooves  can  be  filled  with  a  lubricating  substance, 
an<l  this  is  then  carried  perfectly  between  the  pro- 
jectile and  the  bore  of  tlie  barrc'l.  The  coating  of 
the  projectile  is  conical  at  its  front  part,  correspond- 
ing with  the  cone  in  the  projectile-chamber,  so  that 
it  is  exactly  centered  in  the  bore  as  sooii  as  the  for- 
ward movement  commences.  Its  rear  end  is  cylin- 
drical to  within  about  one-third  of  its  length.  The 
shell  is  turned  smooth  all  over,  and  is  nearly  0".  016 
in  diam<-ter  less  than  the  bore  of  the  barrel.  This 
projectile  is  made  with  great  care  and  exactness, 
witii  only  a  very  small  deviation  in  dimension. 

The  fuse  employed  is  that  known  as  the  Hotch- 
kiss  percussion-fuse,  used  in  large  quantities  during 
the  last  war  in  America,  and  described  above.  The 
improved  llotchkiss  shell  is  with  its  fuse  a  little 
less  than  three  calibers  in  length,  or  about  seven- 
sixteenths  inch  shorter  than  the  one  just  described, 
fnmi  which  it  differs,  with  the  above  exception,  in 
the  following  particulars  only  :  The  new  shell  has 
four  circumferential  grooves  separateil  by  ribs  about 
one-twentieth  inch  wide,  and  longitudinal  cuts  be- 
tween ribs.  The  tubing,  about  one  caliber  in  length 
and  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  thick,  instead  of  being 
corrugated  ou  the  exterior,  as  in  the  old  shell,  is 
perfectly  smooth,  and  is  contracted  into  place  by  a 
slight  pressure  only.  The  gas  from  the  discharge 
presses  the  jiackiug  so  tirnily  into  the  grooves  and 
cuts  that  it  cannot  rotate  independently  of  the  pro- 


Ider-picce.  Pietol-grip  Stock,  and  Firinp-trigecr. 
the  cartridge  allows  it  to  expand  to  the  chamber  of 
the  gun  without  the  metal  being  stretched,  so  that 
after  the  discharge  it  contracts  itself  again  to  its 
previous  diameter,  thus  leaving  the  tired  case  per- 
fectly loose  in  the  chamber  for  extraction.  The  lu- 
bricator consists  of  a  wad  of  felt  about  0  ".236  thick, 
dipped  in  a  solution  of  mixed  tallow  and  beeswax. 
A  paper  dislc  is  placed  between  the  lubricating-wad 
and  the  charge  to  prevent  the  powder  getting  dam- 
aged by  the  greasy  surface  of  the  lubricator.  The 
projectile  is  "inerely  pressed  into  the  neck  of  the 
cartridge  and  is  not  clenched,  as  there  is  enough 
friction  to  hold  it  absolutely  secure.  Of  course 
the  ammunition  is,  as  in  the  case  of  all  of  the 
modern  small-arm  ammunition,  which  it  resembles, 
rendered  safe  against  influences  of  weather  and 
danger  of  explo.sion.  The  following  are  the  prin- 
cipal dimensions  and  weights,  etc.,  of  the  gun. 

Caliber t". '-■«"  inclicf. 

Total  length  of  bore 4  feet  2.281;  imhes. 

Lencth  of  riHing 3  feet  8.S82  inches. 

Rillfna.  one  turn  in 4  feet  1.212  inclies. 

(Twivt  and  depth  of  groove  uniform.) 

Number  of  grooves 12 

Width  of  lands 0.098  inchss. 

Depth  of  grooves 0.019  inches. 

Number  of  barrels S 

Diameter  of  barrel  over  powder-clamber. . .  .3.4<i4  inches. 

Diameter  of  barrel  at  the  muzzle 2440  inches. 

Weight  of  each  barrel 77.  liai  (Kiunils. 

Radiasof  sights 2'3"  W7 

Vertical  distance  of  the  line  of  eight  from 

the  common  axis  of  the  barrels 2.0866  inches. 

Horizontal    distance   of  the    line  of  eight 

from  the  common  axis  of  the  barrels 6.496  inches. 

Weight  of  gun 1.047.i'i  pounds. 

Total  weight  of  gun  with  traversing  appar- 

ntue ...  l,l.%7.4,Si)Ound8. 

For  the  revolving  cannon  a  special  carriage  has 


HOTCHKISS  SHELLS. 


62 


HOT-SHOT. 


been  roustriicted.  This  was  found  necessary,  as 
the  ordinary  lield-gun  carriage  is  not  provided  with 
tlie  means  for  procuring  an  excellent  and  immovable 
rest  for  this  gnu.  The  trail  of  the  carriage  consists 
of  two  brackets  of  steel-plate,  connected  by  three 
transoms  and  bolts,  the  rear  end  being  connected 
by  the  trail  eye-piece.  The  brackets  diverge  against 
the  trunnions.  The  trunnion-bearings,  and  the  hear- 
ings for  the  axle-tree,  are  riveted  to  the  outside  of 
the  brackets  and  are  fitted  in  tlie  ordinarj-  manner. 
The  axle-tree  is  of  steel,  the  arms  being  slightly  con- 
ical. The  wheels  have  metallic  naves  and  ring-tires. 
The  nave  consists  of  two  parts,  the  inside  flange, 
with  the  pipe-box,  and  the  outside  tlange.  The  spokes 
are  cut  in  a  conical  form  at  their  "  hub"  ends,  so 
that  they  fill  the  uave-tlanges,  and  the  two  parts  of 
the  nave  are  bolted  togetlier  with  the  spokes  with 
six  screws.  These  wheels  are  very  strong,  and 
have  been  found  practical  and  economical  in  ser- 
vice, and  they  allow  spokes  to  be  easily  substituted 
for  others  when  broken. 

The  elevating  arrangement  consists  of  a  screw 
working  in  a  gun-metal  nut,  resting  in  the  oscillating 
bearing.  This  nut  is  revolved  by  conical  gear-wheels 
from  the  left  side  of  the  trail,  the  top-end  of  the 
screw  being  attached  to  the  trunnion  saddle-plate. 
The  handspike  is  hinged  to  the  trail  so  as  to  fold 
back  in  traveling.  A  tool-box  is  placed  between 
the  trail ;  this  at  the  same  time  makes  a  solid  con- 
nection of  the  trail-brackets.  The  carriage  of  the 
revolving  cannon  is  usually  provided  with  a  light 
steel  shield  for  the  protection  of  the  gunners  from 
small-arms  fire.  This  shield  is  of  three  parts,  made 
to  fold  together,  thus  forming  seats  for  two  men. 
It  can  immediately,  when  coming  into  action,  be 
luifolded.  and  only  the  muzzles  of  the  barrels  and 
the  wheels  of  the  carriage  are  exposed  to  the  enemy. 
Tlie  steel  plates  are  about  0.236  inch  in  thickness. 
Two  boxes  are  attached  to  the  axle-tree,  each  to 
carry  three  feed-cases  loaded  with  ten  rounds  of  am- 
munition. On  the  carriages  not  provided  with  a 
shield,  these  ammunition-boxes  are  protected  by 
light  steel  plates  in  front,  and  have  a  lid  of  steel, 
which,  when  raised,  forms  a  small  protecting-shield, 
and  when  closed  they  form  seats  for  two  gunners, 
so  that  with  two  or  three  gunners  on  the  limber  a 
suflicient  number  of  men  to  serve  the  piece  would 
be  taken  into  action  with  the  gun  itself. 

The  gun  shown  in  Fig.  4  is  intended  specially  for 
use  against  torpedo  boats,  and  is  mounted  on  the 
rail  of  a  ship,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  recoil 
is  taken  up  by  the  pivot,  and  the  gun  is  so  nicely 
balanced  as  to  be  easily  trained  by  the  gunner,  who 
stands  with  his  left  shoulder  against  the  "cross"  or 
breech  extension,  and  with  his  right  hand  grasping 
the  pistol  stock  at  theright  of  the  gun  has  as  complete 
control  of  the  weapon  as  if  it  were  a  fowling-piece, 
or  the  gun  may  be  held  by  the  rack.  See  Machine- 
ejiin. 

HOTCHKISS  SHELLS.— The"  first  variety  has  three 
walls. ])anillel,oruearl/  so,  with  each 
otlier,  and  vmited  to  a  solid  base.  In 
producing  it.  the  middle  wall,  is  first 
cast  liy  the  ordinary  process.  This 
wall  is  then  suspended  ujjon  a  core- 
[)iccc,  whose  dimensions  are  such  as 
//  'B  \    *l   "'"  '''■^^'•'  a  spac<' between  its  exte- 

^       '  I     J:    riiiraud  the  interior  surface  of  this 

wall,  r(jual  to  the  thickness  desired 
for  the  inner  wall.  This  core  and 
middle  wall  are  then  suspended  in  a 
mold  of  Ihc  common  construction, 
wliicli  mold  has  an  innercontourthe 
^hape  of  the  exterior  of  the  coniplele 
shell.  The  metal  jioured  inlcj  this 
mold  envelopes  Ihi'  middli'  wall,  and 
forms  the  shell  as  shown  in  Figure 
1.  The  object  of  this  peculiar  form 
Fig.  1.  of  construction  is  to  producer  a  shell 

whicli  will  be  broki-n  into  a  larger  number  of  pieces 


than  shells  of  the  ordinary  construction.  Near  the 
forward  and  rear  ends  of  the  cylindrical  portion  of 
the  shell  cannelures  are  turned  to  receive  the  pack- 
ing or  soft  brass  bands,  which  are  pressed  and  crimp- 
ed into  place.  Tlie  base  of  the  shell  is  slightly  cham- 
fered. 

The  Hotchkiss  field-shells  of  ordinary  pattern,  as 
shown  in  Figure  3,  are  one  inch  longer  than  those 
described  above,  and  have  greater  powder  capacity. 
Thej'  are  cast  in  the  usual  way  for 
casting  shells,  and  have  the  same 
general  shape  as  the  triple-wall 
shells.  The  packing  as  original- 
ly made  consisted  of  a  soft  brass 
tubing  about  4  inches  in  length, 
running  for  nearly  two-thirds  the 
length  of  the  cylindrical  portion 
of  the  shell ;  it  was  pressed  and 
crimped  into  a  recess  turned  on 
the  shell  to  receive  it.  Cannelures 
were  turned  on  the  exterior  of 
the  tubing  to  diminish  the  bear- 
ing portion  of  the  packing  to  be 
cut  through  by  the  rifling  of  the 
gun.  Before  these  shells  were 
fired,  aud  to  insure  suitable  rota- 
tion, Mr.  Hotchkiss  had  added  a 
smooth  brass  tubing  about  \\  in. 
long,  which  was  also  pressed  and 
crimped  into  the  recess  turned  for 
it.  In  turning  this  recess  two 
annular  rings  were  left.  Ah  ex- 
amination of  the  results  of  a  recent  experimental 
firing  shows  an  average  of  17.4  hits  per  shot  for  the 
triple-wall  against  10.4  for  the  common  shells.  The 
liability  to  premature  explosion  or  breaking  u]i  in  tlie 
gun  seems  to  be  about  as  great  for  one  as  for  the 
other.  Experiment  fully  demonstrates  the  superior 
destructive  effects  of  the  triple-wall  over  the  com- 
mon shell.     See  Shells. 

HOTEL  DES  INVALIDES.— An  Establishment  in 
Paris,  maintained  at  the  expen.se  of  the  State,  where 
a  number  of  old  French  soldiers  are  quartered.  Its 
chapel  contains  the  tomb  of  the  great  Napoleon, 
and  is  an  object  of  much  attraction  to  all  visitors. 
It  was  founded  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1671.  and  during 
his  reign  and  for  a  long  time  afterwards  was  a  place 
of  retirement  for|tlie  aged  servants  of  Court  Favor- 
ites as  well  as  Invalided  Soldiers ;  but  this  abuse 
was  put  an  end  to  by  St.  Germain  in  Louis  XV. 's 
reign.  In  1789  the  Hotel  had  a  revenue  of  £68.000, 
but  during  the  time  of  the  Republic  its  property 
was  alienated  and  the  Institution  supported  from 
the  public  revenue.  The  Hotel  can  accommodate 
5.000  men,  and  the  actual  number  of  inmates  is  not 
much  below  this.     See  Soldlem'  Homen. 

HOT-SHOT.— Hot-shot  may  be  fired  for  the  pur- 
pose of  setting  fire  to  vessels  or  buildings,  though 
the}-  are  rarely  used.  Shot  of  low  gauge  should  be 
clio.seu  for  this  purpose  and  with  reduced  charges. 
They  can  be  made  red-liot  in  from  1.5  to  30  minutes, 
but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  bring  them  beyond  a 
bright  red,  as  they  are  then  liable  to  fuse  and  be- 
come misshapen.  The  part  resting  on  the  furnace- 
bars  heats  more  quickly  than  the  <ipper  part,  so 
they  must  frequently  be  turned.  Shot  expand  ,,'5  of 
their  diameter  when  brought  to  a  red-heal  :  there- 
fore,  to  prevent  any  accidents,  each  shot  should  be 
passed  through  a  red-hot  shot-gauge  before  being 
taken  from  the  fire-room.  Should  the  shot  jam  in 
the  bore  it  must  be  cooled  by  ])ouring  water  in  at 
llie  muzzle;  but  if  that  fails,  the  charge  nmst  be 
drowned  before  attemjiting  to  blow  out  the  shot. 

.Tunk  and  grommct-wads  which  liavc  been  soaked 
in  water  for  two  or  three  hours,  having  the  water 
pressed  out  of  them,  are  lo  be  used  in  loading.'  The 
juuk-wads  musi  be  small  enough  lo  lit  easily  when 
swelled  by  being  soaked.  The  cartridge  must  be 
perfectly  tight,  so  that  powder  will  not  be  scat- 
tered along  the  bore.    Sufficient  elevation  having 


HOT  SHOT  FORK. 


63 


HOWITZER. 


been  fiivc'ii  to  cimhlc  the  shot  to  roll  homo,  first 
outer  tiio  oiirlriilj;o,  a  dry  jiiiik-wiul,  iiiiil  Ihoii  ii  wot 
jwiiU-Wiul,  iuiil  nun  thoiii  homo.  Uriii;^  tho  sliot  in 
11  l)onrcr  anil  enter  it,  uitli  u  wot  i;roniniet-wiiil  on 
top;  .■iineo  it  cools  rii])i(lly,  no  time  should  he  lost, 
(^iiaiililies  of  snioUe  will  eonie  np  lhron;rh  the  vent, 
hut  a  red-hol  shot  does  not  burn  Tnore  than  the 
outer  yarns  of  a  well-soaked  junk-wud,  oven  if  left 
in  tho  i;un  till  it  lieeonios  cold.  See  Fhrirvrks  and 
/'r.'j.riilr.y. 

HOT  SHOT  FORK.  A  fork  niaile  of  iro)i,  fastened 
to  a  wooden  handle,  and  is  used  I o  pull  the  shot  out 
(if  the  furnace.  It  has  two  pronirs,  which  curve  in- 
wards and  upwards,  so  as  to  retain  llio  shot  between 
tlu'iri  whi'u  once  in   position. 

HOT-SHOT  WADS.-  Wads  for  firing  hot-shot,  and 
(itluT  like  |iurposos,  may  bo  nuule  of  hay  wrapped 
with  rope  yarn,  and  arc  made  in  tho  same  way  as 
jimk-wa(ls|;  or  they  may  be  made  entirely  of  hay, 
by  twist  ins;  fnuu  llic  hay  a  rope  of  an  inch  or  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  dianu'ter,  and  then  eommencini; 
at  one  end  and  donlilini;  it  up  about  one  caliber  in 
lenj;tli,  and  twistins;  it  all  the  time,  until  it  boconu-s 
nearly  large  enounh,  when  the  rope  is  to  be  wound 
around  the  waduerpendicularto  its  a.xis,  and  fastened 
with  a  hitch. 

HOTTE.— A  .sort  of  hand-basket,  which  is  often 
made  use  of  in  tho  construction  of  batteries  and 
other  works,  and  serves  to  earry  earth  from  one 
ph'ice  to  another.  Hence  the  word  /i"(l,  a  well- 
known  contrivance  for  carrying  liricks. 

HOUGINES. — Parts  of  ancient  armor  covorin;^  the 
thighs,  legs,  and  arms. 

HOUNDS. — 1.  Pieces  of  wood  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  lindjers  for  gun-carriages  to  connect 
the  splinter-bars  with  the  axles.  2.  The  blood- 
hounds  employed  for  military  purj  o  e-i  The  jius- 
sians  liave  strengthened  their  army  by  the  novel 
addition  to  each  company  of  a  pack  of  powerfully 
and  carefully  trained  dogs.  These  watchful  animals 
are  sent  out  with  the  sentinels  on  picket  duty, 
where  their  chary  ear  and  still  koouer  scent 
prove  an  impregnable  barrier  to  the  lurking 
spies  of  the  enemy.  The  dogs  used  are  a 
spoeies  of  blood-hound  from  the  Ural  .Moiui- 
tains.  The  dog  is  selected  because  of  its  ha- 
bitual silence.  It  growls  but  never  barks — a 
mill  tor  of  the  first  importance  to  soldiers  oear 
an  enemy's  camp.  The  Ural  honnd  is  gifted 
with  an  exceedingly  tine  .sense  of  .smell,  keen 
ears,  and  is  over  alert.  Most  comforting  of 
all  to  the  lonely  picket  the  dog  is  said  to  be 
ospeeiall}'  courageous  in  defending  its  mas- 
ter. It  is  curious  that,  with  the  examiilo  of 
the  King  Charles  spaniels  before  us,  no  one 
thought  before  of  using  these  intelligent  ani- 
mals as  sentinels.  The  value  of  the  plan  is 
self-evident.  The  Jluscovites  have  gone  fur- 
ther, and  are  training  swift  hounds  as  well  as 
the.se  same  Ural  dogs,  to  act  as  dispatch  bearers, 
n\uch  as  tho  carrier  pigeons  were  employed  in  1871. 
They  certainly  would  be  hard  messengers  to  catch, 
when  stealing  through  the  woods  at  night.  See 
JU<'o,i-/i'Jinifl. 

HOURGLASS.— A  glass  ves.sel  filled  with  sand,  and 
compressed  and  attenuated  at  its  center  into  the 
shape  of  tho  figure  8,  whereby  the  sand  can  only  run 
througlv  tho  connecting  orifice  in  a  given  time. 
This  vessel  is  contained  in  a  wooden  stand.  For- 
nuTly  each  Englisli  regiment  was  furnished  with 
this  hourglass :  and  even  at  the  present  day  native 
regiments  in  India  use  it.  A  common  mode  of  keep- 
ing the  time  by  native  guards  is  by  means  of  a  metal 
bowl  having  a  small  hole  in  the  bottom  of  it.  which 
is  allowed  to  swim  on  tho  surface  of  tho  water,  and 
to  fill  in  the  space  of  an  hour.  This  rough  and  ready 
mode  of  a.scertaining  time,  tluuigh  not  always  cor- 
rect, gives  a  near  approximation  to  tho  lapse  of  an 
hour.  This  nature  of  time-clock  was  the  first  in- 
strument to  measure  tlio  lapse  of  time  independently 


of  the  sunshine.  A  simple  time-keeper  is  also  kept, 
but  the  arrangomi-nf  is  inverted,  the  bowl  beinj; 
liHed  with  wafer,  and  the  wafer  allowed  to  escajie 
into  a  rece])fa<le  in  the  same  s]iaco  of  time,  fhrougji 
a  bole  in  the  bottom  of  the  bowl. 

HOURS  OF  SITTING.-  The  hours  during  which  a 
( 'oiirl-.VIarliiil  is  aulhori/ed  to  hold  its  sessions. 
The  law  provides  that  the  proceedings  of  trials  shall 
bo  carried  on  only  betwo'n  the  hours  of  oiglit  in  the 
morning  ami  throe  in  the  afternoon,  excepting  in 
cases  which, in  the  o|)inion  of  th(^  Ollicer apjiointing 
the  Court,  ro(|uire  inimeiliate  example.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  order  apiiointing  the  Courl-.Marlial  must 
clearly  state  that  •The  Court  is  authorized  to  sit 
without  regard  to  hours." 

HOUSE.  A  term  anciently  api)lied  to  the  blocks 
of  wood  or  frame  structures,  upon  which  tho  early 
bombards  wore  fixed.     See  Fttxt. 

HOUSEHOLD  TROOPS.— Those  troops  whose  es- 
pecial duly  it  is  to  attend  tho  Sovereign,  and  to 
guard  the  .Metro]iolis.  Those  forces  comprise  three 
regiments  of  cavalry — the  1st  and  2d  Life  Guards, 
and  the  Koyal  ilorso  Guards,  and  three  regiments 
of  Foot  Guards  (which  include  seven  battalions), 
the  Grenadier,  Coldstream,  and  the  Scots  Fusilier 
Guards.  The  cost  of  these  corps,  for  pay  and 
allowances  only,  reaches  the  sum  of  £230,000  a  year ; 
and  they  number  in  all  ranks  1 ,802  cavalry  and 
r>.'.)')(t  infantry,  who  are  justly  hold  to  be  the  flower 
of  the  British  Army. 

HOUSING.  —The  cover  or  <loth  over  or  under  a 
horse's  saddle,  used  for  cleanliness  or  as  an  oma- 
nuaital  or  military  appendage.  In  the  United  States 
Army,  housing  is  prescribed  as  follows:  Furden- 
enil  OffuMr« — To  be  worn  over  the  saddle ;  of  dark 
blue  cloth,  trimmed  .with  two  rows  of  gold  lace,  the 
outer  row  one  inch  and  five-oigliths  wide,  the  inner 
row  two  inches  and  one-fourth  :  to  be  made  full,  so 
as  to  cover  the  horse's  liaunches  and  to  bear  on  each 
flank  corner  the  following  ornaments,  distinctive  of 


rank,  to  wit :  For  tJie  Oeiieml  of  the  Army — A  gold 
enibroiderod  spread  eagle  with  two  stars  and  "Arras 
of  the  United  States  "  between  them  :  For  Lieuten. 
ant  General — A  gold  embroidered  spread  eagle  and 
three  stars  ;  For  Major  (letternli — A  gold  embroi- 
dered spread  eagle  with  two  stars  ;  and  For  Briga- 
dier Oemrah — A  gold  embroidered  spread  eagle 
and  one  star.     ^veSaddle-clotli. 

HOWITZER.— From  the  earliest  days  of  artillery 
there  existed  short,  chambered  pieces,  which  pro- 
jected stone  balls  under  great  angles  of  elevation.  In 
1478,  an  attempt  was  made  to  use  in  these  pieces, 
hollow  projectiles  filled  with  powder,  to  which  was 
attached  a  burning  match  to  set  the  powder  on  fire  : 
but  it  is  proliable  that  tho  accidents  which  accom- 
panied their  use  caused  them  to  be  abandoned  for  the 
time.  In  l(i34,  however,  means  were  devised  to 
overcome  this  ditliculty :  and,  thus  perfected,  these 
pieces  were  introduced  into  the  French  service  as  a 
class  of  cannon  now  known  as  mortars.  In  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.,  a  great  variety  of  mortars  were  used ; 


HUB  MOKTISING-MACHINE. 


G4 


HUE  AND  CEY. 


and  some  of  them,  called  Comminges.  after  their 
inventor,  threw  bomt)P  weighing  .5.50  pounds.  Early 
attempts  were  also  made  to  throw  hollow  projectiles 
from  perrieres  and  culverius,  or  guns ;  but  great 
difficulties  were  experienced  in  loading  them,  and 
the  accidents  to  which  they  were  liable,  as  in  the 
case  of  mortars,  caused  tiiem  to  be  abandoned. 
Subsequentlj'.  however,  the  Dutch  artillerists  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  reducing  their  length,  so  that  the 


projectile  c(mld  be  inserted  in  its  place  by  hand; 
and.  thus  inipnivcd,  these  ciinuoii  r.ipidly  ciinie  into 
use,  under  llie  name  of  howitzers,  from  the  German, 
Jldiihitz.  The  howitzer  coiubincs  in  some  degree 
tlie  accuracy  of  a  cannon  with  the  caliber  of  a  mor- 
tar ;  and,  while  e(|ually  effective  at  short  ranges,  is 
far  more  ))ortabIe  than  either.  That  the  jviwder,  on 
its  expansion,  may  act  with  full  force  on  the  shell, 
it  is  <'ontined  in  a  hemisplierical  chamber  of  smaller 


diameter  than  the  rest  of  the  here,  the  mouth  of 
which  is  completely  closed  by  the  shell  when  rammed 
home.  The  Coehorn  howitzer,  much  used  in  India 
for  mountain  service,  is  a  small  gun,  light  enough  to 
be  borne  by  a  horse  up  hilly  defiles,  etc.  See  Hoiritz- 
er,  Ordnance,  and  TiNnty-fnur-pounder  llmMztr. 

HUB  MORTISING  MACHINE.— A  machine  in  which 
a  wheel-hub  is  held  upon  a  mandrel  or  stake,  so  dis- 
posed that  a  reciprocating  chisel  may  cut  tlierein  the 
mortises  for  the  spokes.  The 
hub  is  dogged  or  clamped  so 
as  to  prevent  rotation  while 
the  mortise  is  being  cut,  and  is 
then  rotated  at  a  determinate 
number  of  degrees  to  present 
the  next  spot.  The  drawing 
shows  a  power  hub  mortising- 
machine  used  in  making  the 
wheels  for  gim-carriages  and 
Government  wagons.  Those 
hubs  to  be  mortised  are  held 
fast  in  a  screw-chuck,  one  end 
turning  in  cups  fitted  to  each 
size.  The  chuck  has  a  dial  at- 
tached to  it,  accurately  spaced 
for  10, 13, 14, 16,  and  18  spokes, 
thus  obviating  the  necessity 
for  setting  out  the  mortises. 
The  bed  also  has  stops  which 
regulate  the  length,  and  is  ar- 
ranged with  a  lever  and  stops, 
to  give  any  required  bevel  or 
dish  to  the  mortise.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  a  standard,  bolted  to 
the  base  of  the  machine,  mak- 
ing it  firm  and  solid,  and  is 
raised  and  moved  for  the  mor- 
tise by  hand-wheels.  The  chis- 
el is  reversed  by  hand,  and 
brought  down  by  the  new  dou- 
ble lever  or  treadle,  which  is 
ver3'  easy  for  the  operator.  The 
bit-shaft  has  the  new  arrange- 
ment of  lever  and  weight  for 
working  it,  and  is  driven  di- 
rect from  the  counter-shaft. 
The  machines  are  complete  in 
every  respect,  and  are  made  in 
the  best  possible  manner.  This 
size  works  hubs  13  by  16  inches 
and  under.  It  can  lie  fitted  with 
a  bed  for  common  mortising, 
if  desired.  The  counter-shaft 
has  tight  and  loose  pulleys,  13 
inch  diameter,  4  inch  face,  and 
should  make  3.50  revolutions. 
The  counter-shaft  should  be 
placed  on  a  level  with  the  pul- 
lej'in  top  of  machine,  and  8  or 
lOfeetdistant.  Weight  of  ma- 
chine, 3,600  lbs.  See  Mortis, 
ing-iniichine. 

HUE  AND  CRY.— In  Great 
Britain,  the  Official  Gazette, 
which  serves  to  advertise  de- 
serters from  Her  Majesty's  ser- 
vice. The  phrase  is  derived 
from  the  old  process  of  pursuit 
with  horn  and  voice,  used  in 
Englisli  law  to  ih'scribe  the 
pursuit  of  felons.  Whoeverar- 
rested  the  person  thus  pursued  was  so  far  prot<'cted 
tliat  he  rc(|uircd  no  warrant  to  justify  the  arrest; 
and  even  if  the  party  turned  out  to  be  no  felon,  no 
action  could  lie  brought  if  the  arrest  \\i\»  honii  fide. 
But  it  was  not  only  a  ground  of  action,  but  an  olTense 
subject  to  tine  and  imprisoinnent,  to  maliciously  and 
wantonly  raise  the  hue  and  cry  against  a  iicrson.  It 
was  the  duly  of  all  persons  to  join  in  a  hue  and  cry, 
and  if  u  person  who  Lad  been  robbed,  or  knew  of  a 


HUI88IER  D'ARMES. 


G5 


HUNT  HAOAZINE-OUN. 


rdbhcry,  fiiilcil  to  niisc  tlic  line  imd  cry.  he.  was  liii- 
blc  lo  line  or  im[)risijniii(iil,  or.  iicconliM^  to  souk; 
luillidrs.  (o  iiKlii'tiiii'iil.  line  itiid  cry  is  mow  Biib- 
stiiiiliallv  iiliolisliccl. 

HUIS8IER  D'ARMES.  -TipHlufr;  nil  officer  so-piiU- 
ed  in  France,  wlio  wasattiiclieil  to  the  Uoyal  Ilouse- 
liold.  They  were  at  first  disliiiifiiished  liy  the  name 
of  S'n/i'Hn  iVAnnrs,  or  Seri^eanls-at-AriMS.  Some 
were  directe<i  to  bear  the  mace  liefore  the  Kini;(Uir- 
injs  the  day,  and  obtaine(l  on  that  account  the  appcl- 
hition  of  Ilii'.Hnien<  d'Armm:  in  later  limes  Ihcy 
were  called  the  lluissiers.  or  TipstatTs  of  tlie  Kind's 
Chamber.  Others  kept  watch  in  the  K line's  bed- 
chamber dnrini;  the  nis;ht.  and  were  sworn  to  expose 
their  lives  for  the  safetj'  of  his  person,  whence  they 
obtained  the  name  of  Archern  d"  la  Gnrdr.  wliich 
term  was  changed  to  (riirdrn  dit  (,'orpii,  or  the  Body- 
guards. 

HULK. — A  name  given  to  any  old  ship  unfit  for 
sea-service,  which  is  used  in  harlmr  as  a  depot  of 
some  sort.  In  the  great  naval  harbors,  tliere  are 
coal-hulks,  powder-luilks,  convict-hulks,  and  liulks 
to  which  tlie  crew  of  vessels  repairing  are  turned 
over. 

HUMETTY.— A  term  in  Heraldry,  apjilied  to  a 
cross  or  other  ordinary  which  is  cut  o(T,  and  nowhere 
reaches  the  edge  of  the  shield.     See  Ihrnldry. 

HUNS. — The  name  of  a  considerable  nation  of  an- 
ti(|uity,  which,  from  time  to  time,  made  incursions 
upon  tlie  Roman  Dominions,  and  which  eventually, 
under  Attila,  the  most  renowned  of  all  its  leaders, 
brought  the  Empires  of  both  the  I^ast  and  the  West 
to  the  very  verge  of  destruction. 

The  Iluns  were  of  Asiatic  origin,  and,  in  all  prob- 
ability, of  the  Mongolian  or  Tartar  stock  ;  tlierefore 
akin  to,  and  perhaps  to  be  identified  with  the  Scyth- 
ians and  Turks.  According  to  De  Guignes,  whose 
theory  has  been  accepted  by  Gibbon,  the  Iluns  who 
invaded  the  Itoman  Empire  were  lineally^  descended 
from  the  Hiongnou,  whose  ancient  seat  was  an  ex- 
tensive but  barren  tract  of  country  immediately  to 
the  North  of  the  great  Wall  of  China.  About  the  year 
800  B.  c,  these  people  overran  the  C'hincse  Empire, 
defeated  the  Cliinese  armies  in  numerous  engage- 
ments, and  even  drove  the  Emperor  Kao-ti  himself 
to  an  ignominious  capitulation  and  treaty.  During 
the  reign  of  Vou-ti  (141-87  b.  c),  the  power  of  the 
Iluns  was  very  much  broken.  Eventually  they  broke 
into  two  distinct  camps,  one  of  which,  amounting  to 
about  50,000  families,  went  Southwards,  while  the 
other  endeavored  to  maintain  itself  in  its  original 
seat.  This,  however,  was  very  difiicult  for  them  to 
do  ;  and  eventual^-  the  most  warlike  and  enterpris- 
ing went  West  and  North-west  in  search  of  new  homes. 
Of  those  that  went  North-west,  a  large  number  es. 
tablished  themselves  for  a  while  on  the  banks  of  the 
Volga.  Then  crossing  this  river,  they  advanced  into 
the  territories  of  the  Alani,  a  pastoral  ]ieople  dwell- 
ing between  the  Volga  and  the  Don.  At  what  period 
this  took  place  is  uncertain,  but  probably  early  in 
the  4th  century.  T!ie  Alani,  who  had  long  dwelt  in 
these  plains,  resisted  the  incursions  of  the  Huns 
with  much  bravery  and  some  effect,  until  at  length 
a  bloody  and  decisive  battle  was  fought  on  the  banks 
of  the  Don,  in  which  the  Alan  King  was  slain,  and 
his  army  utterly  routed :  the  vast  majority  of  the 
survivors  joined  the  invaders. 

HUNTING  HORN,— The  Hunting  Horn  or  Bugle 
Horn  is  a  fre(iuent  bearing  in  Heraldry.  When 
adorned  witli  rings,  it  is  said  to  be  (jurnixhed.  If 
the  mouth  and  strings  of  the  instrument  are  of  ditTer- 
eut  tincture  from  the  horn,  'his  must  be  named  in 
blazon.     See  ILrdldri/. 

HUNT  LIFE  SAVING  PROJECTILE. -This  appa- 
ratus consists  of  a  projectile  and  a  tin  can  known 
as  the  shore-can.  It  is  intended  for  life-saving  pur- 
poses, to  be  used  in  connection  with  a  gun  or  liiortar 
of  suitable  dimensione. 

The  body  of  the  shot  or  projectile  is  composed  of 
a  tin  lube  closed  at  the  front  end  bv  a  disk  of  iron. 


Tlie  head  or  |ioinl  is  made  of  lead  lii-l  upoti  the 
enl  of  the  tin  tube.  The  leail  e.xlenils  up  tlie  side« 
of  the  lube,  forming  a  thin  ('oating  for  a  distance 
of  :)  ".2  from  tlie  plane  of  the  head,  'i'lie  diameter 
of  till'  (hit  head  is  2.1)  inches,  but  when  lired  ex- 
liands  to  the  full  size  of  the  bore.  The  tube  is  re- 
inforced for  (i  inches  of  its  length  above  the  lead 
with  a  galvanized  sheet-iron  tube.  The  object  of 
this  reinforce  is  to  slrengthi'n  the  tube  and  prevent 
upsetting  when  fired.  Near  the  rear  end  of  the 
lube  four  tr.ipeziform  (liecesof  tin,  tr'rme(l  "wings," 
are  soldered  to  the  tube  at  riirht  angles  loeacli  riilier 
and  eipiidisiant  circumferenlially  for  the  purpose  of 
guiding  the  projectile  in  its  (light  after  the  manner 
of  the  barbs  of  an  arrow.  About  g.'iO  yards  of  small 
line  is  coiled  on  a  spindle  in  a  lathe,  after  passing 
through  a  saluraling  solution  of  paraliiie.  Tliis 
coil  is  wrapped  with  a  thicknessof  laboratory  paper, 
and  as  soon  as  withdrawn  from  the  lathe-spindle  is 
jilacecl  in  the  tin  lube.  The  exterior  end  of  the  line 
is  made  fast  lo  a  wire  loop  which  projects  from  the 
rear  end  of  the  tube.  Tin;  wire  is  soldered  to  the 
tube.  The  rear  end  of  the  tube  is  then  closed  with 
a  wooden  plug  one  inch  in  thickness  and  of  the 
same  diameter  as  the  inside  of  the  cylinder.  An 
axial  hole  one  inch  in  diameter  serves  for  the  line 
to  pass  Ihrough  in  escaping  fnjin  the  shot.  A  paper 
disk  is  pasted  over  this  end  of  the  projectile,  which 
must  lie  removed  before  tiring  in  order  to  secure 
and  withdraw  the  end  of  the  line. 

The  shore-can  contains  the  shore-line  and  is  made- 
of  tin.  It  is  a  short  cylindrical  tube,  of  greater 
diameter  than  the  body  of  the  shot.  The  lower  end 
is  closed  by  a  bottom  of  the  same  material  as  the 
cylindrical  body.  To  the  bottom  a  ring  is  at- 
tached in  which  is  tie  i  a  line,  or  through  which  a 
stake  is  driven,  to  prevent  the  can  from  being  carried 
off  in  firing.  Holes  are  punched  through  the  bottom 
over  each  side  of  the  ring-seat,  through  which  ihe 
end  of  the  line  belonging  to  the  outer  coil  is  passed 
and  tied  to  secure  the  line  to  the  can.  This  shore- 
can  contains  about  250  yards  of  small  line,  coiled  in 
a  lathe  and  saturated  with  jiarattine  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  line  in  the  shot.  After  coiling,  the 
line  is  placed  in  the  can  and  the  tin  cover  put  on. 
The  cover  has  a  centra!  hole  1".6  in  diameter 
through  which  the  line  is  paid  out.  h.  strip  of 
laboratorj-  paper  is  pasted  around  the  can  so  as  to 
overlap  the  junction  of  the  cover  and  body  of  the 
can  and  prevent  the  removal  of  the  former.  A 
paper  disk,  which  must  be  broken  before  firing,  is 
j  pasted  over  the  hole  in  the  top. 
j  The  method  of  using  this  apparatus  is  as  follows: 
Suppose  the  gun.  projectiles,  and  shore-can  placed 
I  on  the  firing-ground  and  the  gun  in  position  for 
j  firing.  Insert  the  powder-charge,  tear  the  paper 
cap  ifrom  the  rear  end  of  the  projectile,  and  draw 
i  out  a  couple  of  feet  of  the  line  :  place  the  projectile 
in  the  bore  with  the  flat  leaden  head  first.  Then 
tear  the  paper  cap  from  the  hole  in  the  top  of  the 
shore-can  and  pull  out  about  2  feet  of  line;  tie  the 
ends  of  the  line  together  and  place  the  shore-can 
near  the  gun  on  the  windward  side.  The  proper 
elevation  is  then  given  to  the  piece,  the  priming- 
wire  inserted  in  the  vent,  a  friction-primer  put  in, 
and  the  gun  fired.     See  L'ft-iian'iig  liocketn. 

hunt' MAGAZIKE -GUN." —This  gun  belongs  to  that 
•system  in  which  a  fixed  chamber  is  closed  by  a  bolt, 
by  direct  action.  The  receiver  has  a  slot  in  its  upper 
surface  for  the  purpose  of  loading  the  chamber  direct 
when  the  piece  is  used  as  a  single-loader:  it  is  also 
bored  through  at  the  rear  for  the  reception  of  the 
breech-bolt.  The  latter  is  composed  of  two  parts, 
the  body  and  the  locking-tube,  which  are  connected 
by  a  left-hand  screw-thread.  The  bolt  is  locked  by 
two  lugs,  turning  in  corresponding  cuts  in  the  re- 
ceiver. These  lugs  are  so  shaped  on  their  rear  sur- 
faces as  to  cam  the  bolt  against  the  base  of  the  cart- 
ridge during  the  locking.  A  cam  on  Ihe  inner  surface 
of  the  rear  end  of  the  locking-tube  forces  the  bolt 


HUBSLE  B£V£IM£NT. 


6G 


HUT. 


slightly  to  the  rear,  starting  the  shell,  during  the 
unlocking.  The  opening  of  the  joint  in  the  breech- 
bolt  fthe  thread  being  left-handed)  during  the  lock- 
ing aids  in  the  camming  forward  of  the  bolt,  while 
the  closing,  by  drawing  the  forward  portion  to  the 
rear,  aids  "the  starting  of  the  shell.  When  the  bolt 
is  withdrawn  the  extractor,  which  is  of  the  spring- 
hook  pattern,  pulls  on  the  upper  side  of  the  head  of 
the  shell  while  the  under  side  abuts  against  a  forked 
post.  By  this  means  the  shell  is  thrown  clear  of  the 
gun.  In  order  to  insure  the  ejection  of  the  shell  a 
quick  motion  of  the  bolt  is  necessary.  The  forked 
post  acts  also  as  a  guide  for  the  breech-bolt.  A  slot 
in  the  rear  of  the  bolt  receives  the  nose  of  the  ham- 
mer, allowing  it  to  strike  the  firing-pin  onl}'  when 
the  piece  is  locked.  A  slide  prevents  the  hammer 
being  pulled  back  by  catching  of  clothing,  etc.  It 
must  be  moved  back  before  the  hammer  can  be 
■cocked.  The  magazine,  which  is  in  the  tip-stock, 
is  loaded  from  the  side  of  the  receiver,  or  from  imder- 
neath,  by  first  raising  the  carrier  by  the  withdrawal 
of  the  breech-bolt.  The  carrier  has  two  grooves, 
one  on  each  side,  on  its  inner  surface.  In  these 
^grooves  projections  on  the  breech-bolt  enter.  As  the 
"bolt  is  withdrawn  the  projections  travel  in  the  upper 
horizontal  portion  of  the  grooves  until  they  reach  in- 
clined faces  when,  by  the  pressure  against  them,  the 
carrier  is  compelled  to  rise,  bringing  a  cartridge  op- 
posite the  chamber.  When  the  bolt  is  returned,  the 
projections  travel  in  the  lower  horizontal  portion  of 
the  grooves  until  they  reach  other  inclined  faces, 
when  the  carrier  descends  opposite  the  mouth  of  the 
magazine,  so  that  cartridges  cannot  escape  until  it  is 
in  position  to  receive  them.  No  magazine  cut-off 
is  provided.  As  a  magazine-gun,  4  motions  are  ne- 
cessary to  operate  it,  viz. :  cocked,  opened,  closed, 
fired.  As  a  single-loader,  5  motions  are  necessary, 
viz. :  cocked,  opened,  loaded,  closed,  fired.  The 
gun  caliber  0".44.  carries  13  cartridges  in  the  maga- 
zine, 1  in  the  carrier,  and  1  in  the  chamber.      See 

HUBDLZ  EEVETMENT.— This  kind  of  revetment 
is  made  by  driving  poles  in  the  same  direction  as 
Ihe  interior  slope,  into  the  banquette,  about  eighteen 


inches  below  the  tread,  and  then  forming  a  wicker- 
work.  l)y  interlacing  twigs  between  them  in  a  similar 
manner  "to  basket-work.  The  poles  sliould  be  nine 
inches  apart,  and  their  diameter  about  one-and-a-half 
inches.  They  should  be  secured  to  the  parapet  by 
lonn-  withes.  The  drawing  shows  a  hurdle  revet- 
ment and  fraise.     See  lievetnunt. 

HUBDLES. — Straight  and  fiat  rectangles  of  strong 
wicker-work,  about" (i  feet  long,  and  2  feet  9  inches 
higli.  Tliey  are  useful  in  many  ways,  both  in  mili- 
tary and  civil  life,  either  as  fencing,  as  barriers,  or 
in  forliticatiim.  in  the  construction  oilivrdlr-lmtteriex. 
These  last  were  the  invention  of  Sir  William  Con- 
greve,  who  devised  them  as  the  speeiliest  means  of 
throwing  up  earthworks;  three  hurdles  are  fastened 
at  their  ends  in  tlie  form  of  a  triangle,  and  Ihe  cen- 
tral space  is  filled  in  a  short  time  with  earth.  These 
triangles  can  be  constructed  to  any  ground-plan,  and 
with  their  aid,  a  body  of  soldiers  can  intrench  them- 
selves in  a  few  minutes.  Tlie  hurdle  is  composed  of 
wattles  interwoven  round  stakes  or  pickets,  the 
laller  iluring  the  man\ifacture  being  fixed  upright 
anil  tirnily  in  tlie  gmimd. 

HUBRAH. — A  shout  of  encouragement  and  ap- 
plause, characteristically  English.     It  serves  also  as 


a  war  cry.  As  an  engagement  at  sea  commences, 
the  crews  of  the  English  vessels  send  up  deafening 
hurrahs  ;  in  a  charge  on  .shore,  the  English  soldiers 
hurrah  when  they  rush  upon  the  enemy.  There  is 
sometliing  strangely  exciting  in  this  simple  sound, 
and  the  combatants  work  themselves,  as  they  shout, 
into  a  frenzied  forgetjulness  of  danger. 

HUBST. — A  charge  in  Heraldry  employed  to  rep- 
resent a  small  group  of  trees,  generally  borne  upon 
a  mount  in  base. 

HTJBTEB  —  HEUBTEE  —  HEURTOIB.  A  square 
beam  placed  at  the  foot  of  a  parapet  where  there  is 
an  embrasure  to  prevent  the  wheels  from  injuring 
the  iuterior  slope,  when  the  gun  is  moved  in  battery. 
A  short  fascine  or  fagot  is  sometimes  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  the  beam.  A  hurter  is  placed  on  the  front 
part  of  a  siege  platform,  under  the  wheels.  The 
motion  of  gun-carriages  is  checked,  front  and  rear, 
by  pieces  of  wood  or  iron,  boiled  to  the  top-rails, 
called  hurUrs  and  cimnUr-hurUr.t. 

HUSSABS, — Light  cavalry.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  Hungarian  words  hvia  (twenty),  and  ar 
(pay),  because  every  twenty  houses  had  to  provide 
one  horse-soldier.  In  the  British  Army  there  are  13 
1  regiments.  The  men  are  armed  with  a  saber,  car- 
bine, and  pistol.  The  weight  the  horse  of  a  hussar 
carries  is  about  18  stone.  The  dashing  bold  hussar, 
that  epitome  of  military  impudence  and  reckless- 
ness at  the  tavern,  should  present  those  qualities  in 
:  a  very  sublimated  form  on  the  field.  Regardless  of 
fatigue  and  danger,  his  imagination  should  never 
present  to  itself  an  obstacle  as  insurmountable.  On 
the  march,  constantly  at  the  enem^^'s  heels  ;  in  posi- 
tion keeping  him  at  all  moments  on  the  alert, 
harassing  him  either  with  fatigue,  or  apprehension 
for  the  security  of  his  rear  and  communications ;  on 
the  field  careering  with  a  falcon's  speed  and  glance 
upon  his  quarry,  however  it  may  seek  to  elude  his 
blow,  such  should  be  the  hussar. 

HUSSITES.— The  followers  of  Huss.  Honoring 
him  and  Jerome  of  Prague  as  martyrs,  thej'  despised 
the  decrees  and  anathemas  of  the  Council,  and  took 
terrible  revenge  on  the  Priests  and  Monks.  The 
symbol  of  their  Confederacy  was  the  cup,  the  use  of 
which  in  the  Lord's  Supper  they  extended  to 
the  Lait}-,  as  James  de  Misa  had  already  done 
with  the  approbation  of  Huss.  In  1417  King 
Wenceslaus  was  constrained  to  grant  them  the 
use  of  many  churches.  After  his  death,  Au- 
gust 13,  1419,  the  majority  of  the  States  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  his  brother,  the  Em- 
peror Sigismund,  who  had  broken  his  safe 
conduct  to  Huss.  And  the  papal  instructions 
to  the  Cardinal  Legate,  John  Dominico,  re- 
quiring him  to  employ  violent  measures  for 
I  the  conversion  of  the  Hussites,  an  insurrection  en- 
sued, and  the  war  began  which  is  known  in  history 
as  the  Hussite  War.  Convents  and  churches  were 
reduced  to  ashes,  and  Priests  and  Monks  were  slain. 
The  Hussites  divided  into  two  parties — the  Calixtine 
and  the  Taborlten.  See  Huss  et  la  Ouerre  desSussiten, 
by  Ernest  Denis  (1879). 

HUT. — A  structure  more  or  less  rough  in  its  de- 
tails, for  the  housing  of  troops.  It  is  substituted 
very  often  for  the  tent,  when  the  sojourn  in  a  camp 
or  cantonment  is  likely  to  be  of  consideration,  as, 
for  instance,  through  a  winter — a  hut.  however  rude, 
which  is  wind  and  water-tight,  being  as  superior  in 
comfort  to  a  tent  as  the  latter  is  to  the  open  air. 
Huts  may  be  made  of  almost  any  size,  and  are  som?- 
times  for  one  officer ;  at  others  for  as  many  as  one 
hundred  men.  The  principal  hut  encami)mrnts  in 
England  are  Aldershott,  Shorncliffi',  Colchester,  and 
the Curragh  of  Kililare  ;  in  British  North  America, 
hut-camps  are  situated  at  intervals  of  a  day's  march 
on  the  route  from  New  Brunswick  to  trochee,  and  Ihe 
troops  who  made  that  winter-march  in  IHIil  to  18C3 
found  their  shelter  truly  welcome.  The  qiiarlers  oc- 
cupied by  the  Uniti'd  i^lales  troops  on  the  American 
frontiers,  are  very  frequently  huts  made  of  tiuil)er 


HYDEB. 


67 


HYDRAULIC   BUTTEH. 


by  the  troops.  A  good  liut  iimy  lie  readily  finu 
stniftpil  on  Hiiitablc^rouiKlor  liillsiili'  by  ex*  iiviitinn 
1111(1  ciivcrin;;  witli  u  roof ;  hiil  if  limber  Im  cnnvi'ii- 
ifiil.  it  is  Ixttcr  to  build  u  l"f/  liiit,  coviTiiii;  with 
bark  skins,  bushes,  reed  mats,  weii-wecds.  or  any 
Hiutabbr  material  procurable.  In  buildini;  the  hut 
four  poles  an;  planted  in  the  ground  where  the  cor- 
ners are  to  rest.  The  lof;s  are  then  piled  one  abovi' 
another ai;aiiint  these  poles,  us  shown  in  the  drawing;, 
beinn  notclu'd  where  they  cross  so  as  to  brim;  their 
Bides  together.     The  .space  lietweeu  the  logs  is  then 


made  water-tight  and  air-tiplit  by  a  stufting  of  clay, 
wattles,  sallows,  or  small  bundles  of  Iwii^s.     Within, 
the  joints  should  be  lined  with   laths,  or  the  whole 
be  supported   by  a   scantlint;,  and    may   consist  of 
overlapping  boards,  or  boards  laid  Hush  and  shingled, 
or  laths  and    shingles,  or   even    birch-bark   alone. 
The  door  is  usually  ledgcd,  and  there  are  one  or  two 
windows,  with  glazed  sashes  and  shutters.     A  hut 
thus  formed  makes  a  snug  habitation,  and  will  last 
for  many  years;  exclusive  of  the  sashes,  two  men 
can  erect  in  about  a  week,  a  hut  of  rough  logs  which 
shall  be  sufficiently  large  for  their  residence — that 
is,    with  an  interior  area  of  aliout  lO  feet.     When 
circumstances   permit   the    logs     are    occasionally 
sqtiared,  which  enables  them  to  be  fitted  more  ac- 
curately to  each  other,   and  adds,  of  course,  to  the 
solidity  and  finish  of  the  whole  structure,  as  well  as 
to  its  durability.     In  this  case  the  corner  logs,  in- 
stead of  crossing  each  other,  are  joined  by  a  dove- 
tail, or  cutting  the  end  of  each  to  an  angle   of  4.')''. 
^he  f famed  hut  has  the  advantage  over  the  log  luit 
of  allowing  more  exactness  of  finish,  and  from  its 
lightness  and  portability  being  easily  transported  to 
any  place  where  logs  for  hut-building  may  not  be 
forthcoming.     It  consists  of  a  strong  framework  of 
squared  wood,  properly  fitted  together,  and  covered 
with  overlapping  planks   or  weather-boards.     The 
pieces  should  be  sawn  to  the  proper  size,  fitted  to 
each  other,  and  numbered  ;  then  packed  together  in 
small  compass  for  conve3-ance  to  the  intended  site, 
where  the  structure  can  soon  be  erected.     It  is  usu- 
ally estimated  that   one  of  these  huts,  30  feet   long. 
16  broad,  and  10  high,  makes  a  good  barrack-room 
for  30  soldiers.     The  camps  at  Aldershott  and  the 
Curragh  are  mainly  formed  of  framed  huts.     Where 
extra  warmth  is  desired,  the  spaces  between  the  up- 
rights are  built  tip  roughly  with  bricks,  Imrned  or 
unbumed.      Pi«e   huts,    common  in   the   south    of 
France,  and  very  useful  where  wood    is  scarce,  as 
well    as   very  comfortable,  are   walled  with  blocks 
of  clayey  earth,  and  rammed   with   great  pressure 
into  wooden  molds  until  they  assume  the  forms  of 
stones.     These  are  laid  one  above  the  other  much  as 
stones  themselves    vi'ould  be  by  a  mason,  and  the 
wall  so  formed  is  both  durable  and  sightly.     The 
most  critical  operation  for  the  non-professional  hut- 
builder  is  roofing.      This  is  usually  thatch,  shingles, 
paper,  or  felt,  if  lightness  Vie  an  object;  and  of  stones, 
liricks,   or  tiles,   it  the  walls  be  calculated  to  bear 
their  pressure.     A  roof  of  split  logs  gouged  out   in 
the  center,   like  a  long  curved  gutter,  is  good.     A 
layer  is  placed  side  by  side,  with  the  hollow  side  up, 
and  a  second  layer  is  put  on  them,  with  the  hollow 
side  down.     The  roof  should  have  a  pitch  of  not  less 
than  iT)'^  to  keep  out  the  rain.     All  cracks  should 
be  carefully  filled  with  grass,  mud,  clay.  etc.     Th 
huts  of  Indians  and  all  Savages  are  seuerallv  rouml 


or  ajiproximati'  to  the  circular  form,  [irobubly  be- 
cause of  thir  maximum  house  for  a  minimum  cover. 
In  building  huts,  it  might  be  well  to  remember  tlwl 
logs  split  better  from  the  (Town  or  small  end  toward 
the   liull. 

HYDER.— The  Arabic  term  for  lion.  This  title  is 
frei|u<-nllv  given  In  iiii'n  of  rank  ill  India. 

HYDRAULIC  BUFFER.  A  recoil  check,  in  con- 
stru<-liiin  very  similar  to  Ihe  air-cylinder,  A  liquid 
is  useil  instead  of  air,  but  lh<' |)rinci|iles  of  operation 
are  similar.  This  bulTer  is,  at  jiresent,  furnished 
only  with  the  converted  guns  in  the  United  Slates 
service.  In  its  usual  form  it  consists  of  a  cast-iron 
cylinder  78  inches  long,  with  an  interior  diameter  of 
8  inches,  closed  at  eilher  end  by  a  cast-iron  caj). 
Near  the  rear  end  of  the  In])  of  the  cylinder  is  a  bole 
fnr  the  purpose  nf  filling  it  »  itli  water,  or  some  n:  n- 
freezing  lic|uid.  A  hole  in  the  front  end,  closed  with 
a  screw-plug,  permits  Ihe  fiuid  to  be  withdrawn. 
Nine  and  one-half  gallons  (|)recisely)  of  fluid  are  re- 
(|uired.  A  wrought-iron  piston-rod  passes  through 
the  rear  cap,  and  is  secured  to  the  rear  of  the  top- 
carriage  by  a  wrought-iron  cross-head.  The  piston- 
head,  of  wrought-iron,  l.T  inches  thick,  is  piened 
near  its  circumference,  on  opiiosite  sides  of  the  rod, 
with  two  holes  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
These  holes  flare  out  both  ways  25  inches,  allowing 
free  passage  to  the  fluid  from  the  rear  to  the  front  of 
the  piston,  permitting  the  top-carriage  to  run  back 
without  strain.  Upon  the  top  of  the  rear  end  of 
each  rail  of  the  chassis  of  No.  3,  is  bolted  a  wedge 
or  incline,  having  a  rise  of  2.5  inches  in  ()4  inches  ; 
near  the  rear  end  of  this,  is  attached  a  brass  angle- 
plate,  to  which  are  secured  three  rubber  counter- 
hurters.  A  similar  angle-plate  with  hurters  is  at- 
tached to  the  front  part  of  the  chassis.  Water  or 
any  other  free-flowing  liquid  answers  for  filling  the 
cylinder.  In  cold  weather  a  non-freezing  liciuid,  as 
a  mixture  of  glycerine  and  water,  metliyl  and  water, 
or  some  of  the  non-freezing  oils,  must  be  used.  The 
greatest  care  must  be  observed  to  have  in  the  cylin- 
der the  exact  amount  required.  The  difliculfy  of 
properly  regulating  all  of  these  matters  makes  the 
hydraulic  buffer  greatly  inferior  to  theair-cvlinders. 

The  recoil  of  the  guii  is  controlled  in  all  I'russian 
carriages  for  the  land  service  by  the  Hydraulic 
Buffer.  As  generally  used,  it  consists  of  a  wrought- 
iron  lap-welded  cylinder,  with  cast-iron  cover-cap 
and  flange,  and  wrought-iron  piston-head  and  rod, 
a  packiiig-gland  and  emptying-cock  of  brass.  The 
cylinder  is  77.375  inches  long  in  the  clear,  and  8.07 
inches  in  diameter,  and  holds  12  gallons  5  pints. 
The  cap  closes  the  rear  end,  being  screwed  on. 
The  flange  is  screwed  on  the  front  end.  and  the 
cover  is  bolted  to  the  flange.  Both  the  flange  and 
cover  are  flat  on  top.  to  allow  the  top-carriage  to 
pass  over  them  without  striking.  To  secure  per- 
fectly tight  joints,  a  mineral  composition  is  spread 
over"  the  screw-threads  of  the  cylinder  liefore  the 
cap  and  flange  are  put  on,  and  the  same,  mixed  with 
chopped  hemp,  is  laid  between  the  flange  and  cover 
before  they  are  bolted  together.  Tlie  packing  used 
to  make  a  tight  joint  around  the  piston-rod  consists 
of  a  piece  of  tow  about  1.25  inches  in  circumference 
and  3  feet  7  inches  long,  greased  with  tallow,  and 
wound  round  the  rod  and  pushed  into  the  recess  in 
the  cover.  It  is  held  in  place  by  the  packing-gland, 
which  is  made  to  squeeze  the  packing  by  being 
screwed  into  the  cover  until  the  rod  can  be  just  moved 
by  the  strength  of  one  man.  A  zinc  pan  is  suspended 
from  the  front  end  of  the  cylinder  to  catch  any  oil 
tliat  may  drip  from  the  gland  in  firing. 

A  filling-hole  is  bored  and  tapped  in  the  upper 
surface  of  the  cylinder  near  the  rear  end,  and  is 
closed  by  a  wrought-iron  screw-plug,  which  is  se- 
cured to  the  chassis  by  a  short  chain.  An  emptying- 
cock  of  brass  is  provided  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
cover.  The  piston-head,  8.04  inches  in  diameter, 
has  four  holes  drilled  in  it .  each  1 .25  inches  diameter, 
for  the  7-inch  gun  :  .9  inch  for  the  9,  11.  and  12-inch, 


HYDRAULIC  CRANES. 


68 


HYDRAULIC  ENGINES. 


and  .8  for  the  10-inch,  and  .7  for  the  IS-inch  of  25 
tons.  The  piston-rod  screws  into  the  head,  and  i.s 
prevented  from  tnrniusr  by  a  screw.  Tlie  collar-nut 
screws  on  to  the  rod  a  few  inches  from  the  end,  and 
the  connectins-nut  on  the  extreme  end.  The  cross- 
liead  is  held  between  tlie  two  nuts,  with  r.  play  of 
about  one-tenth  of  an  inch,  and  the  hole  in  tlie  cross- 
head  for  the  piston-rod  is  made  oval,  to  allow  of  the 
top-carriag-e  beins  thrown  on  its  truck-wheels  with- 
out bending  the  piston-rod.  The  cylinder  is  secured 
to  the  chassis  by  means  of  iron  bands  which  pass 
over  the  cylinder,  and  are  bolted  down  to  the  rear 
bottom-plate  at  the  rear  end,  and  at  the  front  end  to 
a  bearins-plate  which  is  bolted  to  the  diasonal 
braces.  Tlie  rear  bottom-plate  and  the  lower  flange 
of  the  rear  transom  are  hollowed  out  to  form  a  bed 
for  the  end  of  the  cyK.ider.  The  top  tlange  of  the 
rear  transom  is  cut  away  from  tlie  cap  of  the 
cvlinder.  The  cylinder,  before  being  bolted  down 
on  the  chassis,  is  brought  to  bear  sqmirely  against 
the  rear  transom,  with  the  flat  edges  of  the  flange 
an.1  screwed  into  a  piece  to  which  the  cover  is  held 
by  screws.  There  is  a  hole  in  the  bottom  piece  for 
tilli)n'j  the  cylinder:  it  is  stopped  with  a  screw  and  a 
cock  in  the  cover  for  emptying  it.  Thepislon-head, 
Willi  fiuir  holes  bored  in  it,  flts  the  cylinder  closely, 
and  to  it  the  piston-rod  of  cast-steel  is  fastened,  and 
passes  through  the  cylinder-head,  the  joint  being 
packed  with  hemp-packing  and  bronze  packing-bo.\. 
The  end  of  the  piston-rod  is  fastened  to  the  cross- 
head,  which  is  bolted  to  the  bottom  transom  of  the 
top-carriage.  The  Hydraulic  Buffer  operates  in  this 
manner:  "The  cylinder  is  tilled  almost  full  with 
glycerine,  which  is  preferable  to  water  in  that  it  does 
not  evaporate  or  freeze.  A  certain  amount  of  air  is 
always  left  in  the  cylinder.  In  the  recoil  of  the  car- 
riage the  piston-head  connected  to  it  by  the  piston- 
rod  and  cross-head  cmipresses  the  glycerine  in  the 


,  ,(o)      "» 


rear  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  causes  the  liquid  to 
flow  rapidly  through  the  holes  in  the  pist(m-head, 
irradmiliy  bringing  the  carriage  to  a  state  of  rest. 
The  air  in  the  cylinder  acts  as  a  cushion  when  the 
gun  is  Hrcd.  and  lessens  the  shock  which  is  then 
communicated  to  the  ditfereut  p:irts.  Tlie  resistance 
of  the  liipiid  tn  a  slow  motion  of  the  piston-head 
lieiiig  verv  small,  no  dithcully  is  experienced  in  run- 
ning the  gun  slowly  into  battery. 

The  Hydraulic  IJulfer  should"  be  the  object  of  es- 
jiccial  attention.  :illliougli  there  is  little  to  do  to  It 
:ifter  it  has  been  secured  in  its  place  in  the  shops. 
First,  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  jireservation 
of  the  glycerine  in  the  cylinder  at  its  pniper  height, 
which  c;tn  be  discovered  at  tlic  ti]liULr-li<ile.  If  the 
glycerine  f:dls  licUiw  the  prescribed  depth,  it  does 
not  maltler  from  what  cause,  it  must  be  replenished. 
For  this  purpose,  take  out  the  (illing-hole  s<Tew  and 
insert  the  funnel  in  the  liole.  The  purest  glycerine 
is  always  to  be  preferred,  of  a  density  of  1.111,  which 
neither  evaporates  ikpt  freezes,  even  with  the  great- 


est cold,  and  has  no  action  on  the  metals.     In  case8 
of  emergencj'  the  defleiency  may  be  made  up  with 
pure  water  without  altering  its  qualities  sensibly, 
but  this  addition  of  water  should  never  exceed  one- 
i  fourth  of  the  whole.     In  filling  the  cylinder  the  pre- 
I  scribed  quantity  marked  in  figures  on  the  end  should 
[  under  no  circumstances  be  exceeded.     In  some  car- 
riages the  proper  height  of  the  glycerine  is  marked 
1  by  a  screw.     To  prevent  it  from  leaking,  it  is  ab- 
solutely   necess!iry,  in  the  first  jjlace,  to  keep  the 
filling-liole  screw  always  tight  by  wrapping  it  with 
1  a  hempen  thread,  with  white  lead  or  tallow  when 
I  necessary :  secondly,  to  tighten  the  hemp  packing 
:  whenever  the  least  leaking  of  the  liquid  is  observed, 
'  by  screwing  up  the  packing-gland  :  and,  thirdly,  to 
keep  the  eniptying-cock  always  tight  and  well  closed. 
It  is  advisable  to  close  it  with  a  wooden  plug.     Be- 
fore the  firing,  the  carriage,    and   particularly  the 
!  hydraulic   l)uffer,   should,    as   far    as   possible,    be 
minutely  inspected,  the  bolts,  nuts,  etc.,  which  may 
have   got  loose  tightened  up,  and   the  working  of 
'  the  ditferent  parts  tested.      See  Pneumatic  Bufftr. 

HYDRAULIC  CRANES.— Wherever  a  large  numlier 
1  of  cranes  luivc  to  be  worked  near  each  other,  water- 
power  is  by  far  the  most  manageable,  economical, 
and  convenient  method  of  working  them.     Sir  W. 
'  Armstrong   &   Co.,  oi  Newcastle,    have   taken  the 
lead  in  introducing  this  kind  of  machiner3'.     They 
j  have  fitted  up  a  great  many  railway  goods  stations 
j  with  complete  sj^stems  of  hydraulic  cranes. 

The  pressure  usually  employed  in  working  the 
liydraulic  cranes  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  pressure 
admissible  in  the  case  of  steam.  Six  or  seven 
hundred  pounds  to  the  square  inch  is  usually  em- 
\  ployed  as  the  working  pressure.  It  is  got  "up  to 
this  great  pressure  by  means  of  an  arrangement 
\  called  an  accumulator,  which  consists  of  a  large 
;  hydraulic  ram  of  16  or  18  inches  in  diameter,  carry- 
ing a  wrought-iron  cylinder. 
This  cylinder  is  filled  up  with 
stones  or  gravel  to  the  weight 
of  GO  or  70  tons.  A  powerful 
horizontal  .steam-engine  forces 
water  into  a  cjlinder  and  slow- 
ly  raises  the  ram  with  its  enor- 
mous load.  Pipes  lead  away 
from  the  cylinder  to  the  cranes 
in  the  diflferent  parts  of  the  sta- 
tion,and  are  thus  supplied  with 
water  under  the  great  pressure 
caused  by  the  load  forcing  the 
ram  into"  the  cylinder.  "The 
load  is  constantly  rising  and 
hdling  a  little  as  these  cranes 
draw  their  supplies  from  the 
cylinder.  If  the  cranes  were 
supplied  direct  from  the  force- 
pumps  (if  the  ste:im-engiue, 
without  the  intervention  of  this 
accumulator,  their  action  would  be  jerky  and  un- 
steady. The  accumulator  acts  as  a  reservoir  of  power, 
and  when  it  happens  that  a  great  number  of  cranes 
are  drawing  off  water  at  the  same  moment,  and  in 
excess  of  what  the  engine  force-pumps  can  supjily. 
the  ram  descends,  keejiing  uji  the  while  the  full  71(0 
lbs.  pressure  ;  and  then,  when  the  cnmes  are  dem;uid- 
ing  less  abundant  supplies,  the  engine  overtakes  its 
works,  and  .sends  the  ram  up  again.  When  it  arrives 
at  the  top  it  touches  a  lever  conununicating  with  the 
throttle-valve  of  the  engine,  and  thus  slows  or  stops 
the  engine  when  the  accumuhitor  Iwis  mounted  to  its 
maximum  height.  The  miiment  it  begins  to  descend, 
the  lever  is  relieved,  the  throtlle-valve  opens,  and  the 
engine  goes  on  again  with  such  speed  as  the  work  de- 
mands.    Sec  Crniiis. 

HYDRAULIC  ENGINES  —These  engines  are  fre- 
quently used  in  fciuudries  and  arsenals,  where  water 
<if  a  high  pressure  is  i)bliiinal)le.  They  do  nut  dilTer 
in  any  essential  jiarticular  frnm  a  steam-engine.  As 
the  pressure  under  which  they  work  Lh  from  five  to 


BTDBAULIC  FOKQINO. 


09 


HYDRAULIC  GUN  CARHIAOE 


ten  limes  firciilcr  limn  tliiit  nf  ii  stciiiii-i'nf;inc,  tlicy 
arc  iniicli  hmihUit.  A  ((uiimoti  fi)rni  is  tliiil  <■{  tlircr 
Bmiill  cvliiiilcrs  in  wliicli  Mircc  pjuiificrs  work.  'I"li(^ 
water  is  ailiiiitti'd  iiito  tlie  evlinilers  liy  nieiins  of 
valves,  anil  forces  tlie  pliinirers  iiiilwunls.  These 
pltMiijers  are  eonnecleil  vvilji  a  lliree-lliniw  crank, 
and  when  Ihey  have  ((inipleleil  llieir  onlward  travel, 
or  wiirkinn-stroke,  the  water  is  allowed  to  escape 
from  the  cylinder,  llie  pliin;xcr  then  slides  inwanis, 
to  lie  anain  forced  outwards  liy  a  fresh  rush  of  water 
admitted  at,  the  proper  instant  into  the  cylinder  hy 
the  action  of  the  valve. 

Hoots  Holary  llydraidic  Engine,  extensively  used 
in  till'  United  States  and  abroad,  is  represented  in 
the  ilrawint;.  In  order  tn  realize  the  fnll  lienelils 
that  may  be  derived  from  this,  or  any  other  Hy- 
draulic ]Cni;in(%  it  is  of  tlie  utmost  iin|.ortance  that 
the  supply  or  feed-pipe  be  sulliciently  iar<;e  todeliv- 
er  the  water  to  tlie  engine  when  niiininLj,  at  the 
Bame  pressure  as  at  the  mains.     .Anythini;  less  than 


this  crijipli'^  llie  rnjiin-.  ami  c;ii:s(s  it  to  use  an  un- 
necessarily iMr^eamoiml  of  water.  In  a  loni;  service- 
pipe  of  small  .si/e  the  pressure  is  so  reduced  by  the 
friction  of  the  water  in  passing  throui;h  the  pipe, 
that  though  it  may  supply  a  sufticient  volume  of 
water,  it  would  be  at  such  a  diminished  pressure 
that  it  would  have  but  little  power;  for  instance,  if 
an  engine  used  fifty  pillons  of  water  per  minute, 
with  forty  pounds  pressure  per  square  inch  at  the 
mains,  and  yet  by  the  use  of  a  small  service-pipe, 
reduced  the  pressure  at  the  emrine  when  running  to 
ten  pounds  per  square  inch  (which  is  often  done), 
it  is  evident  that  while  the  same  quantity  of  water 
is  used,  that  only  one-fourth  of  the  useful  effect 
would  be  obtained  from  it,  that  would  be  if  the 
same  pressure  was  maintained  at  the  engines  as  at 
the  main.  It  is  also  plain  that  to  do  the  work  that 
coidd  be  done  witli  the  T)!)  gallons  at  40  pounds 
pressure,  that  four  times  as  much  water  would  lie 
required  at  10  pounds  jiressure.or  200  gallons;  thus 
plainly  showing  that  with  a  given  work  to  be  done, 
much  less  water  will  be  required  with  a  large  pipe 
than  with  a  small  one. hence  the  importance  and  econ- 
omy of  having  the  feed-pipe  amply  large.  This  engine 
being  a  pressure-engine,  the  water  is  confined  and 
cannot  escape  until  it  has  exerted  its  whole  force  in 
turning  the  engine.  AVhen  the  engine  does  not  turn, 
no  water  is  discharged  except  from  a  slight  leakage. 
It  can  only  receive  and  use  a  sutticient  quantity  of 
water  to  fill  the  engine,  each  revolution.  The  en- 
gine is  a  water-meter  as  well  as  a  water-engine, 
therefore  the  quantity  of  water  useil  is  not  deter- 
mined by  the  size  of  the  pipe,  but  by  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  the  engine.  If  the  jiipes  were  ten 
times  as  large,  the  engine  would  not  use  any  more 
water  per  revohition  than  with  a  very  small  pipe, 
but  the  amount  of  power  resulting  from  a  given 
amount  of  water  windd  be  in  proportion  to  the  dif- 
ference in  ]ircssure.  as  shown  before. 

The  engine  should  be  placed  on  a  solid  foundation 
perfectly  level  from  end  to  end,  and  be  firmly  se- 
cured, so  that  it  will  not  get  out  of  position  from  the 
strain  of  the  lielt  or  other  attachment.  IJut  care 
•  must  be  taken  to  have  an  equal  bearing  on  the 
foundation  ;  otherwise,  when  it  is  fastenci.1  down,  it ) 


will  be  on  a  strain  and  <ause  it  to  work  hard,  fare 
must  also  betaken  in  lilting  on  the  fer'daiid  discharge, 
pipes,  and  making  the  connections,  that  they  are  not 
on  a  strain,  for  this  may  also  spring  the  machine  ami 
cause  it  to  run  hard.  The  disrliarge.pipe  should 
always  have  a  syphon  or  trap  bet  ween  theengineand 
the  sewer-pijie  into  which  il  discharges,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  the  discliarge.pipe  full  of  water,  by 
keeping  out  the  air.  The  size  of  the  pulley  should  be 
such  thai,  when  all  the  machinery  is  on  that  the  en- 
gine is  to  drive,  and  running  at  full  speed,  llie  ri'gu- 
lating-valve  should  be  wide  open.  If  the  speed  is 
loo  high,  the  driving-jiulley  should  be  enlarged  :  if 
too  slow,  it  should  be  diminished. 

HYDRAULIC  FORGING.     ForL'ing  with  Ihe  hydraii- 
lic-])ress  instead  of  the  hammer  and  anvil.      The  jiro- 
cess  is  analogous  to  that  of  rolling.     The  advanlaires 
claimed  for  the  process  are  that  it  is,  in  manv  opera- 
tions, more  expeditious  than  theordinary  modes, and 
also  that  it  produces  a  better  structurarcondition  of 
the   jiarticles  of  the    material,   the  force    lieing  less 
suiierlieial  than  the  sudden  impact  of  a  hammer,  and 
I  moving  Ihe  jiarticles  of  m;itler  near  the  center  to  a 
greater  e.xtent,  thus  rendering  the   forged  b;ir  more 
homogeneous.     Kvery  forger  and  obsi-rvant   person 
'  has  noticed  that  in  tlie  ordinary  mode  of  forgimr  a 
j  biir  of  iron  there  is,  when  the  liar  is  thick  enough,  a 
protrusion  of  material  at  the  edges,  leaving  a  groove 
in  the  middle  of  the  thickness,  because  of  the  super- 
I  ficial  portions  of  the  iron  b;ir  having  received  Ihe 
greatest   spread.      Rolling   or   forging   bv  jiressure 
I  avoids  this.     Forging  by  hydraulic  pressure  is  prac- 
ticed in  Europe.     At  Vienna  there  are  several  presses 
in  o|ieration,  one  with  a  piston  24  inches  in  diameter 
transmit linL'  a  pressure  of  2,400.000  lbs. 

HYDRAULIC  GUN  CARRIAGE.— The  renowned  35- 
ton   Hydraulic  Carriage  was  cimstrucled   at   Wool- 
wich, under  the  direction  of  theCommamlini:  Officer 
of  the  Carriage  Department.     A  detailed  description 
of  this   carriage  will   suffice   for  all   others.      The 
hydraulic  ajijiaratus  with  which  it  is  provided  is 
used  to  check  the  recoil  in  firing,  run  the  gun  into 
battery  or  from  battery,  and  also  to  traverse  the  car- 
riage to  the  right  or  left.     These  different  operations 
are  performed  by  means  of  two  hydraulic  cylinders, 
O  and  D,  and  the  double-action  pump  in  the  reser- 
voir,  E,   which  contains  a  mixture  of   alcohol  and 
water.     The  pump,  worked  by  mejuis  of  the  brake, 
G,  drives  the  liquid  into  the  distributing-chest,  H, 
which  sends  it  through  the  tubes,  I  K  L,  either  to 
the  front  end  of  the  cylinder  O,  or  to  one  or  other 
end  of  the  cylinder  D.     The  desired  position  of  the 
valve  is  given  by  means  of  the  lever,  M,  attached  to 
the  right  side  of  the  chassis.     The  cylinder,  1),  has 
a  piston,  the  rod  of  which  is  fasteneil  to  the  chain 
c,  c,  which  engages  a  wheel  mounted  on  the  .^^ame 
axle  as  the  pinion  that  drives  the  bevel  wheels,  in- 
tended to  give  motion  to  the  rear  traverse-wheels. 
The  motion  of  the  piston  in  either  direction  carries 
the  chain,  c,  with  it,  thus  causing  the  pinion  to  tuni, 
and  by  its  means  the  traverse-wheels.     To  traverse 
the  carriage  to  the  right  or  left  it  is  sutticient  to  turn 
the  distributing-valve  so  as  to  send  the  liquid  i  n  one 
or  the  other  face  of  the  piston,  and  then  to  work  the 
pump  by  means  of  the  brake,  G.     The  chain  moves 
on  the  wheel  with  a  velocity  four  times  sreater  than 
that  of  the  piston  ;  a  slight  motion,  therefore,  of  the 
latter  is  sufficient  to  traverse  the  chassis  through  a 
considerable  arc.     A  piston  is  also  fitted  to  the  cvl- 
inder.  D.  which  is  used  to  check  the  recoil  in  firing, 
and  to  run  the  gim  into  battery.     The  piston  has  a 
leather  packing  on  either  face,  and  the  front  end  of 
the  rod  is  fastened  to  the  carriage.     The  front  enil 
of  the  cylinder  is  placed  in  communication  with  the 
distributing-chest  by  a  pipe,  and  the  rear  end  by  a 
passage,  K,  with  a  second  reservoir,  Q.  The  passalre, 
K,  can  be  contracted  more  or  less  by  a  conical  valve, 
which  is  regulated  by  means  of  the  regulator,  I.    To 
use  the  apparatus  as  a  hydraulic  bulTer.  close  tlic 
communication  of  the  front  part  of  the  cvliuder,  O, 


HYDKAULIC  JACK. 


70 


HYDEAULIC  JACK. 


with  the  pump  through  the  distributing-valve,  H, 
and  reduce  the  section  of  the  orifice  for  the  stream 
according  as  circumstances  may  require.  When  the 
gun  is  fired,  the  carriage  as  it  recoils  forces  the  pis- 
Foii  in.  and  drives  the  liquid  into  the  reservoir,  Q, 
through  the  opening  around  the  conical  valve  :  the 
recoil  is  checked  as  in  the  ordinary  hydraulic  buflfcr, 
by  the  resistance  that  the  liquid  meets  with  in  pass- 
ing through  the  narrow  orifice.  The  entire  dis- 
tance throiigli  which  the  valve  may  be  moved  is  one 
inch,  and  the  part  of  the  valve-stem  that  projects  is 
graduated  into  tenths  of  an  inch.  In  firing  with 
maximum  charges  the  valve-stem  is  turned  in  up  to 
the  division  of  eight-tenths. 

To  run  the  gun  from  battery  without  firing,  it  is 
sufficient  to  open  the  communication  of  the  pipe,  I, 
with  the  pump,  and  to  work  the  latter.  Tlie  pres- 
sure of  the  liquid  on  the  front  face  of  the  piston 
forces  it  into  tlie  cylinder,  O.  and  draws  the  carriage, 
being  attached  to'  the  rod,  P.  back  with  it.  The 
liquid  which  is  in  rear  of  the  piston  escapes  as  be- 
fore, l)ut  without  meeting  any  resistance  in  its  pas- 
siige  around  the  conical  valve  on  account  of  the  slow- 
ness of  the  motion.     To  run  the  gun  into  battery. 


arc  of  54°  is  two  minutes,  and  tlie  same  for  running 
the  gun  from  battery  6^  feet.  The  loading  apparatus 
is  decidedly  novel.  It  is  composed  essentially  of  a 
chain  with  the  links  constructed  like  the  joint  of  a 
carpenter's  rule,  so  that  it  can  turn  on!)-  in  one  di- 
rection, while  it  is  as  stiff  as  a  solid  rod  in  every 
other.  The  links  of  this  chain  are  made  as  follows  : 
The  angles  of  the  links  on  top  are  square,  wlijle 
those  underneath  are  rounded  :  two  adjoining  links 
thus  abut  against  each  otlier  when  an  effort  is  made 
to  bend  the  chain  outward,  while  it  can  be  readily 
bent  in  the  opposite  direction.  It  is  guided  in  its 
motion  by  a  kind  of  tube  inclosed  between  two  sheet- 
iron  plates.  A  spur-wheel  and  pinion  supply  tlie 
means  of  raising  the  tube  out  of  its  bed,  and  raising 
the  chain  up  to  the  bore  of  the  gun.  The  tvibe  is 
held  at  a  convenient  height  by  a  pawl.  A  rammer 
or  sponge  is  fitted  to  the  front  end  of  the  chain  ac- 
cording as  it  is  wished  to  loaa  or  sponge  the  piece, 
and  by  working  the  crank-handles  the  cliain  is  forced 
down  the  bore  as  if  it  were  a  rigid  staff.  The  trials 
with  this  arrangement  have  given  satisfactory  re- 
sults. A  still  m'ore  original  mode  of  loading,  based 
on  the  use  of  a  pneumatic  apparatus,  has  been  ap' 


the  front  of  the  cylinder,  O,  and  the  tube,  T,  are 
placed  in  communication  with  the  discharge-pipe  by 
means  of  the  distributing-valve,  H.  The  carriage 
then  runs  into  battery  of  itself  by  reason  of  the  in- 
clination of  the  rails  of  the  chassis.  Its  velocity  is 
checked  by  the  resistance  that  the  liquid  meets  with 
in  passing  through  the  tube,  T.  If  it  be  wished 
that  the  gun  .shalfrun  into  battery  more  quickly,  a 
special  tube,  c,  is  provided,  of  larger  cross-section, 
which  allows  the  water  to  pass  more  quickly ;  it 
will  be  sufficient  to  open  the  valve,  by  means  of  the 
handle,  to  reduce  the  time  of  running  in  to  a  few 
seconds.  By  turning  this  handle  the  motion  of  the 
carriage  may  be  regulated  at  pleasure,  and  it  may  be 
even  stopped  at  any  point  on  the  chassis  by  closing 
the  valve  altogether.  The  ordinary  position  of  the 
valves  is  that  represented  in  the  drawing,  the  appar- 
atus being  arranged  for  running  the  gun  from  bat- 
tery. Tlie  liquid  wliich  is  forced  by  the  pumps  passes 
into  the  tube,  T,  while  K,  and  L,  communicate  with 
the  discharge-pipe.  If  the  valve  be  moved  farther  to 
the  right,  L,  remains  in  connection  with  the  dis- 
cliar;;r-pipe,  N.  T  is  closed  while  one  of  the  orifices 
of  admission  comes  opposite  the  outlet,  K.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  pushed  to  the  left,  I.  and  K,  com- 
municate with  the  discharge-pipe,  and  L,  with  the 
otlier  opening.  These  two  extreme  positions  of  the 
valve  correspond  with  the  traversing  of  the  chassis 
in  one  or  other  direction,  and  the  last  also  to  running 
the  irun  into  battery  automatically.  A  dircction- 
plate'^is  attached  to"the  chassis  on  the  right  side, 
giving  the  positions  of  the  lever,  M,  corn'sponding 
to  those  of  the  valve  for  traversing  the  gim  to  the 
left,  from  battery,  gun  to  the  right,  and  into  battery. 
One  man  at  the  valve-lever  and  two  nu'u  at  the 
pumps  are  sufficient  to  execute  all  (if  the  miincuvers, 
though  it  is  preferable  to  have  four  nwn  at  the  pumps. 
The  'time  re(iuired  to  traverse  the  gun  through  an 


plied  to  a  65-ton  gun  in  the  experimental  casemate 
battery  at  Woolwich.  This  arrangement  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  requiring  only  very  little  room.  See  Sea- 
eoaft  nnd  Gnrrison  Carriages. 

HYDKAULIC  JACK.— A  machine  which  often  takes 
the  place  of  the  jack-screw  for  raising  heavy  weights. 
It  is  simply  a  form  of  hydraulic  press,  which  may  be 
placed  beneath  heavy  ordnance,  or  any  great  weight 
which  it  is  desired  to  raise,  and  generally  consisting 
of  a  stout  frame  furnished  with  upright  grooves,  in 
which  a  follower  may  be  forced  upward  by  a  hydrau- 
lic cylinder.  By  proper  appliances  the  power  may 
be  rendered  almost  immeasurably  great.  The  enor- 
mous multiplying  power  given  by  this  machine  has 
been  employed  for  a  great  variety  of  useful  purposes 
such  as  compressing  bales  of  cotton,  paper,  etc.,  ex- 
pressing oils,  bending  of  iron  plates  and  bars,  and 
raising  weights.  This  was  the  means  employed  for 
launching  tlie  Great  Eastern,  at  Jlillwall.  and  for 
raising  to  their  position  the  tubes  of  the  Britannia 
bridge.  Thejac/c.i.  as  manufactured  by  Watson  and 
Stillman,  New  York,  up  to  30  tons  capacity  appear 
to  the  eye.  when  dejiressed,  a  simple  cylinder  with  a 
head  ;  and  when  elevated,  like  one  cj'linder  sliding 
within  another.  The  cylinder  is  from  two  to  six  or 
more  inches  in  diameter,  according  to  the  power  de- 
sired. The  head  (which  is  .screwed  on  to  the  inner 
cylinder,  c.-dleil  the  ram)  has  a  socket  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  lever  by  which  the  force-pump  is  worked. 
Tlie  force-pump  is  contained  inside  of  the  ram,  and 
conse(pientlv  is  not  seen  in  the  following  drawings. 
The  ram,  with  the  head,  contains  only  as  much  fluid 
as  is  reiiuired  to  fill  the  vacancy  in  the  cylinder, 
caused  by  the  raising  of  the  mm  in  the  act  of  lifting, 
and  when  this  is  accomiilishcd,  the  tluid  is  returned 
into  its  original  reservoir  by  a  valve  operated  by  the 
lever  that  works  tlie  ]iuuii).  The  lever  is  delatched, 
and  may  be  put  on  at  pleasure.     The  claw  attachment 


HYDRAULIC  LOADING  APPAEATU8. 


71 


HYDRAULIC  LOADING  APPARATUS. 


is  iiii  iron  tube,  Bcrewed  into  tlic  lower  side  of  the 
lit'iul,  1111(1  piiHsinfj  down  to  the  liolloni  of  the  jack 
outside  of  llie  <  yli'ider.  on  llie  lower  end  (jf  wiiieli 
is  a  elaw  timt  supports  the  weij;lit  l(;  lie  raised. 
These  jacks  are  HkIiI.  portiilile,  and  of  easy  applica- 
tion— a  jack  to  raise  5  tons  wei(;lis  only  20  llis.,  anil 
one  to  raise  100  tons  not  more  than  liTri  lbs.  They 
are  all  worked  liy  the  lahor  of  one  man  only,  who  is 
rapalile  of  raisini^  10  Ions  through  a  space  of  one 
foot  in  one  and  a  half  minules.  or  100  Ions  the  same 
distance  in  ten  minutes.  The  horizontal  jacks 
havean<'nliirin-d  resiTVoir,  containing'  lluid  sutlicient 
to  run  them  out  their  entire  leni;lh  in  a  hcprizontal 
position.  To  use  the  jack,  place  the  head  for  if  a 
claw-jack  the  claw  or  head)  \mder  the  weight  to  be 
raised,  place  in  the  lever  with  the  projection  down- 


its  working.  The  cylinder  and  bottom,  on  which  it 
rests,  are  made  from  one  piece  of  steel,  thus  ri  liev- 
ini;  the  ri-servoir-casin;,'  of  strain,  aiul  dispensing 
wilh  one  very  troiiblisome  iiacking  and  making  u 
jack  stronger  and  lighter  than  one  having  a  wrought- 
iron  cylinder.  There  is  nolhing  dillicult  of  access, 
or  which  an  ordinary  nu'chanic  cannot  keep  in  good 
order.  I''ig.  4  shows  a  double  pump-jack,  liaving 
pumps  with  pistons  J  inch  and  Ij  inch  diameter, 
the  larger  giving  about  one-third  the  pressure  of  the 
smaller,  and  working  three  limes  as  fast.  This 
style  of  jack  is  used  where  there  is  a  variety  of 
work,  or  where  the  jack  has  to  work  under  varying 
loads.  Fig.  ■')  shows  the  hydraulic  pidling-jaek, 
used  for  hoisting  or  pulling  heavy  weights  in  engine 
rooms,  or  in  other  circumscribed  places,  setting  up 


Fig.  ). 


Kig.  S. 


Kig.  -J. 


Fig.  3. 

•ward,  then  work  it  perpendicularly  until  the  weight 
is  at  the  required  height,  or  the  number  of  inches 
the  jack  runs  out.  To  lower  the  weight,  push  the 
lever  to  the  bottom  of  the  stroke,  take  it  out,  turn  it 
with  the  projection  upward,  and  with  a  slight  pres- 
sure of  the  hiind.  the  weight  may  be  lowered  as  slow- 
as  required,  or  stopped  at  any  point.  Sometimes  it 
liappeus  that  another  stroke  of  the  lever  woidd  raise 
the  weight  too  high  ;  then  raise  the  lever  a  little,  and 
push  itdowu  slowly,  by  which  the  stroke  will  be 
missed.  Should  the  valve  stick  to  its  seat,  and  pre- 
vent the  jack  working,  by  striking  the  lever  a  few 
sliarp  blows  up  anil  down,  the  valve  will  be  released. 
Fi^.  1  shows  the  style  used  when  the  jack  stands 
iipoii  the  groimd  or  light  board,  and  can  be  placed 
under  the  work,  or  where  steadiness  is  reqinred. 
Fig.  2  .shows  the  style  used  when  there  is  not  suf- 
ficient room  to  get  the  head  of  the  jack  under  the 
work,  and  is  the  pattern  used  for  moving  heavy 
guns,  boilers,  machinery,  etc.  Fig.  3  shows  a  form 
of  lifting-jack  used  for  dry  docks,  pressing  flanges 
on  wagon  wheel  hubs,  etc.  The  piston  is  entirely 
enclosed,  thus  preventing  all  grit  or  foreign  material 
getting  into  the  pump  and  cutting  it  or  preventing 


I  rigring,  pile-drawing,  etc.  This  jack  appears  like 
a  plain  cylinder  with  rings  at  each  end.  bv  which  to 
attach  the  body  to  be  moved.  Thev  are  three  or 
more  inches  in  diameter,  and  one  and"  a  half  or  more 

I  feet  long,  according  to  the  power  required,  or  the 
distance  the  weight  is  to  be  moved.  It  has  a  force- 
jMimp  on  the  outside,  worked  by  a  lever,  which 
forces  the  fluid  contained  in  the  cvlinder  to  the  op- 
posite side  of  a  piston,  to  the  rod  of  which  one  of 

j  the  rings  at  the  end  is  attached.  Bv  this  operation 
the   jack  is  forced   together,  drawimr   with  it  the 

I  body  to  be  moved.  It  will  work  vertically,  hori- 
zontally, or  at  any  angle.  To  use  the  jack,  till  it 
through  the  screw  in  the  side  of  the  cylinder  with 
whiskey  and  a  few  drops  of  oil.     To  p>ill  or  lift  anv- 

j  thing,  make  it  fast  to  the  jack  by  chains  or  ropes 
through  the  rings  at  each  end,  havinn;  first  extended 
it  as  far  as  it  will  go.  This  is  done"  by  frivins:  the 
thumb-screw  in  the  force-pimip  two  or  three  turns 
inward,  and  pulling  out  the  piston,  then  turn  out 
the  thumb-screw  imtil  it  stops.  Put  in  the  lever  and 
pump  as  nnich  as  required.     See  Joi-hscreir 

HYDRAULIC    LOADING  APPARATUS.  -A   system 
of  apparatus  used  w  hen  maneuvering  heavv  liirret- 


HYDRAULIC  POWES. 


72 


HYDRAULIC  POWER. 


guns.  This  apparatus  was  thoroughly  tested,  in 
"worlving  tlie  lUO-ton  guns,  belonging  to  the  Italian 
Oovernmeut,  in  experiments  at  Spezzia,  1876.  The 
working  of  the  gun,  including  all  the  operations  of 
loading  and  sponging,  is  effected  by  tlie  mean.s  of  i 
hydraulic  pumps,  which  are  all  operated  by  one 
small  steam-engine.  The  gun  is  placed  with  its 
trunnions  resting  on  two  heavy  blocks  of  metal, 
which,  being  retained  by  guides,  slide  on  large 
beams  or  girders  built  in  the  floor  of  the  turret.  In 
front  and  rear  of  the  blocks  are  pistons,  working  in 
cylinders  in  the  direction  of  the  floor-beams.  These 
pistons,  under  the  influence  of  water-pressure,  move 
the  gun  in  and  out  of  battery.  The  breech  is  raised 
and  "lowered  by  similar  means.  When  the  gun  is  to 
be  loaded,  it  is  run  forward  and  the  muzzle  de- 
pressed till  it  is  in  front  of  an  armored  hood,  which 
shields  an  iron  door  in  the  main  deck.  The  door 
slides  back,  a  sponge  appears  on  the  end  of  a  staff, 
wliich  enters  the  bore  and  lengthens  itself  like  a 
telescope  till  the  bottom  is  reached,  when,  in  obedi- 
ence to  the  touch  of  a  valve,  a  Hood  of  water  is 
ejected  from  the  sponge  to  extinguish  fire  and  wash 
the  bore.  The  shot  and  cartridge  next  appear, 
lifted  from  below  on  a  small  truck,  which  is  runout 
on  a  trap-door.  The  cartridge  is  lifted  in  front  of 
the  muzzle,  the  sponge  (now  converted  into  a  ram- 
mer )  pushes  it  a  short  distance  into  the  gun,  is  then 
witlidrawn,  and  when  the  shot  rises  pushes  Iioth  to 
the  bottom  of  the  bore.  The  sponge  is  withdrawn 
below  deck  and  the  trap  closes.  Each  of  these 
movements  is  effected  entirely  by  water-pressure, 
the  course  of  the  water  and  the  corresponding 
operation  being  determined  by  manipulating  the 
proper  valve.  The  only  defect  in  the  principle  was 
developed  by  the  bursting  of  the  English  38-ton  gun 
on  the  Thunderer,  in  1879. 

If  the  slipping  of  a  shot  is  to  cause  the  bursting 
of  a  gun.  anything  that  tends  to  produce  this  slip- 
ping is  to  be  deprecated,  and  as  the  liydraulic  load- 
ing-gear requires  the  gun  to  be  inclined  downward 
at  a  considerable  angle,  it  would  appear  that  the 
machinery  was  open  to  objection.  But  a  similar 
difficulty  presented  itself  years  ago  with  broadside 
guns.  These  were  found  to  start  their  projectiles 
freely,  not  so  much  by  the  rolling  of  tlie  ship  as  by 
the  jerk  of  running  the  gun  out.  Wedge  wads  were 
■employed  expressly  to  prevent  this,  and  guns  are 
generally  dependent  on  the  efficiency  of  these  wads 
for  the  fixing  of  thi-ir  projectiles. 

HYDRAULIC  POWER.— The  use  made  of  hydraul- 
ic power  is  probably  greater  at  Elswick  than  at  any 
otlier  Establishment  in  the  world.  This  might  natu- 
Tally  be  expected,  when  it  is  remembered  that  the 
world  is  indebted  to  Sir  William  Armstrong  for  the 
advance  made  in  this  direction.  The  system  of  hy- 
draulics at  Elswick  extends  to  all  parts  of  the  grounds. 
Teaching  all  the  shops,  wharves,  and  wafer-front. 
Pumping-cngines  are  established  at  convenient  in 
tervals,  only  one  working  at  a  time,  and  the  connec- 
tion of  pipes  being  continuous,  the  uniform  working 
of  the  system  is  established  by  five  or  six  .accumulators 
■witli  18-inch  rams.  The  working  of  the  pumping- 
■I'ngiue  is  made  automatic.  The  accumulator  nearest 
to  it  is  slightly  more  heavily  loaded  than  the  others 
to  give  a  lead  in  rising  to  tlie  distant  one,  and  is  con- 
nected with  a  steam  regulating  valve  to  act  as  a  gov-' 
■ernor  for  adjusting  tlie  speed  of  the  engine  to  tlic 
varying  demand  of  the  hydraulic  machines.  Tlie 
pressure  .sustained  throughout  the  system  is  7.')0 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  The  pipes  are  usually 
5  inches  in  diameter,  the  largest  being  0  inelu^s. 
Hydraulic  power  is  used  for  the  forge  and  foundry- 
cranes,  also  for  the  movable  cranes  whicli  operate 
along  the  water-front.  For  the  accommodalion  <if 
thi'se  last,  pipes  are  run,  in  junction  with  tlie  pres- 
■sure  main,  with  hydrants  from  IS  to  W!  feit  apart, 
from  which  connection  is  made  with  thc^  cranes  liy 
means  of  telescopic  tubes.  Two  or  more  cranes  can 
■thus  be  brought  into  operation  on  any  vessel  at  the 


water-front.  On  the  eastern  end  of  the  wharf  are 
erected  large  hydraulic  shears,  worked  by  a  direct- 
acting  hydraulic  cylinder,  40  feet  stroke,  "lifting  120 
tons.  The  back  leg  moves  so  as  to  bring  the  lifting 
cylinder  aliout  30  feet  out ;  the  foot  is  moved  by  a 
screw  .50  feet  long,  with  hydraulic  engine  and  gear. 
The  most  notable  hydraulic  crane  that  has  yet  been 
produced  from  these  works  is  one  erected  in  the 
Italian  naval  ar.senal  at  Spezzia,  which  is  capable  of 
lifting  160  tons  through  a  range  of  40  feet.  It  is  car- 
ried upon  a  ring  of  line  rollers  supported  by  a  ped- 
estal of  masonry,  and  the  slewing  is  effected  bj-  an 
hydraulic  engine  applied  to  a  pinion  which  gcan; 
with  a  circular  rack.  The  rake  of  the  jib  or  projec- 
tion from  the  center  of  rotation  is  65  feet,  and  its 
height  from  the  quay-level  is  10.5  feet.  The  crane  is 
counterbalanced  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  load. 
About  the  grounds  at  Elswick.  particularh-  at  the 
approaches  to  the  shops,  there  are  numerous  small 
capstans  worked  by  hvdraulic  engines,  which  are  of 
great  service  in  hauling  heavy  loads  into  or  out  of 
shops,  and  in  transporting  them  from  shop  to  shop. 
It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  add  that  it  is  at  Elswick 
that  the  applications  for  working  heavy  guns  jiy 
hydraidic  power  have  been  designed  and  manu- 
factured. No  foundry  or  gun  factory  can  be  con- 
sidered etficiently  equipped  without  being  provided 
with  arrangements  for  the  plentiful  supply  of  hydrau- 
lic power. 

We  can  but  briefly  describe  a  system  of  hydraulic 
supply  within  the  limits  of  this  work,  although  the 
subject  is  a  very  important  one,  and  is,  at  present, 
receiving  the  attention  of  the  United  States  authori- 
ties in  connection  with  the  proposed  establishment 
of  a  Government  foundry,  for  the  manufacture  of 
heavy  ordnance  adapted  to  modern  warfare.  The 
Holly  System  of  Water  Supply,  an  invention  of  Bird- 
sill  Holly,  of  Lockport,  New  York,  and  the  most 
perfected  system  of  which  we  have  knowledge,  is 
designed  not  only  to  supply  water  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses, at  any  desired  elevation,  without  the  use  of  a 
reservoir  or  stand-pipe,  or  any  other  contrivance  for 
calling  into  requisition  the  principle  of  tlie  hydro- 
static equilibrium,  but  also  to  furnish  the  means  of 
extinguishing  fires  at  several  points  at  the  same 
time,  if  necessary,  and  all  this  without  the  u.se  of 
any  movable  engine  for  that  purpose.  This  result  is 
accomplished  by  placing  a  set  of  Holly  pumping 
machinery,  which  is  of  peculiar  construction,  within 
a  suitable  building,  located  at  a  convenient  point 
where  the  supply  of  water  is  accessible,  and  from 
whence  by  a  proper  system  of  mains  and  pipes  the 
water  can  be  conducted  wherever  it  is  needed.  The 
pumping  machinery,  which  may  be  propelled  by 
either  steam  or  water-power,  must  be  adequate  to 
the  service  required,  having  a  reserve  of  power  for 
extraordinary  occasions.  To  guard  against  contin- 
gencies the  machinery  is  duplicated,  or  so  construct- 
ed that  the  breaking  of  a  part  does  not  disable  the 
whole.  In  order  to  maintain  steady  pressure,  the 
operation  of  the  machinery  is  continuous ;  but  as 
the  demand  for  water  is  subject  to  constant  varia- 
tion, means  are  provided  for  the  automatic  regula- 
tion and  government  of  the  pumps,  so  that  the 
amount  of  water  delivered  is  in  exact  accordance 
with  the  requirements  of  the  moment.  The  means 
of  regulation  which  thus  forms  such  an  important 
feature  in  the  Holly  system  is  an  exceedingly  sinii)le 
mcclmnical  device  de])ending  for  its  operation  upon 
the  degree  of  pressure  in  the  mains.  If  this  pres- 
sure falls,  owing  to  an  unusual  drain,  the  regulator 
instantly  acts  so  as  to  admit  steam  for  a  longer 
period  into  the  cylinders  of  the  engines,  and  the 
pumps  are  thus  at  once  caused  to  operate  more 
rapidly  .•mil  powerfully.  When  the  pressure  in  the 
mains  increases,  owing  to  but  small  drafts  being 
made  on  them,  the  reverse  takes  ])lace  and  li'ss 
water  is  pumped.  The  nornial  jiressure  is  adjusted 
by  the  engineer  in  accordance  with  average  require- 
ments.    The  Are  protection  aft'onled  by   the  Holly 


HYDRAULIC  POWER. 


73 


HTDEAtLIC  FOWZB. 


system  is  of  tlip  moHt  <'fflci('nt 
not  miTi'ly  distriliuli-cl  In  liyil 
under  pressure,  so  nil  lli".l  isrei 
the  liosc  1111(1  turn  on  Die  siren 
of  the  eiij;iiie  to  give  a  (|iii(k 
pressure,  ill  response  Ion  suilde 
work  of  iin  instant.  The  mere 
causes  sutHeient  diininulion  of 
to  oiierate  a  valve,  whieli  in 
with  a  whistle,  the  sounding  o 
for  the  engineer  to  turn  on  the 


clinrantpr.  Water  is 
ranis,  liiil  .sent  there 
|uired  is  toeiiiiple  on 
111.      'I'lie  iidjuslnieiit 

supply  under  heavy 
n  aliiriii  of  lire,  is  the 
o|)ening  of  a  hydrant 
jiressure  in  the  pipes 

turn  eonwnunieates 
f  which  is  the  nlarin 
tire  pressure. 


lie  admitted  to  but  one  cylinder,  and  exliausted  info 

the  other  three,  then  passini:  the  condenser,  forming 
a  eonipoiind-enginc'  at  pleasure.  To  change  from 
direct  to  coniponnd.  it  is  only  necessary  to  manipu- 
late three  stop-valves.  one  connecting  the  sleam-pipi- 
of  three  cylinders  with  the  hoilers,  one  connecting 
the  exhaust-pipe  of  the  fourth  cylinder  willi  the  con- 
denser, and  the  third  connecting  the  exlmust-pipe 
of  one  <ylin<ler  with  the  steam-pipes  of  the  three. 
The  valve  gear  of  each  steam-cylinder  consists  of  a 
slide  valve  moved  by  un  eccentric  in  the  usual  nian- 


Tlie  Holly  (lundruplex  piimpiiig-engine  is  represent- 
ed in  sectional  elevation  in  Kig.  1.  It  .has  four  steam- 
cylinders  inclined  at  an  angre  of  forty-tive  degrees, 
and  four  pumps,  one  of  whicli  is  in  a  direct  line  with 
each  cylinder.  The  steam-cylinders  and  their  pmnps 
are  arranged  in  pairs  on  opposite  sides  of  a  heavy 
iron  fruiiH'.  the  two  cylinders  of  each  pair  being  con- 
nected to  a  common  crank-pin.  and  tlie  crank  for 
one  pair  of  cylinders  being  set  135  degrees  in  advance 
of  that  on  theojjposile  sitle.  The  engines  are  of  the 
reciprocating  piston  form,  with  guides  and  connect- 
ing rods.  A  connecting  rod  alli.\ed  to  the  ijack 
crank-pin  actuates  an  air-pump  b<>rtm.  giving  motion 
to  two  single-acting  air-pumps  and  two  boiler  feed- 
pumps, one  of  which  draws  water  from  tlie  liot  well, 
and  the  other  from  tbe  steam-jacket.s  which  surround 
the  sides  of  all  the  steam-cylinders.  The  steam  from 
tlie  jackets  passes  through  a  feed  wafer-heater,  so  that 
the  temperature  of  the  feed  can  be  raised  to  any  de- 
sired point  by  increasing  the  amount  of  steam  sup- 
plied to  the  jackets.  The  connection  of  the  pumps 
with  the  steam-cylinders  and  the  steam  piston-rods 
with  the  pumps,  is  by  means  of  keys,  so  that  any 
engine  or  pump  can  readily  lie  thrown  out  of  action. 
The  steam-piston  is  packed  by  cast-iron  rings  set  out 
by  springs,  the  set-screw  of  which  projects  lieyond 
the  face  of  the  piston,  and  ther<!  are  lionnets  in  the 
lower  cylinder-lieads,  so  that  the  piston  rings  can  be 
adjusted  without  Ojieningthe  cylinder.  The  pumps 
are  of  the  piston  variety,  donlile-acting,  the  pump 
barrel  being  secured  in  a  chamber  containins  the 
valve  by  a  rib  which  forms  a  part  it  ion  liet  ween  valves 
on  the  opposite  ends.  The  piimji  valves  arc  tlat  discs 
of  rublter.  secured  to  iron  discs  having  stems  work- 
ing in  guides.  These  iron  discs  are  of  sufilcieiit 
■weight  to  bring  the  valves  to  their  seats  promptly. 
and  no  springs  are  nsed.  The  valves  seat  on  metal 
gratings.  The  steam  and  exhaust-pipe  of  the  several 
steam-cylinders  are  so  arranged  that  steam  from  the 
lioilers  can  be  admitted  directly  into  all  the  cylinders 
and  exhausted  into  the  condenser,  or  live  steam  can 


ner  and  admit  ting  steam  I  hrouglifint  the  whole  stroke. 
A  double  puppet-valve  in  the  steam-chest  regulates 
the  point  of  cut-ofT,  being  actuated  by  a  revolving 
spiral  cam  which  can  be  moved  in  an  axial  direction, 
and  thus  vary  the  periods  of  admissions  from  zero  to 
full  stroke.  The  manner  in  wliicli  this  cam  is  moved 
so  as  to  regulate  the  speed  and  ])ower  exerted,  is  an 
important  peculiarity  of  the  Holly  pumping-engine. 
The  adjustment  is  effected  liy  means  of  a  regulator 
connected  with  the  water-main  in  such  a  manner 
that  any  change  in  water  pressure  is  immediately 
corrected  by  an  adjustment  of  the  cut-off,  resulting 
in  a  practically  uniform  water  pressure  under  the 
most  varying  conditions  of  supply.  If  the  water 
Iiressure  tends  to  fall,  owing  to  an  unusual  draft 
upon  the  main,  the  cut-off  is  immediately  lengthened 
and  the  engines  exert  a  sulticient  power  to  maintain 
the  original  pressure;  if  the  consumption  is  sud- 
denly lessened  so  that  there  is  a  tendency  for  the 
water  pressure  to  increase,  the  cut-off  is  at  once 
shortened,  dimiuisliiiig  tlie  power  of  the  engine  sufti- 
cieiitly  to  maintain  the  original  pressure  under  the 
reduced  supply,  and  if  all  consumption  of  water 
suddenly  ceases  the  engine  will  immediately  stop. 
The  regulator  is  represented  in  Fig.  2. 

It  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  description  that 
the  Holly  regulator  acts  in  an  essentially  different 
manner  from  the  ordinary  governor,  which  would 
increase  the  cut-off  as  the  water  pressure  augment- 
ed, and  shorten  the  cut-off  as  the  same  diminished. 
The  details  of  the  regidator  are  briefly  as  follows  : 
.V  small  water-cylinder,  containing  a  solid  piston,  is 
(•(mneeted  directly  with  the  main,  and  a  weight  is 
attached  to  the  piston  so  as  to  counter-lialance  the 
water  pressure.  This  is  effected  by  suspending  the 
weight  from  a  strap  which  passes  over  a  cam  that 
rotates  as  the  pressure  changes,  thus  altering  the 
lever  arm  of  the  counter-balance,  and  keeping  it  in 
equilibrium  with  the  water  pressure,  however  much 
the  latter  may  vary.  The  cut-off  cams  of  the  steam- 
cylinders  are  moved  axially,  either  to  shortea  or  to 


HYSBAULIC  FOWXB. 


74 


HYDBADLIC  FOWEK. 


lengthen  the  cut-ofl  •when  the  regulator  throws  a 
friction-clutch  into  gear,  which  it  does  whenever  the 
water  pressure  varies  from  a  given  amount.  A 
weighted  lever  would  maintain  this  friction-clutch  in 

fear,  were  it  not  for  the  action  of  the  regulator, 
he  shaft  on  which  the  counter-bali>nce  cam  rotates 
has  an  inde.\-wheel,  and  the  index  can  be  set  at  any 
desired  water  pressure.  So  long  as  the  water  pres- 
sure varies  from  the  figure  at  which  the  index  is  set, 
the  friction-clutch  is  kept  in  gear  by  the  weighted 


Fit;.  3. 

lever,  and  the  cut-off  is  adjusted  until  the  required 
l)ressure  is  reached.  At  this  point  t)ie  index  engages 
with  the  weighted  lever,  and  throws  tlie  friction- 
dutch  out  of  gear.  Whenever  the  water  pressure 
varies,  the  friction-clutch  is  thrown  into  gear  again. 
dianging  the  cut-otT  so  as  to  maintain  the  water 
pressure  constant.  It  will  be  seen  tliat  the  cut-off 
is  regulated  by  positive  gear  driven  by  the  engine, 
and  tlie  f)nly  work  required  of  the  regulator  is  to 
connect  or  disconnect  this  gear.  Should  Ihe  pres- 
sure rise  very  suddenly,  however,  a  jtiston  in  the 
safety  cylinder  raises  a  lever  to  wliieh  the  cut-off  gear 
is  connected,  and  throws  the  cut-off  to  zero  instant- 
ly, if  this  is  requisite. 

Following  the  cpiadruple  engine,  the  Company 
lias  brought  out  a  novel  horizontal  compound  con- 
ilensing-cngine,  designed  by  Mr.  Ilarvey  F.  Gas- 
kill,  Engineer  and  Superintendent  of  tlie  Works.  It 
was  the  purpose  of  the  Company  in  bringing  out 


this  engine  to  provide  one  less  costly  than  the  quad- 
ruplex.  and  better  adapted  for  pumping  larger  quan- 
tities of  water :  also  to  stand  in  the  first  rank  as  to 
economy.  Following  is  a  description  of  the  engine, 
reference  being  made  to  Figures  3  and  4.  On  a  pair 
]  of  iron  bed-plates  are  mounted  the  two  pumps,  and 
in  direct  line  therewith  the  two  low-pressure  steam- 
cylinders  connected  to  the  pump  piston-rods.  Be- 
tween the  pumps  and  steam-cylinders  are  placed 
beam  supports,  which  are  firmly  bolted  to  the  bed- 
plates, and  also  rigidly  stayed  bj-  wrought-iron 
struts  to  the  pumps  and  steam-cylinders.  These 
beam  supports  carry  the  beam  shafts  and  beams, 
the  lower  end  of  the  latter  being  connected  to  the 
cross-heads  of  the  low-pressure  cjdinders  by  means 
of  links.  On  the  top  of  the  pumps  are  placed  the 
main  shaft  bearings,  which  support  the  shaft,  fly- 
wheel, and  cranks,  the  latter  being  keyed  to  the 
shaft  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  On"  top  of  the 
low-pressure  steam-cylinders  are  mounted  the  two 
high-pressure  steam-cylinders,  with  their  centers  in 
the  same  horizontal  plane  as  the  center  of  the  main 
crank  shafts.  The  cross-heads  of  the  high-pressure 
steam-cylinders  are  connected  by  means  of  connect- 
ing rods  to  the  crank-pins.  From  the  high-pressure 
steam-cylinders  heavy  cast-iron  girders  extend  to 
the  pillow-blocks.  On  the  inner  end  of  each  of  the 
beam  centers  an  arm  is  keyed,  from  which  the  air- 
pumps  are  driven.  The  valves  of  the  steam-cylin- 
ders are  operated  by  means  of  eccentrics  on  a  shaft, 
which  is  driven  from  the  main  shaft  through  small 
bevel  gears.  The  admission-valves  to  the  high- 
pressure  steam-cylinders  are  of  the  double-beat  pup- 
pet pattern,  so  arranged  as  to  open  at  the  proper 
time  and  to  close  at  any  desired  point  of  the  stroke. 
The  exhaust-valves  from  the  high-press\ire  cylinder 
are  also  the  admission-valves  to  the  low-pressure 
steam-cylinders,  and  are  ordinary  slide-valves,  re- 
maining open  somewhat  less  than  the  time  required 
to  make  one  complete  stroke.  The  exhaust-valves- 
from  the  low-pressure  cylinders  are  also  plain  slide 
valves,  operating  the  same  as  the  high-pressure  ex- 
haust-valves. The  pump.plungers  are  arranged  to 
work  through  glands  in  the  center  of  the  pumps, 
and  are  accessible  from  the  covers  at  the  end  of  the 
machine.  The  pump-valves  are  placed  on  horizon- 
tal plates  below  and  above  the  line  of  plunger  travel. 
The  glands  above-mentioned  divide  the  valves  of 
one  end  of  the  pump  from  those  of  the  other  end  at 
the  center  of  the  valve  plates.  The  operation  of 
the  machine  is  as  follows:  Steam  is  admitted 
through  the  automatic  cut-off  valves  into  the  high 
pressure  steam-cylinders,  urging  the  pistons  forward 
under  full  boiler  pressure  until  the  point  of  cut-off 
is  reached.  The  valve  then  closes  and  the  remain- 
ing portion  of  the  stroke  is  accomplished  by  the 
elastic  force  of  the  steam.  When  the  piston  has 
nearly  reached  the  end  of  its  travel,  the  exhaust 
valve  between  the  high  and  low  pressure  cylinder 
opens  and  the  steam  remaining  in  the  high  pressure 
cylinder  rushes  into  the  low  pressure  cylinder  and 
against  its  piston,  which  at  that  time  is  at  the  end 
of  its  travel  and  at  tlie  opposite  of  the  high  pressure 
piston.  The  low  pressure  cylinder-piston  is  then 
in  turn  urged  forward  b_v  the  incoming  steam,  which 
is  expanded  to  four  times  the  volume  it  occupied  in 
the  high  pressure  cylinder  at  the  time  of  its  release 
therefrom.  The  releasee  from  the  low  pressure 
cylinders  is  accomplished  hv  means  of  the  cxhaust- 
valv<'S  in  the  return  strokes.  This  operation  is  re- 
peated on  each  side  and  at  each  end  at  priipcr  times. 
The  close  cimnection  between  the  t\vo<yliuders  re- 
duces the  clearance  spaces  to  a  minimum,  which 
with  thorough  jacketing  insures  the  most  economical 
use  of  steam. 

This  engine  is  also  built  to  operate  as  a  ncm-cmn- 
])ound  engine,  in  which  case  the  upper  or  liigli  |ins- 
sure  steani-cvlinders  and  <'oniicclions  are  nmitlc<l, 
and  the  lower  sleani-cylinders  are  provided  wilh 
automatic  cut-off  valves.      Steam  is  admitted  into 


HYDROMETER. 


75 


HYDROMETER. 


these  cylinders  direet  from  the  l)oil(r  ami  exlmusted  HYDROMETER.  An  in.slniiiienl  eini)loyed  to  dc- 
into  the  <'ondenser.  ThiK  ninilc__(>f  ((inslnictioii  is  ;  teriMiiM-  vjm  <  ilic  griivilieH.  The  drawini;  exhibila 
udiipted  to  small  places,  and  Id  cities  and  villages  I  the  form  ot  the  inslrninent  used  in  delermininfr  the 
where  the  eheaiiness  of   fuel  renders   the  lirBt  cost  j  siiecilic  gravity  of  ujetals.     ll  is  constructed  oii  the 


Fi?.  a. 


of  the  machine  a  matter  more  to  he  considered  than 
the  annual  saving  in  the  fuel.  Although  even  when 
constructed   as  a  non-compound  engine,  a  duty  of 


Fig.  4. 

50,000,000  foot-pounds  of  work  can  be  obtained  from 
100  pounds  of  coal.  See  St-eam-digf/u,  Turbine,  and 
WaUr-wlut  h. 


principle  of  Nicholson's  liydrometer :  having  a  Imlb 
IXt  inches  diameter  and  Sinches  high,  made  of  cop- 
per, in  one  piece,  without  seam.  The  copper  is  .03 
in.  thick,  and  deposited  on  a  mold,  of 
low  fusible  metal,  by  the  electro.gal- 
vanic  process.  A  handh  of  brass  wire, 
with  broad  Manges  at  the  en(t-,  is  in- 
serted in  the  bt>ttom  of  the  mokl,  be- 
fore the  copper  is  deposited,  the  cop- 
per covering  and  luiiting  with  bo<h. 
The  brass  cone  is  bored  through  its 
axis,  and  screw-threads  arc  cut  in  it. 
After  the  bulb  is  formed,  the  fusil)lc 
mold  is  melted,  and  withdrawn  througl; 
the  aperture  in  the  brass  cone.  The 
aperture  is  then  closed  liy  a  small  screw 
and  made  air-tight  by  close  fitting,  and 
by  sealing-wax  spreadoverit.  Asolid 
stem  of  brass  is  then  screwed  into  the 
bottom  of  the  bulb.  A  vertical  index- 
stem,  made  of  steel,  is  inserted  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  handle.  The  U[)per 
end  of  the  stem  receives  the  weight- 
pan,  which  is  supported  in  its  place  by 
a  coni.^al  socket  on  its  underside.  The 
height  of  the  hydrometer,  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ball  to  the  weight  pan.  is 
21  inches.  All  of  the  exterior  surface 
is  protected  by  electro-gilding.  The 
weight  of  the  bulb,  including  the  han- 
dle and  brass  cone,  is  about  l.o.S.'iO 
grains  :  the  lowerstem  and  ball  weigh 
about  20.320  grains,  and  the  weigjit- 
pan  is  6(30  grains:  making  the  total 
Weight  of  the  hydrometer  about  36.830 
grains.  Its  general  form,  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  metal  within  it,  place 
till-  centers  of  gravity  and  buoyancy 
so  far  apart  that  it  readily  takes  a  ver- 
tical position  when  immersed,  and  will 
deviate  very  little  from  it.  however  ir- 
regularly it  may  be  loaded.  The  maxi- 
■ar^J  mum  buoyancy  of  the  hydrometer  is 
14.600  grains,  and.  when  loaded  to  ze- 
ro, it  displaces  ,51,430  grains  of  water.  The  buoy, 
ancy  may  be  rediiced  one-half  by  increments  of  500 
grains  each,  by  placing  one  c>r  more  of  the  adjusting 


EYDSO-FNEUMATIC  CABEIA6£. 


76 


HYDRO-PNEUMATIC  CAEKIAGE. 


weights  over  the  ball,  at  the  bottom  of  the  stem. 
Such  a  reduction  of  the  buoyancy  is  found  con- 
venient in  practice,  when  weighing:  small  samples, 
as  it  prevents  the  necessity  for  placing  and  displac- 
ing numerous  weights  on  tlie  pan.  The  index  stem 
is  .071  inch  diameter ;  a  length  of  1  inch  displaces 
one  grain  of  water.  Four  points  of  silver  wire, 
made  thin  and  sloping  at  the  ends,  are  attached  near 
the  stem  so  as  to  form  a  scale  of  weights,  in  tenths 
of  a  grain.  The  two  nearest  opposite  points  are  one- 
tenth  of  an  inch  apart.  When  the  instrument  rests 
with  one  of  these  points  above,  and  the  other  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  water,  it  is  at  zero.  Wlien  either 
of  them  touches  or  is  even  with  tlie  surface,  the  load 
is  one-tenth  of  a  grain  too  heavy,  or  too  light,  and  if 
either  passes  through  the  surface,  the  error  is  then 
two-tenths  of  a  grain.  If  either  of  the  two  points 
which  are  more  distant  from  the  zero  touches  the 
surface  of  the  water,  the  load  is  then  deficient,  or  in 
excess,  three-tenths  of  a  grain ;  and  if  the  heel  of 
either  of  these  points  passes  the  surface,  the  error  is 
then  four-tenths  of  a  grain.  Careful  observation  of 
the  position  of  these  points,  when  the  h3'drometer  is 
immersed  and  at  rest,  will  serve  to  indicate  the  true 
balance,  when  the  zero  mark  may  be  al)0ve  or  below 
the  surface  of  the  water,  within  a  given  limit.  By 
this  method,  the  inconvenience  and  delay  of  bringing 
the  zero  to  the  surface  of  the  water  by"  the  decimal 
parts  of  the  grain  weight  is 
thusavoided.  Thewaterin 
which  the  hydrometer  is  im- 
mersed is  contained  in  a  cis- 
tern of  glass,  3.5  inches  deep, 
and  not  less  than  V2  inches 
diameter.  If  the  bottom  of 
the  cistern  is  not  level  a  flat 
plate  should  be  placed  over 
it  and  supported  horizontal- 
ly on  three  legs.  The  height 
of  the  water  in  the  cistern 
should  be  such  that  wlien  the 
bottom  of  the  hydrometer 
descends  to  the  plate  the 
weight-pan  should  be  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  above  the 
surface  of  the  water.  This 
will  prevent  an  immersion 
of  the  pan  when  overload- 
ed. The  weight-pan  is  at- 
tached to  the  inde.v  stem  b}' 
an  open  socket,  on  its  under 
side,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
removed  with  its  load  from 
the  hydrometer  and  placed 
on  a  table  where  the  weights 
may  be  safely  and  accurate- 
lycotmted.  Astheweights 
often  consist  of  man}'  pieces, 
errors  may  occur  in  count- 
ing, or  in  the  record  of  them; 
it  is  a  good  precaution  to  verify  them  by  a  recount 
after  making  the  record.  A  tliermometer.  with  a 
scale  of  about  5°  to  the  inch,  sub-divided  in  quarters 
of  a  degree,  is  suspended  in  the  water  while  weigh- 
ing samples  and  the  temperature  sliould  be  noted 
at  each  weighing.  The  weighings  are  made  at  tem- 
peratures varying  with  the  state  of  the  weather  at 
the  time,  and  as  llie  density  of  water  varies  with  its 
temperature,  the  latter  is  noted  in  order  that  the  pro- 
per corrections  may  be  made.  The  unit  adopted  is 
distilled  water  at  the  temperature  of  (!()"  Fahr. 

The  hydrometer  may  be  employc-d  to  determine 
the  relative  density  of  distilled  and  any  other  kind  of 
■water.  The  weiglit  of  the  hydrometer,  added  to 
its  balance-weight  in  distilled  water,  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  fiO",  gives  llie  weiglit  of  a  quantity  of  pure 
standard  wat<T  which  is  e(|ual  in  bulk  to  tlie  im- 
mersed part  of  the  instrument.  The  weight  of  the 
hydrometer,  with  its  load,  when  immersed  in  like 
manner  in  any  other  kind  of  water  at  the  same  tem- 


perature, gives  the  weight  of  an  equal  bulk  of  the 
latter:  and  this  weight,  divided  by  the  former,  giveg 
the  multiplier  for  correcting  the  density  when  as- 
certained in  any  other  than  pure  distilled  water. 
Rain  or  river  water  may  be  used  instead  of  distilled 
water,  if  its  relative  density  be  first  accurately  deter- 
mined and  the  proper  correction  be  made.  At  the 
foundries,  generall}',  river  water  is  found  to  be  snffi- 
cientl)-  pure  for  use  without  needing  any  correction. 
In  using  the  hydrometer,  first  load  the  pan  with  the 
grain  weights  until  the  instrument  rests  at  zero,  and 
record  the  sum  of  these  weights  as  the  Balance  nf  the 
Uydrometcr.  Ne.\t,  place  in  tlie  pan  the  sample,  to- 
gether with  as  many  weights  as  will  again  bring  the 
instrument  to  its  zero,  and  record  these  weights  as 
the  Sample  Balance  in  Ah:  The  difference  between 
these  balances  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  sample 
in  air.  Then  place  the  sample  on  the  bulb  of  the 
instrument  and  immerse  both  until  the  hydrometer 
again  rests  at  zero,  and  record  the  weights  on  the 
panas  the  Sample  Balance  in  Water.  The  tlifference 
lietween  this  balance  and  that  in  air  is  equal  to  the 
weight  of  the  water  displaced  by  the  immersed  sam- 
ple. The  temperature  of  the  water  at  the  time  of 
weighing  is  noted,  and  if  it  is  not  at  60°  divide  the 
weight  displajed  liy  the  the  sample  by  that  number 
in  the  following  table  which  is  opposite  the  noted 
temperature,  and  the  quotient  will  give  the  corrected 
displacement  for  the  temperature  of  60"^.  Then,  the 
weight  of  tlie  sample  in  air,  divided  by  the  corrected 
displacement,  gives  the  densit}-  of  the  sample.  The 
hydrometer  may  be  employed  in  determining  the 
varying  densitj-  of  the  same  water  at  different  de- 
grees of  temperature.  The  weight  of  the  water  it  dis- 
places at  any  other  temperature  than  60°,  divided  by 
its  displacement  in  the  same  water  at  60",  will  give 
the  proportionate  weight  of  water  displaced  bythe 
same  instrument  at  other  temperatures.  See  Are- 
ometer and  Specific  Gravity. 

HYDEO  PNEUMATIC  CAEEIAGE.— A  hydro-pneu- 
matic carriage  has  lately  been  proposed  by  Major 
JloncrieJI  for  the  use  of  siege-carriages,  somewhat 
en  the  system  of  his  counterweight  carriages  for 
heavy  guns.  The  object  obtained  is  lightness,  the 
facility  of  loading  the  gun  when  out  of  sight  of  the 
enemy,  and  raising  it  en  barbette  without  anj-  diffi- 
culty, thus  obviating  the  necessity  of  cutting  em- 
brasures in  the  parapet.  The  carriage  is  designed 
for  siege  purposes,  and  it  seems  not  improbable  that 
the  development  of  its  principle  may  altogether  rev- 
olutionize that  branch  of  military  operations.  Bat- 
teries of  attacks  have  hitherto  lieen  protected  by 
embankments  hastily  thrown  up,  while  the  guns 
have  been  fired  through  embrasures.  But  the  deadly 
precision  of  improved  artillery  sends  shot  after  shot 
into  the  embrasures,  while  its  penetrating  power 
makes  ordinary  earthworks  but  very  indifferent  pro- 
tection. Major  Moncrieff's  idea  is  to  adapt  to  the 
attack  the  system  he  has  been  elaborating  for  coast 
defenses.  He  digs  a  hole  .and  buries  his  gun  in  it. 
The  soil,  when  it  is  excavated,  is  carried  to  the 
rear,  and  the  enemy  has  no  mark  to  guide  his  aim  ; 
after  each  discharge  the  gun  sinks  out  of  sight,  and 
the  indication  of  its  precise  whereabouts  vanishes 
with  the  smoke.  In  the  sieges  in  the  late  war.  the 
Germans  found  that  they  must  withdraw  their  bat- 
teries to  immense  distances,  whence  the  tire  was 
vague  and  relatively  ineffective.  Major  jMoncricIV 
undertakes  to  place  his  guns  within  500  yards  of  the 
enemy's  works.  By  his  very  well-known  iilea  of  the 
counterweight  he  had  attaini'd  his  object  of  elevating 
the  gun  out,  and  returning  it  to  cover,  and  so  en- 
abling the  gunners  to  work  in  comparative  .safety  by 
storing  the  force  of  the  recoil.  Hut  the  objection  to 
ajiplying  the  system  to  siege  operations  was  the  un- 
wieldy weiglit  of  carriages  fitted  willi  the  coimter- 
weiglit,  where  liglitness  and  facility  of  movenunt 
were  primary  considerations.  The  hydro-pneuma- 
tic system  dispenses  with  this  ponderous  counler- 
weight,  replacing  it  very  ingeniously  with  a  simple 


HTGROMETRR. 


77 


HYGEOMETEE. 


cylinder  only  contaiiiini;  iiir  imd  water,  wliicli  oscil- 
lati'S  between  tlie  clweks  of  llie  triin-earrias;e.  It  is 
a  feature  in  the  carriaiie  that  it  can  lie  secured  on  an 
improvised  platform  witlioiil  any  lii-avy  and  coKtly 
apiiliances.  It  is  fastened  by  a  chain  passed  loosely 
round  som<^  balks  of  timber  buried  in  the  urounif. 
and  the  fastenini;  acts  as  a  rude  i>ivot,  on  which  it 
revolves.  When  in  i)osition  for  lirin;;,  the  irun  is 
raised  to  a  lieiirht  of  some  7  feet  upon  a  jiair  <if  arms 
or  elevators  which  lay  holil  nf  the  Iruimions,  and 
llieiraetion  is  re<;ulaled  by  racks,  which  .are  arranj^ed 
to  work  in  c  nmcction  with  a  radial  conneclin^-rod. 
Between  these  is  the  head  of  the  |)istou  which  works 
in  the  hydro.pneunuitic  cyliiuler.  With  the  dis- 
charge of  the  i^un  the  head  of  tiio  cylinder  sways 
liaekwards.  the  piston  is  forced  down  by  the  recoil, 
an  1,  as  the  piston  slowly  iroe.s  down  in  this  cylinder, 
the  nun  descends  with  it  to  the  normal  jiosiliim  for 
loading.  The  internal  adjustments  of  the  cylinder 
are,  of  course,  the  essence  of  the  invention.  'I'lic 
piston  descends  in  a  tube  of  water,  communicating 
at  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  with  a  couple  of  side- 
chambers  which  are  tilli'd  with  air.  As  the  water  is 
forced  <lown  in  the  central  tube,  it  necessarily  rushes 
into  the  side  ones,  and  the  elasticity  of  the  air  it 
violently  compresses  is  the  motive  jiower  that  is  to 
be  stored  for  use.  There  is  just  sulticient  water  to 
fill  the  central  cylinder  and  to  cover  all  the  valves 
and  joints,  and  there  is  nothing  but  strong  and  solid 
metal  in  those  parts  of  the  side-chambers  in  whicli 
the  (compressed  air  is  to  be  conlined.  At  tlie  bottom 
of  the  cylinder,  between  it  and  the  air-valve,  and 
immediately  in  rear  of  the  latter, is  a  "  throttle-valve." 
The  throttle-valve  c<msists  of  a  snuill.  circular,  per- 
forated cylinder,  revolving  within  a  larger  one.  and 
its  |)urpose  is  to  neutralize,  by  the  application  of 
water  friction,  any  excess  of  energy  in  the  recoil. 
Indeed,  ue.xt  to  employing  air  and  water,  as  light 
and  convenient  materials  of  enormous  power  to 
work  those  heavy  siege  guns,  the  idea  is  to  use 
those  elements  so  as  to  avoid  friction  and  concussifin. 
Instead  of  the  very  violent  recoil  which  threatened  to 
shake  the  strongest  carriage  to  pieces  when  it  was 
arrested  sharply  by  the  resistance  of  screws  and  iron, 
according  to  this  hydro-pneumatic  system  the  recoil 
is  made  to  e.xliaust  itself  upon  air-springs  and  water- 
cushions.  The  first  shock  is  broken  upon  tlie  mass 
of  water  in  the  mi  Idle  cylinder,  and  the  throttle-valve 
disposes,  as  it  were,  of  any  of  the  subsequent  vibra- 
tions. Theoretically,  therefore,  if  we  may  use  the 
expression,  the  recoil  shoidd  be  all  self-c(mtained. 
It  was  very  nearl_v  so  in  all  practice ;  the  carriage 
moved  slightly  to  the  lirst  sliot,  as  the  cliain  tight- 
ened that  secured  it  to  the  balks :  but  the  shot  that 
followed  made  no  perceptible  change  in  its  position. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  under  the  old  system, 
and  before  Major  Moncrieff  had  invented  his  counter- 
poise, or  thought  of  his  hydro-pneumatic  cylinder, 
the  gun  would  liave  wrenched  itself  away  from  such 
a  rough-and-ready  fastening.  When  the  piece  is 
raisetl  for  firing,  it  is  managed  by  a  worm-wheel  at 
the  side,  which  regulates  the  angle  of  elevation,  and 
which  turns  easily  to  the  touch.  To  sum  up  the 
merits  of  the  invention,  if  it  realizes  the  advantages 
claimed  for  it — and  as  it  confessed  to  be  a  mechanical 
success,  we  can  scarcely  see  how  it  can  fail  to  do  so 
— it  will  enable  sieae-liatteries  to  be  established  and 
worked  with  comparative  impunity  at  an  extraordi- 
nary short  distance  from  the  formidable  guns  which 
are  mounted  on  modern  fortresses  :  siege-guns  may 
be  secured  in  position  anywhere  with  materials  that 
are  always  ready  to  hand ;  and  carriages  on  con- 
stant service  will  be  exposed  to  the  very  nu'/iimiim 
of  strain.  Moreover,  Major  Moncrieff's  new  appara- 
tus can  be  easily  adapted  to  ordinary  siege-carriages. 
and  a  cart  and  a  couple  of  horses  will  transport  its 
extra  weight.  If  it  proves  successful  with  the  heavy 
40-pr.  siege-guns,  a  fortiori  it  must  succeed  with  the 
46-pr.  to  be  employed  for  coast  batteries,  as  sugsres'ted 
in  Major  Moncrieflfs  pamphlet  on  defenses.  | 


HYGROMETEB.— An  instrument  for  nieasuring  the 
quantity  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.     The  earlier 
forms  of  hygrometer  depended    ujion   the   proixTty 
possessed  by  some   substances  of  readily  alisorbing 
'  moisture  from  the  air,  and  being  thereby  rhanged  in 
dimensions  or  in  weight.     Of  this  kin<l  was  the  hair 
hygrometer  of  Saussure.  in  which  a  hair,  which  ex- 
pands and  contracts  in  length   according  us  the  air 
is  more  or  less  moist,  was  mad(r  to  move  an  index  ; 
a  similar  instrument  was  the  whalebone  inslrunxnt 
of  Ueluc  :   but  as  other  causes  as  well  as  moisture 
affect  such  instruments,  they  alTord  no  accurate  in- 
dications.    The  most   perfect  hygrometer,   tlierireti- 
cally,  is  that  of  J.  F.  Daniell.  It  consists  of  two  bulbs 
coimected  by  a  very  strong  bent  tube,  and  enclos- 
ing a  thermometer,  together  with  some  ether  and  the 
vapor  of  ether,  the   air  having   been   lirst   expelled. 
This   hygrometer  was  employed   at   the    Hoyal  Ob- 
servatory.   (Jrcenwich.  from    1M40—  the   C'ommencc- 
j  ment  of  meteorological  observations-  till  1847.  when 
it  was  superseded  by  the  more  convenient  instrument, 
I  the  Wet  and  Dry  liulb  Thermometer  of  usual  form. 
j  This  instrument  consists  of   two  ordinary  thermom- 
I  eters— one  has   its  bull)  bare,  and   thus  shows  the 
'  temperature  of  the  air  ;   the  other  has  its  bulb  covered 
I  with  uuislin,  which  is  kept   wet   by   a   cotton   wick 
I  dipi)ing  into  water.     The  evaporation  from  the  mus- 
lin, and  the  conse(|uent  cooling  of  the  bulb,  being  in 
proportion  to  tlie  dryness  of  the   air,  the  diflerence 
between  the   readings   of  the   two   thermometers  is 
greatest  when  the  air  is  dryest,  anri  zero  when  it  is. 
'  completely  saturated.      The  readings  of  the  tliermo- 
)  meters  then  being   taken,  the  elastic   force  of  vapor 
I  at  the  dew-point  is  calculated  bv  the  formula  of  Dr. 
I  Apjohn  : 

d     h  u,     h 

1  (1)P=/ .-;    (2)    F  =/--.-; 

I  88   30  96   30 

i  the  first  formula  is  to  be  used  when  the  wet  thermo- 
I  meter  is  above,  and  the  second  whenever  it  is  below, 
the  freezing-point '32^'j-     In  these  formuhe.  F  is  the 
elastic   force  of  vapor  at  the  dew-point,  which  has 
been  determined  for  different  temperatures  by  Heg- 
naull  from  carefully  conducted  experiments  ;"/.  the 
elastic  force  at  temperature  of  evaporation  (or  read- 
ing of  wet  bulb  J;  d,  the  difference 
between  the  dry  and  wet  bulbs; 
and  h.  the  height  of  the  barome- 
ter.    From  this  the  quantity  of 
moisture  in  one  cubic  toot  of  air, 
etc..  can  be  found  as  before.     To 
dispense  with  these  troublesome 
cahulations.  thQ  llygromHric  Tn. 
bli:^  of  !Mr.  Glasliier  may  be  used. 
Mason's  hygrometer,  represented 
in  Fig.  1.  is  a  verj-  convenient  and 
satisfactory  instrument  for  prac- 
tical use.    It  consists  of  two  ther- 
mometers, as  nearly  as  possible 
similar  mounted  parallel  upon  a 
frame  and   marked   respectively 
'•wet  "and  ••  dry."     Thebulbof 
the  one  marked  tret  is  covered 
with  thin  muslin  or  silk. and  kept 
moist  from  a  fountain  which  is- 
usually  attached.     The  principle 
of  its  action  is.  that  unless  the  air 
is  saturated  with  moisture,  evap- 
oration is  continually  going  on. 
Ana  as  no  evaporation"  can  take 
place  without  an  expenditure  of 
the  heat,  the  temperature  of  the 
fifc'.  I.  -^-i-i  bulb  thermometer,  under  the 

evaporation  from  the  moistened  bulb,  fails  until  a  cer- 
tain point  is  reached,  intermediate  between  the  dew- 
point  and  the  temperature  of  the  air.  as  shown  by  the 
thermometer.  To  tind  the  dew-point,  the  absolute 
drvness.  and  the  weight  in  grains  of  a  culiic  foot  of 
air,  tables  have  been  constructed  empirically  from  ex- 
periments at  Greenwich,  combined  with  Kegnault's 


HTGKOMETEK. 


78 


HYGEOMETEB. 


Tables  of  Vapor  Tension.  Wlien  using  this  instru- 
ment, if  the  air  be  very  dry,  the  difference  between 
the  two  thermometers  will  be  great ;  if  moist,  less 
in  proportion,  and  when  fully  saturated,  both  will 
be  alike.  For  different  purposes,  different  degrees 
of  humidity  are  required,  and  even  in  household  use, 
that  hygrometrical  condition  of  the  atmosphere  most 
beneficial  to  one  person,  may  frequently  be  found  al- 
together unsuitable  for  ano'ther.  "Dry"  bulb  70*^ 
and  '•  wet"  bulb  62*  to  64°  indicate  average  health- 
ful hygrometrical  conditions ;  any  other  relative  con- 


It  consists  of  a  thin  and  highly-polished  tubular  ves- 
sel of  silver,  A,  having  one  end  somewhat  longer  than 
the  other.  A  rather  delicate  thermometer  is  intro- 
duced into  the  tube  at  the  smaller  end,  to  which 
end  of  the  tubular  vessel,  also,  a  flexible  rubber  tube 
with  ivory  mouth-piece  is  attached.  A  sufficient 
quantity  of  ether  to  cover  the  bulb  of  the  thermo- 
meter, being  poured  into  the  silver  vessel,  the  ether 
is  agitated  by  breathing  through  the  flexible  tube. 
A  rapid  evaporation  ensues  until  at  the  moment  the 
dew-point  is  reached,  the  moisture  is  seen  to  condense 


DEW-POINT. 


d 

a 
< 

Difference  between  reading  of  Wet  and  Dry-ba  . 

a 

< 

+  30° 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

+30° 

+  30° 

+  27° 

+  24° 

+  21°  +17° 

+13° 

+  7° 

—  1° 

—11° 

^^30° 

31 

31 

28 

25 

22   18 

14 

9 

+  2 

—  7 

—23 

31 

32 

32 

89 

26 

23 

20 

16 

11 

5 

—  3 

—17 

32 

3.3 

33 

30 

37 

24 

21 

17 

13 

7 

—  1 

—12  —32 

33 

34 

34 

31 

28 

26 

22 

19 

15 

9 

+  2 

-7 

—23 

34 

+  35 

+  .35 

+  32 

+  29 

+  26 

+  24 

+  20 

+  16 

+  11 

+  5 

-3 

—17 

+35 

36 

36 

33 

30 

27 

24 

21 

18 

13 

8 

—  1 

—12 

-32 

36 

37 

37 

34 

32 

29 

25 

21 

19 

15 

9 

+  3 

—  7 

—23 

37 

38 

38 

35 

33 

30 

26 

23 

19 

17 

11 

6 

—  3 

—16 

38 

39 

39 

36 

34 

31 

28 

24 

20 

16 

14 

8 

0 

— U 

—31 

39 

+  40 

+  40 

+  37 

+  35 

+  32 

+  29 

+  26 

+  22 

+  18 

+  12 

+  10 

+  3 

—  6 

—22 

+  40 

41 

41 

39 

36 

33 

30 

27 

23 

19 

14 

8 

6 

—  2 

—16 

41 

42 

42 

40 

37 

34 

31 

28 

25 

21 

16 

10 

3 

+  2 

—  9 

—29 

42 

43 

43 

41 

38 

35 

33 

30 

26 

22 

18 

13 

6 

—  3 

—  5 

—20 

43 

44 

44 

42 

39 

37 

34 

31 

27 

24 

20 

16 

9 

+  1 

—12 

—13 

44 

+  45 

+45 

+43 

+  40 

+  38 

+  35 

+  32 

+  29 

+  25 

+  21 

+  17 

+  11 

+  4 

—  7 

—27 

+  45 

46 

46 

44 

41 

39 

36 

33 

30 

27 

23 

19 

14 

7 

—  2 

-18 

46 

47 

47 

45 

43 

40 

37 

36 

32 

28 

25 

21 

16 

10 

+  2 

-11 

47 

48 

48 

46 

44 

41 

39 

36 

33 

30 

26 

22 

18 

12 

5 

—  6 

48 

49 

49 

47 

45 

42 

40 

3T 

34 

31 

28 

24 

20 

15 

8 

—  1 

49 

+  .50 

+  50 

+  48 

+  46 

+  43 

+  41 

+  38 

+  36 

+  33 

+  29 

+  26 

+  22 

+  17 

+  11 

+  3 

+.50 

61 

51 

49 

47 

45 

42 

40 

37 

34 

31 

27 

23 

19 

13 

6 

51 

52 

62 

50 

48 

46 

43 

41 

38 

35 

32 

29 

25 

21 

16 

9 

52 

53 

63 

51 

49 

47 

44 

42 

40 

37 

34 

30 

27 

23 

18 

12 

53 

54 

64 

52 

60 

48 

46 

43 

41 

38 

35 

32 

28 

24 

20 

15 

M 

+  55 

+  55 

+  63 

+  51 

+  49 

+  47 

+  45 

+  42 

+  39 

+  36 

+  33 

+  30 

+  26 

+  22 

+  17 

+  55 

56 

56 

54 

62 

50 

48 

46 

43 

41 

38 

35 

32 

28 

24 

19 

66 

57 

57 

55 

63 

51 

49 

47 

45 

42 

39 

36 

33 

30 

26 

22 

67 

58 

68 

56 

54 

6J 

60 

48 

46 

43 

41 

38 

35 

31 

28 

24 

53 

59 

59 

57 

55 

63 

61 

49 

47 

45 

42 

39 

36 

33 

29 

26 

59 

+  60 

+  60 

+  58 

+  66 

+  54 

+  52 

+  60 

+  48 

+  46 

+  43 

+  41 

+38 

+  35 

+  31 

+  28 

+  60 

61 

61 

59 

57 

56 

54 

62 

49 

47 

ii 

42 

39 

36 

a3 

29 

61 

62 

62 

60 

58 

57 

55 

53 

61 

48 

46 

43 

41 

38 

35 

31 

62 

63 

63 

61 

60 

58 

66 

54 

62 

60 

1^ 

46 

42 

39 

36 

a3 

63 

64 

64 

62 

61 

69 

57 

66 

63 

51 

49 

46 

44 

41 

38 

35 

64 

+  65 

+  65 

+  63 

+  62 

+  60 

+  68 

+  66 

+  54 

+  52 

+  60 

+48 

+  45 

+  42  +39 

+  36 

+  65 

66 

66 

64 

63 

61 

59 

57 

65 

63 

51 

49 

46 

44 

41 

38 

66 

67 

67 

65 

64 

62 

60 

68 

66 

54 

52 

.60 

48 

45 

43 

40 

67 

68 

68 

66 

65 

63 

61 

69 

68 

56 

54 

51 

49 

47 

44 

41 

63 

69 

69 

67 

66 

64 

62 

61 

59 

57 

65 

53 

50 

48 

45 

43 

69 

+  70 

+  70 

+  68 

+  67 

+  65 

+  63 

+  62 

+  6» 

+  58 

+  56 

+  54 

+  62 

+  49 

+  47 

+  44 

+  70 

71 

71 

69 

68 

66 

65 

63 

61 

69 

57 

55 

53 

51 

48 

46 

71 

72 

72 

71 

69 

67 

66 

64 

62 

60 

^ 

56 

54 

.52 

50 

47 

72 

73 

73 

72 

70 

68 

67 

65 

63 

61 

60 

68 

56 

53 

51 

49 

T3 

74 

74 

73 

71 

69 

68 

66 

64 

63 

61 

69 

57 

55 

52 

50 

74 

+  75 

+  75 

+  74 

+  72 

+  70 

+  69 

+  67 

+  65 

+  64 

+  62 

+  60 

+  58 

+  56 

+  H 

+  51 

+  75 

76 

76 

75 

73 

70 

68 

67 

65 

63 

61 

59 

67 

55 

63 

76 

77 

77 

76 

74 

72 

71 

69 

68 

66 

64 

62 

60 

58 

56 

64 

77 

78 

78 

77 

75 

74 

72 

70 

69 

67 

65 

64 

62 

60 

58 

.55 

78 

79 

79 

78 

76 

75 

73 

71 

70 

68 

66 

65 

63 

61 

59 

67 

79 

+  80 

+  80 

+  79 

+  77 

+  76 

+  74 

+  73 

+  71 

+69 

+  68 

+  66 

+  64 

+  62 

+  60 

+58 

+  80 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

dition  required  may  easily  be  found  by  experiment, 
and  then,  dispensing  with  calculations,  or  reference 
tables,  it  is  only  necessary  to  see  that  the  two  ther- 
mometers stand  in  the  required  relation  to  each  other. 
The  hygrodyke,  shown  in  Fig.  2,  is  on  the  principle 
of  IMason's  hygrometer,  but  is  arranged  with  a  dial 
and  pointer  so  that  the  absolute  and  also  (he  relative 
dryness  and  the  dew-point  may  be  read  off  without 
calculation.  I{ci;nauit's hygrometer,  with  aspirator. 
Is  represented  in  Fig.  ;i.  I$y  means  of  this  instru- 
ment instunlaueous  ob-servations  may  be  readily  made. 


upon  the  exterior  surface  of  the  polished  silver  tube. 
The  reading  of  the  thermometer  at  this  precise  mo- 
ment gives  the  dew-point. 

Lieutenant  James  Allen,  United  States  Army,  has 
made  an  ingenious  and  novel  application  of  tlie  Iiy- 
grometer,  inforetflling  frnKt  by  the  determination  of 
the  dew-point.  Lieutenant  Allen  uses,  in  his  investi- 
gations, a  dry  and  wet-lmlb  hygrometer  of  a  s|)ocial 
construction,  consisting  of  two  mercurial  thermom- 
eters, which,  being  placcil  siili-  by  side,  will  indi- 
cate the  same  temperature.     The  iiry-bulb  is  but  a 


HYGROMETER. 


HYGROMETER. 


common  thermometer,  inteiuled  to  show  the  tem- 
pcriitiirc  of  the  mr.  Tlic  wct-lmH)  in  al.si>  a  coiiiiiioii 
thcniKJiMcliT.  liiil  liiiviiii;  ils  Ijulh  I'dvcn-rl  willi  ii  piece 
of  tliiii  iinisliii,  fi'diii  wliieli  pii.MseH  a  few  llirciulH  of 
dariiiiif;-ciitt(]ii  or  imrrovv  strip  of  niusliii  into  u  siimll 
vessel  eoiitiiiiiiiii;  raiii-waliT.  Water  rises  liy  capil- 
lary iillriictioii  from  llic  vessel  and  llius  keeps  th(' 
musliu  consluntly  wet.  When  the  air  is  dry,  evap- 
oration from  llie  miisliu 
proceeds  rai)idly.  and  on 
necownl  of  tlie  heal  lost  in 
tills  way,  the  wet-liidli  in- 
dicates a  lower  tempera- 
ture than  the  dry-lndl) ; 
when  t  he  air  is  damp  evap- 
oration  is  sh)wer,  and  the 
dilt'irence  between  tliese 
two  thermometers  grows 
less,  and  where  the  air  is 
completely  saturated  eva- 
poration ceases,  and  the 
two  thermometers  indi- 
cate the  same  tempcra- 
I  turo.  To  keep  this  instru- 
I  ment  in  working  order, 
several  things  r<'(|uire  spe- 
cial attention.  The  ther- 
mometers must  lie  alike, 
for  if  one  shoidd  be  tilled  with  mercury  and  the  other 
should  contain  spirit,  or  if  they  slioufd  l)e  tilled  with 
different  quantities  of  the  same  fluid,  the  readings 
will  he  vitiated.  All  starch  or  foreign  matter  should 
be  washed  out  of  the  thin  muslin  covering  and  the 
cotton  wicking.  The  water  \ised  should  be  pure ; 
for  if  lime  or  other  salts  be  dissolved  in  it,  the  nius- 


Firj.  a. 


perature  of  the  mercury  in  the  bnlb.  By  means  of 
this  contrivancif  and  the  foregoing  talile,  the  dew- 
point  can  hi'  delerinined  with  a  sudieient  degree  of 
nicely.  To  determine  tlie  ilew-poinl.  at  any  time. 
subslract  the  n-ading  of  the  wel-biilb  fromlhal  of 
the  dry-bulb:  lind  the  temperature  of  the  dry-bulb 
in  the  left  hand  column  of  the  Table,  opposite  which 
in  the  eolunui  that  is  marked  at  th('  top  with  tlie 
dilTerence  between  the  dry  and  wet-bulb,  is  to  be 
fouiwl  the  dew-point  souglit. 

Having  ascertained  the  dew-point  with  certainty, 
the  ap])roach  of  low  tem])eralures  or  of  frost  may  be 
foreseen  and  provided  against.  Thus,  suppose  on 
a  tine  clear  day,  towards  evening,  tliat  the  dry-l)ulb  is 
50"  and  the  wet-bulb  40",  the  dew-point  at  the  time 


Fig.  3. 

lin  will  soon  be  coated  with  a  calcareous  or  other 
incrustation.  Rain  or  distilled  water  should  be  used. 
The  muslin  ought  to  be  changed  when  covered  with 
dust  or  otlier  impurities,  and  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  touch  the  muslin  with  the  fingers,  otherwise 
it  will  get  slightly  greased,  and  capillary  attraction 
will  be  thereby  interfered  with.  The  bulbs  of  the 
thermometers  should  be  made  to  project  li  or  2 
inches  below  the  scales.  The  thermometers  should 
also  be  a  little  apart  from  each  other,  and  the  vessel 
containing  the  water  ought  to  be  placed  as  far 
removed  as  possible  from  tlie  dry-bulb.  The  ther- 
mometers should  be  exposed  to  the  air  wliere  the 
circulation  is  unobstructed.  They  should  face  the 
north  and  be  always  in  the  shade.  They  should  be 
removed  at  least  a  foot  from  the  wall  of  any  build- 
ing, and  should  be  about  ten  feet  from  the  ground. 
They  should  be  protected  against  the  heat  reflected 
by  the  neigliboring  objects,  such  as  buildings  or  a 
sandy  soil,  and  they  should  be  sheltered  from  the 
rain.  If  the  dry-bulb  should  become  moistened  by 
rain,  the  bulb  should  be  carefuUj-  dried  about  five 
minutes  before  making  the  observation  ;  since  drops 
■of  water,  by  their  evaporation,  would  lower  tlie  tem- 


Fik'.  4. 

(per  Table)  is  22"  F.  Frost  on  the  ground  may  then 
be  predicted  with  certainty,  and  no  lime  ought  to 
be  lost  in  protecting  the  tender  plants  of  the  garden. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  with  a  sky  quite  as  clear,  the 
dry-bulb  is  50"  and  the  wet-lnilli  47".  the  dew-point 
is  43",  and  no  frost  need  be  feared. 

Assuming  the  skj-  to  remain  perfectly  clear  of  all 
haze  or  clouds,  the  raising  or  depressing  of  the  dew- 
point  during  the  night,  (usually  witha  change  of 
wind),  arc  the  onl)-  circumstances  that  can  happen 
to  interfere  with  the  predictions  founded  on  the  hy- 
grometer. Frequently  the  presence  of  any  haze  at 
high  altitudes  during  the  night  prevents  the  radiation 
of  heat  from  the  earth  and  thereby  the  frost  which 
otherwise  would  have  occurred.  Hoar-frost  is  form- 
ed under  the  same  circumstances  as  dew,  with  the 
single  exception  of  a  lower  temperature.  When  the 
temperature  of  the  surface  of  plants  falls  lielow  32" 
the  moisture  of  the  air  is  condensed  upon  them  in  the 
solid  state  and  forms  a  layer  of  snow-crystals,  like 
spongy  ice.  Hoar-frost  therefore  is  not  frozen  dew. 
but  the  moisture  of  the  air  is  deposited  in  the  solid 
form,  without  liaving  passed  through  the  liquid  con- 
dition. Hoar-frost,  however,  like  dew.  is  deposited 
chiefly  upon  those   bodies  which  radiate  best,  such 


HYGKOSCOPE. 


80 


HTPSOMEXaiCAL  IH££MOM£T£a. 


as  plants  and  the  leaves  of  vegetables,  and  the  de- 1 
posit  is  made  prmcipally  on  those  parts  which  are 
turned  toward  the  sky.  Since  plants  sometimes  be- 
come cooled  by  radiation  from  12*^  to  15"  below 
the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air.  a  frost  may 
occur  although  a  thermometer  a  few  feet  above  the  i 
ground,  in  an  instrument-shelter,  may  not  sink  to 
32'^.  During  a  clear  and  still  night,  when  a  ther- 
mometer which  is  six  feet  above  the  ground  sinks  to 
36°  or  less,  a  heavy  frost  may  be  expected ;  and  a 
slight  frost  may  occur  wiien  the  same  thermometer 
sinks  only  to  47^.  Whenever  it  is  practicable,  an 
instrument-shelter  should  be  built.  The  Stevenson 
pattern,  shown  in  Fig.  4.  is  a  very  suitable  one. 
The  louvres  are  double,  sloping  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, so  that  while  there  is  access  of  the  air  to  the 
inside,  the  radiant  heat  and  rain  are  effectually  ex- 
cluded. A  single  lattice,  however,  will  answer  the 
purpose  very  well.  This  screen  should  be  erected 
on  legs  four  feet  high,  and  should  stand  over  grass 
on  open  ground.  It  should  not  be  under  the  shadow 
of  trees  nor  within  twenty  feet  of  any  wall.  See 
ThermtrineUr. 

HYGEOSCOPE. — The  form  of  hygrometer  employed 
to  determine  the  ability  of  powder  to  resist  moisture. 
It  is  usually  an  air-tight  box  in  which  the  powder  is 
subjected  to  a  dampatmosphere  at  a  uniform  tem- 
perature for  24  hours.  It  consists  of  a  Ijox  lined 
with  copper,  with  a  space  of  two  inches  between 
packed  witli  hair.  The  lid  is  double  also,  like  the 
sides,  in  construction;  an  India-rubber  gasket  covers 
the  edges  of  the  top,  which  is  screwed  lirmly  down 
with  thumb-screws.  Inside  the  box  is  a  moval)le 
perforated  traj'  of  copper  resting  on  ledges  8.5  inches 
by  8.5  inches.  The  intervening  spaces  have  water- 
tight trays  on  ledges  filled  witli  a  solution  of  niter. 

The  powder  to  be  tested  is  placed  in  circular  cups 
of  copper  having  fine  wire-gauze  bottoms,  affording 
free  access  of  moisture  to  all  the  parts  of  the  sample 
under  test.  The  percentage  of  gain  is  determined 
by  weighing  the  powder  in  carefully  prepared  bottles 


on  op  ninglliehygroscope.  A  careful  record  is  kept 
of  the  barometer,  the  hygrometer,  external  and  max- 
imum ami  miuimimi  internal  thermometers.  See 
</ u II /I'lirilfi-  »ni[  /iixpicti'iii.  iif  (rMnpoirdi-r . 

HYPEHMETROPIA.  .\n  anomaly  in  the  refraction 
of  the  eye  whirli.  by  law,  disciualihes  a  recruit  for 
enlistment  in  the  Army.  This  defecl  is  dependent 
on  a  condition  of  the  eye  exactly  the  reverse  of  my- 
opia. It  is  the  condition  in  which  rays  from  distant 
objects  come  to  a  focus  hiliinil  the  retina.  A  irl.'uice 
at  the  drawing  will  cxjilain  this  condition.  IIy|>ir- 
metro|)ia  is  due  to  a  formation  of  the  lye,  wliicli  is 
present  from  birth.  It  is  also  hereditary,  being 
transmitted  throuirh  entire  families,  llypermi-lro- 
pic  eyes  are  usually  flat  and   shallow  in  appearance. 

Although  present  from  birth,  it  is  often,  unless  of 


a  high  degree,  not  manifested  until  the  duties  of  the 
school-room  begin,  and.  in  the  slighter  grades,  it 
may  not  be  noticed  until  adolescence  or  middle-life  ; 
neverthelesss  the  defect  has  existed  all  the  while, 
but  it  has  been  masked  and  overcome  by  the  exer- 
tions of  the  little  ciliary  muscle.  Distinct  vision  is 
one  of  the  instincts  of  our  senses,  and  our  eyes  un- 
conscioush'  adjust  themselves  so  as  best  to  secure  it. 
Any  change  of  the  convexity  of  the  lens  is  effected 
by  the  action  of  the  ciliary  Tnuscle  :  now.  since  the 
focus'for  the  rays  falls  behind  the  retina,  the  convex- 


ity of  the  lens  of  the  eye  must  be  increased  in  order 
to  bring  the  focal  point  on  the  retina,  and  hence  the 
little  muscle  is  called  upon  to  do  the  work ;  but, 
since  this  condition  of  the  eye  is  permanent,  so  also 
this  muscular  contraction  is  almost  constant  while 
the  eyes  are  employed.  Besides  this  constant  exer- 
tion, the  muscle  must  also  act  with  vigor  enough  to 
give  tlie  ordinary  power  of  accommodation  for  near 
objects. 

In  j'outh  the  ciliary  is  in  its  greatest  vigor,  and  it 
then  overcomes  this  defect  even  when  of  considera- 
ble degree,  but  as  age  advances,  the  power  of  the 
muscles  diminishes  and  then  it  is  that  the  defect  be- 
gins to  manifest  itself.  The  great  cause  of  all  these 
symptoms  is  the  overstrain  and  eventual  exhaustion 
of  the  ciliary  mnscle.  So  long  as  it  is  able  to  ac- 
complish its  excessive  task,  it  overcomes,  or  rather 
masks  the  defect,  but  as  soon  as  its  power  gives  out, 
the  accommodation  fails  and  indistinctness  of  near 
objects  results,  in  addition  to  which  we  have  the 
long  chain  of  distressing  symptoms  which  arise  from 
the  overstrain  ;  many  an  obstinate  headache  has  its 
sound  in  an  tmreeognized  hypermetropia. 

Since  in  this  state  of  the  eye  the  focus  falls  behind 
the  retina,  the  remedy  is  found  in  a  glass  v.hich  will 
increase  the  refractive  power  of  the  eye.  thus  bring- 
ing the  focus  of  the  rays  of  light  on  the  retina  :  such 
a  result  is  obtained  by  the  proper  convex  glass.  As, 
however,  the  ciliary  muscle  is  able  to  mask  a  certain 
iimount  of  the  defect,  even  after  it  has  become  appa- 
rent, the  convex  lens,  which  most  improves  distant 
vision,  will  correct  but  the  portion  of  hypermetro- 
pia which  is  "manifest."  and,  indeed,  frequently 
the  patient  may  reject  all  convex  glasses  as  failing 
to  improve  his  distant  vision,  and  yet  be  hyperme- 
tropic to  a  considerable  degree. 

The  glass  which  corrects  the  manifest  defect  will 
often  greatly  conduce  to  the  patient's  comfort,  yet 
to  select  the  glass  which  will  correct  the  entire 
defect,  the  accommodation  of  the  eye  must  be  tem- 
porarily suspended  by  putting  the  ciliary  muscle  at 
rest  by  means  of  a  solution  of  atropia.  when  the 
entire  defect  becomes  apparent  and  may  be  carefidly 
measured  bv  the  oculist.     See  HicriiitK. 

HYPSOMETRICAL  THERMOMETER.— It  is  gener- 
ally assumed  llial  water  boils  at  212"  Fahrenheit,  but 
lliis  is  tnu'  only  at  the  sea-level,  under  a  barometric 
jiressure  of  21t.il22.  in  latitude  45,  at  a  temperature 
of  32"^  Fahrenheit,  and  with  clKMnirally  jiure  water. 
The  boiling-])oint,  therefore, varies  with  the  latitude, 
the  height  above  sea-level,  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere and  the  tempeniture.  Thus,  at  Philadelphia, 
under  the  mean  baromelie  pressure  of  that  locality, 
of  2'.>.!I23  at  32'-'  Faliri'niieil,  water  boils  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  21 1  .!l!)4  Fahrenheil.  .As  there  is  an  evident 
relation  between  the  lioiling-poiiit  and  the  elevation 
of  a  jilace,  as  shown  by  the  decreased  barometric  pres- 
sure as   we  ascend,  it  would  seem  a  comparatively 


IBERIAN  SWORD. 


81 


IC£RL 


simple  matter  to  mrasiiro  thp  Iiciirlit  of  a  monnlfiiu 
by  the  tem|>iTiaiirc  at  wliicli  tin-  (■liiillili<iii  nf  wiilcr 
occurs.  The  ImrdnuMric  prcHHiirc.  hnwcvcr,  fur 
the  fiame  place,  is  contiinially  varving.  and  with  it, 
the  boiling  temperature  of  lluiils.  "Jt  tollowH.  there- 
fore, tliat  in  order  to  deteriiiine  elevations  willi  any 
decree  of  accuracy,  by  means  of  a  boilinir-point 
thernionieler.  it  is  necessary  in  the  first  placi'.  that 
the  thermometer  employed  should  be  most  accurate- 
ly uradualed  and  coMipared 
with  the  readini;  of  a  sland- 
ard  barometer,  reduci'd  for 
temperature  and  latitude.  It 
is  necessary,  also,  that  obser- 
vations should  be  made,  with 
as  little  interval  of  lime  be- 
tween as  possible,  at  thi'  low- 
er point  from  \vhi<'li  llie  ele- 
vation of  the  lii;iher  point  is 
to  l)e  determined,  as  well  as 
at  thehiclier  point  itself,  and 
that  these  observations  be  re- 
peatedly made.  In  relation  to 
the  necessity  of  a  thorouchly 
acute  thermometer,  Admiral 
Fitzroy  says,  in  his  "  Notes 
on  Meteoroloccy:"  "Each  de- 
gree of  tiie  boilinii-point  ther- 
mometer is  equivalent  to  al- 
most 550  ft.  of  ascent,  or  one- 
tenth  to  55 ft. ;  therefore,  the 
smallest  error  in  the  gradu- 
ation of  the  thermometer  it- 
self, will  atTeet  the  heiixhl  de- 
duced materially."  Having 
prepared  to  make  observa- 
\i^fj^  tions  with  accuracy,  it  will 
'  S>  become  necessary  to  ascer- 
i**  tain  the  means  of  deducing 
the  height  from  the  observa- 
tions made.  The  following 
Table  gives  very  nearly  the 
elevations  in  feet  corn'spond- 
ingto  a  fall  of  I'-',  in  the  tem- 
perature of  boiling-water. 
When  the  barometer  falls,  or 
when  a  part  of  the  pressure 
is  in  any  other  way  removed, 
it  boils  t)efore  coming  to  212°, 
and  when  the  pressure  is  in- 
cre.iscd  the  boiling-point  rises.  An  elevation  of  105 
feet  above  the  sea-level  umkes  a  diminution  of  one 


degree;  at  higher  levels  the  difference  of  elevation 
corresponding  to  a  degree  of  temperature  in  the  boil- 
ing-point increases.  At  the  f'ily  of  Mexico,  7,000 
feel  above  the  sea,  water  boils  at  2(XJ^  ;  at  Quito, 
0.000  fei-t  above  the  sea,  at  194":  and  on  Donkia 
Mounlain,  in  Ihe  Himalayas,  at  the  hi-ight  of  18.000 
f<cl.  Dr.  Hooker  foimd  itto  boil  at  180'^.  The  know- 
ledge of  the  etTect  of  dinunished  pressure  is  largely 
turned  to  account  in  i)rocesses  where  the  substances 
are  apt  to  be  injured  by  a  high  temperature. 

Elevation  (n  Feet 
Kbutlition  between  for  each  dein-ee. 

ai4uiid210 sao 

210  ■•  800 .ViO 

200  "  1(10 .'iVI 

190  "  180 570 

It  is  assumed  that  the  hoiling-point  will  be  dimin- 
ished 1'-'  for  each  .520  feet  of  ascent  until  the  tenipir- 
ature  becomes  210'-',  then  5;J0  feet  of  elevation  will 
lower  it  one  degree  until  the  water  boils  al  200", 
and  so  on,  the  air  being  at  32"  Fahrenheit.  As.  ac- 
cording to  Kegnault,  tlie  air  expands  .00203(5  of  its 
volume  at  32"  ff)r  each  degree  increase  in  tempera- 
ture, it  is  necessary  to  find  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  air  between  the  two  points,  and  applying  the  cor- 
rection d>ie  to  the  difference  between  that  and  32", 
Ihe  formula  will  be  as  follows :  Let  //represent  Ihe 
vertical  height  iu  feet  belween  the  stations:  //and 
i  the  boiling-points  of  water  at  Ihe  lower  and  iijiper 
stations  respectively  ;  and/,  the  factor  found  iu  the 
above  tal)le.  Then  //=/  (B— b).  Let  ?ii  be  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  stratvim  of  air  between  the 
stations.  Calling  the  correction  due  to  Ihe  mean 
temperature  of  air  O.  its  value  will  be  found  from 
the  equation,  ('=//  (m— 32)  .00203G.  Calling  the 
corrected  height  H',  it  will  be  found  from  the  for- 
mula 

n'=n-{-n  (m— ss)  .002036, 

that  is  n'=H  [1-f-Cm— 32)  .002036.] 
When  an  accurately  made  and  carefully  compared 
thermometer  is  employed  in  accordance  with  the  fore- 
going rules  and  instructions,  very  accurate  and  val- 
uable results  may  be  otjtained  with  the  hypsometrical 
apparatus.  But  it  is  manifest  that  with  thermometers 
as  ordinarily  made,  whose  freezing-points  have  been 
fi.\ed  without  regard  to  the  condition  of  a  true  zero. 
and  with  observations  which  leave  entirely  out  of 
account  many  of  the  factors  necessary  to  even  ap- 
proximate correctness,  the  results  so  obtained  must 
often  be  of  little  value.  See  Barometer  and  Tlur- 
mometer. 


I 


IBERIAN  SWORD.— A  small  sword  somewhat  re- 
sembling a  dagger  and  much  worn  by  the  Roman 
foot-soli3iers,  on  the  right  side. 

ICE. — In  high  latitudes,  during  the  winter,  rivers 
are  frequently  covered  with  ice  of  sufficient  thickness 
to  sustain  the  heaviest  loads.  This  means  of  com- 
munication should  be  used  with  great  circumspection. 
A  change  of  temperature  may  not  only  suddenly 
destroy  this  natural  bridge,  but  render  the  river  im- 
passable by  any  method  for  a  considerable  time  iu 
consequence  of  the  floating  ice.  When  from  three 
to  four  inches  thick,  ice  will  sustain  iufantry  march- 
ing in  single  file.  With  the  thickness  of  4.5  inches.  , 
cavalry  and  light  guns  can  pass  over  it ;  with  six  ! 
inches,  heavy  field-pieces  ;  eight  inches  will  support 
siege-guns,  but,  for  greater  security  the  wheels 
should  be  locked  and  secvired  upon  way-planks  which 
slide  upon  the  ice.  Ihe  pieces  being  moved  by  band. 

In  very  cold  weather  the  thickness  of  the  ice  may 


be  increased  by  covering  it  with  a  layer  of  straw  or 
brush  and  throwing  water  over  it,  of  two  rows  of 
logs  maybe  laid  at  a  distance  apart  equal  to  Ihe 
width  of  the  roadwsiy  :  a  layer  of  earth  is  spread  be- 
tween them  and  water  is  thrown  on  and  allowed  to 
freeze.  This  operation  is  repeated  until  a  solid  road- 
way is  formed.  Troops  working  in  concert  can  ac- 
complish iu  this  manner  a  very  strong  crossing  in  a 
short  while. 

Ice.  when  very  thick,  and  therefore  difficult  to  re- 
move, may  be  broken  up  by  charges  of  powder  in 
water-tight  cans  or  bags,  fixed  underneath  or  placed 
in  holes  bored  in  it.  Charges  of  from  live  to  ten 
pounds  of  the  powder  placed  in  ice  two  feet  thick 
will  break  up  an  area  twenty  feet  in  diameter.  Eiiht 
ounces  of  dynamite  will  produce  the  like  or  even  a 
greater  result. 

ICENI. — A  warlike  tribe  of  ancient  Britain,  occu- 
pying, as  is  supposed,  that  part  of  the  country  which 


ICH  OIEN. 


82 


IMPACT  OF  PEOIECTILES. 


corresponds  nearly  with  the  present  eounties  of  Nor- 
folk ami  Suffoilc.  Under  tlieir  (jucen  Boadicea  they 
rebelled  iiijainst  the  Romans. 

ICH  DIEN.— Tlie  motto  of  the  Prince  of  Wales. 
According  to  one  theory  of  its  derivation,  the  phrase 
was  emploj'ed  by  Edward  I.  on  presenting  his  new- 
born son,  Edward  of  Carnarvon,  to  the  Welsh,  using 
the  expression  in  its  Welsh  signification — Eich  dyn, 
"  Behold  the  man."  Another  view  attributes  it  to 
the  occasion  of  the  killing  of  John,  King  of  Bohemia, 
by  the  Black  Prince  at  Cressy,  and  asserts  that  the 
latter  found  the  motto  under  the  plume  worn  by  the 
dead  King,  and  assumed  it  to  imply  that  "  he  served 
under  the  Kiufr.  his  father." 

ICHNOGRAPHY.— Tlie  plan  or  representation  of 
the  length  or  breadth  of  a  fortification,  the  distinct 
parts  of  whicli  are  marked  out  either  on  the  ground 
itself,  or  on  paper.  A  plan  upon  the  correct  principles 
of  ichri'igraphy  represents  a  work  as  it  would  appear 
if  it  were  leveled  to  its  foundations,  and  shows  only 
the  expanse  of  ground  on  which  it  had  been  erected. 
The  science  does  not  represent  either  the  elevation 
or  the  different  parts  belonging  to  a  fortification. 
'This  properly  comes  imder  the  title  Profile,  which 
does  not,  however,  include  length. 

ICICLES. — In  Heraldry,  charges  of  the  same  shape 
as  drops  in  the  bearing  called  gutte,  but  reversed. 
They  have  also  been  called  clubs,  locks  of  hair,  and 
guttes  reversed. 

"  IGNITIBLE  EXPLOSIVES.— Substances  which  on  a 
mateli,  tulie,  or  (h'tonating  composition  being  ap- 
plied to  them,  ignite,  such  as  gunpowder,  gun-cot- 
ton, nitro-glyeerine,  dynamite,  and  glyacyline,  all  of 
wliich  can  he  used  as  explosive  agents,  for  submarine 
as  well  as  land  purposes. 

IGNITION.— The  act  of  setting  fire  to,  or  of  taking 
fire,  as  opposed  to  combustion  or  burning,  which  is 
the  consequence  of  ignition.  Gunpowder  may  be 
ignited  by  the  electric  spark,  by  contact  with  an 
ignited  body,  or  by  a  sudden  heat  of  5T2^  Fahrenheit. 
A  gradual  heat  decomposes  powder  witliout  explo- 
sion by  subliming  the  sulphur.  Flame  will  not  ig- 
Dite  gunpowder  unless  it  remains  long  enougli  in 
contact  with  the  grains  to  heat  them  to  redness. 
Thus,  tlie  blaze  from  burning  paper  may  be  touched 
to  grains  of  powder  without  igniting  them,  owing 
to  the  slight  density  of  the  flame,  and  the  cooling 
effect  of  the  grains.  It  maj-  Ije  ignited  by  friction, 
or  a  shock  between  two  solid  bodies,  even  when 
these  are  not  very  liard.  Experiments  in  France, 
in  1835,  show  that  powder  may  be  ignited  by  the 
shock  of  copper  against  copper,  copper  against  iron, 
lead  against  lead,  and  even  lead  against  wood ;  in 
handling  gunpowder,  therefore,  violent  shocks  be- 
tween all  solid  bodies  should  be  avoided.  The  time 
necessary  for  the  ignition  of  powder  varies  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  For  instance,  damp  powder 
requires  a  longer  time  for  ignition  than  powder  per- 
fectly dry,  owing  to  the  loss  of  heat  consequent  on 
the  evaporation  of  the  water :  a  powder  the  grain  of 
which  has  an  angular  shape  and  rough  surface,  will 
be  more  easily  ignited  tlian  one  of  rounded  shape 
and  smooth  surface ;  a  light  powder,  more  easily 
than  a  dense  one ;  and  a  powder  made  of  a  blabk 
<:harc()al,  more  easilj'  than  one  made  of  red,  inas- 
much as  the  latter  is  compelled  to  give  up  its  vola- 
tile ingredients  before  it  is  acted  on  by  tlie  niter. 
Seo  Kxpln^iiin  and   (Itnipmnder. 

IGNORANCE  OF  THE  LA.W.—rg7im-aiit/f/  Jiinx,  or 
ign<ir.'iiirc  of  llie  law,  is  held  to  be  no  excuse  for  any 
breach  of  contract  or  duty,  nor  for  crime  or  otlwr 
offense.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  slart  with  this 
maxim,  otherwise  it  would  be  quite  impossible  to 
administer  the  law,  for  if  once  a  contrary  maxim 
were  allowed,  it  would  not  only  Ik^  a  premium  to 
ignorance,  but  would  lead  to  endless  and  aliortive 
iiKjuirics  into  the  interior  of  a  man's  mind.  Ig- 
norance of  a  fact,  however,  is  a  (lifferent  thing. 
Another  kindred  maxim  of  the  law  is  that  every 
man    intends   tlie   consequences    of    his  own  acts. 


Thus,  if  he  shoot  at  or  give  poison  to  a  person,  it  is 
presumed  that  he  intencled  to  kill  such  person.  So, 
if  he  leaves  a  trap-door  open  in  a  street  or  thorough- 
fare, it  is  held  that  he  intended  people  to  fall  into 
it  and  be  injured.  There  is,  however,  a  doctrine 
called  bona  fiden,  which,  in  the  case  of  petty  offenses 
punishable  by  Justices,  often  tempers  the  strict  and 
rigid  application  of  the  maxim  ignornntia  juris 
ntminem  exciimt ;  and  even  in  crimes  a  Court  al- 
ways takes  into  consideration,  when  passing  judg- 
ment, whether  the  prisoner  was  an  ignorant  or  in- 
telliuent  person. 

ILIYATES— EELIAUTS.— A  nomadic  tribe  of  Per- 
sia and  Turkistan,  and  mostly  of  Turkish,  Arabic,  or 
Kurdish  descent.  They  are  Mohammedans  of  the 
Sunni  sect.  They  have  no  settled  abode,  but  live 
in  tents,  moving  from  place  to  place,  according  to 
climate  or  season.  They  have  large  flocks  and 
herds,  and  some  tribes  live  by  plunder.  Each  tribe 
pays  tribute  in  cattle  for  the  use  of  grazing  ground, 
money  not  being  known  among  tliem.  Also  written 
EelianU. 

IMAGINARY  QUANTITY.— In  the  working  of  gun- 
nery problems,  it  often  happens  that  the  root  of  a 
negative  quantity  must  be  extracted ;  if  the  root  is 
odd,  the  operation  can  be  performed,  but  if  even, 
the  root  can  only  be  furmally  extracted,  and  is  in 
consequence  called  an  hnpnsm'ble  or  imaginary  quan- 
tit}'.  For  instance,  the  cube  root  of  —  C4  is  not  an 
imaginary  quantity,  for  —  4x  —  4x —  4  =  — 64,  and 
therefore  x'^ — 04  =  —  4  ;  but  the  square  root  of 
—  64  is  an  impossible  quantity,  for  no  possible  quan- 
tity (whether  it  be  -)-  or  — )  multiplied  by  itself  can 
produce  a  negative  quantity ;  similarly  and  a  fm-ti- 
iiri.  the  fourth  root  —  64  is  an  impossible  quantity, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  all  even  roots.  Imaginary 
quantities  are,  however,  generallj'  reduced  to  one 
denomination  as  multiples  of  v — l,in  the  following 
manner  ;  y/ZTeJ  =  \/64x  —  1  =V^64  X  ■v/— 1  =8 
\^  —  1 ;  and  again.v^  — 18«=  =  VOa^  x  —  3a  =  ^9rt* 
X  v/3«  X  ^  —  1  =3a2  \/'2a  v^^^l.  These  forms 
very  frequently  occur  in  higher  algebra. 

IMBRUED. — An  expression  used  in  Heraldry  to 
signify  bloody,  or  dropping  with  blood.  Weapons 
thus  blazoned  are  drawn  with  drops  of  blood  fall- 
ing from  them.     Also  written  Embrxied. 

IMMORTALS.— In  antiquity,  the  name  of  a  body 
of  10,000  troops,  constituting  the  guard  of  the  King 
of  Persia  :  so  called  because  they  were  alwaj's  of 
the  same  number;  for  as  soon  as  any  of  them  died, 
the  vacancy  was  immediately  filled  up.  They  were 
distinguished  from  all  the  other  troops  by  the  rich- 
ness of  their  armor,  and  still  more  by  their  bravery. 
The  same  term  was  applied  to  the  life-guards  of  the 
Roman  Emperors. 

IMPACT  OF  PROJECTILES.— In  order  to  arrive  at 
a  clear  understanding  of  what  takes  place  when  the 
motion  of  a  projectile  is  arrested  by  any  resisting 
medium,  it  is  necessary  to  recall  some  of  the  ele- 
mentary principles  upon  which  these  phenomena 
depend.  The  manner  in  which  a  projectile  acquires 
its  velocity,  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  manner  in 
which  its  motion  is  destro\'ed.  If  the  mean  pressure, 
P,  of  the  gas  be  multiplied  by  the  space,  S,  passed 
over  by  the  projectile  while  ac(|uiring  its  velocity, 
the  result'  will  be  the  measure  of  the  work  done  by 
the  charge  of  powder  ;  and  it  will  also  be  equal  to 
the  work  of  stopping  the  same  projectile,  no  matter 
how  or  by  what  means  it  may  be  lirought  to  rest. 
The  same  result  is  generally  arrived  at  by  measuring 
the  velocity  imparted  to  tlic  ]irojc(iile  under  the  cir- 
cumstances mentioned,  and  multiplying  the  square 
of  the  velocity  by  one-half  of  the  mass  of  the  pro- 
jectile ;  or,  since  the  mass  is  ccpial  to  the  weight 
divided  by  the  force  of  gravity,  the  expression  for 
the  work  stored  in  the  iirojeetile,  and  whicli   must 

W  vo 

be  expended  in  bringing  it  forest,  = .where 

2/7 


iUPAIE. 


83 


DIFEBIAL  CBOWH. 


W  =  weight  of  the  projectile'  in  poiindu,  v  =  velocity 
of  the  projectile  in  f<'el,  and  r/  the  force  of  gravily 
in  feet,  or  the  velocity  which  a.  body  will  iic(|uire  by 
its  own  weij;;lit  in  on<'  Heeoixl  of  lime.  This  ex- 
pression involves  indirectly  tbe  simie  ((iianlilies  lis 
tlmt  first  mentioned  ;  namely,  the  ineiin  pressunr  of 
the  gas  and  the  distance  passed  over  by  the  projec- 
tile :  assuminfj;  this  measure  for  the  work  stored  in 
the  projectile,  it  remains  to  consider  how  this  work  is 
expended. 

The  following  are  the  different  effects  i)roducc(l 
by  the  impact  of  a  projectile  upon  any  solid  body  ; 
some  of  the.Hc  being  so  connected  as  to  render  their 
relative  importance  extremely  doubtful. 

ComprennioH — The  first  effort  of  impact  is  to  com- 
press or  drive  back  those  iiortionsof  both  ])rojectiles 
imd  target  first  connng  in  contact  upon  tho.se  im- 
mediately iK'hind  them  ;  the  amount  of  this  com- 
pression depending  upon  the  material  and  velocity 
of  impact,  as  well  as  upon  the  form  of  the  projectile. 
Elongation — The  greater  part  of  the  work  of  tlie 
projectile  in  penetrating  wrought-iron  anil  similar 
materials  is  expended  in  .overcoming  the  tenacity  of 
the  material,  or  in  elongating  the  fiber.  This  is  evi- 
dent when  we  consider  that  punching  or  shearing 
consists  not  so  much  in  cutting  tlie  fiber,  as  in  bend- 
ing it,  and  afterwards  pulling  it  in  two  lengthwise, 
.b'/fm/v'nj— This,  as  just  stated,  consists  chiefly  in 
the  two  strains  already  mentioned. 

Bending. — This  also  implies  tension  and  compres- 
sion ;  the  back  of  the  target  being  elongated,  and  the 
front  compressed. 

Pulverizing — a  portion  of  the  material.  This  takes 
place  only  in  case  of  liard  materials,  as  a  stone  or 
cast-iron,  and  it  then  absorbs  a  very  great  amount 
of  work.  Like  bending  and  shearing,  it  involves 
compression  and  elongation,  the  material  being  com- 
pressed until  it  yields  laterally  to  a  tensile  strain. 

Motion — While  the  work  is  Ijeing  expended,  a 
certain  amotint  of  time  is  allowed  for  the  force  of 
the  projectile  to  impart  motion  to  the  target,  espe- 
cially that  portion  immediately  in  front  of  the  pro- 
jectile. 

Friction — The  friction  is  very  great,  especially  in 
the  case  of  the  more  pointed  form  of  projectile,  and 
varies  inversely  with  the  velocity  of  the  projectile. 
Heat — This  is  due  to  friction,  both  external  and 
internal,  that  is,  of  the  projectile  and  the  fragments 
against  the  target,  and  against  each  other  during 
the  distortion  of  the  material,  from  compression, 
bending,  etc.  The  suddenness  with  which  this  heat 
is  generated  is  almost  unequalled  by  any  known 
source  of  heat.  It  is  well  known  that  the  heat  develop- 
ed in  the  interior  of  loaded  shells,  on  striking  violent- 
ly a  thick  iron  plate, is  sufficient  to  ignite  the  powder, 
and  this  fact  has  been  utilized  in  dispensing  with 
fuses  for  exploding  armor-punching  shells. 

The  effect  of  a  projectile  on  striking  a  mass  or 
target  of  any  form  or  material,  may  be  divided  into 
two  general  portions, —  one  being  entirely  local, 
■while  the  other  is  distributed  over  more  or  less  sur- 
face according  to  circumstances.  The  former  is  the 
penetration,  and  the  latter  may  be  called  concussion. 
;6ee  Penetration  of  Projectiles. 

IMPALE. — In  Heraldry,  to  arrange  an)'  two  coats  of 
.arms  side  b^'  side  in  one  shield  divided  per  pale.  It 
^^^—^-—^  i**  "sual  thus  to  exhibit  the  con- 
^  H  joined  coats  of  husband  and  wife, 
^^r  H  H  the  husband's  arms  occupying  the 
^r  ^H  H  dexter  side  or  place  of  honor,  and 
r   ^flf    H    the  wife's  the  sinister  side  of  the 


li('  may  belong.  Bishops.  Deans,  Heads  of  Colleges, 
and  Kings  of  Anns  impale  tlieirarms  with  their  insig- 
nia of  ofjlcc,  giving  tlic  dexter  side  lo  the  former,  fn 
early  Heraldry,  when  two  coats  were  represented  in 
one  shield  side  by  side,  only  lialf  of  each  was  ex- 
hibited, an  arrangement  which  has  been  called  ilimi- 
(liatiou.  Sometimes  the  one  coat  only  was  dinudi- 
ated.  A  reminiscence  of  dinndialion  is  preserved 
in  the  practice  of  omitting  tlie  bordiires,  cries,  and 
trcssures  in  impaled  arms  on  the  side  bounded  by 
the  line  of  irMpidemenl.      ISce  llirnhlry. 

IMPEDIMENTA.-  All  the  accom|)a'niments  to  an 
army  received  from  the  Romans  the  name  <if  itnpfdi- 
menta.  They  consist  in  a  general  sense  of  muni- 
tions, equipments,  provisions,  hospital  supplies,  tents, 
engineering  tools,  bridge  eqiiii)age,  boats,  baggage, 
cooking  utensils,  etc.,  necessary  for  the  use  of  an 
army  moving  against  an  enemy.  This  requires  the 
use  of  large  numljers  of  wagons  and  draught  ani- 
mals, or  shipping,  and  necessarily  impedes  the  move- 
ment of  an  army. 

IMPENETRABILITY.— One  of  the  essential  proper- 
ties of  matter  wliicb  implies  that  no  two  bodies  can 
at  the  same  lime  occupy  the  same  space.  If  a  nail 
be  driven  into  a  piece  of  wood  it  does  not,  properly 
speaking,  penetrate  the  wood,  since  the  fibers  are 
driven  aside  before  the  nail  can  enter.  If  a  vessel 
be  filled  with  fluid,  and  a  solid  body  be  then  placed 
in  it,  as  much  water  will  run  over  as  is  equal  in  bulk 
to  the  solid  body,  in  this  w'ay  making  room  for  it. 
The  lightest  gases  are  really  as  impenetrable  as  the 
densest  solid ;  although,  owing  to  their  compressi- 
bility, il  is  not  readily  made  ai)parent. 

IMPEEATOE.— An  old  Roman  title  signifying  Com- 
mander, which  was  applied  to  the  Kulers  of  Prov- 
inces, the  Consuls,  Pro-Consuls,  etc.,  or  to  anybody 
who  had  an  Imperium  assigned  him.  After  "a  vic- 
tory the  Roman  soldiers  frequently  saluted  their  Com- 
mander by  this  title.     See  Emperor. 

IMPERIAL  CROWN.— Properly  the  crown  boniebv 
the  German  Emperor;  it  is  in  form  a  circle  of  gokl, 
adorned  with  precious  stones  and  Jlei/r.i-dr-li.i,  bor- 
dered and  seeded  with  pearls,  and  raised  in  the  form 
of  a  cap  voided  at  the  top  like  a  crescent.      From 
the  middle  of  the  cap  rises  an  arched  fillet  enriched 
with  pearls,  and  surmounted  by  a  globe,  on  which 
is  a  cross  of  pearls.     The  name  Imperial  Crown  is, 
however,  in  English  Heraldry,  applied  to  the  crown 
worn  in  times  past  by  the  Kings  of  England.    From 
the  12th  century  onwards,  the  Crown  of  the  English 
Sovereigns   underwent   repeated   changes    in   form 
and  enrichment.     That  of  Edward  II.  was  formed  of 
four  large  and  four  small  strawberry  leaves,  rising 
Incurves  from  the  jewelled  circlet,  and  having  eight 
small    flowers   Alternating    with 
the  leaves.   In  the  crown  of  Hen- 
ry IV.  eight   strawberrj'  leaves, 
and    as   many  fleurn-dt'-li.i  alter- 
nated with  sixteen  small  groups 
of  pearls,  three  in  each.     Under 
Henry   V.   the   enriched    circlet 
was  for  the  first  time  arched  over 
with  jewelled  bands  of  gold,  and 
the  apex  of  the  arches  were  sur- 
mounted with   a   mound   and  a 
cross,  while   crosses  patees  were 
substiHited  for  the  strawberry  leaves,  and  roses  or 
Jie II n-de-lis  for  the  clusters  of  pearls.     The  arches, 
at  first  numerous  and  elevated  to  a  point,  became  in 
later  times,  restricted  to  four,  and  depressed  in  the 
The  Imperial  Crown  of  Heraldry,  as  now 


^^Bt^eAai  Oram. 


center, 
escutcheon.     When  a  man  marries  i  understood,  is,  in  point  of  fact,  the  form  "of  crown 
a  second  wife,  heralds  .say  that  he  I  worn  by  the  English  Sovereigns  from  Charles  II.  to 
Impale.  ni'W  divide  the  sinister  half  of  the    William  IV.,  as  represented  in  the  subjoined  wood- 

shield  per  fess  into  two  compart-  '  cut.  It  has  four  crosses  patees  and  four  Jieurs-dt-li.t 
ments,  placing  the  family  arms  of  his  deceased  wife  set  alternately  on  the  circlet,  while  four  pearl-stud- 
in  chief,  and  of  his  second  wife  in  base.  A  bus-  ded  arches,  rising  from  within  the  crosses,  carry  at 
band  impaling  his  wife's  coat  with  his  own,  is  not  their  intersection  the  mound  and  cross.  The  State 
allowed  to  surround  the  former  with  the  collar  or  Crown  of  Queen  Victoria  differs  considerably  from 
ihe  insignia  of  any  order  or  knighthood  to  which  this,  having  a  far  more  enriched  character!    It  is 


ntPEEIAL  GUARDS. 


84 


IMPLKMENTS, 


covered  with  diamonds  and  studded  witli  gems,  and 
the  arches  are  wrought  into  wreaths  of  rose,  thistle, 
and  sliamrock  formed  of  brilliants.  A  cliarge,  crest, 
or  supporter,  crowned  with  a  regal  crown,  is  said  to 
be  imperially  cnmned. 

IMPERIAL  GUARDS.— The  name  of  a  body  of  select 
troops,  organized  by  the  French  Emperor,  Napoleon 
I.,  which  greatly  distinguished  themselves  at  Auster- 
litz. 

IMPERIALISTS.— A  designation  chiefly  applied  to 
the  subjects  of,  or  forces  employed  l)y  the  House  of 
Austria,  when  opposed  to  the  troops  of  other  Ger- 
man Powers. 

IMPETUS. — In  gunnery,  the  altitude  through  which 
a  heavy  body  must  fall  to  acquire  a  velocity  equal  to 
that  with  which  a  ball  is  discharged  from  a  piece. 

IMPLEMENTS.—  Artillery  implements  are  em- 
ployed in  loading,  pointing,  and  tiring  cannon,  and 
in  the  maneuver  of  artillery-carriages.  The  imple- 
ments for  loading  cannon  are  : — 1st.  The  rammer- 
head  is  a  short  cylindrical  piece  of  beech  or  other 


siege  and  sea-coast  cannon,  as  field  and  moimtaln 
cannon  can  be  unloaded  by  raising  the  trail  of  the 
carriage,  which  permits  the  projectile  to  slip  out  by 
its  own  weight.  4th.  The  irorm.  Fig.  2  is  a  spe- 
cies of  double  cork-.screw,  attached  to  a  staff,  and  is 
used  in  field  and  siege  cannon  to  withdraw  a  car- 
tridge, ■'ith.  The  gunner'.i  haversack  is  made  of 
leather,  and  suspended  to  the  side  of  a  cannonier  by 
a  shoulder-strap.  It  is  used  to  carry  cartridges 
from  the  ammunition-chest  to  the  piece,  in  loading. 
6th.  The  pnna-bi/x  is  a  wooden  l)ox  closed  with  a  lid, 
and  carried  by  a  handle  attached  to  one  end.  It 
takes  the  place  of  the  liaversack  in  siege  and  sea- 
coast  service,  where  the  cartridge  is  large.  7th. 
The  tube-pouch  is  a  small  leather  pouch  attached  to 
the  person  of  a  cannonier  by  a  waist-belt.  It  con- 
tains the  friction-tubes,  lanyard,  priming-wire,  the 
thumb-stall,  etc.  8th.  The  budge-barrel  is  an  oak 
barrel  bound  with  copper  hoops.  To  the  top  is  at- 
tached a  leather  cover,  which  is  gathered  with  a 
string,  after  the  manner  of  the  mouth  of  a  bag.     It- 


Fig.  1. 


Fia.  .'i. 

tough  wood,  fi.xcd  to  the  end  of  a  long  stick  of  ash, 
called  a  utajf',  and  is  employed  to  push  the  charge  to 
its  place  in  the  bore  or  chamber  of  a  cannon.  3d. 
The  xpiingr  is  niriuiUen  brush,  Fig.  1.  attached  to  the 
ciiil  iif  a  staff,  for  the  ])urj)ose  of  cleaning  the  inte- 
rior of  caniicin,  and  e.\tinguishing  any  burning  frag- 
ments of  tbc  cartridge  that  may  remain  after  tiring. 
In  the  lield  and  mountain  services,  the  ramnier-liead 
and  sponge  are  attached  to  the  opposite  ends  of  the 
same  staff;  in  the  siege  and  sea-coast  services  they 
are  attached  to  separates  staves.  To  protect  the 
sponge  from  the  weather,  it  should,  when  not  in  use, 
be  enclosed  in  a  rorer  made  of  canvas  and  jiainted. 
3d.  The  ladle  is  a  co]iper  scoo))  attached  to  the  end 
of  a  stafT  for  the  purpose  of  withdrawing  the  jiro- 
jectile  of  a  loaded  piece.    Ladles  are  only  used  for 


is  employed  to  carry  cartridges  from  the  magazine 
to  the  battery,  in  siege  and  sea-coast  services.  9th. 
The  priming-wire  is  used  to  prick  a  hole  in  a  cart- 
ridge for  the  passage  of  the  flame  from  the  venf .  It 
is  a  piece  of  wire,  pointed  at  one  end.  and  tlie  other 
is  formed  into  a  ring  which  serves  as  a  handle.  10th. 
The  thnmh-stall  is  a  buckskin  cushion,  a'tachcd  to 
the  finger  to  close  the  vent  in  spimging.  11th.  The 
'  fune-setter  is  a  brass  drift  for  driving  a  wooden  ftise 
into  a  shell.  12th.  The  fuse-mallei.  Fig.  3  is  made 
of  hard  wood,  and  is  used  in  connection  with  Iho 
setter,  liitli.  'Dicfuse-sair  is  a  lO-inch  tenon  saw  foi" 
cutting  wooden  or  paper  fuses  to  a  proper  length. 
14lh.  'Ti\cfiise-gimlet\>iti  common  gindet,  which  may 
be  employed  in  place  of  the  saw  to  open  a  commu- 
nication with  the  fuse  composition.     15th.  Thc/us«- 


IMPBEGNABLE. 


85 


IMPSES8I0R  TAKER. 


auger  is  an  iiistruiiicnt  for  repiilaliii!;  (he  time'  of 
burnini;  of  a  fuse,  \<\  riMnovini;  a  <crliiiii  porlion  of 
the  roinposilioii  fnnii  the  exterior.  For  lliix  |)iir- 
poHc  il  lias  a  iiiovalile  i;railiiale(l  sriile,  wliicli  ri'iru- 
lutes  the  ileplli  towliieU  the  aiii;er  slioiild  penetrate. 
lOlli.  The  fiiM'-raxp  is  a  coarse  lile  employed  in  fit- 
ting a  fuse-plnj;  to  a  slicll.  17tli.  Tlu;  fuHt-pliig 
refiinir  is  vised  to  enlarge'  tlie  eavily  of  a  fiise-pliig, 
after  it  has  been  driven  into  a  i)rojeetile,  to  enable 
It  to  reeeivea  jiaperfiise.  IHtli.  'Vht-nhill-pbt;/  m-reir 
Is  a  wood  serew  with  a  handle  ;  it  is  useil  to  extraet 
a  phii:  from  a  fnse-hole.  ISJtli.  The  fune-fitrddDr  is 
worked  by  a  serew,  and  is  a  more  powerful  instru- 
ment than  the  preecdini;  ;  it  is  used  for  extraeting 
wooden  fuses  from  loade<l  sliells.  20th.  The  mur- 
tar-.vnrper  is  a  slender  piece  of  iron  with  a  sjjoon  at 
one  end,  and  a  scraper  at  the  other,  for  cleaning  the 
cliamlier  of  a  mortar.  21st.  The  gunmr'n  Kleeees  are 
jnade  of  tlannel  or  serge,  and  are  intended  to  be 
drawn  over  the  coal-sleeves  of  the  gunner,  and  |)re- 
VCnt  them  from  being  soiled  while  loading  a  mortar. 
23d.  The  funnel  is  made  of  copper,  and  is  used  in 
pouring  tlu^  bursting  charge  into  a  shell.  23d.  The 
poirdrr-uit'iimirm.  Fig.  4,  are  made  of  cojiper,  of  a 
cylindrical  form,  and  of  various  sizes,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  charges  of  shells  and  can- 
non, by  measurement.  24th.  The /"/i^ffcrf  is  a  <n>ril, 
one  end  of  which  has  a  small  iron  hook,  and  the 
other  a  wooden  handle.  It  is  used  to  explode  the 
friction-tubes  with  which  cannon  for  tlie  land  ser- 
vice are  now  tired.  2.5th.  The  gnnnrr'-i  pincers,  gim- 
let, and  iient-piinrh  are  instruments  carried  in  tlic 
tube-pouch  for  removing  ordinary  obstructions  from 
the  vent.  2()tli.  Tlie  HlieU-hookK  is  an  instrument 
constructed  to  fasten  into  the  cars  of  a  shell,  for  the 
purpose  of  lifting  it  to  the  muzzle  of  the  jnece. 

The  implements  for  pointing  are  :  1st.  The  gun. 
ner'K  level  is  an  instrument  for  determining  the  high- 
est points  of  tile  breecli  and  muzzle  of  a  cannon 
when  tlie  carriage-wheels  stand  on  even  ground.  It 
Is  made  of  a  brdsa  plate,  the  lower  edge  of  which  is 
terminated  by  two  steel  points  which  rest  upon  the 
surface  of  the  piece.  A  spirit-ln-el  is  attached  to 
the  plate  with  its  a.xis  parallel  to  the  line  joining  the 
points  of  contact.  When  the  level  is  in  position, 
the  vertical  slideis  pressed  down  with  the  linger  to 
mark  the  required  point.  2d.  The  tangent-scale  is 
a  brass  plate,  the  lower  edge  of  which  is  cut  to  the 
curve  of  the  base-ring  of  the  piece,  and  the  upper 
edge  is  formed  into  onsets  which  correspond  to  dif- 
ferences of  elevation  of  a  quarter  of  a  degree.  It  is 
used  in  pointing,  by  placing  the  curved  edge  on  the 
base-ring,  with  the  radius  of  the  offset  corresponding 
with  the  highest  point  of  the  ring,  and  sighting  over 
the  center  of  the  offset  and  the  highest  point  of  the 
Bwell  of  the  muzzle.  3d.  The  Ireech-sight,  is  a  more 
accurate  form  of  the  tangent-scale.  It  consists  of 
a  vertical  scale  graduated  to  degrees  and  eighths  of 
degrees,  and  a  curved  Aa<e  which  rests  upon  the  breech 
of  "the  gun.  A  slide  is  attached  to  the  vertical  piece, 
which  has  a  small  hole  or  notch  cut  on  its  upper 
edge,  through  which  the  aim  is  taken.  The  slide 
is  fixed  at  any  point  by  a  thumbscrew.  4th.  The 
pendulum  hausse  is  used  to  point  tield-pieces,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  obviate  the  error  which  will  ari.se 
when  the  wheels  of  the  carriage  stand  on  uneven 
ground.  It  is  composed  of  a  scale  arranged  like  a 
peniluUim,  a  si/sjh  nsion-pieee,  and  a  sent  which  is 
screwed  to  the  breech  of  the  gun.  A  slot  is  cut  in 
the  suspension-piece  into  which  the  scale  is  inserted, 
and  fastened  Viy  a  pivot,  which  allows  it  to  vibrate 
in  a  lateral  direction.  The  scale  also  vibrates  in  a 
longitudinal  direction,  as  the  journals  of  the  sus- 
pension-piece are  free  to  turn  in  the  grooves  cut  in 
the  seat  to  receive  them,  thus  assuming  a  vertical 
position  independently  of  the  surface  of  the  ground 
.on  which  the  carriage  stands.  5th.  The  gunner's 
qitadrant  is  a  wooden  instrument  for  measuring  the 
:iingles  of  elevation  and  depression  of  cannon,  and 
particularly  of  mortals.     The  nature  of  the  instru- 


ment and  its  mode  of  apjilication  are  very  simple. 
The  plumb-line  and  bob  when  not  in  use,  are  carried 
in  a  hole  formed  in  the  end  of  the  long  branch,  and 
covered  with  a  brass  plate. 

The  principal  maneuvering  implements  arc:  1st. 
The  trail-handspike,  which  is  made  of  wood,  and 
attacli(!d  to  the  trail  of  a  fielil-carriage  for  the  ])ur- 
pose  of  giving  directiim  to  the  piece  when  aiming. 
VVIien  tlie  carriage  is  limliered,  the  handspike  is  at- 
tached to  the  chei-k  by  means  of  a  ring  and  hook. 
2(1.  The  maneurtriiig.liiinds]iil:i  is  likewise  made  of 
wood,  but  it  is  longer  and  stouter  than  the  preced- 
ing ;  it  is  used  for  siege  and  sea-coast  carriages  and 
gins.  3d.  The  sliad-handspike  is  made  of  wood, 
armed  with  an  iron  point,  which  is  turned  up  in  a 
way  to  prevent  slipping  on  the  ]ilatforni.  It  is  par- 
ticularly useful  in  the  servici-  of  mortars  and  sea- 
coast  carriages.  4th.  The  truck-hnudxpike  is  made 
of  inm,  and  is  employed  to  work  the  maneuvering 
wheels  of  sea-coast  carriages,  by  inserting  it  in  the 
holes  formed  in  the  circumference  of  the  wheels. 
Sth.  The  eccentric-handspike  is  used  to  throw  the 
eccentric  axis  of  the  maneuvering  wheels  of  the  sea- 
coast  carriages  into  and  out  of  gear,  for  this  pur- 
pose it  has  a  head  with  a  hexagonal  hole  which  tits 
upon  the  extremities  of  the  eccentric  axle-tree, 
(ith.  The  mller-fiaudspike  supplies  the  place  of  rear 
maneuvering  wheels  in  certain  of  the  new  sea-coast 
gun-carriages.  It  is  operated  by  inserting  the  point 
of  the  handspike  under  the  heel  of  the  carriage-shoe, 
and  pressing  down  the  long  arm  of  the  lever;  in 
this  way  the  weight  of  the  rear  portion  of  the  carriage 
is  thrown  upon  the  roller,  which  moves  upon  the 
rail  of  the  chassis.  7th.  The  prd-inge  is  a  stout 
hemp  rope,  occasionally  employed  in  field-service 
to  connect  the  liipette  <if  "the  carriage  and  pintle-hook 
of  the  limber  when  the  piece  is  tired.  It  is  termina- 
ted at  one  end  with  a  hook,  at  the  other  wit  ha  toggle, 
and  has  two  intermediate  rings,  into  which  the  hook 
and  toggle  are  fastened  whenever  it  is  necessarv'  to 
shorten  the  distance  between  the  carriages,  8th. 
The  spange-fiucket  is  made  of  sheet-iron,  and  is  at- 
tached to  field-carriages  ;  it  is  used  for  washing  the 
bore  of  the  piece.  9th.  The  tar-bucket  is  also  made 
of  sheet-iron,  and  is  used  to  carry  the  grease  for  the 
wheels.  10th.  The  watering-bucket  is  made  of  sole- 
leather,  riveted  at  the  seams,  and  is  used  to  water 
the  horses.  The  gutta-percha  watering-buckets  are 
sometimes  used.  11th.  The  water-buckets  iivemmXe 
of  wood,  and  bound  with  iron  hoops.  There  are 
two  kinds,  one  for  the  traveling-forge,  and  the  other 
for  the  service  of  the  garrison-batteries.  12th.  The 
drag-rope  has  a  hook  at  one  end.  a  loop  at  the  other, 
and  si.x  wooden  handles  placed  about  four  feet  apart. 
It  is  used  whenever  it  may  be  necessary  to  emploj-  a 
number  of  men  in  hauling  loads,  or  extricatins  a 
carriage  from  a  difficult  part  ef  a  road.  13th.  Tlie 
men's^arness  is  very  similar  to  the  drag-rope,  except 
that  the  rope  is  stouter,  and  the  handles  are  replaced 
by  leather  loops  which  pass  over  the  shoulders  of 
the  meU;  to  enable  them  to  exert  their  strength  to 
advantage.  14th.  The  bill-hook,  or  hand-bill,  is  used 
for  cutting  twigs.  15th.  The  screir-jack  is  a  lifting- 
machine,  composed  of  a  screw  worked  by  a  nwtnhle 
nut  supported  on  a  east-iron,  stand.  It  is  useful  in 
greasing  carriaje-wheels. 

IMPKEGNABLE.— Xot  to  be  stormed  or  taken  by 
assault:  inc:ipable  of  being  reduced  by  force;  able 
successfully  to  resist  attack ;  as  an  impregnable  fort- 
ress. 

IMPRESSION  TAKER,— A  device  employed  for  re- 
cording impressions  of  vents  and  interiors  of  bores 
in  the  inspection  of  cannon.  In  its  usual  form,  it 
consists  of  a  wooden  head,  one-half  of  which  is  cyl- 
indrical, and  the  other  half  is  of  the  shape  of  the 
chamber,  both  being  rather  smaller  than  the  parts 
of  the  bore  for  which  they  are  intended.  The  staff, 
flatened  on  its  upper  side  and  rounded  on  its  under 
side  to  fit  the  curve  of  th3  bore,  is  mortised  into  the 
cylindrical  portion  of  the  head.     A  mortise  is  cut 


EVEPEISONMENT. 


86 


INCLOSED  "WORKS^ 


through  the  chamber  part  of  the  head,  extending 
several  inches  in  the  rear  and  the  front  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  vent.  Into  this  mortise  a  loose  piece  is 
fitted,  capable  of  free  motion  upwards  and  down- 
wards, the  top  of  which  is  pierced  with  holes  to 
secure  the  wax  or  composition  which  is  spread  over 
its  surface.  This  movable  piece  rests  on  a  wedge 
attached  to  a  flat  rod  running  through  a  slot  in  tliis 
rod  about  four  inclies  long,  a  pin  passing  through 
it  into  the  staff. 

To  use  the  instrument,  withdraw  the  rod  as  far  as 
the  slot  will  permit,  which  will  allow  the  movable 
piece  upon  which  tlie  composition  has  been  spread 
to  drop  below  the  surface  of  the  head,  and  protect 
it.  Push  the  head  to  the  bottom  of  the  chamber  and 
arrange  the  position  of  the  staff,  so  that  the  mov- 
able piece  will  cover  the  vent,  then  press  the  end  of 
the  rod  home.  This  motion  will  throw  out  the  com- 
position, and  a  distinct  impression  of  the  vent  and  of 
fire-erncks  (shoidd  there  be  any)  will  be  left  on  the 
surface  ;  draw  the  rod  back  as  far  as  the  slot  will 
allow,  and  withdriiw  the  instrument ;  the  impression, 
being  protected  tliereb.y,  will  come  out  uninjured. 
Impressions  of  injuries  or  cavities  in  the  bore  may 
easily  be  taken  by  a  similar  contrivance.  See  trutta- 
jtercha  Impressions,  Inspection  of  Ordnance,  3.nA.Vent 
Impressions. 

IMPRISONMENT. — Officers  may  be  sentenced  to 
imprisiiument  Ijy  a  general  Court-Martial  in  any  case 
where  the  Court  may  have  discretionary  authority. 
General.  Garrison,  or  Regimental  Courts-Martial  may 
sentence  soldiers  to  imprisonment,  solitary  or  other- 
wise, with  or  without  hard  labor  for  various  offenses 
enumerated  in  the  Articles  of  War.  A  Garrison  or 
Regimental  Court-Martial, in  awarding  imprisonment, 
is  limited  to  a  period  not  exceeding  thirty  daj-s. 
When  a  Court  awards  solitary  imprisonment  as  a 
punishment,  it  is  necessary  the  words  "  Solitary  C^on- 
finement  "  should  be  expresed  in  the  sentence.  The 
legal  imprisonment  in  the  United  States  is  confine- 
ment,  solitary  confinement,  and  a  confinement  on 
bread  and  water;  the  latter  does  not  extend  over  14 
days  at  a  time,  witli  intervals  between  the  periods 
of  "such  confinement  not  less  than  such  periods,  and 
not  exceeding  84  days  in  any  one  year. 

IN  BATTERY. — A  command  in  heavy  artillery  ser- 
vice for  moving  the  gun  forward  into  position,  prior 
to  aiming  and  firing.  For  instance,  at  the  siege- 
battery,  as  soon  as  the  piece  is  loaded.  iNos.  1  and  3 
uncho'ck  the  wheels  (if  they  have  been  chocked), 
and  with  Nos.  .3,  4,  .5,  and  6,  all  facing  towards  the 
epaulment,  embar ;  Nos.  1  and  3  through  tlie  front 
spokes  of  the  wheels,  near  the  fellies,  under  and 
perpendicidar  to  the  cheeks  ;  Nos.  3  and  4  under  the 
rear  of  the  wheels,  and  Nos.  5  and  6  under  and  per- 
pendicular to  the  stock,  near  the  trail.  All  being 
ready,  the  gunner  commands  :  He.we,  and  the  piece 
IS  run  into  battery,  Nos.  5  and  6  being  careful  to 
guide  the  muzzle  into  the  middle  of  the  embrasure. 
As  soon  as  the  wheels  touch  the  hurter,  he  com- 
mands :  Halt.  All  unbar,  and  Nos.  1,  3,  3,  and  4  re- 
sume llii'ir  posts. 

INCAPABLE. — A  term  of  disgrace,  frequently  an- 
nexed to  military  sentences,  when  au  officer  has  been 
cashiered  by  the  sentence  of  a  General  Court-Martial, 
and  rendered  ineajiable  of  ever  serving  his  country 
in  cilhi-r  a  civil  or  military  capacity. 

INCENDIARY  MATCH.— A  preparation  in  pyro- 
teehny.  made  Ijy  boiling  slow-match  in  a  saturated 
solution  of  niter,  drying  it,  cutting  it  into  pieces, 
and  iilunging  it  into  tuelted  fire-stone.  It  is  princi- 
pally used  in  loaded  shells.     See  Fireworks. 

INCENDIARY  SHELL.  -A  hollow  projectile  charg- 
ed with  iiH'iiidiary  composition,  and  designed  for 
setting  tire  to  buildings,  ships,  and  other  objects. 
Hollow  balls  filled  with  fire,  appear  to  be  among  the 
earliest  jjroji'etiles  used  in  warfare  after  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Greek-fire,  though  lliese  were  not  fired 
from  cannon  ;  but  descriptions  are  given  of  balls  of 
Are  used  by  the  Saracens  in  Spain,  which  seem  to 


correspond  closely  with  modem  incendiary-shells,^ 
The  use  of  incendiary  compounds  appears  to  have 
gradually  become  obsolete,  as  we  hear  little  or  no- 
thing of  their  employment  until  toward  the  close  of 
the  18th  century,  hot  shot  being  used  as  a  substitute. 
About  1797,  Chevallier,  in  France,  invented  an  in- 
cendiary compound,  which  .seems  to  have  been  tried 
to  a  limited  extent  by  the  French  Government,  for 
filling  shells.  Since  then,  many  inventors  have  ex- 
ercised their  ingenuity  upon  this  subject,  the  princi- 
pal object  being  to  obtain  an  inextinguishable  com- 
position for  charging  shells,  to  be  ignited  either  by 
time-fuse  or  by  percussion.  The  only  shells  of  the 
incendiary  kind  generally  recognizedin  modem  war- 
fare are  carcasses. 

INCENSED.— The  epithet  applied  in  Heraldry  to 
panthers  and  other  wild  beasts  borne  with  flames 
issuing  from  their  mouths  and  ears.  The  term, 
Amme  has  the  same  signification.     See  Heraldry. 

INCLINE. — To  gain  ground  to  the  flank,  as  well  as 
to  the  front.  Inclining  is  of  great  use  in  the  march- 
ing of  the  line  in  front,  to  correct  any  irregularities 
that  ma}'  happen.  It  is  equivalent  to  the  quarter 
facing  and  to  the  oblique  marching  of  the  infantry. 
It  enables  us  to  gain  the  enemy's  flank  without  ex- 
posing our  own,  or  without  wheeling  or  altering  the 
parallel  front  of  the  company. 

INCLINED  PLANE.— The  inclined  plane  is  reck- 
oned as  one  of  the  mechanical  powers,  because,  by 
rolling  it  up  a  plane,  a  man  may  raise  a  weight 
which  he  could  not  lift.  This  principle  is  extensive- 
ly made  use  of,  chiefly  in  the  raising  of  weights  and 
in  road-making.  It  is  here  unnecessary  to  go  into  a 
mathematical  investigation  of  the  theory  of  the  in- 
clined plane,  as  it  may  be  seen  in  the  common  books 
on  mechanics, but  the  result  is  as  follows:  The  force 
required  to  lift  a  body  (viz.,  its  weight)  bears  to  the 
force  required  to  keep  it  from  rolling  down  an  In- 


V"W 


clined  plane,  the  same  proportion  that  the  length  of 
the  inclined  plane  bears  to  its  height :  also  the  weight 
of  the  body  bears  to  the  weight  which  tends  to  bend 
or  break  the  inclined  plane,  the  same  proportion 
that  the  length  of  the  plane  bears  to  its  base.  Let 
us  suppose  a  plane,  whose  length,  AB,  is  thirteen 
feet;  base,  AC,  twelve  feet ;  and  height,  BC,  five 
feet ;  and  let  the  weight  be  780  poimcls.  Then  the 
force,  P,  whicli  can  sustain  780  pounds  on  the  in- 
clined plane,  is  ^jths  of  780,  or  300  pounds  (/.  e.,  a 
force  which  could  just  lift  300  pounds)  :  also  the 
force,  R,  which  presses  perpendicularly  on  the  plane, 
is  -;-|ths  of  780,  or  720  pounds.  When  the  weight 
has  not  only  to  be  sustained  on  the  plane  but  drawn 
up  to  it,  the  resistance  of  friction  has  to  be  added  to 
the  power  necessary  to  sustain  the  weight.  In  com- 
mon roads.  Engineers  are  agreed  that  the  lieight  ■ 
of  an  incline  should  not  exceed  J^th  of  the  length, 
or,  as  they  phrase  it,  the  gradient  should  not,  be 
greater  than  one  in  twenty.  It  may  here  be  men- 
tioned that  knives,  chisels,  axes,  wedges,  and  screws, 
are  mere  modifications  of  the  inclined  jjlane,  but  the 
last  two  being  generally  classed  as  di.stinct  mechan- 
ical powers,  will  be  treated  each  under  its  own  head. 
See  Aftriu/niral  Pinners. 

INCLOSED  WORKS.  -Inclosed  works  are  a.ssailable 
on  all  sides,  and  must,  for  security,  present  an  un- 
broken line  to  the  assault.  They  are  usually  divided 
into  three  classes,  viz.  ;  1st.  Polygonal  works  or  re- 
doubts ;  2d.  Tenailled  works  or  star  forts;  3d.  Bas- 
lioned  works.  The  redoul)ts  maybe  inclosed  on  all 
sides  of  a  square,  polygonal,  or  circular  figure.    The 


INCOUUODER  L'ENNEMI. 


87 


INCOEPOEATINO  MILL. 


lattpr  form  is  rarrly  iisrd,  hoint;  nnsiiitiililc  f  o  proiind 
in  uriicriil,  iiiid  from  llii'  iiri|iciMMiliilil y  nf  li'ivin'^  nrjy 
lliuikiiii;  (icfcMSc  U>  IIk'  (litcli.  I{c(l<]iil)ls  on  Ufvcl 
finmnd  arc  generally  Hquarc  or  |icnl,ai;onal.  On  a 
hill  or  risiiii;  ;,'roiiiid  tlicir  outline  will,  in  nioHt  cuhch, 
follow  tlif  conlour  o(  llio  siinunit  of  tin;  Idll.  The 
dimensions  of  all  inelosed  works  should  he  propor- 
tioned to  the  nuinher  of  men  they  are  to  contain. 
One  lile,  that  is,  two  men,  are  rc(|uired  for  the  de- 
fense of  every  lineal  yard  of  parapet;  Ihe  numhi'r 
of  yards  in  the  crest  line  (jf  any  redoulit  should  not, 
therefore,  exceed  lialf  Ihe  nuudjer  of  meii  to  IxM'on- 
taincd  in  it.  Afiain,  as  ovcry  man  in  an  inclosed 
work  recpiircs  10  s({uarc  feet  of  tlie  interior  space, 
that  space  clear  of  the  Ijancpiette  nuist  not  contain 
less  than  ten  times  as  many  square  feel  as  the  num- 
ber of  men  to  he  contaiticd  in  it.  From  these  con- 
siderations il  follows:  Isl.  To  find  Ihe  least  imiuher 
of  men  sullicieut  lo  man  tlu^  parajjet  of  an  inclosed 
work.  nuiUiply  the  number  of  yards  in  the  crest 
line  by  two.  2d.  To  lind  the  greatest  number  of 
men  that  an  inclosed  work  can  contain,  find  the 
area,  clear  of  the  liamiuette,  in  scpiare  feet,  and  di- 
vide tliis  number  by  U).  When  the  work  contains 
guns,  ;ii4  square  feet  must  be  allowed  for  each  gun, 
and  this  quantity,  mulliplied  by  the  number  of  guns, 
nuisl  be  sublracled  from  tlie  wliole  interior  space. 
The  remaining  number  of  square  feet,  divided  by  | 
10,  will  give  the  number  of  men  which  the  redoubt 
can  hold.  The  side  of  a  square  redoulit  should, 
under  no  circumstances,  be  less  than  50  feet.  The 
great  objections  to  small  inclosed  works  are  :  1st, 
the  liabilily  of  their  faces  to  be  enfiladed  from  with- 
out; 2i\,  the  dillieully  of  providing  an  elfective 
flanking  defense  for  their  ditches  ;  3d,  the  weakness 
of  their  sidient  angles,  the  ground  in  front  of  tliem 
being  imdefeuded  by  a  direct  fire.  In  tracing  re- 
doubts and  all  inclo.sed  field  works,  care  must  be 
taken  to  direct  as  much  as  possible  their  faces  upon 
inaccessible  ground,  so  as  to  reduce  to  a  minimum 
the  cfTeets  of  an  enemy's  enliliide.  while  a|i|)roach 
on  the  salients  must  be  rendered  ditliculf  by  abalis, 
trous-de-loup,  and  obstacles  of  all  available  descrip- 
tions.,  It  will  henceforward  be  very  dittieulf  lo 
guard  the  interior  of  inclosed  works  from  the  effects 
of  distant  musketry.  Well-trained  troops  from  a 
distance  of  900  yards  could  throw  willi  certainly 
every  shot  into  the  interior  of  even  a  sm;dl  redoubt : 
while  the  angle  at  which  they  fall,  some  l.'j'^  to  20>^, 
would  enable  them  to  sweep  the  whole  interior  and 
make  every  part  of  the  redoubt  too  hot.  It  seems 
to  be  a  question  whether  such  a  work  can  be  pro- 
tected by  traverses  from  such  a  plunging  fire.  See 
Bastinned  F&rU,  Field  ForUftcaUon,  Redoubt,  and 
Star  Forti. 

INCOMMODER  L'ENNEMI.— To  get  possession  of 
a  fort,  eminence,  etc.,  from  which  tlie  enemy  may  be 
harassed,  or  wliich  fs  ni'cessarv  to  his  security. 

INCORPORATING  MILL.— The  incorporation,  or 
grinding  togetlier,  of  the  three  ingredients  that  form 
gunpowder  is  by  far  the  most  important  process  in 
the  whole  manufacture,  for  unless  the  minute  par- 
ticles of  the  three  ingredients  be  thoroughly  blended 
and  brought  into  the  closest  contact  with  each  other, 
all  subsequent  operations — however  well  performed 
— will  not  compensate  for  the  error.  The  incorpor- 
ating mill,  which  is  shown  in  the  drawing,  consists 
of  two  large  and  heavy  "  hard  chill"  cast-iron  edge 
runners,  revolving  on  a  circular  cast-iron  bed ;  the 
peculiar  action  of  these  runners  or  rollers  is  well 
adapted  for  thoroughly  grinding  and  incorporating 
the  several  ingredients ;  their  great  weight  is  for 
crushing  the  ingredients  ;  which  are  also  ground 
together  by  the  twisting  action  produced  liy  the  roll- 
ers traveling  round  in  so  small  a  circle.  Kacii  roll- 
er travels  over  the  bed  in  a  separate  track,  and  is 
assisted  by  the  plough  (hereafter  described),  which 
mi.xes  the  material,  so  that  it  is  subjected  to  crushing, 
grinding,  and  mixing  by  the  one  operation.  Incor- 
porating mills  in  a  gunpowder  factory  are  usually 


grouped  together,  and  the  motive  power  may  oitlier 
be  waliTor  sleam  :  in  eilhercase  Ihe  power  provided 
sl]i>nlil  be  capable  of  driving  four  or  more  pairs  of  run- 
ners. Each  pair  is  so  arranged  tliat  it  can  be  disen- 
gaged or  put  in  gear  at  pleasure  by  means  of  a  friclion- 
clut(;h,  without  interfering  with  the  steady  working 
of  the  engine  or  water-wheel.  When  the  latter  is 
employeil,  the  speed  is  regulati'd  by  a  governor  in 
<onnection  w  ith  Ihe  sluice  ;  by  this  means  the  flow  of 
water  is  caused  to  immediately  increase  or  diminish 
as  a  pair  of  runners  is  put  into  motion  or  slopped, 
and  Ihiis  a  regular  speed  is  always  mainlained.  Tlie 
runners  travel  round  Ihe  bed  at  the  rate  of  8  revolu- 
tions per  minute  ;  they  are  0'  0"  in  diameter  by  113" 
broad  on  the  face,  and  they  each  weigh  four  ton.s. 
As  already  staled,  tlie  two  travel  on  different  paths, 
the  one  being  near  to  Ihe  outside  rim  or  curb  of  the 
bed,  while  the  other  travels  near  to  the  inside  curb 
or  "  cheese."  A  horizontal  shaft  or  spindle  com- 
mon to  both  runners  passes  through  their  centers, 
and  between  them  is  a  crosshead,  fixed  on  a  vertical 
shaft  driven  by  means  of  a  bevel  wheel  and  pinion, 
the  latter  being  secured  on  the  main  driving-shaft 
that  passes  ini(lernealli  the  bed  of  each  mill,  and  is 
common  to  all.     The  vertical  shaft  jiasses  through 


the  crosshead,  and  is  provided  with  brass  bushes, 
which  allow  the  runners  to  rise  or  fall  a<'Cording  to 
the  irregularity  in  the  thickness  of  the  material  under 
them.  On  each  side  of  the  crosshead  and  project- 
ing outwards  is  an  iron  bracket,  having  a  phiugh 
(made  of  a  wedge-shaped  piece  of  wood  shod  with 
felt  and  leather) "fitted  to  it,  and  so  arranged  as  to 
sweep  the  bed  and  to  keep  the  composition  under 
the  runners.  The  one  plough  sweeps  against  the 
outside  curb,  immediately  in  front  of  the  runner 
that  travels  round  the  larger  circle,  and  the  other 
against  the  cheese  or  inside  curb,  immediately  in 
front  of  the  runner  that  travel*;  round  the  smaller 
circle.  The  in.side  of  the  outer  curb,  as  well  as  the 
outsideof  the  cheese  where  the  ploughs  work  and  rub 
against  them,  are  covered  with  copper  or  gun-melal. 
The  composition  attains  a  body  in  abourone  hour 
after  the  runners  are  set  in  motion,  and  the  action 
of  the  ploughs  in  moving  the  whole  of  the  material 
on  and  across  the  bed  thoroughly  mixes  it.  and  sub- 
jects every  particle  to  the  same  amount  of  pres- 
sure. Each  pair  of  runners  is  provided  with  a  tell- 
tale dial,  which  shows  the  attendant  the  time  that 
the  mill  has  to  run.  and  enables  him  to  judge  the 
condition  of  the  cake  from  time  to  time.  From 
three  to  four  hour:;  is  the  period  a  charge  should  be 
on  the  mill,  providing  the  engine  or  water-wlieel  is 
maintained  at  its  proper  speed.  This  timing  of  a 
charge  is  a  very  important  point  in  the  manufacture 
where  powder  of  an  equal  quality  is  required,  and 


IKCEEA8ING  T^W^ST. 


88 


IKCREASING  rWIST. 


the  attendant  has  to  watch  for  anj'  change  in  the  at- 
mosphere, so  that  he  may  work  the  charge  dry  or 
moist,  as  the  humidity  of  the  air  leads  him  to  de- 
termine.    The   ingredients,  or  cliarge,  as   it   comes 
from   the   mixing-machine— 50  lbs.   in   weight  —  is 
spread  equally  over  the  bed  of  the  mill,  and  moist- 
ened  with  from  4  to  8  pints  of    distilled  water  by 
means  of   a  rose-ended  watering-pot,  the  quantity 
heing  regulated  according  to  the  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere, and  as  the  experience  of  the  attendant  shows 
him  to  be  necessary.  The  cake  should  be  of  a  black- 
ish-gray color,  and,  when  broken,  of  a  uniform  ap- 
pearance, without  any  white  or  yellow  specks  in  it ; 
the  presence  of  these  would  indicate  insufficient  in- 
corporation or  grinding.      Further,  it  should  not  be 
more  tliau  half"'an  inch  in  thickness,  in  order  to  be 
thnroughly  incorporated,  nor  should  it  be  less  than 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick  to  insure  safety,  because 
if  the  runners  are  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  bed,  the  friction  caused  by  their  twisting  action 
is  so  great  that  an  explosion  would  almost  certainly 
be  the  result-.     At  the  expiration  of  tliree  or  four 
liours  under  the  before  mentioned  conditions, a  charge 
will  have  attained  all  tlie  properties  of  gunpowder, 
nor  will  the  powder  be  improved  by  heavier  runners 
or  an  increase  of  speed.      For   fine   sporting  gun- 
powder, however,  the  operation  of  incorporating  is 
continued  in  some  cases  for  as  long  as  8  hours,  and 
whh  heavier  rollers,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
powder  is  much,  if  at  all,  improved  thereby ;  the 
purity  of  the  ingredients  is  of  more  consequence,  in- 
asmuch tliat  on  tliis  the  quality  of  powder  depends 
mucli  more  than  vipon  a  long  or  short  period  of  in- 
corporali(m,  for  if  regularity  be  observed  and  the 
runners  are  of  one  size  and  weight,  and  the  charges 
are  worked  for  an  equal  length  of  time  and  under  the 
same  conditions,  a  fairly  uniform  powder  will  be 
the  result.     A  method   used   by  some  for   testing 
whether  the  incorporation  has  been  well  performed, 
is  to  take  iuilt  an  ounce  of  the  cake  granulated  by 
hand  and  flash  it  off  on  a  glass  plate  ;  if  a  slight  res- 
idue only  is  left   on  the  surface  it  is  a  sign  that  the 
attendant  has  done  his  work  thoroughly.     It  has  al- 
ready been  stated  that  incorporating-mills  are  gen- 
erally in  groups  :  it  becomes  necessary,  therefore,  to 
prevent  explosions  spreading  amongst  these  mills. 
This  is  very  eflectually  done  by  the  use  of  a  drench- 
in''  apparatus,  which  consists  of  a  large  board  act- 
ing as  a  flapper,  aud  placed  horizontal!}'  over  each 
pair  of  runners.     This  flapper  is  attached  to  a  shaft 
running  throughout  the  entire  group  of  mills,  and 
in  connexion  with  it,  and  immediately  over  each  set 
of  runners,  is  a  copper  cistern  holding  about  40  gal- 
lons of  water,  so  arranged  and  poised  that  when  the 
flapper  is   raised  by  an  explosion  the  catch  is  disen- 
gaged, and    the  cistern   overbalancing    empties  its 
contents  upon  the  mill.     This,  of  course  does  not 
prevent  damage  being  done  to  the  mill  in  which  the 
explosion  first  occurs,    but  as  .the   v.diole   are  con- 
nected to  each  other  by  means  of  the  shaft  referred 
to,  all  the  cisterns  of  the  group  are  emptied  at  the 
same   time,  thereby   drenching  the  charges  in   the 
other  mills,  and  thus  confining  the  damage  to  that 
mill  wherein  it  originated.     In  addition  to  tliis,  an 
ar-angeinent  is  provided  whereby  the  attendant  can, 
in  case  of  an  explosion  in  anj'  part  of  the  works  or 
in  his  iiinnediate  neighborhood,  upset  the  cisterns  of 
water  from  tlie  outside,   and    thus   prevent  the  ex- 
plosion  spreading.     In  a  well-constructed  incorpor- 
ating mill  all  the  movable  parts,  such  as  Iiolts,  nuts, 
etc.,  are  litted   willi  th(!  greatest  care,  and  at  each 
end  of  tlie  rumier-sbafl.  and  also  ov<'r  and  under  the 
cross-head   between   the   runners,  large   gun-metal 
discs  or  drip-pans  nrv  litted:  these  not  only  prevent 
any  oil  or  greasy  matter  dropping  into  the  charge, 
but  likewise  any  bolt,  mit,  or  pin  that  may  have  be- 
come loose  in  the  vicinity    of  these  parts,    falling 
down  into  the  charge,  and  possilily  i>roihicingan  ex- 
plosion, if  till'  mill  is  at  work.   Further,  wliere  steam 
is  employed  as  the  motive-power  in  a  gunpowder 


works,  care  must  be  taken  at  all  times  to  prevent 
sparks  being  emitted  from  the  boiler  chimney  ;  this 
may  be  effected  in  several  ways,  either  by  using  an- 
thracite coal,  or  coal  and  coke,  for  the  boiler  fur- 
nace, or  by  having  a  spark-catcher  or  arrester  fitted 
inside  the  flue  near  the  base  of  the  chimney,  or  a 
number  of  baffle-plates  being  placed  in  the  chimney 
itself  in  a  zig-zag  manner.  If  proper  precautions  are 
taken,  and  the  flues  are  regularly  cleaned  out,  there 
will  be  no  risk  whatever  in  using  steam-power.  See 
Gunpmoder. 

INCREASING  TWIST. — For  an  increasing  twist, 
the  edges  of  the  angle-board  must  be  curved  accord- 
ingly, and  as  it  is  the  property  of  the  parabola  to  in- 
crease uniformly,  it  has  been  adopted  as  the  curve 
of  the  rifling  for  those  guns  having  an  increased 
twist.  When  this  system  is  adopted,  the  grooves 
start  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  bore, 
and  the  twist  increases  uniformly  towards  the  muz- 
zle. In  the  drawing,  ABCO  denotes  the  develop- 
ment of  the  bore,  and  OM  that  of  a  groove.  The 
origin  of  the  co-ordinate  axes  is  taken  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  groove  at  the  bottom  of  the  bore  ; 
the  axis  of  Y  is  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  bore.  The 
curve  OM  is  tangent  to  OA  at  O,  since  the  projectile 
starts  in  the  direction  OA.  Let  P  denote  the  vari- 
able angle  between  OX  and  the  direction  of  the 
curve  Oil.  If  the  twist  increases  uniformly,  tan  P 
win  decrease  uniformly  as  the  ordinate  iiicreasen,  and 


we  shall  have  tan  P  =  — ,  m  being  an  undetermined 

y 

constant. 

dy        m 
But,  tan  P  =  —  =  — ,  or 

dx        y 

ydy  =  mdx  ;  integrating,  y-  ='imx-\-  K. (a) 

The  constant  of  integration  (A')  is  zero,  since  the 
curve  passes  through  the  origin.  («)  is  the  equa- 
tion to  the  parabola  referred  to  the  vertex  and  prin- 
cipal axes.  In  the  figure,  MT  is  the  tangent  at  JI, 
and  MM'  equals  AB  =  itc,  e  being  the  caliber  of  the 
gun.  Also  M'T  is  put  equal  to  nc,  n  denoting  the 
number  of  calibers  in  which  the  projectile  makes 
one  turn  after  leaving  the  muzzle.  To  determine  m, 
putting  J",  for  the  value  which  P  has  at  M  we  have 

TO 

tan  P'  =  —  ; 
I 
also,  nc        n 

tan  P'  =  —  =  —  ; 

7tC  Tt 

In 
m=  — 
It 
Whence  the  equation  to  the  curve  is 
ny-' 
a-=  - (J!) 

Bj'meansof  equation  (/<)the  curve  is  easily  traced. 
The  advantages  claimed  for  this  method  of  rifling 
are.  that  the  ]irojcetile,  not  being  forced  to  take  tiie 


INDEMNIFICATION. 


Hi) 


INDENTING  PISTONS. 


1 

sfcnnd  tlip  repistrar  fnll«  in  its  turn,  deprpsscs  tlie 

fni'  iiiil  of  tlir  Ir'vcr.  I,  anil  IImih  nMi-asrs  the  iiiiiin- 
sprim;  ;  tin-  kiiifr  jiils  forward,  Hirikcs  the  falliti)^ 
chninoiiietcr,  and  indents  tin;  iijipi-r  recorder.  Ah 
shown  below,  a  very  Hinii>le  relation  holds  Ijelween 
the  dent  thus  obtained  and  the  velocity  of  the  pro- 
jectile which  caiisrd  it.  A  nioinent's  thoii;,dit  will 
show  that  the  lower  the  velocity  the  higher  up  shall 
the  reconhT  be  iiidenteil. 

The  chronometer  is  used  in  leveling  the  clirono- 
scope  ;  for  this  purpose  attach  it  to  its' magnet,  hurimj 
preriiiiixly  rorkril  tlie  inileitter ;  then,  by  means  of 
the  tripod-screws,  bring  it  to  its  norm.al  jiosition.  lii 


•whole  twiat  of  the  rifling  at  once,  moves  more  read- 
ily from  its  seal,  and  llius  the  initial  strain  upon 
the  breech  of  tlic>  gun  is  reiluccil,  Ihiicby  prolong- 
ing its  life;  also  that  the  bearings  on  the  projectile 
are  not  liable'  to  be  lorn  olf.  Theoretically  it  would 
seem  that  a  system  of  rilling  which  permits  tlu-  pro- 
jectile to  move  directly  from  its  seat,  at  the  moment 
of  iirnition  of  the  charge,  must  be  more  favorabh' 
to  endurance  than  one  which,  by  inijieding  the  lirst 
niovcmenl  of  th<'  projectile  in  tlie  bore,  narrows  the 
S]iacc  for  the  expanding  gas,  and  consec|uenlly  brings 
a  greater  pressiu'e  on  the  breech  of  the  gun.  Hut 
practically  this  method  does  not  appear  to  be  suc- 
cessful in  the  enormous  cannon  of  recent  construc- 
tion. The  greatest  objection  to  the  increasing  twist 
is  that  it  cannot  l)e  used  with  a  long  bearing  of  pro- 
jectile. Indeed,  the  theoretical  bearing,  whether  it 
is  a  soft  metal  ring,  a  sirip,  or  a  stud,  is  inlinitcly 
short— a  mere  line— and  practically,  length  of  bear- 
ing only  olitaini'd  by  a  constant  molding  of  the  pro- 
jectil(!  io  the  new  angle  of  ritling,  so  that  the  portion 
of  the  projectile  intended  to  take  the  grooves,  must 
be  short  and  also  soft,  for  if  it  cannot  obtain,  by 
changing  its  lignrc,  more  bearing  on  the  grooves 
than  on  a  mere  line,  it  will  imdonbtedly  cut  llu' 
Eroovi's,  thus  increasing  friction,  and  soon  ruining 
"the  bore.  In  the  absence  of  further  exjieriuu  ;ils,  it 
wiadil  hardly  be  Siife  to  conclude  that  long  bearings 
will  not  prove  indispensable  to  the  heavy  projectiles 
and  high  velocities  that  are  now  reciuired.  A  pro- 
jectile, if  balance<i  on  weakening  studs  in  each 
groove,  is  liable  to  break  up  througli  the  stud-holes, 
thereby  injuring  the  gun.  To  nqiidly  rotate  an  iron 
cylinder,  say  twelve  inclu's  in  diameter  ar.d  three 
calibers  in  length,  weigliing  nearly  a  third  '  f  a  ton. 
by  a  ring  of  such  jioinls,  is  very  likely  to  produce  a 
tciihhUng  motion  and  unsteady  movements  5u  tlight, 
with  reduced  range.  Very  rapid  twist,  although  it 
conduces  to  steadiness  of  motion,  cannot  be  given 
because  small  bearings  will  not  endun^  the  great 
ettort  neeessarv.     See  Grooves.  Ri-fliiig,  and  Tiri'xt. 

INDEMNIFICATION.— In  the  French  and  English 
Armies,  there  is  an  indemnification  established  for 
losses  in  the  military  service,  and  other  allowances 
are  also  made  in  the  nature  of  iudemnilications  ;  as 
for  furniture  ;  fuel  and  light ;  foroge  ;  txpensea  of 
divine  won/lip  ;  commnnd  money  to  General  and  Field 
Officers;  quarters;  expense» upon. routes;  provinions ; 
grntuity  at  the  beginning  if  a  campaign  ;  field  filloir. 
ances  ;  mes!<;  rarringe  of  baggage  ;  blood-money  ;  per- 
manent pension!)  ;  temporary  pensions,  or  gratuities 
in  lievi  thereof;  rewards  for  meritorious  conduct; 
and  pensions  to  widows  and  children  of  otficers. 

In  the  United  States  service,  the  law  provides  that 
if  a  horse  be  lost  in  battle,  an  officer  may  receive  not 
exceeding  two  hundred  dollars  for  his  horse,  and 
allowances  are  made  for  quarters,  fuel,  forage,  pro- 
vision and  transportation  of  baggage,  and  command 
money  in  certain  cases. 

INDENT. — A  word  particularly  made  use  of  in 
India  for  the  dispatch  of  military  business.  It  is  of 
the  same  import  and  meaning  as  to  draw  upon.  It 
likewise  means  an  order  for  military  .stores,  arms, 
etc.,  as  an  indent  for  new  supplies,  etc. 

INDENTED.— In  Heraldry,  oneof  thepartitionlines 
of  the  shield,  similarly  notched  to  dancetle.  Iiut  with 
the  notches  nuich  smaller,  and  not  limited  in  number. 
See  Ilrraldri/. 

INDENTED  LINE,— In  fortitication,  a  serrated  line, 
forming  several  angles,  so  that  the  one  side  defends 
another.  The  faces  are  longer  than  the  tlanks.  In- 
dented lines  are  used  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  where 
they  enter  a  town.  The  parapet  of  the  covered-way 
is  also  often  indented. 

INDENTER.  — This  active  element  of  the  chrono- 
scope,  as  shown  in  the  drawing  in  section,  consists 
of  the  circular  knife.  G,  fixed  in  the  mainspring,  II, 
■which  can  be  cocked  by  means  of  the  catch  on  the 
lever.  I.  On  the  breaking  of  the  first  circuit,  the 
chronometer  falls  verticallj';  on  the  rupture  of  the 


evelingfrom  front  to  rear,  let  the  beveled  shoulder 
of  the  bob,  opposite  the  numbered  face,  rest  lightly 
against  the  projecting  edge,  '•  <•,  of  the  trianixulaV 
base;  in  leveling  laterally,  align  the  right  face  with 
the  edge  d  d,  of  the  salient  angle  of  the  above  i)ro- 
jection.  In  cocking  the  indenter,  be  careful  not  to 
disturb  the  level  of  the  instrument;  the  left  hand 
alone  is  therefore  used:  the  fingers  grasp  the  tube, 
li,  while  the  thumb  pulls  jiack  the  spring  until  it 
catches  in  the  lever,  I.  The  screw.  51,  which  is 
tapped  through  the  lever  anil  rests  on  the  fulcrum- 
mortise  will  regulate  tlnvhold  of  the  catch,  which 
should  be  as  light  as  possible.  The  knife  is  a  cir- 
cular rowel  of  tempered  cast-steel  fastened  in  a  slot 
of  the  mainspring  by  the  a.xial  screw,  N,  the  loosen- 
ing of  which  permits  the  presentation  of  a  new  edge, 
should  the  old  one  be  blunted.  See  Le  Boulenge 
Chronograph. 

INDENTING  FORCE.— The  comparative  softness  or 
hanlness  of  metal  is  determined  by  the  bulk  of  the 
cavities  or  indentations  made  by  equal  pressure;  the 
softness  being  as  the  bulk  directly,  and  the  hardness 
as  the  bulk  inversely.  Of  the  different  forms  of 
cavity  made  by  indenting-tools  that  of  the  pyramid 
is  preferred,  because  of  its  simplicity  and  the  ease 
with  which  its  vohune  may  be  computed.  The  in- 
deatiug  part  of  the  tool  is  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid, 
having  a  rhombus  for  its  base,  the  diagonals  of 
which  are,  respectively,  one  inch  and  two-tenths  of 
an  inch,  the  height  of  the  pyramid  one-tenth  of  an 
inch.  In  late  experiments  the  form  of  the  pyrannd 
has  been  changetl  and  imjiroved  somewhat  by  c:ius- 
ing  it  to  make  a  longer  line  and  mark  minute  dilTer- 
enees  more  accuratelv.     'i>fc  Rodman  ('utter. 

INDENTING-PISTONS.— The  indenting-pistons  that 
are  used  in  the  service  arcfoundto  vary  iutheirdiam- 
eters.  The  pressure  of  the  gas  is  e.xerted  upon  their 
inner  ends,  and  varies  directly  with  the  area  pressed. 
It  is  desirable  to  have  a  scries  of  pistons  adopted 
which  shall  have  the  same  area  of  cross-section.  In 
practice,  the  area  of  these  pistons  has  generally  been 
assumed  to  be  one-tenth  of  one  square  inch.  The  fol- 
lowing Table  gives  the  diameters,  areas,  and  pressures 
upon  those  pistons  of  which  the  dimensions  are 
known,  neglecting  friction,  and  supposing  the  pres- 
sure per  square  inch  to  lie  100,000  pounds. 

Little  is  known  in  regard  to  the  effect  of  friction 
upon  these  short  pistons.  The  friction  of  the  gas- 
check  against  the  walls  of  the  hole  would  render  the 
indicated,  less  than  the  actual  pressures.  A  uni- 
form system  of  pistons  and  cutters  should  be  estab- 
lished in  order  to  render  the  results  obtained  com- 
parable. The  more  nearly  the  conditions  are  assim- 
ilated the  greater  will  be  the  approximation  of  (he 


INDEPENDENT. 


90 


INDIAN  A£iinr, 


relative  pressures  to  an  agreement.  At  tlie  present  spindle,  etc.,  has  a  perpendicular  movement  of  two 
time  each  piston  necessitates  a  separate  Table  of  ,  inches.  The  upward  and  downward  movement  of 
Pressures    and  when  the  length  of  the  cuts  is  re- 1  the  main  slide,  to  which  the  vertical  is  attached,  i& 


Pistons. 


Ordnance  Manual,  1861 

Frankf ord  Arsenal,  (musket) 

Rodman 

Metcalfe 

Theoretical 

National  Armory  circular  cutter 

National  Armory  circular  cutter  No.  3 
West  Point  internal  pressure-gauge. . . 


.S'S 
Q 


Inches. 
.37 


.357 

.3568+ 

.356 

..357 

.355 


Sq.  in. 
.107521 

.106940 
.106362 

.100098 
.100000 

.ogg.iss 

.190098 
.0989798 


Lbs. 
10752.1 

10694.0 
10636.2 

10009.8 
10000.0 
995.1.8 
10009.8 


Remarks. 


0"  .37  given  here  because  this  number  has  eometimeff 

been  used  in  calculating  pressures. 
Made  for  National  Armory. 
Vide    ■'  Experiments   on   Metals   for   Cannon,"    and 

similar  writings. 
Made  for  use  with  "'  spiral  cutters." 
True  diameter— 0".356824743746. 
Also  for  Adams's  cutter. 
Made  at  National  Armory  for  Frankf  ord  Arsenal 


quired  to  determine  the  pressures,  a  Table  must  be 
constructed  for  each  cutter.  See  Circular  Cutter 
aud  Prexxiire-qrivfje. 

INDEPENDENT.— In  a  strict  military  sense,  a  term 
which  distinguishes  from  the  rest  of  the  army  those 
companies  which  have  been  raised  by  individuals 
for  rank,  and  were  afterwards  drafted  into  corps 
that  were  short  of  their  complement  of  men.  An 
Independent  Company  or  Troop,  is  one  that  is  not 
incorporated  into  any  regiment. 

INDEPENDENT  SCARP.— A  wall  3  feet  thick  erect- 
ed at  the  foot  of  the  exterior  slope,  and  when  it  is 
breached  the  parapet  cannot  fall.  It  is  loop-holed 
and  provided  with  a  banquette.  Its  height  should 
not  be  less  than  20  feet. 

INDEX  MILLING-MACHINE.— A  machine  adapted 
to  a  n-reat  variety  of  work  on  metals,  in  the  Armory. 
The  "Imall  machines  of  this  class,  weighing  about 
600  pounds,  mill  lOi  inches  long  and  Ti  inches  high, 
and  will  cut  gears  up  to  8  inches  in  diameter.  The 
use  of  the  inconvenient  counter-shaft,  with  binder, 
weight,  etc.,  commonly  used  with  this  class  of  ma- 
chines, is  avoided  in  the  Armory,  an  ordinary  over- 
head shaft  being  used,  and  the  compensation  for  rise 
and  fall  of  mili-spiudle  and  carrier  obtained  by  a 
splined  shaft  passing  through  the  lower  gear.  Wlien 
not  in  use  for  cutting  gears,  the  index-spindle  is 
solidly  clamped,  so  that  when  using  a  vise,  centers, 
or  spiral-cutter,  no  strain  or  injury  can  come  upon 
the  index-plate  or  pointer. 

The  larger macliines,  weighingabout  l,400pounds. 
are  perfect  gear  cutters  within  certain  limits  of  size, 
cutting  fast  "and  smoothly,  and,  in  addition,  having 
provision  for  using  a  vise",  centers,  and  spiral  cutter 
without  injury  to  the  delicate  dividing  mechanism, 
thus  practica'lly  furnishing  two  machines.  Tliey 
mill  18  inches  in  lengtli  and  11  inches  in  height ;  cut 
spur-gears  up  to  21  inches  in  diameter  ;  also  worm 
and  bevel-gears.  An  adjustable  rim-rest  supports 
the  gear-blank  while  being  cut,  and  prevents  chat- 
tering. The  mill-arbor  has  an  outside  center  sup- 
port,"which  can  be  removed  if  required.  The  cutter- 
head  may  be  worked  by  the  screw  in  front,  or  hy  an 
adjustal)le  lever,  conne"cted  with  rack  and  pinion  at 
tlie  back,  and  is  balanced  by  a  weight  under  the 
machine. 

The  index-plate  is  14  inches  in  diameter,  has  3,800 
holes,  in  S.")  circles,  and  divides  all  numbers  to  .lO, 
all  even  numbers  to  100.  and  every  fourtli  number 
to  200. 

The  drawing  represents  the  machine  most  com- 
monly used.  It  is  adapted  to  cutting  mills,  spur  or 
bevel-gears,  up  to  0  inches  diameter.  The  index- 
plate  i's  attached  to  the  bottom  of  a  hollow  spindle 
having  a  graduateil  <lisc.  The  si)iiidle  is  pivoted 
to  a  vertical  slide,  and  with  its  attachments,  as  vise 
or  centers,  may  be  moved  and  .secured  at  any  angle 
in  a  v<'rtical  plane  of  180",  or  90°  on  either  side  of 
an  upright  position.   This  slide,  carrying  the  inilex- 


6  inches,  and  its  side  traverse  12  inches.  The  centers 
shown  in  the  engraving  as  attached  to  the  index- 
spindle,  will  receive  work  Z\  inches  in  diameter  and 
Si  inches  in  length.  The  spindle  is  of  steel,  and 
slides  in  a  cast-iron  sheath  or  shell,  which  runs  in 
cast-iron  boxes  lined  with  Babbitt-metal.  The  hori- 
zontal movement  of  the  spindle  and  the  vertical  move- 


ment of  the  slides  are  made  by  adjustable  hand-levers, 
and  limited  by  check-nuts."  The  head  has  a  longi- 
tudinal adjustment  by  a  screw  to  the  extent  of  3J 
inclies.  The  machine  weighs,  with  countershaft, 
vise,  ami  centers,  650  pounds.  Speed  of  counter- 
shaft, having  8  and  5  by  3i  inch  tight  and  loose 
puUevs,  100  revolutions  per  minute.     See  Milling. 

INDIAN  ARMY.— The  Indian  Army  in  the  days  of 
Clive.  whicli  was  composed  of  botii  the  liritisli  and 
native  troops,  was  comparatively  small,  liarely  suffi- 
cient to  hold  its  own  ;  but  even  in  those  days  it  did 
great  deeds  of  valor,  as  the  battle  of  Assaye  and 
other  battles  testify.  By  degrees,  as  the  East  India 
Company  increased  its  territory,  a  larger  Army  was 
found  necessary,  and  both  British  and  native  troops 


Indians,  American.    1.  Menitari  warrior,  dressed  for  the  dog-dance.     2.  Dakota  varrior.     3.  Maudan  cl 

boin  (jirl.    7.  Buffalo  dance  among  the  Mandans.    8.  Assiniboin  spell-mound. 
VII-856. 


Ded  with  his  trophies.      4.  The  same  iu  garments  of  state.     5.  Assiniboins.     6.  Dakota  squaw  and  Assini- 


INDIAN  COUNTRY. 


91 


INDIANS. 


wcro  a.ifimcnted.  Tii  IS."}"  Ilii'  iiiiiliny  of  the  nalivi' 
Ariiiy  liiok  place,  wliirli  iiiTcssilalccI  ■d.\\nujsy  in  tlic 
orj^aiii/.alioii  cif  tlic  Army  iiivnlviii;;  a  lari;c  increase 
of  the  HritlHll  force.  From  this  date  tiie  .\rmv  of 
the  Kast  India  C'ompaiiy  hecaiiu^  a  |)arl  of  her  Mu- 
jcsly's  Army,  paid  out  of  the  revenues  of  India. 

The  Army  of  India  at  present  consists  of  Oa.S.'iO 
British  troops  and  128,. "500  native  trtiojjs.  More  than 
lialf  the  former  are  stationed  in  the  Heniial  Presi- 
dency, 3K,000  men  lieini;  in  jjiirrison  aloiii;  the  valley 
of  the  (laiiires,  Ouile,  and  in  the  I'ljiijiili.  while  thi' 
8trenj:cth  of  the  native  Army  fur  tlie  same  I'residency 
amoiinis  to  4!), 001).  ISens^al  i)roper  alone  requires 
abont  7,000  Kn;;lisli  troops  for  its  fruard,  or  nearly 
one-ninth  of  the  total  number  of  the  Urilish  em- 
ployed in  India.  The  remainder  are  distributed 
amongst  the  North-west  Provinces  and  in  the  Presi- 
dencies of  JIadras  and  Bondjay.  See  /iast  India 
.'I  ?'im/. 

INDIAN  COUNTRY.—"  The  Indian  country,"  with- 
in llic  meaning'  of  the  Trade  and  Intercourse  Acts, 
may  be  delined  in  general  as: 

1.  Indian  reservations  occupied  by  Indian  tribes. 

2.  Other  districts  so  occupied  to  which  thelndlan 
title  iias  not  been  extinguished. 

Furthermore,  the  operation  of  the  said  Acts  may 
be  retained  by  treaty  or  extemled  by  Act  of  Congress 
over  districts  not  in  other  respects  Indian  country. 
If  any  special  case  shall  occur  which,  in  the  view  of 
the  l)epartnienl  Commander,  may  not  appear  to  be 
embraced  within  the  delinition  above  stated,  he  re- 
ports the  case,  with  all  its  facts  and  circumstances, 
to  the  Secretary  of  War,  in  order  that  the  ([uestion 
whether  the  locality  is  "  Indian  couutr}' "  maybe  re- 
ferred to  I  he  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

Where  lands  are  secured  to  the  Indians,  by  treaty, 
against  occu]iation  by  the  whites,  the  Military  Com- 
manders keep  intruders  oiT,  by  ndlitary  force,  if  nec- 
essary, until  such  time  as  Indian  tith'  is  extinguished, 
or  the  lands  are  opened  by  Congress  for  settlement. 
There  is  no  jurisdiction  conferred  upon  State  or 
Territorial  Courts  1  itrv  an  Indian  charged  with  the 
murder  of  another  Indian.  Section 2MlJ  of  the  Re- 
vised Statute's  of  the  United  States,  as  amended  by 
the  Act  of  February  18.  1875,  entitled  "  An  Act  to 
correct  errors  and  sujiply  omissions  in  the  Revised 
Statutes  of  the  United  Siates,"  provides  that  sectioii 
214o  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend  to  crimes  com- 
mitted t)y  one  Indian  against  the  person  or  property 
of  another  Indian,  nor  to  any  Indian  committing  an 
offense  ii.  the  Indian  country  who  has  been  punished 
by  the  local  law  of  the  tribe. 

When  questions  arise  as  to  the  ownership  of  ani- 
mals in  possession  of  Indians,  the  Commanding  OtH- 
cer  of  the  nearest  military  post  is  authorized  and  di- 
rected to  act  in  conjunction  with  the  Indian  Agent 
in  charge  of  the  said  Indians  in  tlie  investigation  and 
determination  of  the  ownership. 

Whatever  may  be  the  rule  in  tlie  time  of  war  and 
iu  the  presence  of  actual  hostilities,  military  officers 
can  no  more  than  civilians  protect  themselves  for 
"wrongs  commited  in  time  of  peace  tmder  orders 
emanating  from  a  source  which  is  in  itself  withovit 
authority  in  the  premises.  Hence  a  milltar}' officer, 
seizing  liquors  supposed  to  be  in  Indian  country, 
when  they  are  not,  is  liable  to  action  as  trespasser. 
The  difference  between  the  value  of  the  goods  so 
seized,  at  the  place  where  they  were  taken  and  the 
place  where  they  were  returned  to  the  owners,  is 
the  proper  measure  of  damages. 

Supplies,  stores,  or  propert\'  of  auv  kind,  procur- 
ed out  of  Army  appropriations,  are  not  transferred,  in 
any  way  or  luider  any  circumstances,  for  the  use  of 
Indians,  except  under  authority  tirst  obtained  from 
tlie  Secretary  of  War.  Any  officer  violating  the 
terms  of  this  regulation  is  charged  with  the  money 
value  of  the  supplies,  stores,  or  property  transfered. 
and  in  addition  is  otherwise  held  accountable,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  Ko  issues  of  arms,  am- 
munition, or  any  other  Ordnance  stores  arc  matlc 


to  Indians  not  in  the  employ  of  the  War  Dcoarlment 

as  scoulH. 

To  carry  into  effect  ihr  joint  resolution  adopted 
by  Congress,  August  .').  1S7(!.  the  sale  of  (ixe<l  am- 
munition or  metallie  cartridges,  by  any  trader  or 
other  p<Tson,  in  any  district  of  the  Indian  country/ 
oceu|)ied  by  hostile  Indians,  or  over  which  they  roam,] 
is  prohibited:  ami  all  such  ammunition  or  cartridges 
inlroduced  into  saiil  country,  Ity  traders  orother  per- 
sons, and  that  are  liable  in  any  way  or  manner  diri'ct- 
Iv  or  indirectly,  to  be  receive<l  by  such  hostile  In-' 
(lians,  is  always  deemed  contraband  of  war,  and 
seized  by  any  military  officer,  and  confiscated  :  and 
the  district  of  country  to  which  this  prohibition  shall 
apply,  during  the  continuance  of  hostilities.  Is  des- 
ignated as  that  which  embraces  all  Indian  country, 
or  country  occu|iied  by  Indiiins  or  subject  to  tlie"ir 
visits,  lying  within  the  Territories  of  Montana,  Da- 
kota, and  VV'yomiug,  and  the  States  of  ^Nebraska  and 
Colorado. 

I5y  virtue  of  authority  conferred  upon  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  in  .section  2132,  Revised 
Statutes,  the  introduction  into  thelndlan  country  or 
district  occupied  by  any  tribe  of  hostile  Indians,"  for 
the  purpose  of  .sale  or  exchange  to  them  of  arms  or 
ammunition  of  any  description,  and  the  sale  or  ex- 
change tliereof  to  or  with  such  Indiims.  is  prohibited. 
All  military  commanders  are  charged  with  the  duty 
of  assisting  in  the  execution  of  this  order,  andofE.x- 
ecutive  Order  of  November  23.  1870,  the  provisions 
of  which  are  extended  to  include  all  Indian  country 
within  the  Territories  of  Idaho,  Utah,  and  Washing- 
ton, and  the  States  of  Nevada  and  Oregon.  Sec  In- 
clian  Tfrrit'Ti/. 

INDIAN  FILE.— Single  file;  the  arrangement  of 
men  in  a  row  following  one  after  another,  as  is  cus- 
tomary among  Indians  when  traversing  the  woods 
or  mount:iins. 

INDIAN  FIRE.— A  bright  white  signal-light,  pro- 
<luced  by  burning  a  mixture  of  7  parts  of  sulphur, 
2  of  realirar,  and  24  of  niter. 

INDIAN  INK.— The  cakes  of  this  substance,  which 
is  a  mechanical  mixture,  and  not,  like  the  true  inks, 
a  chemical  compound,  are  composed  of  lampblack 
and  size  or  animal  glue,  with  a  little  perfume.  The 
lampblack  must  be  remarkably  tine,  and  is  said  to 
be  made  in  China  by  collecting  the  smoke  of  the  oil 
of  sesame.  A  little  camphor  (about  2  per  cent.)  is 
also  found  in  the  ink  made  in  China,  and  is  thought 
to  improve  it.  This  substance  is  used  in  that  coun- 
trv  with  a  brush  both  for  writing  and  for  painting 
upon  paper  of  native  manufacture,  while  in  this 
cfiimtry,  it  is  extensively  employed  for  designs  in 
black  and  white,  and  all  intermediate  shades  of  color. 
Much  curious  information  on  this  pigment  may  be 
found  in  ^lerimee's  treatise,  De  la  Peinture. 

INDIAN  PONY.— The  square-buUt.  large-trunked, 
and  short-legged  pony  used  by  the  North  American 
Indians  and  elsewhere.  This  pony,  generally  be- 
lieved to  be  the  result  of  a  cross  between  the  South- 
ern mustang  and  a  small  t^'pe  of  the  Canadian,  is 
never  fed,  stabled,  combed,  shod  nor  doctored  ;  and 
when  not  under  the  saddle  is  left  to  shift  for  himself. 
In  the  winter  he  is  a  mere  animated  skeleton.  His 
proportions  vary  according  to  the  localities  in  which 
he  is  found,  but  he  seldom  exceeds  thirteen  bands 
in  height.  He  is  wonderfully  sagacious  and  sure- 
footed. He  can  climb  a  steep,  rocky  hill  with  as- 
surance and  activity,  and  rush  down  a  precipitous 
declivity  with  much  indifference.  He  will  get  over 
and  through  places,  which  appear  utterly  impracti- 
cable, with  ease  and  rapidity,  while  the  American 
horse  would  labor  to  travel  at  a  walk.  He  particularly 
excels  in  the  passage  of  swamps,  marshy  places,  and 
sands  perforated  with  gopher  holes. 

INDIANS. — The  collective  nai  le  now  generally 
given  to  the  various  nations  and  tribes  inhabiting 
North  and  South  America,  at  the  time  of  their  dis- 
covery by  the  Spaniards,  and  to  such  of  their  de- 
scendants as  survive  at  the  present  day.    The  name 


INSIAK8. 


92 


IHOIANS. 


of  Indians  was  first  given  to  the  natives  of  America 
from  the  mistaken  notion  of  tlie  eariy  voyagers. 
Columbus  himself  ineluded,  that  the  newly  found 
Continent  was  in  reality  a  part  of  India.  This  was 
soon  shown  to  be  an  error  ;  but  the  name  of  Indians, 
thus  wrongly  applied  to  the  inhabitants,  continued 
to  be  usedin  every  narrative  of  voyage  and  discov- 
er}-, and  has  descended  even  to  our  own  times,  only 
that  we  now  qualify  it  in  some  measure  by  speaking 
of  them  as  American  Indians.  In  the  classification 
of  Blumenbach  the  American  Indians  are  treated  as 
a  distinct  variety  of  the  human  race  ;  but  in  the 
threefold  division  of  mankind  laid  down  by  Dr. 
Latham,  they  are  ranked  among  the  Mongolidi:e. 
Other  Ethnologists  also  regard  them  as  a  branch  of 
the  great  Mongolian  family,  which,  at  a  remote 
period  of  the  world's  history,  foimd  its  way  from 
Asia  to  the  American  Continent,  and  there  remained 
for  tliousands  of  years  se|)arate  from  the  rest  of  man- 
kind, passing  meanwhile  through  various  alterna- 
tions of  barbarism  and  civilization.  Morton,  Jiow- 
cver,  the  distinguished  American  Ethnologist,  and 
his  disciples  Nott  and  Gliddon,  claim  for  them  a  dis- 
tinct origin,  one  as  indegenous  to  the  Continent  it- 
self as  its  favuia  and  flora.  Pritehard,  whose  views 
generally  differ  from  those  of  Morton,  acknowledges 
Uiat  •' On  comparing  the  American  tribes  together, 
we  find  reasons  to  believe  that  they  must  have  sub- 
sisted as  a  separate  dejiartment  of  nations  from  the 
earliest  ages  of  the  world.  Hence,  in  attempting  to 
trace  relaUons  between  them  and  the  rest  of  man- 
kind, we  cannot  expect  to  discover  proofs  of  their 
derivation  from  any  jjarticular  tribe  or  nation  in  the 
Old  Continent.  The  era  of  their  existence  as  a  dis- 
tinct and  insulated  race  must  probably  be  dated  as 
far  back  as  that  time  which  separated  into  nations 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Old  World,  and  gave  to  each 
branch  of  tlie  human  family  its  primitive  language 
and  individuality."  Dr.  Robert  Brown,  in  his  "Races 
of  Mankind,"  the  latest  authority  on  the  subject,  at- 
tributes to  the  American  race  an  Asiatic  origin. 
He  says  :  "  Not  onl_y  are  the  Western  Indians  in  ap- 
pearance very  like  theirnearest  neighbors,  the  North- 
eastern Asiatics,  but  in  language  and  tradition,  it  is 
confidentially  affirmed,  there  is  a  blending  of  the 
people.  The  Eskimo,  on  the  American,  and  the 
Tchuktchis,  on  the  Asiatic  side,  understand  each 
other  perfectly."  In  fact,  modern  Anthropologists 
incline  to  think  that  Japan,  the  Kuriles,  and  the 
neighboring  regions  may  be  regarded  as  the  original 
home  of  the  greater  part  of  the  American  race.  It 
is  also  admitted  by  Anthropologists  that  between 
these  various  tribes,  from  the  Arctic  Sea  to  Cape 
Horn,  there  is  greater  uniformity  of  physical  struc- 
ture and  personal  characteristic  than  is  seen  in  any 
other  quarter  of  the  globe.  The  '•  Rea  Men,"  as  they 
are  called,  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  differ 
in  many  respects  from  the  Guranis  of  Paraguay, 
and  both  from  the  wild  tribes  of  California,  but  all 
exhibit  the  clearest  evidence  of  belonging  to  the 
.same  great  branch  of  the  human  family.  Upon  this 
])oint  the  testimony  of  a  writer  like  Humboldt  is 
very  important.  "  The  Indians  of  New  Spain,"  says 
Humboldt,  "bear  a  general  resemblance  to  those 
who  inhabit  Canada,  Florida,  Peru,  and  Brazil.  We 
think  we  can  perceive  them  all  to  be  descended  from 
the  same  stock,  notwithstanding  the  prodigious  di- 
versity of  their  languages.  In  the  ])()rtrait  drawn 
by  Volney  of  the  ('ana<iian  Indians,  we  recognize 
tlie  tribe  scattered  over  the  Savaiuiahs  of  llie  Apure 
and  the  Carony.  The  same  style  of  features  exists 
in  both  Americas."  'I'he  Mongolian  cast  of  features 
is  most  marked  in  the  tribes  nearest  to  the  .Mojigol 
coast,  ('.  e.,  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  and  gets  less 
noticeable  as  we  go  Eastward.  Their  traditions,  too, 
indicate  that  the  trilies  on  the  eastern  seaboard  came 
from  the  West,  and  the  western  tribes  even  came 
from  regions  still  further  west. 

Generally  the  i>liysical  characteristics  of  the  Amer- 
ican Indians  are  as  follows ;  a  square  head,  having  a 


low,  but  broad  foreliead.  the  back  of  the  head  flat- 
tened, full-face,  and  powerful  jaws ;  cheek-bones 
prominent ;  lips  full ;  eyes  dark,  and  deeply  set  ;  the 
hair  long,  not  absolutely  straight,  but  wavy,  some- 
thing like  a  horse's  mane,  and  like  that,  of  a  glossy 
hue ;  little  or  no  beard — where  it  does  appear,  it  is 

\  carefully  eradicated  with  tweezers  :  color  of  the  skin 
reddish  or  copper  ;  the  height  of  the  men  about  tlie 
average,  but  looking  taller  from  their  erect  posture 

I  and  slender  figure  ;  the  women  rather  shorter,  and 

!  more  inclined  to  obesity,  Ijut  many  of  them  with 
symmetrical  figure  and  pleasing  countenance  ;  hands 
and  feet  of  both  men  and  women  small.  As  before 
said,  however,  there  being  some  hundreds  of  tribes 
among  the  American  Indians,  there  are  apny  de- 

I  ))artures  from  these  general  cliaracteristics,  not  only 
in  individuals,  but  entire  septs.  "  The  Americans," 
saj'S  Pritehard,  "  are  not  all  of  the  hue  denominated 
red,  that  is,  of  a  copper  color;  some  tribes  are  as 
white  as  many  European  nations  ;  others  brown  or 
j-ellow  ;  others  are  black,  or,  at  least,  they  are  des- 
cribed by  travelers  as  vcrj'  much  resembling  in  color 
the  negroes  of  Africa.  Anatomists  have  distinguished 
what  they  have  termed  the  American  form  of  the 
human  skull ;  they  were  led  into  the  mistake  by  re- 
garding the  strongly  marked  characteristics  of  some 
particular  tribes  as  universal.  The  American  nations 
are  spread  over  a  vast  space,  and  live  in  different 
climates,  and  the  shape  of  their  heads  is  different  in 
different  parts.  Nor  will  any  epithets  derived  from 
their  habits  of  life  apply  to  all  the  tribes  of  this  de- 
partment. The  native  Americans  are  not  all  hunters  ; 
there  are  many  fishing  tribes  among  them  :  some  are 
nomadic  :  others  cultivate  the  earth,  and  live  in  set- 
tled habitations;  and  of  tliesc  some  part  were  agricul- 
turists before  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans ;  others 
have  learned  of  their  Conquerors  to  till  the  soil,  and 
have  changed  the  ancient  habits  of  theirrace,  which. 
as  we  ma_v  hence  infer,  were  not  the  necessary  result 
of  organization  or  congenital  and  instinctive  propen- 
sity." Dr.  Jlorton's  views  on  this  subject  substan- 
tially agree  with  those  of  Pritehard,  and  both  concur 
in  adopting  the  test  of  language  as  a  proof  of  one 
common  origin  for  the  various  native  tribes  of  both 
North  and  Sotith  America.  The  linguistic  conclu- 
sion, now  generally  acquiesced  in,  is  thus  briefly  sta- 
ted by  Mr.  Albert  Gallatin:  "Amidst  the  great  di- 
versity of  the  American  languages,  considered  only 
in  reference  to  their  vocabularies,  the  similarity  of 
their  structure  and  grammatical  forms  has  been  ob- 
served and  pointed  out  by  the  American  Philologists. 
The  result  appears  to  confirm  the  opinion  already  en- 
tertained on  that  subject  by  Jlr.  Du  Ponceau.  Mr. 
Pickering,  and  others;  and  to  prove  that  all  the  lan- 
guages ,  not  onlj'  of  our  own  Indians,  but  of  the  na- 
tive inhabitants  of  America,  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to 
Cape  Horn,  have,  as  far  as  they  have  been  investi- 
gated, a  distinct  character  common  to  all,  and  ap- 
parently differing  from  any  of  those  of  the  other  Con- 
tinents with  which  we  are  most  familiar." 

The  next  question  that  comes  under  consideration 
is  :  Whence  does  it  arise  that,  with  all  this  similarity 
of  physical  conformation  and  language,  there  should 
have  "been  only  two  nations  amoug  so  many  millions 
— namely, the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians — wboatliiined 
to  any  high  degree  of  civilization  ?  When  the  Spiuii- 
ards  entered  Mexico  they  found  in  it  a  rich,  power- 
ful, and  warlike  nation,  living  in  walled  cities,  in 
which  were  palaces  and  other  siunptous  residences. 
They  were  ruled  over  by  an  Emperor  or  King  whose 
sway  extended  over  many  other  nations  besides  his 
own'.  They  worshiiipi-d  the  sum.  ;iiid  liad  an  organ- 
ized Hierarchy  ;  they  luiil  also  fixed  laws,  were  ac- 
quainted with  many  of  tlie  arts  and  sciences,  espe- 
cially astronomy  ;  they  practiced  agriculture,  worked 
mines,  and  displayed  considerable  skill  in  manufac- 
tures, both  iuduslrial  and  oriiauienlal.  The  Nation 
thus  discovereil  was  that  of  the  .\ztees,  who  jirofes- 
sed  to  have  ammig  tlieiu  evidi'iiccs  of  antic|uity  dat- 
ing as  far  back  as  the  year  UrA  of  our  era.     A  few 


Mandanr  and  Crerokkks.      1.  Lodge  of  a  Maiulan  chief.     2.  Soalp  of  a  man;  featliera  as  mementoes  ( 
American  jjortable  cradle.    G.  Ciioroliee  village.    T.  Air-burial,    s.  Mandan  village  and  canoes.    9.  M 
IX-430. 


r  deeds.      3.  Plan  of  a  North  Atnerican  Indian  tepee  (hut).      4.  Chief's  summer  wigwam.      5.  North 
JO.  North  American  canoes 


INDIANS. 


93 


INDIANS. 


ypurs  later,  in  I'crii,  the  Spiiniardw  found  anollipr 
Nation,  also  cxcec(liiii;l_v  rii-lj.  niiiriiTijiis.  and  power- 
ful with  a  civilization  fnlly  as  nuicji  cxtcndiMl  as  thai 
of  llic  Azli'cs,  yet,  dilVcrinn  from  that  in  many  (tsHcn- 
lial  particulars.  This  was  tlic  Nation  of  (^uidiuas, 
frc(|Ucntly  termed  Incas  (more  correctly  Ynrjiii).  as- 
BO<iated  with  whom  were  the  Aymaras, whose  country 
had  been  snhjuf^ated  by  the  Incas  two  or  three 
centuries  liefore  the  arrival  of  I'i/arro,  in  I'eru. 
Each  of  these  Nations — till-  .Mexicans  and  Peruvians 
— is  supposed  to  have  slowly  developed  its  own 
civilization  during  a  long  process  of  ages.  In  every 
other  |)art  of  America  European  settlers  and  e.K- 
plorers  have  found  only  complete  or  semi-barliarism. 
Such  was  tlu^  case  in  Virginia;  such  in  New  Kng- 
land.  Canada,  the  Hudson's  IhiyTiTritory.  California, 
and  i'alagonia.  Int'entral  America,  liowever,  there 
have  been  found  extensive  remains  of  architecture 
and  other  traces  of  civilization,  which  would  seem 
to  date  back  to  even  a  more  remote  period  than  that 
of  the  Mexican  or  Peruvian  Empires.  Immens(^ 
artificial  mounds  also  exist  in  the  valley  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi an<l  elsewhere  throughout  America,  suppos- 
ed to  be  the  work  of  the  ancestors  of  the  present 
wandering  tribes.  If  so.  there  may  be  sonu'  truth 
in  the  theory  of  Dr.  Martins,  a  distinguished  German 
Ethnologist,  "  That  the  nations  of  the  new  world  are 
not  in  a  state  of  primitive  barbarism  or  living  in  the 
original  simplicity  of  micultivated  nature,  but  that 
they  are,  on  the  contrary,  the  last  remains  of  a  peo- 
ple once  high  in  the  scale  of  civilization  and  mental 
improvement,  now  almost  worn  out  and  perishing, 
and  sunk  into  the  lowest  grade  of  decline  and  de- 
grachition."  Dr.  Pritchard  appears  inclined  to  the 
same  view,  adding :  "  Attentive  observers  have  been 
struck  with  manifestations  of  greater  energy  and 
mental  vigor,  of  more  intense  and  deeper  feeling,  of 
a  more  reflective  mind,  of  greater  fortitude,  and  more 
consistent  perseverance  in  enterprises  and  all  pursuits 
wdien  they  have  compared  the  natives  of  the  New 
World  with  the  sensual  and  volatile,  and  almost 
animalized  Savages  who  are  still  to  be  found  in  some 
fjiarlers  of  the  Old  ('ontinent.  They  have  been 
ecjually  impressed  bj'the  sullen  and  nnsocial  charac- 
ter, by  the  proud  apathetic  endurance,  by  the  feeble 
influence  of  social  affections,  by  the  intensity  of  ha- 
tred and  revenge,  and  the  deep  malice-concealing 
dissimulation  so  remarkable  amid  the  dark  solitudes 
of  the  American  forests." 

Dr.  Robert  Brown  adopts  a  geographical  classifi- 
cation of  the  American  tribes,  which  is,  on  the 
whole,  at  least  unsatisfactory.  There  are  Arctic 
tribes ;  North-western  tribes  inhabiting  the  region 
west  of  the  Rocky  Jlountains  between  California  and 
Alaska;  Californian  tribes;  Indians  of  the  Central 
Plains;  Prairie  tribes  ;  North-eastern  Indians;  Cana- 
dian Indians  ;  and  Central  American  Indians.  The 
chief  existing  tribes  are  ;  Eskimo,  Cowichans,  Tson- 

feisths,  Nanaimos,  Quakwolths,  Nuchultaws,  Kos- 
eemos,  Sesliahts,  Nittinahts  in  Vancouver  Island  ; 
Hydahs  (Queen  Charlotte  Islanders) ;  Tsimpsheans, 
Bellacoolas,  Chilcoatins,  Shuswaps  in  British  Colum- 
bia ;  Cayuse,  Snakes,  Klamaths  in  Oregon  ;  the  Dig- 
ger or  Californian  Indians,  the  most  degraded  of  all 
the  tribes  ;  theComanches,  Apaches,  Navajos,  Hual- 
pais,  Yampas,  in  the  C'entral  Plains :  the  iloqui, 
Pueblos,  Pimas,  Papagos  in  New  Mexico ;  Utahs, 
Pahutas,  Pahides,  Soshones,Loo-coo-rekahs,Goships, 
Cheyennes,  Arrapahoes,  Kwivas,  Arickarees,  Poncas, 
Yanktons.  Gros- Ventres,  and  Sioux  or  Dahcotahs, 
Assiniboines.  Blackfeet,  Crows,  Omahas,  Ottoes, 
Pawnees,  etc.,  are  all  Prairie  tribes;  the  Dela wares, 
Mo-hee-conneughs  (Mohicans),  Oneidas,  Tuskaroras, 
Senecas,  Shawnees,  Cherokees,  Choctaws,  Creeks, 
Seminoles,  Osages,  Kaskias.  Weealis,  Potowatomies, 
Quapaws,  Peorias,  Kanzans,  Sanks,  Foxes,  Puncas, 
etc.,  in  the  North-eastern  States;  the  Crees,  Santeux 
or  Ojebways,  Chippewayans,  the  Sacliss  or  Shewhap- 
mucii  in  Canada  ;  Tehuantepecs,  Mosquitos,  Smoos, 
Twakas,  Toonglas,  Payas,  Ramas,  and  Cookras  in 


f 'entral  America.  Again,  M.  d'Orbigny  has  classifierl 
all  the  Indians  of  .South  America  under  three  great 
groups,  viz.,  the  Anilian  group,  the  Mediterranean 
group,  and  the  liasilio-Guarani  group;  and  these  he 
subdivides  into  thirty-nine  distinct  nations  ;  viz.,  '1. 
C^uichua;  2.  Aymara  ;  3.  Chango  :  4.  Atacama;  5. 
^uracares;  f(.  .Mocetenes;  7.  Tacana  ;  8.  Muropa; 
!).  Apolista;  10.  Araucananian  ;  II.  Euegian  ;  12. 
Patagonian ;  Hi.  Puelche  ;  14.  Charrua;  I.').  .Mbo- 
cobi;  l(i.  .Vlataguayo ;  17.  Abipones;  W.  Lengua ; 
li).  Samuco;  20.  Chiquito;  21.  Saraveca;  23.  Otuke; 
23.  (Juruminaca  ;  24.  Covareca  ;  2.'5.  Curaves ;  28. 
Tapiis;  27.  Curucaneca;  28.  Paiconeca ;  2!).  Cora- 
beca;  30.  Moxo :  31.  Chapacura;  32.  Itonama; 
33.  Canichana ;  34.  Movima;  3-').  Cayiivava ;  30. 
I'acaguara;  37.  Itenes;  38.  Guarani ;  |3!).  Boto- 
cudo.'  Other  classilications  have  been  alteni]ited, 
but  all  'more  or  less  arbitrary.  .Morton  is  content 
with  two  grand  divisions,  viz.,  the  'Tollecan  Nations' 
and  the  'Barbarous  Tribes,'  the  former  embracing  the 
ancient  Mexicans  and  Peruvians,  and  the  latter  all 
the  uncivilized  or  senu-civilized  tribes  from  the  ex- 
treme North  to  the  extreme  South.  The  Toltecans 
are  said  to  be  the  builders  of  the  remarkable  scries 
of  mounds  foiuid  throughout  North  America. 

The  Indians  are  yearly  decreasing  in  numbers.  A 
fair  estimate  would  probably  give  Alaska  20,000; 
British  Cohmibia,  20,000 ;  Vancouver's  Island,  U,000  : 
Canada,  5,000 ;  California,  Oregon,  and  States  north 
of  it,  10,000  ;  Prairie-lands  west  of  the  Kocky  Moun- 
tains, 10.000;  other  portions  of  the  United  States, 
2.000;  In  New  Mexico  and  Central  America,  2O,0tJO. 
This  would  gives  us  a  total  of  about  110.000  for  the 
whole  of  North  America,  exclusive  of  half-breeds, 
&c.  Some  twenty  tribes  have  become  partially  civil- 
ized, and  live  by  agriculture,  imder  the  protection  of 
the  American  Government,  on  what  are  called  'Indian 
Reservations.'  There  are  in  these  Indian  communi- 
ties many  men  and  women  whom  education  has 
developed  into  most  valuable,  intelligent,  and  even 
polished  members  of  a  highly  <ivilized  conmiunity. 
Two  tribes  (Choctaws  and  Cherokees;  have  become 
wholly  civilized,  and  have  a  settled  form  of  govern- 
ment modelled  on  that  of  the  United  States.  The 
Cherokees  stand  alone  amongst  modem  nations  in 
having  produced  a  second  Cadmus,  one  Sequoyah, 
or  George  Guess,  wdio  actually  invented  an  alphabet. 
It  must  be  stated,  however,  that  fully  one-half  of 
these  civilized  tribes  are,  like  Sequoyah,  half-breeds. 
Even  the  whites  marrying  Choctaw  or  Cherokee  wo- 
men are  admitted,  if  they  choose,  into  these  tribes. 

Both  the  early  English  and  French  settlers  of  North 
America  were  often  atwar  with  the  Indians,  either  in 
self-defence  or  instigated  bj'  a  desire  for  their  lands. 
In  Virginia  the  Indians  who  had  combined  to  exter- 
minate the  Whites  were  subdued  after  a  ten  3-ears' 
war.  In  New  England  (1637)  the  Colonists  of  Con- 
necticut and  Massachusetts  destroyed  the  warlike 
Pequods,  and  in  1043  the  Narragansetts.  The  war 
of  Phillip,  king  of  the  Wampanoags,  ended.  1676,  ia 
the  almost  totaldestructionof  that  tribe.  The  Dutch 
in  New  Amsterdam  and  the  English  in  North  and 
South  Carolina  suffered  greatly  from  the  Indians. 
In  the  Seven  Years  War  between  the  English  and 
French  the  Indians  were  used  by  both  sides  and  ter- 
rible atrocities  were  committed.  In  1763  a  number 
of  tribes  were  united  under  Pontiac,  the  Chief  of  the 
Ottawas,  in  a  general  conspiracy  to  exterminate  their 
Conquerors,  but  they  were  finally  subdued.  When 
thp  American  Revolution  began  the  Indians,  who 
were  Allies  of  the  English,  ravaged  on  the  frontiers. 
The  United  States,  by  the  Constitution  of  1787,  claim- 
ing sovereignty  over  the  whole  territory,  made  trea- 
ties with  the  Indians  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
their  lands;  but  in  1700  the  Miamis  and  other  tribes 
conspired  and  defeated  the  army  under  Gen.  Harmar, 
and  the  following  year  under  General  St.  Clair,  but 
were  stibdued  by  General  Wajiie.  In  181 1  they  recom- 
menced hostilities  under  Tecumseh,  but  were  de- 
feated at  Tippecanoe  by  General  Harrison,  who  also_ 


INDIAN  TEREITORT. 


94 


INDICATOR. 


in  1812.  defeated  tlie  combined  forces  of  tlie  Englisli 
and  Indians,  and  Viilled  Tecumseli.  In  tlie  Soutli 
the  C'reelvs  were  conquered  bv  Jaclvson  in  1813,  and 
the  Scmiuoles  of  Florida  in  1817.  In  1832  tlie  Sacs 
and  Poxes,  under  tlieir  Chief,  Blaclc  Hawk,  liarassed 
the  frontier  Settlements,  and  from  time  to  time  tlie 
Sioux,  the  Comanchcs,  and  Apaches,  often  joined  by 
other  tribes  havcgiven the Governmentgreat trouble. 
In  1838  the  Cherokees  and  Creeks  were  removed  from 
Georgia  to  the  Indian  Territory,  West  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, wliieh  the  Government  had  established  to  be 
the  permanent  home  for  all  the  Indians.  The  Semi- 
noles  of  Florida  refusing  to  remove,  a  bloody  war 
ensued,  which  lasted  7  years  and  cost  .fl. 5. 000, 000. 
After  the  removal  of  the  Choctaws,  Creeks,  and  other 
tribes  to  the  Indian  Teritory,  other  reservations  were 
formed  in  several  States.  In  1871  there  were  on  re- 
servations 237,478,  which,  added  to  60,000  in  Alaska, 
and  about  .50,000  others  not  yet  placed  in  reserva- 
tions make  the  total  number  of  Indians  in  the  United 
States,  as  estimated  by  the  Indian  Department,  350,- 
000.  The  number  in  the  British  Colonies  is  estima- 
ted at  1.50,000. 

The  five  civilized  tribes  of  the  Indian  Territory  had 
under  cultivation  (1879)  337,000  acres,  on  which  they 
raised  over  3,000,000  bushels  of  cereals,  and  were  en- 
gaged largely  in  the  raising  of  stock.  The  Indians 
on  other  reservations  had  under  cultivation  157,056 
acres,  and  raised  over  1,500,000  bushels,  and  all  to- 
gether about  225,000  tons  of  hay.  The  Indians  are 
scattered  over  a  large  extent  of  country,  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  managing  them  is  increased  by  the  attempts 
of  bold  and  unscrupulous  white  men  to  invade  their 
reservations  for  trade,  wliich  often  involves  fraud, 
and  for  the  sake  of  the  mineral  deposits  known  to 
be  there.  The  Utes  in  Colorado  and  Apaches  in  New 
Mexico,  especially,  have  given  the  Government  much 
trouble.  The  Utes  are  tierce  and  warlike,  and  resist 
all  efforts  to  induce  them  to  abandon  their  wander- 
ing life  and  cultivate  the  soil. 

Earnest  attempts  have  been  made  at  different  per- 
iods by  individuals  and  Societies  to  Christianize  and 
civilize  the  Indians,  some  liave  been  remarkably  suc- 
cessful. The  French  and  Spanish  in  connection  with 
their  Colonies,  had  Missions  among  the  Iroquois,  Chip- 
pewas.  Creeks,  and  other  tribes.  In  Florida,  Texas, 
New  Mexico,  and  California,  they  had  ])rosperous 
Missions.  In  1643  Thomas  Mayhew  labored  with  suc- 
cess for  three  years  at  Martha's  Vineyard,  Mass.,  fol- 
lowed in  the  same  work  by  his  father,  and  b)'  others 
of  the  family  for  live  generations.  In  1646  the  Legis- 
lature of  Massachusetts  passed  an  Act  for  the  propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  among  the  Indians,  and  in  the 
same  year,Iohn  Eliot  began  his  labors  at  Nonantum, 
churches  were  formed,  and  the  Bible  and  other  Chris- 
tian books  translated.  The  Brainards  labored  with 
effect  in  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania.  The  Morav- 
ians and  Friends  have  been  active  in  instructing  the 
Indians.  The  various  Protestant  Denominations, 
through  organized  Societies  have  had  for  many  years 
Missions  among  the  Cherokees,  Choctaws,  Ottawas, 
Chickasaws,  Creeks,  Dacotahs,  and  some  other  tribes, 
instructing  them  not  onlj'  in  religion,  but  also  in  the 
arts  of  civilized  life.  The  Indian  problem,  always 
troublesome  to  the  U.  S.  Government  is  now  seen  to 
involve  grave,  moral,  and  political  issues  not  at  first 
recognized.  The  governmental  policy  has  been  one 
of  expediency  rather  tlian  of  justice.  Treaties  have 
been  made  with  the  tribes  as  with  sovereign  nations, 
but  have  been  set  aside  on  easy  pretexts.  In(lia;is 
have  not  been  considered  as  citizens  under  the  law  ; 
their  ownership  of  property,  as  recognized,  has  bi'cii 
trilial  and  not  imlividual.  They  have  been  allowed 
to  be  the  jiray  of  rapacious  speculators  in  land,  and 
thievish  traders.  Of  latit  years  the  Government  has 
sought  to  apply  abetter  policj-,  but  the  evil  has  been 
foinid  too  vast  and  deep  for  easy  reform  ;  and  a  wave 
of  p(ip\ilar  feeling  is  now  rising,  bearing  in  upon  the 
(icivcTiirMcnl  with  strong  demands  in  dilTerent  direc- 
tions.    There  are  signs  that  the  discussions  will  re- 


.sult  in  better  processes  of  dealing  with  the  Indians, 
and  that  the  Government  will  find  or  make  its  way 
to  a  system  that  shall  be  wise  and  just.  See  Iiid'an 
Territory. 

INDIAN  TERRITORY.— The  home  of  civilized  or 
partially  civilized  remnants  of  once  powerful  aborig- 
inal tribes,  removed  liy  the  Government  from  linTe 
to  time  from  different  parts  of  the  Union,  and  which, 
upon  separate  reservations  and  under  forms  of  gov- 
ernment established  by  themselves,  are  living  at 
peace  with  each  other  and  with  the  United  States. 
In  June,  1830,  Congress  passed  an  Act  setting  apart 
"All  that  part  of  tlie  United  States  west  of  the  Miss- 
issippi, and  not  within  the  States  of  Missouri  and 
Louisiana  or  the  Territory  of  Arkansas."  to  be  known 
as  the  Indian  Country.  The  region  thus  described 
formed  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase  of  1803  from 
France.  Portions  thereof  have  since  been  organized 
into  new  States  and  Territories,  and  only  a  remnant 
of  the  original  Indian  Country  now  remains.  To  it 
has  been  added,  however,  a  narrow  adjoining  strip 
of  land  west  of  the  100th  meridian  which  was  ceded 
to  the  United  States  by  Texas.  The  Territory  con- 
tains 20  reservations,  the  names  of  which,  with  the 
extent  of  each  in  square  miles  are  as  follows; — Arra- 
pahoe  and  Cheyenne,  6,715;  Cherokee,  7,861 ;  Chick- 
asaw. 7,267;  Choctaw,  10,450;  Creek,  5,024;  Kan- 
sas, 1.54.i  ;  Kiowa  and  Comanche,  4,369;  Modoc,  6; 
Osage,  2,291  ;  Ottawa,  28i ;  Pawnee,  442 ;  Peoria, 
78|-;  Pottawatamie,  900;  Quapaw,  88|;  Sac  and  Fox, 
7.50;  Seminole,  '6V2%  Senaca,  81  ;  Shawnee,  21;  Wi- 
chita, 1 ,162 ;  Wyandotte,  38  J ;  total  area  appropriated, 
47.039  square  miles;  unassigned,  about 22,000  square 
miles.  White  speculators  and  adventurers  have  often 
attempted  to  enter  the  Territory  and  appropriate  the 
lands  not  included  in  the  reservations,  but  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States,  in  fulfillnient  of  its 
treaty  stipulations  to  the  Indians,  has  prevented  them. 
A  late  movement  of  this  kind  was  made  in  1879,  when 
the  President  issued  his  proclamation  warning  those 
engaged  therein  to  desist,  and  informing  them  that 
if  Uiey  should  enter  the  Territorj'  they  would  be  ex- 
pelled, if  necessary,  by  an  armed  force.  A  Bill  was 
lately  introduced  in  Congress  to  erect  the  Indian 
Country  into  a  regular  Territory  of  the  United  States, 
thus,  opening  its  unsettled  lands  to  the  whites  and 
subjecting  the  Indians  to  the  very  encroachments  to 
avoid  which  they  consented  to  go  upon  the  reserva- 
tions. It  has  been  proposed  in  some  quarters  to  make 
the  Indians  citizens,  to  place  them  under  Territorial 
Government,  and  finally  to  admit  them  as  a  State 
to  the  Union.  But  to  this  plan  there  are  some  serious 
obstacles,  not  the  least  of  which  is  the  unwillingness 
of  the  Indians  themselves  to  sacrifice  the  autonomy 
of  their  respective  tribes  and  the  Governments  of 
their  own  already  existing.  Though  this  ma)-  ulti- 
mately be  arrived  at,  it  is  not  easy  to  see  liow 
the  Government  of  the  L^nited  States  could  sudden- 
ly force  such  a  change  upon  them  without  viola- 
ting the  most  solemn  treaty  obligations.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  Territory,  exclusive  of  white  residents, 
is  reported  to  number  74,140.  The  number  of  whites 
legally  there  is  about  12.000,  and  besides  them  there 
are  3,000  others  who  would  be  excluded  if  the  law  was 
strictly  enforced.  Agents  representing  the  United 
States  live  among  the  various  tribes,  exercising  a 
paternal  oversight  of  their  affairs,  and  protecting  them 
from  encroachments.  They  are  appointed  by  the 
President  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  and, 
under  the  existing  regulations  of  the  Indiiin  Bureau, 
are  nominated  by  the  Religious  Denomiiiiil  ions  which 
have  Missions  among  the  tribes.  Each  tribe  has  its 
own  inner  government,  but  the  United  States  Courts 
have  jurisdiction  in  civil  actions  where  a  white  man 
is  a  parly,  in  cases  of  crime  against  a  white  man, 
and  of  violations  of  the  laws  regulating  trade  and  in- 
tcrciiursc  with  the  Indians.     See  liidifin  ('mi/itri/. 

INDICATOR.  -  1 .  An  invention  of  General  (ieorgo 
\V.  Wiiigale,  of  the  New  York  Militia,  for  instruct- 
ing men  in  alining  the  musket.     A  steel  rod,  passing 


INDICATOa. 


95 


rNDICATOE. 


thrniigh  n  brass  tnmpion  in  the  muzzle,  is  prnjeptefi 

fdrwarcls  by  tlic  liriim-jiiii.  Tlic'  ri>cl  carrirs  iisliarp 
l)i>ilil  in  the  )iii(:  of  the- siglils,  wliicli  |iiiiicliircH  it 
iniiiiaturc  target  a  foot  or  so  in  front  of  llic  muzzle. 
2.  In  connection  with  tlie  test  inn-machine  it  has 
l)ecn  found  ilesirahle  to  liave  an  instrument  wliich 
wouMi^ive  a  continuous  curve  representini;  (lie  elon- 
{,Mtions  and  cnrres|iondin;j  tensile  strains  for  speci- 
mens of  various  Uirids,  in  order  lo  arrive  at  the  ex- 
act dynamical  value  of  the  metal.  An  instrument 
has  been  devised  for  this  purpose,  as  represented  in 
Fig  1.  It  consists  of  a  l)rass  frame.  AH.  support- 
ing a  vertical  cylinder,  (!,  revolved  by  the  endless 
screw,  S;  this  screw  being  turneil  by  the  tape,  T, 
which  draws  around  the  pulley,  T,  as  the  weight, 


Fie.  1. 
W,  is  wound  along  the  scale-beam.  Wlien  the  chain 
was  used  as  a  weight,  the  cylinder  revolved  as  the 
chain  was  paid  into  the  scale.  This  arrangement 
causes  the  cylinder  to  revolve  as  the  weight  or  strain 
upon  the  specimen  increases  or  diminishes,  and  if 
the  marker  M,  renuiins  stationarj-,  it  will  describe 
u  horizontal  circle  upon  the  paper  witli  which  the 
cylinder  is  covered.  Starting  from  the  zero-point  of 
tile  scale,  the  length  of  any  arc  of  the  circle  will 
represent  the  strain  upon  the  specimen  at  the  instant 
tlie  marker  has  arrived  at  the  end  of  the  arc.  If  now 
tlie  elongation  of  a  given  portion  of  the  specimen 
carries  the  marker  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  the  cylinder,  it  is  clear  that  the  curve.  NO,  de- 
scribed upon  the  paper,  will  accurately  and  contin- 
uously represent  the  relation  between  the  elongation 
of  the  specimen  and  the  corresponding  strain  upon 
it.  In  order  to  move  the  marker  in  this  manner,  it 
is  connected  with  one  end  of  the  specimen  by  the 
clamp  Q'.  whieli  tits  into  a  center-pmich-mark  on 
the  specimen,  while  the  frame  and  cylinder  are  at- 
tached to  the  other  end,  Q.  of  the  specimen  in  a 
similar  manner.  The  portion  of  the  specimen  be- 
tween the  two  center-punch-marks  is  evidently  the 
only  portion  whose  elongation  will  move  the  marker 
along  the  paper,  and  the  space  passed  over  by  the 
marker  divided  by  tlie  original  length  of  this  portion 
will  give  the  elongation  per  unit  of  length  of  the 
specimen,  or  the  per  cent,  of  elongation  ;  and  the 
area  bounded  by  the  curve,  NO,  and  the  co-ordinates, 
NR  and  RO,  measures  the  mirk  of  breaking  the 
specimen. 

3.  A  steam-engine  indicator  is  an  instrument  used 
to  draw  a  diagram,  showing,  upon  a  reduced  scale, 
the  motion  of  the  piston  and  the  pressure  acting  upon 
it  at  each  point  of  its  stroke.  It  consists  essentially 
of  a  small  steam  cylinder  and  a  small  drum  upon 
whicii  is  rolled  the  paper  for  taking  the  diagram. 
The  cylinder  is  provided  with  a  piston  whose  motion 
is  resisted  by  a  spiral  spring.  Steam  may  be  ad- 
mitted beneath  this  piston  and  cause  it  to  rise,  or  a 


varinim  created  beneath  it  and  cause  it  to  fall,  the 
amount  of  movemeni  being  a  measure  of  the  pres- 
sure, as  in  a  spring-balance.  Motion  from  the  pis- 
ton is  conveyed  by  a  series  of  levers  to  a  pencil,  which 
is  inaile  to  press  against  a  slip  of  paper  rolled  upon 
tli(^  drum.  When  the  instrument  is  in  use,  its  cylin- 
der is  connected  to  either  end  of  the  large  cylinder 
of  the  engine,  anil  tlie  drum  is  made  by  suitable 
means  to  revolve  back  and  forth,  having  a  motion 
which  corresponds  to  that  of  the  engine  piston,  only 
it  is  on  a  much  reduced  scale.  Until  steam  is  a(l- 
mitted  to  the  indicator  there  is  no  pressure  upon  its 
piston,  and  if  the  pencil  point  is  then  pressed  against 
the  ))aper  on  the  drum,  it  will,  as  the  latter  moves 
back  and  forth,  trace  a  straight  line,  which  is  the 
line  of  atmospheric  pressure.  When  steam  isallowed 
to  enter,  the  indicator  piston  rises  against  the  re- 
sistance of  the  spring  to  a  height  corresponding  to 
the  steam  pressure,  and  if  this  pressure  remains  un- 
changed during  a  stroke,  a  straight  line  parallel  to 
the  atmospheric  line  will  be  traced  ;  when  release 
takes  place  the  piston  instantly  falls  and  the  pencil 
moves  with  it,  and  when  a  return  stroke  of  the  en- 
gine occurs,  the  pencil  will  trace  a  line  correspond- 
ing to  the  back  pressure  against  which  the  engine 
piston  is  moving.  This  gives  an  idea  of  the  process 
of  tracing  a  diagram  when  steam  follows  full  .stroke  ; 
when  a  cut-olT  is  used,  tlur  pencil  traces  the  same 
line  as  before  until  the  cut-off  valve  closes,  when, 
as  the  pressures  fall,  then'  is  traced  a  curve  which 
irives  the  pressure  at  each  point  of  the  forward  mo- 
tion according  to  the  law  for  expansion  of  steam. 
The  length  of  a  diagram  drawn  in  this  way  repre- 
sents on  a  smaller  .scale  the  stroke  of  the  engine,  and 
the  line   traced  by  the  iimi  il  shows  the  pressures 


Fig.  2. 
acting  upon  the  piston.  These  pressures  are  mea- 
sured by  the  movement  of  the  spring  containeii  in 
the  indicator,  an  inch  of  movement,  or  an  inch  of 
height  above  the  atmospheric  line  on  the  diagram, 
representing  so  many  pounds  pressure,  accordlmr  to 
the  spring  used;  thus  a  30  lb.  spring  would  be  com- 
pressed, so  as  to  give  the  pencil  a  movement  of  one 


nroiCATOK  RING. 


96 


INDUCTION  OF  ELECTRIC  CURRENTS. 


incli  for  30  lbs.  steam  pressure,  and  a  40  lb.  spring, 
one  inch  for  40  lbs.  pressure,  and  so  on.  Having 
then,  a  scale,  in  which  one  inch  is  divided  into  30  or 
40  parts,  or  any  other  numlter  of  parts  such  as  or- 
dinarily used,  we  can  readily  measure  any  pressure 
drectly  from  the  diagram  when  once  we  are  permit- 
ted to"know  what  scale  or  spring  has  been  employed. 

Fig.  3  shows  a  neat  construction  of 
the  theoretical  expansion  curve,  which 
should  always  be  drawn  upon  the  dia- 
gram in  order  to  compare  it  with  the 
actual  line  traced  by  the  indicator.  To 
make  the  construction  it  is  nece«ary 
to  know  the  clearance  space  so  as  to 
draw  the  clearance  line,  B  V,  from 
which  expansion  is  reckoned,  to  draw 
B  C,  the  line  of  boiler  pressure  and 
also  V  V,  the  line  of  perfect  vacuum. 
Then  take  any  point  such  as  O,  on 
the  expansion  line  of  the  diagram ; 
tlxis  point  must  not  be  later  than  F, 
the  point  of  release,  because  here  the 
exhaust  line  begins ;  from  ()  draw 
O  P  at  right  angles  to  B  C,  and  O  N 
at  right  angles  to  B  V,  join  V  and  P 
and  at  N,  where  V  P  intersects  O  N, 
draw  N  M  parallel  to  B  V.  Then  M 
is  the  theoretical  point  of  cut  -off. 
The  space  M  P  can  be  divided  into 
any  number  of  parts  which  need  not 
be"equal,and  lines  drawn  from  V  to  points  a,  b,  c,etc., 
cut  the  line  M  N  in  points  a',  b',  c',  etc.  From  a  and 
a'  are  drawn  lines  parallel  toM  N  and  O  N  respectively 
and  where  they  intersect  is  one  point  of  the  curve. 
The  same  operation  for  b  and  b',  gives  another 
point  and  so  on.  When  a  little  skill  is  acquired  these 
lines  need  not  be  entirely  drawn  in,  but  only  so 
much  as  to  show  the  intersection  which  determines 
a  point  of  the  curve,  and  it  is  thus  a  verj'  easy  and 
expeditious  method  for  drawing  the  true  curve  upon 
an  indicator  diagram.     Fiir.  ^,  is  a  sectional  view  of 

M     a      h 


the  lower  side,  and  parallel  thereto,  is  fixed  a  gradu" 
ated  plate  of  brass.  When  the  frame  is  lowered,  the 
graduated  plate  touches  the  platform;  but  when  not 
refpiired  for  use  it  is  raised  up  and  secured  by  hook- 
ing it  to  some  rings  on  the  under  side  of  the  cheeks. 
2d.  of  a  plate  similar  in  form  and  graduation  to  the 
one  already  mentioned,  which  is  attached  to  the  butt 


Fig.  3. 
the  Thompson  Indicator,  which  is  considered  as  the 
standard  of  this  t-ountry  and  Europe.     See  Plani- 
meter  and   Thiimp«iiii  Indicator. 

INDICATOR  RING. — A  thin  narrow  ring  of  wrought 
iron,  tiltnl  i>ii  the  breech-screw  of  a  breech-loading 
gun,  with  a  raised  line  of  brass  on  it,  which  shows 
by  its  coincidence  with  a  similar  line  on  the  top  end 
of  the  brccch-scrcw  whether  the  vent  is  properly 
scrcwi'd  u]i. 

INDIRECT  POINTING  APPARATUS.— Varius  appa- 
ratus for  pointing  guns  indirectly  have  been  ijmploy- 
ed  from  time  to  time.  That  employed  by  the  Prus- 
Bians  in  the  sieges  of  the  war  of  1H70-I87i  and  repre- 
senteil  in  the  drawing  is  favorably  endorsed  by  all 
Offlcers  who  have  employed  the  m<'tliod.  The  appa- 
ratus is  composed,  ist.  of  a  trapezoidal  frame  of 
ron  attached  to  the  axle  by  means  of  straps;  under 


end  of  the  trail;  when  the  latter  is  lowered,  this  plate 
like  tlie  other,  comes  in  contact  with  the  platform. 
The  plate  turns  on  a  hinge. and  may  be  raised  up  and 
fastened  to  a  spring-hook  on  the  rear  transom.  In 
using  this  apparatus  it  is  operated  as  follows:  The 
fire  being  once  suitably  adjusted  by  means  of  direct 
observations,  the  difference  which  exists  between  the 
graduations  of  the  two  plates  is  noted,  the  readings 
being  made  from  the  zero  to  the  directrix,  AB, 
traced  upon  the  platform.  In  all  the  tiring  that  fol- 
lows it  suffices,  in  order  to  point  the  piece,  to  read 
the  graduation  of  the  first  plate 
that  coincides  with  the  direc- 
trix, and  then  to  shift  the  trail 
to  the  right  or  left  until  the 
difference  between  the  gradua- 
tions of  the  plates  shall  be  equal 
to  that  originally  noted.  The 
graduation  of  the  plate  is  arbi- 
trary. In  the  Prussian  artillery 
the  principal  divisions  are  40 
m.  m.  apart,  and  these  inter- 
vals subdivided  into  10  equal 
parts.  These  graduated  scales 
permit  of  maintaining  to  a  great 
exactness  and  without  renewed 
pointing,  a  line  of  sight  once  es- 
tabUshetl,  which  is  of  the  great- 
est importance  in  firing  at  an 
object  concealed  from  the  view; 
Jt  they  also  permit  of  varying,  la- 
V-^—  terally,  the  point  of  fall  for  dis- 
tances, by  displacing  horizon- 
tally the  point  of  departure  of  the  line  of  sight,  an 
operation  required  in  breeching  masonry,  for  making 
the  horizontal  cut.  This  method  of  pointing  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Prussians  with  great  success  at  the 
siege  of  Stra.sbourg,  in  batteries  without  embrasures, 
for  breeching  walls  of  masonry  by  a  phmging  fire. 
INDORSED.— A  term  applied"  in'  Heraldry  to  two 
animals  ]ilaced  back  to  back.  Two  keys,  two  wings, 
etc.,  may  also  be  indorsed,  and  a  pelican  is  always 
drawn  with  his  wings  indorsed.  The  terms  Addoned 
and  Tnihirsi-d  liave  the  same  application. 

INDUCTION  OF  ELECTRIC  CURRENTS.— The  dis- 
cov<TV  of  the  power  of  eleclrie  currents  to  induce 
currents  in  neighboring  conductini:  circuils  is  due  to 
Faraday.  His  researches  on  the  subjecl.  named  by 
him  riittd-rlcHrir.  induction,  were  published  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions  (1831-32).     Henry  (1832) 


IHDUCTION  OF  ELECTRIC  CUEEENT8. 


97 


INDUCTION  OF  ELECTEIC  CUEEENTB. 


observed  tlial  when  coiitaet  was  l)roUen  in  n  long 
galvanic  eireiiit  u  brifjlit  uparlt  oeciirreil,  wliieli  dicl 
not  oeeiir  when  tlie  eireiiit  was  slicjrl.  'I'his  was 
ghowii  liy  p'araday  (18:i4)  to  be  due  to  the  extra  cur- 
rent induced  liy  Hie  viirinus  parts  of  the  eiriMiit  in 
each  other.  liueiilioll'Moraiid  Sturgeon  ( |H:jT;shovved 
tlie  superior  nctioji,  in  induction  apparatus,  of  abun- 
dle  of  iron  wires  to  tlial  of  a  solid  bar  of  iron.  Jlen- 
ry  ( 1 841)  studied  the  indicative  action  of  induced  cur- 
rents of  dilTerent  orders.  l)e  la  Kive  desi);ned,  in 
1841^,  an  electro-clienueal  condenser,  consistinj;  of  a 
prinuiry  coil,  which,  by  means  of  the  extra  current, 
could  enable  a  simile  nalvaniecell  todecomposit  wa- 
ter. The  same  decomposition,  however,  had  bi'i'H 
effected  by  Wright  in  1840.  RuhndvorlT  construct- 
ed (18r)0  or  1851)  the  tirst  so-called  Inihirlion  c„il,  the 
excellence  of  which  was  chieliy  attained  l)y  the  pro- 
per insulation  of  the  secondary  coil.  Fizeau  (18.")3) 
incH'ased  immensely  the  power  of  the  coil,  l)y  pro- 
vidin;;  it  with  a  condenser.  Of  late  years  coils  of 
great  power  have  been  constructed,  rivaling,  if  not 
excce(iins  tlu^  most  powerful  electric  uiachinea  in 
length  and  power  of  spark. 

The  Fundamental  law  of  current  induction  may 
be  thus  shown  :  Two  long  copper  wires  are  tix<'d  so 
as  to  be  parallel  and  close  to  each  other.  The  ex- 
tremities of  the  one  are  in  connection  with  the  poles 
of  a  galvanic  battery,  and  tho.se  of  the  other,  with 
the  binding-screws  of  a  galvanometer,  'i'he  instant 
the  circuit  of  the  battery  is  completed,  and  the  cur- 
rent sent  along  one  wire,  a  current  in  the  opposite 
direction  is  induced  in  the  other  wire,  which  is  shown 
by  the  dertection  of  the  needle  of  the  galvanometer. 
This  induced  current  is  only  momentary,  for  though 
the  current  continues  to  circulate  in  the  tirst  wire, 
the  needle  soon  falls  back  to  its  original  position  of 
rest,  and  the  wire  then  gives  free  passage  to  other 
currents,  and  appears  to  be  in  no  way  affected.     If, 


however,  as  the  primary  wire  remains  in  any  one 
position,  all  evidence-  of  electricity  in  the  secondary 
wiri'  disappears;  but  if  in  this  position  the  slrengtli 
of  the  primary  current  should  be  increased  or  dimin- 
ished, momentary  currents  in  thr-  secondary  wire 
wotdd  again  mark  the  cliangis  in  the  primary,  tin; 
increase  causing  an  inverse,  and  the  derrease  u  direct 
current.  Hence;  we  conclude,  that  a  current  irlilch 
brginn,  a  current  vhich  apjiniichtii,  or  a  current  which 
incria^cH  in  utrenr/th,  indncex  tin  inverse  mtmienlary 
current  in  a  neiglihi/ring  conducting  circuit,  and  that 
a  current  irhic/i  st"pn,  a  current  which  retires,  or  a 
current  irhirh  (IccrenscH  in  strinijth,  induccH  a  direct 
momentary  current  in  a  neiglilnrrin'j  circuit.  Ffir  in- 
verse, the  word  mgntirc.  and  for  direct,  the  word 
pemitioe,  are  freipiently  emi)loyed  in  reference  to  in- 
duced currents. 

I      In  experiments  like  the  above,  it  is  much  more 

I  convenient  to  wind  the  jirimary  and  secondary  wires 
side  by  side  round  a  bolibin,  so  as  to  forma  coil. 

'  The  wires  are  insulated  from  each  other  by  a  cover- 
ing of  wool  or  silk.     Not  only  does  such  "a  disposi- 

I  tion  admit  of  very  long  wires  being  used,  but  it  also 
disposes  the  wires  emi)l(jyed  to  greater  advantage, 

j  for  each  single  turn  of  the  primary  wire  acts  not 
only  on  the  corres])onding  turn  of  the  secondary  wire 
but  on  all  the  turns  near  it.     The  inductive  effect  of 

\  such  a  coil  is  much  greater  than  that  which  would 

i  be  obtained  tiy  the  same  extent  of  wires  running  side 
by  side  in  a  straight  or  crooked  line.  It  is  not  even 
necessary  that  the  two  wires  be  wo\md  round  toireth- 
er,  each  may  be  wound  (m  a  separate  bobbin,  and 
the  one  placed  inside  the  other.  The  primary  coil  is 
made  of  wire  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
covered  with  wool :  and  the  secondary  coil  of  silk- 
covered  wire, one-eighteenth  of  an  inch!  much  longer 
than  the  primary  wire.     With  two  such  coils,  many 

I  principles  of  induction  can  be  given. 


now,  when  the  needle  is  at  rest,  the  battery  circuit 
be  broken,  and  the  current  stopped,  another  momen- 
tary current  is  indicated  by  the  galvanometer  needle 
but  in  this  case  in  the  .same  direction  as  the  inducing 
current.  The  inducing  wire  and  current  are  called 
primary,  and  so  are  distinguished  from  the  induced 
vpire  and  current,  which  are  termed  secondary.  The 
passive  condition  of  the  wire  while  thus  under  in- 
duction has  been  described  by  Faraday  as  electro- 
tonic.  An  electric  throb,  so  to  speak,  makes  the 
setting  in  of  this  state,  and  another  its  vanishing  ; 
the  former  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  in- 
ducing current,  and  the  latter  in  the  same  direction. 
If  the  primary  wire  be  movable,  so  that  it  can  be 
suddenly  brought  near  to,  and  withdrawn  from  the 
secondary,  while  the  battery  current  passes  steadily, 
currents  are  induced  as  in  the  former  case,  the  ap- 
proach of  the  wire  being  marked  by  an  inverse  cur- 
rent, and  its  withdrawal  by  a  direct  one.     As  long, 


Let  us  place  the  primary  coil  within  the  secondary  ; 
let  the  primary,  along  with  the  self-acting  rheotom, 
be  put  in  the  circuit  of  a  galvanic  cell,  and  let  the 
secondary  coil  be  connected  with  a  galvanometer. 
The  interruption  in  the  primary  current  being  effect- 
ed by  the  rheotom  with  great  rapidity,  the  induced 
inverse  and  direct  currents  are  sent  out  with  corre- 
sponding rapidity  through  the  coil  of  the  galvan- 
ometer. If  this  last  be  of  a  short  and  thick  wire,  so 
as  not  to  tax  the  tension  of  the  current  transmitted, 
the  induced  currents  will  not  deflect  the  needle  :  or 
if  they  should  happen,  through  the  unsteady  action 
of  the  break,  to  do  so,  it  only  oscillates  round  its 
Iiosition  of  rest.  This  proves  that  the  quantity  "f 
electricity  transmitted  hy  the  induced  inceru  and  direct 
currents  is  the  satne,  for  they  each  exert  the  same  in- 
fluence on  the  needles.  But  if  the  coil  of  the  gal- 
vanometer consist  of  a  long  fine  wire,  the  needle  is 
kept  deviated  in  a  direction  which  argues  the  actioa 


IHDtJCTION  OF  ELECTEIC  CUERENTS. 


98 


INDUCTION  OF  ELECTEIC  CUEEENTS. 


of  the  direct  current.  This  leads  us  to  conclude  that 
both  currents,  though  equal  in  qnatitity,  are  vnegual 
in  tension,  the  direct  current  having  the  highest  ten- 
sion, for  it  has  more  power  to  force  its  way  through 
the  fine  wire  of  the  galvanometer  than  the  inverse, 
Other  proofs  of  the  same  principles  may  he  easily 
furnished.  The  difference  of  the  tension  of  the  two 
induced  currents,  is  accounted  for  In  this  way;  when 
a  change  takes  place  in  the  primary  current,  the 
quantity  of  the  electricity  induced  by  it  in  the  sec- 
ondare wire  is  the  same  whether  this  change  takes 
place  quickly  or  slowly ;  the  tension,  however,  is 
very  differcnL  AVhen  the  change  takes  place  slowly 
the  total  quantity  of  electricity  in  circulation  con- 
tinues to  pass  as  slowly,  and  there  is  little  in  motion 
at  one  time ;  but  when  the  same  occurs  quickly,  it 
is  sent  with  momentiun.  so  to  speak,  and  the  quan- 
tity in  circualtion  at  one  time  is  as  much  greater,  in 
comparison  with  the  former  case,  as  the  time  is 
shorter.  It  is  this  quick  dispatch  of  electricity  which 
constitutes  the  tension  of  the  current.  Now,  as  it 
takes  some  time  before  the  primary  current  is  fully 
established,  the  inverse  induced  current  is  slow  and 
of  low  tension ;  hut  when  the  contact  is  broken,  the 
primary  current  ceases  much  more  suddenly  than  it 
began,  and  the  direct  induced  current  is  quick  and 
of  high  tension.  This  view  of  the  matter  is  borne 
out  bj'  experiment,  for  it  is  found,  that  trhaterer 
favors  the  suddenness  of  the  changes  of  the  primary 
current,  heightens  the  tension  of  the  currents  induced 
by  these  changes.  The  break,  from  this  circumstance, 
forms  an  important  element  in  the  construction  of 
all  induction  apjiaratus.  Tlie  inductive  power  of 
tlie  primary  coil  is  immensely  increased  by  placing 
a  bundle  of  soft  iron  rods  or  wires  in  the  center  of 
it.  The  magnetism  which  begins  and  ceases  in  these 
at  each  passage  of  the  current  acts  in  conjunction 
with  the  inducing  force  of  the  coil.  The  center  of 
the  bobbin  is  hollow,  to  receive  a  bundle  of  this 
kind.  The  greater  part  of  the  inductive  action  is 
due  to  the  iron  core,  and  the  induced  currents  got 
with  and  without  it  are  not  to  be  compared  in  point 
of  eucrg}'.  A  solid  bar  of  soft  iron  may  also  be  used, 
but  with  much  less  advantage,  for  the  induced  cur- 
rents which  linger  in  it  after  the  stoppage  of  the 
main  current  acting  themselves  inductively,  impair 
the  suddenness  with  which  the  current  disappears 
from  the  primary  wire  and  magnetism  from  the  core. 
The  thin  layer  of  oxide  which  forms  on  the  rods  in- 
sulates them  sutKciently  from  one  another,  and  pre- 
vents the  formation  of  such  currents.  It  is  partly 
for  the  same  reason  that  metal  tubes  cannot  be  used 
for  bobbins  for  either  primary  or  secondary  coils. 
If  such  were  used,  closed  circuits  would  be  formed  in 
them,  the  reaction  of  which,  however,  woidd  pro- 
long the  changes  of  the  primary  inducers  and  con- 
sequently impair  the  tension  of  the  secondary  cur- 
rent. Metal  bobbins  would  not  be  open  to  this  ob- 
jection If  they  had  a  longitudinal  slit,  which  would 
make  the  tranverse  section  a  broken  ring  and  cir- 
cuit. The  excitation  of  magnetism  in  the  core  is  the 
principal  aim  of  the  primary  coil,  and  as  a  strong 
current  is  essential  to  that  object,  it  is  made  of  thick 
wire  and  of  moderate  length.  In  the  secondary  coil, 
the  tension  of  the  induced  current  alone  is  aimed  at, 
and  with  tliis  view  it  is  made  of  as  thin  wire  as  can 
be  made,  so  as  to  admit  of  as  many  turns  as  posssible 
being  brought  within  the  influence  of  the  core  and 
primary  coil.  The  electric  conformation  of  the  se- 
condary coil  is  sometimes  looked  upon  in  the  same 
light  of  that  of  a  galvanic  battery.  Thetotal  electro- 
motive force  of  tiie  coil  is  I  he  sum  of  that  of  all  tlu' 
turns  in  it,  in  the  same  way  thai  the  electro-motive 
force  of  the  battery  is  proportionate  to  the  number 
of  cells. 

Not  only  does  a  galvanic  current  induce  electricity 
in  a  neighboring  (■irc\iit,  hut  it  also  acts  inductively 
on  itself.  When  contact  is  broken  in  a  l)atlery  cir- 
cuit, the  galvanic  spark  is  seen.  When  the  wire  is 
short,  the  spark  is  feeble,  but  it  increases  in  lirilliaiicy 


with  the  length  of  the  circuit,  and  this  becomes  par- 
ticularly observable,  when  the  wire  is  wound  rovmd 
in  a  coil.  This  certainly  does  not  arise  from  the  cur- 
rent being  strong  with  the  long  wire,  and  weak  with 
the  short  one,  for  (piite  the  reverse  is  the  case,  as 
might  be  shown  with  the  aid  of  a  galvanometer.  The 
real  cause  of  superior  brilliancy  of  the  galvanic  spark 
with  the  long  circuit  is  to  be  found  in  the  induction 
j  of  tlie  primary  current  on  the  various  parts  of  itself, 
!  exciting,  as  they  are  called,  extra  cwrents  in  the  prim- 
I  ary  wire.  It  has  been  fully  attested  by  experiment, 
I  that  at  the  instant  a  galvanic  current  begins  and  ends, 
extrei  currents  are  induced  by  the  action  of  the  several 
parts  of  its  circuit  upon  each  other,  that  at  the  begin- 
ning erf  the  current  being  inverse,'  and  that  at  the  end 
direct.  As  the  extra  current  inverse  acts  opposite  to 
the  main  current,  it  does  not  appear  as  a  separate 
current  but  only  retards  the  instantaneous  passage 
of  the  main  current.  The  extra  current  direct  suc- 
ceeds the  main  current,  and  has  consequently  a  sep- 
arate existence.  It  is  what  is  generally  referred  to 
when  the  extra  current  is  spoken  of.  This  extra  cur- 
rent is  of  much  higher  tension  than  the  original  cur- 
rent. The  effect  of  the  extra  current  on]  the  direct 
induced  current  of  the  seeondarj'  coil  is  to  lessen 
very  decidedly  its  tension.  If  a  way  be  made  for  the 
extra  current,  the  tension  of  the  induced  current 
falls  prodigiously.  In  a  large  coil-machine,  which 
gives  freely  sparks  of  1  or  2  in.  in  length,  when  the 
two  portions  of  the  break  are  joined  by  a  thin  wire, 
so  as  to  allow  the  extra  current  to  pass,  sparks  will 
not  travel  between  the  two  poles,  however  near  they 
are  brought.  When  no  such  communication  exists, 
a  portion  of  the  extra  current  leaps  over  between  the 
separating  parts  of  the  break,  and  in  so  far  diminishes 
the  intensity  of  the  secondary  current.  The  con- 
denser of  the  coil-machine,  to  be  afterwards  de- 
scribed, has  for  its  object  the  absorption  or  suppres- 
sion of  the  extra  current,  but  the  manner  in  which 
it  effects  this  is  not  j'et  properly  explained.  The 
prejudicial  effect  of  the  extra  current  on  the  induced 
current  is  easily  understood,  when  we  bear  in  mind 
that  it  prolongs  the  cessation  of  the  magnetism  of 
the  core  and  of  the  current  in  the  primary  coil,  and 
thus  imparingthe  suddenness  of  this  change,  reduces 
the  tension  of  the  induced  current. 

The  essential  parts  of  the  induction  coil  have  been 
already  described  in  detail.  A  primary  coil  with  its 
core  of  iron  wire,  and  a  secondary  coil  exterior  to 
and  insulated  from  a  primary  coil,  form  the  main 
portion  of  the  instrument.  The  primary  coil  is  con- 
nected with  the  poles  of  a  galvanic  batten.-,  and  in 
the  circuit  a  rheotom  is  introduced,  to  effect  the  in- 
terruptions of  the  current  essential  to  its  inductive 
action.  The  only  parts  not  yet  referred  to  are  the 
condenser  and  the  commutator.  The  condenser  con- 
sists of  several  sheets  of  tinfoil  and  oiled  silk,  laid 
alternately  the  one  above  the  other.  The  first,  third, 
fifth,  etc.,  sheets  of  tinfoil  are  connected  by  strips  of 
the  same  material  ;  so  are  the  second,  fourth,  sixth, 
etc.;  the  whole  forming  a  condensing  apparatus  like 
a  Leyden  jar,  the  odd  sheets  forming  the  one  coat- 
ing, and  the  even  sheets  the  other.  Each  set  of 
sheets  is  connected  with  one  of  the  wires  of  the  pri- 
mary coil.  The  condenser  is  generall}'  placed  in  the 
sole  of  tlie  instrument,  and  does  not  meet  the  eye. 
The  commutator  consists  of  an  ivory  cylinder  cov- 
ered with  conducting  plates  on  two  sides,  and  is  so 
constructed  that  it  can  break  contact,  or  transmit 
the  current  through  the  coil  in  either  direction. 

The  drawing  represents  Queen's  dissected  Huhm- 
korff  coil,  wliich  is  mostly  adopted  for  the  opera- 
tions of  mines,  torpedoes,  etc.  A,  A',  are  binding 
posts,  to  connect  with  the  battery;  C:  is  the  Bertin 
conuuutator'used  in  reversing  the  current;  at  V,  the 
battery  current  enters  the  primary  coil;  this  latter 
can  be  removed,  as  also  can  the  core,  r;  at  n.tlie  bat- 
tery current  is  autonuitically  broken.  The  brass 
jilales,  p,p',  connect  the  condenser  wilh  the  primary 
circuit :  tlie  condenser  is  contained  in  a  sliding  draw- 


INEBXIA, 


99 


INFANTRY  COLOaS. 


er,  wliirli  ran  be  very  piisily  removed.  T$,  TJ'  arc  tlie 
teniiiiials  of  U\t:  Beeondary  coil.  A  copper  (•ondiic- 
tiu{?  wire,  wliieli  is  iiisulaled  t)y  one  or  I  wo  coals  of 
gntla-perchu,  connects  tlie  cliarjj;es  willi  llje  ;;alvanic 
n]iparalns.  The  cliarn(^  is  exploded  liy  passini;  n 
Bjiark  tlironijli  a  very  small  portion  rjf  fulminate  of 
rnereury  inserted  between  tlie  ends  of  two  cop|)er 
wires,  which  are  enclosed  within  a  short  tub('  of  ;;ut- 
ta-pcreha,  coated  within  with  sulphiiret  of  copper. 
Tlie  wires  are  bent  near  llie  end  of  the  tube  anil 
twisted  aroniid  each  other.  A  little  meal  powder  is 
llirownaround  the  fnlminate  am  It  he  t  idle,  which,  with 
llietnl)e  and  the  bent  ]mn  of  tlie  wire,  is  tiLrlilly 
closed  in  a  small  .<;utta-pereha  bai;,  to  Uec])  ont  mois- 
liM'c.  To  lire  a  sinirle  mine,  one  end  of  the  twist  is 
golilered  to  the  condnctini;  wire  and  the  other  inser- 
ted into  the  earth  to  complete  the  circle.  For  sev- 
eral nnnes  to  be  exploded  at  the  same  time,  conduc- 
tiiis  wires  connect  the  mines,  and  the  ends  of  the 
twist  are  soldered  one  to  each  conductor,  except 
the  end  one,  which  has  one  of  its  ends  inserted  into 
the  earth.  ]5y  this  condiinalion  the  scries  will  be 
cxi)ioded  without  any  sensible  difference  of  time 
between  the  nearest  and  furthest  mine.  See  Galvan- 
ism. 

INERTIA. — A  term  expressive  of  tliat  indifference 
to  a  state  of  rest  or  motion  which  is  a  universal  jirop- 
crty  of  matter,  and  may  be  expres.sed  by  sayim;  that 
a  body  in  inution  will  continue-  in  motiitn,  and  a  body 
at  rest  will  remain  (it  rest,  unless  a'^ted  npon  hysonie  ex- 
ternal force.  The  latter  part  of  this  ]irinciple  was 
Known  to  the  Ancients,  and  by  them  attributed  to  a 
certain  repui^uauce  to  motion,  which  was  a  charac- 
teristic of  all  nuitter;  but  it  was  shown  by  Galileo 
that  the  former  part  was  equally  true  and  general. 
This  property  of  matter  has  been  called  by  Kepler 
vis  inertia.. 

INESCUTCHEON.Tn  Heraldry, a  single  shield  borne 
fls  a  charge.  When  there  are  "two  or  more,  they  are 
simply  called  escutcheons,  for  an  inescutcheon.  it 
is  said,must  always  occupy  the  fess  point  of  the  shield. 
An  inescutcheon  is  to  be  distinguished  from  an  es- 
cutcheon of  pretense,  which  is  not  a  charge,  but  a 
separate  coat.     See  Heraldry. 

INFAMED.— In  Heraldry,  an  epithet  applied  to  a 
lion  or  other  animal  which  has  lost  its  tail,  the  loss 
being  supposed  to  disgrace  or  defame  it.  Defamed 
looking  ba'-k)rards  occurs  in  ancient  blazon  for  coun- 
ter-rampant regardant,  the  lion  being  su|)poscd  to  be 
ilving  from  anencmy  .     Often  written  Defamed. 

'infamous  BEHAViOE. — Disgrace  -mTH  infamt 
AND  INFAMOUS  BEHAVIOR  arc  tcmis  in  use  in  the  mili- 
tary and  naval  codes  to  designate  conduct  (and  pen- 
alty) which  is  not  only  opposed  to  discipline,  but  also 
disgraceful  in  a  social  sense.  As  infamous  behavior, 
bave  been  always  classed  in  all  countries  desertion  of 
colors  on  the  field  of  battle,  failure  to  attempt  to  suc- 
cor comrades  in  danger,  cold-blooded  cruelty,  and 
other  crimes  which  are  greatly  subversive  of  moral- 
ity. If  a  man  is  foimd  guilty  of  any  of  these  crimes 
by  a  Court-JIartial.  and  not  sentenced  to  death,  the 
sentence  is  ordinarily  discharge — or  dismissal — with 
ignominy  or  infamy.  So  severe  an  enactment  great- 
ly adds  to  the  force  of  the  penaltj',  and  stigmatizes 
the  offender  for  life  as  a  disgrace  to  his  couiury  and 
bis  cloth. 

INFANTKT.— The  term  nifantry  was  originally  ap- 
plied to  a  body  of  men  collected  by  the  Infante  of 
Spain,  for  the  purpose  of  rescinng  his  father  from 
the  Moors.  The  attempt  being  successful,  the  term 
was  afterwards  applied  to  foot-soldiers  in  general,  as 
opposed  to  cavalry.  Among  the  ancient  nations  of 
Europe  the  foot-soldiers  constituted  the  chief  strength 
of  the  armies.  In  the  best  days  of  the  Grecian  and 
Roman  States,  battles  were  won  mainly  by  the  force 
flud  discipline  of  the  phalanges  and  legions,  and  the 
number  of  the  infantry  in  the  field  far  exceeded  that 
of  the  cavalry.  The  cavalry  were  then,  as  at  present 
employed  chiefly  in  protecting  the  wings  of  the  army 
find  in  completing  a  victory  gained  by  the  infantry. 


I 


The  ancient  Franks,  when  tliey  left  the  forests  of 
(ierinany,  were  accustomed  to  march  and  light  on 
foot;  and  they  iiersevered  in  this  practice  even  after 
tliey  had  obtained  possession  of  tlir;  country  of  thft 
Gauls,  which  abounded  with  horses.  J{ul  soon  after  the 
time  of  Charlemagne  Institutionsof  ChivaJry  began  to 
l)e  generally  adopted  in  t  hi- kingdoms  of  Kurope.  These 
led  to  frequent  exhibitions  of  martial  exercises  on 
horseback  in  presi-nce  of  the  Sovereigns  and  assembled 
Nobles :  and  the  interest  inspired  by  the  achievements 
of  the  Kniirhls  on  those  occasions  was  naturally  fol- 
lowed by  a  lugh  regard  for  that  order  of  men.  I5y 
degrees  the  cavalry,  which  was  com|)osed  of  j)ersons 
possessing raidi  and  jiroperty,  and  completely  armed, 
acquired  the  re])utation  of  Ijeing  the  princi|ial  arm; 
while  the  foot-soldiers,  badly  armed  and  disciiilined, 
were  held  in  comparatively  small  estimation.  This 
continued  400  j'cars,  and  although  war  was  the  princi- 
pal occupation  of  maid<ind,  military  science  fell  into 
neglect.  Hut  Uulirs  were  forced  by  the  power  of 
feudalism  to  make  an  alliance  with  the  dcsi)ised  class 
of  foot-soldiers,  and  in  1214  we  linil  that  some  of  the 
German  iidantry  was  recognized  to  be  "  very  good, 
and  trained  to  light  im  the  level  even  against  cavalry." 
The  cavalry  of  France  was  routed  at  C'o\irlrai  Ijy  the 
infantry  during  the  next  century,  and  the  Austrians 
suffered  defeat  bv  the  elllcient  work  of  the  Swiss  ])ike 
at  Jlorgartcn  (l":)!.'")),  Semiiach  ri:i8(i),  and  Kafels 
(1388).  At  C'ressy  and  Poicliers  (l:MG-13.")G)  the 
Knights  of  England  dismounted  to  fight  beside  the 
successful  infantry.  The  jirincipal  weapons  of  the 
infantry  before  the  invention  of  gunpowder  were  long- 
bows, halberds,  cross-bows,  spiked  clubs,  axes,  pikes, 
staight-swords,  shields,  corselets,  mail-jackets,  helm- 
ets and  partisans.  In  the  Kith  century,  however, 
these  weapons  were  replaced  by  fire-arms,  and  in  the 
18th  century,  the  musket  was'  in  general  use.  It 
became  customary  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War  to 
form  battalions  of  infaiUry  composed  of  .'iOO  men, 
which  were  massed  into  dense  columns  during  battle 
in  spite  of  the  deadly  effect  of  the  enemy's  artillery 
and  fire-arms.  The  absurdity  of  this  formation  was 
first  exposed  by  GustavAdolph,  who  recognizing  the 
destructiveness  of  fire-arms,  arranged  his  battalions 
with  a  view  to  increasing  the  effectiveness  of  the  fire  of 
his  troops,  while  avoiding  exi)osure  to  that  from  the 
enemv.  His  tactics  were  so  successful  at  Breiten- 
feld  a'nd  Lutzen  (1G31-32)  tliat  they  were  soon  after- 
wards universally  adopted.  The  bayonet  came  into 
use  in  1070,  and  the  socket-bayonet  about  1G99.  Fred- 
rick the  Great  made  many  improvements  till  then 
comparatively  unknown.  The  rapidity  with  which 
his  infantry  troops  performed  theirevolutions during 
battle  contributed  largeh'  toward  his  famous  victories 
in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  In  fact  the  Prussian  in- 
fantry have  ever  since  his  time  served  as  models  for 
other  European  countries.  The  superiority  of  this 
arm  consists  in  the  troops  being  able  to  act  on  ground 
where  cavalry  camiot,  and  it  is  obvious  that  the  lat- 
ter must  be  nearly  useless  in  the  attack  of  fortified 
towns.  During  the  "War  of  the  Rebellion  inthiscoun- 
trv  skirmishing  was  in  vogue  in  the  northern  and 
southern  armies.  It  had  been  in  use  during  the  Re- 
volutionary War,  and  was  well  siuted  to  the  Ameri- 
can character.  Skirmishing  has  since  been  adopted 
in  Prussia,  and  the  skirmish  line  is  recognized  as  the 
proper  formation  in  battle  to  avoid  the  destructive 
effect  of  the  breech-loaders.  The  co-operation,  how- 
ever, of  cavalrj'  andiufantry  troops  was  neglected  by 
American  Generals.  Artillery  fire  usually  opened  the 
battle,  and  was  followed  by  the  advance  of  the  whole 
line  on  the  run  in  a  final  charge.  The  Infantrj-  Tac- 
tics in  general  use  were  those  of  Casey,  founded  on 
those  of  Scott.  Casey's  Tactics,  however,  were  ab- 
andoned for  those  of  Hardee,  and  in  1867  those  of 
Upton  were  finallv  adopted. 

INFANTRY  COLORS.— In  the  United  States,    each 

Regiment  of  Infantry  has  two  silken  Colors.     The 

first,  or  the  Natiimal  Color,  of  stars  and  stripes,  as 

1  described  for  the  garrison  flag ;  the    number  and 


IIJFERIOR. 


100 


INFLAMMATION, 


name  of  the  regiment  is  embroidered  with  silver  on 
the  center  stripe.  The  second,  or  Regimental  Color,  is 
blue,  with  the  arms  of  the  United  St"iitcs  embroidered 
in  silk  on  the  center.  The  name  of  the  regiment  in 
a  scroll,  underneath  the  eagle.  The  size  of  each 
Color  is  six  feet  six  inches  fly,  and  six  feet  deep  on 
the  pike.  The  length  of  the  pike,  including  the  spear 
and  ferrule  is  nineleet  ten  inches.  The  fringe,  yel- 
low ;  cords  and  tassels,  blue  .and  white  silk  inter- 
mixed.    See  Colors. 

INFEEIOK.— A  term  signifying,  in  a  military  sense, 
junior  in  rank.  Inferior  officers  are  those  of  the 
lower  ranks  or  grades. 

INFERNAL  MACHINE.— xV  term  applied  to  various 
deadly  contrivances:  foi- instance,  to  the  battery -gun 
with  which  the  attempt  to  assassinate  Louis  Philippe 
was  made,  and  the  devices  used  on  similar  historical 
occasions.  A  noted  infernal  nufhine  was  the  tire-ship 
used  by  the  English  at  St.  Malo.  This  was  a  three- 
decker  charged  with  powder  on  the  first  deck  ;  shells, 
carcasses,  etc.,  on  the  second;  and  with  barrels  fil- 
led with  combustibles  on  the  third  ;  the  gun  deck  was 
covered  with  old  guns  overloaded.  It  was  intended 
to  destroy  ships,  iSridges,  etc. 

INFLAMMATION. — When  grains  of  powder  are  uni- 
ted to  form  a  charge,  and  tire  is  communicated  to 
one  of  them,  the  heated  and  expansive  gases  evolv- 
ed insinuate  themselves  into  the  interstices  of  the 
charge,  envelop  the  grains. and  ignite  them  one  after 
another.  This  propagation  of  ignition  is  called  in- 
Jlammation,  and  its  velocity,  the  velocity  of  infiam. 
mntiiin.  It  is  much  greater  than  that  of  combustion, 
and  it  should  not  be  confounded  with  it.  When  pow- 
der is  burned  in  an  open  train,  fine  powder  inflames 
more  rapidly  than  coarse;  such,  however,  is  not  the 
case  in  fire-arms,  owing  to  the  diminution  of  the  in- 
terstices. If  a  charge  were  composed  of  mealed  pow- 
der, the  flame  coufd  no  longer  find  its  way  through 
the  interstices,  and  the  velocity  of  inflammation  and 
combustion  would  become  the  same.  Now  supposing 
one  grain  or  particle  alone  be  ignited,  it  will  first  be 
inflamed  over  its  whole  surfaced  and  the  progressive 
combustion  will  take  place  from  the  exterior  to  the 
interior.  Its  rate  of  cmnhmtion  will  therefore  depend 
upon  both  its  shape  and  size,  leaving  out  entirely, 
for  the  present,  the  question  of  density  and  hard- 
ness. A  particle  of  spherical  or  cubical  form  will  ex- 
pose less  surface  to  ignition  in  proportion  to  its  vol- 
ume than  one  of  an  elongated  or  flat  shape,  and  will 
consequently  require  a  longer  period  for  the  combus- 
tion of  its  entire  mass;  the'  larger  the  particle,  also, 
the  longer  will  be  the  time  required  for  its  combus- 
tion. Looking,  then,  at  one  grain  of  powder  by  it- 
self, we  may  say  that  the  larger  it  is.  and  the  more 
nearly  its  form  approaches  a'sphere,  the  longer  will 
its  combustion  take,  and  the  slower  will  be  the  evo- 
lution of  the  gas.  When,  however,  we  come  to  re- 
gard the  action  of  an  aggregation  of  sucli  particles, 
as  in  the  charge  of  a  gun,  the  rate  of  ignition  of  the 
whole  charge  is  also  affected  by  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  grain.  The  part  of  the  charge  first  ignited  is 
that  near  the  vent,  and  the  remainder  is  inflamed  by 
contact  with  the  heated  gas  generated  by  the  com- 
bustion of  this  portion,  so  that  the  rate  of  ignition  of 
the  whole  mass  will  be  regulated  by  the  greater  or 
lessfacility  with  whicli  the  gas  can  penetrate  through- 
out the  charge,  which  is  itself  dependent  upon  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  interstices  between  the  grains. 
If  the  grains  be  splierical  and  regular  in  form,  the 
interstices  will  be  comparatively  large  and  uniform, 
and  the  gas  will  penetrate  the  mass  with  facility; 
again,  the  larger  the  grains,  the  larger  the  interstices 
between  them.  If,  oii  the  other  hand,  they  be  flat  or 
flaky  and  irregular  in  shajic,  the  passage  of  the  gas 
will  be  more  dilhcult,  ami  the  rate  of  inflanunatiou 
of  the  charge  hmIucmmI.  W'e  see,  therefore,  that  the 
considerations  whicli  affect  the  more  or  less  rapid 
combustion  of  an  individual  grain  of  gun])owder,  al- 
so affect  the  rate  of  ignition  of  a  eliarge  of  such 
grains,  but  in  an  opposite  direction;  so  that  a  form 


of  grain  which  will,  individually  bum  rapidly  may 
offer  an  increased  resistance  to  the  passage  of  the 
heated  gas  through  the  charge,  and  thereby  retard 
its  ignition,  while  a  grain  which  will  burn  more  slow- 
ly  may  allow  of  the  charge  being  more  rapidly  igni- 
ted. By  varying  the  size  and  shape  of  the  grain  alone, 
a  powder  may  therefore  be  obtained,  a  charge  of 
which  shall  be  ignited  rapidly  throughout,  but  burn 
comparatively  slowly,  or  one  which  shall  be  ignited 
more  slowly,  but  when  once  inflamed  burn  very  rap- 
idly. It  is  necessary  to  draw  a  clear  distinction  be- 
tween a  rapidly  igniting  and  a  quickly  burning  pow- 
der. The  heat  developed  increases  with  the  charge, 
and  as  the  velocity  of  the  gases  increases  with  their 
temperature,  it  is  therefore  evident  that  a  large  charge 
is  consumed  quicker  than  a  small  one ;  it  is  also  true 
that  the  loss  of  heat  absorbed  by  the  surface  of  the 
bore  is  much  less  sensible  when  the  charge  is  great 
than  when  it  is  small;  that  is,  the  quantity  absorbed 
is  proportional  to  the  surface  or  the  square  of  the 
caliber  of  the  gun  and  the  heat  developed  increases 
as  the  cube  of  the  caliber.  With  proper  data  we  car 
readily  determine  the  density  of  the  gaseous  products 
at  any  particular  moment  of  combustion.  For  this 
purpose,  take  the  case  in  which  the  inflammation  of 
the  whole  charge  is  considered  instantai»eous,  and  let 
P  be  the  weight  of  the  charge ;  d'  the  density  of  tin 
composition  of  which  thepowderismade;  Fthespact 
in  which  the  gases  expand  ;  t'  the  time  of  combus- 
tion of  a  single  grain  ;  t  the  time  since  the  combus- 
tion began ;  d  the  density  of  the  gases  at  a  given  in- 
stant. 

The  weight  of  powder  remaining  after  a  time,  t, 
will  be  equal  to  PI    1 |,       and   the   volume 

will  be  equal  to  —  |   1 | ;  the  weight  of  gase- 

d' 


ved  wi 


ous  products  evolved  will  be  equal  to 

p|   1 — I   1 I      I;  and  their  density  will  be 


equal  to  this  quantity  divided  by  the  space,  V,  di- 
minished by  the  space  occupied  by  the  powder  un- 
burnt  at  the  end  of  the  time,  t. 


Or, 


d= 


Let  K,  represent  the  ratio  of  the  weight  of  powder 
which  would  fill  the  space  T,  to  the  weight  of  the 
charge  P,  and  I),  the  gravimetric  density,  or  weight 
of  a  unit  of  volume  of  powder,  we  shall  have  the  e(iua- 
tion, 

DV  V    K 

=K,  or  — =— ; 

P  P     D 

and  the  formula  for  the  density  of  the  gaseous  pro- 
ducts becomes. 


1  — 


d  = 


INFOEMANT. 


101 


INITIAL  TENSION. 


If  the  charge  fillw  Uic  cnlirc  spaor    K,  K=\,  and 
1- 


d=  n 


'■=(-01 


n 

"Wlien  the  grains  arc  sinned,  t=t  ,  and  d= — ; 
and  if  yr=l,  rf=A  K 

Huviiii;  dftcriiiincd  the  nicnn  (U^nsitv  "f  tlie  gas- 
eous prDducts  at  any  instant  of  tlic  (■(indnistion,  we 
can  determine  tlic  pressure  exerted  on  I  lie  enclosing 
8urfac(-s  liy  means  of  JSiimford's  formula 

/'=1.841  (905rf)  1  +  0.DO2.  • 

This  value  of  I'  supposes  that  the  entire  charge  is 
inflamed  at  tlu^  same  time— a  supposition  that  is  not 
Strictly  correct,  except  for  small  and  li;;litly-ramined 
charges.  When  the  charge  is  large,  and  well-rammed, 
as  in  cannon,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  consideration 
the  time  of  inllammation. 

In  a  majority  of  cases  the  preci'ding  fortnulas  will 
give  the  relation  between  the  density  and  expansive 
lorceof  gunpowder,  without  sensible'  error;  but  wiien 
the  grains  are  small,  and  the  cliarge  is  compressed 
by  ramming,  the  interstices 
are  dimiuislied  in  size,  and 
the  inllammation  is  compar- 
atively less  rajiid  ;  besides, 
the  si/e  and  form  of  the 
charge  exert  an  intluence 
wliicli  increases  with  its 
length.  It  is  proposed  to  mo- 
dify the  formulas,  and  adapt 
them  to  the  most  general  case,  liy  considering  tlie 
Inflainmation  progressive.  Take  a  charge  of  powder, 
of  any  form  whatever,  and  consider  it  ignited  at  the 
point.  A,  the  inllanimation  will  reach  the  surface  of 
the  concentric  zone,  />',  the  radius  of  which  is  tv, 
In  the  time  t,  r  being  the  velocity  of   intlamniation. 


by  substituting  / — *  for  t,  and  supposing  ^=1, 
should  the  cliargi'  comjiletely  till  the  space  in  which 
it  is  burned.  Integrating  between  the  determined  lim- 
its, we  olitain  the  mean  density  of  the  gases  developed. 
The  solution  of  this  (pieslion,  in  a  general  sense,  in 
very  di.'ticult,  H!;d  rei|uires  tlie  aid  of  the  difTerenlial 
calculus.  There  are  particular  cases,  however,  where 
the  solution  is  not  dillicult ;  for  instance,  where  (he 
charge  is  of  cylindrical  form  and  is  |)laced  at  the  bot- 
tom if  till'  bore  of  a  guu.  See  J'Jxjjlim/jn  and  Oun- 
potrt/f-r. 

INFORMANT. — In  case  a  civil  person  is  the  com- 
plainant, he  becomes  the  principal  witness  before  a 
Court-Martial,  and  after  giving  his  evidence  may  re- 
main ill  Court,  in  order  that  the  Judge-Advocate  "may- 
refer  III  liiiii, 

INF0RMEE8.  — In  the  British  service,  soldiers  who 
gave  iiifoniiiitioii  of  false  musters,  or  of  pay  illegally 
detained  ;  and  were, for  said. services,  entitled  to  their 
discharge. 

INGAUNI. — A  tribe  dwelling  on  the  mountains  and 
seacost  of  Genoa  in  the  first  and  second  centuries 
B.C.  They  were  very  active  in  the  wars  between  the 
Romans  and  Ligurians,  and  were  Allies  of  the  Car- 
thaginians in  the  second  I'uiiie  'War.  They  were 
regarded  as  a  distinct  tribe  in  the  time  of  Pliny  and 
Strabo,  but  after  the  battle  with  Emilius  Paulus, 
181  1).  c,  in  which  they  lost  l.'j.ODO  men,  very  little 
was  heard  of  them.  The  town  Albenga,  tlien  called 
AlViiuni  Imjaurium,  was  their  Capital. 

INITIAL  TENSION.— The  .system  of  initial  tension 
consists  ill  making  a  gun  of  concentric  tubes,  by 
putting  on  each  successive  layer,  iirocecding  out- 
ward from  the  center,  with  an  initial  tension  exceed- 
ing that  of  those  below  it;  in  other  words,  so  that 
each  hoop  shall  compress  the  one  within  it.  Tlie 
inner  layer  is  thus  in  compression  wliile  the  outer 
layer  is  in  the  highest  tension.  Tlie  inner  layer  i.s 
able  to  sustain  the  first  and  greatest  stretcli,  aiid  the 
outer  lajer,  although  stretched  less  b_v  the  explosion 


There  will  be  portions  of  the  charge  situated  within  j  "^  "."-'  po"'!;'"".  '':i«  already  been  stretched  mto  high 
this  zone  which  the  flame  will  mit  have  reached;  tension,  and  thus  bus  to  do  an  ecpial  amount  of 
Others  in  which  the  combustion  is  completed:  and  I  j*^'"'''^-  The  intermediate  layers  bear  the  same  rela- 
Others,  between  these  two,  in  which  the  inflammation 


is  completed,  but  the  combustion  is  only  partially  com 
pleted,  as  represented. 

The  extent  of  the  inflamed  zones  being  determined 
by  the  form  and  dimensions  of  the  charge,  exerts  a 
great  influence  on  the  development  of  the  ga.ses.  and 
consequently  on  their  density.  If  the  velocities  of  in- 
flammation and  combustion  be  known,  the  iiuantity 
of  gas  formed  from  each  zone  can  be  calculated,  and 
the  question  becomes  one  of  analysis.  In  this  calcu- 
lation, the  integral  limits  which  refer  to  the  extent  of 
the  zones  are  determined  liy  the  surface  of  the  charge; 


and  those  which  refer  to  the  progress  of  the  combus- 
tion of  the  grains  will  be  the  point  of  ignition  and  the 
surface  of  inflammation:  or,  if  «  be  the  time  neces- 


tion  to  the  initial  strain,  and  to  the  strain  of  the 
powder,  so  that,  in  short,  all  the  layers  contribute 
equally  of  their  tensile  strength  to  resist  the  strain 
of  the  explosion.  Each  hoop,  or  tube,  has  this  ele- 
ment of  weakness,  that  its  inner  circumference  is 
more  stretched  than  its  outer  one.  Absolute  perfec- 
tion would  necessitate  infinitelj'  thin  lioops,  and, 
practically,  the  thinner  the  layers  the  greater  will 
be  the  strength,  provided  the  mechanical  difliculties 
in  constrviction,  and  more  especially  in  applying,  a 
great  number  of  thin  strata  with  the  proper  tension 
do  not  outweigh  the  advantages.  Tlie  two  piinci- 
pal  methods  of.applying  the  system  are  I)y  shrinking 
on,  or  by  forcing  on,  the  hoops.  If  the  hoops  are 
put  on  by  shrinking,  two  embarrassments  arise: 
Firxt.  The  hoop  must  be  accurately  bored,  and  after 
each  layer  has  been  put  on,  the  gun  must  be  put  in 
a  lathe  and  the  outside  turned.  Great  accuracy  of 
abor  is  refmired — labor  of  the  most  expensive  class. 
Secondly.  The  process  of  shrinking  on  is  not  to  be 
depended  upon  ;  nowhere  is  there  a  difficulty  in  in- 


sary  for  the  flame  to  reach  the  surface  of  the  zone,  the  i  suring  the  exact  temperature  required,  but  scarcely 


radius  of  which  is  x,  the  time  of  i)artial  combustion 
of  a  grain  of  this  zone  will  be  t—t',  and  its  complete 
combustion  is  expressed  by  the  relation  <=<'-(-4. 

For  this  zone  the  derksity  of  the  gaseous  products 
at  the  instant  of  inflammation  will  be  d=0,  as  when 
completely  consumed  d=D. 

The  intermediate  values  maybe  determined  by  form- 
ula (1) 

t 


O(-O) 


any  two  pieces  of  iron  will  shrink  identically.  The 
fitting  of  hoops  with  nice  adjustment  would  be  diffl- 
cult,  theoretically :  practically,  it  would  not  be  done. 
But  the  chief  embarrassment  is  the  uueuual  effect  of 
heat. 

In  the  first  place,  heating  the  layers  over  a  fire  to 
expand  them  subjects  one  part  to  more  heat  than  an- 
other ;  the  temperature  of  the  surf;ice  and  interior  are 
unequal,  thus  causing  irregular  strains.  This  may  be 
remedied  by  boiling  the  hoops  in  oil.  which  would 
toughen  as  well  as  expand  the  hoops.  In  the  .sec- 
ond place,  the  hoops  are  often  heated  to  redness, 
when  oxidation  takes  place.  The  internal  diameter 
of  the  hoop  is  increased,  and  scale  is  left  between 
some  parts  and  not  between  others.     In  the  third 


INITIAL  VELOCITY. 


102 


INJURIES. 


place,  cast-iron  aiitl  steel  sensibly  and  permanentlj' 
enlarge  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  carbon  they 
contain  when  subjected  to  the  heat. 

Whitworth  and  Blakely  advocate  the  method  of 
forcing  the  hoops  on  with  liydrostatic  pressure.  The 
forcing  of  a  slightly  conical  ring  over  a  correspond- 
ingly conical  tube  obviates  the  necessity  of  great  ac- 
curacy in  the  diameter  of  either  pieces.  The  truth 
of  the  cone  depends  upon  the  corre'ctness  of  the  lathe. 
The  truth  of  the  surfaces  is  also  a  question  of  good 
tools.  The  tension  of  the  ring  depends  on  the  dis- 
tance to  whicli  it  is  forced  in  tlie  conical  tube,  and 
this  may  be  regulated  by  the  safety-valve  of  the  hy- 
drostatic-press. With  special  tools,  and  when  cor- 
rectness depends  upon  the  mechanical  appliances, 
which  can  be  adjusted  with  the  utmost  nicety,  an  in- 
expert workman  could  hardly  fail  to  do  well.  See 
Built-tip  Guns,  Cannon,  Ordnance,  and  Varying  Elas- 
ticity. 

INITIAL  VELOCITY.— In  gunnery,  the  speed  with 
which  the  ball  leaves  the  muzzle  of  the  gun.  This 
was  formerly  calculated  from  the  momentum  as 
shown  by  the  Ballistic  Pendulum.  A  very  great 
improvement  of  late  years  is  tlie  Electro-ballistic 
Pendulum,  the  invention  of  a  Major  Navez  of  the 
Belgian  service,  which  actually  measures  the  interval 
of  time  during  wliich  the  shot  traverses  a  short 
space  of  ground.  The  apparatus  consists  of  a  steel 
penduhnn  falling  at  the  side  of  a  graduated  sector  of 
a  circle.  Behind  the  segment  is  a  piece  of  iron  ca- 
pable of  being  magnetised  by  a  galvanic  battery 
adjoining.  The  wires  for  completing  the  circuit 
between  the  battery  and  the  magnet  are  so  arranged 
that  they  are  in  connection  with  two  targets  of  pa- 
per or  other  thin  material  in  the  line  of  the  pro- 
jectile's fire.  So  long  as  the  circuit  is  complete,  and 
before  the  experiment,  the  magnet  holds  the  pendu- 
lum at  its  highest  point.  When  the  shot  pierces 
the  first  target,  the  circuit  is  broken,  iron  demag- 
netised, and  the  pendulum  released;  these  effects 
being  absolutely  simultaneous.  With  equal  simul- 
taneity, the  piercing  the  second  target  re-establishes 
the  circuit,  magnetises  the  iron,  and  arrests  tlie  pen- 
dulum in  its  descent.  The  distance  between  the 
targets  is  known,  and  the  accumulating  resistance  of 
the  atmosphere  within  that  time ;  the  sector  being 
finely  graduated,  the  distance  traversed  by  the  pen- 
dulum shows  exactl}^  the  fraction  of  a  second  occu- 
pied, and  from  these  data  the  initial  velocity  is  a 
matter  of  simple  computation.  Of  an  orilinary 
smooth-bore  cannon,  the  initial  velocity  is  near  to 
1600  feet  per  second.  See  Ballistic  Penduhtm, 
Chriinoscopp .  Gvn-pendnhim.  and  Velocity. 

INITAL  VELOCITY  OF  ROTATION.— Let  V  be  the 
initial  velocity  of  the  projectile,  or  space  which  it 
would  pass  over  in  one  second,  in  the  direction  of 
fliglit,  moving  with  the  velocity  with  which  it  leaves 
the  piece,  and  I  the  distance  passed  over  by  the  pro- 
jectile in  making  one  revolution ;  then  —  will  be  the 

I 
number  of  revolutions  in  one  second,  and 

V 
Zk — the  angular  velocity  of  tlie  projectile  at  the  muz- 
zle.    Tli(!  velocity  of  rotation  of  a  point  on  the  sur- 
face is  given  by  the  expres.sion, 

rw=^7ir — , 
I 
in  which  r  is  its  distance  from  the  axis  of  motion, 
and  u>  is  the  angular  velocity.  Sec  Grooves,  Rotation, 
and  Vehciti/  nf  llnUitiiin. 

INITIATIVE.— In  offcnsivi'  warfare,  to  take  the  in- 
itiatite  is  llic  power  of  compelling  your  adversary  to 
make  iiis  movements  dependent  on  your  own,  tlie  re- 
sult of  wlueli  is  to  give  tile  invacier  of  a  territory 
great  advantage.  It  is  also  explained  as  the  success 
obtained  by  the  invader  of  a  territory,  suitable  for 
military  moveinents,  and  defended  only  by  an  army, 


not  by  fortifications ;  not  only  is  the  advantage  in 
his  first  onset,  but  in  subsequent  engagements,  thus- 
disconcerting  and  to  some  extent  crippling  his  ad- 
versary so  as  to  frustrate  or  deprive  him  of  the  pow- 
er of  carrying  out  offensive  measures. 

INJURIES. — In  the  e.xcrcise  of  professional  duty  by 
militarj'  officers,  injuries  may  frequently  be  occa- 
sioned to  otlier  officers,  or  to  private  individuals, 
whose  legal  remedies  are  here  considered.  As  be- 
tween officers  themselves,  the  language  of  the  Ar- 
ticles of  War  is  sufficiently  comprehensive  to  bring 
most  of  such  cases  within  the  cognizance  of  a  Court- 
Martial;  but  a  Court-Martial  has  no  power  to  award 
pecuniary  damages  for  injurious  conduct.  Its  juris- 
dictiom  is  criminal,  and  its  judgments  are  penal.  It 
may  happen,  too,  that  the  common  feeling  of  the  ser- 
vice, to  which  the  otfending  or  the  complaining  party 
belongs,  would  in  many  cases  render  an  application 
to  such  a  tribunal  utterly  fruitless;  as  the  general 
sentiment  of  the  members  of  a  particular  profession 
or  class  of  society,  respecting  a  matter  of  profession- 
al or  corporate  right  or  conduct,  is  often  found  to  be 
at  variance  with  the  public  law  of  the  land.  Civil  ac- 
tions are  therefore  maintainable  against  commissi- 
oned officers,  for  exceeding  their  powers,  or  for  ex- 
ercising them  in  an  oppressive,  injurious,  and  impro- 
per manner,  whether  towards  military  persons  oroth- 
ers.  Extreme  difficulties,  however,  lie  in  the  way  of 
plaintiffs  in  actions  of  this  nature,  for  no  such  action 
is  maintainable  for  an  injury,  unless  it  be  accompa- 
nied by  malice  or  injustice:  and  the  knowledge  of 
this,  while  it  can  never  check  the  conduct  of  good 
men,  may  form  a  check  on  the  bad.  Where  an  officer 
makes  a  slip  in  form,  great  latitude  ought  to  be  al- 
lowed; but  for  a  corrupt  abuse  of  authority  none  can 
be  made.  It  will  be  convenient  to  consider  the  law 
upon  this  subject;  1st,  as  it  applies  to  wrongs  com- 
mitted by  officers  towards  persons  under  military  au- 
thority; and,  8dly,  as  it  applies  to  persons  not  subject 
to  such  authority.  Some  of  the  decisions  that  will  be 
quoted  were  pronounced  in  cases  where  naval  offi- 
cers were  concerned;  but  the  principle  of  the  deci- 
sions applies  equally  to  both  services.  I.  Wrongs  to- 
wards  Persons  under  Military  Authority. — A  notion 
appears  to  have  at  one  time  extensively  prevailed 
that  an  officer  could  have  no  remedy  against  ill  treat- 
ment received  from  his  superiors  in  the  course  of 
professional  duty,  except  by  bringing  the  offending 
party  to  a  Court-Mflrtial,  and  subjecting  him  to  the 
penalties  of  the  Articles  of  War.  This  opinion,  how- 
ever,  was  quite  unfounded  in  point  of  law;  and  such 
a  state  of  things  miglit  often  be  productive  of  the 
worst  conseqnences.  The  point  was  distinctly  rais- 
ed in  Grant  c.  Shand,  where  an  action  was  brought 
by  an  officer  in  the  army  against  his  superior  officer 
for  oppressive,  insulting,  and  violent  conduct.  The 
plaintiff  was  directed  to  give  a  military  order:  and  it 
appeared  that  he  sent  two  persons,  who  failed.  The 
defendant  thereupon  said  to  the  plaintiff,  "What  a 
stupid  person  you  arc,"  and  twice  struck  him;  and 
although  the  circumstances  occurred  at  Gibraltar, 
and  in  the  actual  execution  of  military  .service,  it  was 
held  at  the  trial  that  the  action  was  maintainable! 
and  a  verdict  was  found  for  the  plaintiff.  An  applica- 
tion was  afterwards  made  to  the  Court  of  King's 
Bench  to  set  aside  the  verdict;  and  Lord  Mansfield, 
the  Chief-Justice,  was  very  desirous  to  grant  a  new 
trial;  but  the  Court,  after  argument,  refused  to  dis- 
turb the  verdict.  So  also  an  action  will  lie  for  unjust 
treatment  under  tlie  form  of  flisci])line.  as  inSwiuton 
r.  Jlolloy,  wlierc  the  defendant,  who  was  Captain  of 
the  Tridint  man-of-war,  put  the  Purser  into  confine- 
ment, kept  liim  impri.soned  for  three  days  without 
inquiring  into  the  case,  and  thin  released  him  on 
hearing  his  defence.  The  Purser  brought  liis  action 
against  Captain  Molloy,  for  all  his  unlawful  deten- 
tion ill  custody;  and,  upon  the  evidence,  Lord  Mans- 
field said,  that  such  coiidiict  on  the  jiart  of  the  Cap- 
tain did  not  appear  to  have  been  a  discharge  of  his 
duty,  and  therefore  that  his  justification  under  the 


INJURIES. 


103 


INJURIES. 


fliKfiplino  of  thonavy  liiid  fiiilcil  liim.  The  jury  gnvn 
fl.OdO  (laiiiaiTcH.     In  tlic  fnrct'oiin;  ciisc  no  want  of 
npriiihlncsH  was  all.ril)iitcil  to  ('aptain  Molloy;   and 
the  ilccision  rested  wliolly  (jn  tlie  eirennistanee  of 
Iiisliavini;  committed  an  injiistiee,  altlioij^ii  without 
a  corrupt  intention.  Cruelty  or  unneeeHHary  severity, 
when  wilfully  conimilleil  in  the  exercise  of  superior 
authority,  are  also  jjjood  causes  of  action.    Thus  in 
Wall  r.  Macnamara,  lh<-  action  was  hroui;ht  liy  the 
plainlilT,  as  Cajilain  in  thi'  African  Corps,  a^rainsllhe 
defendant.  LieuleuanI   (iovernor  and  Alilitary  Com- 
mandant of  Sencfiandiia,  for  iniprisonim;   the  plain- 
tilt  for  the  space  of  nine  months  at  (iauibia,  in  Afri- 
ca.   The  defense  was  a  justiliealion  of  the  imprison- 
ment under  the  Mutiny  Act,  for  the  disobedience  of 
orders.    At  th(^  trial  it  apiieared  Ihat  the  imi)rison- 
menl  of  Ciiiitain  Wall,  which  was  at  lirst  lei;al,  name- 
ly,  for  leaviuf;  his  ]iost  wilhout  leave  from  his  Su- 
perior OHicer,  thoui;h  in  a  had  stale  < if  health,  wasai;- 
gravated  witli  many  circumstances  of  cruelty,  which 
were  nd"erted  toby  Lord  Manslield,  in  the  followinir 
extract  from  his  charge  to  the  jury:  "  It  is  admitted 
that  the  plaintilT  was  tn  blame  in  leaving  his  post. 
But  there  was  no  enemy,  no  mutiny,  no  danger.  His 
health  was  declining,  and  he  trusted  to  the  licnevol- 
C'lice  of  the  defendant  to  consider  the  circumstances 
imder  which  he  acted.  ]?ut  supiiosing  it  lohave  been 
the  defendant's  dulj-  to  call  the  i)lainliir  to  a  milita- 
ry accoimt  for  his  misconduct,  what  apology  is  there 
for  (h'nying  him  the  use  of  the  conmi(>n  air  in  a  sul- 
try climate,  and  shutting  him  up  in  a  gloomy  prison, 
when  there  was  no  possibility  of  bringing  him  to  a 
trial  for  several  mouths,  there  not  lieing  a  sutlicient 
number  of  ollicers  to  form  a  Court-.Martial  ?     These 
circumstances,  independent  of  the  direct  eviilence  of 
malice,  as  sworn  to  by  one  of  the  witnesses,  are  suf- 
ficient for  you  to  presume  a  bad,  malignant  motive 
in  the  defendant,  wduch  would  destroy  his  jiistitica- 
tion,  had  it  even  been  within  the  powers  delegated 
to  the  defendant  by  his  commission.    The  jury  there- 
upon, after  deliberation,  found  a  verdict  for  ('apfain 
Wall,  with  il.OOO  damages.     An  undue  assuinjition 
of  authority  in  matter  not  within  the  range  of  mili- 
tary discipline,  is  also  a  good  ground  of  action  against 
a  Superior  Officer.     This  appears  from  the  case  of 
Warden  v.  Bailey,  where  the  plaiutiir  was  a  perma- 
nent Sergeant  in  the  Bedford  regiment  of  local  mil  ilia, 
of  wdiicii  the  defendant  was  the  Adjutant.     In  Ko- 
vember,  1809,  the  Lieutenant-colonel  issued  a  regi- 
mental order  for  establishing  an  evening  school  at 
Bedford,     lie  appointedthc  Sergeant-major  the  blas- 
ter and  ordered  all  Sergeants  and  Corporals,  includ- 
ing the  plaintiff,  to  attend  and  pa_y  eight-pence  a 
week  towards  the  expenses  of  the  school.     The  plain- 
tiff and  some  other  of  the  scholars  having  afterwards 
omitted  to  attend,  several  were  tried  by  Court-Martial 
and  punished.    The  plaintiff,  how-ever,  was  only  rep- 
rimanded, and  he  promised  regular  attendance  in  fu- 
ture.    Shortly  afterwards  he  was  ordered  to  attend  a 
drill  on  parade,  when  the  defendant,  who  appears 
to  have  been  a  shopkeeper,  shook  his  fist  at  the  Plain- 
tiff, called  him  a  rascal,  and  told  him  he  deserved  to 
be  shot.     The  defendant  then  directed  a  Sergeant  to 
draw  his  sword  and  hold  it  over  the  plaintiff's  head, 
and  if  he  should  stir  to  run  him  through  :  and,  by  the 
defendant's  direction,  a  Corporal  took  off  the  plain- 
tiff's sash  and  sword.     The  plaintiff  was  then  con- 
ducted, by  the  defendant's  order,  to  Bedford  gaol, 
witli  directions  that  he  should  be  locked  up  in  soli- 
tary confinement,  and  kept  on  bread  and  water.     He 
was  thus  imprisoned  for  three  days.     lie  was  then 
■brought  up  liefore  the  Colonel  and  the  defendant, 
and  other  officers  of  the  regiment,  and  again  remand- 
ed to  the  gaol.     The  plaintiff's  health  having  been 
impaired  by  the  contimninee  of  this  treatment  for  | 
several  weeks,  he  was  afterwards  conducted  to  his 
own  house,  and  there  kept  a  close  prisoner  until  Janu- 
ary 1810.  when  lie  was  escorted  by  a  file  of  Corporals 
from  Bedford  to  Stilton,  to  be  tried  by  Court-AIartial 
for  mutinous  words  spoken  on  parade  at  the  time  of 


his  arrest,  and  for  tliercliy  exciting  otiier.s  to  disobe- 
dience. He  was  trii-d  ar:ccordingly,  but  liberated  in 
March,  1810.  U|)on  this  he  broughHii.s  action  against 
the  Adjutant  for  the  wrongful  imprisonment,  when 
an  ol)jection  was  taken  that  the  question  of  lliepro- 
jiriety  of  the  arrest  was  not  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  ("'ivil  (,'ourts.  The  Courts  of  Common  Pleas, 
however,  overruled  this  objc-ction.  Sir.JanicK  Maus- 
lielil,  C.  .1.;  "It  nML'ht  br-  very  convenient  Ihat  a  mil- 
ilary  ofllcer  might  beenabledto  make  the  man  under 
his  command  learn  to  read  or  write,-  it  might  be  verj' 
useful,  l>ut  is  not  a  part  of  nulitary  discipline.  Then, 
there  is  a  tax  of  Hd.  a  week  for  learning  to  read  and 

write The  subject  cannot  be  taxed,  even  in 

the  most  indirect  way,  unless  it  originates  in  the  Low- 
er House  of  Parliament."  Mr  justice  Lawrence: 
"  It  is  no  part  of  mililarv  duty  lo  attend  a  school, 
and  learn  lo  write  ami  read.  If  wriliiiL'  is  necessary 
to  Corporals  and  Sergeants,  the  Superior  Officers 
must  .select  men  wlio  cnn  write  and  read  ;  and  if 
they  do  not  continue  to  do  it  well,  tliey  may  lie  re- 
duced to  the  ranks.  Nor  is  it  any  part  of  niilitary 
duty  to  pay  for  keeping  a  school  liglit  and  warm  : 
this  very  far  exceeds  the  power  of  any  Colonel  to 
order."  In  a  subsei/^ient  stage  of  the. same  case,  when 
it  was  altemi)ted  to  justify  or  defend  the  mutinous 
expressions  used  by  ^\■;l^len  on  parade  as  aliove  sta- 
ted, on  the  ground  of  llie  illegality  of  the  order  wliich 
gave  rise  to  them,  the  Court  held,  tiiat  altliough  War- 
den Inid  I)een  unlawftdly  arrested  for  disoliedience 
to  that  order,  such  a  circumstance  affonled  no  war- 
rant for  insul)ordinate  language  on  Warden's  part, 
and  therefore  no  exemption  from  ndlil.ary  arrest  and 
punishment  for  the  same.  "  Xor  will  lie  (said  Lord 
Ellenliorougli,  C.  .J.)  be  less  an  object  of  military 
punishment,  because  the  order  of  the  Lieulenant-col- 
onel,  to  which  this  language  referred,  might  not  be 
a  valid  one,  and  such  as  lie  was  strictly  competent  to 

make There  may  be  disorderly  conduct  to 

the  prejudice  of  good  and  military  discipline,  in  the 
manner  and  terms  used  and  adopted  l)y  one  soldier 
in  dissuading anothersoldier  not  to  obey  anordernot 
strictly  legal.  If  any  erroneous  order  on  the  pari  of 
a  Connnanding  Officer  woidd  not  only  justify  the  in- 
dividual disobedience  of  it  by  the  soldier,  biit  would 
j\islify  him  in  making  infiammatory  and  reproach- 
iul  pulilic  comments  upon  .same  to  his  fellow-sol- 
diers,  ecpially  the  objects  of  such  order  with  himself, 
is  it  posj'ble  that  miiMary  order  and  discipline  could 
be  maintained?"  The  conunon  defence  of  officers, 
against  wdiom  actions  of  this  nature  are  brought,  is  a 
justification  of  their  conduct  as  agreeable  to'the  dis- 
cipline of  the  service,  and  contriluitary  lo  tiie  main- 
tenance of  that  discipline.  And  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  where  the  conduct  brought  into  question  is  not 
an  oppressive,  malicious,  or  unreasonable  exercise  of 
power,  and  does  not  amount  to  an  excess  or  abuse 
of  authority,  an  action  is  wholly  unsustainable.  The 
principles  tipon  which  the  Courts  of  Law  jiroceed  in 
actions  arising  out  of  the  aliuse  of  military  power, 
will  receive  fiTrther  illustration  from  the  language  of 
Lord  Mansfield,  in  summing  up  the  evidence  to  the 
jury  in  Wall  v.  JIacnamaraT  His  Lordship  thus  ex- 
pressed himself:  '•  Intryingthe  legality  of  acts  done 
by  military  officers  in  the  exercise  "of  their  duty,  par- 
ticularly beyond  the  seas,  where  cases  may  "occur 
without  the  possibility  of  application  for  proper  ad- 
vice, greater  latitude  ought  to  be  allowed  :  and  they 
ought  not  to  sufferfor  a  .slipof  form,  if  their  intention 
appears  bj'the  evidence  to  liave  been  uprisht.  It  is 
the  same  as  when  complaints  are  brought  against  infe- 
rior Civil  Magistrates,  as  Justices  of"  the  Peace,  for 
acts  done  by  them  in  the  exercise  of  their  civil  duly. 
There  the  principal  inquiry  to  be  made  by  a  Court 
of  Justice  is,  /wtr  the  heart  itoml  f  and  if  there  apjjcar 
to  be  nothing  wrong  there,  great  latitude  will  be 
allowed  formisapprehcnsion  or  mistake.  But.  on  the 
other  hand,  if  the  lieart  is  wrong — if  cruelly,  malice, 
and  oppression  appearto  have  occasioned  of  [isrcrrava- 
ted  the  imprisonment,  or  other  injury  complained  oiT 


INJUBIES. 


104 


INJUBI£8. 


they  shall  not  cover  themselves  with  the  thin  veil  of 
legal  forms,  nor  escape  under  cover  of  a  justiticatiou 
the  most  technically  regular,  from  that  pimishment, 
which  it  is  your  province  and  your  duty  to  iuHict  on 
so  scandalous  an  abuse  of  public  trust."  It  is  no  legal 
objection  to  an  action  for  the  abuse  of  military  au- 
thority, that  the  defendant  has  not  been  tried  and  con- 
victed by  a  Court-Martial,  for  that  argument  holds 
in  no  case  short  of  felonj'.  The  infliction  of  an  unjust 
or  illegal  sentence,  pronounced  bj'  a  Court-Martial, 
is  a  good  cause  of  action  by  the  prisoner,  against  all 
or  any  of  the  Members  of  the  Court,  and  all  persons 
concerned  in  the  execution  of  the  sentence;  such  a 
sentence.  If  it  exceeds  the  authorized  measure  of  pun- 
ishment, being  not  merely  invalid  for  the  excess,  but 
absolutely  void  altogether.  The  most  remarkable  case 
on  record  of  this  kind  is  that  of  Lieutenant  Frye,  of 
the  Marines,  who,  after  on  mmecessary  previous  im- 
prisonment for  fourteen  months,  was  brought  to  trial 
before  a  Naval  Court-Martial  at  Port  Royal  in  the 
iVest  Indies,  and  sentenced  to  be  imprisoned  for  l.'j 
years,  for  disobedience  of  orders,  in  refusing  to  assist 
In  the  imprisonment  of  another  oflJcer,  without  an 
order  in  writing  from  the  Captain  of  Her  Majesty's 
ship  Oxford,  on  board  of  which  Lieutenant  Frye  was 
serving.  At  the  trial  the  written  depositions  of  seve- 
ral illiterate  Blacks  were  improperly  received  in  evi- 
dence against  him,  in  lieu  of  their  oral  testimony, 
which  might  have  been  obtained  and  sifted  by  cross- 
examination  ;  and  the  sentence  pronounced  was  it- 
self illegal  for  its  excessiveness,  the  Act  22,  George 
II.,  which  contains  the  naval  Articles  of  War,  not 
allowing  any  imi^risonment  beyond  the  term  of  two 
years.  On  the  return  to  England  of  Admiral  Sir 
Chaloner  Ogle,  the  president  of  the  Court-Martial, 
Lieutenant  Frye  brought  an  action  against  him  in  the 
Court  of  Conimon  Pteas  for  his  illegal  conduct  at 
the  trial,  when  the  jur^-  under  the  direction  of  the 
Lord  Chief  Justice  ^  illis,  gave  a  verdict  for  the 
Plaintiff,  with  £1,000  damages.  The  Chief  Justice 
at  the  same  time  informed  Lieutenant  Frye  that  he 
might  have  an  action  against  all  or  an}'  of  the  other 
members  of  his  Court-Martial ;  and  Lieutenant  Frye 
accordingly  issued  writs  against  Rear  Admiral  Mayne 
and  Captain  Renton,  upon  whom  the  same  were 
served  as  they  were  coming  ashore  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  proceedings  of  the  day  at  another  Court-Mar- 
tial, of  which  they  were  acting  members,  for  the  trial 
of  Vice  Admiral  Lestock,  for  his  conduct  in  a  naval 
engagement  with  the  French  fleet  off  Toulon,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  same  year.  This  was  deemed  a 
great  insult  by  the  members  of  the  sitting  Court-Mar- 
tial, who  accordingly  passed  some  resolutions  or  re- 
monstrances in  strong  language,  highly  derogatory 
to  the  Chief  Justice,  whicli  they  forwarded  to  the 
Lords  of  the  Admiralty,  by  whom  the  affair  was  re- 
ported to  the  King.  His  Majesty,  through  the  Duke 
of  Newcastle  signified  to  the  Admiralty  "his  great 
displeasure  at  the  insult  offered  to  the  Court-Martial, 
by  which  the  military  discipline  of  the  navy  is  so 
much  affected;  and  the  King  highly  disapproved  of 
the  behavior  of  Lieutenant  Frye  on  the  occasion." 
The  Lord  Chief  Justice,  as  soon  as  he  heard  of  the 
resolutions  of  the  Court-Martial,  ordered  every  mem- 
ber of  it  to  be  taken  into  custody,  and  was  proceed- 
ing to  uphold  Hut  dignity  of  his  Court,  in  a  very  de- 
cicled  manner,  when  tlie  wholeaffair  was  terminated 
in  Novenil)er,  lT4(i,  by  tlie  Members  of  the  Court- 
Martial  signing  and  sending  to  his  Lordship  a  very 
am])le  written  apology  for  their  conduct.  On  the 
reception  of  this  paper  in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas 
it  was  read  aloud,  and  ordered  to  be  registered  among 
the  records  as  a  "Memorial,"  said  tlic  Lord  Chief 
Justice,  "  to  the  present  and  future  ages,  that  who- 
ever set  themselves  up  in  ojiposiiion  to  the  laws,  or 
think  themselves  above  llie  law,  will  in  the  end  find 
themselves  mistaken.  The  proc<'edings  and  the  apo- 
logy were  also  published  in  the  J^'jiid'in  UnzetUi  of 
15lh  November,  174G.  It  may  be  useful  to  mention 
here,  as  a  legal  point  giving  rights  of  redress  between 


military  men,  that  a  Superior  Officer  cannot  safely 
deal  for  his  own  advantage,  in  money  matters,  with 
a  Junior  Officer  under  his  command.  The  influence 
whicli  a  Senior  Oflicer  can  exercise  over  Iiis  Junior 
is  such  as  to  destroy,  or  at  least  to  control,  in  the 
purview  of  a  Conrt  of  Equity,  that  entire  feeling 
which  is  very  proper  and  essential  to  the  perfec- 
tion of  a  bargain  or  contract ;  and  if  a  Regimental 
Ottioer  places  himself  in  a  position  where  such  influ- 
ence may  operate  to  the  prejudice  of  the  Junior,  the 
transactions  between  them  are  liable  to  be  set  aside 
for  want  of  fairness  or  conscientiousness.  This  is 
the  rule  applied  to  dealings  between  a  guardian  and 
his  ward,  a  physician  and  his  patient,  a  landlord  and 
his  steward,  a  clergyman  and  a  penitent,  and  all  other 
cases  where  the  existence  of  just  and  unavoidable  in- 
fluence may  lead  to  abuse. 
■  II.  Wrongs  towards  Persons  not  under  Military 
A  uthoriUj. — jfnjuries  may  be  occasioned  to  persons  not 
subject  to  military  authority,  by  ofticers  mistaking 
or  exceeding  their  powers,  or  exercising  them  with 
malice,  negligence,  or  unskilfulness  ;  but  for  acts  of 
this  kind  a  remedy  lies  only  in  the  Civil  Courts  ;  the 
military  tribunals,  as  already  observed,  having  no 
power  to  grant  pecuniary  compensation  by  way  of 
damages,  and  non-military  persons  having  no  locus 
standi  as  prosecutors  before  such  Courts,  wliich  are 
instituted  solely  for  the  maintenance  of  order  and 
discipline  among  the  armed  forces. 

In  cases  of  the  kind  now  under  consideration,  it  is 
quite  immaterial  whether  the  cause  of  action  has  arisen 
within  the  realm,  or  beyond  the  seas ;  though  this 
proposition  was  not  finally  established  until  the  year 
1774,  when  the  great  ease  of  Fabrigas  «.  Mostyn  was 
determined  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  and  put 
an  end  to  all  further  question  or  doubt  upon  the  sub- 
ject. The  Plaintiff  was  a  native  of  Minorca,  of  which 
Island  the  defendant.  General  Mostyn,  was  Governor. 
The  General  had  by  his  own  absolute  authority  im- 
prisoned the  plaintiff  and  banished  him  from  the  Is- 
land without  a  trial.  The  defence  was,  that  in  the 
peculiar  district  of  Jlinorca,  where  the  offence  oc- 
curred, no  ordinary  Court  or  JIagistrate  could  have 
had  jurisdiction.  But  the  proof  of  this  defence  fail- 
ed, and  the  jury  gave  the  plaintiff  £3,000  damages. 
The  objection,  however,  was  taken  that  the  action 
did  not  lie,  by  reason  of  the  foreign  locality  of  the 
cause  of  it,  and  the  point  was  twice  argued  at  great 
length  ;  but  judgment  was  eventually  pronounced 
anainst  General  Mostj'n,  in  accordance  with  the  ver- 
dict of  the  jury.  It  should  be  noticed  also  that  as 
General  i\Iostyn,  happened  to  be  a  Governor,  his  ap- 
pointment gave  him  the  character  of  a  Viceroy,  so 
that  lomlly  andduring hisgocernment-aocivW  or  crim- 
inal action  lay  against  him.  On  principles  of  public 
justice,  therefore,  it  was  necessary  that  a  remedy 
should  be  had  in  England.  The  undue  assumption  or 
ml.tt<iken  exercise  of  authority  by  officers  towards 
non-military  persons,  is  a  clear  ground  (jf  action 
against  them  in  the  Civil  Courts,  even  though  there 
be  no  malice  accompanying  the  transaction. 

Captain  Gambler,  of  the  Navy,  underthe  orders  of 
Admiral  Boscawen,  pulled  down  the  hotises  of  some 
sutlers  on  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  wlio  supplied  the 
the  seamen  of  the  fleet  with  spirituous licjuors.  The 
act  was  done  with  good  intentinn  on  the  part  of  the 
Admiral  ;  for  the  liealth  of  the  sailors  bad  been  af- 
fecfcd  by  fn'quenling  lliese  lunises.  Captain  Gam- 
bier,  on  "his  return  lo  England,  incaiitiously  brought 
home  in  his  ship  one  of  the  sutlers  whose  houses  had 
been  thus  demolished.  Thenuin  would  never  other- 
wise have  got  to  England  ;  l)ut  on  his  arrival  he  was 
advised  to  bring  an  action  against  Captain  (ianibier. 
He  did  so,  and  recovered  £1,000  damages.  Hut  as 
the  Cajjtain  liad  acted  by  ilie  orders  of  Admiral  Bos- 
cawen, the  representatives  of  the  Admiral  defended 
the  action,  and  paid  the  damages  and  costs.  This 
was  a  favoraI)le,  case,  unaccompanied  by  any  mali- 
ciuus  feelini; ;  but  the  parties  cimeernecl  did  not  at- 
tempt lo  disturb  the  verdict.     Admiral  Sir  Hugh 


INJUBIES. 


lUo 


INJURIES 


Pallisrr  wiia  (Iffeudant  in  Hiiiiiliir  iirtion  fordfstroy- 
iiitC  tlHliini;  hiils  on  tlic  I-iilirinlur  cdiist.  After  the 
Ti'calv  "f  I'liris,  Uic  (Jiumdiaiis,  early  in  llie  seaHnii, 
(•reel("(l  lulls  for  (isliini^,  anil  liy  sueli  means  olilaiiiiMl 
an  ailvaiitai;o  over  I  lie  tisliernien  who  eaini'  from 
Eni;lan(l.  It  was  a  nice  iineslion  upon  the  ri>;hts  of 
tlie  Canadians.  Hul  the  Admiral  on  the  jjnmnds  of 
])nl)lic  policy,  ordered  the  huts  to  l)e  destroy<'d. 
An  action  was  brouj;lit  ai;ainst  him  in  Kni;lan(l  liy 
(jne  of  the  injured  ])arties,  and  thc^  case  ended  in  ar- 
liilration.  Bui  on  the  pari  of  the  Admiral  it  was  never 
oontended  that  the  action  did  not  lie  by  reason  of 
Ihe  suhjeet-malterof  oceiirren<-e  heyond'tlu!  seas. 

"I  remendjer,"  said  Lord  Manslield,  "early  in  my 
time  being  counsel  in  an  acti<in  brought  by  a  carjjen- 
ter  in  the  train  of  artillery  against  (Jovcrnor  Sabine, 
who  was  (iovernor  of  Gibraller,  and  who  had  barely 
conlirmed  the  sentence  of  a  Court-Marl  ial.  by  which 
the  plaintilT  had  lieen  tri<'dand  senteneeil  to  be  whip- 
])cd.  The  (iovernor  was  very  ably  defended,  but  no. 
Iiodv  ever  thought  the  action  wcnild  not  lie;  and  it 
beiiig  proved  that  the  tradesmen  who  followed  the 
train  were  not  liable  to  martial  law.  the  Court  wore 
of  that  opinion,  and  the  jury  found  the  defendant 
guilty  of  the  trespass,  as  having  had  a  share  in  Ihe 
Renti-nce,  and  gave  X'TOI)  damages."  The  following 
cas<',  involving  Ihe  same  prinri|ile,  occurred  in  India, 
and  was  there  tried  before  the  Supreme^  Court  of  .Mad- 
ras. Mr.  H.  Smith  was  agent,  at  Secunilerabad,  of 
a  mercantile  house  at  Madras,  from  whom  lie  receiv- 
ed a  very  handsome  salary.  lie  l)ecanie  indebted  to 
a  soldier  of  II.  M.'s  33d  regiment  for  some  work  in- 
trusted to  him.  and  a  disjaite  having  arisen  between 
them  as  to  the  amount,  this  led  to  a  violent  alterca- 
tion between  .Mr.  Smith  and  the  Superintendent  of  Ihe 
Bazaar  acting  under  Ihe  local  military  regulations. 
Lieutenanl-colone!  (Jore  thereupon  sent  a  tile  of  men 
to  arrest  the  PlaintilT.  who  was  accordingly  seized 
about  six  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and  marched  from 
Ills  house  through  the  streets  oif  the  cantonment  to 
the  main  guard  at  Secunderabad,  where  he  was  kept 
till  twelve  o'clock  the  next  day.  In  C(mse(|uenee  of 
these  proceedings,  lie  brought  an  action  against  Colo- 
nel Gore  for  false  imprisonment.  Seeumh-rabad  was 
an  open  cantonment  for  a  part  of  the  subsidiary  force 
serving  in  the  Territories  of  the  Nizam  :  the  force 
consisting  partly  of  British  and  partly  nativetroops. 
It  had  barracks,  and  the  men  were  hutted.  It  was 
also  upon  a  ticld  establishment,  ccmstantly  ready  for 
immediate  service.  The  Article  of  War  then  in  force, 
was  thus  intituled,  "  Of  duties  in  quarters,  in  garri- 
son, and  in  the  lield  ;  "  and  it  enacted,  "  that  all  sut- 
lers and  retainers  to  the  camp,  anil  all  persons  what- 
soever serving  with  forces  in  the  field,  though  not  en- 
listed soldiers,  are  to  be  subject  to  orders,  aceording 
to  rules  and  discipline  of  war."  Sir  Thomas  Strange, 
C.  J.:  "  The  question  was,  whether  the  troops, 'to hji 
cantoned,  were  in  the  state  to  which  the  cited  Arti- 
cles of  War  applied.  The  Court  thought  they  were 
not.  It  nnght  have  been  a  field  force,  being  iipon  a 
field  establishment,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  move  at  the 
shortest  notice.  There  might  be  great  similarity  in 
the  arraugenients  adopted  for  an  army,  whether  in 
the  field  or  cantoned.  A  respectable  witness.  Bri- 
gade-major Lyne,  intimated  as  much.  Still,  so  far 
as  the  Court  could  form  a  judgment  upon  a  question 
of  this  nature,  there  seemed  to  be  a  dill'erence  be- 
tween a  camp  and  a  cantonment,  which  appeared 

material When  in  the  field,  not  only  the 

army,  but  its  appendages,  must  be  under  the  imme- 
diate control  of  the  Officer  Commanding  it,  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  and  discipline  of  war.  So  situated, 
the  sutler,  who  chose  to  follow  the  camp,  identified 
himself  in  a  manner  with  the  soldier  for  every  pur- 
pose almost  but  that  of  fighting The  plain- 
tiff called  upon  the  Court  to  say,  whether  Ihe  force 
in  question,  under  the  command  of  the  defendant, 
was  at  the  time  in  the  field.  It  seemed  impossilile 
to  say  that  it  was,  without  confounding  ideas  ajipar- 
eutly  very  distinct The  defendant  appear- 


ed to  liavc  acted  under  a  mistake  of  his  authority, 
for  which  h<'  was  liable  lo  answer,  as  it  had  bi-en 
productive  of  serious  injury  lo  the  plaintifT."  Juilg-. 
menl  was  then-fore  given  against  Colonel  (iore,  with 
fifty  jiagodas  damages.  In  the  foregoing  case  refer- 
ence was  made  to  an  a<:tioii  brought  by  Mr.  Hobert 
Bailie,  an  up-coiinlry  trader  in  llie  province  of  Ben- 
gal, against  .Major  fieneral  Uobert  Stewart,  for  an 
assault  and  false  imprisonment.  Mr.  Bailie  had  re- 
sided within  the  canlonmenis  of  Cawnpore  for  many 
years,  and  dealt  in  Kuropean  articles,  which  he  prin- 
cipally disposed  of  lo  Ihe  mililary  stationed  there. 
In  October,  17'.)7,  ii|)on  a  conqilaint  made  lo  him  by 
one  of  thepeophr  of  his  Zenanah,  he  tied  up  and  very 
severely  Hogged  one  of  his  ('lii>irl,-yrliirK.  For  this 
act  Major-tieneral  Stewart  ordered  Mr.  Bailie  to  be 
tried  by  Court-Martial ;  and  as  he  acknowledged  to 
have  used  no  less  than  six  switch  whips  in  the  Hogg- 
ing, alleging  as  his  reason,  that  as  they  were  new 
wliips  he  was  afraid  of  breaking  them  and  spoiling 
their  sale,  the  (Jourt-Martial  sentencted  him  to  five 
days'  imprisonment,  and  to  make  an  apology  to  the 
Commanding  Officer.  This  sentence  General  Stew- 
art, thought  111' did  not  approve  of  it,  confirmed;  and 
issued  orders  for  Mr.  Bailie  to  depart  the  camp  as  soon 
after  his  enlargemenl  as  ]iossible.  The  Supreme  Court 
of  Calcutta  held  .Mr.  Bailie  to  be  a  sutler  within  the 
meaning  of  the  .\rticlcs  of  War,  so  as  to  render  him 
amenable  lo  military  law.  But  in  the  above  men- 
j  tioned  action  of  Smith  r.  Lieutenant-colonel  Gore, 
the  Chief  .Justice,  Sir  T.  Strange,  declined  to  he  gov- 
erned by  the  decision  in  (Jeneral  Stewart's  case,  as 
the  note  furnished  to  the  Court  did  not  clearly  show 
whether  or  not  the  army  was  in  the  field  when  the 
transaction  occurred.  An  nnrin,vniil>le  or  malieiirwt 
exercise  of  power  will,  in  like  manner,  render  an 
olficer  liable  to  an  action  for  damages.  An  instance 
of  this  occurred  in  the  year  1783.  when  an  action  was 
brought  against  General  Jlurray,  (iovernor  of  3Iin- 
orca,  for  improperly  suspending  Ihe  Judge  of  the 
Vice-admiralty  Court  of  that  Island.  The  General 
liiui  professed  himself  ready  lo  restore  the  Judge  on 
his  making  a  jiarticular  apology  :  and  on  referi'nce 
to  the  Home  Authorities,  the  King  approved  of  the 
suspension,  unless  the  Governor's  terms  were  com- 
plied with.  There  was  no  doubt  as  to  General  Mur- 
ray's power  to  suspend  the  Judge  for  proper  cause; 
yet.  on  the  proof  of  his  having  unreasonably  and  im- 
properly exercised  the  authority,  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  King's  approbation  of  his  proceedings,  dam- 
ages to  the  amount  of  £.'5.000  were  awarded  against 
idra  by  a  jury;  and.  as  Jlr.  Baron  K_\Te  observed,  it 
never  occurred  to  any  lawyer  that  there  was  any  pre- 
tence for  questioning  the  verdict.  HfgligenceoT  un- 
.■ikilfulne.t.<«  in  the  exercise  of  an  officer's  duty  may  al- 
so be  a  cause  of  action  for  damages  in  respect  of  pri- 
vate injuries  thus  occasioned  ;  and  in  such  cases  the 
approval  of  an  officer's  conduct  by  the  Government, 
or  by  the  superior  military  authorities,  will  neither 
relieve  him  from  liability  lo  an  action,  nor  have  any 
intiuencc  upon  the  decision  of  the  Courts  of  West- 
minster Hall.  Thosetribnnals  investigate  such  mat- 
ters on  independent  evidence,  according  to  their  own 
rules,  and  pay  no  regard  to  the  previous  conclusions 
of  official  functionaries,  however  high  their  rank  may 
be. 

It  is  a  rule  of  English  law.  in  unison  with  Ihe  law 
of  nations,  by  which  all  civilized  States  are  governed, 
that  no  officer  engaged  in  military  operations  in  his 
country's  cause,  by  the  order  or  with  the  sanction 
of  the  constituted  authorities,  shall  incur  any  indi- 
vidual or  private  responsibility  for  acts  done  by  vir- 
tue of  his  commission  or  ofticial  instructions.  Such 
transactions  being  of  a  public  nature,  redress  or  satis- 
faction for  injuries  to  which  they  give  birth,  is  to  be 
sought  by  public  means  alone,  from  the  sovereign 
power  of  the  belligerent  or  offending  state,  according 
to  the  principles  of  international  law,  and  the  general 
usages  of  civilization,  which  neversuffer  such  matters 
to  be  litigated  before  ordiuarv  tribunals.     If,  in  time 


INJimiES  TO  CANNON. 


106 


IHNEE^ 


of  peace,  the  citizens  of  a  friendlj'  Foreign  State  sus- 
tain a  private  injury  at  tlie  hands  of  a  naval  or  mili- 
tary officer  serving  under  the  orders  of  the  British 
Government,  but  unauthorized  by  his  commission  or 
instructions  to  do  the  act  complained  of,  the  ordinary 
tribunals  of  England  afford  the  same  redress  against 
him  as  in  the  case  of  a  British  subject  similarly  ag- 
grieved ;  and  this  rule  applies  even  in  those  cases 
where  the  violated  rights  of  the  foreigner  are  such 
as  the  law  of  England  denies  or  prohiljits  to  its  own 
subjects.  But  if  the  British  Government  have  ex- 
pressly instructed  the  officer  to  commit  the  act  which 
constitutes  or  gives  occasion  to  the  grievance,  the 
matter  becomes  an  affair  of  state  which  is  not  cog- 
nizable by  the  Courts  of  Law,  and  must  be  adjusted 
by  diplomatic  arrangement  between  the  two  Govcrn- 
nients  concerned.  In  such  cases  also  it  is  quite  suf- 
ficient, if  the  officer's  proceedings,  though  not  orig- 
inally directed  or  authorized  by  the  terms  of  his  in- 
structions, are  afterward  sanctioned  and  adopted  by 
the  Government ;  for  this  renders  them  public  acts, 
over  wliicli  courts  of  law  have  no  jurisdiction. 

INJUKIES  TO  CANNON.— With  the  exception  of 
the  bending  of  the  trunnions  of  bronze  cannon  by 
long  firing,  the  principal  injuries  to  which  cannon 
are  subject,  are  internal,  and  arise  from  the  separate 
actions  of  the  powder  and  the  projectile.  They  in- 
crease in  extent  with  the  caliber,  whatever  may  be 
the  nature  of  the  piece,  but  are  modified  by  the  ma- 
terial of  which  it  is  made. 

The  injuries  from  the  powder  generally  occur  in  the 
rear  of  the  projectile.  They  are,  1st.  The  enlarge- 
ment of  that  portion  of  the  bore  which  contains  the 
powder,  arising  from  the  compression  of  the  metal. 
This  injury  is  more  marked  when  a  sabot  or  wad 
is  placed  between  the  powder  and  the  projectile,  and 
is  greatest  in  a  vertical  direction.  2d.  Cavities,  pro- 
duced by  the  melting  awaj'  of  a  portion  of  the  metal 
by  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the  charge.  3d.  Cracks, 
arising  from  tearing  asunder  of  the  particles  of  the 
metal  at  the  surface  of  the  bore.  At  first  a  crack  of 
this  kind  is  scarcely  perceptible,  but  it  is  increased 
by  the  continued  firing  until  it  extends  completely 
through  the  side  of  the  piece.  It  generally  commen- 
ces at  the  junction  of  the  chamber  with  the  bore,  as 
this  portion  is  less  supported  than  others.  4th.  Fur- 
rows, produced  by  the  erosive  action  of  the  inflamed 
gases.  This  injury  is  most  apparent  where  the  cur- 
rent of  the  gas  is  most  rapid,  or  at  the  inner  orifice 
of  the  vent,  and  on  the  surface  of  the  bore,  immedi- 
ately over  the  seat  of  the  projectile.  The  wear  of  the 
vents  of  bronze  cannon  is  obviated  by  inserting  a  cop- 
per vent-piece.  The  effect  of  continuous  firing  on 
the  vents  of  iron  cannon  is  to  produce  a  uniform  en- 
largement of  the  inner  orifice,  and  to  seriously  weak- 
en the  piece.  The  appearance  of  a  vent  thus  enlarg- 
ed, is  irregular  and  angular,  with  its  greatest  diame- 
ter in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  bore.  To  obvi- 
ate the  serious  consequences  that  result  from  this  in- 
jury Captain  Dahlgren  has  placed  in  his  naval  guns 
two  vents,  each  a  short  distance  from,  and  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  vertical  plane,  passing  through  the 
axis  of  the  piece.  One  of  them  is  filled  with  melted 
zinc,  the  other  is  used  until  it  becomes  so  much  en- 
larged as  to  endanger  the  safety  of  the  piece ;  it  is 
then  fillecl  with  zinc,  and  the  first  one  opened. 

Tlie  injuries  arising  from  the  action  of  the  projec- 
tile occur  around  the  projectile,  and  in  front  of  it. 
They  are,  1st.  The  Incitement.  This  is  an  indenta- 
tion in  the  lower  side  of  the  bore,  produced  by  the 
pressure  upon  the  ball  by  the  escape  of  the  gas 
through  the  windage,  before  the  ball  has  moved  from 
its  seat.  The  elasiicity  of  the  metal,  and  tlie  burr, 
i>r  ermodlng  tip,  of  the  metal  in  front  of  the  ])rojec- 
tile,  cause  it  to  rebound,  and  being  carried  forward 
by  the  force  of  the  charge,  to  sfrike  against  the  up- 
per side  of  the  bore,  a  sliort  distance  in  front  of  tlie 
trunnions.  From  this  it  is  reflected  agavnst  tlie  bot- 
tom, and  re-reflected  against  the  top  of  the  bore, 
and  so  on  until  it  leaves  the  piece.    The  first  inden- 1 


tation  is  called  the  lodgemrnt ;  the  other  rnlargementa. 
In  pieces  of  ordinary  length,  there  are  generally 
three  enlargements,  when  this  injury  first  makes  its 
appearance,  but  their  number  is  increased  as  the 
lodgement  is  deepened  and  the  angle  of  incidence  in- 
creased. Bronze  pieces  are  considered  unservice- 
able when  the  depth  of  the  lodgement  is  .18  in.,  and 
the  depth  of  an  enlargement  is. 16  in.  The  effect  of 
this  bounding  motion,  is  to  alternately  raise  and  de- 
press the  piece  in  its  trunnion-beds,  and  to  diminish 
the  accuracy  of  fire,  until  finally,  the  piece  becomes 
unfit  for  service.  It  isprincipallyfrom  this  injury  that 
bronze  guns  become  unserviceable.  Mortars  and 
howitzers  are  not  much  affected  by  it.  The  prin- 
cipal means  used  to  obviate  this  injury,  are  to  wrap 
the  projectile  with  cloth  or  paper  (as  the  cylinder- 
cap  of  the  cartridge  used  with  field-guns),  and  to 
shift  the  seat  of  the  projectile.  The  latter  maj'  be 
done  by  a  wad,  or  lengthened  sabot,  or  by  reducing 
the  diameter  and  increasing  the  length  of  the  car- 
tridge. The  last  of  these  methods  is  considered  the 
most  practical  as  well  as  the  most  effective  :  and  it 
has  an  additional  advantage  of  diminishing  the  strain 
on  the  bore,  by  increasing  the  space  in  which  the 
charge  expands  before  the  ball  can  be  moved.  The 
French  bronze  siege-guns,  which  formerly  were  ren- 
dered unserviceable  in  600  service-rounds,  now  en- 
dure, by  this  method,  3,500  service-rounds.  2d- 
Scratches,  or  furrows  made  upon  the  surface  of  the 
bore  by  rough  projectiles,  or  by  case-shot.  This  is 
not  a  serious  injury.  3d.  Cuts,  made  by  the  frag- 
ments of  projectiles  which  break  in  the  bore.  4th. 
Wearing  airay  of  tlie  lands  of  rifle-eamwn,  especially 
at  the  driving  edges.  5tli.  Enlargement  of  the  muz- 
ule,  arising  from  the  forcing  outward  of  the  metal  by 
the  striking  of  the  projectile  against  the  side  of  the 
bore,  as  it  leaves  the  piece.  By  this  action,  the 
shape  of  the  muzzle  is  elongated  in  a  vertical  direc- 
tion. 6th.  Cracks  on  the  exterior.  These  are  formed 
by  the  compression  of  the  metal  within,  generally  at 
the  chase,  where  the  metal  is  thinnest.  This  por- 
tion of  a  bronze-gun  is  the  first  to  give  way  by  long 
firing,  whereas,  cast-iron  cannon  are  burst  in  rear  of 
the  trunnion,  and  the  fracture  passes  through  the 
vent,  if  it  be  much  enlarged. 

The  principal  injuries  to  which  cast-iron  cannon 
are  liable  are  the  wearing  away  of  the  metal  of  the 
bore  above  and  below  the  projectile,  and  at  the  in- 
terior corners  of  the  vent.  In  guns  which  have  seen 
much  service  the  enlargements  thus  occasioned  have- 
been  known  to  exceed  one  inch  in  both  cases.  It  has 
been  seen  that  the  strength  of  cast-iron  cannon  is  di- 
minished by  repeated  firing,  and  that  there  is  a  limit 
beyond  which  they  should  not  be  used.  For  Amer- 
ican cannon  this  limit  has  been  fixed  at  one  thousand 
service-rounds.  The  number  of  times  which  an  iron 
piece  has  been  firedmay  be  approximately  determined 
by  the  size  of  the  bore,  and  vent  if  it  be  not  bushed. 
The  first  is  taken  with  the  "star  gauge,"  andthesec- 
ond  by  an  impression  in  wax.  Slight  cracks  in  the 
surfjice  of  the  bore, particularly  about  the  seat  of  the 
charge,  indicate  the  approaching  fracture  of  a  cast- 
iron  gun.  The  injuries  to  which  wrought-iron  can- 
non are  most  subject,  are  the  enlargement  of  the  bore 
by  the  extension  or  compression  of  the  metal  around 
it,  and  the  rapid  enlargement  of  slight  cracks  and 
cavities  bv  the  fiame  of  the  powder.      See  Cannon. 

INLYING  PICKET.— A  body  of  infantry  or  cavalry 
in  camiiaign.  detailed  to  march,  if  called  upon,  and 
hell!  ready  for  that  purpose  in  camp  or  <iuarterg 

INNER. — Tlie  name  given  toa  certain  part  ofatar- 
gct.  A  shot  striking  in  this  space  (a  circular  ring)' 
on  the  Creedmoor  target  counts!).  On  fheregulation 
target,  the  smallest  circle,  always  i>ainled  black,  is 
called  the  bull's-eye;  the  ring  embraced  between  the 
bull's-eye  and  the  circumference  of  the  next  larger 
circle  is  called  t  he  ivv/iiv;  I  lie  ring  bet  ween  the. second 
and  third  circles  is  called  the  inner;  and  the  space 
outside  the  larger  circle  is  called  the  onte^r.  In  the 
target  represented  on  next  page,  the  space  between 


INNER  FLANK. 


1U7 


INSPECTION. 


tlio  sorond  firclr  and  tlic  vcrlirnl  lines  is  the  inner, 
iuhI  I  lie  s|i:i(i'  (iiilsiilc  llic  viTliciil  linr'M  is  tlic  iiiitir. 

INNER  FLANK.  Tluit  wliirli  is  iiciircr  tlii'  point, 
on  wliicli  a  line  rests,  or  wliifli  is  farllicr  frniii  lliir 
enemy.  In  drill,  it  is  always  tliat  Hank  which  is 
nearer  Ihi;  [Kiiiit  fnuM  whiih  the  line  is  dressed. 


INNISKILLINERS.— Ill  Ihe  British  service,  officers 

and  soldiers  of  tlie  Sixth  Draj^oons  and  the  Twenty- 
seventh  Foot  ;  so  called  from  tlu'two  i-et;iments  hav- 
insj;  been  ori};iually  raised  at  Inniskillen,  a  town  of 
Ulster,  where  the  iidiabilants  distinijnished  them- 
selves in  favor  of  Kinj;  William  against  James  II. 
Often  written  EaniKkiilinern. 

INROAD.— The  entrance  of  an  enemy  into  a  conn- 
try  with  purposes  of  hostility  ;  a  s\idden  or  desultory 
incursion  or  invasion;  encroacliment,  notwithstand- 
ing elTorls  to  prevent  it. 

INSCONCED. — In  the  military  art,  when  any  part  of 
an  army  has  fortified  itself  with  a  sconce,  or  small 
work,  ill  order  to  defend  some  pass,  etc.,  it  is  said  to 
be  insconeed.  Ensconce  signifies  in  a  general  sense 
to  cover  as  with  a  fort. 

INSPECTION. — Divisions  and  brigades  are  inspect- 
ed between  the  fifteenth  and  twentieth  of  eacli  month 
by  inspecting  officers  designated  for  the  purpose. 
Tlie  Commanders  of  regiments  and  posts  make  an  in- 
spect ion  of  their  commands  on  the  last  day  of  ('very 
month.  Captains  inspect  their  companies  every  Sun- 
day morning,  and  no  soldier  is  excused  from  Sunday 
inspection  e.xeept  the  guard,  the  sick,  and  the  neces- 
sary attendants  in  the  hospital.  Medical  oflicers  hav- 
ing" charge  of  hospitals  make  a  thorough  inspection 
of  tliem  every  Sunday  morning.  Troops  are  inspect- 
ed when  mustered  for  payment.  liesid.es  these  in- 
spections, frequent  visits  are  made  during  the  month 
by  the  Commanding  Officer,  company  and  medical 
officers,  to  the  men's  quarters,  the  hospital,  guard- 
house, etc.  Except  when  otherwise  specially  pro- 
vided for  by  the  Secretary  of  War  or  the  General  of 
the  Army,  every  militarj-post,  station,  and  command 
in  the  Army  is  inspected  at  least  once  every  year  by  Di- 
vision or  Department  Inspectors,  under  the  direction 
of  their  respective  Commanders.  In  addition  to  these 
inspections,  post,  station,  and  other  permanent  Com- 
manders, between  the  first  and  fifth  days  of  Septem- 
ber in  each  year,  make  thorough  inspections  of  their 
respective  commands,  and  forward  reports  thereof, 
through  the  proper  military  channels,  to  the  Inspec- 
tor General's  Office, at  the  Headquarters  of  the  Army, 
so  as  to  reach  that  office  not  later  than  October  1st. 
These  reports  do  not  interfere  or  dispense  with  those 
of  the  inspecting  officers. 

inspections  are  made  under  specific  orders  clearly 
defining  their  object,  which  will  be  exhibited  to  the 
officers  whose  troops  or  atTairs  are  to  be  examined. 
Commanding  Officers  are  to  see  that  every  facility  is 
afforded  for  such  examination.  Inspectors  give  or- 
ders only  when  specially  authorized  to  do  so :  and 
then  give  them  in  the  name  of  the  officer  authorizing 
it.  They  must  report  with  strict  impartiality  all  ir- 
regularities. They  should  refrain  from  informal  con- 
versation on  the  subjects  of  investigation,  and  from 
all  expression  of  approval  or  disapprobaticm.  In- 
spectors take  care  that  no  injustice  be  done  to  organ- 


i'zations  or  individuals  by  reports  not  fully  sustained 
by  tliorough  personal  exainiiiation.  I'l-fore  leaving 
aeomniand,  the  Inspi-ctorpublii'ly  informs  the  troops 
that  opportunity  will  be  given  any  soldier  to  lay  be- 
fore him  a  well-groundeil  complaint  without  any  of 
his  oflicers  being  present. 

The  spheri'  of  inquiry  of  Inspectors  gener- 
ally includes  every  branch  of  military  affairs, 
and  whr'tliir  tlie  military  laws  and  regula- 
tions are  fully  complied  with.  In  specific 
cases,  it  is  defined  and  limited  l)y  Ihe  onlers 
they  receive.  Generally,  ri  |)ort  is  made  as 
to  zeal  and  ability  of  C'ommanding  Offlcerfl, 
and  whethertliey  possess  the  requisite  profes- 
sional knowledge  for  Ihe  proper  exercise  of 
Iheir  conunand  ;  whetlier  they  preserve  liar- 
mony  and  unanimity  in  the  command,  and 
observe  the  .system  of  instruction  anil  treat- 
ment of  subordinates  enjoined  by  Ihe  ]{eiru- 
lations;  wlnMher  the  officers  are  properly  in- 
structed and  efficient.  Special  reportis  also 
to  be  mad(^  in  case  of  any  officer  of  inlem 
]ierate  or  immoral  habits,  or  who  has  proper  asso- 
soeiates.  or  who  is  addicted  to  gaming,  or  is  unfit 
for  active  service  by  infirmity  or  any  other  cause; 
whether  the  number  of  men  in  ranks  at  inspection 
Corresponds  with  the  returns,  and  how  absentees  are 
accounted  for;  whether  the  band  exceeds  the  au- 
thorized numl)er,  and  any  nun  not  musicians  are 
mustered  with  it ;  as  to  Ihe  discipline,  military  ap- 
pearance, and  bearing  of  Ihe  troops;  their  instruc- 
tion in  all  military  exercises  and  duties;  the  nature 
and  frequency  of  exercises  and  recitations  in  tactics; 
the  target  practice;  whether  they  are  practiced  in 
marching  with  the  full  kit ;  the  slate  of  their  batter- 
ies, or  arms,  equipments,  and  siccouternients  of  all 
kinds;  Ihe  sufficiency,  uniformity,  and  fit  of  their 
clothing ;  when  the  troops  were  last  paid,  and,  if 
payment  be  deferred,  the  cause  of  delay. 

In  the  inspection  of  a  post,  it  shoukl  be  reported 
when  and  by  whom  the  post  was  last  inspected ; 
whether  it  lie  sufficiently  garrisoned,  and  the  arm.a- 
iiient  and  supplies  of  all  kinds  sufiicient  in  kind  and 
quantity;  the  strength  of  the  garrison  and  its  arma- 
ment ;  whether  the  Commanding  Officer  is  familiar 
with  the  design  and  capacity  for  defense  of  the  work, 
the  ground  in  its  vicinity,  and  Ihe  principles  of  de- 
fense of  fortified  places  ;  in  case  of  frontier  and  sea- 
coast  forts,  whether  the  Conini;uiders  understand  and 
liroperly  execute  the  laws  relating  loneutrality,  quar- 
antine, etc.,  and  the  regulations  prescribing  interna- 
tional courtesy ;  as  to  the  cleanliness,  stale  of  repair, 
and  sanitary  condition  of  barracks  and  quarters  ;  as 
to  Ihe  kitchens  and  messes,  Ihe  sufficiency,  variety, 
and  preparation  of  food  ;  of  the  guard-house,  prisons, 
bake-house  ;  of  the  hospital,  and  whether  the  sick  are 
properly  cared  for ;  of  the  stables,  harness,  means  of 
transportation  and  animals,  the  number  unservicea- 
ble ;  in  the  case  of  Cavalry  and  Artillery  horses,  as 
to  their  grooming,  shoeing,  veteriniiry  treatment,  and 
general  condition;  as  to  the  capacity  of  the  officers 
conducting  the  Administrative  and  Staff  services. the 
fidelity  and  economy  of  their  disbursements,  and 
whether  payments  and  issues  are  made  strictly  in  ac- 
cordance with  law  and  the  Kegulations.  The  regu- 
larity of  issues  and  pavmenis;  whether  supplies  re- 
ported on  hand  are  verified  ;  whether  the  labor  of  Ihe 
supply  departments  is  performed  by  troops  orljy  civ- 
ilians. If  by  civilians,  their  number,  the  cost",  and 
reasons  in  justification  of  their  employaiient ;  as  to 
the  condition  of  all  public  property  and  stores,  and 
whether  any  is  used  for  private  purposes;  whether 
buildings  and  property  are  properly  secured  against 
fire,  theft,  exposure,  and  damage ;  whether  forage, 
wood,  and  Subsistence  supplies  are  properly  protect- 
ed and  under  sentinels  ;  as  to  the  neighboring  Indian 
tribes,  their  numVier,  disposition,  and  other  informa- 
tion useful  in  a  military  view  ;  as  to  Ihe  population, 
resources,  routes,  and  means  of  travel,  etc.,  of  the 
surrounding  countrj-. 


IK8PECTI0N  ABMS. 


lOH 


INSPECTION  OF  OBDNANCE. 


u 


INSPECTION  ARMS. — A  command  in  tlic  Manual 
of  Arms,  directing  that  tlie  piece  be  placed  in  a  pre- 
scribed position,  preparatory  to  its  inspection.  The 
movement  is  executed  as  follows :  The  recruits  be- 
ing at  order  arms,  bayonets  fixed, the  Instructor  com- 
mands— 

1.  Inspection,  3.  Arms. 

Commencing  on  the  right,  the  Instructor  inspects 
the  pieces  in  succession.  Each  recruit,  as  the  In- 
structor approaches  him,  tosses  his  piece  quickly 
■with  the  right  hand  opposite  the  left  eye, 
catching  it  with  the  left  hand  between  the 
rear-sight  and  the  lower  band,  the  thumb 
extended  along  the  stock,  the  barrel  to 
the  right,  and  inclined  slightly  to  the 
front,  the  hand  at  the  heiglit  of  the  chin; 
he  then  passes  his  right  hand  quickly  to 
the  lock,  placing  the  thumb  on  the  ham- 
mer, the  elbow  raised  as  high  as  the  hand, 
the  fingers,  closed  together,  extending  in 
front  of  loek.  (Two.)  The  recruit  press- 
es tl'.e  thumb  on  the  hammer,  lowering 
the  elbow  at  the  same  time,  and  brings 
the  hammer  to  the  half-cock  ;  then  drops 
the  right  hand  by  the  side  ;  the  Instruct- 
or takes  the  piece  with  the  right  hand  at 
the  small  of  the  stock(the  recruit  dropping 
the  left  hand  by  the  side),  inspects,  and 
hands  it  back  to  the  recruit,  who  receives 
it  with  the  left  hand  in  the  position  pre- 
scribed in  the  first  motion, passes  his  right 
hand,  as  before,  to  the  hammer,  and  the  fore-finger 
to  the  trigger,  which  he  pulls,  at  the  same  time  press- 
ing the  hammer  downward  to  free  it  from  the  half- 
cock  notch,  thus  bringing  the  hammer  to  the  safety- 
notch;  the  piece  is  then  lowered  with  the  left  hand, 
seized  near  the  middle  band  with  the  right,  and 
brought  to  the  position  of  ardn:  As  the  Instructor 
returns  the  piece,  the  recruit  next  on  the  left  throws 
up  his  piece  to  the  position  of  inspectiim,  and  so 
throughout  the  squad.  Should  the  piece  be  inspect- 
ed without  handling,  the  recruit  resumes  the  «;■(/<»•  as 
the  Inspector  passes  to  the  next  man,  who  immedi- 
atelv  tosses  vip  liis  piece. 

INSPECTION  MARKS.— All  cannon  are  required  to 
be  weiglied.  and  to  be  marked  as  follows,  viz.:  the 
number  of  the  gun,  the  hiitialx  of  the  Iiiitpecpy>-\':  name, 
on  the  face  of  the  muzzle — the  numbers  in  a  separate 
series,  for  each  kind  and  caliber  at  each  foundry ; 
the  initial  letters  of  the  name  of  t\\e  founder  and  the 
foundry,  on  the  end  of  the  right  tnmnion;  the  i/ear 
of  fabrication,  on  the  end  of  the  left  trunnion  ;  the 
foundry  number,  on  tlie  end  of  the  right  rimbase, 
above  the  trunnion;  the  ireig/it  of  the  piece  in  poii  nds. 
on  the  base  of  the  breech  ;  the  letters  U.  S.,  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  piece,  near  the  end  of  the  rein- 
force. The  natural  line  of  sight,  when  the  axis  of  the 
trunnions  is  horizontal,  should  be  marked  on  the  base- 
ring  and  on  the  swell  of  the  muzzle,  whilst  the  piece 
is  in  tlie  trunnion-lathe.  Cannon  rejected  on  inspec- 
tion, are  marked  XC,  on  the  face  of  the  muzzle  ;  if 
condemned  for  erroneous  dimensions  which  cannot 
be  remedied,  add  XD  ;  if  by  powder-proof,  XP  ;  if 
by  water-proof,  XW.  Converted  guns  are  marked 
as  follows :  The  number  of  the  gun  J  the  weight  if  the 
piece  inpounds  ;  the  initials  (f the  Inspector''  s  name,  and 
that  of  Ww foundry  whirethegunis  convirted,  and  the 
year  of  the  concersion  on  the  face  of  the  tube,  in  ;i  circle 
concentric  with  the  bore,  in  letters  and  figures  at  least 
one  inch  long,  Tlie  initials  of  the  foundn/  irhire  the 
tubeismrule,  and  the  nuiiiliirof  tlie  tube,  in  small  type, 
on  the  face  of  the  tube,  under  the  initials  of  the"  In- 
spector. The  results  of  all  final  measurements  and 
examinations  arc  noted  on  the  inspection  report  of 
the  gun.     See  I iisperlion  nf  Ordnance. 

INSPECTION  OF  ACCOUNTS.  -The  Inspections  of 
Disbursing  <  >tlicers'  accounts,  which  arc  nciuirrd  liy 
law. are  ;iiade{iuarterly,  or  four  times  within  the  year, 
with  a  reasonalile  interval  between  any  two  e.\ami- 
nations.    Division  and  Department  Commanders  usu- 


ally provide  for  the  inspection  of  Disbursing  Officers' 
accounts  through  the  Inspectors  attached  to  their 
headquarters,  or  by  detail  of  suitable  oflicers  within 
their  commands  for  the  purpose.  The  law  provides, 
in  regard  to  Inspection  of  Accounts,  "  that  no  officer 
so  detailed  shall  be  in  any  way  connected  with  the 
Department  or  Corps  making  the  disbursement." 
The  Inspector  makes  a  minute  and  thorough  inspec- 
tion of  the  accounts  of  Disbursing  Officers,  and  com- 
pares the  result  in  each  case  with  the  officer's  bal- 
ance at  his  place  of  deposit ;  and  each  Inspector  is 
held  responsible  for  any  defalcation  or  misapplication 
of  the  public  money  or  property  which  may  occur 
witliin  the  command  to  which  he  is  assigned  that  an 
active  visilance  on  his  part  niicht  have  detected. 

INSPECTION  OF  CONDEMNED  PROPERTY.— In- 
spectors are  the  only  officers  authorized  to  inspect 
public  property  with  a  view  to  condemnation.  The 
final  disposition  of  condemned  property,  except  it  be 
worthless,  can  only  be  ordered  by  Commanding  Gen- 
erals of  Departments.  All  surveys  and  reports  hav- 
ing in  view  the  condemnation  of  public  property,  for 
whatever  cause,  should  be  made  by  Inspector  Gen- 
erals, or  Inspectors  specially  designated  by  the  Com- 
mander of  a  Department  or  an  army  in  the  field,  or 
by  higher  authority.  Such  surveys  and  reports  hav- 
ing a  different  object  from  those  of  Boards  of  Sur- 
vey, are  required  independently  of  any  preliminary 
action  of  a  Board  on  the  same  matter. 

An  officer  commanding  a  Department,  or  an  army 
in  the  field,  may  give  orders,  on  the  report  of  autho- 
rized Inspectors,  to  sell,  destroy,  or'make  such  other 
disposition  of  any  condemned  property  as  the  case 
may  require — ordnance  and  ordnance  stores  alone 
excepted,  for  which  the  orders  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment must  always  be  taken.  But  if  the  propert}-  be 
of  very  considerable  value,  and  there  should  be  reason 
to  suppose  that  it  could  be  advantageously  applied 
or  disposed  of  elsewhere  than  within  his  command, 
he  should  refer  the  matter  to  the  Chief  of  the  Staff 
Department  to  which  it  belongs,  for  the  orders  of  the 
War  Department.  No  other  persons  than  those  above 
designated,  or  the  General-in-Chief,  can  order  the  final 
disposition  of  condemned  property,  saving  only  in  the 
case  of  horses,  which  should  be  killed  at  once  to  pre- 
vent contagion,  and  of  provisions  or  other  storcs-which 
are  rapidly  deteriorating,  when  the  immediate  Com- 
mander may  have  to  act  perforce.  Inventories  of 
condemned  property  are  made  in  triplicate,  one  to  be 
retained  by  the  person  accountable,  one  to  accompany 
his  accounts,  and  one  to  be  forwarded  through  the 
Department,  or  other  superior  headquarters,  to  the 
(Jhief  of  the  Staff  Department  to  which  the  property 
belongs. 

Officers  inspecting  public  property  cause  the  de- 
struction, in  their  presence,  of  all  property  found  to 
be  worthless,  and  which  is  %vithout  any  money  value 
at  the  place  of  inspection.  The  action  of  an  Inspect- 
or, on  property  of  this  character,  is  final,  and  his  in- 
spect ion  report  on  the  same  is  a  valid  voiicher  for  the 
officer  responsible  for  the  property.  In  the  discharge 
of  the  duty  devolved  upon  Inspectors  in  this  regula- 
tion, they  are  regarded  as  answerable  that  their  ac- 
tion is  proper  and  judicious  according  to  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case.  Unserviceable  arms  and  stores 
will  be  inspected  and  disposed  of  in  like  manner  with 
other  jiroperty.  Tlieir.w^f  can  he  ordered  by  the  Scc- 
rcl:irv  of  War  onlv. 

INSPECTION  OF  ORDNANCE.— The  objects  of  in- 
sjiecting  cannon  are  to  verify  their  dimi'nsions,  par- 
ticularly those  which  alTect  the  accuracy  of  fire,  and 
the  relation  of  the  piece  to  its  carriage,  and  to  detect 
any  defects  of  metal  and  workmanship,  that  would 
be  likely  to  impair  their  strength  and  endurance. 
Smooth-bore  cannon  ])resented  for  inspect  ion  and 
))roof  are  placed  on  skids  for  llic  convenience  of  turn- 
ing and  nidviiig  Iheiii  easily.  Tliey  are  first  examined 
carefully  on  tlie  exterior  to  ascertain  wlietlier  there 
be  any  flaws  or  cracks  iu  the  metal,  wlmther  they  be 
finished  as  prescribed,  and  to  judge,  us  well  as  prac- 


INSPECTION  OF  POWDEB. 


101) 


INSPECnON  OF  POWDEB. 


tical)lc,  of  the  (|uiility  of  llio  metal.  They  must  not 
lie  coviTcd  witli  piiinl.  lacUiT,  or  any  other  eoinjiosi- 
tion.  If  it  l)e  ascertained  tliat  an  alternpt  lias  hi-en 
niadi'  to  eoneeal  any  flaws  oreavilies  hy  phiLCiriiifj;  or 
fillini;  I  hem  with  cemenl  or  any  sulistanre,  the  i;iin  is 
rejeeled  without  further  e.vandnation.  After  this ])rc- 
liminary  examination,  the  Insjiector  proceeds  to  veri- 
fy the  dimensions  of  the  piece.  The  interior  of  the 
bore  is  first  examined  by  rellectini;  the  sim's  rays  in- 
to it  from  tlie  mirror,  or,  if  the  sun  heohscured,  liya 
liirhled  ("indic  ora  lump  jjlaced  on  the  end  of  a  rod  and 
inserted  into  tlu'  hore.  The  cylinder-),;aui;e  screw- 
ed on  the  stair  is  then  pushed  i^eiitly  to  the  bottom 
of  the  cylindrical  pari  of  the  bore  and  withdrawn  ;  it 
must  go  to  the  bottom  or  the  bore  is  too  snnill.  The 
bore  of  tlie  piece  is  then  measured  with  the  star- 
eautje,  bcijinning  at  liotlom.  Measurements  should 
be  made  at  intervals  of  |  inch  to  tlie  front  of  seat  of 
shot,  and  at  intervals  of  1  inch  from  that  point  to  the 
niu/zlc.  In  rilled  nuns  the  measuri'iucnts  are  taken 
from  land  to  land,  and  afterwards  from  f^roove  to 
groove,  the  head  of  the  star-gauge  being  fitted  with 
the  suitable  "guide"  to  insure  the  proper  position  of 
the  measuring  points.  The  position  of  the  trunnions 
with  regard  to  the  axis  of  the  bore  and  to  each  other 
is  next  ascertained.  To  verify  the  position  of  the  axis 
of  the  trunnions,  set  the  lrunnion-S(|uare  on  the  trun- 
nions, and  see  that  the  lower  edges  of  its  branches 
toueii  them  throughout  their  whole  length;  push  the 
slide  down  till  it  touches  the  surface  of  the  piece, 
and  secure  it  in  that  position  by  the  thumb-screw; 
turn  the  gun  over,  and  apply  the  trtmnion-square  to 
the  opposite  side,  and  if,  when  the  |)oint  of  the  slide 
touches  the  surface  of  the  piece,  the  lower  edges  of 
the  branches  rest  on  the  trunnions,  the  axis  of  the 
trunnions  is  in  the  same  plane  with  the  axis  of  the 
bore;  if  they  do  not  touch  the  trunnions,  their  axis 
is  above  the  axis  of  the  bore  by  half  the  space  be- 
tween; and  if  the  edges  touch  the  trunnions  and  the 
point  of  the  slide  does  not  touch  the  surface  of  the 
piece,  their  axis  is  below  the  axis  of  the  bore.  If  the 
alignment  of  the  trunnions  be  accurate,  the  edges  of 
the  trunnion-square  will  tit  on  them  when  applied 
to  different  parts  of  their  surface;  their  diameter  and 
cylindrical  form  and  the  diameter  of  the  rimbases 
are  verified  with  the  trunnion-gauge.  To  ascertain 
the  length  of  the  bore,  screw  the  guide-plate  and 
measuriug-poiut  ou  the  cylinder-staff  and  push  them 
to  the  bottom  of  the  bore;  place  a  half-tompion  in 
the  muzzle  and  rest  the  stafi  in  its  groove;  apply  a 
straight-edge  to  the  face  of  the  muzzle  and  read  the 
length  of  tlie  liore  on  the  staff.  The  exterior  lengths 
are  measured  by  the  rule  or  by  a  profile,  the  accuracy 
of  which  is  first  verified;  the  exterior  diameters  are 
measured  with  the  calipers  and  graduated  by  a  rule. 
The  position  of  the  interior  orifice  of  tlie  vent  is  found 
from  the  mark  made  on  the  rammer-head  by  the 
vent-gauge  inserted  in  the  vent,  while  the  rammer- 
head  is  held  against  the  bottom  of  the  bore.  Two 
impressions  are  taken.  The  position  of  the  e.xterior 
orifice  of  the  vent  is  also  verified.  The  vent  is  exam- 
ined with  gauges,  and  the  vent-searcher  is  to  a.scer- 
tain  if  there  are  any  cavities  in  it.  All  smooth-bore 
bronze  ordnance  should  be  bored  under  size  from  .04 
to  .05  inch,  and,  after  proof,  reamed  out  to  the  exact 
caliber.  Whitish  spots  show  a  separation  of  the  tin 
from  the  copper,  and.  if  extensive,  should  condemn 
the  piece.  A  great  variation  from  the  true  weight, 
which  the  dimensions  do  not  account  for,  shows  a 
defect  in  the  alloy.  In  mortars,  the  dimensions  of 
the  chambers  and  the  form  of  the  breech  may  be  ver- 
ified with  patterns  made  of  plate-iron.  After  the 
powder  proof  the  hore  is  washed  and  wiped  clean, 
and  the  bore  and  vent  are  again  examined,  and  the 
bore  reraeasnred.  The  results  of  each  of  the  meas- 
nremeuts  and  examinations  arc  noted  on  the  inspec- 
tion report  against  the  ntmiber  of  the  gun.  A  proper 
discretion  must  be  e.xcrcised  in  the  inspection  of  ord- 
nance ;  such  slight  imperfections  as  do  not  injure  a 
piece  for  service  may  be  disregarded,  whilst  tlie  in- 


structions should  Tie  strictly  enforced  witli  regard  to 
defi'cis  which  may  impair  its  utility. 

The  duties  of  the  inspection  of  converted  gnnscom- 
mciicit  Willi  the  imc]itioM  of  the  work,  and  themost 
important  are  perforiiicil  before  the  gun  is  complet- 
ed. The  breech-cup  is  verified  by  the  steel  templet 
before  it  is  screwed  into  |)lacc.  'f  he  different  shoul- 
ders and  the  shape  and  [litch  of  screw-threads  are 
similarly  gaugeil  before  the  [larts  are  united;  diame- 
ters of  tubes  are  verified,  and  the  base  of  the  tube 
and  recess  for  the  muzzle-collar  before  the  insertion. 
The  dimensions  of  the  casing  are  also  proven.  When 
the  gun  is  presented  for  final  inspection  it  is  placed 
horizontally  on  the  skids,  and  inspected  as  explained 
above  for  smooth-liore  cannon. 

That  the  finished  bore  of  a  bronze  piece  may  not  be 
injured  liy  the  proof-charge,  it  is  bored  out  under 
size,  from  .04  to  .Or>  inch,  and,  after  proof,  reamed 
out  to  the  true  size.  When  the  powder-proof  is  fin- 
ished, the  bore  should  be  cleaned  and  examined  ;  the 
vent  should  be  stopped  up  with  a  greased  wooden 
plug,  the  muzzle  raised, -and  the  gun  filled  with  water, 
to  which  pressure  should  be  applied  to  force  it  into 
any  cavities  that  exist;  or  the  water  should  he  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  bore  twenty-four  hours.  The  bore 
must  then  be  sponged  dry  and  clean,  and  viewed  with 
a  mirror  or  candle,  to  discover  if  any  water  oozes 
from  cracks  or  cavities,  and  also,  if  any  enlargement 
has  taken  place.  The  (piantity  that  runs  out  of  a 
crack  or  honey-comb  will  indicate  the  extent  of  the 
defect ;  and  if  it  exceed  a  few  drops,  the  piece  should 
be  rejected,  although  the  measured  depth  of  the  cav- 
ity may  not  exceed  the  allowance.  After  the  bore  has 
been  reamed  out  to  its  proper  size,  its  dimensions  are 
again  verified,  and  an  examination  of  the  bore  and 
vent  is  made,  to  detect  any  defects  which  may  have 
been  caused  or  developed  hv  the  proof.  \Vhitish 
spots  show  a  separation  of  the  tin  from  the  copper, 
and.  if  extensive,  .should  condemn  the  piece.  A  great 
variation  from  the  true  weight  which  the  dimensions 
do  not  account  for,  .shows  a  defect  in  the  alloy. 

Bronze  cannon  should  be  rejected  for  the  "follow- 
ing sized  cavities  or  honey-combs :  Exterlitr.  Any 
hole  or  cavity  0.2.5  in.  deep  in  front  of  the  trunnions, 
andO.3  in.  deep  ator behind  the  trunnions.  InUrii/r. 
From  the  muzzle  to  the  reinforce,  any  cavity  0.1.5 
in.  deep.  Any  cavity  from  the  reinforce  to  bottom 
of  the  bore.  In  all  other  respects,  the  inspection  of 
cast-iron  and  bronze  cannon  are  alike.  See  Calipers, 
CMcabel-hhck,  Chnmbir-gavge,  Cylinder-gmige,  Dhk, 
Impression-taker,  Measuring-staff,  Mirror,  Profile, 
boards.  Proof  of  Ordnance,  Rammer-head,  Searcher, 
Star-gauge,  Template,  Trunnion-gauge,  Trunnion, 
rule.  Trunnion-square,  Vent-gauges,  Vent-guide,  and 
Vent-searcher. 

INSPECTION  OF  POWDER.— The  Inspector  of  gun- 
powder should  satisfy  himself  before  its  reception  as 
to  the  purity  of  the" ingredients  employed  by  the 
manufacturer,  and  that  their  proper  preparation  and 
careful  manipulation  through  all  the  various  stages  of 
manufacture  have  been  rigidly  observed.  Before  pow- 
der for  the  military  service  is  received  from  the  man- 
ufacturer, it  is  inspected  and  proved.  For  this  pur- 
pose at  least  60  barrels  are  thoroughly  mixed  togeth- 
er. One  barrel  of  this  is  proved.  Musket  powder 
should  be  fired  three  rounds  with  service  charges. 
Jlortar  and  cannon  powder  should  be  fired  three 
rounds  with  heaviest  charges  in  a  field  and  siege-gun 
respectively.  Mammoth,  hexagonal,  cubicah  pris- 
matic, or  other  special  powders,  three  rounds  with 
battering  charges  from  guns  in  which  these  powders 
are  to  be  used.  The  density  and  granulation  of  the 
powder,  as  well  as  the  velocity  and  pressure  obtained 
in  its  proof,  should  conform  to  the  Ordnance  Regu- 
lation in  these  respects,  for  the  particular  service  or 
])iecc  for  which  the  powder  is  required,  within  the 
allowed  limits  of  variation. 

Gunpowder  should  be  of  an  even-sized  grain.angu- 
lar  and  irregular  in  form,  without  sharp  comers,  and 
very  hard.     When  new.  it  should  leave  no  trace  of 


INSPECTION  OF  PROJECTILES. 


110 


INSPECTION  OF   PBOJECTILZS: 


dJst  when  poured  on  the  back  of  the  hand,  and  when 
flashed  in  quantities  of  10  grains  on  copper  plate  it 
shouhl  k'ave  no  bead  or  foulness.  Itsliould  give  tlie 
required  initial  velocity  to  the  ball,  and  not  more 
than  the  ma.ximuni  jjressure  on  the  gun,  and  should 
absorb  but  little  moisture  from  the  air. 

The  size  of  the  grain  is  tested  by  standard  sieves 
made  of  sheet  brass  pierced  with  round  holes.  Two 
sieves  are  used  for  each  kind  of  powder,  Nos.  1  and 
2  for  musket,  3  and  4  for  mortar,  5  and  6  for  cannon 
and  7  and  8  for  mammoth  powder. 

A  compact  shape  of  grain  approaching  the  cube  or 
sphere,  is  desirable.  Elongated  Hat  scales  are  objec- 
tionable. The  number  of  grains  in  the  several  weigh- 
ed samples  should  be  counted. 

Diam.  of  hoIe9formiisket-po\vdcr..No.  1,  0.0.3in. ;  No.2,0.06in. 
Diam.  of  holes  for  mortar-powder.  ..No.  3, 0. 10  in. ;  No.  4. 0.2.5  in. 
Diam.  of  hole6forcannon-powder..No.  5,0.85in.;  No.  6, 0.50 in. 
Diam.  of  holes  for  mammoth-powderNo.  7, 0.75  in. ;  No.  8, 0.90  in 


Hexagonal,)  Dimensions  of  these  powders  vary  with  the  caliber 
Cubical,  }-  of  the  gun  in  which  they  are  ufed,  and  have  not  as 
Prismatic,   i    yet  been  definitely  determined  upon  in  our  service. 


Gravimetric  density  is  the  weight  of  a  given  mea- 
sured quantity.  It  is  usually  expressed  by  tlie  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot  in  ounces.  This  cannot  be  relied  upon 
for  the  true  density  when  accuracyisdesired,  as  the 
shape  of  the  grain  may  make  the  denser  powder  seem 
the  lighter.  Its  only  value  is  a  fair  idea  of  the  value 
of  air  space  in  a  given  weight.  The  specific  gravity 
of  gunpowder  varies  from' 1. 0.5  to  1.8.  It  is  import- 
anfthat  it  should  be  determined  with  accuracy.  Al- 
cohol and  water  saturated  with  saltpeter  have  been 
used  for  this  purpose ;  but  they  do  not  furnish  accu- 
rate results.  Mercury  only  is  to  be  relied  upon.  Hard- 
ness is  tested  by  breaking  tlie  grains  between  the  lin- 
gers ;  the  hardness  is  judged  of  by  experience.  It 
is  very  necessary  that  the  density  or  specific  gravity 
of  the  powder  should  be  most  accurately  deterinined. 
For  this  delicate  operation  a  very  ingenious  instru- 
ment has  been  devised  by  Colonel  Jlallet,  of  the 
French  Army,  called  a  ]\Iercury  Densimeter. 

Initial  velocity  is  determined  by  any  of  the  elec- 
tro-ballistic machines  available  ;  the  Boulenge  chro- 
nograph is  one  of  the  simplest  and  most  generally 
used  for  proof  of  powder.  The  strain  upon  the 
gun  is  determined  by  the  Kodman  pressure-gauge, 
or  some  suitable  contrivance.  The  amount  of  mois- 
ture in  powder  is  determined  by  drying  samples  in 
an  oven  with  a  water  bottom.  A  vessel  of  tin,  dou- 
ble-walled, except  the  face  containing  the  door,  is 
fitted  at  the  top  with  an  opening  for  the  introduction 
of  water  ;  the  door  is  double ;  the  inner  skin-lining 
has  perforations  at  the  top  to  allow  the  escape  of 
moisture  given  up  by  the  powder.  Ledges  on  the 
Inside  of  the  oven  support  the  powder-trays.  Before 
use,  the  water  space  is  filled  with  boiling  water ;  a 
spirit  lamp  keeps  up  the  heat ;  the  supply  of  water 
is  kept  up  to  compensate  for  evaporation.  The  pow- 
der is  subjected  to  heat  as  long  as  it  loses  weight,  the 
loss  indicating  the  percentage  of  moisture  driven  off. 
On  being  removed  from  the  oven  it  should  be  trans- 
ferred at  once  to  perfectly  clean,  dry,  and  air-tight 
weigliing  bottles.  The  ability  to  resist  moisture  is 
determined  by  subjecting  samples  which  have  been 
dried  to  exposure,  first  in  open  air.  then  in  a  hygro- 
scope  containing  a  solution  of  niter  at  100*^  cooled  to 
80"  Fahr. 

On  breaking  the  grains,  a  fine  ashen-gray  color 
throuffliout  slinuld  appear;  the  grain  texture  should 
be  close,  without  white  specks  even  when  magnified. 
"  Flashing"  on  glass  or  porcelain  plates,  small  cop- 
per measures  for  fine-grain  powders  inverted  on  the 
plates,  keeps  the  heap  nearly  the  same  at  each  trial. 
The  powder  should  be  in  small  conical  lieaps;  if  the 
incorporation  is  good,  only  smoke  marks  remain  on 
the  i)lale  after  Hashing;  if  b;i(i,  specks  of  undecompos- 
ed  niter  and  sidpliur  will  form  a  dirty  residue.  The 
test  re(|uires  experirnce  to  insure  good  judgment. 
The  relative  incorporation  is  determined  by  llie  bal- 
ance; the  greater  increase  of  weight  on  the  plale, 
the  less  satisfactory  the  powder  in  this  respect.  Moist 


powder  flashes  badly.  The  report  of  inspection  should 
show  the  place  and  date  of  fabrication  and  of  proof, 
the  kind  of  powder  and  its  general  qualities,  as  the 
number  of  grains  in  100  grains,  its  specific  gravity; 
whether  hard  or  soft,  round  or  angular,  of  uniform 
or  irregular  size;  whether  free  from  dust  or  not;  the 
initial  velocities  and  pressures  per  square  inch  obtain- 
ed in  each  fire;  the  amount  of  moisture  absorbed;  and, 
finally,  the  height  of  the  barometer  and  hygrometer 
at  the  time  of  proof.  Each  barrel  is  marked  on  both 
heads,  (in  white  oil-colors,  the  head  painted  black), 
with  the  number  of  the  barrel,  the  name  of  the  manu- 
facturer, year  of  fabrication,  and  the  kind  of  powder, 
cannon,  mortar,  or  muxket,  etc.,  the  mean  initial  ve- 
locity, the  pressure  per  square  inch  on  the  pressure- 
piston,  and  density.  Each  time  the  powder  is  prov- 
ed, the  initial  velocity  is  marked  below  the  former 
proofs,  and  the  date  of  the  trial  opposite  to  it.  See 
Analysis  of  Puicdir,  Densimeter,  Qwnpowder ,  anA.  Hy- 
groscope. 

INSPECTION  OF  PROJECTILES.  —  The  principal 
points  to  be  observed  in  inspecting  shot  and  shells  are 
to  see  that  they  are  of  the  properform  and  size  ;  that 
they  are  made  of  suitable  metal;  and  that  they  have 
no  defects,  concealed  or  otherwise,  which  will  en- 
danger their  use,  or  impair  the  accuracy  of  their  fire. 
As  it  is  impracticable  to  make  all  projectiles  of  exact 
dimensions,  certain  variations  are  allowed  in  faijric- 
ation.  They  should  be  inspected  whilst  perfectly 
clean,  and  before  becoming  rustj',  so  that  flaws  and 
imperfections  in  the  metal  can  be  detected  by  the  eye. 

Sphfrical  Projectiles. — The  inspecting  instruments 
required  for  shot  are  one  large  and  one  svuill 
gauge  and  one  cylindrical-gauge  for  each  caliber.  The 
C}'linder-gauge  has  the  same  diameter  as  the  large 
gauge;  it  is  Constructed  of  cast-iron  and  is  five  calibers 
long.  The  large  and  small  gauges  are  made  with  a 
diflerence  in  diameter  of  0.02  inch  for  projectiles 
turned  in  a  lathe,  and  0.04  inch  for  those  not  so  turn- 
ed. All  these  gauges  should  be  verified  from  time  to 
time,  and  when  they  have  become  0.01  inch  larger 
than  their  true  diameter  they  should  no  longer  be 
used.  One  hammer  having  a  flat  face  and  a  conical 
point.  One  swrc/KT  of  steel  wire.  One.  cold-chisel.  Steel 
punches.     Figure-stai7ips. 

The  shot  should  be  inspected  before  they  become 
rusty;  after  being  well  cleaned  each  shot  should  be 
carefully  examined  to  see  that  its  surface  is  smooth, 
that  the  metal  is  sound  and  free  from  seams,  flaws, 
and  blisters.  If  cavities  or  small  holes  appear  on 
the  surface,  strike  the  point  of  the  hammer  or  punch 
into  them  and  ascertain  their  depth  with  the  searcher; 
if  the  depth  of  the  cavity  exceeds  0.2  inch,  the  shot 
should  be  rejected.  The  discovery  of  any  attempt  on 
the  part  of  those  engaged  in  the  fabrication  of  the 
shot  to  conceal  such  defects  by  filling  up  the  holes 
should  insure  rejection.  The  shot  must  pass  in  every 
direction  through  the  large  gauge  and  not  at  all 
through  the  small  one,  and  the  mean  of  their  diame- 
ters should  be  nearer  that  of  the  former  gauge  than 
of  the  latter. 

After  having  been  thus  examined,  the  shot  are 
passed  through  the  cylinder-gauge,  which  is  placed 
at  an  inclination  of  about  two  inches  between  the 
two  ends,  and  supported  on  blocks  of  wood  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  be  easily  turned  from  time  to  time  to 
prevent  its  being  worn  into  furrows.  Shot  which  sisrfe 
or  stick  in  the  cylinder  sliould  be  rejected.  The  avJ 
erage  weight  of  shot  of  10  inches  and  under  is  de- 
duced from  that  of  three  parcels  of  20  to  ."iO  each, 
taken  indiscriminately  from  the  pile  ;  some  of  those 
which  appear  to  be  the  smallest  shouldbe  also  weigh- 
ed, and  if  they  fall  short  of  the  prescribed  weight  of 
their  caliber  by  more  than  one  thirty-second  |>art, 
they  should  be  rejected.  Shot  of  larger  caliber  than 
10  inches  should  each  one  be  weighed  by  itself  and 
its  weight  stamped  upon  it  near  one  of  the  ears  for 
the  shell-hooks. 

The  dimensi(ms  of  grape  an<l  canister  shot  are  ver- 
ified by  means  of  a  large  and  small  gauge  attached 


IKSPECTION  OF  PKOJECTILES. 


Hi 


INSPECTION  OF  PE0JECTILE8. 


to  the  sumo  IiiiikHc.  Tlic  surface  of  tlie  shot  sliould 
be  sinciiilli  mill  free  from  seams  and  cavities.  For 
tlie  inspection  of  sIk'IIs  and  case-sliot,  tlie  followinj; 
inspeclim;  inslrumenls  are  recjiiircd  in  addition  to 
those  used  in  iiispeclinii  shot,  viz:  Ciilipi'm  for  meas- 
uring Ihetldclcness  of  the  iirojectiles  at  tlie  side.  Cal- 
ijiera  for  nieasurini;  the  thickness  at  llio  bottom. 
Gijnf/r.i  for  the  dimensions  of  the  fuse-hole,  and  for 
the  thicUness  of  metal  at  the  fuse-hole.  A  pitir  of 
]iiiii(l.lu'll.irwK;  iriHidi  a  pliii/H  to  fit  (he  fuse-liohr  and 
liored  Ihrouirli  to  receive  the  niu/zlcr  of  the  liellows. 
The  surface  of  the  shell  and  its  exterior  dimen- 
.sions  are  examined  as  in  the  case  of  shot,  particular 
atleiition  being  paid  to  the  lieniisphere  opposite  the 


I  other  inrlitationof  the  soundneHsof  the  metal,  as  the 
parts  ciintainirif;  cavities  will  dry  more  slowly  than 
the  other  ])arts.  Tin;  mian  weight  of  shells  of  10 
inches  and  under  is  ascertained  in  the  same  manner 
as  that  of  shot,  and  larger  ones  should  be  weighed 
and  stamped  the  same  as  with  shot  of  like  caliber. 
All  projectiles  rejected  in  the  inspection  should  be 
marked  with  an  X  made  with  a  cold-chisel;  on  shot 
near  the  gale;  or,  whin  turnr-il,  near  one  ear,  and  on 
hollow  projectiles  near  the  fuse-hole. 

FAiniiidUd  I'rojectUfK  —  The  following  Table  will 
show  tlie  [Kiints  upon  which  the  Inspecting  Officer 
must  inform  himself  and  report  before  accepting 
shot,  and  the  variations  he  is  authorized  to  allow: 


Suljject  of  measurement. 


Projectile : 

Leru^th  of  cylindrical  portion  of  body 

Lengt  h  of  1 1  ead 

Length  of  base  for  sabot 

Total  length  of  projectile -: 

Diameter  of  cylindrical  portion 

Diameter  of  base  over  threads 

Pitch  of  threads 

Radius  of  head 

Thiickness  of  bottom 

Length  of  interior  cavity 

Thickness  of  walls  at — inches  from — 
Tliiekness  of  walls  at  —  inches  from — 
Eccentricity  of  axis  of  interior  cavity 

at from  base 

Diameter  of  fuse  (or  screw-plug) hole. 
Pitch  of  thread  on  fuse  (or  screw-plug 

hole) 

Length  of  thread  on  fuse  (or  screw 

plug)  hole 

Diameter  of  hole  for  shell-hooks 

Depth  of  hole  for  shell-hooks 

Distance  from  base  of  i)rojectile 

Weight  of  projectile,  pounds 

Sabot : 

Height  of  sabot 

Exterior  diameter  of  sabot 

Interior  diameter  of  sabot 

Jlaxinuim  thickness  of  outer  lip 

Minimum  tliiekness  of  outer  lip 

Depth  of  cannelure 

Maximum  width 

Weight  of  sabot 

Weight  of  sabot  and  projectile,  poimds 


Allowed 
variations 


±0.4 

J-0.  5 
-t-      15 
_    .  1 
±0.3 
±   .01 

0 
±   .05 

.  1 
±   .1 


0.1 
±   .01 


No.   rejected   for   errone- 
ous dimensions  of  head. 


± 
± 
± 
± 
± 

± 
± 
± 
± 
± 
± 
± 


No.  of 

amined. 


inch 


No.  rejected  for  erroneous 
dimensions  of  cylindric 
body  or  base 


Weight  of  total  number  ac- 
cepted  


Mean  weight  of  projectile. 


No.  of  sabots  examined... 


No  rejected  for  erroneous  j^o.  of  sabots  rejected  for 
dimensions  of  mterior  erroneous  dimensions- 
cavity 


No.  rejected  for  eccentri- 
city of  interior  cavity... 


No.  rejected  for  defects  in 
material  or  finish 


,  1 
,01 
,  05 
02'  Total  number  rejected..., 

is 


No.  sabots  rejected  for  de- 
fects in  material  or  finish 


Total  number  of  sabots  re- 
jected  


,  02 
,03 

.Oil 
.  01 

.  oi! 

.03' 
.01 


Total  number  accepted.. 


No.  of  sabots  accepted — 


Weiglit  of  heaviest  one  ac- 
cepted  


±   .2 


Weight  of  lightest  one  ac- 
cepted   


Weight  of  total  number  ac- 
cepted  


Mean  weight  of  sabot.. 


Weight  of  total  number  of 
sliotaiid  sabots  accepted 


fuse-hole.  Cavities  and  imperfections  in  casting  are 
generally  found  about  SC^  from  the  top  of  the  shell 
when  in  the  position  in  which  it  was  cast.  Shells 
should  be  rejected  for  rough  casting,  projecting 
seams,  sand-Haws,  a  collection  of  dross,  cavities  or 
honey-combs  of  more  than  two-tenths  of  an  inch  in 
depth,  whatever  their  diameter,  or  a  number  of  small 
holes  giving  the  projectiles  a  spongy  appearance. 

The  shell  is  next  struck  with  the  hammer  to  judge 
by  the  sound  whether  it  be  free  from  cracks ;  the  po- 
sition and  dimensions  of  the  ears  are  vcritied.  The 
thickness  of  the  metal  is  then  measured  at  several 
points  on  the  great  circle  perpendicular  to  the  axis 
of  the  fuse-hole.  The  diameter  of  the  fuse-hole, 
which  should  be  accurately  reamed,  is  then  verified, 
and  the  soundness  of  the  metal  about  the  inside  of 
the  hole  is  ascertained  by  inserting  the  finger. 

The  shell  is  now  placed  upon  a  trivet  in  a  tub  con- 
taining water  deep  enough  to  cover  it  nearly  to  the 
fuse-hole:  the  bellows  and  plug  are  inserted  into  the 
fuse-hole,  and  the  air  forced  well  into  the  shell.  If 
there  be  any  holes  in  the  shell,  the  air  will  rise  in 
bubbles  tlirough  the  water.   Tliis  test  also  gives  an- 


The  following  instruments  are  required  and  used 
as  indictated : 

1.  One  large  ring-gauge,  witli  handle  :  interior  di- 
ameter 0".03  less  than  the  diameter  of  Ijore  of  gun. 

2.  One  small  ring-gauge,  with  handle  ;  interior 
diameter  O'.OT  less  than  the  diameter  of  bore  of  gun. 

3.  One  cylinder-gauge  made  of  cast-iron  and  five 
calibers  in  length ;  interior  diameter  same  as  large 
ring. 

4.  Calipers  for  measuring  the  thickness  of  the  walls 
of  the  shot  or  shell  and  determining  the  eccentricity. 

j  This  instrument  consists  of  two  parallel  arms,  foriii- 

j  ed  by  a  continuous  steel  strap.  One  arm  is  terminated 
by  a  curved  point,  and  is  graduated  into  inches  and 

!  quarters,  from  the  end  toward  the  center;  the  other 
arm  carries  a  socket,  at  right  angles  to  its  length, 
through  which  slides  a  graduated  measuring-rod. 
Tlie  zero  of  the  scale  corresponds  to  the  position  of 
the  rod  when  it  is  in  contact  with  the  curved  point, 
and  a  vernier-scale  on  the  socket  permits  measure- 
ments to  0".01.  To  use  the  instrument,  the  arm  with 
tlie  curved  point  is  inserted  into  the  cavity  through 

I  the  screw-plug  hole,  and  the  clamp  is  screwed  fast 


INSPETCION  OF  SMALL-ABMS. 


112 


INSPECTION  OF  SMALL  ASMS. 


at  the  required  point.  Two  sliort  cj'lindrical  arms  on 
the  clamp  serve  as  bearers,  and  allow  a  motion  of  the 
instrument  only  on  its  own  plane.  The  eccentricity 
of  a  spherical  projectile  is  measured  by  the  distance 
of  the  center  of  gravity  from  the  center  of  figure, 
In  oblong  shot,  however,  it  varies  directly  for  each 
cross-secdon  from  the  seat  of  the  core,  which  is  near 
the  screw-plug  hole,  to  the  head  of  the  cavity,  and 
is  measured  by  the  angle  made  by  the  a.xis  of  the 
cavity  with  the  axis  of  the  projectile.  To  determine 
the  axis  of  the  cavity,  the  greatest  and  least  thick- 
ness of  the  walls  are  measured  at  two  or  more  depths. 
Half  the  difference  between  the  two  will  give  the 
distance  between  the  axis  of  the  cavity  and  that  of  the 
projectile  for  that  particular  section.  It  is  ordina- 
rily considered  sufficient,  however,  to  determine  the 
eccentricity  of  but  one  cross-section  near  the  center 
of  gravity  and  compare  it  with  the  known  results  of 
previous  experiments. 

5.  The  first  intimation  of  eccentricity  is  shown 
upon  the  rolling-table,  which  consists  of  a  heavy  cast- 
iron  plate,  beveled  with  great  care,  and  two  parallel 
rails  attached  to  it  and  separated  from  each  other  by 
a  distance  slightly  less  than  the  length  of  the  cylin- 
drical part  of  the  shot.  When  a  shot  is  rolled  upon 
the  rails,  the  heaviest  side  must  come  to  rest  beneath, 
and  a  more  or  less  readiness  to  assume  a  particular 
point  of  rest  indicates  approximately  the  amount  of 
eccentricity. 

6.  ilensuring-rod  for  determining  the  length  of  cav- 
ity ;  made  of  steel  and  graduated  into  tenths  of  an 
inch  for  a  short  distance  on  each  side  of  the  point 
indicating  the  proper  length. 

7.  Gauge,  for  length  of  screw-plug  hole  ;  made  and 
graduated  like  the  preceding. 

8.  Templet,  for  gauging  the  profile  of  the  shot ; 
made  of  steel ;  graduated  to  indicate  the  length  of 
head,  position  of  shell-hook  holes,  length  of  C3'lin- 
drical  part,  and  total  length. 

9.  Oauge  for  the  Butler  sabot.  This  is  made  of 
steel  and  in  two  parts ;  the  one  screwed  upon  the 
other  when  not  in  use.  The  lower  part  gauges  the 
sabot  as  regards  pitch  and  length  of  thread,  length 
and  thickness  of  ring  ;  tlie  upper  part  gauges  the 
length  and  pitch  of  the  thread  upon  the  base  of  the 
shot.  A  .tmall  templet  gauges  the  depth  and  width 
of  cannelure  and  thickness  of  outer  lip. 

10.  One  hammer,  weigliing  half-a-pound,  having 
a  flat  face  and  conical  point. 

11.  One  searcher  of  steel  wire  No.  20,  with  handle  ; 
steel  punches  and  a  eold-chisel. 

The  shot  should  be  inspected  before  it  becomes 
rusty.  It  is  first  placed  upon  the  rolling-table  and 
examined  with  the  eye  for  defects  in  material,  which 
in  shot  cast  with  the  head  down,  are  apt  to  occur 
as  cavities  in  and  about  the  base.  These,  when  dis- 
covered, are  probed  with  the  "searcher"  or  steel 
punch ;  if  more  than  0".3  deep,  or  of  such  character 
as  to  suggest  weak,  imperfect  metal,  the  shot  is  con- 
demned. The  head  of  the  shot  is  struck  with  the 
hammer  at  its  junction  with  the  cylindrical  part,  for 
the  purpose  of  detecting  cracks  liable  to  be  produced 
there  in  cooling  chilled  shot.  A  dull  sound  indicates 
the  existence  of  such  a  defect,  which  is  further  test- 
ed by  hammering  with  a  sledge.  It  is  then  rolled, 
and,  should  the  amount  of  eccentricity  be  considered 
doubtful  as  regards  that  allowed,  is  measured  with 
the  calipers.  The  length  of  cavity  and  of  screw-plug 
hole  are  then  verified,  and  the  templet  applied  to  the 
profile.  Kolling  it  from  the  table,  it  is  stood  on  end 
and  the  gauge  screwed  to  the  base.  The  sabot  is 
then  screwed  to  its  gauge,  the  dimensions  of  the 
cannelure  verified  with  "the  small  templet,  and  the 
character  of  the  metal  examined.  The  sabot  and 
screw-plug  are  then  fitted  to  the  shot,  and  it  is  again 
stood  on  its  head  and  the  ring-gauges  are  applied  to 
it.  The  smaller  should  not  pass  over  the  shot  at  all ; 
the  larger  shouhl  pass  over  its  entire  length.  It  is 
then  passed  through  the  cylinder-jauge,"  which  is 
fastened,  slightly  inclined,  to  a  block  of  wood ;  the 


weight  is  finally  determined  and  stamped  at  once 
upon  the  body  of  the  shot  near  the  sabot.  Shot  and 
shell  rejected  during  inspection  are  marked  with  an 
X  made  with  a  cold-chisel. 

With  each  lot  of  shot, and  from  the  same  metal. is  cast 
a  cylindrical  colunui  about  2  feet  high  and  2^  inches 
in  diameter  in  a  sand  mold,  and  the  head  of  a  projec- 
tile in  the  usual  iron  mold.  As  soon  as  cool  and  be- 
fore the  shot  have  been  sent  to  the  "  finishing  shop" 
a  test  specimen  is  cut  from  the  colunm,  its  specific 
gravity  determined,  then  broken  in  the  testing-ma- 
chine, and  its  fracture  examined.  Tlie  chilled  head 
is  split  under  a  hammer  to  expose  the  depth  of  chill, 
and  the  results  so  determined  are  compared  with  an 
occasional  shot  cut  open  along  its  axis.  Should  the 
tenacity,  density,  or  chill  be  unsatisfactory  the  entire 
lot  is  condemned. 

Chilled  shot  are  intended  for  the  penetration  of 
wrought-iron  plates,  and  were  the  result  of  experi- 
ments to  substitute  for  the  steel  projectiles  first  used 
one  of  cheaper  material  of  the  requisite  hardness. 

A  fracture  of  the  head  of  a  chilled  shot  presents 
the  following  appearance  :  The  exterior  laj'er  is 
white,  of  crystalline  structure,  the  crystals  being  dis- 
posed normal  to  the  exterior  surface.  The  central 
part  is  dark,  granular,  and  less  compact  than  the  rest 
of  the  mass,  showing  the  presence  of  considerable 
graphitic  carbon,  while  the  intermediate  layers  show 
less  graphite  and  grow  harder  and  denser  as  thej'  ap- 
proach and  finally  blend  with  the  exterior. 

Different  metallurgic  processes,  and  among  them 
the  repeated  fusion  of  iron,  qualify  it  for  chilling. 
The  desired  result  has  been  obtained  in  England  by 
adding  to  a  mixture  of  gray  iron  and  shot  scrap 
four  per  cent,  of  ilmenite,  an  ore  of  iron  in  combina- 
tion with  titanic  acid,  and  containing — 

Iron  oxide  (equivalent  to  45.3  metallic  iron) 61.4 

Titanic  acid .33.2 

Silica 4.2 

Tin  oxide ! 1.2 

Manganese Trace. 

In  consequence  of  the  chilling  process,  the  head 
is  so  hard  as  to  resist  even  a  file,  while  the  cylindri- 
cal body  is  soft  mottled  iron.  The  head"  is  not 
touched  after  casting  in  order  to  preserve  intact  the 
skin,  which  is  the  soundest  and  densest  part. 

The  chilling  power  of  the  metal-mold,  which  de- 
pends upon  its  heat-conducting  power,  varies  with  its 
thickness  and  somewhat  with  its  own  temperature 
and  that  of  the  melted  metal  when  poured  into  it. 
The  specific  gravity  of  chUled  cast-iron  is  greater 
than  that  of  gray  or  mottled  iron,  and  tliis  fact  is 
used  in  discovering  the  depth  of  chill  of  a  shot  by 
weighing  the  shot  first  in  air  and  then  in  water,  and 
comparing  the  results  with  those  obtained  from  a 
standard  projectile  of  the  same  weight  in  air.  Tlie 
shot  which  weighs  the  less  in  water  will  be  chilled 
to  the  less  extent,  since  the  discrepancy  must  be  due 
to  the  lower  density  of  its  chilled  head.  See  Pro- 
jectiles and  Shell-gauge. 

INSPECTION  OF  SMALL  AKMS.— All  the  materials 
used  in  the  niimufacture  of  arms  must  be  of  the  best 
quality,  and  they  should  be  tested  by  the  Inspectors 
according  io  tlie  prescribed  methods.  The  wood 
for  gunstocks  should  be  seasoned  at  least  three  _years 
and  kept  in  a  dry  place  two  years  before  being 
worked.  It  must  be  free  from  "knots  and  sap,  and 
no  wood  which  is  brash  or  light  or  worm-eaten,  or 
in  any  degree  decayed,  or  which  is  cut  across  the 
grain  at  the  handle  of  the  stock,  or  which  is  kiln- 
dried,  sliould  be  u.sed  or  received.  The  following 
rules  for  inspection  apply  to  all  small-arms,  whether 
made  at  the  national  armories  or  by  contract  at  |)ri- 
vate  estalilishments.  The  attention  of  theinsiiecting 
officers  should  be  directed  as  much  as  possible  to 
tlie  operation  of  the  workmen  in  the  course  of  the 
fabrication  of  arms%  Each  component  jiart  is  first 
iiisp<'cted  by  itself  and  afterward  the  arm  in  a  fin- 
ished state.  The  material  and  the  forms  and  dinirn- 
sionsof  all  the  parts  must  Cdufiirm  strictly  In  tlinsc 
of  established  patterns,  the  workmanship  and  finish 


INSPECTION  OF  SMALL  ARMS. 


113 


INSPECTION  OF  SMALL  AHM8. 


nuiHt  ('([iiiil  those  of  tli<'  Mioilcl  iiniiH,  iiMil  111!'  Hcvcnil 
partH  must  lio  browiicil,  IiIikmI,  cusc-liiirdcmrd,  or 
polished,  as  in  the  standard  iiiodcl.  The  fortns  and 
dimensions  of  tlie  partsare  verilied  liy  means  of  stan- 
dard fian^^es. 

The  liarrels  are  inspected  in  earh  of  the  following; 
stashes:  Rolled,  first  stxaiirtitened.  first  bored,  sceon(l 
liori'il,  tliird  turned,  third  l)ore<l.  seeorid  milled, 
j;round.  proved,  fourth  hored.  liftli  liored,  sec^ond 
polished,  rilled,  seeond  muzzle  liled,  sixth  milled, 
seventh  milled,  fourth  lurneil.  tifth  lurne<i,  cut.  pro- 
tiled,  liled.  and  hrovvni'd.  In  these  inspections  the 
Inspector  will  verify  the  liarrel  with  proper  irauijcs 
for  each  staij;e.  He  will  see  that  the  thread  for  llie 
receiver  on  I  he  barrel  is  well  cut  and  the  bayonet- 
stud  well  brazed  on;  that  the  exterior  and  inlerior 
diuu'usions  of  the  barrel  are  correct;  that  there  are 
no  interior  hanuner-marks.  rinc^-bores,  cinder-holes. 
Haws,  cracks,  or  other  defects  which  will  not  dis- 
apjiear  in  tinishinR. 

The  barrels  rejected  for  defects  that  can  be  rem- 
edied will  be  stamped  on  the  upper  side  near  the 
breech  with  the  nuirk  of  ciindenuiation,  which  is 
always  the  letter  ('.  If  the  ilefecl  be  of  such  a 
nature  as  not  to  prevent  the  use  of  the  barrel  for  a 
shorter  arm  when  cut  olT.  the  mark  will  b(;  made  on 
the  defective  part. 

The  liarrels  will  be  proved  in  the  sirotm.l  staije. 
They  will  be  fired  twice  with  the  followini;  changes  : 


First  Charge. 


Powder. 


Grains. 
280 


Ball. 


W'ds. 


No. 
2 


Secood  Charge. 


Size  of  Ball. 


Powder. 


Uraiiid. 

2.W 


No. 
2 


Weiglit. 


Grains. 

mo 


Diame- 
ter. 


Inches 


The  wad  is  formed  by  rollinj;  up  a  strip  of  ])aper  0'".01  thick,  1" 
wide,  and  12"  lonfi. 

One  wad  is  placed  on  the  powder  and  the  other  on 
the  ball,  and  the  charjie  is  well  rammed  with  a  cop- 
per rod.  The  wad  occupies,  when  rammed,  about 
%"  in  the  leni^th  of  the  b:irrel.  The  barrels  are  closed 
for  proof  witli  provint^-plufis.  liavini;  vents  in  them. 
During  lh(^  loading  the  vents  are  closed  by  leather 
thongs.  The  barrels  are  clamped  down  in  a  semi- 
circular bed  capable  of  holding  about  40,  with  the  i)ro- 
ving-plugs  abutting  against  set-screws  working 
through  a  rim  around  the  bed.  Tlie  barrels  are  jire- 
venteil  from  moving  forward,  under  pressure  of  the 
set  screws,  by  collars  screwed  on  the  barrels  at  their 
rear  ends,  which  abut  against  a  rim  parallel  to  the 
one  mentioned.  In  order  to  prevent  accidents,  it  is 
prescribed  that  each  barrel  as  soon  as  loaded  shall  be 
carried  to  the  proof-room  and  placed  in  the  bed. 
"When  the  bed  is  full  the  leather  thongs  are  removed. 
A  powder-train  is  laid  in  a  groove  containing  the 
vents.  The  train  is  fired  from  the  outside  of  the 
room  by  means  of  a  percussion  lock  and  cap. 

Musket  powder  will  be  used  for  proving  the  bar- 
rels of  rifles  and  carbines  ;  the  powder  nuist  be  of  the 
best  quality  as  regards  the  initial  velocilv  and  pres- 
sure; it  must  be  proved  immediately  before  being 
used,  unless  it  shall  have  been  proved  within  one  year 
and  the  Inspector  has  no  reason  to  suppose  that  it  has 
become  deteriorated.  The  measures  for  the  proof, 
charges  should  be  of  a  conical  form,  with  the  mouth 
as  small  as  may  be  convenient,  in  order  that  there 
may  be  less  variation  in  the  (pianlity  of  the  jiowder. 
Before  commencing  the  proof  of  barrels,  the  Inspec- 
tor will  satisfy  himself  as  to  the  quality  an<l  proof  of 
the  powder,  the  size  of  the  balls  and'  of  the  wads. 
After  each  discharge  he  will  pass  the  ramrod  into 
each  barrel,  and  those  which  have  missed  fire  will  be 
reprimed  and  discharge<l  liefore  i>roceeding  to  tlie  i 
proof  of  another  lot.  "  After  each  pr<iof-cliars;e  the' 
Inspector  will  examine  'lie  barrels  which  have  burst  i 
and  note  the  cause  i  f  the  defect,  whether  in  the  ma- 
erialor  workmanship.    lie  will  examine  those  which  i 


have  not  burst,  and  will  condemn  any  which  are  evi- 
dentally  defective,  ile  will  stamp  the  letter  1'  after 
each  roiinii  on  every  barnO  wliicli  successfully  en- 
dures liie  test.  The  Ir'ller  is  stamped  on  the  under 
side  of  Ihebairel  ind  near  its  lireech-end.  To  avoid 
errors,  the  stamping  is  <lone  in  the  proof-room.  Af- 
ter the  second  iiolishiiiL'.  the  barrel  receives  the  final 
slanip.  viz:  V.  for  viewed.  I',  for  proved,  and  the 
eagle's  head  under  them,  placed  on  ils  upper  left  side 
just  ill  front  of  the  receiver,  .\fler  firing,  the  barrelg 
should  be  washed  clean  in  hot  water.  The  examin- 
aiion  is  then  made.  They  should  be  inspected  in  the 
inlerior  and  on  the  exterior. 

The  Inspector  will  reject  such  as  are  too  large  in 
llie  bore,  and  such  as  have  holes,  cross-craeks,  scales, 
seams,  or  ring-bores  ;  he  w  ill  examine  the  brazing  of 
the  liayonct-stud  and  see  that  the  barrel  is  not  notch- 
ed too  deeply  or  indenled  inside.  The  barrels  hav- 
ing been  n'duced  to  their  ullimatc  dimcnsirms, 
siraighlened.  and  completely  finished,  are  again  care- 
fully inspecled  lo  verify  the" straighlness of  the  bore, 
Ihc  exierioraiiil  inlerior  diameters,  and  their  weight, 
which  should  not  vary  more  than  one  ounce  from  the 
slandard  weighl.  The  slraiirhliiess  of  Ihc  liarrel  may 
be  ascertained  by  holding  it  up  to  the  light  and  re- 
llecling  a  straight  edge  on  the  dilTerent  parts  of  the 
bore,  by  which  means  an  ex|)eriencc<l  eye  readily  de- 
tects any  inaccuracy  in  the  bore.  The  small  or  stand- 
ard gauge  should  pass  fr<-ely  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  barrel,  and  the  bore  shiiuld  not  admit 
the  large  or  limit  plug.  The  grooves  should  be  care- 
fully examined  to  see  I  hat  they  are  formed  according 
to  the  pattern,  and  that  they  are  even  and  uuiform 
throughout.  The  lireech-screws  and  receivers  will 
be  examined  to  sec  tliiit  they  are  of  the  proper  dimen- 
sions, are  sound  in  every  part,  and  have  good  threatfe. 
They  are  case-hardened.  The  screw  must  be  tried 
in  the  receiver  to  see  that  it  occupies  all  the  threads 
in  the  tap  of  tlie  receiver.  .l/rnXx— Barrels  condem- 
ned for  defects  detected  after  proof,  or  at  any  time 
in  the  course  of  inspection,  are  marked  with  the  let- 
ter C,  struck  in  deeply.  The  breech-blocks  are 
stamped  "  U.  S.  Model ;"  also  with  theyearof  adop- 
ti<m  of  model,  just  in  rear  of  the  hinge.  The  num- 
ber of  the  gun  is  stamped  on  the  uiiper  rear  portion 
of  the  receiver.  The  barrel,  receiver,  and  breech- 
block having  been  assembled,  they  are  placed  in  a 
skeleton  frame.  One  roiin<l  is  fired  with  «0  grains 
charge:"?"  is  then  stamped  on  the  barrel,  inimedi- 
ately  below  the  eagle's  head.  The  gun  is  then  com- 
pletely assembled,  and  fired  t\vv  rounds  with  service- 
ammunition  to  see  that  all  the  jiarts  are  in  perfect 
working  order.  It  all  be  found  satisfactory,  '■?" 
is  stamped  on  the  under  side  of  the  stock,  in  rear  of 
the  guard-plate. 

The  locks  having  been  put  together  the  Inspector 
observes;  1st.  That  they  are  clean  in  the  inside;  2d. 
That  the  sear  works  freely  when  the  sear-screw  is 
driven  as  far  as  it  will  go,  and  that  the  nose  is  suffi- 
ciently strong  and  falls'  properly  into  the  notches  of 
the  tumbler;  3d.  That  the  bridle  has  no  cracks  or  flaws 
about  the  holes  for  the  tumbler-pivot  and  screws; 
4th.  That  the  springs  are  well  bent  and  of  good  pro- 
portion, that  the  fixed  branches  fit  close  to  the  lock- 
jilate.  and  that  the  movable  branches  swin^  clear  of 
it  without  having  too  much  play ;  .lib.  That  the  slits 
of  the  screw-heads  are  not  defective  ;  6th.  That  the 
arbor  and  pivot  of  the  tumbler  fit  accurately  in  their 
holes;  Tth.  That  the  hook  of  the  tumbler  does  not 
f;ill  below  the  edge  of  the  lock-plate  \vlien  the  cock 
is  drawn:  8th.  That  the  notches  of  tlie  tumbler  are 
sound  and  smooth,  and  that  the  tumbler  fits  and  turns 
well;  Olh.  Tliat  the  main-spring  swivel  is  sound  by 
snapping  the  hammer  several  times  on  the  bare  cone  ; 
10th.  That  the  hammer  fits  well  on  the  square  of  the 
tumbler,  and  that  it  does  not  rest  on  the  loek-plate 
when  screwed  up  tight,  and  that  it  has  the  proper  set 
in  ri'lation  to  the  firing-pin:  llth.  That  all  the  parts 
work  well  together.  The  lock  is  adjusted  so  that  wlien 
cocked  a  scale  attached  midway  of  the  finger-piece 


INSPECTION  OF  SMALL-ARUS. 


114 


INSPECTION  OF  SMALL  AEMS. 


of  trigger  will  pull  o£E  at  from  five  to  seven  pounds. 
When  mounted  in  stock  the  pnll  on  the  trigger  should 
be  not  less  than  six  nor  more  than  eight  poimds. 
The  place  of  fabrication  is  stamped  on  the  lock-plate, 
with  the  letters  "  U.  S."  overit.  Aneagle  is  stamped 
just  in  rear  of  the  former  stamps.  The  initials  of  the 
Master  Armorer  or  jjrincipal  Inspector  are  stamped  on 
the  stock  opposite  the  rear  end  of  tlie  lock  with  italic 
letters. 

The  soundness  and  freedom  of  the  ramrod  from 
flaws  and  cross-cracks  are  ascertained  bj-  the  sound 
it  gives  when  suspended  by  one  end  and  gently  struck 
with  a  piece  of  metal,  and  b}'  bending  over  a  curved 
piece  of  oak  plank,  31i  inches  long  and  5  inches  high 
at  its  middle  point,  one  end  of  the  rod  being  held  by 
a  staple.  The  rod  should  be  turned  at  the  same  time 
so  as  to  present  the  different  portions  of  the  surface 
successively  to  inspection.  The  diameter  and  length 
of  rod  are  verified  by  proper  gauges.  The  tiffing  of 
the  groove  is  ascertained  by  drawing  and  returning 
the  rod  smartly  several  times  to  see  that  it  hf)lds  well 
and  does  not  stick  too  tight  :  the  ramrod  must  bear 
on  the  rod-stop,  and  in  that  position  its  head  should 
not  project  beyond  the  end  of  the  barrel ;  it  should 
fill  the  groove  well ;  the  open  part  of  the  groove  should 
be  in  the  center  of  the  stock,  the  covered  part  in  the 
middle  of  the  thickness  of  the  stock,  between  the 
outside  and  the  bottom  of  the  barrel-groove,  and  the 
rod  should  not  interfere  with  the  front  side-screw. 

The  form  and  dimensions  of  the  bayonet  are  veri- 
fied with  the  proper  gauges.  The  temper  is  tried  by 
springing  the  bayonet  attached  to  a  barrel,  the  point 
resting  on  the  floor.  The  bayonet  is  also  tested  in 
the  following  manner  :  A  curved  piece  of  oak  plank. 
16|  inches  long,  3  inches  high  at  each  end,  and  four 
inches  at  the  middle  is  securely  attached  to  the  work- 
bench. A  staple  is  fastened  at  one  end  of  the  curve, 
and  a  metal  bridge  i  inch  high  at  the  other.  The 
point  of  the  bayonet-blade  is  placed  in  the  staple,  and 
the  bayonet,  fixed  on  a  Ijarrel,  is  bent,  face  and  hack 
alternately,  over  the  plank.  In  this  situation  the 
blade  is  also  examined  for  Haws  and  cniss-cracks.  It 
should  not  remain  bent  after  this  trial.  The  Inspect- 
or then  seizes  the  blade  near  the  point,  and  strikes 
the  elbow  on  the  workbench  to  ascertain  that  the  wel- 
ding is  sound.  If  the  proof  shows  no  defects,  he  veri- 
fies the  dimensions  and  bore  of  the  socket  and  the 
accuracy  of  the  channels.  He  examines  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  clasp  to  see  that  it  fits  well  to  the  shoulder: 
that  it  turns  evenly  without  liinding  in  any  part;  that 
the  stop  is  well  placed  and  firmly  set ;  that  the  clasp- 
screw  and  its  thread  in  the  stud  of  the  clasp  are  well 
«ut ;  that  the  elbow  has  the  proper  form  and  dimen- 
sions. Bayonets  are  marked  on  the  face  of  the  blade, 
near  the  neck.  Those  rejected  for  detects  that  can- 
not be  remedied  are  marked  with  the  stamp  of  con- 
demnation. 

The  examination  of  the  stock  is  directed — 1st,  To 
the  quality  of  wood  ;  that  it  has  good  straight  grain, 
is  well  seasoned,  ancj  free  from  sap  and  worm-holes. 
The  degree  of  seasoning  is  indicated  by  the  smell  of 
wood  ;  by  the  appearance  of  the  lock  and  barrel,  etc., 
when  removed  from  the  stock  ;  they  will  be  rusted 
by  unseasoned  wood  ;  by  rolling  a  fhin  shaving  be- 
tween the  fingers  it  will  crumble  if  the  wood  be  well 
seasoned,  otherwise  it  will  be  tough  and  will  bend. 
The  n\edium  weight  of  a  well-seasoned  ride-stock 
is  1  poimd  14  ounces  ;  of  a  carbine-stocU,  1  poimd 
11  ounces.  Stocks  made  of  good  walnut  will  not 
weigh  more  than  thre(Miuncesless  than  these  weights. 
2d.  "To  the  workmanship;  that  it  is  free  from  splits, 
especially  about  flie  barrel-groove  and  heading  ;  that 
the  grooves  and  beds  are  of  tli«  proper  forms  ami  di- 
mensions ;  that  file  roundings  for  llie  bands  ari' 
smooth  and  accurate  ;  that  the  stock  has  the  pro])er 
JhU  or  crook,  and  is  of  flic  right  length;  that  the 
holes  are  well  drilled,  and  that  those  for  the  wood 
.screws  have  good  threads.  In  examining  the  bed 
of  the  lock,  see — 1st.  That  all  the  edges  arc  sharp 
iind  smooth;  2d.  That  flie  beds  of  the  sear-screw  and 


sear-spring  screw  are  not  bored  down  to  the  trigger 
or  to  the  breech-screw ;  3d.  That  the  beds  of  flie 
main-spring  and  main-sjiring  screw  do  not  penetrate 
to  the  barrel;  4th.  That  the  holes  for  the  tang  of 
the  sear  are  as  small  as  possible,  so  that  the  searsliall 
not  be  wood-bound  ;  .?fh.  That  the  wires  fit  well  in 
tlieir  holes  Mnrkii — The  stocks  inspected  are  mark- 
ed on  the  left  side  with  the  stamp  of  approval  (the 
initial  of  the  Inspector's  name),  or  of  condemnation, 
as  the  case  may  be. 

The  front  part  of  the  trigger  at  half-cock  should 
be  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  guard- 
plate  ;  the  slit  of  the  trigger  should  be  of  the  exact 
width,  so  that  the  trigger  shall  have  no  lateral  mo- 
tion. It  is  important  that  the  guard-plate  should 
bear  firmly  on  the  wood  in  every  part,  as  otherwise 
by  driving  the  tang-screw  too  hard  the  trigger  might 
be  brought  too  close  to  the  sear,  and  the  action  of 
the  lock  be  thus  interfered  with.  The  butt-plate 
should  be  well  fitted  in  the  center  of  the  stock.  The 
bands  should  fit  smoothly  at  the  shoulders,  and 
closely  to  the  stock  and  barrel,  but  not  so  tight  as  to 


require  a  great  effort  to  remove  them.  The  band- 
springs  should  not  be  too  deeply  set ;  they  should 
spring  liack  freely  when  pressed  down;  the  holes 
for  the  wires  should  not  interfere  with  the  barrel  or 
ramrod  grooves.  All  the  mountings  should  fitsmooth- 
ly  to  the  stock.  The  stock  should  have  fhe  proper 
fall  or  crook,  which  is  ascertained  by  applying  the 
pattern,  and  by  trying  fhe  piece  in  the  position  of 
aiming.  By  sighting  along  the  barrel  if  will  be  seen 
whef  her  if  is  well  slocked;  whefher  fhe  ban<ls,  the 
front  and  rear  sights,  and  the  bayonet,  are  well  set. 
The  Inspector  is  not  restricted  to  the  particular 
examinations  above  menlioned;  he  will  make  any 
other  I'xamiiiations  which  he  may  deem  necessary  to 
ascertain  the  (juality  of  any  ]iarl  of  flie  arms  and 
their  conformity  to  the  standard  models  ;  if  he  dis- 
cover or  suspect  any  attempts  on  the  part  of  the 


INSPECTION  OF  SMALL-ARMS. 


115 


INSPECTION  OF  SMALL  ARMS. 


workmen  to  cover  or  conceal  serious  defects,  lie  will 
siiliject  tlie  arms  to  the  most  severe  senitiiiy  in  or- 
der to  (leteel  sueli  defects.  In  llie  iiisiM-elion  of  coii- 
triiel,  iirnis  tlie  Inspector  will  jndi^'c  of  the  (|uidily  of 
materialM  and  workiniuisliip  by  thi'  rules  which  (gov- 
ern in  like  cases  iit  the  national  armories  without  ex- 
acting in  any  case  more  ri?;id  <'ondilions  than  are 
enforced  at  those  establishments.  The  ()rdnan<'e 
f)fliccr  cliarsied  with  the  iiisjiection  of  arms,  or  the 
Master  Armorer  at  the  national  armory,  will  <'ause 
at  least  one  in  twenty  of  each  lot  of  arms  passed  by 
a  Sub-inspector  to  be  taken  to  pieces  in  his  presence, 
and  hi'  will  examine  them  strictly,  ai-'reeably  to  the 
forei^oini;  directions,  before'  allixini;  his  stamj)  of  a])- 
])roval  on  the  finished  arms,  all  of  which  nnist  be 
e.xanuned  by  him.  As  a  {general  rule,  every  i)art 
condenmed,  on  inspection,  will  be  indelibly  marked 
with  the  letter  C.  and  every  iirinciij.al  part  ajiproved 
will  be  marked  with  the  initials  of  the  Inspector's 
name.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  marks  of  ap- 
])roval  are  not  slamijcd  so  dee])  as  to  be  injurious. 
Finished  arms  approved  in  insjiection  will  be  nnirked 
on  the  left  face  of  the  stock  with  the  initials  of  the 
mune  of  the  principal  Inspector  and  the  yi'ar  of  iii- 
specticm.  The  drawing  shows  the  markintc-macliine 
used  for  stamping-  the  letters  etc.,  on  the  finished 
work.  It  is  so  constructed  that  roller  dies  may  be 
used  on  flat  surfaces,,  or  flat  dies  on  work  of  cylin- 
drical form.  The  die  is  fastened  to  a  sliding  car- 
riace,  or  rack,  is  made  to  traverse  the  work  by  a 
hand-lever,  and  is  brousht  to  bear  on  the  work  by 
a  foot-lever,  the  work  bcins  liehl  on  the  tabh'S  by  a 
suitable  fixture.  The  machine  has  both  horizontal 
and  vertical  adjustments,  and  i.s  mounted  on  a  col- 
umn of  convenient  height. 

Tlu'  inspection  of  revolvers  should  include  the  fol- 
lowing: 1.  Bluing — Examine  the  polishing  and  blu- 
ing of  the  cylinder,  barrel,  and  frame,  and  see  that 
all  sharp  edges  and  corners  have  been  removed.  2. 
Opening — Bring  the  hammer  to  half  cock,  and  open 
in  usual  manner.  3.  Tenting  in"'  .ikdeton"  rerolnr — 
Remove  the  cylinder  from  the  frame  and  place  it  in 
a  "  skeleton  "  revolver  carefull_y  made  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  test  the  cylinder  and  ratchet  to  see  that 
they  will  interchange.  The  cylinder  is  removed  by 
turning  the  cylinder-catch-cam  screw  l)ack  one-half 
turn,  thus  liberating  the  cylinder-catch.  4.  Kitra-t- 
or — Examine  the  extractor  and  extractor-spring;  see 
that  the  extractor  is  held  to  place  in  cavity  in  cylin- 
der: that  the  spline  and  steady-pin  do  not  allow  the 
extractor  to  project  over  the  chambers  of  cylinder: 
and  that  the  extractor  fits  the  cavity  in  the  cylinder, 
see  that  extractor-spring  is  properly  wound  and  holds 
extractor  to  place.  Test  extractor-stem,  turning  tlie 
stem  back  one-eighth  turn  by  placing  pin  in  the  hole 
of  head.  Test  the  screw  by  bringing  it  back  finnly  to 
place.  ,5.  Cylinder-caUh — Cylinder  removed,  revolver 
at  half  cock.  Test  cylinder-catch-cam  screw,  turning 
to  place;  see  that  cjdinder-catch  cam  brings  the  cyl- 
inder-catch to  place,  firmly  holding  the  same,  and 
that  the  mark  on  head  of  catch-cam  screw  corres- 
ponds with  the  mark  on  the  cylinder-catch.  Test  cyl- 
inder-catch with  frame  and  barrel-catch.  Closing 
the  revolver,  holding  the  barrel-catch  back  by  thumb 
of  right  hand,  see  that  cylinder-catch  passes  over  in- 
cline of  frame  freely,  yet  rides  over  same,  having  a 
bearing  on  rear  surface;  that  tang  of  barrel  strikes 
on  top  of  the  post  of  frame,  not  allowing  the  cylin- 
der-catch to  rest  on  the  frame  except  at  incline.  G. 
Barrel-catch.  See  that  barrel-catch  opens  snfticient- 
ly,  passes  over  cylinder-catch  freely,  and  holds  same 
lirndyto  place;  that  it  is  clear  of  the  liarrel-tang  at 
all  points  except  where  it  engages  with  hook  on  cy- 
lincler-cateh.  Test  the  barrel-catch  spring  and  bar- 
rel-catch screw.  7.  Actionof'jnrrel luul ryli/uhr rntch- 
en — Open  the  revolver,  let  the  hammer  down,  and 
endeavor  to  close  the  revolver;  see  that  barrel-calih 
prevents  by  being  forced  back  on  hammer;  bring  re- 
volver to  half-cock;  close  it:  see  that  barrel-catch  is 
forced  back  bv  imder  side  of  cvlinder-catch  hook. 


properly  engaging  with  same  imder  the  influence  of 
barri'l-catch  spring.  H.  Ifunntiir-nuM;  i/r  Jiriiig-pin — 
IJring  the  hammir  to  full  cock.  Snap  off.  Examine 
nose  of  hammer  anil  see  that  it  i)rojects  sufficiently. 
See  tliat  the  bearingfor  the  extractor-stud  is  correct. 
9.  Cylinder,  etc. — Examine  racliet  and  extractor-stud; 
test  stud  with  a  socket-wrench:  test  extractor  with 
chandlers  of  cylinder  with  a  phig-gange.  10.  Lnch- 
iriirli-  Uring  liammer  to  full  cocli.  Exandne  tlie 
hand  and  test  hand-s|iring.  Test  the  stop-spring.  Ex- 
amine base-iiin.  II.  Ailjiinttnent — Set  tlie  hammer  to 

!  half-cock;  turn  the  cylinder-catch-cam  screw  back 
one-half  turn;   open  cylinder-catrh;   replace  the  cyl- 

!  inder  and  turn  the  catch-ciim  screw  back  to  place. 
Close  the  revolver.     See  that  the  cylinder  is  free  and 

!  properly  adjiisled  with  the  cylindcr-cateh;  that  it  re- 

'  volves  freely  on  the  base-pin;  thiit  it  rotates  in  either 
direction:  that  the  gas-ring  is  free  from  the  barrel: 
that  the  hand  does  not  rest  against  the  ratchet;  tliat 
the  extractor-stud  is  properly  adjusted  to  the  recoil- 
[ilate,  holding  the  cvliiiiler  on  end  of  base-pin,  allow- 
ing no  longitudiniif  play,  (iauge  distance  of  cylin- 
ders from  barrel,  limits"  0".00(;  and  0".(l()8.  Gauge 
disiance  of  cylinder  from  recoil-plate,  which  should 
be  0".OIi.').  12!  J'linl  and  limb  lorlc — AVork  the  joint 
of  the  barrel  and  frame,  testing  and  adjusting  it  by 
the  joint-pivot  screw.  See  that  the  friction-collar 
moves  freely  on  the  joint  pivot.  By  working  the 
joint  of  the  barrel  and  frame,  test  the  extractor,  ex- 
tractor-spring, lifter,  friction-collar,  pawl  and  pswl- 
springs.  See" that  extractor  works  freely,  projects  to 
the  proper  distance,  and  returns  when  released  from 
lifter  bv  the  pawl;  tlnit  extractor-spring  works  free- 
ly, is  of  proper  strength,  returns  the  extractor  ipiick- 
ly  and  holds  it  firmly  in  its  place:  see  that  the  lifter 
works  freely  on  joint-pivot,  engaging  with  pawl  and 
is  held  bv  same  under  the  influence  of  pawl-spring 
until  rele'ased.  See  that  pawl  works  freely  on  pawl- 
pin,  in  frame;  that  the  ciitcli  on  the  front  end  of  the 
pawd  engages  promptly  with  catch  on  the  lifter,  un- 
der the  influence  of  the  pawl-spring  at  the  rear  end 
of  the  pawl,  and  is  released  by  front  end  of  the  pawl 
passing  up  the  incline  infrout  of  joint ;  that  the  pawl- 
spring'is  of  proper  strength.  13.  Screic.i  and  pinn — 
Examine  and  test  the  cylinder-catch,  lianimer-stnd, 
side-plate,  guard  and  stock  screws.  Try  each  screw, 
bringing  it  down  to  its  bearing,  if  not  down ;  turn 
back  one-eighth  of  a  turn,  then  liaek  to  place :  see  if 
the  parts  come  together.  This  verifies  the  counter- 
sinking of  the  holes,  thickness  of  head,  and  length 
of  screw.  Examine  and  test  pawl.  stop,  and  trigser 
pins.  14.  Stock- — Examine  material  and  workman- 
ship. 15.  Pull — Weigh  the  pulling  off,  which  should 
be  9  pounds,  with  limits,  8  pounds  and  10  pounds. 
See  that  it  cannot  be  pulled  off  w  hen  at  half-cock. 
16.  Alignment  <if  barrel  and  cylinder — This  may  be 
tested  by  placing  steel  "  thimbles"  in  the  chambers, 
bringing  to  full  cock  and  inserting  a  caliber-gauge  at 
the  muzzle.  The  lower  end  of  this  gauge  has  a  ten- 
on which  fits  the  inside  of  the  "  thimble."  If  the 
axis  of  the  chamber  does  not  coincide  with  that  of 
the  barrel,  the  gauge  will  not  go  down.  The  "thim- 
bles" are  similar  in  form  to  the  cartridge-shell  17. 
Action  of  recotver— To  test:  Grasp  the  revolver  with 
left  hand,  near  joint,  barrel  resting  between  thumb 
and  forefinger,  the  index-finger  resting  on  barrel,  the 
second  finger  against  cylinder-catch  and  on  the  cyl- 
inder with  the  third  finger;  thereby  allowing  the  ne- 
cessary amount  of  friction  to  be  applied  to  test  the 
lock-work.  Slowdy  cocking  the  revolver  with  the 
right  hand,  test  the  working  of  the  hand  and  ratchet, 
hand-sjiring,  stop  and  stop-spring,  stop  and  stop 
notch  in  cvlinder.  See  that  stop  leaves  stop  notch  in 
cylinder  before  the  hand  takes  hold  of  ratchet:  that 
sear  enters  the  half  and  full  cock-notches  of  hammer 
promptly,  and  does  not  "creep"  when  released  by 
pressure  on  trigger :  that  hammer  works  freely  in 
frame ;  that  the  mainspring  has  proper  action  on  ham- 
mer and  is  correctiv  adjusted  by  the  strain-screw. 
Kest  butt  of  revolver  firmly,  cock  rapidly,  and  see  if 


INSPECTION  OF  TRANSPORTS. 


no 


INSPECTION  OF  TROOPS. 


the  stop  notch  in  cylinder  is  thrown  past  the  stop 
bolt;  try  each  notch.  18.  See  that  the  arms  are  prop- 
erly stamped  ami  numbered,  and  that  they  have  sus- 
tained uo  damaiie  durint;  assembling  and  inspection. 
See  Fa'in'iyilhiii  i>f  Firt-nriiis,  and  Small-aniis. 

INSPECTION  OF  TRANSPORTS.— In  inspecting  wa- 
ter transportation  for  troops,  the  Inspector  must  be 
governed  by  circumstances  and  necessities.  Military 
emergency  is  not  unfrequently  a  controlling  consid- 
eration, but  should  never  cause  undue  risk  to  life. 
In  an  ordinary  condition  of  things,  and  especially  in 
voyages  of  any  length.  Inspectors  are  to  see  that  the 
vessels  provided  are  such  as  promise  reasonable  com- 
fort to  passengers.  If  there  be  anything  to  indicate 
necessity  for  a  critical  inspection,  the  services  of  an 
expert  are  to  be  employed. 

The  Inspector  should  examine  the  contract  and  see 
that  its  stipulations  are  complied  with,  and  ascertain 
how  the  vessel  is  rated  at  the  underwriters :  the  age 
of  the  hull  and  machinery,  and  their  existing  condi- 
tions, so  far  as  he  can  judge.  He  should  inquire  when 
the  vessel  was  last  in  dock,  the  condition  of  the  boil- 
ers, and  when  last  put  in.  He  should  examine 
whether  the  outfit  of  tackle,  spare  spars,  etc.,  is  suf- 
ficient :  whether  there  is  an  ample  provision  of  boats, 
life-buoys,  and  deck-room  enough  for  quarters  for 
officers  and  enlisted  men,  and  if  the  limit  of  the  Act 
of  Congress  detining  the  relation  of  tonnage  to  pas- 
sengers is  not  exceeded.  He  should  see  that  the  ves- 
sel's crew  is  large  enough  for  her  proper  working, 
and  inquire  into  the  competency  of  the  officers  ;  that 
there  are  the  proper  instruments  of  navigation,  com- 
passes, etc.;  report  if  the  chronometers  have  been 
rated,  and  if  there  is  a  supply  of  charts.  The  water 
tanks  and  butts  are  to  be  looked  at  to  see  if  there  is 
water  for  passengers  and  crew.  He  should  specially 
inspect  the  cooking  arrangements,  see  that  the  ves- 
sel is  clean,  and  that  the  portion  occupied  by  troops 
is  dry  and  v.'ell  ventilated. 

In  order  that  the  paddles  may  be  secure  from  the 
action  of  the  waves,  in  a  side-wheel  sea-going  steam- 
er, the  projection  on  the  sides  under  the  guards, 
called  the  sponsons,  should  be  covered  up  to  make 
that  portion  as  solid  as  any  other  part  of  the  ship ; 
the  keel,  stern-apron  or  inner  stern,  futtocks,  floor- 
timbers,  dead-wood,  stern-post,  transom,  inner  post, 
frame  and  filling  timbers  abreast  of  the  engine,  the 
wales,  the  rudder  and  rudder  fastenings,  should  be 
increased  in  strength  twenty-five  per  cent,  over  those 
of  river  steamers.  The  weiglit  of  machinery  should 
be  below  the  water-line.  The  vessel  should  be  high 
between  decks  and  well  ventilated  by  hatches, wind- 
sails,  and  side-lights.  There  ought  to  be  water-closet 
and  temporary  bath  arrangements.  Provision  for 
sufficient  masts  and  sails  in  the  event  of  accident  to 
the  motive  power,  should  be  made,  and  there  ought 
not  to  be  less  tlian  a  fore  and  aft  sail  to  each  mast 
set  upon  a  gaff,  and  a  trysail  to  each  mast  to  be  set 
in  a  storm.     .Sec  Tnnixp"rt«, 

INSPECTION  OF  TROOPS.— A  close  examination  of 
troops  is  generiiUy  made  each  Sunday  morning  and 
previous  to  muster.  In  the  United  States  Army,  a  bat- 
talion is  mspected  as  follows;  Dismaunted  Troops. 
The  battalion  being  in  line,  bayonets  fixed,  the  Colo- 
nel causes  it  to  break  into  column  of  companies,  right 
in  front,  and  commands  :  Hear  open  oreler.2.  March. 
At  the  first  command,  the  right  and  left  guides  of 
each  company  step  three  yards  to  the  rear  to  mark 
the  alignment  for  the  rear  rank.  Each  Captain  has- 
tens to  the  right,  verifies  the  position  of  the  guides, 
and  tlien  jjlaces  Irmself  facing  the  left,  tliree  j-ards 
in  front  of  tlie  right  file.  The  Adjutant  places  him- 
self on  the  left  of  the  color-guard,  and  commands: 
1.  Fcr'rnrd,  2.  (Juide  left.  At  the  command  tnare/i, 
the  ranks  are  opened  in  each  company  :the  .\djutant 
conducts  the  color-guard  to  the  head  of  thecolmnn. 
posts  it  twelve  yards  in  front  of  the  center  of  the  lead- 
ing c  imjiany,  and  then  brink's  it  to  rear  open  order. 
The  r)rum-major  conducts  tlie  liand.  passing  liv  the 
right  flank  of  the  battalion,  to  the  rear  of  the  column. 


and  posts  it,  facing  to  the  front,  twelve  yards  in  rear 
of  the  rear  company.  The  Colonel  next  commands : 
1.  Field  and  utoff  to  the  front,  3.  Maech.  The  com- 
missioned officers,  thus  designated,  form  in  the  order 
of  rank  from  right  to  left,  fieldofficers  on  the  right, 
on  a  line  equal  to  the  front  of  the  column,  six  yards 
in  front  of  the  colors,  the  non-commissioned"  staff 
form  in  a  similar  manner,  three  yards  in  rear  of  the 
field-officers.  The  Colonel,  seeing  the  movement  exe- 
cuted, takes  post  on  the  right  of  the  Lieutenant-colo- 
nel, and  awaits  the  approach  of  the  inspecting  officer. 
Such  field  and  staff  officers  as  may  be  superior  in 
rank  to  tlie  Inspector  do  not  take  post  in  front  of  the 
column,  but  accompany  the  inspecting  officer.  After 
inspecting  the  field  and  staff,  the  Colonel  commands: 
i.Ordir,  2.  Akms,  and  the  Inspector,  accompanied  by 
these  officers,  passes  down  the  open  column,  looking 
at  every  rank,  front  and  rear.  The  field  and  staff 
return  their  swords  as  soon  as  inspected.  The  Colo- 
nel now  commands:  1 .  In  place.  2.  Rest.  When  the 
Inspector,  commencing  at  the  head  of  the  column, 
proceeds  to  make  a  minute  inspection  of  the  non- 
cimimissioned  staff,color-guard,  and  theseveral  com- 
panies in  succession.  The  Adjutant  gives  the  neces- 
sary commands  for  the  inspection  of  the  color-guard. 
The  non-commissioned  staff  and  color-guard  may  be 
dismissed  as  soon  as  inspected.  As  the  Inspector 
successively  approaches  the  companies,  the  Captains 
command:  1.  Vompany,  2.  Attention,  3.  Inspection, 
4.  Arms.  The  Captain,  as  soon  as  inspected,  returns 
his  sword,  and  accompanies  the  inspecting  officer ; 
Lieutenants,  when  the  Inspector  begins  the  inspeo- 
tion  of  the  front  rank,  face  about  and  stand  in  place 
rest ;  the  arms,  accoutermcnts,  and  dress  of  eacli  sol- 
dier having  been  minutely  inspected,  the  Captain 
commands:  1.  Open,  2.  Boxes:  when  the  ammuni- 
tion and  boxes  areexamined.  The  Captain  then  closes 
ranks,  stacks  arms,  opens  ranks,  and  commands  :  1. 
Front  rank,  2.  About,  3.  Face,  4.  Unsling,  5.  Knap- 
sacks, 6.  Ope?i,  7.  Knapsacks.  The  men  of  the  front 
rank  having  faced  about  take  a  short  step  forward 
so  as  to  be  free  from  the  stacks.  At  the  command 
unsling.each  man  unfastens  his  knapsack. and,  stand- 
ing erect, holds  it  by  the  straps  in  front  of  the  knees, 
flap  from  him  ;  at  the  command  knapsacks,  he  places 
the  knapsack  on  the  ground,  flap  upward,  the  great- 
coat si.x  inches  from  the  feet,  and  then  stands  at  at- 
tention; at  the  seventh  command,  he  opens  the  knap- 
sack, turning  the  flap  toward  the  feet,  the  flap  rest- 
ing on  the  great-coat ;  he  then  stands  at  attention. 
The  Inspector  having  inspected  the  knapsacks,  the 
Captain  commands  :  1.  liepaek,  2.  Knapsacks.  At 
the  command  knapsacks,  each  soldier  repacks  and 
buckles  up  his  knapsack,  leaving  it  in  the  same  posi- 
tion as  before  opening  it,  and  then  stands  at  atten- 
tion. The  Captain  then  cimimands  :  1.  Sling,  2. 
Knapsacks.  At  the  command  sling,  each  man  grasps 
the  unbuckled  strap  of  the  knapsack  with  tlie  right 
hand,  the  buckled  strap  witli  the  left  hand,  the  right 
hand  uppermost,  and  stands  erect,  the  flap  of  the 
knapsack  from  him ;  at  the  second  command,  he  re- 
places the  knapsack  on  his  back.  The  Captain  then 
commands;  1.  Front  rank,  2.  About,  8.  Face.  The 
men  of  the  fnmt  rank  having  faced  about,  step  for- 
ward to  the  line  of  stacks ;  the  Captain  then  closes 
the  ranks,  takes  arms,  and  on  intimation  from  the 
Inspector,  marches  the  company  to  its  quarters  and 
dismisses  it.  In  a  long  column,  some  of  the  rear- 
most companies  after  the  iiispectiim  of  dress  anil 
general  appearance,  may  be  permitted  to  stack  arms 
and  break  ranks  until  just  before  the  Insi)ector  ap- 
proaches them,  when  they  take  arms,  and  resume 
their  position.  Tlie  band  plays  during  tlie  inspec- 
tion of  tlie  companies,  and  is  brought  to  rear  open 
order  by  the  Drum-major  on  the  ajiproach  of  the  In- 
spector. E:ich  man  as  the  Inspector  approaches  him 
raises  his  instrument  in  front  <if  the  b.Mly,  reverses 
it  so  as  to  show  both  sides,  and  then  returns  it  to  its 
former  positiim.  In  column  of  several  comiianies, 
the  inspection  of  dress  and  general  appearance  may 


IN8PECII0K  OF  THOOPS, 


117 


INSPECTION  OF  TROOPS. 


be  (lispcnsi'il  with,  tliphiittalion  liciiis  tiroiii;lit  to  an 
order,  iirid  in  pliuc  rest,  as  soon  us  the  licld  and  slull 
have  been  irisprcliil.  A(  inspeclion  of  (|iiart('rs,  tin- 
IiispiTlor  is  accoiiipanii-d  l]y  all  the  oflleers,  or  by 
such  of  tlieiii  as  he  may  designate ;  the  men.  witli 
j.dov<'s  and  aeeoulerments,  stand  covered  in  froni  of 
their  respective  hunks  ;  in  camp  they  stand  in  front 
of  their  tents  ;  the  senior  non-commissioned  otllcer 
iiiion  the  approach  of  the  Inspector,  commands  :  1, 
Vompany  (or  Hqitwl),  2.   Attention. 

Moiintcil  Trodpn. — 'rh(^  battalion  beinR  in  line, 
tlie  Major  causes  it  to  break  into  column  of  compan- 
ies, rii;ht  in  front,  anil  (commands  :  1.  Jl((ir  npiinir- 
der,  2.  Mauch.  At  the  lirst  conunand,  the  Adjutant 
places  himself  on  tlu-  li'ft  of  the  f;nard  of  the  stand- 
ard, if  the  standard  be  with  the  battalion,  and  com- 
mands: 1.  Firrinird.  2.  Gaide  left.  At  the  com- 
mand march,  the  ranks  are  opened  in  each  company; 
tJK' .\djutant  conducts  the  s^uard  of  the  standard  to 
the  head  of  the  column,  and  [josts  it  si.\  yards  in 
front  of  the  otlicers  of  the  leadini;  company,  ojiiiosite 
the  center  of  the  eom])any.  The  banil.  if  tliere  lie 
one,  passes  by  the  rijrht  tlank  of  the  battalion,  to  the 
rear  of  the  column,  and  takes  post,  facing  to  the 
front,  twelve  yards  in  rear  of  the  rear  company.  The 
trumpeters  of  the  battalion,  if  consolidated  with  the 
band,  return  to  their  respective  companies;  the  Ma- 
jor's trumpeter  places  himself  on  the  riijht  of  the 
trumpeters  of  the  leading  com])any.  The  jAIajor 
ne.xts  conimanils :  1.  Field  and  nt'ijf  t<i  thf  frnnt,  2. 
March.  The  commissioned  officers,  thus  designated, 
form  in  tlie  order  of  rank  from  right  to  left,  lield- 
olficers  on  the  right,  on  a  line  equal  to  the  front  of 
the  column,  fifteen  yards  in  front  of  the  standard; 
the  non-commissioned  staiT  form  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, six  j'ards  in  rear  of  the  tield-otiicers.  The  Ma- 
jor, seeing  the  movement  executed. takes  post  on  the 
right  of  the  lield  and  staff,  and  awaits  the  apjiroach 
of  the  inspecting  otticcr.  Sucli  field  and  sliilT  otli- 
cers as  may  be  superior  in  rank  to  the  Inspector  do 
not  take  post  in  front  of  the  column,  l)ut  accompany 
the  inspecting  officer.  After  inspecting  the  field  and 
stafT,  the  Inspector,  accompanied  by  these  officers, 
passes  down  the  open  column,  looking  at  every  rank, 
front  and  rear.  The  field  and  staflE  return  their  sabers 
as  soon  as  inspected.  The  Inspector,  having  re- 
turned to  the  head  of  the  column,  proceeds  to  make 
a  minute  inspection  of  the  non-commissioned  staff, 
guard  of  the  standard,  and  the  several  companies  in 
succession.  The  Adjutant  gives  the  necessary  com- 
mands for  the  inspection  of  the  guard  of  the  stand- 
ard. The  non-commissioned  staft  and  guard  of  the 
standard  may  be  dismissed  as  soon  as  inspected.  As 
the  Inspector  successively  approaches  the  compan- 
ies, the  Captains  command:  1.  Iiupectlon,  2.  Abms. 
The  Captain,  as  soon  as  inspected,  returns  his  saber, 
and  accompanies  the  inspecting  officer;  the  Lieuten- 
ants, when  the  Inspector  begins  the  inspection  of  the 
rank,  face  about  and  remain  at  ease,  unless  cther- 
wi.se  instructed. 

After  inspection  of  dress  and  general  appearance, 
if  the  Inspector  desires  to  inspect  the  companies  dis- 
mounted, instead  of  mounted,  the  Major  dismounts 
the  battalion  and  forms  rank.  The  horses  of  the  offi- 
cers are  held  by  trumpeters.  The  inspection  is  con- 
ducted in  the  same  order  as  before.  At  the  com- 
mand :  1.  Inspection,  2.  Arms,  the  men  take  the 
reins  off  the  horses'  necks,  pass  the  right  arm  through 
the  reins,  face  to  the  front,  and  undingcarbine.  The 
arms  are  then  inspected  as  prescribed  in  the  School 
of  the  Soldier  Dismounted.  The  inspection  being 
completed,  the  Captain,  on  intimation  from  the  In- 
spector, causes  carbines  to  be  slung,  then  mounts 
the  company,  and  dismisses  it. 

Inspection  of  a  Battery. — The  battery  being  in  line, 
the  Captain  commands:  1.  Prepare  for  inspee.tion, 
2.  Action,  3.  Front.  4.  Right,  5.  Dress,  6.  Front.  7. 
Draw,  8.  Saber.  These  commands  are  executed  as 
prescribed  for  revieviv,  the  trumpeters  also  drawini; 
saber;  if  the  inspection  has  been  preceded  by  a  re- 


view, the  Captain  may  omit  the  seventh  am]  eighth 
commands,  cautioning  tin-  trumpeters  to  draw  saber. 
The  inspecting  otIlciT  inspects  the  Captain,  and  then 
file  chii  fs  of  platoon,  beginning  on  llie  right;  pass- 
ini;  around  the  li  ft  of  the  battery,  he  inspects  the 
cliief  of  laissons,  then  goes  to  tlie  right  and  inspects 
the  trumpeters  and  guidon  ;  the  Inspector  next  goes 
to  tlie  right  section  of  thi'  right  platoon  and  inspects 
the  section;  beginning  with  the  chief,  who  executes 
iniqu'ction  nahi-r,  he  passes  in  front  of  the  piece,  along 
the  right  of  the  section,  and  in  rear  of  the  caisson, 
returning  by  the  left  of  the  si'ctionto  the  front;  he 
then  go<'S  to  the  left  section  of  the  right  platoon  and 
inspects  it,  as  prescribed  for  the  right  section;  he 
then  inspects  the  other  sections  in  like  manner.  As 
the  Inspector  approaches  each  limber,  Xo.  0  opens 
the  lid  of  the  chest  so  as  to  show  its  contents;  he 
closes  the  lid  as  soon  as  the  Inspector  passes  the  lim- 
ber on  its  left.  The  caisson  corporal  opens  and 
closes  the  lid  of  the  caisson  limber-chest,  as  ex- 
plained for  No.  li ;  he  also,  when  so  directed,  opens 
and  closes  the  liils  of  the  other  chests.  The  trum- 
])eters,  chiefs  of  section,  tirst-sergeant,  quarternuis- 
ter-.sergeant.  and  the  artificers  when  mounted,  exe- 
cute inspection  sahir  as  ttie  Inspector  approaciies 
them.  The  Captain,  as  soon  as  inspected,  retunis 
saber  and  accompanies  the  Inspector.  Each  chief 
of  [ilatoon  accompanies  the  Inspector  during  the  in- 
S|)ection  of  his  platoon;  he  then  returns  to  his  post, 
faces  to  the  rear,  and  remains  at  ease.  As  soon  as 
the  forge  and  battery-wagon,  after  the  commands 
wlion.  front,  have  taken  their  places  in  line  with 
the  limbers  and  caissons,  the  senior  blacksmith 
opens  the  lid  of  the  limber-chest  of  the  forge,  and 
the  wheelwright  opens  the  battery-wagon:  they 
then  resume  their  post.-s.  If  mounted,  they  dismount 
and  give  the  reins  of  their  horses  to  the  wheel-driv- 
ers of  the  forge  and  battery-wagon,  respectively,  and 
then  conform  to  what  has  been  just  prescribed.  The 
forge  and  battery-wagon  having  been  inspected, 
each  is  closed  b3' the  proper  artificers,  who  resume 
their  posts.  If  they  have  horses,  after  closing  the 
forge  and  battery -wagon  tlie_v  mount,  return  to  their 

i  posts,  and  draw  saber.  The  inspection  of  the  bat- 
tery-wagon being  completed,  the  Captain  returns  to 
the  front  and  center  of  the  battery,  faces  toward  it. 
ami  commands  :  1.  //r/c^rs,  2. Prepare  to  dismoi-xt, 
3.  DisMotrxT,  4.  Inspection  knapsacks  and  valises. 
At  the  command  dismount,  all  the  officers  and 
mounted  men  dismount ;  the  horses  of  the  Captain, 

I  chiefs  of  platoon,  and  chief  of  caissons,  are  held  by 
the  trumpeters,  assisted  by  the  guidon  if  necessary. 
At  the  fourth  command,  each  cannoneer  takes  his 
knapsack  from  the  carriage,  returns  to  his  post, 
places  his  knapsack  on  the  ground,  flap  upward,  the 
great-coat  six  inches  from  the  feet,  opens  his  knap- 
sack, turning  the  flap  toward  the  feet,  the  flap  rest- 
ing on  the  great-coat,  and  then  stands  at  attention  ; 
each  mounted  man  unstraps  his  valise  from  the  sad- 
dle, and  places  it  at  his  feet  in  the  position  of  stand 
to  horse,  opens  his  valise,  and  then  stands  to  horse. 
The  Inspector.accompanied  by  the  Captain,  then  in- 
spects the  knapsacks  and  valises,  passing   through 

j  the  battery  as  before  prescribed,  each  chief  of  pla- 

j  toon  accompanying  him  during  inspection  of  his  pla- 
toon. The  Captain  then  commands  :  Repack  knap- 
sacks AND  vALLSEs.  At  tliis  Command,  the  knap- 
sacks and  valises  are  clo.sed  and  strapped  in  their 
proper  places :  the  cannoneers  then  resume  their 
posts  and  the  drivers  stand  to  horse.  The  knapsack 
of  each  cannoneer  rests  vertically  on  the  foot-boards 
of  the  chest  on  which  he  mounts,  so  as  to  be  under 
his  legs,  the  flap  from  the  chest:  the  knaps.acks  are 
secured  to  the  chest  by  means  of  a  strap  which  is 
passed  in  front  of  the  knapsacks,  and  is  fastened  to 
the  ends  of  the  chest.  The  knapsacks  of  the  first- 
sergeant,  quartermaster-sergeant,  chiefs  of  section, 
trumpeters,  guidon,  and  the  artificers  when  mount- 
ed, are  usually  inspected  in  quarters  :  on  the  march 
their  knapsacks,  unless  otherwise  prescribed  by  the 


INSPECTION  BEF0BT8. 


118 


INTELLIGENCE  DEPARTMENT. 


Captain,are  carried  on  the  foot-boards  of  the  limber- 
chests  of  the  forge  and  battery-wagon,  and  in  tlie 
baggage-wagons.  Tlie  knapsacks  and  valises  hav- 
ing been  inspected,  the  officers  mount ;  the  Captain 
then  commands :  1.  Driven,  2.  Prepake  to  mount 
3.  Mount.  At  the  third  command,  all  the  mounted 
men  mount.  The  inspection  being  completed,  the 
Captain,  upon  some  intimation  from  the  Inspector, 
forms  line,  marches  the  battery  to  its  park,  and  dis- 
misses it.  The  battery  is  frequently  inspected  in  full 
marching  order — the  men  in  blouses,  and  equipped 
with  haversacks  and  canteens ;  knapsacks  and  valises 
packed  :  overcoats,  when  not  worn,  rolled  and  strap- 
ped to  the  knapsacks  or  saddles ;  horses  equipped 
with  nose-bags  and  halters;  caissons  loaded  with  a 
day's  forage. 

INSPECTION  REPORTS.— Reports  of  the  various 
kinds  of  inspections,  for  the  information  of  the  In- 
spector General.  Inspecting  officers,  before  trans- 
mitting their  reports  to  their  Commanders,  indorse 
thereon  the  remedies  that  have  been  applied  bj'  the 
local  Commanders  for  the  correction  of  irregularities 
that  may  have  been  brought  to  their  notice.  All  Su- 
perior Commanders  in  forwarding  the  reports,  in- 
dorse them  with  their  action,  and  such  remarks  as 
may  be  of  importance  for  the  information  of  the 
Commander  of  the  Army. 

Copies  of  all  non-confidtntial  Inspection  Reports 
are  forwarded  to  the  Inspector  General,  through  the 
ascending  channels  of  communication.  Command- 
ing Officers  only  may  forward  copies  of  contidential 
reports. 

INSPECTOR  GENERAL.— Inspector  and  Inspector 
General  are  terms  in  military  affairs,  having  a  some- 
what vague  signification.  Tliere  are  Inspectors  Gen- 
eral of  Cavalry,  Infantry,  Artillery,  Engineers,  Mi- 
litia, and  Volunteers,  whose  duties  are  really  those 
which  their  names  infer — viz.,  the  periodical  inspec- 
tion of  the  several  corps  of  their  respective  arms,  and 
the  pointing  out  of  deticiences,  the  corps  being  un- 
der the  command,  however,  of  its  own  officers,  and 
not  of  the  Inspector  General.  The  Inspectors  Gen- 
eral of  Musketry  and  Gunnery  Instruction  in  the 
English  Army  are  charged  with  the  direct  superin- 
tendence and  ordering  of  such  instruction  through- 
out the  army.  In  the  Medical  Department,  the  In- 
spectors General  of  Hospitals  constitute  the  highest 
grade  of  surgeons,  under  the  Director  General  of 
the  whole  department.  Inspectors  are  employed  in 
many  capacities.  Inspectors  of  Volunteers  are  Staff 
Officers  charged  with  the  administration  and  organ- 
izing of  the  detached  corps  of  Volunteers  in  their 
several  districts.  Tlie  post  of  Inspector  General  of 
Au.xiliary  Forces  has  lately  been  abolished,  and  his 
duties  transferred  to  the  Department  of  the  Adjutant 
General,  in  order  to  bring  the  Militia  and  Volunteers 
more  immediateh-  under  the  supervision  of  theCom- 
mander-in-('hief. 

INSPECTOR  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT.— In  the 
United  States,  the  law  at  pre.sent  provides  for  one 
Inspector  General,  with  the  rank  of  Brigadier  Gen- 
eral ;  two  Inspectors  General,  with  the  rank  of  Lieu- 
tenant-colonel ;  and  two  with  the  rank  of  JIajor. 
Also,  that  the  Secretary  of  War  may.  in  addition,  de- 
tail Officers  of  the  Line,  not  to  exceed  four,  to  act  as 
Inspectors  General.  In  the  British  service,  the  In- 
spectors Generals  are  officers  appointed  by  the  Horse 
Guards,  with  the  exception  of  the  Inspector  General 
of  Fortifications,  to  carry  out,  in  the  most  searching 
manner,  the  duties  of  inspection  in  their  respective 
branches,  and  to  Ijring  to  the  notice  of  the  Coin- 
niand(T-in-('liief  all  itoints  with  which  lie  should  be 
iiiaile^ic(|uainlcd.  They  are  assisted  in  their  duties 
liv  I ii^jMi-tiTx.  whci  act  under  tlieir  inslructi(jns. 

INSUBORDINATION.  — Disoliedience  to  lawful  nu- 
thority,  under  the  following  phases  .viz.  :  1.  Striking 
a  Superior  Officer;  2.1'sing  or  olfering  violence  against 
a  Superior  Officer;  3.  Offering  violence  in  a  military 
prison;  4.  Disobeying  the  command  of  a  Superior 
Officer;  0. Using  threatening  language  to  a  Superior. 


For  either  of  the  above  offenses  an  officer  or  soldier 
is  to  be  tried  by  a  General  Court-Martial. 

INSULT. -In  a  military  sense,  to  attack  boldly  and 
in  open  day,  without  going  through  the  slow  opera- 
tions of  trenches,  working  bj'  mines  and  laps,  or  hav- 
ing recour.se  to  those  usual  forms  of  war  by  advanc- 
ing gradually  towards  the  object  in  view.  An  ene- 
my is  said  to  insult  a  coast  when  he  suddenly  appears 
upon  it.  and  debarks  troops  with  an  immediate  pur- 
pose to  attack. 

INSURGENTS.— Soldiers  or  people  generally  in  a 
state  of  insurrection.  The  term,  however,  admits  of 
one  exception.  Hungarian  \uiurgnnls  (Tnxiirgenten 
die  Vngarixchen)  mean  the  Hungarian  Jlilitia,  called 
out  or  summoned  by  general  proclamation,  as  under 
the  old  feudal  system, 

INSURRECTION.— A  rising  of  people  in  arms  against 
their  Government,  or  a  portion  of  it,  or  against  one 
or  more  of  its  laws,  or  against  an  officer  or  officers 
of  the  Government.  It  may  be  confined  to  mere  armed 
resistance,  or  it  may  have  greater  ends  in  view.  See 
Cim'l  War  and  Ribi-llion. 

INTELLIGENCE  DEPARTMENT— A  branch  of  the 
Quartermaster  General's  Department,  presided  over 
bj'  the  Deputy  Quartermaster  General.  It  has  for  its 
object  the  collecting,  sifting,  and  arranging  of  all 
information  on  subjects  useful  to  the  Government  or 
Army  in  peace  or  war.  This  Department  in  England 
is  comparatively  of  recent  date.  Its  functionscom- 
prise: — Topography;  Strategical  and  Tactical  Ques- 
tions ;  Concentrations;  Collection  of  all  data  bearing 
on  the  organization  of  foreign  armies  ;  Home  and 
Colonial  Defense,  etc.  The  information  to  be  ob- 
tained on  the  above  subjects  is  gathered  in  time  of 
peace,  so  that,  when  war  breaks  out,  the  General 
commanding  an  expedition  may  have  put  into  his 
hands  the  most  detailed  information  that  maps  can 
contain  of  the  countrj-  in  which  operations  are  to  be 
carried  on,  and  all  such  other  information  needful 
for  the  vigorous  prosecution  of  the  war.  Formerly, 
whatever  information  the  General  received  was 
througli  the  Quartermaster  General's  Department, 
then  imperfectly  organized  for  obtaining  such  intel- 
ligence as  is  now  afforded,  and  also  by  reconnoise 
sances  a  daj'  or  two  in  advance  of  the  Army.  Now- 
a-days,  the  General  is  made  acquainted  with  the 
country  he  has  to  traverse  before  he  sets  out,  and  is 
thus  often  enabled  to  map  out  his  future  movements 
before  commencing  operations.  To  the  Intelligence 
Department  may  be  attributed,  to  a  great  extent  the 
success  of  the  German  arms  during  the  war  of  1870 — 
71.  Before  starting  on  the  campaign,  maps  of  the 
country  the  Arm}'  was  to  invade  were  largely  distri- 
buted."and  also  handbooks  containing  information 
on  many  valuable  points  sucli  as  railways,  local- 
ities, power  of  districts  to  afford  food,  etc. — in  short, 
all  information  tending  to  the  successful  issue  of  the 
war.  The  Intelligence  Department  of  England  is 
modelled  after  that  on  the  Continent,  but  only  for 
defensive  purposes;  It  is  composed  of  Staff  Officers, 
whose  education  and  intelligence  fit  them  well  for 
the  duties  they  have  to  perform.  The  Department 
may  be  said  to  be  at  present  merely  the  nucleus  of 
what  will  be,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  a  still  larger  one. 
There  is  ample  field  for  an  increased  number  of  Staff 
Officers,  and  in  comparison  with  the  Continental  De- 
partment, the  establishment  is  small.  The  following 
extract  from  a  lecture  given  at  the  United  Service 
Institution,  in  Feliruary  187.5,  by  Major  Bracken- 
bury.  K.  A.  ,  D.  A.  Q.  M.  G.  an  officer  of  the  Intel- 
ligence DeiiartmenI,  will  p>it  the  ri'ader  in  ])ossession 
of  tlie  inforniiilidii  ti)b<'  ac((uin'il.  and  the  work  to  be 
performed  by  the  Staff  Officers  of  such  a  Department, 
as  carried  out  in  Prussia,  Austria  and  France;  — 

"1.  A  thorough  military  acquaintance  with  the 
topogra]ihy  and  resources  of  all  latids  belonging  to 
the  nation  and  its  neighborhood. 

"  2.  An  intimate  accpiaintance  with  the  armies 
anil  military  institutions  of  foreign  powers,  as  well  as 
of  the  linnie  armies  and  institutions. 


IirrSNDANCE. 


Hi) 


IMTENDANT. 


"3.  A  scheme  for  ninvement  of  Iroopn  hy  rftilwiiy, 
roail,  or  wilier,  iiccoriliMi;  In  prohiililc  evenhmlitics. 
This  is  l)ase(l  <m  a  stuily  of  lioiiie  and  foreign  iiieaiis 
of  eoriiiiuiniralioii. 

"4.  Military  liislory,  whicli  is  always  a  mine  of 
iriforiiiatiori  if  honestly  drawn  up  acconling  to  ofll- 
cial  kiiovvledge. 

".').  Seleelioiis  from  theabove  items  of  kiiowle<lg(' 
careful! >■  drawn  upaiid  pii1>lislied  for  the  information 
of  the  army.  Tliis  requires  frequent  use  of  tlic  prinl- 
inj;-i)ress. 

"(i.  In  the  three  rountries  tlieStalT  isehiirged  with 
tlie  issue  of  the  re(|uisite  maps  in  ease  of  war,  and. 
for  this  purpose,  is  in  elose  inlimaey  with  llie  great 
map-making  estaljlislunents  re))resented  l>y  tlie  Ord- 
nanee  Survey,  wliicli  is  a  civil  l)raneli.  though  con- 
ducted Ijy  oltieers  of  the  Itoyal  Engineers." 

In  timeof  war,  the  dulicsof  this  department  would 
be  similar  to  those  perfcprmed  l)y  that  section  of  the 
Ctcueral  Stall'  in  Conlincnlal  armies,  with  this  excep- 
tion, that  in  conscc(uencc  of  the  paucity  of  ollicers 
enijiloyed  in  tliis  branch  of  the  service,  it  would 
have  to  be  supplenicnied  by  s|)ccial  Stall' Ollicers,  in 
connection  with  the  Quarteruuister  (ieneral's  Depart- 
ment. Preparatory  to  the  eonunenccmeni  of  hostili- 
ties, all  the  information  concerning  the  country  in 
whicli  the  operations  are  to  be  carried  on  collecled 
and  collated  by  the  Intellgenee  Dcpartmcnl  in  lime 
of  peace— will  be  furnished  to  the  (ieueral  in  com- 
mand, who  will  next  have  to  obtain  further  informa- 
tion through  this  Department  as  tollic  enemy's  posi- 
tions, mural,  etc.,  by  means  of  outposts,  reconnois- 
sances,  spies,  and  enii.s.saries.  The  names  of  the 
enemy's  Generals,  the  organization  and  the  dress  of 
his  troops  can  then  be  learnt,  as  the  capture  of  a 
single  prisoner  or  jiatrol  nuiy  sliow.  even  by  his  imi- 
form.  buttons,  or  lace,  the  presence  of  a  [larticular 
corps.  Newspapers  may  furnish  informalinn  of  great 
value.  During  the  I'russo-Auslrian  war  of  lH(i(>,  llie 
first  antlientic  information  the  Prussians  received  of 
Benedeck's  march  from  OlmiUz  to  Vienna  was  de- 
rived from  Brackenbury's  letters.  The  information 
obtained  by  the  means  of  outposts  is  of  very  great 
importance;  and  the  first  step  taken  by  Ihe  SlalT  of 
Couliaenlal  armies,  after  the  declaration  of  war,  is  to 
draw  a  atrdoii  of  light  cavalry;  lo  this  force  one  or 
two  ollicers  of  the  Intelligence  Department  are  at- 
tached. One  sphere  of  action  is  U|)  lo  Ihe  enemy's 
outposts,  whose  movements  must  be  watched,  and  all 
information  concerning  them  beoljlained  through  the 
videttes,  reconnoissances,  etc.,  without  driving  them 
in,  to  do  which  would  need  areconuoissance  in  force 
a  measure  of  doubtful  value,  as  it  often  leads  to  a 
general  engagement.  The  Officer  Conunanding  an 
outpost  is  responsible  for  the  amount,  as  well  as  for 
the  correctness,  of  all  the  information  he  sends  to 
the  Officer  Commanding;  he  has,  therefore,  to  exer- 
cise his  discretion  as  to  what  intelligence  he  sends 
in,  and  this  should  be  ratlu'r  too  much  than  too  little. 
In  transmitting  any  knowledge  he  has  acquired,  he  \ 
must  ;ulhere  as  much  as  possible  lo  the  words  of  Ihe 
informant;  but  if  the  information  be  of  great  value, 
the  person  from  whom  it  has  been  obtained,  such  as 
a  prisoner,  deserter,  or  patrol  leader,  should  be  sent  I 
in  to  headquarters.  The  information  obtained  from  | 
prisoners,  deserters,  and  persons  from  the  enemy's  j 
side,  is  always  valuable.  The  first  two  classes  do  i 
not  as  a  rule  know  much,  but  travelers,  and  parti- 
cularly boys,  are  great  sources  of  information,  as 
they  are  close  observers,  and  are  less  likely  lo  be  in- 
fiuenced  by  patriotism,  and  a  small  briljewill  suffice 
as  remuneration  for  the  news  supplied. 

The  real   rank  and  file  of  an  Intelligence  Depart-  ] 
ment,  before  and  after  hostilities  liave  begun,  are  the 
regular  paid  spies.     Officers  commanding  outposts 
can  make  use  of  local  spies,  but  the  main  body  of  \ 
these  men  remain   attached  to  the  head(|uarters,  for 
specific  purposes,  under  an  officer  specially  appointed  | 
for   that   duty,  who   should   possess   the   following  I 
qualifications: —  I 


1.  Thorough  relicency. 

2.  Keen  knowledgi'  of  human  nature. 

3.  Distrust  of  all  nnsup|)orii'il  information. 
Lack  of  information  is  not  Ihi- dilliirilly  in  wartime, 
for  the  shilling  lendcncy  of  men's  feixrs  is  to  exag- 
gerate dangers;  the  number  of  spies,  therefore,  may  , 
be  safely  reduced.  Tliere  are  two  classes  of  spies 
as  shown  above: — 1.  [,iiml  S/iien. — Tliese  are  men 
accidentally  employed,  and  whose  business  may  take 
them  into  the  enemy's  liiu's.     Tliey  are  to  be  trusted 

I  in  gaining  inlelligenci';  moreover,  their  powers  of  in- 
fornialion  are  naliinilly  confined  lo  a  small  area,  and 
as  they  are  probably  wi'll  acquainted  with  that  area, 
and  their  being  o:i  busini'ss,  they  are  not  so  lial)le 
to  suspicion.  2.  I'did  Hpifn. — These  should  alwavs 
l)e  kept  apart  and  in  ignorance  of  each  other.  Thev 
should  receive  liberal  jiay.  acconling  to  Ihe  residt  of 
work.  In  India,  Ihe  plan  formerly  ado])led  in  pay- 
ing the  native  sjjies  Wiis  to  |iut  a  bucketful  of  go', 
mohurs  before  Ihe  man,  and  lo  allow  him  to  take 
away  as  many  as  his  two  hands  could  hold.  Some 
military  writers  lay  down  that  all  llie  informalicjn 
obtained  by  the  Inlelligenec  Deiiarlment  should  be 
published  to  the  army,  as  experience  has  shown  that, 
by  acting  thus,  surprisesand  panics  have  been  guard- 
ed against,  great  fatigue  saved,  and  that  the  best 
marclies  have  been  made  when  t!ie  men  knew  the 
object  of  t!ie  imdertaking.  Having  collecte<l  the  re- 
ipiired  information,  the  next  point  will  be  the  trans- 
mission of  sueli  intelligence.  This  is  performed  in 
three  ways: — 

1.  By  the  electric  telegraph. 

2.  By  visual  signalling. 
8.  By  mounted  orderlies. 

Sometimes  the  three  are  combined.  The  electric  tel- 
egraph is  applicable  for  Icjug  distances,  between 
stationary  points  anil  along  main  lines;  between 
camps  at  some  distance  from  one  another,  field  tele- 
graphs may  be  laid  down.  Visual  signalling  is  useful 
in  broken  ground,  across  obstacles,  with  ships  at  sea, 
and  also  for  moderate  distances,  where  the  points  are 
not  stationary  for  any  lime,  such  as  Ihe  outposts.  It 
was  found  particularly  useful  in  the  Loosliai  expedi- 
tion on  the  borders  of  As.sam.  For  short  distances 
mounted  orderlies  can  be  used,  between  points  con- 
stantly moving,  as  well  as  for  transnussion  of  news 
in  wooded  countries.  The  following  have  been  found 
good  distances  to  transmit  intelligence  hy  the  modes 
indicated: — 

Electric  telegraph,  above  8  miles; 

Visual  signalling,  li  to  8  miles; 

Orderlies,  1  to  Hmile. 

INTEND ANCE.— 'In  Continental  Armies,  an  estab- 
lishment corresponding  to  the  English  branch  of  the 
Cimtrol  Department. 

In  the  German  army  it  is  a  small  Department,  and 
the  duties  are  more  restricted  and  entirely  civil. 
Until  1866,  Prussia  had  no  combatant  ofiicers  attach- 
ed to  the  Intendance.  It  has  much  less  independent 
responsibilit}-,  and  clashes  less  with  the  War  Depart- 
ment, because  it  only  refers  to  matters  beyond  gener- 
al control,  and  large  funds  are  alwiiys  placed  at  its 
disposal  bj'  the  military  authorities;  ne;irly  two-thirds 
of  the  army  expenditure  is  paid  by  it,  like  the  Cloth- 
ing Department.  In  France,  the  Intendance  possess- 
es the  direction  and  control  of  everything  that  con- 
cerns pay,  provisions  (wu/n/'i/f'fts  de  Aot/cAc,)  contracts 
for  the  same.  Clothing  Department,  etc.  This  De- 
partment is  officered  exclusively  by  officers  of  the 
army,  of  no  lower  rank  than  that  of  Captain,  and 
whose  age  docs  not  exceei!  3.5  years;  they  have  to  pass 
an  examination  before  a  Board  of  Officers.  Their 
functions  are  purely  administrative,  and  they  have 
no  rehilive  rank. 

INTENDANT.— INTENDANT  MILITALRE.— An  offi- 
cer in  the  French  army  charged  with  the  organizji- 
tion  and  direction  of  all  Ihe  civil  services  attending  a 
force  in  the  field.  The  officers  acting  under  his  or- 
ders are  those  in  charge  of  all  the  finance  services,  the 
provisions,  stores,  hospitals,  artillery  train,  and  trans- 


INTERCHANGEABLE. 


120 


INTEBN. 


port  departments,  besides  the  interpreters,  guides, 
and  sucli  like  temporary  services.  Tlie  Intejidnnl- 
en-Chief  of  an  arm}-  is  the  Representative  of  tlie  Min- 
ister of  War ;  and.  sliort  of  supersedinc;  the  General's 
orders,  can  exercise,  in  case  of  need,  all  the  functions 
of  that  high  officer  of  state.  The  Intendanceis  divi- 
ded into  Intendants,  ranking  with  General  Officers, 
Sub-Intendants  with  Colonels,  and  Assistant-Intend- 
ants  with  Majors;  besides  Cadets, who  receive  no  pay, 
and  constitute  a  probationary  grade. 

Intendant  was  the  name  given  in  France  before  the 
Revolution  to  the  Overseer  of  a  Province.  Such  per- 
manent officers  were  first  appointed  by  Henry  II. 
(l.'iSl).  Under  the  complete  system'of  centralization 
established  by  Richelieu,  these  Intendants,  as  they 
were  now  called, became  tlie  mere  organs  of  the  Roj'al 
Minister,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  provincial  action. 
To  them  belonged  the  proporlioning  of  assessments, 
the  levj-ing  of  soldiers,  etc.  The  National  Assembly 
in  1789,  established  in  each  department  an  elective 
administration.  Kapoleon  virtually  restored  the  In- 
tendants, but  exchanged  the  hated  name  for  that  of 
PreficU. 

INTERCHANGEABLE.— The  meaning  of  this  word 
is  self-evident,  viz.;  that  which  m.ay  be  given  and 
taken  mutuall)-.  In  military  materiel,  the  term  is 
used  to  express  that  an  article  which  suits  or  tits  any 
part  of  a  machine,  a  lock  of  a  gun,  a  wheel,  etc.. 
will  fit  corresponding  parts  of  a  like  article  ;  and  thus 
all  parts  of  iniitiriel  are  for  the  most  part  made  inter- 
chanieable. 

INTERIOR  ECONOMY— Applied  to  military  affairs 
relates  to  the  whole  management  of  a  regiment,  the 
responsibility  of  which  lies  with  the  Commanding 
Officer,  as  he  is  the  mover  and  director  of  every- 
thing pertaining  to  his  command.  It  includes  all 
duties  in  which  the  officers  and  men  are  interested, 
such  in  the  former  case,  as  their  mess,  band,  funds, 
etc.,  and  in  the  latter,  to  the  messes  of  the  non 
commissioned  officers  and  soldiers,  their  amuse- 
ments, libraries,  in  fact,  everything  tending  to  the 
good  order  and  welfare  of  the  regiment. 

INTERIOR  FLANKING  ANGLE.— In  fortification, 
the  angle  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  line  of  de- 
fense and  the  curtain. 

INTERIOR  FORM  OF  CANNON.— The  aim  in  all  gun 
ecnstnution  is  to  obtain  the  maximum  amount  of 
work  from  a  given  charge  and  weight  of  piece,  this 
within  the  limits  of  safety  to  the  piece  itself.  To  at- 
tain this,  the  relations  between  the  interior  dimen- 
sions, the  charge,  and  the  projectile,  have  to  be  in 
each  case  studied  and  regulated  with  the  greatest 
care.  The  dimen.sions  of  a  piece  are  also  governed 
somewhat  by  the  nature  of  its  service,  and  circuin- 
stances  under  which  it  is  to  be  tired.  The  interior 
of  cannon  may  be  divided  into  three  distinct  parts  ; 
1st,  The  vent,  or  channel  which  communicates  lire  to 
the  charge  ;  2d,  Tlie  sent  of  the  charge,  or  chamber,  if 
its  diameter  be  different  from  the  rest  of  the  bore ; 
3d,  The  cylinder,  or  that  portion  of  the  bore  passed 
over  by  the  projectile.  See  these  parts  under  proper 
headings. 

INTERIOR  RETRENCHMENTS.— When  a  breach  is 
made  in  the  enciente,  altliough  military  usage  and  a 
point  of  honor  require  of  the  garrison  to  sustain  at 
least  one  assault,  the  consequences  of  defeat  are  of 
too  serious  a  character  to  expect  such  an  effort,  un- 
less a  place  of  safety  be  provided,  into  which  the 
garrison  may  retreat  after  defending  the  breach  and 
obtain  an  honorable  capitulation.  On  this  account, 
and  also  to  lengthen  tb(;  defenc'c,  interinr  retrench- 
ments are  made  in  the  liasticma.  Tlu'se  works  may 
be  either  of  a  temporary  or  permanent  character,  but 
it  is  generally  conceded  that  the  latter  class  alone 
offers  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  enemy.  The  former, 
moreover,  reqtiires  that  the  retrenchment  slioidd  be 
thrown  uj)  during  the  siege,  an  undertaking  of  great 
dilliculty.  both  from  the  aimoyance  of  the  enemy's 
fire  and  the  fatiguerj  staleiif  (he garrison,  occasioned 
by  its  ordinary  duties.     The  works  may   be  placed 


within  the  bastion,s,  which  are  the  parts  of  the  en- 
ciente usually  breached,  or  in  rear  of  their  gorges. 
Those  which  are  placed  within  the  bastions  extend 
across  them  either  between  the  faces  or  between  the 
flanks.  When  placed  at  the  gorge  they  connect  the 
two  adjacent  curtains.  They  may  be  divided  into 
four  classes,  viz. :  1st,  those  that  rest  against  the 
faces  of  the  bastions;  2d,  those  that  rest  against  the 
flanks;  3d,  those  that  rest  against  the  two  adjacent 
urtains;  4th,  and  those  that  comprehend  several 
bastions.  The  plan  of  these  works  varies  with  their 
position,  the  size  of  the  bastions,  or  the  more  or  less 
openness  of  their  salient  angles.  In  small  bastions 
with  very  acute  salients,  when  the  retrenchment  rests 
upon  the  faces,  it  usually  receives  the  form  of  a  tcnaille 
or  an  inverted  redan,  the  angle  of  the  tenaille  being 
about  1008.  When  the  bastions  are  large  and  the 
salient  angle  quite  open  or  obtuse,  the  retrenchment 
may  receive  the  form  of  a  small  bastion  front  resting 
upon  the  faces.  Kither  of  these  forms  may  in  like 
manner  be  used  when  the  retrenchment  rests  upon 
the  flanks  of  the  bastion.  But  as  this  position  en- 
ables a  retrenchment  of  the  form  of  an  ordinary 
redan  to  have  its  ditches  swept  by  the  tire  of  the 
flanks  of  the  adjacent  bastions,  this  form  is  in  some 
cases  used  in  preference.  When  placed  between  two 
curtains  at  the  gorge  of  a  bastion  the  plan  of  the 
retrenchment  is  always  a  bastioned  front.  See  In- 
terii>r  Wi'rks  (im\  Pirmanent  Fortifications. 

INTERIOR  SLOPE.— In  fortification. the  surface  con- 
necting the  superior  slope  with  the  banquette  tread. 
It  is  well  to  make  the  interior  slope  vertical  (and  it 
is  oftentimes  made  so)  for  the  reason  that  defenders  in 
that  case  can  stand  close  to  the  parapet  in  delivering 
their  fire.  A  vertical  slope  would  require  a  strong 
construction  of  some  kind,  to  retain  the  earth  in  posi- 
tion, and  to  resist  the  horizontal  thrust  produced  by 
the  prism  of  rupture.  When  the  materials  for  mak- 
ing this  construction  are  abundant  and  convenient, 
a  vertical  slope,  or  one  nearly  so,  maj'  be  used.  A 
steep  slope  requires  a  strong  revetment,  otherwise  it 
is  to  be  preferred.  A  gentler  slope  requires  a  slighter 
protection,  but  has  the  disadvantage  of  placing  the 
soldier  too  far  from  the  interior  crest  when  he  is  in  a 
standing  position;  and  it  exposes  him  more  to  pro- 
jectiles grazing  the  interior  crest.  The  rarity  of  hand- 
to-hand  conflicts  on  the  parapet,  and  the  use  of 
breech-loading  weapons,  allow  the  use  of  gentler 
slopes  for  the  interior  of  the  work  than  were  formerly 
regarded  as  admissible.  Gentle  slopes  are  accom- 
panied, however,  by  the  disadvantage  of  requiring 
the  soldier  to  occupy  a  recumbent  position  when  fir- 
ing his  piece.     See  Pield-fortification. 

INTERIOR  WORKS.— Besides  the  works  exterior  to 
the  enceinte,  the  object  of  which  is  to  retard  the  as- 
sailant in  his  attempts  to  enter  it  by  breaching.  En- 
gineers have  placed  within  it  other  works,  termed 
interior  works.  They  are  placed  on  such  points  as 
are  exposed  to  be  breached  by  the  enemy's  artillery, 
and  are  intended  to  cut  these  off  from  that  portion  of 
■the  enceinte  not  so  exposed.  By  them  the  garrison 
is  enabled  to  make  an  effectual  defense  of  the  breach 
when  the  asault  upon  it  is  made.  When  intended 
for  the  defense  of  the  breach  alone,  they  are  called 
interior  retrenchments.  They  are  of  various  forms, 
being  adapted  to  the  position  they  occupy  and  the 
degree  of  resistance  to  be  offered,  and  are  usually 
constructed  with  a  revetted  scarp  and  counterscarp 
to  secure  them  against  an  ojien  assault.  When  a  con- 
siderable command  is  given  to  an  interior  work  over 
the  one  in  which  it  is  placed  with  the  view  of  olilain- 
ing  a  plunging  fire  on  points  which  the  enemy  may 
occupy  on  the  exterior,  it  receives  the  name  of  a 
cavalier.  When  an  interior  work  is  detached  from 
the  enceinte  and  is  organized  to  receive  the  garrison 
and  rely  on  its  own  resources  after  tlie  main  work 
lias  f:tllen,  it  is  termed  a  citadel.  See  InU^ior  lie- 
trenchinents. 

INTERN.— A  term  used  in  a  military  .sense  to  ex- 
press the  act  of  giving  shelter  to   troops  which  have 


INTEBNAL  FBESSURE  OAUOE. 


121 


IKTEHNATIONAL  LAW. 


taken  rofui^e  on  iicutriil  Icrrilory.  On  pnssin;;  tlic 
fniiilicr  IIk'  men  arc  ilisanncii  ajid  mhI,  id  ilic  ilif- 
liTciil  (luartcrs  alliilti'il  to  IIli'Iii.  i;<Mii-rally  in  the  in- 
terior of  llic  coiiiilry  :  llicy  arc  treated  on  tlie  same 
footinij;  as  tlie  soldiers  of  tlie  countrv,  and  tlie  olli- 
cers  are  allowed  to  keep  tlieir  arms,  horses,  anil  l)ai;- 
gai;e,  but  have  to  ji;ive  their  parole  that  lliry  will 
not  attempt  to  eseape.  Towards  the  end  of  tin.'  war 
of  1870  71,  IJonrhaki's  Army,  sorely  pressed  by  the 
(termaris  took  icfiiu'c-  in  Swii/i-rland.  to  escape  "being 
taken  prisoners  and  wiTe  iiilerneil    there. 

INTERNAL  PRESSURE  GAUGE.  Various  forms  of 
the  Inlenial  I'ressnre-i^an^e  have  been  propo.sed. 
'J'hat  liy  Doctor  \V.  K.  Womlliridjie  is  fonnd  satis- 
factory. It  consists  essentially  of  a  i)istiin  havini;  a 
coniciil  cavity,  pressed  by  the  i)o\vder-;;ani;<'  aj;ainsl 
a  disk  of  copper  which  enters  the  cavity  in  pro|)or- 
tion  as  It  is  crushed.  The  surface  of  the  cavity  is 
formed  with  a  tine  spiral  thread,  continnons  fr  )m 
the  face  of  the  ])iston  to  the  ape.x  of  the  cone —:  ho 
tnrns  of  their  tlircails  bein^  divided  into  t<'nths  ly 
lines  radiatini;  from  the  apex.  These  are  inipresi-cd 
upon  the  copper  accordins;  to  the  extent  that  the 
metal  has  Ix'cn  forced  into  the  cavity,  and  a  readinj; 
of  the  numlier  of  tnrns  of  the  spiral  atl'ords  an  indi- 
cation of  the  pressure  to  which  tlie  piston  has  been 
subjected.  It  may  be  considered  to  be  a  moditic.-i- 
tion  of  a  form  of  Internal  t<aui;e  projjosed  by  Captain 
Henry  .Metcalfe,  Ordnance  Department,  the  sjjiral 
cutter  of  which  is  convex.  The  cut  on  the  disk 
is  divided  for  facility  of  readin;^  the  pressure.  See 
Pre  tsurf-  Gd  nqe. 

INTERNATIONAL  DATE  LINE.  -  The  line  at  which 
dates  chaniie.  Iiein^  made  later  by  one  clay  by  those 
who  cross  ihe  line  from  east  to  west,  and  earlier  by 
one  day  by  those  crossiuu;  it  from  west  to  east.  If  a 
person  start  at  midday,  that  is,  when  the  snn  was 
shining  perpendicularly  on  the  meridian  that  passes 
through  the  place  of  starting,  and  travel  westward, 
keeping  pace  with  tiie  sun, thus  keeping  the  sun  direct- 
ly over  the  meridian  of  the  place  at  which  he  might 
be,  he  would  make  a  complete  journey  around  the 
globe  in  twenty-four  hours;  and  return  to  his  ])lace 
of  starting  at  noon  the  next  day.  Twenty-four  hours 
would  have  passed,  but  to  the  traveler  the  sun  would 
have  been  shining  perpendicularly  as  at  noon  all  the 
time ;  and  the  question  arises,  when  or  at  what  jioint 
did  tlie  traveler  change  from  noon  of  one  day  to  noon 
of  the  next?  For  instance,  if  he  should  start  at 
Mondity  noon  and  keip  the  sun  in  the  zenith, be  would 
arrive  at  the  jilace  of  starting  Tuesday  noon— it  would 
be  noon-day  to  him  during  the  whole  journey  of 
twenty-four  hours — Monilay  noon  would  change  to 
Tuesday  noon  without  an  intervening  night :  where 
would  the  change  occur  ?  It  is  to  him  apparently 
still  Monday  noon,  and  to  obtain  the  correct  date  he 
must  drop  a  day.  The  reason  for  dropijing  a  day 
can  be  more  fulh'  shown  as  follows  :— Kemembering 
that  the  earth  makes  one  complete  revolution  on  its 
axis  in  twenty-four  hours,  anil  thus  the  sun  in  its  ap- 
parent diurnal  revolution  moves  over  800  degrees  of  ! 
space  in  twenty-four  hours,  it  thus  moves  over  l.'J  de- 
grees of  space  in  one  hour,  from  which  it  is  evident 
that  the  difference  in  longitude  which  causes  the 
difference  in  the  relative  time,  may  be  estimated  in 
time,  allowing  15  degrees  to  an  hour,  or  one  degree 
to  four  minutes.  Therefore,  suppose  a  man  starting 
from  any  given  point,  travel  one  degree  west,  his 
watch,  instead  of  marking  twelve  o'clock  at  noon, 
according  to  the  correct  time  at  that  place,  would 
mark  four  minutes  after  twelve.  Let  him  travel  west 
l.T  degrees,  and  he  will  find  that  1  o'clock  by  his 
watch  will  be  noon-day  by  the  sun.  Let  him  go  on 
to  120  degrees,  and  when  the  sun  is  in  the  zenitli  his 
watch  will  indicate  eight  o'clock  p.  m.  Completing 
liis  journey  around  the  glolie.  he  will  have  gained. 
in  tills  manner,  twenty-four  hours.  From  tliis  it  will 
he  seen  that  in  order  to  obtain  the  correct  date  twen- 
ty-four hours  must  be  subtracted  from  his  time.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  a  person  could  travel  eastward  at 


the  Hame  speed  with  whieh  the  sun  apparently  trav- 
els westward  l\Uf  same  rate  of  spi-eil  with  wliich  tin; 
earth  revolves  on  its  a.xis;,  if  hi-  should  start  on  liis 
journey  at  noon-day,  he  would   meet   the  sun   when 
exactly  on  till' opposite   side   of   the    earth  from   the 
place  of  starling,  and  continuing  :lie  jouniey  would 
again  meet  the  huh  at  Ihe  place  of  starling,  thus  see- 
ing threi^  noon-days   within  the  twenty-four  hours, 
I  or  apparently  gaininga  day.     This  we  know  to  be  im- 
i  possible,  since  only  tweniy-four  hours  of  time  liave 
I  passed,  while  in  reality  tin  extra  period   of   light  has 
iieen  gained,  and  thus  to  obtain  Ihe  rorrect  local  date 
j  a  ilay  must  be  arlded  to  your  time.  From  Ihiswesee 
i  that,  for  every  time  a  ))erson  travels  around  theearth 
!  in  either  direction,   there  is  a  difference  in  time  of 
one  day,  and  the  result  is  the  same  regardless  of  the 
!  rale    of  speed.       To  avoid  thi'    confusion    of  dates 
which   mii-.t    necessarily   result  from    this   constant 
gain  finone  side  and  loss  on  the  other,  it  has  been  pro- 
posed to  determine  upi)n  some  line  at  which  eastern 
bound    travelers    shall    add  one  day,  and  westward 
bound  travelers  shall  drop  a  day  from  their  reckon- 
ing, and  thus    ijrevent  a  disagreement  in  regard  to 
the  day  of  the  week.     The   line  at   which  this   addi- 
tion or  subtraction  shall  be  made  is  what  is  meant 
by  the  date-line. 

"  INTERNATIONAL  LAW,-  The  body  of  rules,  deriv- 
ed from  custom,  or  treaty,  by  which  nations,  either 
tacitly  or  expressly,  agree  to  be  governed  in  their  in- 
tercourse with  each  other.  Some  of  the  rules  have 
existed  from  the  beginning  of  history  ;  their  nundier 
has  gradually  increased,  their  scope  widened,  and 
their  quality  improved.  The  Amphictyonic  Council, 
formed  in  very  early  times  and  limited  to  Grecian 
tribes,  required  that  after  a  battle  an  exchange  of 
prisoners  should  be  made,  and  a  truce  declared  in 
order  that  the  dead  might  he  buried.  They  also 
bound  themselves  not  to  destroy  any  city  included  in 
the  alliance,  or  to  cut  it  otf  from  funning  water  in 
war  or  peace.  The  Romans  in  their  early  days  estab- 
lished a  College  of  Heralds  for  ileclaring  war,  and  al- 
lowed only  sworn  soldiers  to  take  part  in  it.  The  in- 
fluence of  Christianity,  declaring  the  universal  broth- 
erhood of  man  as  one  of  its  fundamental  truths,  has 
been  great  and  beneficent  in  the  sphere  of  naticnal 
character  and  intercourse.  Many  barbarities  fell  at 
once  before  it,  and  many  others  have  been  gradually 
mitigated  and  subdued. 

International  Law  has  two  natural  divisions — the 
one  containing  rules  for  the  intercourse  of  nations 
during  peace,  and  the  other  regulating  the  changes 
made  by  war. 

HlGHT.S  AND  DnTIES  OF  NATIONS  DuEDJO  PeACE. — 1. 

Individuals  cannot  be  parties  to  International  Law; 
but  may.  if  strangers,  claim  liumcne  treatment  un- 
der the  law  of  nature  broader  than  that  of  nations. 
Onl)'  independent,  organized  communities  are  na- 
tions, and  have  the  power  of  making  treaties  with 
other  nations.  Protected  or  dependent  States.  Pro- 
vinces and  Colfinies,  the  members  of  Confederacies, 
and  separate  Kingdoms  made  one  by  a  permanent 
compact,  must  conduct  all  their  intercourse  with  oth- 
er nations  through  that  nation  on  which  they  are  de- 
pendent, or  of  which  they  are  a  part.  No  particular 
form  of  government  and  noditTereiice  of  religious  be- 
lief necessarily  excludes  a  nation  from  the  obligations 
and  advantages  of  International  Law-.  Independent 
States  have  equal  duties  and  rights,  without  reference 
to  their  size  or  other  relative  (lifferences,  and  are  sov- 
ereign in  the  sense  of  having  no  political  superior. 
The  individual  States  of  the  .\mcrican  Union  may  be 
said  to  have  a  certain  local  and  relative  sovereignty; 
but  with  respect  to  other  nations  the  United  States 
only  constitute  a  Sovereign  State.  International  Law 
deals  only  with  State  d'fiu-t-n.  While  a  body,  hither- 
to dependent  or  forming  a  part  of  a  nation,  is  striv- 
ing to  effect  its  independence,  other  nations  cannot 
help  it.  without  creating  a  state  of  war  with  the  par- 
ent State.  A  State  cannot  evade  its  obligations  by 
change  of  Coristiiution.  Denmark  and  Norway,  when 


INTEENATIONAL  LAW. 


122 


INTEENATIONAL  LAW. 


separating  in  1814,  cacli  took  its  share  of  tlie  ilebt  of 
the  United  Kingdom ;  and  tlie  United  States  assumed 
the  debts  of  tlie  preceding  Confederation.  Tlie  in- 
dependence of  a  State  implies,  first  of  all.  freedom  in 
the  conduct  of  its  internal  affairs.  Generally  there 
can  be  no  legal  interference  with  them  b_y  anothre 
State.  Yet  when  a  State,  by  external  alliances,  is  in- 
creasing its  power  in  a  degree  that  endangers  the  wel- 
fare cr  tranquility  of  its  neighbors,  the  right  of  in- 
terfering in  order  to  preserve  the  balance  of  power  is 
claimed  and  has  been  exercised:  as,  for  example,  in 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  and  after  the 
French  Revolution  and  the  fall  of  Napoleon.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  circumstances  do  not  require  or 
warrant  such  an  interference,  there  have  been  na- 
tional declarations  designed  to  forestall  and  prevent 
it.  An  instance  of  this  was  furnished  by  what  is 
called  the  Monroe  Doctrine — President  Monroe's  de- 
claration made  in  order  to  prevent  European  inter- 
ference in  what  had  been  Spanish  America — that 
"The  United  St:>tes  would  consider  any  attempt  on 
the  part  of  the  allied  European  Powers  to  extend 
their  system  to  any  portion  of  our  hemisphere  as  dan- 
gerous to  our  peace  and  safety."  Also,  when  any 
great  cruelty  has  been  practiced  by  the  strong  against 
the  weak  the  right  of  interference  by  other  nations  is 
claimed.  A  signal  instance  was  furnished  in  1827, 
during  the  struggle  for  independence  by  the  Greeks 
against  the  Turks,  when  the  allied  fleets  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Russia  destroyed  the  Turkish 
fleet. 

2.  A  State  has  a  sovereign  right  to  its  territories 
and  property.  Its  propertj'  consists  of  public  build- 
ings, forts,  ships,  lands,  mone_y,  and  siiiular  posses- 
sions. All  private  property,  also,  within  its  limits  is 
under  its  protection.  Its  territory  includes  all  the 
surface  of  land  or  water  w'thin  its  limits ;  of  har- 
bors, gulfs,  and  straits  within  certain  headlands  :  and 
of  the  sea  within  a  league  from  the  shore.  Outside 
of  this  limit  the  sea  is  free  to  all  nations  for  com- 
merce and  fishing.  But  while  foreigners  are  free  to 
catch  fish  in  any  part  of  the  ocean  contiguous  to  the 
territory  of  a  State — as  on  the  banks  of  Newfound- 
land— they  cannot  dry  their  nets  or  cure  their  fish  on 
the  adjoining  coasts  unless  the  privilege  has  been 
granted  by  treat}'.  A  ship  owned  by  inhabitants  of 
a  countr}'  cannot  be  regarded  as  national  territory, 
but  is  simply  private  property  under  the  protection 
of  the  national  flag.  In  a  foreign  port  it  may  be  at- 
tached for  debt,  and  its  crew  are  accountable  to  the 
laws  of  the  port  and  of  the  country  for  any  miscon- 
duct which  they  may  commit.  Rivers  between  two 
countries,  unless  a  contrary  provision  is  made  by 
treaty,  are  common  to  both,  and  the  bunidary  runs  ', 
through  the  principal  channel.  When  a  river  rises 
in  one  State  and  enters  the  sea  in  another,  each  por- 
tion, strictly  speaking,  is  subject  to  the  State  within 
whose  limits  it  is  contained.  The  dwellers  on  the 
upper  shores  have  no  right,  except  by  concession,  to 
descend  to  the  sea  through  the  lower  territory.  Yet 
there  seems  to  be  an  equitable  claim  to  the  privilege 
almost  amounting  to  a  right :  and  within  the  present 
century  almost  all  such  navigable  rivers  in  the  Chris- 
tian world  have  been  opened  by  treaty  to  the  use  of 
those  who  live  on  their  upper  wat.TS.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  Rhine,  Scheldt,  Danube,  La 
Plata  and  its  tributaries,  Amazon,  and  St.  Lawrence. 

3.  Duties  which  foreigners  coming  into  a  country 
owe  to  its  laws  and  government.  Aliens,  sojourning 
in  a  country,  must  sul)niit  to  its  laws  tmless  releas- 
ed from  their  jurisdiction  by  special  treaty  or  inter- 
national custom.  They  are  secure  in  the  enjoyment  of 
their  property,  the  use  of  the  Courts,  and  llie  trans- 
action of  lawful  l)usiness.  They  can  dispose  of  their 
property  by  will  to  persons  residing  abroad,  or  can 
transmit  it  to  their  own  country.  They  have  also 
the  i)rotection  of  Consuls  and  Ambassadors  a])p<>int- 
ed  by  their  own  comilry.  Several  cla.sscs of  jiersons 
are  specially  exempt,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  local  laws ;  as,  for  example,  Sov- 


erigns  traveling  through  a  foreign  country,  Ambas- 
sadors accredited  to  it,  the  officers  and  men  of  na- 
tional ships  in  its  ports,  and  foreign  armies  when  pas- 
sing through  it  by  permission.  In  England  former- 
ly no  one  born  a  subject  could  lawfully  expatriate 
himself,  nor  could  any  foreigner  be  naturalized  ex- 
cept by  Special  Act  of  Parliament.  But  in  1884  jiro- 
vision  was  made  for  granting  foreigners  all  the  riglits 
of  native-born  subjects  except  membership  of  the 
Privy  Council  or  of  Parliament.  In  the  United  States 
a  foreigner  ma}-  be  legally  naturalized  after  five  years* 
residence,  and  three  years  after  he  has  formally  de- 
clared his  intention  to  renounce  his  former  national- 
ity and  become  a  citizen.  Persons  who  have  commit- 
ted offense  against  the  laws  of  their  country  often  fice 
for  refuge  into  another.  If  the  offense  be  political 
only,  the  nations  which  are  most  free  themselves 
generally  allow  the  fugitives  to  remain;  but  if  they 
have  committed,  or  are  charged  with  crime,  they 
may  be  delivered  up  for  trial  to  their  own  country 
when  demanded  according  to  the  provisions  of  trea- 
ties made  for  the  purpose.  An  Ambassador  in  very 
ancient  times  was  considered  a  sacred  person;  and.  as 
national  intercourse  and  comity  have  been  enlarged, 
there  has  been  a  proportionate  increase  in  his  rights 
and  privileges.  His  person,  dwelling-place,  proper- 
ty, family,  and  attendants,  are,  in  a  great  degree  and 
as  a  rule,  exempt  from  the  criminal  and  civil  juris- 
diction of  the  country  to  which  he  is  sent.  He  has 
libert}'  of  worship,  according  to  the  customs  of  his 
country  and  to  his  own  choice,  for  himself,  his  house- 
hold, and  by  extension  of  courtesy,  for  other  persons 
belonging  to  his  nation.  In  some  countries  this  lib- 
erty has  been  restricted  to  worship  in  his  own  house. 
Consuls  are  agents  who  have  no  diplomatic  charac- 
ter, but  are  sent  to  reside  in  certain  districts  to  pro- 
tect the  interests,  chiefly  commercial,  of  the  country 
wliich  appoints  them.  Their  duties  are  imposed  by 
their  own  Government,  and  are  performed  by  per- 
mission of  the  foreign  power.  They  are  honored  and 
protected  by  the  flag  of  their  country:  but  their  priv- 
ileges are,  in  general,  much  less  than  those  of  Am- 
bassadors, except  in  Mohammedan  countries,  where, 
having  often  been  required  to  perform  diplomatic 
duties,  they  have  acquired  corresponding  rights. 
The  modern  office  of  Consul  arose  in  the  commercial 
times  of  the  Middle  Ages,  when  companies  of  mer- 
chants, going  to  reside  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean,  had  officers,  chosen  at  first  bj'  them- 
selves and  afterward  by  their  governments,  to  settle 
disputes  that  arose  in  conducting  business  affairs. 
Treaties  are  compacts  between  nations  for  the  regu- 
lation of  intercourse  between  both  governments  and 
people.  They  comprise,  in  a  great  measure  the  his- 
tory of  International  Law.  The  power  to  make  them 
is  determined  by  the  Constitution  of  individual  States. 
In  the  United  States  they  are  negotiated  under  the 
direction  of  the  President,  and  are  ratified  bj-  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  the  Senate.  When  they  promise  the 
payment  of  money  it  must  be  apjiropriated  for  the 
purpose  by  a  vote  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
■  II.  Internation.4L  Relations  as  ^Modified  by  Wab. 
1.  War  is  a  contention  by  force  of  arms  between 
two  or  more  nations.  In  order  to  be  just  it  must 
be  necessarily  undertaken  to  repel  an  injury  or  to 
obtain  a  righteous  demanil.  The  power  of  deciding 
for  what  |)urpose  iind  when  it  is  to  be  waged  must 
be  left  to  each  nation,  because  there  can  be  no  other 
judge.  A  iiiition  that  has  been  wronged,  or  thinks 
it  has,  may  take  no  notice  of  the  wr(mg,  or  employ 
only  peju'cful  me;isures  to  obtain  redress,  or  accept 
the  offered  mediation  of  a  friendly  power,  or  propose 
arbitr;ition,  or  use  armed  force.  In  <;eiieral,  other 
nations  have  no  right  to  interfere.  Vet,  in  some 
cases,  war  between  two  nations  may  become  to  other 
nations  a  cause  for  war.  Mediation  offers  a  way  for 
escaping  war  which  m;iy  be  e(|u:dly  lionnnible  and 
a(lvant;igc(nis  to  both  jiiirties.  Vet  it  <'iiii  only  give 
advice  wliich  niiiy  be  rejected  by  one  or  lioth  of  the 
parties.    Arbitration,  in  special  cases,  may  be  simple, 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 


INTEENATIONAL  LAW 


ensy,  and  pfTcctive.  The  pnrtiofl  agree  on  the  Arbi- 
tnilors,  llic  |)f>ints  to  l)i'  consulcnMl,  tlw  tiiiu;  unil 
pliuf,  iiiid  tlic  law  wliicli  is  to  ^jovcrn  the  ruse;  anil 
they  liiiiil  tlicmsclvcM  to  aliidi-  l)y  the  decision.  Tin- 
suf'ccHS  wliicli  lias,  in  niinirrous  instanci'S  within  the 
present  eentnry,  been  altaineil  lij'  arliitralion,  and 
especially  in  tlie  recent  itiiporlant  case  lietween  tlie 
I'niliMl  Slates  and  (Jreat  Mrilain  arisinu'  out  of  the 
war  for  the  sniipression  of  thi'  Sonlliern  Helii'llioii, 
warrants  the  hope  that  wiir  may  ofli-n,  in  a  sitnihir 
way,  be  avoided.  After  the  happy  settlement  in  the 
instance  hist  mentioned,  the  Hrilish  Ilfiuse  of  Com- 
mons presented  an  address  to  the  (^uecn,  prayini; 
that  measures  mifilit  be  taUen  "W'ilba  view  to  furth- 
er irn|)rovemcnt  in  International  i/iw  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  }:;enera!  and  jiermanent  system  of  inter 
national  arbitration." 

'i.  War  between  two  nations  interriipts  all  recog- 
nized intercourse  between  the  indiviilual  members 
of  each.  The  relations  of  commerce,  the  right  given 
by  treaty  to  reside  in  either  country,  and  all  com- 
nnniic-.ition  by  direct  channels  between  them,  come 
to  an  end.  Sometimes  |)ermission  is  granted  to  re- 
main slill  in  the  country  :  and  generally  lime  is grant- 
<■']  lo  reUKive  uilh  |iniperly  and  elTecls.  The  treaty 
of  IT'.)4  between  the  I'nited  Stales  and  (ireal  Britain 
stipulates  that  "Neither  the  debts  due  from  individ- 
uals of  the  one  natitm  lo  indivi<iuals  of  the  other,  nor 
shares  nor  moneys  which  they  may  have  in  the  pub- 
lie  funds  or  in  the  public  or  jirivale  banks,  shall 
ever,  in  any  event  of  war  or  national  dilTerenc<'.  be 
se(iuestered  or  confiscated."  According  to  Chancellor 
Kent.  "  As  a  general  rule,  the  obligations  of  treaties 
are  dissijiated  by  hostilities."  It  is  said  also  bv  an- 
other writer  that  "  Great  Britain,  in  practice,  admits 
of  no  exception  to  the  rule  that  all  treaties,  as  such, 
arc  brought  to  an  end  by  a  snbsecpient  war  between 
the  parties."  The  peace  of  Westphalia  and  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  have  been  renewed  several  times 
when  the  nations  concerned  in  them,  after  having 
been  at  war,  were  making  new  treaties  of  peace. 

3.  The  interests  of  humanity  demand  that,  during 
warlike  operations  on  land,  non-combatants  should 
l)e  molested  as  little  as  possible  in  the  prosecution  of 
their  iieaeeful  interests  and  in  the  enjoyment  of  their 
homes.  On  the  sea,  ships  and  cargoes  belonging  to 
enemies  have,  until  recently,  been  accounted  lawful 
prey  ;  but  in  the  enlarged  commercial  relations  of 
th'_'  world  much  progress  has  been  made  towards 
e.vemjiting  innocent  traffic  on  the  seas  from  interrup- 
tion during  war. 

4.  The  forces  lawfully  emploj-cd  in  war  are,  on 
land,  Regular  Armies,  Jlilitia,  and  Volunteers;  and, 
on  the  sea,  national  ships  and  private  vessels  com- 
missioned by  national  authority.  Bvit  as  privateer- 
ing is  necessarily  attended  with  great  evils,  earnest 
efforts  have  been  made  to  restrict  or  abolish  it.  In 
185G  the  parties  to  the  Declaration  of  Paris  adopted 
four  rules  concerningmaritime  warfare. one  of  which 
declares  that  "Privateering  is  and  remains  abol- 
ished." Other  nations  were  asked  to  accept  them 
on  condition  that  they  would  be  bound  by  them  all; 
and  almost  all  Christian  States  did  agree  to  them. 
The  I'nited  States  withheld  their  assent  because,  as 
it  is  their  policy  to  maintain  only  a  small  navy,  the 
rightto  resort  to  privateering  in  case  of  w;ir  olTers  the 
only  way  by  which  they  can  cope  with  the  large 
navies  of  other  nations.  They  agreed,  however,  to 
adopt  all  the  rules,  provided  the  signers  of  the  dec- 
laration woidd  consent  to  exempt  from  capture  all 
innocent  traffic  of  enemies  on  the  sea.  In  18()1  the 
offer  was  made  to  two  of  the  principal  European 
powers,  by  the  Secretary  of  State,  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States,  to  come  under  the  operation  of  the 
four  rules  ;  but  as  it  was  made  for  the  whole  Kepub- 
lie — the  rebellious  as  well  as  the  loyal  States — it  was 
declined.  | 

5  The  rights  and  duties  of  neutral  nations.  In 
recent  times  the  commercial  intercourse  among  peo- 
ple of  different  nations  has  become  so  general  and 


eonstftnt,  that  they  are  practically  united  almost  into 
a  confederacy  so  as  to  be  entithd  lo  a  voice  in  dr^- 
ciding  wlielherwar  between  individual  nalionsshall, 
in  any  [larlicular  case,  be  pirmilled.  Sonielinies,  in 
view  of  picidiariliesin  its  position,  a  territory  is  madi; 
permanintly  neutral  so  that  armies  cannot  cross  ilH 
tiouiidaries  nor  can  it  engage  in  war.  Switzerland 
and  pari  of  Savoy,  since  IHl."),  and  Belgium,  since 
1K:j(),  have  been  in  this  condition.  Sometimes  several 
Powers  uidle  in  an  armed  neutrality  in  order  to  main- 
tain <:ertain  maritime  rightsagainsf  both  belligerents. 
But  such  a  league  is  liabh;  to  result  in  war.  A  neu- 
tral State  must  be  impartial  in  its  dealings  with  both 
belligerents;  must  keej)  itself,  its  territory  and  sub- 
jects, as  detaeheil  as  jiossible  from  the  war;  and  be; 
e(|uallyhumane  to  both  parties  when  slorm,disasleror 
hunger  casts  them  on  its  shores  or  within  its  bounds. 
By  the  treaty  of  Washington,  in  1871,  (ireat  Britain 
and  the  United  States  adopted  three  rules  lo  be  ap- 
plied in  settling  dillicullies  then  existing  between 
them,  lo  be  observe  d  l)y  them  in  the-  future,  and  to  be 
urged  on  the  acceijtanee  of  oilier  nations.  These 
rulesare — thai  "A  neutral  government  is  bound 7'''*^, 
to  use  due  diligiiice  lo  prevent  the  tilting  out.  arm- 
ing or  ei|uipping.  within  its  jurisdiction,  of  any  ves- 
sel which  it  has  n  asonable  ground  to  believe  is  in- 
tended to  cruise  or  to  carry  on  war  against  a  power 
with  which  it  is  at  peace;  and  also  to  use  like  dili- 
gence to  prevent  the  departure  from  its  jurisdiction 
of  any  vessel  intended  to  cruise  or  carry  on  war  as 
above,  such  vessel  having  been  specially  adapted, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  within  such  jurisfliclion,  to  war- 
like use;  Kecmd,  not  lo  permit  or  sulfer  either  belli- 
gerent to  make  use  of  its  ports  or  waters  as  the  base 
of  naval  operations  against  the  other;  or  for  the  pur- 
pose of  the  renewal  oraugmentation  of  military  sup- 
jjlies  or  arms,  or  the  recruitment  of  men  ;  t/u'rd.  to 
exercise  due  diligence  in  its  own  ports  and  waters,  and 
as  to  all  persons  within  its  jurisdiction,  to  prevent  ;iny 
violation  of  the  foregoing  obligations  and  duties." 

0.  The  lialiililies  and  rights  of  neutral  trade.  By 
the  rules  set  forth  in  the  Declaration  of  Paris,  a  "neu- 
tral flag  covers  the  enemy'sgoods  with  the  exception 
of  contraband  of  war,"  and  "  neutral  goods,  with  the 
exception  of  contrabandof  war,  are  not  liable  lo  cap- 
ture under  an  enemy'stlag."  The  term  "  contraband 
of  war  "  is  used  to  denote  articles  which  directly  aid 
warlike  operations.  According  to  a  formula  adopted 
by  the  United  States,  the  list  includes  all  kinds  of 
guns,  fire-arms,  ammunition,  weapons,  armor,  mili- 
tary clothing,  equipments  for  men  and  cavalry  horses, 
and  all  instruments,  of  any  material,  manufactured 
and  prepared  for  making  war  by  sea  or  land.  The 
right  of  blockade  in  time  of  war  is  universally  ad- 
mitted, but  in  general  is  available  only  for  harbors, 
mouths  of  rivers,  and  limited  districts  of  coast.  \s 
a  blockade  begins  and  ends  at  definite  times,  pre- 
vious notification,  of  both  its  beginning  and  ending, 
must  be  given  to  traders  and  neutral  governments. 
To  be  legal,  it  must  be  maintained  bv  armed  force 
sufficient  to  show  that  it  is  actual,  and  to  prevent  all 
ordinary  and  open  attempts  to  pass  it.  All  merely 
formal,  or.  as  they  have  been  called,  paper  block- 
ades, like  Xapoleou's  Berlin  and  Milan  Decrees,  and 
the  two  counter  British  Orders  in  Council  in  1807, 
are  regarded  by  International  Law  as  futile  and  void. 
When  a  vessel  is  captured  and  found  guilty  of  at- 
tempting to  enter  or  leave  a  blockaded  port,  the 
penalty  it  incurs  is  the  confiscation  of  itself  and  its 
cargo.  In  carrying  out  the  international  rules  adop- 
ted concerning  contraliand  goods,  enemies' goods  on 
enemies'  ships,  and  lilockades,  search  is  often  neces- 
sary to  determine  the  nationality  of  the  vessel  and 
the  nature  of  its  cargo.  It  must  be  submitted  to  by 
the  vessel,  but  it  must  not  be  so  conducted  as  to  give 
unnecessary  annoyance.  The  right  of  search  is  a 
war  right. apjilicable  to  merchant  vessels  only  in  time 
of  war,  and  to  those  suspected  of  piracy  at  any  lime, 
inasmuch  as  piracy  involving  attack  on  the  peaceful 
and  unarmed,  is  held  as  warasrainst  the  human  race. 


INTEKNATIONAL  SALUTE. 


124 


IHTEENCHMENT. 


INTERNATIONAL  SALUTE.— A  salute  of  21  guns 
to  a  national  tlas;.  This  salute  is  the  onlj'  one  which 
is  returned,  and  this  is  invarialily  dune  as  soon  as 
possible.  The  time  intervening  must  never  exceed 
twenty-four  hours.  The  failure  to  return  such  salute 
is  regarded  as  a  discourtesy  or  lack  of  friendship 
justifying  the  other  party  in  asking  explanation.  In 
the  presence  of  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
however,  no  salute,  other  than  the  nati"iinl  mlute, 
and  that  specified  for  him.  is  to  be  fired.  It  is  the 
custom  for  saluting  vessels-of-war,  upon  anchoring  in 
presence  of  a  fort,  to  hoist  at  tlie  fore  the  flag  of  the 
Country  in  whose  waters  they  are,  and  to  fire  the 
first  salute.  A  failure  to  do  so  is  a  proper  subject 
for  explanation.  Notice  of  an  intention  to  salute 
tlie  flag  is  usually  given  by  the  vessel  direct  to  the 
fort :  but  as  giving  notice  involves  delay,  vessels  fre- 
quently salute  without  it.  Vessels  mounting  less 
than  ten  guns  do  not  fire  salutes  requiring  the  guns 
to  be  reloaded.  Surveying  vessels,  store-ships,  or 
transports  do  not  salute.  If  there  be  several  forts 
or  batteries  in  siglit,  or  within  six  miles  of  each  other, 
one  of  them  is  designated  in  orders  to  return  inter- 
national salutes.  Either  of  the  others  receiving  no- 
tice from  a  saluting  vessel  of  intention  fo  salute  the 
flag,  immediately  notifies  the  one  designated  as  the 
saluting  fort,  and  informs  the  vessel  of  the  fact.  If 
a  vessel  salutes  without  giving  notice,  the  fort  desig- 
nated as  the  saluting  fort  returns  it.  United  States 
vessels  return  salutes  to  the  flag  in  United  States 
waters,  only  where  there  is  no  fort  or  battery  to  do 
so.  United  States  vessels  do  not  salute  United  States 
forts  or  posts.  Salutes  to  the  flag  are  in  no  sense  to 
be  considered  as  personal.     See  Sfdutes. 

INTERVAL. — In  drill,  the  lateral  space  between 
men  or  corps.  The  following  are  the  usual  intervals 
in  line  between  the  different  brandies  of  the  service: 
1.  Between  files  when  formed  in  squadron,  6  inches 
from  knee  to  knee.  2.  Between  the  guns  of  a  battery 
in  line,  full  intervals,  19  .yards.  3.  Between  squad- 
rons in  line,  the  breadth  of  a  division,  but  never  less 
than  12  yards.  4.  Between  cavalry  regiments  in  line, 
or  between  cavalry  and  infantry  in  line,  as  for  squa- 
drons. 5.  Between  battalions  in  line.  30  paces.  G.  Be- 
tween batteries  in  line,  or  between  artillerj-and  other 
troops,  28j  j'ards.  7.  Between  cavalr}-  regiments  in 
contiguous  columns,  as  for  squadrons.  8.  Between 
battalions  in  contiguous  columns,  12  or  30  paces,  as 
ordered. 

INTO  GEAR.— For  most  pieces,  the  motion  of  the 
top-carriage  to  and  from  battery  is  regulated  by  a 
pair  of  truck-wheels,  one  on  each  side;  which  work 
on  an  eccentric  axle  placed  underneath  and  a  little 
in  front  of  the  axis  of  the  trunnions.  The  wheels 
are  thrown  into  gear  hy  means  of  handspikes  insert- 
ed into  sockets  upon  the  ends  of  the  eccentric  axle; 
the  wheels  then  rest  upon  the  top  of  the  chas.sis  rails; 
and  only  the  rear  part  of  the  soles  of  the  top-car- 
riage rest  on  the  chassis  rails  and  have  sliding  friction. 
The  wlieels  are  thrown  imt  of  gear  in  the  same  man- 
ner; the  entire  soles  then  having  sliding  friction  upon 
the  chassis  rails,  thus  checking  recoil.  In  the  l.'i- 
inch  gun-carriage  there  are  two  pairs  of  truck-wlieels, 
one  pair  being  placed  in  front,  as  just  described,  and 
the  other  pair  near  the  rear  end  of  the  carriage;  tlie 
rear  wlieels  only  are  on  eccentric  axles,  and  wlien 
these  are  out  of  gear  the  soles  of  the  top-carriage  rest 
fairly  on  the  chassis  rails,  and  the  motion  is  on  slid- 
ing friction.  When  the  rear  wlieels  are  in  <jeiir  the 
front  wheels  also  touch  the  cliassis  rails,  and  the 
top-carriage  moves  on  rolling  friction.  To  prevent 
the  rear  wheels  from  working  out  of  ijenr  while  the 
gun  is  being  run  from  llie  b:itlery,  or  jumping  iu  gear 
when  the  piece  is  tired,  pawls  are  provideil  for  lack- 
ing file  rear  axle.  Wlientlie  rcarwheels  are  in  grar,  [ 
motion  is  communicated  to  tlie  carriage  by  means 
of  a  handspiki'  on  each  end  of  the  front  axle.  This  | 
liandspike  carries  a  doulile  pawl,  which  works  in  \ 
ratchets  or  cogs  on  the  truck-wheels.  The  hand- 
spike is  arranged  with  a  counter])oise.  consisting  of 


a  heavy  piece  of  iron  placed  on  tlie  short  arm  of  the 
lever.     See  Out  of  Gear. 

INTRENCH. — To  secure  a  position  or  body  of  men 
against  the  attack  of  an  enemy,  by  digging  a  ditch  or 
trench.  An  army  may  intrench  itself  either  hy  a  con- 
tinued or  an  interrupted  line;  in  the  former  case,  the 
line  may  be  composed  of  parts  so  connected  as  to 
leave  no  uncovered  space  between  them;  in  the  lat- 
ter, those  parts  maybe  isolated  from  each  other,  and 
uncovered  intervals  left  between  them. 

INTRENCHED  CAMPS.— Troops,  when  within  strik- 
ing distance  of  the  enemy,  should,  to  avoid  the  con- 
sequences of  a  surprise,  be  encamped  always  in  order 
of  battle.  The  modern  practice  of  armies  is  to  in- 
trench, if  encamped  even  for  one  night.  Such  in- 
trenchments  are  usually  of  the  slightest  and  most 
hastily-constructed  kind,  merely  sufficient  to  afford 
shelter  against  a  night  attack.  The  artillery  in  this 
case  is  only  that  usually  accompanying  troops  on  the 
march,  and  for  it  gun-pits  will  siiftic'c.  These  are 
made  by  simply  throwing  up  the  earth  in  front  of 
each  piece  so  as  to  foriii  for  it  a  crescent-shaped 
epaidinent.  If  rails  or  any  similar  material  are  con- 
venient, a  slight  revetment  may  be  constructed  to 
support  the  earth  on  the  side  towards  the  piece.  In 
dry  weather  the  earth  may  be  dug  from  the  inside 
and  thrown  up  iu  front,  thus  forming  a  depressed 
position  or  hole  for  the  piece  to  stand  iu.  The  chest 
of  the  limber  will  hold  sufficient  ammunition  for  im- 
mediate use.  To  protect  it.  the  limber  is  turned  with 
its  po!e//v'»i  the  piece,  and  is  covered  with  an  epaul- 
ment  similar  to  that  for  the  gun;  or,  removing  the 
horses,  it  may  be  backed  up  near  to  and  on  one  side 
of  the  piece,  occupying  with  the  latter  a  portion  of 
the  gun-pit.  The  caissons,  horses,  and  other  mate- 
rial of  the  battery  ma}'  be  placed  in  some  sheltered 
position  a  little  way  to  the  rear.  The  positions  oc- 
cupied by  artillery  on  such  a  line  ought  to  be  those 
that  would  be  selected  for  it  on  any  well-arranged 
line  of  battle.  When,  in  consequence  of  attack  by 
the  enemy,  or  of  his  threatening  attitude,  the  Army 
stands  upon  the  defensive,  the  slight  intrenchments 
of  a  temporary  camp  are  increased  and  strengthened 
until  they  become  a  sXxons.  intrenched  line  (f  battle. 
See  Field-service.  Ii^trenchment,  Line  (f  C'ircuntval- 
lation.  and   Line  of  ('oiintei-i'nlltition. 

INTRENCHING-TOOL.— An  implement  used  for  in 
trenching.  The  value  of  a  hasty  intrenchmeut  was 
well  understood  by  the  Roman  legions,  for  they  exe- 
cuted works  of  tills  kind,  iu  the  presence  of  an  en- 
emj',  with  wonderful  skill  and  rapidity.  "  It  was 
by  movingearth  that  they  conquered  the  world."  Na- 
polean  said.  "  There  are  five  things  from  which  the 
soldier  must  never  be  separated ;  his  ammunition, 
his  haversack,  )iis  rations  for  four  days  and  an  in- 
trendiiny-tool." 

Never  has  the  utility  of  rapid  field  intrenchments 
been  so  clearly  demonstrated,  as  in  our  last  war.  and 
never  have  they  been  used  with  greater  success.  The 
skill  shown  in  improvising  serviceal)le  intrenchments 
was  really  very  astonishing;  frequently,  for  want  of 
spades  they  used  knives,  cans,  b<iwls— in  one  word, 
anytliing  that  came  to  hand.  The  art  of  utilizing 
cover  is  of  great  importance,  and  the  .soldier  who 
carries  in  compact  form  the  means  of  erecting  cover 
at  will  is  inileed  fortunate.  Whether  the  soldier 
shall  carry  liis  intrenching-tool,  or  have  it  carried  for 
him  ;  whetlier  only  a  portion  of  the  troops  should 
carry  tools,  or  wliefher  each  soldier  should  carry  his 
own.  are  questions  now  under  discu.ssion.  See 
Clitz  Ititri  ncliinfi-tool.  Farrow  Knife.-troirel  and  Tent- 
peg,  Tr'iirel  H<ii/onet,  and  Zatinski  Intrenching-tool. 

INTRENCHMENT.— Ill  a  general  sense  an  ii'itrench- 
ment  is  any  work,  consisting  of  not  less  than  a  jiar- 
apet  and  a  ditch,  which  fortifies  a  jxist  against  the 
attack  of  an  enemy.  As  a  means  of  prolonging  the 
<lefensc  in  a  regular  work  of  permanent  fortification, 
intrenchments  arc  made  in  various  i)iirfs,  to  which 
the  defenders  successively  retire  wlieii  driven  in  from 
forwani  works.     Bastions  are  ordinarily  intrenched 


INTREPIDITT. 


125 


INV£IIIO£T  OF  £FF£CT8. 


at  the  Rorttc  by  ii  brcrtstwork  nnil  a  rlilcli,  forminij 
citlRT  u  re-C'iiti-riiii;  unfile  <ir  a  kiiuiII  fnnil  of  f(]r(ili- 
cutioii.  Such  a  work  across  the  uorL'i- of  the  rcilan 
at  Scliastopol  caused  tlic  repulse  of  Ihe  liritisli  attack 
inScj)!..  IH.iri.  A  cavalier,  with  a  ditch,  is  also  an 
intreiicluiieut.  An  army  in  the  (ielil  often  strength- 
ens its  position  Ijy  intrenchinents,  as  hy  a  rmiV lined 
line  of  parapet  and  ditch,  l)roken  into  redans  and 
curtains,  or  liy  a  line  irilh  intrrralu,  consisting  of  de- 
tached works  of  more  or  less  pretention  llunking  each 
other, 

INTREPIDITY.— An  uncpialificd  contempt  of  death 
and  inililTcrcnce  to  fortune,  as  far  as  regards  person- 
al safi'lv;  a  fearlessness  of  heart,  and  a  darinj;  enter- 
prise of  mind.  Acconlini;  to  Kochefoucault,  intre- 
pidity, especially  with  reijard  to  military  dariii};,  im- 
plies "_^'r«)/i,f'.s.'<  of  character,  jireat  dinfiilrnre  of  mind, 
and  extraordinary  strenr/f/i  of  soul.  Buoyed  up  and 
supported  by  these  (pialilies  (which  are  sometinu'S 
natural  and  sometimes  ac(piired),  men  beconu^  super- 
ior to  every  emotion  of  alarm,  and  are  insensible  to 
those  pcrlurliations  of  tlie  heart  which  the  prospect 
of  iinmiiienl  danger  almost  alwaj's  en{;en<lers. 

INUNDATIONS.— This  obstacle  is  formed  by  dam- 
minu;  back  a  shallow  water-course,  so  as  to  make  it 
overflow  its  valley.  To  be  effective,  an  inundation 
should  be  six  feet  deep.  When  this  depth  cdunot  be 
procured,  trous-de-loup,  or  else  short  ditches,  placed 
in  a  (|uincun.x  order,  are  dui;,  and  the  whole  is  cov- 
ered with  a  sheet  of  water,  which,  at  the  ditches, 
nuist  be  at  least  six  feet  in  depth.  The  <liiiim  used  to 
form  an  inundation  arc  made  of  good  l)inding  earth, 
or  of  crib-work  of  logs  tilled  in  with  stone,  gravel, 
and  earth,  or  of  successive  layers  of  fascines  and 
gravel.  If  the  dams  are  to  stand  for  some  lime  tliey 
maybe  faced  on  the  upper  side  with  boards.  They 
cannot,  in general,  be  raised  higherthanleii  feet:  they 
need  not  be  thicker  than  tive  feet  at  toji,  unless  they 
are  exposed  to  a  tire  of  artillery,  in  which  case  they 
should  be  regulated  in  the  same  way  as  a  parajx't. 
The  slope  of  the  dam  down-stream  should  be  the 
natural  slope  of  the  earth;  but  up-stream  the  slope 
sliould  Iiave  a  base  twice  that  of  the  natural  slope. 
Stuicexare  made  in  the  dams,  in  a  similar  manner  to 
the  sluices  of  a  mill-dam, for  the  purpose  of  regulating 
the  level  of  the  water  in  the  pool  above,  in  case  of 
lieavy  rains,  Wante-ireirx  are  also  serviceable  for  the 
same  purpose,  but  unless  carefully  nuide  they  may 
»'ndanger  the  safety  of  the  dam.  The  distance  of  the 
dams  apart  will  depend  on  the  slope  of  tlie  stream. 
The  level  of  each  pool  should  be  at  least  eighteen 
inches  below  the  top  of  the  dam,  and  thi;  depth  of 
water  below  each  dam  should  be  at  least  six  feet. 
These  data  will  suffice  to  determine  the  center  line, 
or  oris,  of  each  dam. 

Artificial  inundations  seldom  admit  of  being  turn- 
ed to  an  effective  use,  owing  to  the  ditliculties  in 
forming  them,  and  tlie  ease  with  which  they  can  be 
drained  by  the  enemy.  But  when  it  is  practicable 
to  procure  only  a  shallow  sheet  of  water,  it  should 
not  be  neglected,  as  it  will  cause  some  apjirehension 
to  the  enemy.  In  some  cases,  by  damming  back  a 
brook,  the  water  may  be  raised  to  a  level  sutlicient  to 
be  conducted  into  the  ditches  of  the  work,  and  ren- 
der some  parts  unassailable.  The  ditches  in  such 
cases  should  be  made  very  wide,  and  to  hold  about 
a  depth  of  six  feet.  During  freezing  weather  the  ice 
should  be  liroken  in  the  middle  of  tlie  ditch,  and  a 
cliannel  of  twelve  feet  at  least  be  kept  open,  if  prac- 
ticable. The  ice  taken  out  should  be  piled  uji  irreg- 
ularly on  each  side  of  the  channel;  and.  as  a  f;irther 
precaution  against  a  surprise. water  should  be  thrown 
on  tlie  parapet  to  freeze.  In  a  system  of  inundations 
the  dams  should,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  built  at 
points  the  least  exposed  to  the  tire  of  the  assailed. 
The  head  of  each  dam  on  the  side  of  the  enemy 
should  be  secured  from  surprise  by  a  redan,  stocc-ade, 
or  other  defense, and  the  dam  itself  and  its  approach- 
es should  be  swept  by  musketry  and  artillery. 

Inundations  must  be  made  with  great  care   and 


forethntight.  The  nature  of  the  soil  aid  the  time 
necessary  to  elTcct  Ihe  re(piir<cl  inundation  must  be 
particularly  noticed.  When  the  supply  of  water  ig 
small,  evaporation  and  liltnition  may  become  very 
prejudicial.  The  (juantity  of  water  (^  furnished  per 
second  by  u  stream  is  found  from  the  formulas,  V= 

wxrlxv;    and  V=— .OT-t-x/.tXW+I^ia  JV^^    '° 

which  M  represents  the  width  of  bed,  (I  the  mean 
depth,  V  the  mean  velocity  per  second,  ('  tlie  fall.  The 
volume  of  water  may  also  be  calculated  by  measur- 
ing the  section  of  the  bed,  and  multijilying  it  by  the 
iiu'an  velocity.     The  mean  velocity  \  \\»  found  from 

the  formula   V=  ^+(^^'— 1)',  in  which    7  repre- 

2 
sents,  in  inches,  the  velocity  at  the  surface.  In  or- 
dinary weather,  the  evaporation  varies  from  •ff  to  A 
of  an  inch  ]ier  day,  and  tiltration  in  common  soil 
maybe  reckoned  at  one  inch  in  12  hours.  It  is  quite 
dangerous  in  winter  time  to  till  the  ditches  of  field- 
works  with  water;  and  when  a  garrison  is  compell- 
ed to  remain  a  long  time  in  an  inundated  country, 
fever  does  more  damage  tlian  the  enemy.  See  Ac- 
cesHiiry  Meimitdf  Defense. 

INVALIDES.- Wounded  veterans  of  the  French 
Army.  maiiit;iined  at  the  expense  of  the  State.  Many 
of  these  old  soldiers  are  ipiartered  at  the  Hotel  des 
Invalides,  an  Establishment  in  Paris.  See  JIutel  des 
IiiritlidiH. 

INVALID  ESTABLISHMENT.— An  Establisment  in 
the  Indian  Army  for  the  transfer  of  officers  who  may 
be  declared  to  be  unlit  for  further  service.  It  consists 
of — 1.  The  Invalid  Battalion:  for  officers  who,  al- 
though disqualitied  for  further  active  service,  are 
still  equal  to  the  discharge  of  garrison  duties.  2.  The 
Invalid  Pension  List:  for  officers  disqualified  for  both 
active  and  garrison  duties,  either  from  age,  wounds, 
or  decline  of  health.  The)-  are  transferred  to  this 
list,  as  stated  in  the  government  order,  "  Provided 
their  conduct  and  habits  are  such  as  not  to  affect  the 
character  of  that  Institution,  which  is  designed  as 
an  honorable  retreat  to  the  worn-out  or  di.sabled  but 
deserving  officers,"  The  several  orders  issued  on  the 
subject  of  tliis  Establishment  will  be  found  in  the  re- 
gulations applicable  to  the  European  officers  in  In- 
di;i.  part  III.,  by  the  late  G.  E.  Cochrane,  Assistant 
ililitary  Secretary,  India  Office,  and  in  the  orders 
issued  by  the  Government  of  India. 

INVALIDING. — A  term  signifying  the  return  home 
or  to  a  more  healthy  climaU',  of  soldiers  or  sailors 
whom  wounds  or  the  severity  of  foreign  service  has 
rendered  incapable  of  active  duty.  The  man  invalided 
returns  to  Iiis  duty  as  soon  as  his  restored  liealth 
justifies  the  step. 

INVALIDS. — Worn  out  or  maimed  soldiers,  or  tliose 
who  from  permanent  sickness  are  unable  to  remain 
in  the  Army,  There  are  some  invalids  who  from 
change  of  climate  recover  their  liealth  ;  these  men 
join  the  ranks  again.  In  the  British  service,  disabled 
men  are  periodically  invalided  and  sent  home  from 
India  and  the  Colonies.  Besides  Chelsea  Hospital, 
for  the  reception  of  worn  out  and  disabled  men.  the 
Corps  of  Commissionaires  is  open  to  pensioned  sol- 
diers :  whilst  so  attached,  they  can  add  to  their  liveli- 
hood by  giving  their  services  as  messengers  or  watdi- 
men.  JIany  invalids,  known  as  Out-penjiionfrs,  are 
allowed  to  reside  where  they  choose.  See  Soldiers' 
Jl'tine^. 

INVASION.— The  hostile  entrance  or  attack  of  an 
enemy  on  the  dominions  of  another:  the  passing  of 
the  regular  line  of  frontier  of  any  country,  in  order 
to  take  possession  of  the  interior. 

INVENTORY  OF  EFFECTS  OF  DECEASED  OFFI- 
CERS AND  SOLDIERS.  — In  tlie  United  States  Service, 
in  case  of  death  of  any  officer,  the  Major  of  his  regi- 
ment, or  the  officer  doing  the  JIajor's  duty,  or  the 
second  officer  in  command  at  any  post  or  garrison, 
as  the  case  maj-  be,  immediately  secures  all  his 
effects  then  in  camp  or  quarters,    and  makes  and 


IKVEESION. 


126 


IBON. 


transmits  to  the  office  of  the  Department  of  War,  an 
inventory  thereof.  The  Articles  of  War  also  pro- 
vide that  in  case  of  the  death  of  any  soldier,  the 
Commanding  Officer  of  his  troop,  battery,  or  com- 
pany shall  immediately  secure  all  his  effects  then  in 
canip  or  quarters,  and  shall,  in  the  presence  of  two 
other  olBcers,  make  an  inventory  thereof,  which  he 
shall  transmit  to  the  office  of  the  Department  of 
War. 

INVERSION.— In  tactics,  the  subdivisions  of  the 
unit  have  their  iiabitual  position  in  the  order  of  bat- 
tle. This  is  necessary,  in  order  that  tlie  mechanism 
of  the  unit  may  have  that  simplicity  and  uniform- 
ity in  which  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  its  being 
comprehended  and  retained  by  ordinary  minds,  to 
the  end  that  every  movement  may  be  executed  with 
promptitude.  Still  cases  may  occur  in  which  the 
requisite  rapidity  to  meet  an  attack,  or  to  move  in  a 
given  direction," cannot  be  attained  without  chang- 
ing the  habitual  order.  Such  cases  are  provided  for 
by  what  are  termed  tnvei'sions,  in  which  the  subdi- 
visions temporarily  change  places  and  parts. 

Inversions  are  very  important  in  tlie  field,  and 
they  offer  such  great  advantages,  that  Bonaparte 
strongly  advised  their  employment  in  many  circum- 
stances. Our  tactics  admit  the  employment  of  in- 
versions in  the  formations  to  the  right  and  left  in 
line  of  battle,  and  also  in  the  successive  formations, 
except  in  that  of  faced  to  the  rem-  into  line  of  battle. 

INVESTMENT.— The  main  objects  of  this  operation 
are  to  cut  oil  all  communication  between  the  garrison 
and  the  exterior;  to  prevent  succors  of  every  kind 
from  being  thrown  into  the  work;  to  sweep  off  every 
thing  in  its  vicinity  that  might,  in  any  way,  be  ser- 
viceable to  the  garrison  ;  and,  finally,  to  cover  a  close 
reconnoissance  of  the  defenses  by  engineer  and  other 
officers.  For  a  successful  attainment  of  these  ends,  the 
investing  force,  which  should  be  mainly  if  not  solely 
composed  of  cavalry,  moves  upon  the  work  with  celer- 
ity and  seciecy;  and,  after  surrounding  and  secur- 
ing all  avenues  to  it,  sends  out  detachments  to  scour 
the  environs  up  to  the  very  gates  of  the  work,  if  prac- 
ticable, and  bring  off  with  them,  or  destroy,  all  per- 
sons, cattle,  provisions,  etc.,  met  with.  A  chain  of 
posts  and  sentinels  is  in  the  meantime  established  in 
the  best  positions  to  prevent  all  access  to  the  work,  or 
egress  from  it ;  care  being  taken  to  select  for  the  posts 
points  which  are  not  exposed  to  the  artillerj'  of  the 
■work,  or  are  beyond  its  range.  The  posts  occupied 
by  tlie  troops  during  the  day-time,  and  termed  the 
Daily  Cordon,  are  shifted  at  dark,  and  points  nearer 
the  work  are  taken  up,  to  form  the  Nightly  Cordon 
and  hem  the  work  in  more  closely.  The  posts  and 
sentinels  for  this  purpose  should  be  pushed  as  far 
forward  as  they  can  find  shelters  from  the  musketry 
of  the  defenses;  and  under  their  protection  the  re- 
conuoitering  officers  should  spare  no  efforts  to  gain 
an  exact  idea  of  all  the  ground  exterior  to  the  work, 
and  of  the  cliaracter  of  the  defenses.  The  main  body 
of  the  besieging  army,  with  the  engineer  and  artillery 
siege't rains,  follows  closely  upon  the  investing  corps, 
to  prevent  the  line  taken  up  by  the  latter,  which, 
from  its  extent,  is  necessarily  weak,  from  being 
lorced  cither  by  the  garrison,  or  by  strong  detach- 
ments from  without.  The  positions  for  the  camps  of 
the  various  c()r])S  are  designated  by  theC'ommand- 
ing  General,  after  a  careful  reconnoissance.  These 
are  placed  bc^yond  the  range  of  the  heavy  artillery  of 
the  works,  with  their  color  fronts  facing  from  tin- 
■works;  and,  as  far  as  ])racticable,  on  points  favora- 
ble to  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  troojis,  and  the 
defense.  Whenever  natural  obstacles,  of  marshes, 
rivers,  etc,  occur  between  the  camps  they  nuist  be 
crossed  by  good  lines  of  communication,  so  that  no 
impediment  may  Ije  offered  to  the  speedy  concentra- 
tion of  the  troops  upon  any  point  tlireatened  from 
■without.      i^ocSier/r. 

IRELAND.-  The  insignia  of  Irelau<l  have  been  v.iri- 
ously  given  by  I'arly  writers.  In  llie  reign  of  Kil- 
ward  IV.,  a  commission  api)ointed  to  inquire  what 


were  the  Arms  of  Ireland  found  them  to  be  three 
crowns  in  pale.  It  lias  been  supposed  that  these 
crowns  were  abandoned  at  the  Reformation,  from  an 
idea  that  they  might  denote  the  feudal  sovereignty  of 
the  Pope,  whose  Vassal  the  King  of  England  was,  as 
Lord  of  Ireland.  However,  in  a  MS.  in  the  Herald's 
College  of  the  time  of  Henry  VII.,  the  Arms  of  Ire- 
land are  blazoned  azure,  a  harp  or.  stringed  argent; 
and  when  they  ■were  for  the  first  time  placed  on  the 
royal  shield  on  the  accession  of  James  I.  they  were 
thvis  delineated  ;  the  crest  is  on  a  wreath  or  and  azure, 
a  tower  (sometimes  triple-towered)  or,  from  the  port, 
a  hart  springing  argent.  Another  crest  is  a  liarp  or. 
The  national  flag  of  Ireland  exhibits  the  liarp  in  a 
field  vert.  The  Royal  Badge  of  Ireland,  as  settled  by 
sign.nianual  in  1801,  is  a  harp  or,  stringed  argent, 
and  a  trefoil  vert,  both  ensigned  with  the  Imperial 
Crown. 

IRISH  BRIGADE.— A  body  of  men  who  followed 
the  fortunes  of  James  II.,  and  ■n-ere  formed  into  re- 
giments under  the  Monarchy  of  France. 

IRON. — This  most  important  metal  in  ordnance 
constructions  ■will  be  most  conveniently  considered 
under  the  two  following  heads:  1.  Chemistry  of  Iron. 
Chemicall}-  pure  iron  is  of  so  little  general  interest 
that  we  shall  confine  our  remarks  on  the  properties 
of  this  metal  to  thos*  which  are  exhibited  by  bar  or 
wrought  iron.  Its  color  is  gray  or  bluish-white;  it  is 
hard  and  lustrous,  takes  a  high  polish,  is  fibrous  in 
texture,  and  when  broken  across,  exhibits  a  ragged 
fracture.  It  requires  a  very  intense  heat  for  its  fu- 
sion, but  before  melting  passes  into  a  soft  pasty  con- 
dition, in  which  state  two  pieces  of  iron  may,  bj-  be- 
ing hammered  together,  be  united  or  welded  so  com- 
pletely as  to  form,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a  single 
portion.  At  a  red  lieat.  it  ma)-  be  readily  forged  into 
any  shape;  but  at  ordinary  temperatures  it  possesses 
verj'  little  malleability,  as  compared  with  gold  and 
silver.  In  ductility,  it  stands  very  high,  being  bare- 
ly exceeded  by  gold,  silver,  and  plafiuum  ;  and  in 
tenacity,  it  is'only  exceeded  by  cobalt  and  nickel.  Its 
susceptibility  to  magnetism  is  one  of  its  most  remark- 
able characteristics.  At  a  higli  temperature,  it  burns 
readily,  as  may  be  seen  at  the  forge,  or  (more  strik- 
ingly) when  a  glowing  wire  is  iniroduced  into  a  jar 
of  oxygen.  In  dry  air,  and  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
the  lustrous  surface  of  the  metal  remains  unchanged; 
but  in  a  moist  atmosphere  the  surface  rapidly  be- 
comes oxidized  and  covered  with  rust,  which  con- 
sists mainly  of  the  hydrated  oxide  of  iron.  At  a  red 
heat,  iron  decomposes  water,  and  liberates  hydro- 
gen, the  oxygen  combining  ■with  the  iron  to  form  the 
black  or  magnetic  oxide  (Fe^O*),  which  occurs  in 
minute  crystals.  This  is  one  of  the  ordinary  methods 
of  obtaining  lij'drogen.  The  affinities  of  iron  for 
most  of  the  non-metallic  elements  are  very  power- 
ful. The  chief  of  the  iron  compounds  arc— " 

a.  Oxides  of  Iron — Iron  forms  four  definite  com- 
pounds with  oxygen — viz.  (1),  the  protoxide  (FcO), 
which  is  the  base  of  the  green  or  ferro\is  salts  of  iron ; 
(2),  the  sesguioxide  or  peroxide  (FCjO,),  which  is  the 
base  of  the  red  or  ferric  .tolls;  (3),  the  black  or  inag- 
netic  oxide  (Pe,,Oj),  which  is  regarded  by  some  clu'ui- 
ists  as  a  compound  of  the  two  preceding  oxides  ;  and 
(4),  ferric  acid  (PeOj).  The  protiKcide  cannot  be  ob- 
tained in  an  isolated  form,  but  it  forms  the  base  of 
various  ferrous  salts,  and  combines  w^itli  water  to 
form  a  hydrate  (FeO,HO),  which,  on  the  addition  of 
an  alkali,  falls  in  white  Hakes.  The  most  inqiortant 
protosalts  of  iron,  or  ferrous  salts,  are  Ihe  carbonate, 
the  sulphate,  the  phosphate,  and  the  silicate.  Cor- 
bonate  of  Jron  (FeO,CO„)  exists  naturally  in  various 
minerals,  and  may  be  obtained  artilicially  by  precip- 
itating a  soluble  protosalt  of  iron  with  carbonate  of 
potash  or  soda,  when  the  carbonate  falls  in  white 
flakes.  On  exposure  to  the  air.  it  absorbs  oxygen, 
and  gives  off  carbonic  acid,  and  is  thus  converted 
into  Uip  hydrated  peroxide.  Sulphate  of  irioi  (FcO, 
SO.,  ■  7IIO)  is  obtained  by  the  solution  of  iron,  or  its 
sulphide,  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  ;  in  the  former  case, 


a 


IKON. 


127 


IBOK. 


then'  is  an  cvolnlirin  of  liyflroijfn.  and  in  thf  latter, 
iif  sulpluirclcd  liyilrii'^icM.  On  (■vii|i(initiiiii  of  tlic  so- 
lution, thu  salt  isolilaini'd  in  clear  1)1  iiisli-f^rccn  rlioni- 
■boidal  crystals,  conlainini?  seven  atoms  of  water. 
This  salt  is  coniniercially  Known  as  copperas  or  irreen 
vitriol.  P/ionp/iitfe  i>f  iriin  is  obtaineil  l]y  preeipilat- 
ing  a  solution  of  a  ])rotosalt  of  iron  with  jihosphate 
of  soda,  wlien  a  wliitc-  |irecipitat(;  of  phos|)liat<,'  of 
iron  is  thrown  down.  All  these  salts,  especially  the 
carbonate  and  snlphalc,  are  extensively  used  in  med- 
icine. iSiliciifc  and  pliosphateof  iron  occur  naturally 
in  several  minerals.  The  peraxi'ih  of  iron,  termed 
also  sesquioxide,  red  oxide,  or  ferric  oxide,  is  ob- 
tained in  an  anhydrous  form  by  igniling  the  proto- 
sulphate,  and  is  known  in  tlie  arts  under  the  names 
colcotlidr,  criii'ii.i  of  Murn,  or  rouge,  according  to  the 
degree  of  levigalion  lo  which  it  has  been  submitted. 
It  is  em|)loyed  for  polisliing  glass,  jew<dry,  etc.,  and 
is  also  used  as  a  pignunl.  It  oe<'urs  both  in  tlie  an- 
hydrous and  in  the  hydrated  form  in  various  miner- 
als. Tlic  hyilrotid  ]-ierii-xi(le  CiVe.^ii^.ZWO)  is  obtain- 
ed by  pn^cipitating  a  solution  of  a  persalt  of  iron,  or 
of  a  ferric  salt,  with  an  excess  of  potash,  ammonia, 
or  alkaline  carbonate.  It  falls  as  a  yellowish-brown 
tloeculent  jireciiiitate,  which  when  dried  forms  a 
(U'lise  brown  mass.  This  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron, 
when  freshly  i>repared  and  suspended  in  water,  is 
regarded  as  an  antidote  in  arsenical  poisoning.  Rust, 
as  has  been  already  menlioned,  is  a  hydrated  per- 
oxide, coinliined  with  a  lillle  ammonia.  The  most 
important  of  the  persalts  of  iron,  or  ferric  salts,  are 
the  neutral  and  the  basic  sulphate,  whose  fornudio 
are  I"e  ()„,  380^  and  FcoOj,  3S(  ).,.nVoA^,  respective- 
ly, the  nitrate  (Fe.Oj.SNt)- ).  the  phosphate,  and  the 
silicate.  The  nitrate  which  is  obtained  by  the  solu- 
tion of  iron  in  nitric  acid,  is  a  useful  medicnial  agent. 
The  blnrk  or  miiijnetic.  oxiilc  and  ferric  (h'iil,-v{\\\i:\\  has 
not  been  obtained  in  a  free  state,  and  is  only  known 
as  a  constituent  of  certain  salts,  must  be  passed  over 
without  comment. 

h.  Haloid  salU  of  iron — the  chlorides,  bromides, 
and  iodides — next  reijuire  notice.  There  are  two 
chlorides — viz.,  a  protoeh'.oride  (Pet'l)  and  a  per- 
chloride  or  sesquichloride  (FeaC'l,,).  The  latter  may 
be  obtained  by  dissolving  peroxide  of  iron  in  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  tincture  of  the  sesquichloride  of 
iron  is  perhaps  more  generally  employed  in  medi- 
cine Uian  any  other  preparation  of  this  metal.  The 
protiodide  is  an  extremely  valuable  therapeutic  agent. 

<■.  There  are  probably  several  sulphides  or  KiHphu- 
retH  of  iron.  The  ordinary  sulphide  is  a  protosulphide 
(PeS).  It  occurs  in  small  quantity  in  meteoric  iron. 
It  may  be  obtained  artificially  by  the  direct  union  of 
the  two  elements  at  a  high  temperature,  or  by  the 
precipitation  of  a  protosalt  of  iron  by  sulphide  of  am- 
monium. It  exists  in  glistening  masses,  varying  in 
color  from  a  grayish  yellow  to  a  reddish  brown.  It 
is  insoluble  in  water,  but  in  moist  air  becomes  rap- 
idly oxidized  into  protosulphate  of  iron.  With  acids, 
it  develops  sulphureted  hydrogen.  The  bisulphide 
of  iron(FeS2)isthe  rrora  p^/v'to  of  Mineralogists,  and 
the  mu?idic  of  commerce.  Under  the  latter  name,  it 
it  used  extensively  in  the  preparation  of  oil  of  vitriol. 
There  are  also  other  sulphides  of  less  importance. 

3.  Manufacture  of  iron — The  increasing  use  of  iron 
is  a  prominent  characteristic  of  the  present  age,  and 
every  day  sees  some  new  application  of  it  in  the  arts 
of  life.  Althougli  the  most  useful  of  the  metals,  it 
was  not  the  first  known.  The  difilculty  of  reducing 
it  from  its  ores  would  naturally  make  it  a  later  ac- 
quisition than  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  The  reduc- 
tion of  the  ore  known  as  the  black  oxide  of  iron, 
however,  has  been  carried  on  in  India  from  a  very 
early  time.  In  Europe  the  rich  specular  and  other 
ores  of  Spain  and  Elba  were  much  used  during  the  [ 
Roman  period ;  in  Greece,  also,  iron  was  known,  : 
tliough,  as  among  the  Romans,  its  use  was  subse- 
quent to  that  of  bronze.  We  are  informed,  too,  by 
the  Roman  historians  that  this  nu'tal  was  employed 
by  the  ancient  liritaius  for  tlie  manufacture  of  .>pears  [ 


and  lances.  The  Ifomans,  during  their  oc(,ii|ialion 
of  liritaiii,  mamifacliireil  iroji  in  a  considerable  ex- 
lent,  as  is  ivi<lenceil  liy  the  cindir-heaps  in  the  forest 
of  Dean  and  other  places.  'I'he  rudir  processes  then 
in  use  left  so  much  iron  in  th('  cinilers  that  those  of 
Dean  forest  furnished  the  chief  supply  of  ore  to  20 
furnaces  for  between  200  and  IW)  years.  In  those 
early  times,  tb(-  iron  oris  were  reduced  in  a  simple 
contcal  furnace,  callid  an  air-bloomery,  erected  on 
the  top  of  a  hill,  in  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  blast 
of  wind.  The  furnaces  were  subsequently  enlarged 
and  su]iplied  wilh  an  artificial  blast.  C'lufTCoal  was 
the  only  fuel  used  in  smelting  till  1018,  when  Lord 
Dudley  introduced  coal  for  this  purpose;  but  the 
iron-masters  being  unanimously  opposed  to  the 
change,  Dudley's  imiirovement  died  with  himself.  It 
was  not  reiulrodui'ed  till  Abraham  Derliy,  in  1713, 
ctnployed  it  in  his  furnace  at  Coalbrook  ftale.  15ut 
as  this  method  was  not  pro|)erly  understood,  the  pro- 
duction of  English  iron  declined  with  the  change  of 
fuel,  till,  in  1740,  it  was  only  three-fonrlhsof  wliat  it 
liad  formerly  been,  Al)out  10  jears  after  this,  how- 
ever, the  introduction  of  coke  gave  renewed  vigor 
to  the  iron-trade,  and  then  followed  in  rapid  succes- 
sion those  great  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
which  have  given  to  the  history  of  iron  the  interest 
of  a  romaiue.  The  introduction  of  Watt's  steam- 
engine  in  1770,  the  jirocesses  of  puddling  and  rolling 
invented  b_v  Henry  ('ort  in  1784,  and  the  employ- 
ment of  the  hot-blast  byNcilsonof  Glasgow  in  1830, 
have  each  been  of  inestimable  service.  The  great- 
est improvement  introduced  into  the  iron  manufac- 
ture in  recent  times  is  the  process  of  Mr.  Bessemer 
for  the  production  of  steel,  patented  in  IS-IO.  The 
"Siemens  Martin"  method  of  making  steel  has  also 
of  late  come  into  extensive  use. 

Irini  ores  are  abundantly  distributed  all  over  the 
globe;  the  chief  kinds  being — 1.  Magnetic  iron  ore  ; 
2.  Red  hematite,  specular,  or  red  iron  ore  :  3.  Rrown 
hematite,  or  brown  iron  ore  ;  4.  Carbonate  of  iron, 
including  spathic  ore,  clay  ironstone,  and  blackband 
ironstone.  The  ore  richest  in  the  metal  is  the  rung, 
netic,  or  Mack  oxide  of  iron.  When  pure  it  contains 
nothing  but  oxygen  and  iron,  its  chemical  formula 
being  FejO,,  which  gives  73  per  cent,  of  iron  by 
weight.  It  occurs  in  dark  heavj'  masses  of  black 
crystals,  and  is  found  in  the  old  primary  rocks. 
Sweden  is  famous  for  this  ore,  and  for  the  iron  pro- 
duced from  it,  which  is  esteemed  the  best  in  Europe. 
The  celebrated  mines  of  Dannemora,  in  that  country, 
have  been  constantly  worked  since  the  l.'ith  century. 
Russia,  too,  has  great  iron  works  in  the  I'ral  Moun- 
tains, which  are  supplied  with  this  ore.  So,  also, 
have  Canada  and  several  of  the  American  States,  as 
Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  etc.  The  rock 
formations  in  which  magnetic  iron  ore  occurs  very 
rarely  contain  coal, hence  it  is  almost  always  smelted 
with  wood-charcoal,  which,  as  it  contains  no  sul- 
phur, is  one  great  cause  of  the  superiority  of  the 
iron  produced  from  it.  lied  henuttiU  differs  from 
the  last  only  in  containing  proportionally  a  little  more 
oxygen,  its  formula  being  PeoOs,  that  is  to  say,  70 
per  cent,  of  iron  by  weigiit.  There  are  several  Vari- 
eties of  this  ore,  but  only  two  need  be  referred  to. 
The  first  of  these,  ■specular  iron,  so  called  from  its 
bright  metallic  luster,  occurs  in  large  and  beautiful 
crystalline  masses  in  the  Island  of  Elba,  where  it  has 
been  worked  for  more  than  2.000  years,  and  is  like- 
wise found  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world.  It  is 
of  a  stecl-graj-  color,  assuming  a  red  tint  in  tliin  frag- 
ments and  when  scratched. "^  The  other  variety  Is 
kidiuy  ore,  whose  origin  is  still  a  curious  problem, 
as  its  deposits  occur  sometimes  in  veins  and  some- 
times in  apparently  regular  beds.  Its  characteristic 
form  is  in  large  kidney-shaped  nodules,  with  a  fine 
radiated  .stnicture.  This  shape,  however,  is  only 
assumed  in  the  cavities  of  massive  deposits.  Red 
hematite  is  sometimes  called  blood-stone.  It  is  used 
for  polishing  metals,  and  yields  a  blood-red  powder, 
used  as  a  pigment.     This  valuable  iron  ore  is  found 


I30H. 


128 


IRON 


in  many  Countries,  Ijui  in  few  places  in  greater  abim- 


flance  than  at  Whitehaven  and  Ulverstone,  in  Eng- 
land, where  splendid  masses  of  it  occur,  15,  30,  and 
even  60  feet  in  thickness. 

Brmm  hematite,  or  brown  iron  ore,  is  hydrated 
peroxide  of  iron,  and  has  the  same  composition  as 
red  hematite,  except  that  it  contains  about  14  per 
cent,  of  water.  It  is  generally  found  massive,  more 
rarely  crystalline,  and  a  variety  occurring  in  small 
rounded  nodules  is  called  pea  iron  ore.  When  mixed 
with  earth  or  clay,  it  forms  the  pigments  yellow  och- 
er  and  brown  umber.  Brown  hematite  is  now  an  im- 
portant ore  in  Great  Britain,  about  3,000,000  tons 
being  annually  raised.  It  occurs  in  different  geolog- 
ical formations,  chiefly  in  Devonshire,  the  forest  of 
Dean,  South  Wales,  and  in  Antrim,  in  Ireland  ;  also 
in  an  earthy  form  in  Northamptonshire.  It  is  the  ore 
chiefly  smelted  in  France  and  German}'.  Bag  iron 
ore  is  a  variety  of  brown  hematite,  usually  contain- 
ing phosphorus,  which  occurs  in  marshy  districts  of 
recent  formation.  Carbonate,  of  iron,  when  found 
in  a  comparatively  pure  crystallized  state,  is  known 
as  spathic,  spathoxe,  or  .ipari^y  iron  ore  ;  but  when  im- 
pure and  earthy, as  clay  iron.<<tiine  &nd  lilackfia?id  iron- 
utone.  Spathic  ore  was  little  worked  in  England  pre- 
vious to  1851.  soon  after  which  it  was  discovered  in 
Somersetshire.  It  forms  mountain  masses  in  various 
parts  of  Prussia  and  Austria,  and  is  now  much  in  de- 
mand to  yield  the  spiegeleisen  required  in  the  Besse- 
mer process.  In  its  purest  form  it  contains  48  per 
cent,  of  iron;  and  m  color  it  varies  from  white  to  buff 
or  dark  brown,  some  specimens  of  it  taking  a  beau- 
tiful polish  and  looking  like  marble.  The  clay  and 
blackband  ironstones  are  essentially  mixtures  of  car- 
bonate of  iron  with  clay,  blackband  having  also  a 
considerable  proportion  of  coaly  or  bituminous  mat- 
ter. These  dull  earthy-looking  ores  occur  abun- 
dantly in  Great  Britain,  and  form,  after  coal,  the 
greatest  of  her  mineral  treasures.  Fully  one-third  of 
all  the  ore  mined  in  the  country  is  obtained  from  the 
coal-measures,  where  fortunately  both  the  fuel  and 
the  limestone,  indispensable  for  the  reduction  of  the 
iron,  are  also  found.  The  ore  occurs  as  balls  or  no- 
dules in  the  shales,  or  in  continuous  beds.  Some  of 
these  seams  are  full  of  fossil  shells,  and  the  ore  is  then 
called  "  musselband  "  ironstone. 

Iron  ore  is  still  reduced  to  some  extent  in  Europe 
liy  the  old  and  imperfect  process  of  the  Catalan  forge, 
not  unlike  a  common  smith's  forge.  In  America, 
however,  as  well  as  in  all  other  Countries  where  iron 
is  largely  smelted,  the  blast-furnace  is  now  univer- 
.sally  employed,  by  means  of  which  the  metal  is  ob- 
tained in  the  state  of  crude  or  cast  iron.  For  the  fin- 
er kinds  of  iron,  charcoal  is  the  fuel  employed,  be- 
cause, unlike  coal  or  coke,  it  contains  no  sulphuret 
of  iron  or  other  injurious  ingredients.  The  Kussian 
and  Swedish  furnaces  smelt  with  charcoal,  and  on 
this,  as  much  as  on  their  pure  ores,  depends  the  high 
reputation  of  their  iron.  A  solitary  charcoal-furnace 
at  Ulverstone  iu  England,  and  another  at  Lorn  in 
Scotland,  are  still  working — the  only  relics  of  times 
past,  when  this  was  the  only  fuel  employed. 

As  a  preliminary  process  to  the  actual  smelting  in 
the  blast  furnace,  clay  and  blackband  ironstones  are 
generally  roasted.  This  is  accomplished  by  breaking 
the  ore  into  small  pieces,  spreading  it  in  open  heaps 
on  the  ground,  and  mingling  it  more  or  less  with 
small  ciimI  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ore.  BlacI:. 
band  commonly  contains  enough  of  carbonaceous 
matter  to  burn  without  the  addition  of  coal.  The 
Iiile.  which  ma}'  contaiu  from  one  to  several  thousand 
Ions  of  ore,  is  liglitcd  at  the  windward  end,  and 
burns  gradually  along,  aided  by  occasional  fires 
in  tlie  sides,  uiilil  the  whole  heap  has  undergone 
cah'iiiaUon,  the  time  reijuircd  for  lliis  purpose  being 
generally  about  a  moi.th.  Sometimes  tlie  ojieralion  of 
roasting  is  performed  in  close  kilns  instead  of  open 
heaps,  a  mode  by  which  the  ore  is  considered  to  be 
more  uniformly  roasted,  and  with  cimsideralily  less 
fuel.  Of  late  years,  the  kilns  are  often  heated  by  the 
waste  gases  of  the   blast-furnace.       Hv  calcination. 


IBON. 


12'J 


IBOM 


<'lay  ironstnno  Iospr  from  Sil  to  30,  and  Mackband 
from  40  to  50  per  cent,  of  its  wci^lil,  llir  I<jss  consist, 
ini;  cliictly  of  corljoiiic  acid  and  water,  t)iit  sidpliiir 
and  other  volatile  siil)staiiccs  arc  also  dissipatc(l  in 
the  proccs.s.  The  roastini;  also  coriv<Tl.H  the  proto.^c- 
ide  and  corbonate  of  iron  into  peroxide,  whifdi  pre- 
vents the  formation  of  any  slans  of  Hilieate  of  iron, 
such  slags,  owing  to  the  dittkrulty  of  reducing  them, 
causing  a  loss  of  iron.  In  Kngland  the  rich  ores  like 
the  magnetic  or  red  hematite  are  not  subjected  to 
calcination,  but  they  are  so  in  Sweden.  'I'lie  ohhT 
type  of  blast-furnace  consists  of  a  massive  tower  of 
Btone  or  brick-work  strengthened  with  iron  liinders; 
the  newer  plan  is  to  build  it  of  comparatively  thin 
brick-work,  and  surround  it  entirely  with  strong  ircjn 
plates.  In  either  case  an  inner  linini;  of  refractory 
fire-brick  is  given  to  it,  which  is  separated  from  the 
outer  portion  of  the  wall  by  a  narrow  space  tilled 
with  sand.  Internally  they  vary  very  nuu-li  in 
form,  l)Ut  jierhaps  the  liarrel  sha]ie  is  the  most  ])rev- 
alent.  and  most  of  them  contract  towards  tht^  bottom 
in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  cone.  Recent  ones  have 
been  built  from  80  to  100  feet  in  height,  instead  of 
not  more  than  (iO  as  formerly.  The  blast-pipe,  with 
its  tuyere-branches,  surrounds  tin-  heartli,  and  on 
one  side  there  is  a  recess  and  openings  for  running 
off  the  metal  and  slag.  Fig.  1.  shows  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Higelow  furnace  or  cupola,  and  will  serve  ; 
to  illustrate  the  modern  advancement  in  this  line.       i 

The  operation  of  smelting  is  thus  jierformed:  The  ' 
roasted  ore,  coal  and  lime  (Hux)  arc  either  hoisted,  or,  i 
if  the  nature  of  the  ground  permits,  moved  along  a  ' 
platform  or  gangway  to   the  gallery  near  the  top  of  i 
the  furnace,  and  fed  into  it  at  intervals  through  the  ' 
openings  in  the  side,  when  the  mouth  is  open,  or  by  \ 
lowering  the  cone,  when  the  mouth  is  closed.  We  may  ' 
here  state  that  the  furnace  is  kept  continually  l)urn-  i 
ing  except  when  under  repair.     The  materials  are  of  [ 
cour.se  raised  to  a  very  high  heat,  and  gradually  fuse 
into  a  softened  mass.     The  clay  of  the  ironstone  then 
unites  with  the  lime  to  form  a  coarse  glass  or  slag, 
the  oxide  of  iron  at  the  same  lime  gives  up  its  oxygen 
to   the  fuel,  and   allows    the  metal    itself  to   collect 
on  the  hearth  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  imited 
with  from  3  to  ."ji  per  cent,  of  carbon,  whicli  it  takes 
from  the  fuel,  forming  the  variety  called  cast-iron. 
Every  13,  and  sometimes  every  8  hours,  the  metal  is 
run  olf  from  the  furnace,  by  means  of  a  tap-hole  at 
the  bottom  of  the  heartli,  into  rows  of  parallel  molds, 
called  pigs,  which  are  formed  in  the  sand,  hence  the 
name  "pig-iron."    The  slag  which  floats  on  the  melt- 
ed iron  is  run  otf  by  an  opening  at  the  top  of  the 
hearth.       If   the  furnace  is  working  well,  the  slag 
should  be  of  a  light-gray  color:  any  dark-ljrown  or 
black  color  shows  that  too  much  iron  is  passing  into  it. 
The  quantity  of  materials  necessary  to  yield  a  ton 
of  pig-iron  may  be  taken  roundly  as  follows:     2  tons 
of  calcined  ironstone:  2i  tons  of  coal,  of  whicli  about 
8  cwts.  are  taken  for  the  blowing-engine  and  hot-air 
pipes;  and  12  to  16  cwts.  of  broken  limestone.    The 
proportions,  however,  vary  in  different  districts  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  fuel  and  ore.     The  week- 
ly produce  of  a  single  blast-furnace  varies  extremely 
— from  under  100  to  more  than  500  tons  in  some  of 
the  larger  furnaces. 

Different  districts  classify  their  pig-irons  in  slight- 
ly different  ways,  but,  as  a  rule.  No.  1  to  No.  4  are 
known  as  gray  iron.  No.  lis  largest  and  brigliest 
in  the  grain,  brings  the  highest  price,  and  is  best 
adapted  for  fine  castings.  Nos.  2,  ii,  and  4  become 
successively  less  in  the  grain,  of  a  duller  luster,  and 
lighter  in  color,  but  up  to  No.  3  are  known  as  foun- 
dry pigs.  After  No.  4  the  metal  ceases  to  be  gray, 
and  though  higher  numbers  are  sometimes  em- 
ployed, the  other  qualities  are  more  usually  known 
as  forge,  mottled,  and  white  pig-iron.  Gr;iy  iron  has 
its  carbon  partly  in  the  chemically  combined,  but 
chierty  in  the  uncombinedor  graphitic  state,  and  re- 
quires a  higher  temperature  to  melt  it  than  white 
iron,  though  very  fluid  when  melted.     White  iron 


has  its  carbon  wholly  in  llie  combined  state,  and  is 
chielly  available  for  conversion  into  malleable  iron. 
I  lematite  pig-iron  suitable  for  making  JSessemer  steel 
has  an  exceptionally  high  Viilue.  The  hot-blast  pro- 
cess whicli  has  be<'n  described  before  was  intro- 
duced in  1830  by  Mr.  James  H.  Neilsrm,  of  Glasgow, 
and  has  been  productive  of  very  remarkable  effects 
on  the  iron  trade.  The  whole  invention  consists  In 
simply  heating  tlii>  air  blown  into  the  furnace,  and 
yet  the  saving  of  fuel  by  this  is  about  one  half,  and 
the  proiliiction  of  iron,  since  it  came  into  use,  has 
enormously  increased.  The  "cold-blast"  is  still, 
however,  to  a  limited  extent  employed,  and  produces 
the  strongest  iron,  though  necessarily  at  a  much 
higher  cost.  The  difference  in  quality  appears  to  be 
caused  by  the  greater  heat  in  the  case  of  the  hot 
blast  facilitating  the  passage  of  impurities  into  the 
iron.  Of  late  years  much  attention  has  been  given 
to  plans  for  saving  fuel  in  the  lilast-furnace.  Prev- 
ious to  the  introduction  of  the  hot-blast  as  much  as 
8  tons  of  coal,  as  coke,  were  consumed  for  every  ton 
of  i)ig-iron  made.  Even  when  this  is  reduced  to  un- 
der 3  tons  of  raw  coal  per  ton  of  pig-iron,  fully 
three-fourths  of  all  the  heat  produced  is  still  wasted 
in  open-mouthed  furnaces.  The  method  of  saving 
the  waste  gases  byclf)sing  the  mouth  of  the  furnace, 
now  generally  adopted  when  coke  is  used  is  attend- 
ed with  so  much  economy,  that,  in  the  Cleveland 
district  alone,  over  600,000  tons  of  coal  yearly  are 
saved  by  adopting  it.  There  being  a  difficulty  in 
closing  the  mouth  of  the  furnace  when  raw  coal  is 
used.  Mr.  Ferric,  of  Monkland,  a  short  time  ago, 
patented  a  self-coking  blast-furnace,  by  which,  a- 
mong  other  advantages,  the  gases  can  be  saved.  It 
has  now  been  in  use  for  some  years  in  Scotland, 
and  produces  a  ton  of  pig-iron  with  34  instead  of  53 
cwts,  of  coal  previously  required.     Raising  the  tern- 


Fig.  2. 


perature  of  the  blast  from  900°  to  1000°  F.  has 
also  been  attended  with  a  saving,  and  so  likewise,  in 
some  districts,  has  an  addition  to  the  height  of 
the  furnace. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  there  is  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  heat  necessary  to  be  maintained  in  a  cu- 
(lola  to  melt  the  largest  amo"unt  of  iron  in  the  shortest 
time,  with  the  least  amount  of  fuel,  as  a  ton  of  coal 
might  be  consumed  without  melting  a  single  pound 
of  Iron  if  the  temperature  is  not  sufficiently  elevat- 
ed. It  will  be  equally  apparent,  that  any  depart- 
ure from  the  proper  temperature,  will  just  to  that 
degree  occasion  loss  in  all  these  respects.  To  secure 
the  best  results,  the  proportions  between  the  amount 
of  iron  to  be  melted,  the  fuel  used,  and  the  quantity 
of  air  supplied  in  a  given  time,  should  be  fixed  and 
unvarying.  This  can  only  be  done  by  a  machine 
ffiving"  a  force  blast,  as  with  Blowing  Cylinders,  or 
Hoot's  Rotarj-  Blower,  which  measures  and  forces 


IRON. 


130 


ntoB. 


forward  a  definite  quantity  of  air  every  revolution, 
so  tliiit  wlien  by  experiment  the  maximum  result  is 
obtained,  it  can  always  be  maintained  at  tliat  point 
witl'.out  any  variation  whatever.  As  a  fan  does  not 
give  a  force  blast,  the  quantity  of  air  delivered  varies 
with  every  chanffc  of  condition,  with  the  manner  of 
charging  the  cupola,  the  kind  of  iron  or  fuel  used, 
and  the  amount  of  stock  in  tlie  cupola — but,  more 
than  by  all  other  causes  combined,  the  slag  or  cin- 


justment  whatever.  This  arrangement  obviates  the 
necessity  of  taking  the  blower  apart  to  renew  tlie 
journal-boxes,  as  was  necessary  with  machines  built 
at  an  early  date,  thus  saving  much  trouble  and  ex- 
pense. It  will  be  observed  by  an  examination  of  the 
internal  parts  of  this  Positive  Blower,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  2,  that  it  does  not  operate  at  all  on  the  principle 
of  a  fan.  that  is,  by  imparting  momentum  to  tlie  air 
by  running  at  a  great  velocity,  but  by  a  regular  dis- 


ders  in  the  cupola.  As  it  becomes  foul,  and  the 
tuyeres  become  obstructed,  the  blast  constantly  di- 
minishes, until  melting  in  many  cases  entirely  ceases, 
and  it  becomes  necessary  to  drop  the  bottom.  Thus 
the  conditions  absolutely  necessary  to  secure  uni- 
form results  can  never  be  obtained  with  a  fan  blast, 
as  no  certain  supply  of  air  can  ever  be  predicated 
upon  the  operation  of  a  fan.  A  force  blast,  on  the 
contrary,  helps  to  keep  the  tuyeres  open  and  free 
from  ollstruction  :  but  in  case  of  their  being  obstruct- 
ed, the  pressure  is  increased  by  the  obstruction,  and 
the  same  amount  of  air  still  continues  to  be  forced 
through  the  diminished  openings,  and  must  con- 
tinue to  do  so,  or  the  machine  must  stop.  With  a 
fan  this  is  not  the  case.  Only  a  limited  pressure 
can  be  obtained,  and  when  this  is  reached,  diminish- 
ing the  outlet  does  not  iu  the  least  degree  increase 
the  pressvire,  but  rather  the  reverse.  The  Piston 
Blower  undoubtedly  gives  a  force  blast,  and,  when 
properly  arranged,  is  far  superior  to  any  species  of 
fan  whatever,  but  not  nearly  so  good  as  the  Rotary 
Blower  for  cupolas,  for  the  following  reasons,  viz. : 
The  blast  is  irregular  and  comes  in  puffs  with  every 
motion  of  the  piston,  and  requires  a  large  receiver  to 
equalize  the  blast ;  this  is  both  bulky  and  expensive. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  machinery  and  fixtures  are 
heavy  and  cumbrous,  requiring  a  large  amount  of 
power  to  operate  them.  Besides,  their  cost  is  so 
great  as  to  place  them  beyond  the  range  of  the  large 
majority  of  establishments. 

The  importance  of  a  force  blast  will  be  more  fully 
realized  when  we  consider  the  enormous  amount  of 
air  required  in  the  combustion  of  coal  in  melting  iron. 
Accurate  experiments  have  shown  that  about  33.000 
cubic  feet  of  airare  consumed  in  melting  a  ton  of  iron. 
which,  if  reduced  to  a  solid,  would  weigh  about  3,600 
pounds,  or  1,200  lbs.  more  than  both  the  iron  and 
coal.  The  melting  point  of  cast  iron  is  about  3.800'-', 
and  a  considerably  higher  temperature  tlian  this  is 
required  to  render  the  iron  perfectly  Huid.  Root's 
Rotary  Blower  is  shown  iu  sectiimin  Fig.  2.  These 
famous  Blowers  have  the  improved  arrangement  for 
journal  boxes,  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  box  consists  of 
two  parts — the  thimble  or  bearing,  and  the  box  pro- 
per. The  bearings  are  made  of  phosphor  or  carbon- 
bronze.  The  thimble  or  lining  is  bored  out  to  fit  the 
journal  with  perfect  accuracy,  and  is  also  turned  otf 
inn  the  outside  so  as  to  be  precisely  (■ou<-entric  wilh 
the  shaft.  The  l)iix  which  holds  the  lining  or  bear- 
ing IS  also  bored  out  to  the  exact  size  to  receive  tlie 
bi'arimi,  which  is  I'leld  from  turning  by  set-screws  in 
the  cap.  The  advantages  of  this  arrangement  are 
that,  if  from  gross  neglect  or  inattention  the  journal- 
boxes  have  been  allowed  to  cut  or  wear,  and  need  re- 
newal, it  is  only  necessary  to  remove  the  caii  and 
push  the  lower  half  of  the  bearing  out,  inserting  the 
upper  half  or  a  new  one  in  its  place.  Thislirings  the 
sliaft  exactly  iu  its  original  position,  without  any  ad- 


placement  of  the  air  at  each  revolution,  whether  it 
runs  fast  or  slow.  When  the  air  enters  the  case  at 
the  opening  for  induction,  and  is  closed  in  by  the 
wings  of  the  revolvers,  it  is  absolutely  confined,  and 
positively  forced  forward  until  brought  to  the  educ- 
tion pipe,  where  it  must  be  discharged  or  the  ma- 
chine stop  if  perfectly  tight,  as  there  can  be  no  back- 
ward escapement  of  the  air  after  it  once  enters  the 
case,  the  contact  being  kept  up  at  all  times  in  the 
center  of  the  blower  between  the  pistons,  or  revol- 
vers, thus  preventing  any  escape  of  the  air  in  that 
direction. 

We  pass  now  to  the  consideration  of  malleable  or 
wrought  iron.  It  differs  from  cast-iron  in  being  al- 
most I'ree  of  carbon.  The  great  object  iu  the  pro- 
cesses adopted  for  the  conversion  of  cast  into  malle- 
able iron,  accordingly,  is  to  deprive  the  former  of 
its  carbon.  But  it  is  also  very  desirable  to  get  rid 
of  deleterious  ingredients,  such  as  silicon,  sulphur, 
and  phosphorus,  which  latter  are  generally  present 
in  minute  quantities  in  the  cast-iron  The  ordinary 
processes  for  the  manufacture  of  malleable  iron  are 
refining,  puddling,  x/iingling  or  hammiriitg,  and  roll- 
ing. The  refinery  consists  of  a  flat  hearth,  covered 
with  sand  or  loam,  and  surrounded  with  metal 
troughs,  through  which  a  stream  of  water  is  con- 
stantly flowing,  to  keep  the  sides  from  melting. 
The  cast-iron  is  melted  with  coke  on  the  hearth,  and 
a  blast  of  air  kept  blowing  over  it,  which  causes  its 
carbon  to  unite  with  the  o.xygen  of  the  air.  and  pass 
off  as  carbonic  oxide  gas.  Oxygen  also  unites  with 
silicim  to  form  silica,  and  with  iron  to  form  the  ox- 
ide. The  silica  of  the  sand  uniting  with  oxide  cf 
iron,  produces  a  slag  of  silicate  of  iron.  The  refined 
metal  is  finally  run  out  in  cakes  on  a  bed  of  cast-iron, 
kept  cool  by  a  stream  of  water.  Being  only  partial- 
ly decarbonized  by  this  process,  it  is  next  broken  up 
for  the  puddling  furnace.  About  10  per  cent  of  iron 
is  lost  in  the  refinery. 

White  pig-iron,  or  at  least  such  kinds  as  contain  car- 
bon in  the  combined  state  only,  are  best  suited  tor 
puddling,  because  they  become  pasty,  and  so  more 
easily  worked  than  gray  iron  containing  grn]ihitic 
carbon,  which  does  not  soften  into  this  condition  pre- 
vious to  fusion.  It  is  only  in  some  districts  that  the 
'■  refining"  process  is  much  used,  iu  others  a  portion 
only  of  tlie  puddling  furnace  charge  is  refined  :  and 
iu  making  inferior  kinds  of  malleable  iron,  the  ])ig- 
iron  is  not  previously  refined  at  all.  Tlu're  are  two 
ways  of  puddling  now  practical  ;  the  firsi  or  older 
way  best  aiiplicable  to  refined  iron,  is  called  dn/  /iiid- 
dtinr/,  and  in  it  the  decarburizalion  is|)ro(hice(l  cliief- 
ly  by  a  strong  current  of  air  passing  through  the  fur- 
nace: the  second  or  newer  process,  is  called  irt't  pud- 
dling or  hiiiling.  iu  which  case  the  oxidizing  of  the 
lartxm  is  effected  chiefly  by  hematite,  magnetic  ore. 
basic  slags,  and  other  easily  reduci'd  materials,  but 
to  some  extent   also  by  the   air.     The   operation  of 


noN. 


131 


IBOV. 


puddling,  Ihdiiuli  dilTrriii;;  in  ilctiiils  iiccordini;  In 
ciri;umHliinc(!rt,  in  in  ;i  general  wny  condiiflcil  uk  fol- 
lows :  A  cliarnc  of  from 4)  to. I  c wis.  of  rnctiil,  iin-iud- 
inj;  some  liiiiunicr  slut;  and  iron  scale,  is  |)la<'i'd  on 
tlio  bed  of  tile  fiirnare  while  still  hot  from  previous 
workinj;.  In  about  half  an  hour,  when  the  fur?uiee 
is  in  workiiic;  order,  Ibeehari^e  is  niellcd,  anil  is  then 
stirred  or  "rabble<l"  for  a  eonsider.'ible  lime,  when 
it  bef^iiis  to  "boil"  by  tint  formalicjn  and  escape  of 
carbonic  oxide,  which  forms  jets  of  Idue  llame  all 
over  the  surface,  (iradually,  us  the  carbon  of  the 
pig-iron  is  more  and  more  oxidi/.eil,  pasty  masses  of 
malleable  iron  separate,  and  these'  an^  removed  in 
balls  commonly  wei^hini;  about  HO  lbs,,  but  some- 
times larijer.  About  an  hour  anil  a  half  is  recjuired 
to  work  olf  a  chari;e,and  it  takes  from  '22to  '30  cwls. 
of  i)ii;-iron  lo  jiroducea  Ion  of  malleable  iron.  Sie- 
men's  rei^cneralive  )j;as-funiaci',  in  which  inferior 
fuels  can  be  utilized,  is  applied  to  puddlinu;as  well  us 
toother  metallurgical  processes  ;  atul  Hie  more  recent 
revolving  ])uddling  furnace  of  Mr.  Danks  is  the  most 
promising  of  any  of  the  attempts  yet  made  to  ]iudille 
iron  by  mechanical  means.  The  process  inunedialely 
following  the  puddling  or  boiling  is  called  "  shing- 
ling," and  consists  in  hanunering  tli<'  puddled  balls 
with  either  the  helve  or  sleam-hanniier,  or  in  passing 
them  through  a  squeezer  till  they  an;  sulticienlly  con- 
solidated, and  the  greater  part  of  the  cinders  forced 
out.  For  a  description  of  the  steum-hununer,  wliich 
is  nuicli  used  for  heavy  forgingsas  well  us  forshing- 
liug,  see  that  liead.    Puddled  lialls  which  have  under- 

fniie  the  process  of  shingling  are  called  .v/a/wor  hhuimii. 
'hese  are  next  passed  through  heavy  rollers  termed 
'•  forge  "  or  "  puddle-bar  rolls."  and  reduced  to  the 
form  of  a  flat  bar.  For  all  the  better  kinds  of  iron 
the  bars  thus  treated  arc  cut  into  short  lengths,  piled 
together,  reheated  in  a  furnace,  and  again  passed 
through  the  forge  rolls.  Once  more  the  iron  is  cut, 
piled,  and  lieated,  and  is  then  passed  through  tlie 
"  mill-lruin,"  consisting  of  what  are  termed  the  "bolt- 
ing" or  "  rough  rolls,"  and  finally  through  the  "  tin- 
ishiiig  rolls."  Both  tliese  sets  of  rolls  in  the  case  of 
plates  and  sheets  are  plain,  but  in  the  case  of  bars 
are  grooved,  so  as  to  form  them  into  the  required 
sliape,  sueli  as  flat,  square,  round,  octagonal,  or  T- 
shaped  iron. 

There  is  still  another  important  variety  of  iron, 
viz.,  uteel,  the  manufacture  of  which  remains  to  be 
described.  Steel  diflers  from  malleable  iron  in  con- 
taining a  varying  proportion  of  carbon,  usually  from 
.5  to  1.8  per  cent.  When  rich  in  carbon,  it  closelj' 
resembles  cast-iron  in  composition,  except  that  it  is 
more  free  from  impurities.  Steel  can  be  made  by 
adding  carbon  during  the  direct  reduction  of  a  pure 
iron  ore  in  a  furnace  or  crucible,  but  the  results  of 
this  method  are  scarcely  ever  uniform.  The  liner 
kinds  of  steel  are  still  made  by  the  old  cementation 
process — that  is,  by  the  roundabout  plan  of  Hrst  con- 
verting cast  into  malleable  iron,  by  depriving  the 
former  of  its  carbon,  and  then  adding  carbon  again 
by  heating  the  iron  ■with  charcoal.  In  making  any 
kind  of  steel,  however,  the  getting  rid  of  silicon, 
phosphorus,  and  sulphur  is  as  important,  anil  a  mat- 
ter of  moreditliculty  than  the  securing  of  any  requir- 
ed proportion  of  carbon.  As  blistered  steel  is  full 
of  cavities,  it  is  neces.sary  to  render  it  dense  and  uni- 
form, especially  for  the  finer  purposes  towdiich  steel 
is  applied.  By  one  method  it  is  converted  into  what 
is  called  "shear  steel."  This  is  done  by  breaking 
the  bars  of  blister  steel  into  short  lengths,  heating 
them  in  bundles,  and  partially  welding  with  a  forge- 
hammer.  The  rod  so  formed  is  heated  again,  and 
now  brought  under  the  action  of  the  tilt-hammer. 
Here,  by  a  succession  of  blows,  it  is  formed  into 
bars,  which  are  much  more  compact  and  malleable 
than  blister  steel,  and  consequently  lietter  fitted  for 
edge-tools  and  the  like.  If  the  single-shear  steel  is 
doubled  upon  itself,  and  again  welded  and  drawn 
into  bars,  it  is  called  double-shear  steel.  By  another 
method,  viz.,  that  of  melting  the  blister  steel  in  fire- 


clay crucibles,  and  casting  it  into  ingots,  "  cast-steel  " 
is  made.  This  is  the  Itest  kind  of  steel,  being  finely 
granular,  homogeneous,  dense,  and  well  adapted  for 
the  finest  culling  instruments. 

Hieel  is  now  largely  made  dirielly  from  pig-iron  by 
])udilling,  much  in  the  same  way  us  that  proci'ss  is 
applied  to  Ihe  production  of  malleable  iron.  By  an- 
other plan  (Tehulius's  process;,  pig-iron  isgrainilat- 
ed  and  heuleil  in  a  crucible  with  the  oxides  of  iron 
and  manganese,  and  fire-clay,  the  result  being  cast- 
sleel  This  process  has  succeeded  well  in  Sweden. 
The  Siemens-Marlin  proc('Ss  consists  in  melting  pig- 
iron  along  with  malleulile  iron  and  Bessemer  steel 
scruj),  about  7  per  cent  of  spiegeleisen  being  added 
towards  Ihe  end  of  Ihe  pror-ess.  The  operation  is 
condneted  in  Ihe  Siemens  regenerative  furnace,  and 
the  product  in  Ihiscase  is  also  cast-steel.  There  are 
also  several  moilesof  munufacliiringsteel  direct  from 
the  ore,  such  as  by  the  old  way  in  the  Catalan  forge, 
and  by  Chenot's  jirocess,  in  which  liydrocarbons  are 
used.  It  would  appear  from  the  results  of  recent 
experiments  made  on  the  large  scale  ut  Middlesbor- 
ougli,  that  Alessrs. Thomas  &  (lilchrist  have  succeed- 
eil,  by  a  comparatively  simple  device,  in  practically 
eliminating  the  phosphorus  frem  Cleveland  pig-iron 
during  the  conversion  of  the  latter  into  steel  in  the 
Bessemer  converter.  Tlie  great  importance  of  this 
discovery  will  be  at  once  understood  when  we  state 
that  the  Cleveland  iron  is  the  cheapest  inUreat  Brit- 
ain, and  that  the  Cleveland  ore  yields  one-fourth  of 
all  Ihe  iron  made  in  the  Country.  Hitherto  it  has 
not  been  remunerative  to  make  steel  from  this  pig- 
iron  on  account  of  the  exceptionally  high  percentage 
of  phosphorus  it  contains,  und  the  ditficulty  there 
has  been  of  removing  an  ingredient  so  deleterious  to 
steel.  Success,  however,  husat  length  been  achieved 
by  obtaining,  through  the  use  of  lime  and  oxide  of 
iron,  a  basic  slag  in  the  cimverter,  and  by  lining  this 
ves.sel  with  bricks  made  chiefly  of  magnesian  lime- 
stone, fired  at  a  very  higli  heal.  A  basic  lining  is 
given  to  the  converter  instead  of  the  ordinary  silice- 
ous one,  which  is  acid,  and  so  a  base  is  furnished 
with  which  the  phosphoric  acid  can  combine  with- 
out the  certainity  of  the  lining  being  eaten  away  by 
the  basic  slag,  as  would  be  the  case  when  thislining 
is  siliceous.  It  is  only  as  respects  the  nature  of  the 
slag  in  the  converter,  and  the  kind  of  lining  used  for 
this  vessel,  that  Thomas  &  Gilchrist's  mode  of  mak- 
ing steel,  as  far  as  it  has  yet  been  tried,  dilTers  from 
Bessemer's  ;  except  that  for  the  latter  a  high-priced 
pig-iron  is  required.  Of  course  steel  can  be  made  by 
the  new  process  from  other  low-priced  irons  besides 
Cleveland. 

We  will  now  take  a  glance  at  the  properties  of 
each  of  the  three  principal  kinds  ofiron.and  the  pur- 
poses to  which  it  is  chiefly  aiijilied.  Cnst-iron.  as 
the  crudest,  cheapest,  and  most  fusible,  is  used,  as  a 
general  thing,  for  the  heavy  portions  of  all  engineer- 
ing and  ordnance  work,  such  as  the  bed-plates  for 
machines,  cylinders,  columns,  cisterns,  low-pressure 
boilers,  water  and  gas  pipes,  rollers,  girders,  and  a 
large  variety  of  the  like.  A  large  quantity  is  also 
consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  "  hollow-ware." 
which  includes  pots,  pans,  and  other  cooking  vessels. 
For  all  kinds  of  ornamental  objects,  again,  it  is  al- 
most exclusively  used,  because  liere  its  property  of 
being  readily  cast  into  molds  gives  it  a  great  advan- 
tage on  the  score  of  cheapness.  Malleable  iron  dif- 
fers considerably  in  its  properties  from  cast  iron. 
The  latter  is  practically  incompressible,  but  it  can  be 
comparatively  easily  torn  asunder.  JIallcable  iri>n, 
on  the  contrary,  possesses  great  tenacity  ;  it  is,  more- 
over, very  malleable  and  ductile,  especially  at  a  high 
temperature,  so  that  it  can  be  rolled  into  sheets  as 
thin  as  paper,  or  drawn  into  the  finest  wire.  Fur- 
ther, it  possesses  the  valuable  property  of  welding — 
that  is,  two  pieces  can  be  completely  united  togeth- 
er by  hammering  at  a  white  heat.  Malleable  iron  is 
largelj-  employed  for  the  inmmierable  variety  of  arti- 
cle included  under  the  general  term  "hardware," 


lEON  CLAD  OATH. 


132 


IBOH  CLAD  TEAIHS. 


such  as  locks,  keys,  hinges,  bolts,  nails,  screws, wire- 
work,  and  the  so-called  tin-plate,  which  is  merely 
sheet-iron  dipped  in  melted  tin.  It  is  the  mainstaj'of 
the  railways  and  the  electric  telegraph, and  has  almost 
displaced  timber  as  a  material  for  steamships  and 
saiRng-vessels.  It  is  also  much  used  for  roofs  and 
bridges  of  large  size.  Rolled  armor-plates  for  war- 
ships and  fortifications  are  now  made  of  malleable 
iron  from  5  to  23  inches  thick.  Steel  possesses  sev- 
eral valuable  properties  which  do  not  belong  to  either 
cast  or  wrought  iron.  It  is  harder,  denser,  and 
whiter  in  color.  It  is  also  more  elastic,  takes  a  higher 
polish,  and  rusts  less  easily.  Like  malleable  iron,  it 
IB  also  weldable.  But  its  most  characteristic  proper- 
ty consists  in  its  admitting  of  being  tempered  at  will 
to  any  degree  of  hardness.  If,  for  instance,  a  piece 
of  steel  be  heated  to  redness  and  plunged  into  water, 
it  is  made  hard  and  brittle ;  but  if  it  be  again  heated 
and  slowly  cooled,  its  original  softness  is  restored. 
B}'  gently  reheating  the  steel  it  will  acquire  a  grada- 
tion of  tints  indicating  various  degrees  of  hardness, 
beginning  with  pale  straw  color,  and  passing  succes- 
si\'ely  to  full  yellow,  brown,  purple,  and  finally  blue. 
The  straw  color  is  the  resL'it  of  a  temperature  of 
440°,  and  the  blue  570"  F.,  the  former  being  the  hard- 
est and  the  latter  the  softest  tempering.  The  use  of 
steel  is  no  longer  confined  to  such  small  articles  as 
files,  edge-tools,  knives,  etc.  By  means  of  improved 
machinery  and  processes,  steel  is  at  present  manu- 
factured on  a  scale  that  was  little  dreamed  of  thirty 
years  ago,  so  that  such  objects  as  field-guns,  heavy 
shafting,  tires,  rails,  armor-plates,  and  the  like  are 
now  being  made  of  this  material.  The  superior  ten- 
sile strength  of  steel,  which  is  about  double  that  of 
malleable  iron,  gives  it  a  great  advantage  where 
lightness  is  required.  Large  numbers  of  steamships 
are  now  building  of  steel.  See  Cannon-metals,  Cast- 
iroii.  Metallurgy,  Piling,  Puddling,  Rolling-mill, 
Smelting,  Steel,   Welding,  and  Wrong  fit-iron. 

IRON-CLAD  OATH.— An  oatli  of  allegiance  prescrib- 
ed by  Statute  of  the  United  States,  for  those  taking  of- 
fice under  the  National  or  State  Government,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  provisions  of  the  14th  Amendment 
to  the  Constitution.  The  oath  as  administered  reads 
as  follows : 

"I, ,   residing  at ,    do 

solemnly  swear  that  I  have  never  voluntarily  borne 
arms  against  the  United  States  since  I  have  been  a 
ctlzen  thereof  ;  that  I  have  voluntarily  given  no  aid, 


I  take  this  obligation  freely,  without  any  mental  res- 
ervation or  purpose  of  evasion;  and  that  I  will  well 
and  faithfully  discharge  the  duties  of  the.ofilce  on 
which  I  am  about  to  enter.     So  help  me  God." 

Sworn  to  before  me,  this day  of ,        ) 

188—.  - 
U.  S.  Commissioner.  ) 

This  oath  is  still  administered  to  officers  under  the 
U.  S.  Government,  but  its  application  has  been  re- 
stricted by  special  Acts  of  Congress,  relieving,  in 
certain  instances,  classes  and  individuals  from  the 
effect  of  its  provisions. 

IRON-CLAD  TRAINS.— Trains  were  iitilized  as  a 
means  of  reconnoitering  during  the  American  war  of 
Secession,  and  during  the  v.-ar  of  1870-71 ,  in  Europe, 
but  no  heavier  guns  than  those  usually  employed  as 
field  artillery  were  mounted  on  them.  Recently, 
however,  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  guns  as  heavy 
as  a  40-pounder  may  be  mounted  and  fought  on  trains 
with  satisfactory  results,  there  being  little  or  no 
straining  in  either  the  trucks  or  rails.  Experience 
has  shown  the  following  to  be  the  best  way  of  mak- 
ing up  the  train :  1st  truck,  empty,  so  as  to  guard 
against  the  Line  being  mined.  2d  truck,  a  machine- 
gun  in  front,  spare  rails  for  repairing  the  line.  3d 
truck,  spare  rails,  bowls,  chairs,  etc.,  for  repairing 
the  line.  4th  truck,  40-pr.  gun  and  crew.  .5th  truck, 
ammunition  wagon.  This  is  protected  all  round  by 
thin  iron,  and  the  magazine  is  covered  in  front  by  a 
pile  of  short  railway  iron  a  little  higher  than  a  pow- 
der-case. On  each  side  is  a  baulk  of  timber,  and  on 
top  a  layer  of  rails,  three  or  four  of  which  are  bolted 
down.  The  powder  is  in  half  metal-lined  cases.  This 
truck  also  contain  fuses,  tin  cups,  tools,  four  cases  of 
wet  and  one  of  dry  gun-cotton,  Bickford's  fuse,  de- 
tonators, lantern  and  candles,  slings  for  lifting  the 
guns  and  carriage,  bearers  for  the  gun,  a  collapsible 
boat,  stretchers,  ana  arm-racks  for  the  covering  party 
of  twenty-eight  men.  6th  truck,  protected  with  thin 
iron  plates,  carrjing  two  Catlings  with  their  crews. 
7th  truck,  two  9-prs.  with  their  limbers,  two  7-prs. 
and  their  crews.  8th  truck,  steam-crane.  9th  en- 
gine, protected  with  railway  iron  laid  horizontally 
along  the  boiler,  |-inch  and  f-inch  iron  plates  round 
the  working  parts,  and  sand-bags.  lOth  truck,  pro- 
tected by  iron  plates,  carrying  the  covering  party, 
and  with  a  Galling  in  rear.  A  reserve  engine  always 
followed,  usually  on  the  other  line,  and  if  necessary 
brought  up  another  train  with  a  battalion. 


countenance,  counsel,  or  encouragement  to  persons 
engaged  in  armed  hostility  thereto;  that  I  have 
neithe;  sought,  nor  accepted,  norattempted  to  exer- 
cise the  functions  of  any  office  whatever  under  any 
authority  or  pretended  authority  in  hostility  to  the 
United  States ;  that  I  have  not  yielded  a  voluntary 
support  to  any  pretended  government,  authority, 
power,  or  constitution  within  the  United  States,  ho.s- 
tile  or  'nimical  thereto.  And  I  do  further  swear  that, 
to  the  best  of  my  knowle<lgc  and  ability.  I  will  sup- 
port and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
against  all  enemies,  foreign  and  domestic;  that  I 
will  bear  true  faith  and  allegiance  to  the  same  ■  that 


During  the  recent  Egyptian  Campaign,  the  English 
mounted  a  9-inch  Armstrong  M.  L.  R.  gun  in  tlie 
manner  described,  and  shown  in  the  drawing.  A 
truck,  which  had  been  constructed  some  time  back 
to  transport  a  26-ton  boiler  from  Alexandria  to  Suez, 
was  found  in  the  store  and  appropriated.  It  was 
longer  than  the  ordinary  trucks,  and  much  stronger 
b\iilt.  running  on  eight  wheels  close  together,  and 
with  especially  constructed  springs.  Three  baulks 
of  timber  were  placed  across  the  front  part  of  the 
truck,  and  bolted  through  the  Moor.  A  J  inch  iron 
plate,  two  feet  wide,  was  bent  over  these,  and  bolted 
to  the  bottom  of  the  truck,  and  in  the  center  f  o  this 


IBON  CROSS. 


133 


IBEEOULAB  SITES. 


plalfonii  till' pivoliiiK  bolt  rt  WHS  pliiccd.  Asii  niipimrl 
a  pifcc  of  |-iii<li  iron,  four  inclics  wide  whhI'i.ximI  to 
the  lop  of  the  liolt,  when  the  bars  were  in  position, 
and  iiiso  bolted  under  the  earriaiir'.  h.  The  slide, 
which  was  of  the  lanil  servic'e  patlern  with  hii^h  rol- 
lers, hail  toliernt  <lown  so  as  to  brini;  the  weif,'lit  as 
low  as  |)ossible.  'I'Ik'  rollers  weri'  tiiUen  olT  and  the 
axeltrees  cut.  An  extempore  rear-axle  was  made  ont 
of  a  bar  of  iron,  and  the  rear  rollers  of  a  lO-inch  nun 
carriage  were  used  as  rear-slide  rolh^rs,  the  fore  part 
of  the  slide  workin;;  without  rollers,  on  an  iron  skid 
plate.  The  rear  rollers  were  so  fur  forward  that  the 
slide  was  very  liable  to  tip  up  when  the  i^un  recoiled 
— in  fact,  several  j^uns  were  disabled  in  lijc  forts  dur- 
ing the  boinbanlnient  in  this  miirnier.  An  arraniic- 
nient  was  Iberefon^  tilted  to  tlu!  fore  part  of  the  slicUt 
which  prevented  this,  anil,  at  thesanu^  time,  allowed 
lateral  motion  to  the  slide  for  training.  In  rear  of 
the  rear-slide  rollers  a  baulk  of  timber  was  ])laced, 
projecting  about  two  feet  on  either  side,  with  bolts 
for  the  training  tackles,  r..  When  the  gun  was  out 
and  the  training  on,  a  wedge  was  driven  in  between 
this  baulk  and  thi^  rear  of  the  slide,  so  as  to  take 
some  of  the  weight  of  the  gun  on  recoil  olf  the  rear 
axle,  which  was  rather  weak,  and  also  to  distribute 
the  weight  more  evenly  over  the  truck.  In  order  to 
run  the  gim  in,  sonte  sort  of  a  purchase  was  neces- 
sary, and  nothing  (-ould  be  found  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose better  than  the  crab  of  the  Moncrieff  gun  at 
Fort  Uas-el-tin.  The  gun  was  then  mounted  by  a 
crane,  and  everything  worked  satisfactorily.  About 
58  of  training  was  obtained  on  either  side,  which  in 
this  case  was  suflicient  to  cover  the  principal  works 
at  Kafr-Dowar,  partic-ularly  as  there  was  a  sharp 
bend  in  the  line,  and  a  very  much  larger  arc  could  be 
covered  by  a  judicious  selection  of  points  to  lire 
from.     See  Itailwdy  OomiininicaticnU. 

IRON  CROSS.— A  Prussian  order  of  kuigbtliood,  in- 
stituted ou  .Mar.  10,  1813,  by  Frederick  William  III., 
and  <'i)nferred  for  distinguished  services  in  the  war 
which  was  then  being  carried  on.  The  decoration  is 
an  iron  cross  withsilvermounting.  The  grand  cross, 
a  cross  of  double  the  size,  was  presented  exclusively 
for  the  gaining  of  a  decisive  battle,  or  the  capture  or 
brave  defense  of  a  fortress. 

IRON  CROWN.— The  crown  of  the  ancient  Longo- 
bardian  Kings,  given  according  to  an  unauthenticat- 
cd  tradition,  by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  to  Queen 
Theodolinda,  and  preserved  till  lately  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Monza.  Henry,  in  1311,  is  the  lirst  German 
Emperor  \tho  is  known  to  have  worn  it.  It  was  re- 
moved by  the  Austrians  to  Vienna  after  1859,  but 
■was  presented  to  the  King  of  Italy  in  1866.  The  out- 
er part  of  the  crown  consists  of  a  golden  hoop,  with 
enameled  flowers  and  precious  stones,  in  form  like  an 
ancient  diadem,  within  which  is  a  thin  jilate  or  lillet 
of  iron,  which  is  declared  by  a  tradition  long  oppos- 
ed by  the  Church  at  Milan,  but  adopted  by  "the  Con- 
gregation ■'  deisarri  riti"  &i  Home,  to  have  been  ham- 
mered from  one  of  the  nails  of  the  true  cross.  When 
Napoleon  I.  was  elected  King  of  Italy  in  1805,  he 
took  this  relic  and  crowned  hfmself  with  it,  disdain- 
ing to  receive  it  from  the  hands  of  a  Bishop;  and  at 
the  same  time  he  founded  an  order  of  knighthood, 
taking  its  name  from  the  Iron  Crown.  The  order — 
forgotten  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon — was  restored 
and  remodeled  in  1816  by  the  Emperor  Francis  I., 
who  gave  it  the  name  of  "the  Austrian  Order  of  the 
Iron  Crown. 

IRON  CYLINDER  GAUGE.— An  instrument  adapted 

for   testing   the  body,  studs,  and  pitch  of  rifling  of 

muzzle-loading  projectiles,  at  one  operation.     When 

Dianieti'r  Diamettr  IJinnieter 

over  l)ody.  overstiid:*.        low  over  etuds. 

Inclifs.  Inctiep.  Indies. 

]6-l)r.   3-.58  3-81S  3T95 

9l)r.   2-™  2218  — 

T-pr 2-SW   3-1K3  ,3-16,5 

the  present  number  of  this  nature  of  gauge  is  used 
lip,  iron  ring  gauges  will  be  introduced  for  general  is- 


sue; the  cylinder  gauges  being  restricted  to  stations 
of  in8[iectiiin.  The  forigoing  are  the  dimensions  of 
till'  u'aiiL'is  for  rilled  Held  guns. 

IRON  FILINGS.  Small  portions  or  jiarticlcB of  iron 
rubbed  olT  by  the  act  of  filing-  they  are  used  in  the 
mamifactiire  of  fireworks  and  for  other  |iiirposcs. 

IRONS.  Shackles  of  iron  into  which  the  ankles  of 
a  prisoner  are  fixed,  and  which  slide  on  a  long  iron 
bar.  Kefractory  soldiers,  who  evince  violent  behav- 
ior, and  become  unmanageable,  are  commonly  put 
in  irons,  several  being  jilaced  side  by  sifle  aloiig  the 
same  bar.  In  cases  of  extreme  violence  the  wrists 
may  be  sindlarly  treated,  but  instances  of  this  latter 
punishment  are  rare.  TIk!  ptinishment  of  "  putting 
m  irons"  is  more  common  in  the  Nav}'  than  in  the 
Army.    Conunonly  called  Jlilhue.i. 

IRONSIDES.  A  Cuirassier.  The  term  is  specially 
applied  to  Cromwell's  Cavalry.  As  Captain  of  a 
troop  of  horse,  Cromwell  exhibited  aslonishinir  mili- 
tary genius;  and  against  the  men  trained  by  himself 
— "CromweU's  Ironsides"-  the  battle-sliock  of  the 
fiery  Rupert,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  parlia- 
mentary struggle  none  else  co\d(l  withstand,  spent 
itself  in  vain. 

IRREGULAR  FORTIFICATION.— Those^in  which, 
from  the  nature  of  the  ground  or  other  causes,  the 
several  works  have  not  their  du(;  proportions  accord- 
ing to  rule;  irregularity,  however,  docs  not  neces- 
sarily iniplv  weakness. 

IRREGULARITY.— A  violation  of  the  customs  of 
service — ii  dili(|uency  which  is  suliject  to  censure, 
but  not  serious  enough  to  be  brought  before  a 
Courl-.Marlial. 

IREEGULAE  SITES.— The  problem  presented  for 
solution  to  the  engineer^in  irregular  sites  is  freijuent- 
ly  one  of  no  ordinary  complexity;  demanding  a 
minute  and  laborious  study  of  the  natural  featuresof 
the  position  in  their  relations  to  the  defense  ;  con- 
nected with  a  tentative  ])rocess  of  which  the  object 
is  so  to  modify  the  plan,  rclief.and  details  ordinarily 
adopted,  as  to  adapt  them  in  the  best  m:inner  to  the 
given  position.  No  rules  but  of  a  very  general  char- 
acter can  be  laid  down  for  the  guidance  of  the  en- 
gineer in  such  cases.  The  more  plunging  the  fire  of 
the  work,  the  more  efficacious  will  if  prove  to  be. 
The  etijciency  of  this  fire  will  depend  upon  two  caus- 
es ;  1.  The  conunand  of  the  work  over  the  point  to 
be  attained.  2.  The  direction  of  the  ground  with  re- 
spect to  the  lines  by  which  it  is  swept. 

As  to  the  command  of  the  work  over  the  exterior 
ground,  it  hiis  already  been  shown  that  motives  of 
economy  restrict  it,  in  most  cases,  within  very  nar- 
row limits,  where,  to  obtain  it,  artificial  embank- 
nunits  have  to  be  employed. 

To  augment,  therefore,  in  the  greatest  degree  this 
element  of  the  defense,  advantage  shoidd  lie  taken 
of  the  natural  features  of  the  locality,  by  placing  the 
principal  lines,  from  which  the  exterior  ground"  can 
be  seen,  on  the  most  commanding  points" of  the  site. 
If.  with  this  position  given  to  the  principal  lines, 
the  ground  swept  falls  or'slopes  towards  them,  a  most 
favorable  combination  for  an  efficacious  plunging 
fire  will  be  obtained;  for,  with  this  direction  of"  the 
ground,  the  enemy  will  meet  with  far  greater  diffi- 
culty, to  put  himself  under  shelter  by  his  works, 
than  where  the  ground  falls  or  slopes  from  the  line 
by  which  it  is  swept;  as  the  surface,  in  the  latter  case, 
descending  in  the  rear  of  the  cover  thrown  \\\i  by  the 
enemy,  will  be  screened  to  a  greater  extent  than  in 
the  former,  where  it  rises  in  rear  of  the  cover.  When 
this,  however,  cannot  be  effected,  the  next  best  thing 
to  be  done  is  so  to  place  the  principal  lines  with  re- 
spect to  the  surface  to  be  swept  that  it  shall  be  seen 
by  a  part  of  these  lines,  thus  bringing  to  bear  upon 
it  a  Hank  fire  from  these  parts. 

The  general  rule,  therefore,  which  the  engineer  is 
to  take  as  a  guide,  in  order  to  satisfy  the  condition  of 
bringing  the  exterior  ground  under  an  efficacious 
fire  from  the  work,  is: 

1.  To  place  the  principal  lines  of  his  work  on  the 


IREEGULAR  TROOPS. 


134 


I80L£. 


most  commanding  points  of  the  site,  and  in  such  di- 
rections as  to  bring  the  exterior  ground  to  be  swept 
in  a  position  slopiiig  towards  tliese  lines  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  can  bring  tlieir  entire  fire  to  bear 
upon  it,  or  else"  bring  a  portion  of  it  to  sweep  it  in 
front. 

This  will  generally  behest  effected  by  placing  the 
salient  points  of  the  work  on  the  most  commanding 
and  salient  points  of  the  site;  as,  in  this  position  of 
the  .salients,  the  faces,  wliich  are  usually  the  prin- 
cipal lines  bearing  on  the  exterior  ground,  will  oc- 
cupy the  salient  and  commanding  portions  of  the 
site,  whilst  the  re-entcrings,  being  thrown  on  the  re- 
entering and  lower  portions  of  the  site,  will  be  in  the 
best  position  for  sweeping  the  ground  innnediately 
in  the  advance  of  the  faces  by  a  Hank  fire ;  and  at 
the  same  time  these  re-enterings  will  be  masked  by 
the  faces  from  the  enemy's  view,  and  thus  preserved 
from  serious  injury  up  to  the  moment  when  their  ac- 
tion mav  be  rendered  most  effective ;  that  is  when 
tlie  eneiTiy.  despite  the  fire  from  the  faces,  lias  suc- 
ceeded in  planting  himself  upon  point  on  which 
this  fire  cannot  longer  be  brought  to  bear.  To  carry 
these  precepts  iutopractice,  a  wide  margin  is  left  to 
the  engineer's  judgment  in  which  he  will  find  it  nec- 
e.ssary"in  some  cases  to  extend  the  lines  of  his  works 
beyond  what  a  strict  regard  to  economy  might  pr^ 
scribe,  so  as  to  include  within  his  defenses  ground' 
from  wliich  he  can  best  sweep  what  is  exterior  to  it, 
or  wliich,  being  occupied  by  the  assailant,  might 
make  his  own  "position  less  tenable,  in  this  way 
necessarily  forcing  him  to  extend  out  his  lines  so  as 
to  embrace  all  tlie  crests  within  them  that  over- 
look the  valleys  beyond  them;  and  in  very  many  ca- 
ses to  throw  his  own  lines  further  back  in  order  to 
avoid  enfilading  or  plunging  viewsfroin  points  which 
are  too.  far  to" be  brought  within  his  defenses.  2. 
The  condition  of  leaving  no  dead  spaces,  that  is.  no 
point  of  the  defenses  vuiguarded  by  their  fire,  will 
depend  in  a  great  degree  for  its  fulfilment  on  the  same 
rule  as  the  preceding.  But  where  both  conditions 
cannot  be  satisfied,  the  distant  defense  should  be  sac- 
rificed to  the  near;  as  upon  the  latter  tlie  moreorless 
of  obstinacy  of  resistance  depends:  since  the  fire  of 
the  work  aiid  the  action  of  the  garrison  are  the  more 
effective  as  the  point  to  be  guarded  is  the  nearer  to 
the  defenses.  3.  The  condition  that  the  troops  and 
materiel  within  the  defenses  shall  be  sheltered  from 
the  enemy's  fire,  from  all  coininanding  points  with- 
out, will  depend  upon  the  relative  positions  of  the 
principal  lines  and  the  exterior  commanding  points; 
and  as  far,  therefore,  as  it  can  be  done,  without  sacri- 
ficing either  of  the  preceding  and  more  important 
condTtions.thepIanof  the  work  should  be  so  arranged 
that  tlie  principal  lines  shall  present  themselves  in 
tlie  most  favorable  direction  to  the  exterior  ground 
to  avoid  plunging,  enfilading,  or  reverse  views 
upon  their  terre-pleins  from  any  point  of  it. 
To  effect  these  objects,  when  the  work  is  in  the 
vicinity  of  commanding  heights  within  cannon 
range,  and  the  crests  of  these  lieiglits.  as  seen  from 
the  wcirk.  present  a  nearly  horizontal  mitliue,  the 
principal  lines  of  the  work,  fronting  the  heights, 
should  receive  a  direction  as  nearly  parallel  as  prac- 
ticable to  that  of  the  commanding  crests.  >Vhen 
the  outline  of  the  crests  jiresents  a  nearly  continuous 
line,  but  one  which  declines  or  .slopes  lowanls  the 
site  of  the  work,  the  principle  lines  towards  the 
height  should  receive  a  direction  converging  to- 
ward the  point  when;  flic  line  of  the  crests,  as  seen, 
if  prolonged,  would  join  the  site.  The  reasons  for 
the  positions  assigned  to  the  principle  lines  in  these 
cases  respectively,  may  not,  at  a  first  glance,  be  ob- 
vious ;  but  by  examining  the  relative  positions  of  the 
crests  of  the  heights  and  of  the  principal  lines,  as 
Jiere  laid  down,  it  will  willmut  dilfieulty  be  seen 
that  they  can  be  brought  in  the  same  plane,  and  the 
latter  be  so  jilaced  as  to  give  a  nearly  uniform  com- 
mand to  the  parapets  of  the  iirincipal  lines  over  the 
site;   an<l   that  by  keeping  the  terre-pleins  of  these 


lines  in  planes  parallel  to  the  one  in  which  thecresta 
of  the  heights  and  those  of  the  parapets  are  held,  and 
at  suitable  levels  below  it,  the  parapets  will  lie  made 
to  cover  the  terre-pleins  from  the  fire  of  the  heights 
in  the  simplest  manner.  The  foregoing  general 
methods  for  determining  the  direction  of  the  princi- 
pal lines  fronting  commanding  heights,  so  as  to 
cover  from  direct  fire,  in  the  easiest  manner,  by 
their  parapets,  the  space  to  the  rear,  occupied  by 
the  troops  and  tnuteriel,  present,  at  the  same  time, 
the  simplest  cases  of  the  adaptation  of  the  plan  of  a 
work  to  the  features  of  the  locality,  to  subserve  the 
object  in  view.  In  most  cases,  all  that  can  be  done 
is  to  avoid  giving  such  directions  to  any  of  the  prin- 
cipal lines,  as  shall  be  favorable  to  enfilading  or  re- 
verse views  of  the  enemy  ;  which  may  be  effected  by 
so  placing  them  that  tlieir  prolongations  shall  fall  on 
points  where  the  enemy  cannot  establish  his  works; 
or  those  which,  if  occupied  by  him,  will  afford  dis- 
advantageous positions  for  his  batteries  either  for 
enfilading  or  reverse  fires.  As  the  attack  derives  its 
great  advantage  from  its  enveloping  position,  by 
which  enfilading  views  and  a  concentrated  fire  can 
be  brought  to  bear  on  the  assailed  point,  so,  in  the 
general  disposition  of  his  defenses,  the  engineer 
should  endeavcr  ro  reduce  these  salient  and  assaila- 
ble points  to  the  fewest  number,  and  to  accumulate 
upon  them  such  surplus  strength  that  in  spite  of 
their  natural  weakness  they  will  cost  their  assailant 
a  great  deal  of  time  and  a  large  sacrifice  of  means  to 
get  possession.  This  consideration  has  led  engineers 
to  propose  for  the  general  outline  of  their  defensive 
pol}'gon  a  triangle  in  which  the  princijial  develop- 
ment of  their  work  being  a  number  of  fronts  on  a 
right  line,  they  can  neither  be  enveloped  nor  their 
principal  lines  be  enfiladed  bj'  the  assailant's  trench- 
es, thus  1  caving*  only  the  three  angular  points  as 
assailable,  and  wdiich  the)'  propose  to  strengthen  by 
an  accumulation  of  works  upon  them.  See  FortiJU 
ratiiin.  and  Pe)-mnnfnt  Fortifirativn. 

IRREGULAR  TROOPS. — Troops  which,  though  in 
the  pay  of  a  nation,  do  not  belong  to  the  regular 
forces.  In  the  British  arm_v  there  are  no  .such 
troops.  In  India  there  are  two  or  three  irregular 
forces,  comjiosed  of  cavalry  and  infantry,  for  the 
protection  of  native  states.  The  present  native  cav- 
alry regiments  in  her  Majesty's  Indian  army  were 
originally  raised  as  irregular  troops.  They  found 
their  own  horses,  arms,  clothing,  etc.,  for  which 
they  received  a  certain  monthly  sum;  but  this  has 
been  modified  of  late  years,  and  they  are  no  longer 
stvled  irregular  cavalry. 
"ISABELLA.— The  Order  of  Isabella  the  Catholic 
is  a  Spanish  Order  of  Knighthood 
founded  by  Ferdinand  VII. in  1815. 
as  a  reward  of  loyalty,  and  for  the 
defense  of  the  possessions  of  Span- 
ish America.  It  is  now  conferred 
for  all  kinds  of  merit.  The  Sov- 
ereign is  the  head  of  the  Order, 
which  is  divided  in  to  the  three 
classes  of  GrandCrosses,Command- 
ers,  and  Knights. 

IHSOCHRONISM.— A  pendulum  is 
isoclininiiiis  when  its  vilirations  are 
performed  in  ecpial  times,  whether 
these  vibralicms  be  large  or  small ; 
but  it  can  only  possess  this  pro- 
perty by  being  constrained  to  move 
in  a  cycloidal  arc.  This  is  man- 
aged by  causing  the  string  to  wrap 
and  unwrap  itself  round  two  ei|ual 
cycloidal  cheeks,  the  diameter  of 
whose  generating  circle  is  e(|iial  to 
halflenglh  of  ]icnduluiii.  Isocliron- 
ism  is  closely  approximated  in  ]inictic('  liy  causing 
the  pendulum  to  descrilie  a  very  small  <ircul;ir  arc. 
ISOLE. — A  word  used  among  the  French,  to  ex- 
press any  thing  which  is  detached  from  another.  It  is 
variously  applied  in  fortification:  As,  for  instance,  a 


OtinT  of  Isaljella 
the  Cathalio. 


IS9MERISM. 


135 


ITINEaABY. 


parapet  is  wiiil  In  lio  wife  when  llicrc  is  an  interval  of 
4  or  5  feet  cxislini;  between  the  rampart  am!  its  wall, 
wliicli  interval  serves  as  a  patli  fortlie  nMniils. 

ISOMERISM.  Isomeric  li  Mlies  may  he  eoiisidered 
as  naturally  div  ilcil  into  pliysi<'al  i.somerNaiiil  eliemi- 
cal  isomers.  Tlie  pliysieal  are  more  strictly  or  per- 
fectly isomeric  than  tlie  clii'mical,  and  on  accoiinl  of 
their  similiar  molecular  or  radical  composition  when 
they  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  dilTerent  forces  or 
reaiient.s  exhibit  tlur  same  liehavior.  Thus  there  are 
several  hydrocarl)ons  known  as  tcrpenes,  havini;  the- 
coin  posit  ion  C!,,,  II  ,„,  as  the  oils  of  lemon,  lieri,'iimot. 
and  tiirpi'iiline,  which  show  the  same  reactions  under 
the  inllucnce  of  chemical  ai;ents,  except  their  dilfer- 
encc  of  odor  and  action  orpolari/ed  lii;ht.  Chenncal 
isomers  merely,  do  not  carry  their  isomerism  so  far, 
for  allhi>ni;h  they  may  have  the  same  proportion  of 
elements,  and  also  the  same  molecular  weii;lit.  they 
do  not  <'Xliibil  the  same  behiivinr  undiT  rcairculs. 
Thus,  till'  molecular  formula, < ',  ll,,(  )^,  reiiresentstlircc 
dilTerent  bodies  which  decompose  dilferently  when 
acted  upon  by  caustic  alkalies.  ]iroprionic  acid.C., 
IIjO.IU),  beinj;  cimvcrtedat  common  tem|)eratnres 
iutoproi)riouate  of  potassium.  CjlIjO.KO.  Acetate 
of  methyl,  CjlIjO.CHjO.  is  not  chanffed  at  ordinary 
temperatures  by  caustic  potasli.l ml  wlien  heated  with 
it,  acetate  of  potassium  and  mcthylic  idcohol  are  i)rn- 
duced.  As^ain,  formate  of  ethyl,  ('ll(),('„llr,(),  when 
heated  witli  caustic  potash,  is  chanircd  into  for- 
ate  of  potassium,  t'iI(),K().  and  ethyl  alcohol, 
CjHjHO.  These  chemical  isomers  are  the  metameres 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  article,  their  behavior 
dependini^  upon  the  manner  in  which  orj^anic  radi- 
cals enter  into  their  composition.  Another  class  of 
these  bodies  arc  called  jioh meres. 

ISOMETRIC  PROJECTIOM.  A  kind  of  drawing  used 
by  engineers  for  purpo.ses  of  construction.  It  is  an 
orthographic  projection  in  which  one  plane  or  pro- 
jection is  employed,  and  therefore  the  ineasurement 
is  without  legard  to  the  rules  of  perspective,  the 
plane  of  the  drawing  being  supposed  to  be  at  an  in- 
tinite  distance  from  the  eye.  It  is  used  to  delineate 
structures  whose  principh'  lines  are  parallel  to  three 
rectangular  axes,  and  the  plane  of  projection  makes 
eqiuil  angles  with  these  axes,  which  are  calleii  co- 
ordinate axes,  and  the  planes,  taken  two  and  two, 
arc  called  co-ordinate  planes.  The  plane  of  projec- 
tion passes  through  the  point  of  intersection  of  the 
three  axes,  and  this  point  is  the  center  of  projection. 
The  projections  of  the  co-ordinate  axes  are  the  di- 
recting lines  of  the  proj<'Ction.  and  form  equal  angles 
of  1308  with  each  other. 

ISSUE.— A  term  applied  to  the  distribution  of  ra- 
tions and  supplies.  In  the  British  service, /.v.w^,i are 
certain  sums  of  money  which  are,  at  stated  periods, 
given  to  ])ublic  accountants  for  public  service;  and 
for  the  honest  distribution  of  which,  every  individ- 
ual so  intrusted  is  responsible  to  Parliament.  Hegi- 
mental  issues  ure  moneys  jtaid  by  regimental  agents, 
acting  i:ndcr  the  authority  of  their  respective  Col- 
onels, for  regimental  purposes. 

ITALIAN  ARMY.  Italy,  like  most  of  the  Contin- 
ental Nations,  has  adopted  the  compulsory  .system  in 
raising  her  Army,  similar  to  France  and  Germany. 
The  yearly  contingent  is  put  down  at  100.000  men, 
70.000  of  which  serve  in  the  lirst  category  or  active 
array.  In  this,  they  remain  for  3  years  (in  the  cav- 
alry 5  years);  5  in  tlie  reserve  of  the  active  Army,  and 
4  in  the  mobile  miliria.  The  length  of  service  there- 
fore is  altogether  13  years,  and  the  age  of  joining  the 
colors  is  18  years.  The  men  who  have  not  been 
called  to  do  duty  in  the  active  service  form  the 
second  category,  in  which  they  have  to  serve  5  years 
in  the  reserve  of  the  active  armyand4in  themilitia. 
They  are  only  as.scmbled  for  a  few  months  everv 
year.  By  the  "law  of  the  30th  September,  1S73.  Italy- 
is  divided  into  7  military  commands  or  army  corps. 
five  of  which  have  2  and  two  3  military  territorial  di- 
visions. Each  military  division  consists  of  from  I  to 
6  military  districts,  giving  a  total  of  10  territorial  | 


ili  visions  and  02  military  ilistricls.  Further,  the  king- 
dom is  divided  into  (i  commands  of  artillery,  of  1  or 
2  divisions  eacii  flotal  12)  anci  into  0  r-ommands  of 
engineers  of  2  or  3  divisions  (total  lti^  The  laml  ter- 
ritorial forces  comprise  V\u;  ]ii rmmu iit  army  a\\i\  the 
imihili'  militiii.  The  ptrmmieut  army  consists  of  the 
slalT,  the  artillery,  and  engineers,  the  infantry,  the 
cavalry,  a  cor|)S  of  //emliii-mirie,  him]  the  civil  depart- 
ments (commissariat,  medic.'d  administratives.  etc.) 
The  ■mnhili'  iniliziii.  comprizes  232  battalions  of  infan- 
try, 24  com|)anies  of  rilles,  15  ccmipanii-s  of  lnrHagli- 
eri,  and  40  companies  of  field  and  20  batteries  of 
siege  artillery,  together  with  lOcompanies  of  engin- 
eers. By  this  system,  it  is  computed  that  Italy  can 
place  uiider  arms  the  following  numbers :  Active 
army,  Syr.,'.)")!  ;  Keserve.  148,004;  Mo/iile  militia,  21^.- 
873;  total,  823,827  men.  These  forces  in  wartime 
are  organized  into  20  divisions,  forming  10  Corpii 
(I'Ariiiii . 

ITALIAN  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— A  system 
of  fortilication  constructed  on  the  interior  polygon. 
The  front,  from  350  to  300  yards,  was  divided  into 
six  equid  p;irts:  the  flanks  perpen<lieuhir  toil  were 
equal  to  ,',,  and  the  curtain  to  ;  of  the  whole  length. 
The  Hanks  were  peri)enilicular  to  the  curtain  becau.se 
fortresses  were  not  unfrecpiently  attacked  on  the  cur- 
lain  before  the  inventii>n  of  the  ravelin  ;  anil  the  faces 
of  the  bastions  were  directed  so  as  to  receive  flank 
defense  from  the  curliiin.  The  ditches  werr  deep 
and  wide,  with  counterscarp  panUlel  to  the  faces  of 
the  bastions  and  marking  part  of  the  flank  defense. 
The  revetments  were  high,  from  40  to  .50  feet,  rather 
massive  iind  much  exposed,  since  the  besiegers  could 
see  from  15  to  17  feet  of  the  masonry  from  a  distance. 

ITINERARY.— A  rough  sketch  of  the  country 
through  which  troops  have  to  march;  giving  the 
roads  and  villages;  not  ing  the  numlier  of  inhabitants 
and  houses,  whether  of  stone,  brick  or  wood;  and 
conveying  as  much  information  of  thecountry  as  can 
be  gathered  in  a  short  space  of  time. 

In  the  United  States  Army,  the  Commanding  Offi- 
cer of  every  body  of  troops  ordered  to  march  selects 
a  competent  person — preferably  a  Commissioned 
Officer — to  whom  is  intrusted  the  special  duty  of  mak- 
ing the  field-notes  and  sketches,  and  keeping  the 
journal  necessary  for  the  preparation  of  a  map  and 
report  of  the  route  traversed.  The  person  so  selected 
is,  if  possible  relieved  of  a  part  of  his  routine  duties 
to  enalile  him  to  give  due  attention  to  this  subject. 
The  Commanding  Officer  daily,  or  more  frequently 
if  necessary,  inspects  and  verifies  the  notes  and  jour- 
nals. If  there  be  no  competent  suljordiuate  to  per- 
form the  duty,  the  Commanding  Officer  himself 
makes  the  notes  and  keeps  the  journal.  When  a 
detachment  leaves  the  main  column,  the  point  on  the 
'■route"  is  noted,  and  the  reason  given  in  the  rt marks. 
The  Commander  of  the  Detacliment  sees  that  the 
notes  and  journals  are  continued  over  his  new  line 
of  march,  and  after  its  completion  transmits  them  to 
the  Commanding  Officer  of  the  main  body.  On  the 
completion  of  the  march,  the  notes  and  journals  are 
sent,  through  the  regular  channels,  to  the  Depart- 
ment Headqu;irters,  where  their  contents  are  em- 
bodied upon  the  maps  in  course  of  preparation  there. 
The  notes  and  journals  are  then  forwarded  to  the 
Chief  of  Engineers  at  Washington.  Suitable  instru- 
ments and  note-books  for  use  in  keeping  itineraries 
of  march  are  obtained  through  the  officer  on  Engin- 
eer duty  at  the  Heachpiarters  of  Geographical  l)e- 
partments.  who  from  time  to  time  renews  his  sup- 
ply by  requisition  on  the  Chief  of  the  Corps  of  En- 
gineers. 

The  name  Itinerary  was  given  by  the  Romans  to  a 
table  of  the  stages  between  two  places  of  importance, 
with  the  distances  from  one  to  another.  The  itineraries 
of  the  ancients  contribute  much  toour  acijuainlance 
with  ancient  geography.  Of  these,  the  most  import- 
ant are  the  ft'neraria  Antonini  and  the  Itinerarium 
Iliercisulym ita n  u m .  The  Itiiuraria  A n Omin i  are  two 
in  number,  the  Itinerarium  Provinciarum  and  the 


JACABANDA  WOOD. 


136 


JACOBINS. 


lUnerarium  Marinnm,  the  former  containing  tiie 
routes  tlirough  the  Komiin  provinces  in  Europe, Asia 
aid  Africa ;  and  tlie  latter  the  principal  routes  of 
navigators,  who  then  sailed  onl}'  along  the  coasts. 
They  take  their  name  from  Antoninus  Caracalla.by 
whom  thev  were  published,  as  corrected  up  to  his 


time,  but  they  seem  to  have  been  originally  prepared 
at  an  earlier  date.  The  Itinerarium  Jiierusolymitanum 
was  drawn  up  333  a.  d.,  for  the  use  of  pilgrims  from 
Burdigala  (Bordeaux)  to  Jerusalem.  Of  these  itine- 
raries, various  editions  have  been  published.  See 
Journak  ufMavoh, 


J 


JACAKANDA  WOOD.— A  very  hard,  heavy,  brown 
wood,  also  called  rosewood,  from  its  faint  agreeable 
smell  of  roses.  It  is  brought  from  South  America, 
and  is  produced  by  several  trees  of  the  genus  jam- 
randa,  of  the  natural  order  bignoiuMea.  Several 
species  of  this  genus  are  called  earoba  in  Brazil,  and 
are  there  accounted  anti-syphilitic.  Several  species 
of  the  nearly  allied  genus  Ucoma  also  have  an  ex- 
tremely hard  wood,  as  .T.  pentap?ii/Ua.  a  native  of 
the  Caribbean  Islands.  The  Brazilian  Indians  make 
their  bows  of  the  wood  of  T.  toxiph>/ra  or  pno  (farw. 
All  varieties  are  very  -desirable  for  gun-stocks,  etc. 

JACK.— A  pompoint.  or  quilted  tunic,  made  of 
leather  and  well  padded.  It  was  worn  by  foot  sol- 
diers  in  the  14th  century.  ^Vlso  written  Jaqiie,  and 
the  name  of  a  form  of  liabergmn  worn  in  the  16th 
century. 

JACK  BOOTS.— Tall  boots  of  tough,  thick  leather, 
reaching  above  the  knee,  and  formerly  worn  by 
cavalry.  In  some  instances,  as  an  additional  pro- 
tection against  sword-cuts,  they  were  lined  with 
thin  plates  of  iron.  The  only  regiments  in  the  Brit- 
ish service  which  still  retain  these  handsome  but 
cumbrous  boots  are  the  Life  Guards  and  Royal 
Horse-Guards. 

JACKET.— 1.  In  the  manufacture  of  ordnance,  a 
tube  inclosing  and  reinforcing  another  tube.  2.  A 
short  and  close  military  coat,  extending  downward 
to  the  hips.     Commonly  called  Shell-jacket. 

JACK  IN  THE  BOX.— A  handy  engine,  consisting 
of  a  large  wooden  male  screw  turning  in  a  iemale 
screw,  which  forms  the  upper  part  of  a  strong  wood- 
en box,  shaped  like  the  frustum  of  a  pyramid.  It 
is  used,  by  means  of  levers  passing  throagh  holes  in 
it.  as  a  press  in  packing,  and  for  other  purposes  in 
the  arsenal  and  laboratory. 

JACK  SCREW.  —  A  machine  for  raising  heavy 
weio-hts,  chiefly  buildings  of  various  kiuds,as  houses 
and^bips.  It  has  various  forms,  the  most  powerful 
being  a  differential  screw.  The  most  convenient 
form"  however,  is  a  single  screw  and  net,  the  inclined 
plane  of  the  screw  being  as  near  a  horizontal  as  is  con- 
sistent with  the  thieknesB  of  the  thread  and  diame- 
ter of  the  screw.  Other  devices  of  the  kind  are  em- 
ployed, as  the  hydraulic  jack.  The  drawing  shows 
what  is  known  in  the  arsenal  as  the  "  Rapid  Moving 
Screw  Jack,"  so  called,  because  ' 

the  screw,  when  the  load  is  off, 
can  be  raised  immediately  to 
any  desired  point,  and  when  up 
can  be  as  quickly  let  down;  thus 
saving  the  tedious  operation  of 
turning  the  screw  up  and  down 
as  in  all  the  other  screw  jacks. 
To  raise  the  screw  to  any  de- 
sired height  for  the  work,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  lift  the  same 
by  'taking  hold  of  the  lever;  to 
lower  it.'take  liold  of  one  of  the 
handles  with  the  left  liaiid,  and 
inclining  the  jack  to  iin  iuigle 
of  about  4.')  degrees,  wilh  the 
ether  hand  holding  the  lever, 
let  the  screw  down.  Tlu^  two  segmental  nuts  ar( 
made  of  gun  metal,  and  are  supported  on  steel  pint 


moving  in  angular  slots  so  as  to  allow  them  in  and 
out  of  the  gear.  The  frame,  lever,  ratchet  and  cap 
are  made  of  malleable  iron,  and  the  pawl  of  cast  steel. 
The  following  sizes  and  weights  are  usually  employ- 
ed for  artillery  purposes : 


No. 

Height 

22 

Raif*e. 

Bar. 

Weiaht. 

Caaclty    . 

24 

11 

2     in. 

48  lbs. 

H  tons, 

2.5 

27 

15 

2H   " 

90     ■• 

30      " 

27 

36 

24 

2K    " 

137     " 

30      •' 

26 

29 

14 

3       " 

210     " 

50      " 

No.  26  is  provided  with  a  detachable  hook  for  ground 
lifting  and  bridge-work.     See  Hydraulic  Jatk. 

JACK  TREE.— A  well-known  tree  in  India.  It 
yields  an  excellent  timber,  first  j-ellow,  fading  to 
brown,  hard  and  brittle,  resembling  satin ;  warps  if 
not  properly  seasoned.  A  cubic  foot  of  unseasoned 
wood  weighs  50  lbs.  The  timber  is  used  in  the 
Bombay  arsenals  for  packing-cases.  The  fruit  of 
this  tree  is  very  much  esteemed  by  the  natives  in 
the  southern  parts  of  India. 

JACK  WAMBASIUM.— A  sort  of  coat  armor,  former- 
ly worn  by  horsemen,  not  of  solid  iron,  but  of  many 
plates  fastened  together,  which  some  persons  by  ten- 
ure were  bound  to  furnish  upon  any  invasion. 

JACOBINS. — The  members  of  a  political  club  which 
exercised  a  very  great  influence  during  the  French 
Revolution.  It  was  originally  called  the  (Jlub  Bre- 
ion,  and  was  formed  at  Versailles,  when  the  States- 
General  assembled  there  in  1789.  It  then  consisted  ex- 
clusively of  members  of  the  States-General,  all  more 
ox  less  liberal  or  revolutionary,  but  of  verj'  different 
shades  of  opinion.  On  the  removal  of  the  Court  and 
National  Assembly  to  Paris,  this  club  began  to  ac- 
quire importance.  It  now  met  in  a  hall  of  the  for- 
mer Jacobin  Convent  in  Paris,  whence  it  received  the 
name  of  the  Jacobin  club,  which  was  first  given  toil 
by  its  enemies;  the  name  which  it  adopted  being  that 
of  the  Society  af  Friends  of  the  Constitution.  It  now 
also  admitted  members  who  were  not  members  of 
the  National  Assembly,  and  held  regular,  and  public 
sittings.  It  exercised  a  great  influence  over  the  agi- 
tation, of  which  the  chief  seat  and  focus  was  in  the 
capital,  and  this  influence  was  extended  over  the 
whole  country  by  afliliated  societies.  Its  power  in- 
oreased  until  it  became  greater  than  that  of  the  Na- 
tional Assembly.  It  formed  branch  societies  of  clubs 
throughout  France,  of  which  there  were  soon  not  less 
thiui  i200.  When  the  National  Assembly  dissolved 
itself  in  September,  1791,  the  election  of  the  Legisla- 
tive Assembly  was  mainly  accomplished  imder  the 
iniluence  of  the  Jacobin  Club.  Almost  all  the  great 
events  which  followed  in  rajjiil  succession  were  de- 
termined by  the  voice  of  the  Club,  whose  delibera- 
tions were  regarded  with  more  interest  than  those  of 
the  Legislativ<' Assembly.  It  reached  the  zenith  of  its 
power  when  the  National  Convention  met  in  Sept., 
1792.  The  agitation  for  the  death  of  the  King,  the 
storm  which  destroyed  the  Girondists,  the  excite- 
ment of  the  lowest  classes  against  the  bourgeoisie  or 
middle  classes,and  the  reign  of  t<'rror  over  all  France, 
were  the  work  of  the  Jacobins.  But  the  overthrow 
of  U(ilics]iierre  on  the  !tth  Thermidor.  17!t4.  gave  also 
the  deathblow  to  the  Jacobin  Club.  The  magic  of 
its  imm<'  was  dc^stroyed  ;  and  the  Jacobins  sought  in 
vain  to  contend  against  a  reaction  which  increased 


JACOBITES. 


137 


JAUES  FEOJECTIUE. 


daily  l)olli  in  tlic  r'unvi'iilinn  himI  iimonix  llii'  people. 
A  liiw  of  Oct.  l(i  forl)ii(lc  llic  iidlliiition  of  cIijIih,  anil 
on  Nov.  it,  17i)4.  tli<!  .lacoliin  (  liili  wasliiiallv  elosed. 
IIh  plai'C  of  ineel.iim  was  soon  afler  <lciMoliHlieil. 
The  term  .laeol)iiiH  \h  often  enijiloycii  to  (le.sii^nale 
persons  of  exireini'  revolutionary  Hentinitnts. 

JACOBITES.  -  Tlie  name  };iveM  to  the  adherents  of 
tlie  male  line  of  tile  ilonse  of  Stnart  in  (Jreal  lirituin 
and  Ireland  after  the  Hevolulion  of  KiHH.  Many  of 
the  most  <levoted  royalists  followed  James  II.  intr^ 
France;  hot  the  {greater  part  of  the  Jacobites  ri'niain. 
in;;  in  their  native  land  made  a  trreater  or  less  show 
of  snhniission  to  the  new  f;overninent,  while  they 
secretly  supported  the  cau.se  of  tlie  Pretender.  Their 
intrij^ues  and  conspiracies  were  incessant  till  the  mid- 
dle (if  the  IHth  century.  Their  hostility  to  the  House 
of  Hanover  broke  out  in  rebellions  in  ITLTand  174.'), 
in  consi|uei)ce  of  which  not  a  few  of  them  lost  their 
lives  upon  the  scall'old,  titles  were  attainted,  and  es- 
tali's  contiscateil.  After  174.')  their  cause  became  so 
obviously  hopeless  that  their  activity  in  a  irreat  meas- 
ure ceased;  and  it  was  not  lonirtill  it  ceased  altogeth- 
er, and  those  who  still  retained  their  alla<hn;ent  to 
the  exiled  family  aciiuieseed  in  the  order  of  thinffs 
established  by  the  Revolution.  In  Scotland,  the  liojies 
and  wishes  of  the  .laeobite  I'arty  were  expressed  in 
inany  spirited  souses,  which  form  an  intereslini;  part 
of  the  national  literature.  The  Jacobites  of  England 
were  also  '/'on'r.s.  They  were  generally  distiiiLCuishcd 
by  warm  attachment  to  the  Church  of  Kngland,  as 
opposed  to  all  dissent,  if  they  were  not  members  of 
the  t'hurch  of  Home,  and  held  very  stronu:ly  the  doc- 
trine of  iioii-rexintiiiicf,  or  the  duty  of  absolute  sub- 
mission to  the  King.  The  Jacobites  of  Scotland  were 
also  generally  Episcopalians  and  Roman  Catholics. 
Macaulay, however, points  out  that  the  Highland  clans 
which  espoused  the  Jacobite  cause  did  so  on  other 
grounds  than  the  English  Jacobites,  and  were  far 
from  having  previously  received  the  doctrine  of  non- 
resistance.  In  Ireland,  the  Jacobite  cause  was  that 
also  of  lh(^  Cells,  as  opposed  to  the  Saxons,  or  the 
native  race  against  the  English  ColoniiiU,  and  of  the 
Roman  Catholics  against  the  Protestants.  These  di- 
versities prevented  a  complete  union,  and  greatly 
we.'ikened  the  .lacoliites. 

JACOB'S  LADDER.— 1.  A  term  originally  applied  on 
shipboard  to  a  short  rope-ladder  with  wooden  steps,  to 
give  easy  access  to  the  shrouds  and  tops,  but  latterly 
applied  to  any  short  ladder  of  similar  construction 
used  in  fortification  for  passing  from  one  level  to 
another,  in  the  absence  of  ramps,  etc.  3.  An  ap- 
paratus for  raising  light  weights  a  considerable 
height.  One  form  nuich  used  in  arsenals  and  lab- 
oratories is  shown  in  the  drawing  and  consists  of  an 
endless  chain  of  buckets,  tilling  themselves  at  the 
bottom  of  the  chain,  and  emptying  at  the  top. 

JACQUERIE. — The  name  given  to  the  insurgent 
peasants  in  France  in  the  middle  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury, in  the  reign  of  John.  The  insurrection  of  the 
Jacquerie  broke  out  in  the  year  ]3.')8,  when  the 
French  King  was  a  prisoner  in  England,  and  France 
in  a  state  of  the  greatest  disorder  and  anarchy.  The 
immediate  occasion  of  it  was  the  enormities  perpe- 
trated by  Charles  the  Bad,  King  of  Navarre,  and  his 
adherents;  but  it  was  really  caused  by  long-con- 
tinued oppression  on  the  part  of  the  Nobles.  Sud- 
denly rising  against  their  Lords,  the  pea.sauts  laid 
hundreds  of  castles  in  ruins,  murdered  the  Nobles, 
and  violated  their  wives  and  daughters,  practicing 
every  enormity,  and  acting,  as  fhey  said,  on  the 
principle  of  doing  as  had  been  done  to  them.  The 
insurrection  broke  out  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Paris,  but  extended  to  the  banks  of  the  ^ilarne  and 
the  Oise.  For  some  weeks  this  part  of  France  was 
entirely  at  their  mercy :  but  the  magnitude  of  the 
danger  induced  the  (juarrelsomc  Nobles  to  make 
common  cause  against  them,  and  on  June  9  the 
peasants  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  near 
Meaux  l)y  Captal  de  Buch  and  (iaston  Phebus. 
Count  of  Foix.   This  put  an  end  to  the  insurrection. 


JADE.  — A  name  somewhat  vaguidy  applied  to  a 
nuiid)c'r  of  ndnerals  not  vi-ry  dissimilar  nephrite, 
axestone,  8er|ieiitine,  I'tc.  N'ephrile  and  axestone 
appear  to  be  the  miner:ils  of  wliich  j'tdf  ornamentH 
ari!  generally  made.  But  Yi',  or  Chinese  jade,  of 
which  very  beautiful  vases  and  other  articles  are 
made  in  China,  is  supposed  to  be  prehnite.  Jade  of 
all  kinds  has  a  greenish  color,  and  when  i)olished, 
has  a  rathiT  dull  and  greasy  aspect.  Jade  is  much 
used  in  Polanii  and  Turkey  for  the  handles  of  swords 
and  sabers. 

JAGHIRE.  -  An  Indian  term,  signifying  the  assign- 
ment of  the  reveinies  of  a  district  to  a  servant  or  de- 
pendent of  government, who  \s  vii\Ui\  Jin/liirdtir.  Jag- 
hires  are  frequently  given  in  India  to  persons  asa  re- 
ward and  comjjeMsation  for  their  mi/itary  Bcrvice.s. 
Jar/hi >■!•  Ax/iii/it  is  a  term  signifying  land  granted  for 
the  support  of  troops. 

JALONS,-  Long  poles  with  wisps  of  straw  at  the 
top.  They  are  fixed  atdiiTerent  i)la<es  and  in  dilfer- 
ent  roads,  to  serve  as  signals  of  observation  to  ad- 
vancing colinnns,  when  the  country  is  inclosed,  etc. 
They  are  likewise  used  as  ('amp  colors  to  mark  out 
the  ground  on  days  of  exercise. 

JAMBEAUX.— Armor  for  the  leps,  made  of  waxed 
leather  or  metal,  anil  much  woni  intheMiddle  Ages. 
Commoid\'  written  ./'/////".''.     Set;  (irfavfH. 

JAMES  OF  THE  SWORD.— The  Military  Order  of 
Saint  James  of  the  Sword  was  tirst  instituted  in  Spain, 
in  tlie  reign  of  Ferdinand  II.  King  of  Leon  and  Galli- 
cia.  In  the  tirst  instance  it  was  organized  with  a  view 
to  stopping  the  inroads  of  the  Jloors,  and  its  mem- 
bers pledged  themselves  to  secure  'the  safet)'  of  the 
roads.  They  entered  into  a  league  with  the  Brethren 
of  St.  Eloy,  and  the  Order  was  confirmed  by  the  Pojie 
in  in.'j.  The  highest  rank  intheOrder  istliat  of  (Jrand 
Master,  which  is  united  to  the  Crown  of  Spain.  The 
Knights  were  obliged  to  prove  their  noble  descent  at 
least  four  generations  back,  and  to  show  that  they 
numbered  among  their  ancestors  no  Jews,  Saracens, 
or  Heretics,  and  had  never  been  cited  by  the  Inquisi- 
tion. 

JAMES  PROJECTILE.— A  cyliudro-conoidal  mis- 
sile of  cast-iron,  having  a  compound  envelop  of 
canvas-sheet-tin,  and  lead,  called  packing,  encir- 
cling nearly  the  entire  length  of  the  body  of  the 
cylinder.  'The  canvass  being  the  external  portion 
of  the  packing,  is  well  saturated  with  a  tallow  lub- 
ric,  which  renders  the  loading  easy,  and  cleans  the 
gun  at  each  discharge.  The  head  of  the  projectile 
may  be  solid,  or,  if  it  has  a  prepared  cavity,  the 
missile  then  becomes  a  shell.  The  average  weight 
of  the  projectile  for  a  4'2-pounder  gun  is,  if  a  solid, 
81J  lbs.,  if  a  shell,  G4J  lbs.,  of  which  in  either  case 
(il  lbs.  is  the  weight  of  the  packing.  Its  length  is  13 
inches,  of  which  V>\  inches  is  the  measurement  of  the 
conical  head,  and  GJ  inches  is  the  length  of  its 
cylindrical  body.  The  diameter  of  the  cylinder  is 
designed  to  be  Ci|  inches,  or  \  of  an  inch  less  than  the 
bore  of  a  42-pounder  gun.  It  retains  its  full  di- 
ameter with  accuracy  for  i  of  an  inch  of  its  length 
at  each  end  ;  then  for  the  intermediate  space,  tlie 
diameter  is  shortened  half  an  inch,  thereby  forming 
a  recess  round  the  body  of  the  cylinder,  between  the 
ends.  Fig.  1.  The  shortening  of  the  diameter,  and 
consequent  loss  of  iron  to  the  circumference  of  the 
body  of  the  cylinder,  is  replaced  by  the  before-named 
packing,  when  the  projectile  is  prepared  for  use, 
Fig.  2.  The  solidity  of  the  conical  head  is  contin- 
ued into,  and  forms  the  solid  end  of  the  cylinder. 
The  base,  or  opposite  end  of  projectile,  has  a  central 
orifice,  of  3|  inches  in  diameter,  which  extends  2i 
inches  into  the  cylinder;  and  from  which  ten  rec- 
tangular openings  diverge  (like  the  mortises  for 
spokes  in  tlie  hub  of  a  wlieclj,  through  the  body,  to 
the  periphery  of  the  cylinder,  in  the  recess  of  its  cir- 
cumference. The  packing  is  formed  by  a  plate  of 
sheet  tin,  of  the  length  of  the  greatest  circle  of  the 
cylinder :  and  in  wrdth,  equal  to  the  length  of  the 
recess  caused   b3"   the  shortening  of   the  diameter. 


JAM  -NUT. 


138 


JANUAEIUS. 


This  plate  of  tin  is  laid  on  a  piece  of  strong  canvas, 
which  is  two  inches  wider,  but  of  the  same  length  of 
the  plate ;  and  the  canvas  is  folded  over  the  side 
edges  of  tlie  plate,  and  tirmly  secured  Ijy  cross  sew- 
ing. The  tin  plate,  when  so  prepared,  or  half  cov- 
ered, is  folded  round  the  body  of  the  missile  in  the 
recess,  and  retained  in  position  by  an  iron  collar 
clamp.  The  space  between  the  inner  surface  of  the 
envelop  and  the  body  of  the  cylinder  is  filled  with 
melted  lead,  which,  adhering  to  the  tiu  and  iron, 
forms  a  compact  mass  round  the  body  of  the  projec- 
tile. When  the  charge  is  fired,  the  power  or  gas  gen- 
erated by  the  burning  of  the  powder,  in  its  effort  to 
expel  the  projectile'and  to  escape  from  the  gun, 
is  forced  into  the  orifice  in  the  base  of  the  missile, 
and  tlirough  the  ten  openings  against  the  packing. 


FIG.    2.   AFTER    THB    APPLICA- 
TION OF  THE  PACKING,  AND 
READY  For  USE. 

a.b.c.d.  Beltof  canvas,  tin,  aiid 
lead,  called  packing. 
e.  Orifice  in  base,  leadint; 
to  recces. 


PIG.  1.    Bi^FOUE  THE   APPLICA 
TIO.N  OF  THE  PACKING. 

a.  Baud  ?4   inch  wide  at 
ends  of  cylinder. 
b.c,d.  Recess  round  body  of 
cylinder, 
m.  Rectangular     openings 

through  to  recess. 
n.  Orifice  in  base,  leading 
to  the  recess. 

which  is  thereby  pressed  into  the  grooves,  in  the 
gun's  bore,  and  by  its  firm  hold  in  them  the  rifle 
motion  is  imparted  to  the  projectile. 

When  the  projectile  is  a  shell,  its  fuse-orifice  is  in 
its  head  and  axis.  The  length  of  the  orifice  for  a 
4'3-pounder  shell  is  2|  inches.  For  two  inches  of  its 
length,  its  diameter  is  1  inch,  and  for  the  remainder 
of  the  length,  the  diameter  is  reduced  to  J  of  an  incli ; 
forming  a  shoulder  in  the  fuse-orifice,  to  prevent  the 
fuse-plug  from  being  driven  into  the  cavity  of  the 
shell,  when,  by  firing,  the  missile  is  expelled  from 
the  gun.  The  threads  of  a  female  screw  are  cut  in 
the  head  of  the  fuse-orifice  for  the  reception  of  tlie 
body  of  the  fuse-orifice  cap.  This  cap  is  of  brass. 
Its  diameter  is  an  inch,  its  length  half  an  inch  ;  its 
head  is  convexed,  and  has  a  slot  cut  in  it  for  the  re- 
ception of  a  screw-driver ;  the  base  cud  is  deeply 
cupped  to  admit  the  nipple  of  a  musket  cone,  and 
to  give  more  play  to  the  fuse-plug.  The  fu.se-plug 
is  of  wrought  iron,  surmounted  by  a  musket  cone  ; 
and  its  action  in  the  fuse-orifice  is  like  the  ordinary 
working  of  a  piston.  Its  lengtli  is  !{  inches,  of 
which  the  quarter  is  the  leagth  of  its  shoulder.  The 
diameter  of  its  shoulder  and  body,  is  very  nearly  the 
same  as  the  two  diameters  of  the  fuze-orifice.  Its 
vent  is  in  its  axis,  and  in  size  to  receive  the  male 
screw  of  the  musket  cone.  The  threads  of  a  female 
screw  are  <'ut  in  tlu-  head  end  of  tlie  vent  of  sufficient 
length  to  receive  the  screw  end  of  the  said  cone- 
When  the  shell  is  loaded,  care  shoidd  be  taken  not 
to  overfill  its  cavity,  and  thereby  prevent  the  work- 
ing of  the  fuse-plug.  The  powdershould  be  cleaned 
from  the  fuse-orifice  ;  the  plug  should  be  oiled  toen- 
sure  its  free  and  sure  action.  Its  cone  should  be 
capped,  but  before  the  aiiplication  the  itercu.ssion 
cap  should  lie  carefully  examined  to  see  that  it  is 
[lerfect,  and  of  th(^  best  (juality.  The  fuse-plug,  when 
so  prepared,  is  then  inserted  into  the  fuse-orifice,  and 
it  should  enter  freely,  but  not  by  its  own  weight  un- 
til the  shoulders  of  the  fuse-plug  and  orifice  are  in 


contact.  The  cap  for  the  fuse-orifice  should  be  then 
firmly  screwed  in,  which  completes  the  charging  of 
the  shells.  If  after  the  shell  is  loaded  the  fuse-plug 
should  be  disturbed  tiy  handling;  that  is.  if  the  plug 
has  slidden  forward,  it  will  be  forced  back  to  its 
proper  position  by  the  impulse  given  to  the  missile, 
by  the  firing  of  tlie  gun  charge  ;  and  it  will  so  remain 
during  the  flight,  until  the  shell  impinges  against 
any  hard  substance  ;  as  ground,  wood,  etc.,  which, 
by  obstructing  the  progress  of  tlie  missile,  causes  the 
fuse-plug  to  slide  forward  with  violence,  and  by  the 
collision  of  the  cone's  point  against  the  bottom  of  the 
fuse-orifice  cap-plug,  the  percussion  cap  on  the  cone 
will  be  exploded,  and  the  bursting  charge  of  the  shell 
fired.     See  Expanding  Projectiles. 

JAM-NUT. — A  nut  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
construction  of  artillery  carriages. the  elevating  gears, 
etc.     See  Lork-niit. 

JANGAK. — A  kind  of  ponton  constructed  of  two 
boats  with  a  platform  laid  across  them,  which  is  used 
by  the  natives  in  the  East  Indies  to  convey  horses, 
supplies,  etc.,  across  rivers. 

JANISSARIES— JANIZAEIES.— A  Turkish  military 
force,  originally  formed  by  the  Osmanli  Sultan  Ork- 
lian,  about  1330,  of  young  Christian  prisoners  com- 
pelled to  embrace  Mohammedanism  ;  and  more  per- 
fectly organized  by  Sultan  Amurath  I.  after  1362, 
when  the  number  was  raised  to  about  10,000,  and 
especial  privileges  were  conferred  on  them.  They 
were  for  some  time  recruited  from  Christian  prison 
ers.  but  their  privileges  soon  induced  many  young 
Turks  to  seek  admission  into  their  body.  There  were 
two  classes  of  Janizaries,  one  regularly  organized, 
dwelling  in  barracks  in  Constantinople  and  a  few 
other  towns,  and  whose  number  at  one  time  amount- 
ed to  60,000,  but  was  afterwards  reduced  to  35,000 ; 
and  the  other  composed  of  irregular  troops,  called 
Jamaku,  scattered  throughout  all  the  towns  of  the 
Empire,  and  amounting  in  number  to  300,000  or  400,- 
000.  At  the  head  of  the  whole  Janizary  force  was 
the  Aga  of  the  Janizaries,  whose  power  was  limited 
only  by  the  danger  of  revolt,  and  extended  to  life  and 
death.  The  Janizaries  were  always  ready  to  break 
out  into  deeds  of  violence  if  their  pay  or  perquisites 
were  withheld.  In  times  of  peace  they  acted  as  a  po- 
lice force.  They  served  on  foot;  generally  formed 
the  reserve  of  the  Turkish  Army, and  were  noted  for 
the  wild  impetuosity  of  their  attack.  The  Sultan's 
body-guard  was  formed  of  them.  The  Janizaries, 
however,  soon  began  to  be  very  unruly ;  and  their 
history  abounds  in  conspiracies, assassinations  of  Sul- 
tans, Viziers,  Agas,  etc.,  and  atrocities  of  every  kind; 
so  that,  by  degrees,  they  became  more  dangerous  to 
the  Sultans  than  any  foreign  enemies.  Theattempts 
of  the  Sultans  to  reform  or  dissolve  them  were  always 
unsuccessful,  till  Sultan  Mahmoud  II.,  in  1826.  being 
opposed  in  some  of  his  measures  liy  the  Janizaries  in 
Constantinople,  displayed  the  flag  of  the  prophet, 
and  succeeded  in  arousing  on  liis  own  behalf  the  fan- 
atical zeal  of  other  portions  of  his  troops.  The  Jani- 
zaries, deserted  by  their  Aga  and  other  principal  offi- 
cers, who  remained  faithful  to  the  Sultan,  were  de- 
feated and  their  barracks  burned,  when  8,000  of  them 
perished  in  the  flames.  A  proclamation  of  June 
17,  1826,  declared  the  Janizary  force  forever  dissolv- 
ed. All  opposition  was  defeated  with  bloodshed.  Not 
fewer  than  I.'), 000  were  executed,  and  more  than 20,- 
000  were  banished. 

JANUARIUS.— The  order  of  Saint  Januarius  was 
founded  by  Iviug  Charles  of  Sicily  (afterward  Char- 
les in.  of  Spain),  on  July  6,  1738.  It  was  abolished 
after  the  Kri'nrh  Invasion  of  180{i,  and  reintroduced 
in  1.S14.  The  badge  is  a  gold  octagonal  white  and 
red  enameled  cross,  with  gold  lilies  in  tlie  upper  and 
side  angles.  The  obverse  represents  St.  Januarius 
in  episcopal  robes,  with  an  open  book.  The  round 
middle  of  the  reverse  shows  a  golden  open  book,  and 
two  ])liials  partly  filled  with  blood.  The  Knights 
are  either  Ciirnlicri  di  Oinxtiziii.  who  must  count 
four  noble  generations,  or  Cavalieri  di  Urazia. 


JAPANNING. 


139 


JEWEL  TABOET. 


JAPANNINO — A  lalioratnry  prowss,  civin^;  acfiat- 
infi  iif  viirnisli  uiid  dllicr  iiwilcrials  to  (•crliuii  mitnu- 
factiircs,  by  wliicli  a  rrsciiil)liiiicc  is  |]riiiliii-ccl  to  the 
bcaulifiil  lac(|iR'r('(l  wares  of  Japan  and  Cliina.  Tho 
tfnn  in  more  ficncrally  applicil  in  tliiscoMnlry  to  me- 
tal works  upon  wliicli  a  (larli-coiored  varniKli  \n  ap- 
plied with  lieat ;  Imt  the  proress  is  quite  as  exten- 
sively applied  to  papier-mache  works.  The  japanninj; 
material  consists  of  aniuu'  or  copal  varnish,  alone,  or 
mixeil  with  ivory-lihu'k,  to  [jroduce  a  lilack  ja])an; 
or  with  aspljalt,  to  produce  a  dark  or  li;:hl  brown, 
accordinj;  to  the  <pianlily  used.  Forliimeil  wares, 
a  sinjrle  coating  is  all  that  is  usually  given.  After  be- 
ing varnished  they  an'  put  into  a  iu'aled  oven  for  a 
time,  after  which  they  are  ready  for  use;  but  in  the 
case  of  more  substantial  artick'S  several  coats  of  var- 
nish are  applied,  each  lieing  dried  in  the  oven  pre- 
vious to  the  ap])licatioii  of  the  next,  so  that  a  coating 
of  sulUcient  substance  to  b<-ar  polishing  is  thus  oli- 
tained.  Hotten-stonc-  and  Tripoli  jiowilcr  are  used 
by  the  polisher,  and  a  beautiful  surface  is  ol)tained, 
in  no  respect  inferior  to  that  of  polished  jet.  The 
polishing  powders  arc  at  first  applied  with  leather, 
but  the  linishing  is  d<me  by  women,  wlio  use  the 
palms  of  their  hands  only,  with  small  quantities  of 
Tripoli. 

JAT8  JAUTS.— The  name  of  a  people  of  Hindu- 
stan, tirst  mentioned  in  history  at  thebeginntng  of 
the  !  1th  century.  They  opposed  the  invasion  of  Jfah- 
moud  the  Gazne  Vide,  and  arc  said  to  have  gathered 
a  fleet  of  as  many  as  8,000  boats  in  the  Indus,  where 
they  were  attacked  by  the  invader  and  completely 
defeated.  In  the  reign  of  Aurungzebe,  the  Jats  ap- 
peared as  banditti  in  the  mountains  in  the  interior  of 
India.  They  increased  in  strength  and  daring,  until 
they  tinall}'  became  formidable,  and  under  their 
Chief,  Sooraje  Mull,  even  dictated  the  policy  of  the 
Mogul  Court.  The  invasion  of  northern  India  by 
Ahmed  Shah,  Sovereign  of  Cabul,  put  an  end  to  the 
prestige  of  Sooraje  Mull,  who,  after  allying  himself 
to  the  Mahrattas,  deserted  them  before  the  battle  of 
Panniput,  and  joined  Ahmed  Shah.  Ilis  services  on 
the  occasion  of  this  battle  were  rewarded  by  the  pos- 
session of  Agra  and  its  district.  At  the  time  of  the 
establishment  of  British  power  in  northern  India, 
the  since  celebrated  Kunjeet  Singh  was  Hajah  of  the 
Jats,  and  by  a  treaty  with  Lord  Lake,  was  permitted 
to  remain  in  control  of  his  territories  without  paying 
tribute.  Disagreement  between  the  English  author- 
ity and  that  of  the  Kajah  brought  about  a  conflict, 
and  early  in  1826  the  almost  impregnable  fortress  of 
Deeg,  the  stronghold  of  the  Jats,  was  invested  by  a 
large  force  of  Britisli  soldiers  under  Lord  Comber- 
mere.  On  Jan.  18  the  fortress  was  stormed  and  cap- 
tured, and  the  power  of  the  Jats  was  at  an  end. 

JAVELIN. — A  short  and  light  spear  used  for  dart- 
ing against  an  enemy.  In  the  R(>man  legion,  the 
first  and  second  lines  ("the  hastati  and  the  principes) 
were  both  armed  with  two  javelins  to  each  man. 
Each  javelin  was  in  all  about  Oj  ft.  in  length:  the 
shaft  4i  ft.  long,  of  tougli  wood,  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter; and  the  remainder  given  to  the  barbed  pyramidal 
head.  In  action,  the  legionary  hurled  one  javelin  on 
the  enemy  at  the  first  onset ;  the  second  h^  retained 
as  a  defense  against  cavalry.  The  Goths  and  other 
barbarians  used  a  javelin.  At  present,  javelins  are 
used  in  Europe  in  hunting  the  boar,  and  Ijy  many 
savage  nations  in  ordinary  hunting.  Theassegai  of 
the  Caffre  is  a  javelin  of  native  iron. 

JAZESAN. — \  coat  of  scale  armor,  first  worn  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  This  garment  was  sleeveless  and 
somewhat  lighter  than  the  hauberk.  Commonly 
■written  Jazerant. 

JEFFREY  POJECTILE.— In  this  projectile,  the  lead 
is  affixed  to  the  rear  of  the  projectile  by  dovetails, 
into  which  it  is  cast:  a  hollow,  resembling  that  of 
the  Minnie  bullet,  is  'eft  at  the  bottom,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  causing  the  lead  to  be  driven  into  the  riflins. 
A  wad  or  covering,  consisting  of  tiannel  coated  with 
soft  soap,  IS  wrapped  around  the  rear  of  the  projec- 


tile, to  facilitate  loading,  decrease  windage,  and  lu- 
bricate the  bore. 

JELOUDAB.  An  East  Indian  term,  signifying  to 
bi'loiiL'  In  Ibi-  train  or  equipage. 

JEUADAB.  A  native  ofticer  in  the  Indian  Army, 
whose  position  corresponds  with  tliat  of  a  subaltern 
in  a  company  of  Euroi)ean  infantry.  The  name  is 
also  given  to  the  heail  man  of  a  nativi  establishment 
in  a  factory,  and  indeed  to  any  man  who  exercises 
authoritv  over  a  number  or  gang  of  men. 

JE  MAINTIEDEAI.  Tlic  motto  of  the  House  of 
Nassau.  When  William  HI.  came  to  the  throne  of 
England,  he  continued  this,  but  added  the  "liberties 
of  England  and  the  I'rotestant  religion,  "  at  the  same 
time  ordering  that  the  old  motto  of  the  royal  arms, 
"  Dieu  et  mon  droit  "  should  be  retained  on  the  great 
seal.  IfiHi). 

JENIZEB  EFFENDI.— An  appointment  among  the 
Turks,  which  in  some  degree  resembles  that  of  Pro- 
vost-Marshal in  European  armies.  The  only  func- 
tions which  this  officer  is  permitted  to  exercise  are 
those  of  judge  to  the  company.  He  sits  on  partic- 
ular days  for  the  purpose  of  hearing  the  complaints 
of  the  soldiers,  and  of  settling  their  difTerences.  If 
a  case  of  peculiar  difficulty  should  occur,  he  reports 
the  case  to  the  Aga,  whose  opinion  and  determina- 
tion are  final. 

JENNIFEE  SADDLE.-  A  saddle  very  extensively 
used  in  the  Tnited  States  and  other  countries,  prior 
to  the  invention  of  the  Wliitman  Kiddle.  While  con- 
sidered one  of  the  best  saddles  in  its  time,  it  had  the 
serious  defects  of  being  too  short  in  the  scat,  too 
short  in  the  bearing,  and  too  much  rounded  on  its 
iinder  side,  inclining  it  too  "rock"  and  sore  the 
back  in  the  center;  also  sharp  pommel  and  too 
straight  in  cantle. 

JERKIN. — A  buff  military  coat,  on  which  was  worn 
a  light  collar.  The  jerkin  took  the  place  of  armor 
towards  the  end  of  the  16th  century. 

JERBID.— A  slender  javellin  used  as  a  dart  by 
the  soldiers  of  the  East,  in  the  Midde  lAges. 

JESSANT.— In  Heraldry. springing  forth. a  term  fre- 
quently used  as  sj'nonymous  with  'Iiixuant,  rising,  as 
a  demi-lion  is  often  represented  doing,  from  the  bot- 
tom line  of  a  field,  or  upper  line  of  an  ordinary.  Jes- 

^  sant  is  sometimes  used  improperly 

N         A  r     for  «'(;Vw(H<,  or  risinc  from  the  mid- 

dle of  an  ordinary.  The  phrase,;eA- 
sant-de-lis  is  used  with  respect  to  a 
strange  heraldic  device  depicting 
a  leopard's  head  affronte  with  fleur- 
de-lis  passing  through  it.  The  fam- 
ily of  Jloreley,  Hants,  bears  sable, 
a  leopard's  head  argent  jessant-de- 

Jessaat-de-Iis.  ]ig .  and  gules,  three  leopard's  heads 
jessant-de-lis  or,  are  the  arms  of  the  family  of  Can- 
telupe.     See  Heraldry. 

JET.— 1.  A  term  signifying  the  motion  of  any  body 
that  is  urged  forward  by  main  force :  it  likewise 
means  the  space  which  is  gone  over  by  any  propelled 
body  ;  and  sometimes  the  instrument  from  which 
anything  is  thrown  or  shot ;  as  the  cross-bow.  etc. 
Jet  den  bombes  is  a  phrase  used  instead  of  tir.  which 
formerly  expressed  the  course  that  a  shell  took  when 
it  was  thrown  out  of  a  mortar  by  the  power  of  gun- 
powder. 2.  In  pyrotechny,  jfts  are  rocket-cases 
filled  with  a  burning  composition  ;  they  are  attached 
to  the  circumference  of  a  wheel,  or  the  end  of  a  mov- 
able arm  to  set  it  in  motion. 

JEWELS.  —By  an  egregiously  absurd  and  unneces- 
sary complication  of  nomenclature,  introduced  by 
way  of  adding  dignity  to  the  science  of  Heraldn.'.the 
tinctures  of  the  arms  of  peers  have  sometimes  been 
designated  by  the  names  of  precious  stones:  argent 
is  pearl  or  crystal :  or,  topaz;  gules,  ruby:  azure,  sap- 
phire; sable,  diamond;  vert,  emerald;  and  purpure, 
amethvst. 

JEWEL  TARGET. — A  canvas  target,  having  frame- 
work and  machinery  made  of  iron.  The  niechanis!n 
permits  of  the  use  o"f  a  target  of  any  class  bv  taking 


JIB-CKANE. 


140 


JIB  CHAJTB. 


out  the  frame  and  legs  of  one  target  and  substituting 
therefor  those  of  another.  A  frameworli  supporting 
the  target  works  upon  a  center-pin  or  spindle  (13 
inches  Ions)  securelj'  fastened  to  a  heavy  timber  at 
the  back  of  the  pit,  and  revolves  the  target  to  the 
right  or  left  such  distance  as  may  be  required.  Wlien 
a  shot  strikes  the  target,  tlie  marker  by  suitable  con- 
trivances pulls  the  target  over,  and  hangs  '  disk, 
denoting  the  value  of  the  shot,  in  the  shot-hole, 
patches  the  last  hole  (if  any),  and  swings  the  target 
back  into  position  ready  for  the  next  shot.  The 
marker  for  this  target  is  provided  with  small  disks 
made  of  wood,  tin,  or  iron,  with  hooks  in  the  center 
and  each  side  of  them,  and  painted  to  represent 
certain  values. 

JIB-CBANE. — The  mode  of  operating  the  hoisting 
and  traversing  mechanism  of  the  larger  sizes  of  the 
Weston  jib-cranes  is  fully  explained  in  the  article 
Trolleys.  The  details  of  the  gearing  whereby  these 
several  motions  are  affected  are  as  follows.  Fig.  1 
is  a  cross-section  taken  at  the  foot  of  the  mast  of  a 
large  jib-crane.  A  is  the  mast,  to  each  side  of  which 
is  bolted  a  housing  containing  the  gearing  for  oper- 
ating the  two  parts,  X,  and  Y.  of  the  main  hoisting 
chain.  Eacli  of  these  housings  is  provided  with  a 
horizontal  shaft,  revolving  upon  which  is  the  worm 
wheel  P,  the  hub  of  which  covers  the  entire  length 


or  left  hand  housing,  and  its  contained  gearing,  is  the 
same  as  that  just  described. 

Fig.  2,  is  a  detail  view  of  one  of  the  chain  wheels, 
R,  with  the  chain  guide,  S,  and  stripper,  V,  showing 


Hg.  I. 

of  the  pin  or  shaft  between  its  bearings.  Over  the 
hub  of  this  wheel,  is  tlie  pocketed  clmin-wheel  U, 
with  tlu'cliain  stripper  V,  and  a  chain  guide.  .S  The 
chain  wheel  is  made  separately  from  the  worm  wlicel 
to  admit  of  easy  removal  and  renewal  when  worn 
out.  Heferring  now  to  the  right  hand  housing  in  the 
drawing,  ()  is  the  crank  shaft  extending  through  the 
housing  at  riglit  angles  to  the  worm  wheel  shaft  a- 
bove.  Q  is  the  worm,  fitted  upon  the  shaft,  (),  at  its 
center,  ami  gearing  into  llie  worm  wheel,  P.  K.  isa 
spur  ])iiiii)ii,  tittcil  to  one  end  of  the  shaft,  (),  and  cap- 
able of  sliding  longitudinally  tliereon.  T  isa  small 
guide  sheave  over  which  the  slack  of  the  chain  falls 
after  passnig  aniiind  the  lower  semi-circumfcniice  of 
the  chainwheel.  K.    The  arrangement  of  the  opposite 


Fig.  2. 

the  manner  in  which  the  chain  is  guided  during  its 
contact  with  the  wheel,  and  the  provision,  by  means 
of  the  stripper,  V,  for  compelling  it  to  leave  the 
wheel,  R,  at  the  proper  point  in  whichever  direction 
the  wheel  is  being  turned.  The  slack  part  of  the  chain, 
after  passing  over  the  guide  sheave,  T,  falls  into  a 
receptacle  between  the  housings  at  the  foot  of  the 
mast.  The  chain  being  endless,  the  two  parts,  X  and 
Y,  come  together  in  the  receptacle  just  referred  to, 
and  are  there  united,  the  amount  of  slack  chain  con- 
tained in  the  box  varying  with  the  position  of  the 
running  block. 

Fig.  3  is  a  horizontal  cross-section  taken  through 
both  housings  and  the  mast  of  the  crane,  the  several 


Fig.  3. 

parts  being  designated  by  the  same  iftters  in  Fig.  1. 
M  is  a  shaft  parallel  to  the  crank  shafts,  O  and  N 
extending  through  the  mast  and  carr3'ing  at  one  end 
the  large  spur  wheel,  L.  The  pinions,  J,  and  K,  as 
previously  explained,  are  arranged  to  slip  upon  their 
shafts  so  as  to  bring  them  into  or  out  of  coincidence 
with  the  intermediate  wheel,  L,  and  the  pinion,  J, 
is  disengaged.  If  now  the  crank  be  applic<i  to  the 
shaft,  N,  and  turned  in  tlic  projirr  direction,  the 
chain,  X,  will  be  liaided  in  and  the  load  raised.  The 
same  effect  will  result  from  rotation  of  the  shaft,  O. 
If  both  be  turned  simultaneously,  hoisting  will  be 
effected  at  double  speed.  By  applying  the  crank  to 
the  shaft,  M,  motion  will  be  communicated  through 
th<?  wheel-  L,  and  pinion,  K,  to  the  shaft,  (),  and 
hoisting  will  occur  at  a  rapi<l  spei'd  iirojiortionate  to 
the  relative  diameters  of  the  wheels.  L  and  K.  Three 
speeds  are  thus  olitained  for  hoisting,  all  of  which 
are  equally  aiiplicable  to  lowering  by  reversing  the 
motion  of  the  cranks. 


JIB-CKANE. 


141 


JIB  C£AM£. 


To  pffcct  the  prnppr  travpl  of  the  trollfy.  both  pin- 
ions, J  and  K,  lire  nlippcil  into  fn);iif;i''n''nt  vvilli  Ilic 
wlic(^l,  L.  My  llicM  lurMiiii?  fitlicr  (if  tlic  sliafis,  Nor 
(),  in  t.lii^  proper  (iiri'i'lion,  oiic,  purl,  of  llic  lioistiiif; 
cliain,  X,  for  cxanipli',  will  lie  liaiili'il  in.  anil  I  lie  op- 
posite part,  y,  paid  out  atcipial  speeds,  the  elf  eel  of 
which  is  to  cause  the  trolley  to  niovi'  horizontally 
upon  tlie  jil).  I5y  applyini;  the  crank  to  the  shaft, 
M,  these  motions  are  accelerated,  and  a  rapid  move- 
ment of  the  trolley  results. 

Two  cranks  are  furnished  with  each  crane,  and  it 
is  to  be  noted  that  the  construction  ailtnitsof  the  em- 
hloyment  of  both  cranks  upon  any  one  of  the  shafts 
M,  N.  or  (),  so  that  the  entire  eneri,'y  of  all  the  men 
employed  upon  the  crane  is  transmitted  throuirh  that 
shaft,  while,  if  more,  rapid  action  is  desired,  one  of 
tile  cranks  may  lie  ])laced  tipon  the  rii;lit  hanil  end  of 
tlie  shaft.  N,  and  the  other  upon  theo|iposite  or  left 
hand  end  of  the  shaft.  ().  In  either  case  the  two 
shafts,  bein.i;  on  opposite  sides  of  the  crane,  do  not 
in  any  way  interfere  with  one  another,  and  are  thus 


L  with  its  two  pininno.  The  worm  whepls  and  worms 
are  entirely  contained  within  the  two  housinjrs,  the 
upper  parts  of  which  latter  are  arranf;ed  to  liftodto 
li'ivi-  access  to  the  fx'''"'''if,'.  Kacli  of  the  worms  runs 
in  an  oil  well,  thus  insuring  perfect  lubrication,  anfl 
each  of  thesis  wells  is  provided  with  a  ilriiina>re-lap 
at  the  bottom  to  draw  olT  the  lubricant  when  de- 
sired. 

Fig.  4  represents  a  jib-crane  of  medium  size, 
eacli  member  of  the  frame  consistinn  of  two  parts, 
separated  so  as  toiierndl  the  chain  luid  block  to  pass 
between  them,  so  that  the  load  can  be  moved  close 
into  the  mast.  The  lioislini^  mi'chanism  is  attached 
to  tin;  mast  near  its  foot,  and  lh<-  rutmin;;  block 
which  carries  the  loud,  is  suspended  from  a  trolley 
travelling;  on  thi'  jib  and  capable  of  movement  in  and 
out  by  nu'ans  of  independent  gearing  attached  to  the 
jib  at  its  intersection  with  the  mast  Cranes  of  this 
desiirn  are  built  of  any  desired  capacity  from  1  ton 
to  .5  tons.  The  frame  consists  of  wrought  iron  chan- 
nel beams,  each  of  the  three  members  of  the  frame 


Fi?.  4. 

always  available  for  the  full  number  of  men  who  can 
effectively  be  employed  uiion  them.  I 

The  compactness  and  simplicity  of  this  mechanism 
will  be  apparent  from  the  forestoinir  description.  The  , 
entire  operating  mechanism  oif  the  crane  consists  of  j 
two  worm  wheels  and  worms,  and  of  the  spur  wheel ! 


being  composed  of  two  such  channel  irons.  The  di- 
mensions are  such  as  to  give  the  accepted  factor  of 
safety,  and  the  several  parts  are  very  securely  con 
nected  together  at  their  intersections  by  riveting. 
Hoisting  is  effected  through  a  train  of  spur  gearing 
operated  by  crank  in  the  usual  way,  and  provided 


JIGGEK. 


142 


JOHNSON  L0ADIN6-APFAEATTTS 


with  an  automatic  safety  ratcliet.  Lowering  is  ef- 
fected by  a  separate  mechanism  consisting  of  a  turned 
worm  wlieel  and  worm,  operated  by  a  light  hand 
wheel,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  this  mechanism  being 
also  available  for  raising  light  loads.  Thus  arranged, 
the  machine  is  self-sustaining  and  can  be  left  at  any 
time  with  the  load  in  suspension  without  danger  of 
the  load  running  down  or  the  handles  flying  back. 
The  construction  gives  three  changes  of  Speed,  and 
embodies  the  endless  chain  system,  which  insures 
an  even  distribution  of  wear  over  the  entire  length 
of  chain. 

Rotation  is  easily  effected  by  pushing  or  pulling 
the  suspended  load,  the  pintles  in  top  and  bottom 
bearings  being  of  steel  and  turning  in  bronze  boxes. 
Motion  of  the  trolley  on  the  jib,  in  either  direction, 
is  effected  by  gearing  operated  from  below  by  an 
endless  hand  chain,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  The  self- 
sustaining  construction  of  the  hoisting  gear  holds  the 
load  suspended  at  any  height  while  the  trolley  is 
moved  in  and  out  on  the  jib. 

Cranes  of  this  type  are  adapted  for  use  in  arsenals 
for  handling  and  liiounting  heavy  guns,  in  foundries, 
forges,  rolling  mills,  etc.     See  Cranes  and  Trolleys. 

JlGrGEE. — fn  mechanical  maneuvers,  an  appara- 
tus consisting  of  a  strong  rope  with  a  block  at  one 
end,  and  a  sheave  at  the  other,  used  in  maintaining 
the  tension  of--or,  technically,    in  "holding  on"  to 

the  cable  as  it  is  thrown  off  from   the   capstan  or 

windlass,  around  which  it  only  takes  two  or  three 
turns. 

JIM  CROW. — One  of  the  tools  used  by  railway 
platelayers  for  bending  rails,  and  forms  one  of  a  set 
of  platelayers'  tools  attached  to  the  royal  engineer 
siege  equipment.  It  is  suitable  for  bending  the  24 
lb.  rails  of  the  trench  railway. 

JINGAL. — A  small,  portable  piece  of  ordnance  to 
be  fired  from  the  ground  or  on  a  wall,  resting  on  a 
long,  slender  butt-end,  and  two  legs.  This  piece 
was  commonly  used  in  India.  Sometimes  written 
Jii'gall.    Sec  'Gingah. 

JOAR. — An  East  Indian  term,  signifying  a  general 
massacre  of  the  women  and  children,  which  is  some- 
times performed  by  the  Hindoos,  when  they  find 
they  cannot  prevent  the  enemy  from  taking  the  town. 
When  this  dreadful  and  unnatiiral  ceremony  is  to 
take  place,  a  spot  is  selected  which  is  filled  with 
wood,  straw,  oil,  etc.  The  victims  are  inclosed  and 
the  whole  is  set  on  fire. 

JOHN  BULL.— A  familiar  synonym  for  the  Eng- 
lish people.  Its  origin  is  attributed  to  Dean  Swift, 
but  Arbuthnot  first  gave  it  literary  currency  in  his 
Histi/ry  fif  John  Bull  (1712),  a  political  allegory  in- 
tended to  satirize  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  and 
to  increase  feeling  against  the  war  with  Prance.  In 
art  John  Bidl  is  well  known  as  a  burly  country 
squire,  impetuous,  honest,  narrow-minded,  dogmat- 
ic, and  easilv  imposed  upon. 

JOHN  OF  JERUSALEM.— The  Order  of  Knights  of 
Saint  John  of  Jerusalem,  otherwise  called  Knights 
OF  Rhodes,  and  after  of  Malta  is  the  most  celebrated 
of  all  tlie  military  and  religious  orders  of  the  Middle 
Ages. 

It  originated  in  1048  in  an  Hospital  dedicated  to 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  which  some  merchants  of 
Amalfi  were  permitted  by  the  Calif  of  Egypt  to 
biiild  for  the  reception  of  the  Pilgrims  from  Europe 
who  visited  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  The  nurses  were 
at  first  known  as  the  Hospitaler  Brothers  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist  of  Jerusalem.  The  Seljuk  Turks,  who 
succeeded  the  Egyptian  and  jVrabian  Saracens  in 
PaU'Stine,  plundered  tlu'  Hospice,  and  on  the  Con- 
quest of  Jerusalem  by  the  Crusaders  under  Geoffroy 
(le  Bouillon  in  10i)i(,  tlie  tirst  Superior,  Gerard,  was 
found  in  prison.  Released  from  durance,  heresvmi- 
ed  his  duties  in  the  Hospice,  gave  material  aid  to  the 
sick  and  woun<led,  and  was  joined  Ijy  several  of  the 
('rusaders,  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  service  of 
the  poor  Pilgrims.  By  advice  of  (Jerard,  the  breth- 
ren took  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,   and  obedience 


before  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  Pope  Pascal  II. 
gave  his  sanction  to  the  Institution  1113.  Ray- 
mond du  Puy,  the  successor  of  Gerard  in  the  oflice 
of  Superior,  drewup  a  body  of  Statutes  for  the  Or- 
der, which  was  confirmed  by  Pope  Cali.xtus  II.  To 
the  former  obligations  was  afterward  added  those 
of  fighting  against  the  Infidels  and  defending  the 
Holy  Sepulcher.  Various  Hospices,  called  Com- 
maiideries,  were  established  in  different  maritime 
towns  of  Europe  as  resting  places  for  Pilgrims,  who 
were  there  provided  with  the  means  of  setting  out 
for  Palestine.  The  Order  having  become  military 
as  well  as  religious,  was  recruited  by  persons  of  high 
rank  and  influence,  and  wealth  flowed  in  on  it  from 
all  quarters.  On  the  Conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Sal- 
adin  in  1187,  the  Hospitalers  retired  to  >Iargat  in 
Phenicia.  whence  the  progress  of  infidel  arms  drove 
them  first  in  128.5,  to  Acre,  and  afterwards,  in  1291, 
to  Limisso,  where  Henry  II.,  King  of  Cyprus,  as- 
signed them  a  residence.  By  the  Statutes  of  Ray- 
mond, the  Brethren  consisted  of  three  classes. 
Knights,  Chaplains,  and  Serving  Brothers  ;  these  last 
being  fighting  Squires,  who  followed  the  Knights  in 
their  expeditions.  The  Order  was  subsequently  di- 
vided into  eight  languages — Provence,  Anvergne, 
France,  Italy,  Aragon,  England,  Germany,  and  tlas- 
tile.  Each  nation  possessed  several  Grand  Priories, 
under  which  were  a  number  of  Commanderies. 
The  chief  establishment  in  England  was  the  Priory 
at  Clerkenwell,  whose  l^ad  had  a  seat  in  the  Upper 
House  of  Parliament,  and  was  styled  First  Baron  of 
England. 

In  1310,  the  Knights  under  their  Grand-Master, 
Foulkes  de  Villaret,  in  conjunction  with  a  party  of 
Crusaders  from  Italy  captured  Rhodes  and  seven  ad- 
jacent islands  from  the  Greek  and  Saracen  Pirates 
by  whom  it  was  then  occupied,  and  carried  on  from 
thence  a  successful  war  against  the  Saracens.  In 
1.523,  they  were  compelled  to  surrender  Rhodes  to 
Sultan  Solyman,  and  retired  first  to  Candia  and  after- 
ward to  Vitebo.  In  1.530,  Charles  V.  assigned  them 
the  Island  of  Malta,  with  Tripoli  and  Gozo.  The 
Knights  continued  for  some  time  to  be  a  powerful 
bulwark  against  the  Turks  ;  but  after  the  Reforma- 
tion a  moral  degeneracy  overspread  the  Order,  and 
it  rapidly  declined  in  political  importance:  and  in 
1798,  through  the  treachery  of  some  French  Knights, 
and  the  cowardice  of  the  Grand  Master,  D'Hom- 
spech,  Malta  was  surrendered  to  the  French.  The 
lands  still  remaining  to  the  Order  were  also  about 
this  time  confiscated  in  almost  all  yie  European 
States  ;  but  though  extinct-as  a  Sovereign  Body,  the 
j  Order  has  continued  during  the  present  century  to 
drag  on  a  lingering  existence  in  some  parts  of  Italy, 
as  well  as  inRussia  and  Spain.  Since  1801  the  office 
of  Grand-Master  has  not  been  filled  up  :  a  Deputy 
Grand-Master  has  instead  been  appointed,  who  has 
his  residence  in  Spain.  The  Order  at  first  wore  a 
long  black  habit  with  a  pointed  hood,  adorned  with 
a  cross  of  white  silk  of  the  form  called  Maltese  on  the 
left  breast,  as  also  a  golden  cross  in  the  middle  of 
the  breast.  In  their  niilitary  capacity,  they  wore  red 
surcoats  with  the  silver  cross  before  and  behind.  The 
badge  worn  by  all  the  Knights  is  a  Maltese  cross, 
enameled  wliit'e,  and  edged  with  gold  ;  it  is  suspend- 
ed by  a  black  ribbon,  and  the  embellishments  at- 
tached to  it  differ  in  the  different  countries  where 
the  Order  still   exists. 

JOHNSON  LOADING-APPARATUS.— The  aim  of  tne 
inventor  in  planning  this  apparatus  has  been  to  pro- 
duce  a  loading  device  which  may  be  applied  with- 
out altering  the  present  style  of  gun-carriages,  and 
which  may  be  operated  from  a  position  considerably 
below  tlie  nui/.zle  of  the  gun.  A  staff-carriage  is 
supported  by  rods  which  may  be  raised  or  lowered 
by  racks  and  pinions.  Tlie  staff-carriage  carries  a 
short  shaft,  ui)on  which  there  is  a  pinion  for  driving 
the  sponge  staff  or  rammer  staff,  also  two  drums  for 
receiving  the  rope  by  which  it  is  rotated.  The  lirst 
operation  in  cleaning  the  gun  is  to  raise  the  staff-car- 


JOHUB  DE  RAJAH. 


143 


JOURNAL  OF  ATTACK. 


riui;c  ;  till!  springs  stalT  is  thon  Tnn  thrriiicrh  the  cur- 
riiii;c  us  fur  us  ciinvciiiciil  ;  tin'  frrc  end  nl  I  lie  sliilT 
is  llii'M  niiscd  l)y  imi'Hiim  of  a  rml  lillcd  williii  fork  for 
tlir  piirpdsc.  A.s  HODii  us  tlif  tci'tli  of  !i  rack  with 
wliii'li  till'  spoMHc  stuir  is  provided,  ciii^unc  llic  Icctli 
of  llii'  pinion  in  llie  ciirriane.  llic  pinion  is  turned  liy 
means  of  the  ropes,  forcin;;  tin;  sponge  into  the  liore 
of  111!'  jjnn.  The  sponi;e  start  carries  a  driiin  tiy 
means  of  whicli  it  may  hi'  revolved  when  llie  spmijie 
rea<'hes  the  end  of  llie  liore.  The  sponL,'e  staff  is 
wilhdrawn  by  reversinij;  the  molion  of  the  pinion  in 
the  <-arriai.;e.  A  carlridiii'  rest  reeeives  the  earlridf^o 
shell,  or  shot,  anil  carries  it  to  the  miizzleof  Ihe  K""' 
The  rammer  stall  is  then  inserted  and  operated  in 
imieh  the  same  manner  as  the  sponije  slatf.  After 
loadini;.  the  start-earriaso  and  the  cartriilire-rest  are 
lowered  out  of  the  way  to  permit  of  Ihe  ready  adjust- 
ment of  Ihe  fjiin.  This  very  iri;ienioiis  apparatus  is 
the  inveiilion  of  Lieutenant  David  i).  Johnson,  Uni- 
ted .Stales  Army. 

JOHUR  DE  RAJAH.  An  Indian  sword  used  early 
iu  the  seventeenlli  century. 

JOIN. — A  technical  word  used  in  the  service,  sig- 
nifyins;  to  effect  the  junclion  of  one  military  body 
with  another.  In  a  more  limited  sense,  it  means  the 
accession  of  an  individual,  volunlary  or  otherwise, 
to  a  corps  or  army.  If  an  oflicer,  on  beini;  ordered 
to  .ioin.  omits  to  do  so  wilfully,  he  is  liable  to  trial 
by  a  General  C'ourt-Marlial,  or  to  be  peremptorily 
suspended  for  bcin;;  absent  without  leave. 

JOINTEE  JYNTEE.— A  wood  ivhose  charcoal  has 
been  mucli  used  in  the  (jovernmenl  i)Owdcr  works  at 
Ishapore,  near  Calcutta,  in  Ihe  manufacture  of  i;un- 
jiowder.  The  jointee  grows  from  seed,  and  Mowers 
afler  the  first  year;  it  then  increases  in  size  till  it  be- 
comes a  small  tree  ;  at  tlirec  or  four  years  old.  it  makes 
the  best  charcoal,  the  libera  being  then  large  and  de- 
fined, and  well  separated  ;  the  charcoal  is  of  a  light- 
ish color,  and  is  not  dense  to  the  eye  or  touch.  The 
tree  flourishes  best  on  the  banks  of  small  nnllah.s  or 
water-courses.  Jointee  charcoal  is  not  so  soft  as 
that  of  Ihe  urhur  or  dhall  stalk,  but  it  is  more  dry, 
brillle,  and  hard.  .\n  averaged-sized  tree  of  three 
years'  growth  will  occupy  about  r>  sipiare  yards,  and 
produce  about  Ihret;  maunds  of  wood,  which  will 
yield  about  :!()  lbs.  of  charcoal,  tlie  quantity  required 
for  I  wo  IDO-lb,  barrels  of  gunpowder.  Therefore  10.- 
000  barrels  would  require  about  sixty  beegahs  of 
land  under  constant  cultivation,  one-third  to  be  cut 
each  year.  The  average  specific  gravity  of  jointee 
wood  is  .707,  and  sp.  gr.  of  the  charcoal  produced 
from  it  .27.') ;  and  it  yields  2.5  per  cent,  of  charcoal. 
Experience  has  shown  that  this  wood  is  not  so  good 
for  gunpowder  purposes  as  the  dhall  bush,  and  there- 
fore should  only  be  u.sed  in  case  of  a  failure  of  that 
crop. 

JOINTS. — This  ig  a  very  important  point  in  connec- 
tion with  a  system  of  mines.  In  many  instances  it 
will  he  found  necessary  to  join  either  twolengths  of 
cable,  or  an  insidated  wire  and  a  cable,  together,  in 
both  of  which  cases  great  care  must  be  used  in  ma- 
king Ihe  joints,  so  hat  the  insulation  and  the  conti- 
nuity of  the  circuit  may  be  perfect. 

As  oxides  of  metals  can  scarcely  be  considered  con- 
ductors, all  joints  in  a  wire,  over  which  an  electric 
current  is  to  pass,  should,  when  formed,  be  perfect- 
ly clean.  In  making  a  splice  in  a  wire  enough  of  the 
two  ends  to  form  a  joint  should  first  lie  brighlened. 
and  then  each  wire  should  be  firmly  wound  around 
the  other,  as  shown  iu  the   drawing,   the   different 


evolutions  touching  one  another,  and  passing,  as 
near  as  may  be,  at  right  angles  with  the  wire  which 
they  surround,    A  wire,  in  being  spliced,  must  never 


be  bent  hack  and  wound  upon  itself,  forming  a  loose 
loo[i.  which,  for  telegrapii'c  purposes,  is  ralher  un- 
reliable. In  making  a  joint  under  water,  a  great  ob- 
ject is  to  totally  exclude  the  ingress  of  water,  or  even 
moisture,  which  would  at  once  alTonl  a  j)atli  for  the 
current  and  cause  a  loss  or  a  leak  in  the  cable. — See 
Miniii. 

JONES  GABION.  A  useful  gal)ion  made  of  ten 
bands  of  galvanised  sheet-Iron,  worked  over  twelve 
wood  pickets,  the  ends  brought  together  and  con- 
nected by  two  buttons  at  one  end.  lilting  into  two 
slots  at  the  other.  Kacli  liand  is  77  inches  long,  '.i\ 
inches  wide,  of  No.  20  gauge,  or  about  OO.'i  inch 
thick  :  weight  of  ten,  2!)  lbs.  The  buttons  and  but- 
ton-holes are  required  to  stand  a  weight  of  073 
lbs.,  Ihe  band  ilself  will   support   about  K.WO  lbs.  ; 

'  each  band  has  four  holes  to  admit  of  combination  to 
form    bridges,    beds,    stretchers,   and    for    other   in- 

j  cidenlal  applications  ;  little  or  no  instruction  is  re- 
quired for  making  these  gabions. 

Two  expert  men  can  make  a  gabion  in  five  min- 
utes. 

JOODAY  PERRAPUT.— An  East  Indian  term,  signi- 
f3'ing  a  slave  lakin  in  war. 

JOSLYN  TOMES  GUN.  -A  breech-loading  rifle  hav- 
inga  fixed  chamber  closed  by  a  movatile  breech-block 
which  slides  in  the  line  of  the  barrel  by  direct  action. 
It  is  opened  by  cocking  the  hammer.  In  so  doing  a 
hook-shaped  shoulder  on  its  forward  portion  is  dis- 
engaged from  a  corresponding  recess  in  the  receiver; 
ami  the  whole  bolt  containing  the  hammer  and  lock, 
is  free  to  move  backward  to  its  full  extent.  The  fir- 
ing-pin being  linked  to  the  hammer  is  also  positive- 
ly withdrawn  from  the  face  of  Ihe  bolt.  The  piece 
is  closed  by  reversing  the  molion  of  the  bolt.  It  is 
held  closed  by  a  spring-catch  (friction-pin)  on  its 
side.  It  is  locked  by  the  descent  of  the  hooked  por- 
tion of  the  hammer  into  the  recess  of  the  receiver, 
when  Ihe  piece  may  be  fired  by  a  back-action  lock 
concealed  in  Ihe  bolt,  the  Irigger  alone  being  detach- 
ed. The  firing-pin  descends  with  the  hammer  along 
an  inclined  groove  in  the  face  of  the  bolt  leading  to 
the  site  of  the  fiilmintae  in  the  center  of  the  cart- 
ridge-head. Extraction  is  accomplished  by  a  spring- 
hook  recessed  in  the  side  of  the  bolt,  and  riding  over 
the  rim  of  the  cartridge  when  Ihe  piece  is  closed. 
Ejection  is  caused  by  the  cartridge-shell  being  quick- 
ly withdrawn  on  two  longitudinal  guides,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  receiver,  and  ejected  by  the  head 
striking  first  a  stop  on  one  guide;  and  then  almost 
simultaneously  a  stop  to  the  rear  of  the  first,  on  the 
other  guide. 

JOURNAL. — A  public  record  or  general  orderly  book 
kept  in  the  French  service,  and  in  which  every  trans- 
action that  occured  during  a  siege  is  entered  by  the 
Governor  of  the  town,  for  the  inspection  of  a  Super- 
ior Authority.  The  General  Officer  who  carried  on 
the  siege  of  a  place  likewise  kept  a  document  of  the 
same  kind,  and  minuted  down  every  thing  that  hap- 
pened under   his   command.      So   thai    the   Journal 

I  which  was  kept  in  this  manner  was  a  circumslanlial 
detail  of  what  occurred,  day  after  day,  during  the 
attack  and  defense  of  a  town. 

j  JOURNAL  OF  ATTACK.— In  actual  siege  operations 
a  daily  record  is  made  by  each  Engineer  Officer  on 

I  duty  in  the  trenches,  of  the  amount  of  work  done, 
the  time  required,  the  means  of  execution,  etc..  with 
any  observations  that  may  seem  of  value.  These 
records  are  transmitted  to  the  headquarters  of  the 
Commaiiding  Engineer,  where  they  are  filed  aw.ay  for 
reference,  and  from  Ihem  the  progress  of  Ihe  trenches 
is  carefully  laiddown  uponthe  original  direclingplan 
of  the  attack.  From  the  data  furnished  by  such  rec- 
ords, and  from  Ihe  results  obtained  in  Ihe  Schools  for 
Iraiiung  engineer  troops,  the  average  lime  required 
for  executing  Ihe  various  portions  of  the  siege  works, 
under  ordinary  circum.stances,  during  IhcMiifferent 
epochs  into  which  they  have  been  di\nded,  has  been 
laid  down  by  writers  on  this  subject.  This  mode  of 
calculation  has  also  been  applied  to  test  the  relative 


JOURNAL  OF  DEFENSE. 


144 


JOUENALS  OF  MARCH, 


valueof  different  systems  of  permanent  fortifications,  |  completed  on  the  sixth  day.  and  the  fire  of  the  de 
bv  submitting  them  to  a  fictitious  siege,  and  esti-  j  fcnses  be  brought  under  in  twenty-four  hours  after 


mating  from  the  time,  as  shown  in  this  way,  requir- 
ed for'their  reduction,  how  much  longer  the  one  sys- 
tem would  hold  out  than  the  other.  However  in- 
genious this  method  may  at  first  appear,  it  affords 
no  real  practical  test  of  any  importance ;  the  dura- 
tion of  sieges  depending  upon  moral  and  physical 
laws,  as  their  whole  history  has  shown,  that  no  mode 
of  calculation  can  reach.  The  immediate  successors 
of  Vauban,  who  made  use  of  these  calculations  in 
theoretical  sieges,  have  usually  allowed  nine  days, 
from  the  opening  of  the  trenches  to  the  completion 
of  the  3d  parallel ;  estimating  that  all  the  batteries, 
along  the  front  of  the  1st  and  2d  parallels,  would  be 


the  batteries  were  in  full  play. 

JOURNAL  OF  DEFENSE.— In  the  American  service, 
during  war,  the  Commander  of  a  place  and  the  Chiefs 
of  Engineers  and  of  Artillery  are  required  to  keep 
Journals  of  Defense,  in  which  are  entered  in  order  of 
date,  without  blank  or  interlineation,  the  orders  given 
or  received,  the  manner  in  which  they  are  executed, 
their  results,  and  every  event  and  circumstance  of 
importance  in  the  progress  of  the  defense.  These 
Journals  are  sent  after  the  siege  to  the  War  Depart- 
ment. 

JOURNALS  OF  MARCH.— Commanding  officers  of 
troops  marching  through   a  country   liltle   known. 


JonHNAL  of  the  march  of  [^/lere  insert  the  names  of  the  regiments  or  companies  composing  the  column'],  com- 
manded by .  from  ^here  insert  the  point  of  departure]  to  [the  stopping  place],  pursuant  to  [here 

gvie  the  No.  and  daU  of  order  for  the  march]. 


Date. 

Hour. 

Weather. 

Distance. 

■     REMAEKS. 

1860. 

,5.   A.  M. 

1.  p. M. 
10. 

6.30. 
6. 

4.30. 

4.30  A.  M. 
4.30  p.  M. 

3  p.m. 
9.  - 

6.30  A.  M. 

Very  pleasant;  cloudy  in  the  r.  m.               Rain.               Cloudy,  with  wind. — Cold  early  in  morning. — Cloudy. 

Total,  19 

Road  rocky ;  but  little  grass  ;  good  water.  Plenty 
of  timber  on  the  summit  of  hills,  extending  3  miles ; 
road  to  right  of  hills. 

July  8. 

3 

8 

Good  shelter  for  camp  at  foot  of  peak ;  fuel  plenty. 
Springs  of  sweet  water,  with  good  grass  near.  Road 
to  this  point  rather  more  sandy. 

3 

Road  runs  through  a  canyon  i  mile  long,  to  right 
of  a  small  stream :  marsh  on  left  of  stream;  water 
sweet;  grass  excellent.  Halted  to  graze  two  hours. 
No  Indian  signs. 

1 

Companies  F,  G,  and  I,  3d ,  detached  at  Mt. 

P ,  under   command   of ,  (see  par.  3, 

General  Orders,  No. ),  to  take  road  to 

A  small  creek,  easily  forded. 

4 

Road  turns  short  to  right  at  top  of  hill  after  cross- 
ing river  ;  crossing  good,  but  a  little  boggy  on  right 
bank.  This  bottom  shows  signs  of  recent  overflow, 
when  it  must  have  been  impassable;  banks  low; 
water  sweet ;  no  wood  near  crossing ;  road  hard  and 
good  up  to  river. 

July  7. 

"^^--- 

Total,  47 

^~~~~~~-— , 

July  9. 

5 

At  the  point  where  the  roads  fork,  turn  to  the 
right.  The  left-liand  road  leads  to  a  deep  ravine, 
which  cannot  be  crossed. 

8 

After  the  road  strikes  the  ravine,  it  runs  one  mile 
along  its  bank  before  coming  to  the  crossmg-place. 
The  campins  ground  is  at  springs,  half  a  mde  be- 
yond the  ravine.     Old  Indian  signs  at  the  sprmgs. 

in 

Road  less  rocky  ;  last  three  miles  rather  sandy  ;  no 
water.     Passed   at  one   point  an  Indian  grave. 

5 

Road  still  rocky;  good  springs,where  casks  should 
be  filled.  No  more  water  for  twenty  mdes  after  leav- 
ing springs.  Occasional  hills  to  left  of  road.;  no  wood 
or  grass. 

July  8. 

~~^^^--~-^^ 

19 

jorrRNEE. 


145 


JUDGE  ADVOCATE, 


k<'('p  jmirniils  of  tlu'ir  niiirclics  iiccoriiinfT  to  a  form 
liiiii  ilowii  in  Army  licL'iilalioiis.  At  llii'  ciid  nf  the 
inarcli  a  ccipy  of  llic  jdnrnal  i'~  rclaiiicd  at  llic  Hiatinii 
when'  tlic  lr(io|iH  arrivr,  ami  tin-  ririL'inal  in  forwaril- 
I'd  to  llic  Hca(li|iiart(TS  (jf  llic  Dcparliiiciil  or  Corps 
(I'Anncc.  Tliciuc  after  a  copy  lias  liccii  taken,  it 
is  transmitted,  tlirouuli  the  IIca(l(|narlers  of  On: 
Army,  to  tlu^  Adjutant  General,  for  tlie  information 
of  lli((  War  I)<'parlmcnt.  Tlic  drawin;^  represents 
Ketcliam's  conlinnons  protilc-book,  which  is  mostly 
used  for  roiile-skctcliini;  ami  n<'neral  licld  notes. 
When  this  cannot  lie  ohtaincd,  a  liook  made  of 
sheets  of  paper  fiililcil  to  half  the  letter  size  will  an- 
swer. The  record  should  run  fromthe  bottomlotlie 
top  of  each  pai;c. 

Ucferriiijjf  to  llic  form  on  paf;e  144.  it  is  under- 
stood that  IIk'  distance,  in  mile-.,  hi'twecn  each 
of  the  horizontal  divisions,  will  be  noted  in  the  col- 
umn headed  "  DiKldiin,"  which  will  be  summed  up 
at  llic'lop  of  each  column,  and  the  sum  carried  to 
the  boltom  of  llic  iic.\t  column.  The  notes  within 
each  horizontal  division  are  to  show  the  general  di- 
rections of  the  march,  and  every  object  of  interest 
observed  in  passing  over  the  distance  represented 
thereby  ;  and  all  remarkable  features,  .such  as  hills, 


carries  the  felt,  the  other  the  wood-work.  Tliere 
'  are  four  separate  parts  in  its  structure  :  1.  The  ilnnr. 
\  irnij.  a  sfilid  piece  of  ornamental  carpenterinf;.  that 
tak<'S  to  pieces  instantly.  2.  The  «V/'s  which  con- 
sist of  lengths  of  wood-work,  that  shut  i  >  on  the 
priiKtiple  of  the  tiizy-timgH.  'A.  Tlie  roof-riijH.  The 
lioltoni  of  each  of  these  is  tied  to  the  sides  of  the 
jourl,  and  ils  top  fits  into  a  socket  in  —  4,  the  mtif- 
riiirj,  which  is  a  hoop  of  wood  strengthened  by  trans- 
verse bars.  Over  this  framework  broad  slieets  of 
felt  arc  thrown  ;  their  own  weight  makes  them  lie 
steadily,  for  they  are  (juitc  an  inch  in  thickness; 
however,  in  very  stormy  weather,  tiny  are  weighted 
with  stones.     There  is  no  metal  in  the  structure. 

JOUSTS. — E.xercises  of  arms  and  horseniansliip, 
performed  in  the  Middle  Ages  by  Knights  and  Nobles. 
In  the  joust  the  combatants  engaged  one  another  sing- 
ly, each  against  his  antagonist,  and  not  in  a  troop,  as 
in  the  tournament.  The  number  of  courses  to  be 
run  and  strokes  to  be  given  was  generally  three,  but 
sometimes  a  larger  number.  Tlie  weapon  most  in 
use  in  the  joust  was  the  lance,  but  sometimes  the 
liattle-a.\c  and  sword  were  employed.  To  direct  the 
lance  anywhere  but  at  the  body  of  the  antagonist  was 
reckoned  foul  play.     In  the  joust  of  peace  or  juule 


streams  with  their  names,  fords,  springs,  houses, 
villages,  forests,  marches,  etc..  and  the  places  of  en- 
campment,will  be  sketched  \:\  their  relative  positions. 
The  "  Remarkx"  correspo,:  ling  to  each  division, 
will  be  upon  the  soil,  pro  luctions.quantity  and  qual- 
ity of  timber,  grass,  wat'  and  fords,  nature  of  the 
roads,  etc.,  and  importai  '.  incidents.  They  should 
show  where  provisions,  •  irage,  fuel,  and  water  can 
be  obtained;  whether  the  streams  to  be  crossed  are 
fordable,  miry,  liave  <]ui(  ksands  or  steep  banks, and 
whether  they  overflow  their  banks  in  wet  seasons; 
also  the  quality  of  the  water;  and,  in  brief,  every- 
thing of  practical  importance.  When  a  detachment 
leaves  the  main  column,  the  point  on  the  "route" 
will  be  noted,  and  the  reason  given  in  the  Eetnarks. 
The  Commander  of  the  detachment  will  be  furnished 
with  a  copy  of  the  journal  up  to  the  point,  and  will 
ctmtinuc  it  over  his  new  line  of  inarch. 

JOURNEE. — A  term  used  among  the  French  to  e.v- 
prcss  any  particular  engagemcni  or  battle  :  as  La 
journee  de  Marengo.  We  frequently  adopt  the  vrord 
in  the  same  sense  ;  thus,  a  hard-fought  day  signities 
a  hard-fought  battle. 

JOURS.— The  tours  of  duty  which  are  done  in  the 
c  nirse  of  a  day  and  a  night.  Ktre  de  jour  is  to  be 
Othcer  of  the  Day.  or  to  command  a  body  of  troops 
at  a  siege  or  otherwise  in  the  capacity  of  a  General 
Olticcr,  etc. 

JOURT. — The  Kirghis-jourt  is  a  capacious,  solid, 
warm,  and  tire-proof  structure,  that  admits  of  being 
pitched  or  taken  to  pieces  in  an  hour,  and  with- 
stands the  cold  and  violenl  winds  of  the  steppes  of 
Central  Asia,  in  a  way  that  no  tent  or  combination 
of  tents  could  pretend  to  ctTcct.  A  jourt  of  from  20 
to  2.5.  or  even  30  feet  in  diameter,  forms  two  camel- 
loads,  or  about  half  a  ton  in  weight.     One  camel 


de  plnisance,  a  foot  encounter  preceded  the  mounted 
combat.  In  the  1.5th  century  the  usages  of  jousting 
had  come  to  differ  in  ditlerent  countries  to  such  an 
extent  that  an  elaborate  treatise  was  written  in  ex- 
planation of  the  various  modes  distinguishing  the 
characteristic  differences. 

JOUTE.— A  close  fight  between  \\\o  individuals. 
It  likewise  means  an  engagement  at  sea. 

JOVES. — In  fortification,  the  two  sides  in  the  epaul- 
mciit  of  a  tiattery  which  form   the  embrasure. 

JOWHER. — A  kind  of  watering  in  Oriental  sw^ord- 
liladcs  and  Damascus  gun-barrels. 

JOYEUSE.— The  name  given  to  the  sword  of  Char- 
lemagne. 

JOZERAUNT. — Ancient  armor  ;  a  jacket  strength- 
ened with  plate.     Also  written  jourine. 

JUDGE  ADVOCATE.— The  title  of  an  official  at- 
tached to  Jlilitary  Commissions  or  Courts-Martial, 
whose  duties  are  analagous  to  those  of  Prosecutin"- 
Attorneys  in  Civil  Courts;  but  whose  functions  in 
relation  to  military  law.  are  also  similar  to  those  of 
a  District  Attorney,  or  Corporation  Counsel,  in  beinc 
of  an  advisory  character.  Tlie  appointment  of  Judgtv 
Advocates  for  special  Courts  rests  in  the  authority 
which  appoints  the  Court,  whether  that  be  the  Presi- 
dent, the  Secretary  of  War.  or  theCommander  of  the 
Army.  But  there  is  also  in  the  United  States  Army 
a  ( 'orps  of  seven  Judge  Advocates  with  the  rank  of 
Major,  who  are  under  the  general  direction  of  the 
Judge  Advocate  General,  and  who  can  be  detailed 
on  Courts-Martial  or  Military  Commissions,  but  are 
usually  stationed  at  the  Headquarters  of  the  Military 
Departments,  where  they  act  as  legal  advisers  to  the 
Deiiarlment  Commanders,  and  may  be  appointed  by 
them  to  Court-Martial  duty.  The  olficial  duties 
I  of  a  J  udge  Advocate  during  a  trial  by  Court-JIartial 


JTJBGE  ADVOCATE  GENERAL. 


146 


JDDGE-MAETIAL. 


or  Military  Commission,  or  examination  by  a  Court 
of  Inquiry,  are  as  follows  :  Preparation  of  the  case 
for  the  prosecution,  procuring  of  witnesses,  admin- 
istering the  oath,  opening  the" case  for  the  prosecu- 
tion with  the  necessary  argument,  questioning  the 
witnesses,  and  submitting  the  case  to  the  Court.  But 
be.sides  these  duties  the  Judge  Advocate  has  still  an- 
other— seemingly  anomalous  in  this  conuection— that 
of  protecting  the  witness  from  improper  or  leading 
questions,  and  to  that  extent  also  acting  as  counsel 
for  the  accused.  In  the  English  military  service  the 
duties  of  the  Judge  Advocate  have  been  so  far  modi- 
fied that  he  does  not  act  as  Prosecutor,  but  solely  in 
his  advisory  capacity  in  connection  with  the  Court, 
and  as  the  Recorder  of  its  proceedings. 

Tlie  Articles  of  War  are  silent  on  the  subject  of  the 
Judge  Advocate's  assisting  the  Court  with  his  coun- 
sel and  advice  as  to  any  matters  of  form  or  law  ;  it 
nevertheless  is  his  dutJ^  by  custom,  to  explain  any 
doubts  which  may  arise  in  the  course  of  its  deliber- 
ations, and  to  prevent  any  irregularities  or  deviations 
from  the  regular  form  of  proceedings.  The  duty  as- 
signed the  Judge  Advocate  is  more  especially  incum- 
bent on  him  incases  where  the  prisoner  has  not  the 
aid  of.professional  coimscl  to  direct  him.  which  gcn- 
eralVy  bappens  in  the  trials  of  private  soldiers,  who 
having  had  few  advantages  of  education,  or  oppor- 
tunities for  mental  improvement,  stand  greatly  in 
need  of  advice  under  circumst'ances  often  sufficient 
to  overwhelm  the  acutest  intellect,  and.  embarrass  or 
suspend  the  powers  of  the  most  cultivated  under- 
standing. It  is  certainly  not  to  be  understood  that, 
in  discharging  this'office. which  is  prescribed  solely  by 
humanity, -the  Judge  Advocate  should, in  the  strictest 
sense  consider  himself  as  bound  to  the  duty  of  coun- 
sel, by  exertinghis  ingenuity  to  defend  the  prisoner, 
at  all"  hazards,  against  those  charges  which,  in  his 
capacity  of  Prosecutor,  he  is.  on  the  other  hand, 
bound  to  urge  and  sustain  by  proof ;  for,  understood 
to  this  extent,  the  one  duty  is  utterly  inconsistent 
with  the  other.  All  that  is  required  is.  that  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  Civil  Courts  of  Criminal  Juris- 
diction, the  Judges  are  understood  to  be  counsel  for 
the  person  accused,  the  Judge  Advocate,  in  Court- 
Martial,  shall  do  justice  to  the  cause  of  the  prisoner, 
by  giving  full  weight  to  every  circumstance  or  argu- 
ment in  his  favor ;  shall  bring  the  same  fairly  and 
completely  into  the  view  of  tlie  Court;  shall  sug- 
gest the  supplying  of  all  omissions  in  exculpatory 
evidence  ;  shall  engross  in  the  written  proceedings 
all  matters  which,  either  direct!}'  or  by  presumption, 
tend  to  the  prisoners's  defense  ;  and  finally,  shall  not 
avail  himself  of  any  advantage  which  superior  know- 
ledge,ability,  or  his  influence  with  the  Court  may  give 
liim  in.  enforcing  the  conviction,  rather  than  the  ac- 
quittal, of  the  person  accused. 

When  a  Court-Martial  is  summoned  b_v  the  proper 
authority,  for  the  trial  of  any  militarj'  offender,  the 
Judge  Advocate  being  required  to  attend  to  his  duty, 
and  furnished  with  articles  of  charge  or  accusation, 
on  which  he  is  fo  prosecute,  must,  from  tlie  informa- 
tion of  the  accuser,  or  other  sources,  instruct  himself 
in  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  anl  by  what  evi- 
dence the  whole  particulars  are  to  be  proved  against 
the  prisoner.  Of  these,  it  is  proper  that  he  should 
prep.ire,  in  writing,  a  short  analysis,  or  plan,  for  his 
own  regulation  in  the  conduct  of  the  trial,  and  ex- 
amination of  the  witnesses.  He  ought  then,  if  it 
lias  not  been  done  by  some  other  functiimary,  fo 
give  information  to  the  jirisoner  of  the  time  and 
place  appointed  for  his  trial,  and  furnish  him,  at 
the  same  time,  with  a  co])y  of  the  charges  that 
are  to  lie  exhibited  against  him,  and  likewise  a 
correct  detail  of  the  Members  of  the  Court.  The 
Judge  Advocate  ought  then  to  hand  in  to  the  Adju- 
tant (Jeneral.  or  Staff  Oflicer  charged  with  the  de- 
tails, a  list  of  witnesses  for  the  prosecution,  in  order 
that  they  may  be  summoned  to  give  (heirattendance 
at  the  time  and  jilarc  ap])ointed.  It  is  proper,  liUe- 
wise,  tliat  he  should  desire  the  prisoner  to   make  a 


similar  application,  to  insure  the  attendance  of  the 
witnesses  necessary  for  his  defense.  These  measures 
ought  fo  be  taken  as  early  as  possible, that  there  may 
be  sufficient  time  for  the  arrival  of  witnesses  who 
may  be  at  a  distance.  When  the  Court  is  met  for 
trial. and  the  members  are  regularly  sworn,  the  Judge 
Advocate,  after  opening  the  prosecution  by  a  recital 
of  the  charges,  togethtr  with  such  detail  of  circum- 
stances as  he  may  deem  necessary,  proceeds  to  ex- 
amine his  witnesses  in  support  of  the  charges,  while 
at  tlie  same  time  he  acts  as  the  Recorder  or  Clerk  of 
the  Court,  in  taking-down  the  evidence  in  writing  at 
full  length,  and  as  nearl}-  as  possible  in  the  words  of 
tlie  witnesses.  At  the  close  of  the  business  of  each 
day.  and  in  the  interval  before  the  next  meeting  of 
the  Court,  it  is  the  •duty. of  the  Judge  Advocate  to 
make  a  fair  copy  of  the  proceedings  ;  which  he  con- 
tinues thus  regularly  to  engross  till  the  conclusion  of 
the  trial,  when  the  whole  is  read  over  by  him  to  the 
Court,  before  the  Members  proceed  to  deliberate  and 
form  their  opinions.  The  sentence  of  the  Court  must 
be  fairly  engrossed  and  subjoined  to  the  record  copy 
of  tlie  proceedings ;  and  the  whole  must  be  authen- 
ticated by  the  signature  of  the  President  of  the  Court 
and  that  of  the  Judge  Advocate. 

It  is  required  by  the  Articles  of  War,  that  "  Every 
Judge  Advocate,  or  person  o'fficiating  as  such,  at  any 
General  Court-Martial,  shall  transmit,  with  as  much 
expedition  as  the  opportunity  of  time  and  distance  of 
place  can  admit,  the  original  proceedings  and  sen- 
tence of  such  Court-Martial,  to  the  Secretary  of  War; 
which  said  original  proceedings  and  sentence  shall 
be  carefully  kept  and  preserved  in  the  office  of  the 
said  Secretary,  fo  the  end  that  the  persons  entitled 
thereto,  may  be  enabled,  upon  application  to  the  said 
office,  to  obtain  copies  thereof."  The  Judge  Advo- 
cate sends  the  proceedings  to  the  Secretary  of  War 
through  the  Adjutant  General.     See  Court-Martial. 

JUDGE  ADVOCATE  GENERAL.— In  England,  the 
Supreme  Judge,  under  the'Mutiny  Act  and  Articles 
of  War,  of  the  proceedings  of  Courf.s-Mariial.  This 
officer  is  also  the  adviser,  in  legal  matters,  of  the 
Commander-in-Chief  and  Secretary  of  State  for  War. 
Before  conflrmafion  the  sentences  of  all  Courts-Mar- 
iiai,  with  the  evidence  adduced,  are  submitted  to 
him;  and  it  is  for  .him  to  represent  to  the  Com- 
mander-in-Chief any  illegality  of  procedure,  or  other 
circumstance  rendering  it  undesirable  that  the 
Queen  should  be  .advised  to  confirm  the  Court's  de- 
cision. The  Judge- Advocate-General  receives  a  sal- 
ary of  £2,000.  and  is  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Commons  and  of  the  ^Ministry — changing,  of  course, 
with  the  latter.  As  it  is  essential  that  the  Judge 
Advocate  General  should  have  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  milifarj'  law,  as  well  as  with  the  gen- 
eral law  of  the  land,  he  is  provided  with  an  as- 
sistant or  Deputy ,  whose  office  is  permanent,  and 
who  is  selected  from  among  barristers  of  eminence. 
The  Deputy  Judge  Advocate  is  an  officer  holding  a 
temporary  commission  as  Public  Prosecutor  in  every 
Court-Martial.  lie  must  be  an  officer  of  intelligence, 
as  it  is  part  of  his  duty  to  examine  and  cross-ex- 
amine witnesses,  fo  warn  the  members  of  the  Court 
of  any  illegalit}' in  their  proceedings,  and  generally 
to  fulfill,  in  the  limited  area  of  the  Court,  tlie  func- 
tions which  belong  fo  flic  Judge  Advocate  General. 

In  the  United  States,  the  Judge  Advocate  Gen- 
eral is  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  l\Iilitary  Justice 
at  Washington  with  tlie  rank  of  Brigadier  (Jeneral. 
To  him  the  proceeilings  of  all  Courts-Martial.  Courts 
of  Inquiry,  and  Alilitarv  Commissions  are  forwarded 
for  revision  and  record.  In  England  flie  Judge  Ad- 
vocate General  is  the  final  legal  autliorily  for  the 
Army,  and  the  adviser  of  flic  Crown  in  cases  where 
any  action  of  the  Sovereign  is  required.  His  power 
is  supreme  as  to  reviewing  the  proceedings  of  Courts- 
Martial,  etc.     See  Jiurcav  of  Military  Juxticc. 

JUDGE  MARTIAL. -In  former  years  the  Supreme 
.judge  in  Martial  l.aw,  as  fo  the  jurisdiction  and 
powers  of  j\Iilitary  Courts  in  the  British  system. 


JUDSON  POWDER. 


147 


JUBISDICTIOir. 


JUDSON  POWDER.  -A  low  !;rii(l<-  liij^Ii-c.vplosivc 
iiivc'iilcd  by  IO^IjitI,  .ludson,  iif  Sun  Friincisco,  Ciili- 
fdriiiii,  iiiid  palcnlcil  in  1H7().  .muici'  wliicli  tiiiii;  il,  1ms 
lii'cii  iii:iriiifiicluri'(l  in  lurii<-  (|ii;iiililics  iit  licrklcy. 
Ciilifoniia,  anil  lias  urovvn  ruplilly  in  favor  with  all 
who  have  nscil  it.  taUini;  the  place  of  black  pow- 
der in  heavy  work.  It  is  nol  a  hi;;h  exi)losive  and 
cannot  be  used  for  such  work  as  is  inten(h'<l  for 
Giant.  Atlas  or  Hercules  powder,  but  wherever 
black  powder  is  in  use  Judson  powder  can  be  sub- 
stituted to  threat  advantage  As  this  powder  con- 
tains nitro-glyecrine  it  becomes  hard  in  cold  wea- 
ther (at  about  4.")"  F).  When  in  this  stale  it  readily 
breaks  ui)  into  i;rains  by  a  little  pressure  and  can 
then  be  jjoured  like  sand  into  the  smallest  crevice. 
When  usin;^  frozen  powder,  it  is  necessary  to  use  a 
primini;  cartridge  of  Giant,  and  toalways  have  this 
cartridge  soft.  For  blasting  or  (pnirry  work,  Judson 
powder  is  put  up  in  watcr-i)r")f  jiapcr-bags,  con- 
taining C>\,  12i  anil  2.1  pounds  each,  and  8,  4  and  2 
bags  respectively  are  put  in  wooden  boxes  holding 
50  pounds.  It  is  also  put  up  in  water-proof  cart- 
ridges of  any  size  desired  for  special  purposes.  See 
Jlif//i   Explosives. 

JUMP. — A  guu-barrel  made  of  a  ribbou  of  iron,  or 
laminated  iron  and  steel,  coih'il  around  a  mandrel  at 
a  red  heat,  then  raised  to  a  welding  heat  and  placed 
on  a  cylindrical  rod,  whicli  is  struck  heavily  and 
vertically  on  the  ground,  is  said  to  be  jumpfd.  The 
clTect  is  to  cause  the  edges  of  tli(^  ribbon  to  unite,  a 
junction  which  is  compTetod  by  the  hammer  on  an 
anvil,  the  manilrel  retaining  its  position.  Such  bar- 
rels are  said  to  be  twisted.  The  twist  is  stul>,  wire, 
or  Damascus,  according  to  the  mode  of  manufacture 
of  the  ribbon.     See  Gun-barrel,  and   Twist. 

JUMP  OF  A  GUN.— The  increased  angle  of  depart- 
ure at  which  a  projectile  leaves  a  gun,  after  the  gtm 
has  been  trulj-  levelled  at  the  target  or  object  to  be 
struck.  The  method  usually  pursued  to  ascertain 
the  "  jiunp"  of  a  gun  is  to  place  a  target  at  130  feet 
from  the  gim  which  has  been  truly  levelled,  so  as  to 
be  horizontal.  On  tiring  the  gun.  the  position  of 
the  hits  on  the  target  determines  the  "jump"  as,  if 
above  the  level  on  the  target,  it  shows  that  the  pro- 
jectile has  left  the  piece  with  a  certain  amount  of 
elevation  :  if  it  had  not  been  so,  gravity  would  have 
brought  the  shot  below  the  level  on  the  target.  This 
"jump"  is  due  to  the  tendency  the  gun  and  car- 
riage have  to  rotate  on  the  trail.  Experiment  has 
shown  that  the  "jump"  which  the  system  makes 
before  the  projectile  leaves  the  muzzle  is  much  af- 
fected by  the  nature  of  the  ritling.  A  breech-load- 
ing gun  in  which  the  shot  is  forced  through  the 
bore,  "jumps"  more  than  a  muzzle-loading  gun  of 
the  same  weight  and  length. 

JUNCTION-'BOX.— In  s'ubmarine  miuing,  when  it 
is  necessary  to  employ  a  multiple  cable,  a  junction- 
box  is  used  to  facilitate  the  connection  of  the  sever- 
al separate  wires  diverging  from  the  extremities  of 
such  a  cable.  In  one  angle  of  such  a  box  the  multi- 
ple cable  is  introduced,  while  the  cables  make  their 
exit  on  the  opposite  sides  and  pass  to  different  mines. 
The  ends  of  the  cables  are  secured  from  pulliHg  out 
by  hooked  nippers.  Each  multiple  cable  is  com- 
posed of  seven  cores,  and  each  of  these  is  connected 
"by  means  of  joints  with  the  mine  cables  within  the 
junction-box.  The  boxes  are  usually  made  of  cast 
metal  and  must,  as  an  essential  condition,  be  perfect- 
ly water-tight.  They  are  of  various  forms,  depend- 
ing upon  the  object  for  which  each  is  to  be  used. 
They  should  be  supplied  with  the  other  apparatus 
for  laying  mines. 

A  junction-box  should  be  placed  in  .scch  position 
as  to  be  easily  attained,  even  in  the  presence  of  an 
enemy,  and  its  buoy  should,  if  possible,  not  be  seen. 
It  is  also  very  essential  that  it  should  be  in  a  safe 
and  guarded  position,  for  any  injury  to  the  jimction- 
box  or  multiple  cable  would  be  fatal  to  the  group  of 
mines  in  connection. 

JUNIOR. — Any  one  having  a  lower  rank.  When  the 


I 


grade  is  the  same,  the  junior  has  the   more  recent 
commission  or  warrant. 

JUNK.  -1.  Pieces  of  old  cable  or  cordage,  used  for 
making  points,  gaskets,  etc.  When  picked  to  pieces, 
it  is  much  used  in  the  arsinal  instead  of  oakum.  2. 
A  fanuliar  term  in  the  Urilish  Army  and  Navy  for 
the  salt  meat  supplied  for  long  trips— the  nanu- being 
jirobably  derived  from  the  fact  that  it  becomes  as 
hard  and  lough  as  old  rope,  pieces  of  which  are  ofli- 
cially  styled  junk. 

JUNK  WADS.— Wads  used  for  proving  cannon. 
Wad-molds  for  each  caliber,  consisting  of  two  cast- 
iron  cylinders  of  dilferent  diameters  .set  in  oak,  or  of 
two  strong  pieces,  strapped  with  iron,  and  joined  by 
a  hinge,  are  emi>loyed  in  their  manufacture.  The 
jimk.  after  having  been  i)icked.  is  compressed  \,y 
being  beaten  in  tlie  smaller  mold  with  a  maul  anil 
cyliiiilrinil  rf;v/«— the  latter  nearly  of  the  size  of  the 
mold — until  it  assumes  the  requisite  dimensions;  it 
is  then  taken  out  by  raising  the  upper  part  of  the 
mold,  and  closely  wrap|)eil  with  rope-yam  jjassed 
over  it  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  cvlinder. 
and  fastened  by  a  few  turns  aroimil  the  nuddle  of  the 
wad.  It  is  then  placed  in  the  large  mold,  and  again 
beaten  with  the  maul  and  drift  until  its  diameter  is 
increased  to  that  of  the  mold;  wheii  it  is  taken  out 
and  its  diameter  verified  by  a  wooden  gauge  corres- 
ponding to  the  larue  shot-L'auge  of  the  caliber. 

JUPON  JUST  AU  CORPS.  A  surcoat.  The  name 
jupon  is  chietly  apiilicd  to  the  short,  tight  form  of 
that  military  garment  in  use  in  the  14th  century.  It 
was  a  sle(^veless  ja(,'ket  or  overcoat,  composed  of 
several  thicknesses  of  material  sewed  through,  and 
faced  with  silk  or  velvet,  upon  which  were  embroid- 
ered the  arms  of  the  wearer.  It  fitted  closely  to  the 
body,  and,  descending  below  the  hips,  terminated  in 
an  enriched  border  of  various  patterns. 

JURISDICTION.— All  officers,  conductors,  gunners, 
matrosses.  drivers,  or  other  persons  whatsoever,  re- 
ceiving pay,  or  hire,  in  the  service  of  the  Artillery,  or 
Corps  of  Engineers  of  the  United  States,  are  subject 
to  be  tried  by  Courts-JIartial,  in  like  manner  with 
the  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  other  troops  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States.  The  officers  and  soldiers 
of  any  troops,  whether  militia  or  others,  lieing  nnis- 
tered  and  in  pay  of  the  United  States,  arc  at  all  times 
and  in  all  places,  when  joined  or  acting  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  regular  forces  of  the  United  States,  gov- 
erned by  these  Rules  and  Articles  of  War,  and  are 
subject  to  be  tried  by  Courts-Martial,  in  Hkemanner 
with  the  officers  and  soldiers  in  the  regular  forces, 
save  only  that  such  Courts-Martial  are  composed  en- 
tirely of  militia  officers.  No  person  is  liable  to  be 
tried  and  punislu-d  by  a  General  Court-Marlial  for 
any  otTense  which  shall  appear  to  have  been  com- 
mitted more  than  two  years  before  the  issuing  of  the 
order  for  such  trial,  unless  the  person,  by  reason  of 
having  absented  himself,  or  some  other  manifest  im- 
pediment, shall  not  have  been  amenable  to  justice 
within  that  period. 

Can  Courts-Martial  and  Civil  Courts  have  concur- 
rent jurisdiction  over  offenses  committed  bv  soldiers? 
Or,  in  other  words,  if  a  soldier  is  guilty  of'an  offense 
which  renders  him  amenable  for  trial  before  the 
Civil  Courts  of  the  land,  can  he  also  be  tried  for  that 
offense  (if  its  specification  should  establish  a  viola- 
tion of  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War)  by  a  Court- 
Martial?  By  the  Constitution  of  the  Unfted  States 
Congress  is  authorized  "  To  make  rules  for  the  gov- 
ernment and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval  forces:" 
and  Congress,  pursuant  to  this  authority,  has  estab- 
lished Rules  and  Articles  for  the  government  of  the 
arinies  of  the  United  States.  These  Rules  are  an  ad- 
ditional code,  to  which  every  citizen  who  becomes  a 
soldier  subjects  himself  for  ihe  preservation  of  good 
order  and  military  dicipline.  The  soldier,  howev- 
er, is  still  only  a  citizen  of  the  United  States.  He 
has  not.  by  assuming  the  military  character  become. 
as  is  the  case  in  very  many  European  countries, 
a  member  of  any  fully  privileged  body  who  may 


JTJSTATJCORFS. 


148 


EAISEB. 


claim  trial  for  all  ofEenses  by  Courts-Martial.  He  is 
still  amenable  to  the  ordinary  Common  Law  Courts 
for  auy  offenses  against  the  persons  or  property  of 
any  citizen  of  an}'  of  the  United  States,  such  as  is 
punishable  by  the  known  laws  of  the  land.  An  ex- 
amination of  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War  will  show 
that  the  offenses  therein  described,  and  against  which 
punishment  is  denounced,  are  purely  military.  They 
are  crimes  which  impair  the  efficiency  of  the  military 
body,  and  even  in  cases  in  which  they  would  be 
recognized  as  offenses  by  the  ordinary  Common  Law 
Courts,  they  could  not  be  considered  the  name  of- 
fenses. Take.forinstance,Article21,which  inflicts  the 
punishment  of  death,  or  other  punishment,  according 
to  the  nature  of  his  offense,  upon  auy  officer  or  sol- 
dier who  shall  strike  his  Superior  Officer.  Here  is 
an  offense  punishable  under  the  known  laws  of  the 
land  as  an  assault  and  battery,  and,  as  such,  it  could 
be  tried  by  the  Common  Law  Courts.  But  such  trial 
woidd  not  prevent  a  Court-Martial  from  afterwards 
taking  cognizance  of  it  under  Article  21 ;  for  the  of- 
fense1)efo"re  the  Common  Law  Court  would  be  strik- 
ing anequal.  while  before  the  Militar_v  Court  it  would 
have  essentially  changed  its  character.  Again,  sup- 
pose an  officer  had  been  guilty  of  stealing,  he  miglit 
be  prosecuted  before  the  Common  Law  Court  for  the 
felony,  and  afterwards  charged  with  conduct  un- 
becoming an  officer  and  a  gentleman,  and  dismiss, 
ed  the  service.  It  can  hardly  be  contended  that 
the  offenses  in  either  of  the  cases  cited  would  be  the 
Mime  before  the  different  Courts;  and  if  not,  the  Ar- 
ticle which  forbids  a  trial  a  second  time  for  the  same 
offense,  could  not  be  pleaded  in  bar  of  trial.  Re- 
cognizing, then,  the  principle  that  the  soldier,  as  a 
citizen,  is  subject  to  the  Common  Law  Courts  for 
offenses  committed  against  the  well-being  of  the 
State,  it  must  also  be  recollected  that  he  is  subject 
to  trial  by  a  Court-Martial  for  any  violation  of  the 
Rules  and"  Articles  of  War.  In  the  case  of  "  Eels, 
plaintiff  in  error,  r.  the  People  of  the  State  of  Illi- 
nois, "  it  was  urged  that  the  Act  of  the  State  of  Illi- 
nois under  which  Eels  was  tried  was  void,  as  it 
would  subject  the  delinquent  to  a  double  punishment 
for  the  same  offense,  the  crime  with  which  he  was 
charged  being  actionable  under  a  law  of  the  United 
States.  The  Supreme  Court  decided  that,  admitting 
the  plaintiff  in  error  to  be  liable  to  an  action  under  the 
Act  of  Congress,  it  did  not  follow  he  would  be  twice 
punished  for  the  same  offense,  and  gave  the  follow- 
ing dettnition  of  that  term  : 

An  offense  in  its  legal  signification  means  the 
transgression  of  a  law.  A  man  may  be  compelled  to 
make  reparation  in  damages  to  the  injured  party  and 
be  liable  also  to  punishment  for  a  breach  of  the  pub- 
lic peace  in  consequence  of  the  same  act,  and  maj'  be 
said,  in  common  parlance,  to  be  twice  punished  for 
the  same  offense.  Every  citizen  of  the  United  States 
is  also  a  citizen  of  a  State  or  Territory.  He  ma_v  be 
said  to  owe  allegiance  to  two  Sovereigns  and  may  be 
liable  to  punishment  for  an  infraction  of  the  laws  of 
either.  Tlie  same  act  may  be  an  offense  or  trans- 
gression of  the  laws  of  both.  Thus  an  assault  upon 
tlie  Marshal  of  the  United  States  and  hindering  him 
in  the  execution  of  legal  process  is  a  high  offense 
against  the  United  States,  for  which  the  perpetrator 
is  liable  to  punishment  ;  and  the  same  act  may  also 
))e  a  gross  breach  of  the  peace  of  the  State,  a  riot,  as- 
sault, or  a  murder,  and  subject  the  same  person  to  a 
punishment  under  the  State  laws  for  a  misdemeanor 
or  felony.     That  either  or  both  may,  if  they  see  fit, 


punish  such  an  offender  cannot  be  doubted.     Yet  it 

cannot  be  truly  averred  that  the  offender  has  been 

twice  punished  for  the  same  offense,  but  only  that  by 

one  act  he  has  committed  two  offenses,  for  each  of 

I  which  lie  is  justly  punishable.     He  could  not  plead 

j  the  punishment  by  one  in  bar  to  a  conviction  by  the 

!  other. 

JUSTAUCOKPS.— An  ancient  tight-fitting  coat,  hav- 
ing a  military  appearance  and  constructed  of  cords. 
A  sim|>k-  primitive  ])r(itotvpe  of  mail-armor. 

JUSTIFIABLE  HOMICIDE.— The  killing  of  a  human 
creature  without  incurring  legal  guilt,  as  where  a 
man  is  duly  sentenced  to  be  hanged;  where  one,  in 
self-defense,  necessarily  kills  another  to  nreserve  his 
own  life,  etc. 

JUTE. — The  jute  of  commerce  is  a  fiber  produced 
from  two  species  of  tiliaceae,  the  mrchortis  olitorius 
and  eorchoruscapxvlrn-is,  two  plants,  alike  in  qualities, 
though  slightly  different  in  appearance,  and  sown  in- 
discriminatel}';  the  first  having  round  seed-pods  and 
reddish  stalk,  the.  latter  long  seed-pods  and  bright 
green  stalk.  From  the  fiber,  which  is  the  cheajiest 
known  are  produced  gunnies,  gunnj'-cloth  and  cord- 
age, and  from  the  finer  qualities,  carpets,  shirting, 
coat-linings,  etc..  are  made.  It  is  extensively  used 
for  mixing  with  silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  fabrics,  and 
also  in  paper-making,  while  the  leaves  are  eaten  in 
many  places  as  food.  The  first  mention  of  the  word 
jute  is  in  1796,  in  the  manuscript  commercial  index 
of  the  Court  of  Directors  of  the  East  India  Companj-. 
It  is  the  Bengali  name  used  bv  tlie  natives  of  Cuttack 
and  Balasore,  where  the  first  European  manufac- 
tories were  established  in  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. In  1829  the  total  export  from  Calcutta  was 
20  tons,  value  £60.  In  1833  it  had  increased  sixteen 
fold,  and  about  1864-6.5  the  increased  demand  caused 
jute  cultivation  to  extend  to  other  districts,  the  ex- 
portation in  1872-73  reaching  the  enormous  amount 
of  300,000  tons,  value  £3,300,000.  England,  Bomliay, 
and  America  originally  divided  the  exports  of  jute, 
and  up  to  the  time  of  the  civil  war  North  America 
took  the  largest  share  of  the  gunnies.  Jute  and  gunnies 
are  now  exported  from  Bengal  largely  \fi  France, 
Australia,  and  other  parts  of  the  world.  Jute  grown 
iu  England  is  not  remunerative.  It  has  been  success- 
fully grown  in  small  quantities  in  America,  however. 
Gunnies  are  classed  as  Xos.  1,  2,  and  3.  Ko.  1.  thick 
and  close  woven,  is  used  for  sugar,  fine  grains  such 
as  linseed  or  rape-seed,  and  similar  products;  No.  2, 
also  close  woven,  but  thinner,  for  rice  and  all  the 
larger  grains:  No.  3,  very  thick,  coarse,  and  open,  is 
principally  suited  for  the  outer  covering  of  double 
bags.  The  manufacture  of  gunny  with  primitive 
looms  is  a  common  form  of  convict  labor  in  Bengal. 
Near  theHimalaj'as,  in  north-eastern  Bengal,  the  na- 
tives wear  a  fine  cloth  of  their  own  manufacture, 
made  of  jute,  or  of  jute  and  cotton.  Increased  de- 
mand has  lately  induced  jute  production  in  Burmah, 
Italy,  Queensland,  and  America,  etc;  and  a  Euro- 
pean Company  has  been  started  to  cultivate  jute  in 
British  Burmah  on  a  large  scale.  The  manufacture, 
again,  is  largely  carried  on  in  Great  Britain,  and  is 
the  chief  industry  of  Dundee  and  Belfast.  In  Ben- 
gal jute  valued  at  about  a  million  sterling  is  an- 
nually manufactured,  mostly  for  local  consumption, 
'  the  bulk  being  turned  out  by  the  Euglish  mills,  of 
t  which  there  are  several  near  Calcutta,  employing 
'  thousands  of  hands,  the  Gauripore  and  Barnagore 
mills  being  the  principal. 
I     JUZAIL,     A  very  heavy  rifle  used  by  the  Afglians. 


K 


KABBADE.— A  military  garment  of  the  Modern  i  Itwas  also  frequently  worn  by  both  the  Romans  and 
Greeks.     It  was   generally  made  of   wool,   without    Gauls.     See  Saffiim. 
sleeves,  and  fastened   by  a  girdle  around  the  waist.        KAISEE. — The  German  title  of  Emperor.     It  was 


KAJAWAH8. 


149 


E££H£  SEHIIIGTON  MAGAZINE  GUN. 


dorivc'd  fniiii  tlmt  of  Ciesar,  pcnniltcd  by  Dioflctiiiii 
to  1)1^  used  liy  the  (iiivemini;  I'riiici-  of  Ditlnialia, 
C'roiitia,  and  tlir  lini'  of  the  Daiiuhi',  wlio  was  llcir 
J'rcsiiinplivc  lo  llic  Iniju'rial  Tliroiir.  'I'lic  Icrm  was 
cniployfil  by  I  lie  (liTiiiaii  ICiiiiicrorM  of  tlic  Miildlc 
Ai^cs,  and  later  liy  the  Kinprrors  of  Austria.  In  1H71 
it  was  assiinicd  liy  William  I.,  of  I'russia,  on  his  be- 
in;;  rrowiied  Kniperor  of  (lermany. 

KAJAWAHS.  Am  Indian  Icrni.  I.ar'je  )iantHers, 
placetl  aeross  a  camel's  back,  in  wliicli  camp  kcllles, 
pots,  etc.,  are  carried  on  the  marcli.  'I'he  panniers 
are  lari^e  enoni::li  lo  carry  disabled  men  with  much 
ease  anil  comfort. 

KAKTOWDA.  A  term  applied  in  the  East  Indies 
to  the  tine  mold  used  in  malting  butts  for  archery 
practice. 

KALAI. — A  Turliish  fortress.  The  term  is  rather 
parliciilarly  applied  to  sloccades  or  very  similar 
struclurcs. 

KALMUCKS.— The  ICalmuelts,  or,  as  they  call  them- 
selves, the  Derben-Ueirat  (the  four  relatives),  and  al- 
so desii^nated  by  the  name  of  Kleutes  and  Khalindk 
(apostates),  are  the  most  numerous  and  celebrated  of 
the  Alonijol  Nations.  They  are  divided  into  four 
tribes,  the  first  of  which,  the  KlnMl-oti  (warriors)  num- 
ber nearly  (10,000  fandlies,  and  inhabit  the  country 
round  the  Koko-nur,  which  they  consider  the  native 
country  of  the  race.  One  portion  of  Ibis  trilie  nngral- 
ed  to  the  banks  of  the  Irtiscli.and  became  sidisequent- 
ly  incorporated  with  the  second  tribe,  the  D/iingars; 
another  portion  nugrated  to  the  banks  of  the  Vol^a, 
in  the  17th  century,  and  is  found  at  the  i)resent  day 
in  the  goverment  of  Astrakhan.  The  second  tribes 
are  the  Dziingarn,  who  give  the  name  to  a  large  ter- 
ritory (I)/.unu;aria)  in  the  west  of  Chinese  Tartary;  at 
the  jiresent  day  they  ninnber  about  20,000  fiunilies. 
Tlie  third  tribe  are  the  Dirbeta  or  Trhoron.  wdio  desert- 
ed Dziingaria,  and  finally,  to  the  number  of  15,000 
fandlies,  removed  a  few  years  ago  to  the  plains  of 
the  Hi  and  the  Don,  where  they  are  being  rajiidly  in- 
corporated with  the  Don  Cossacks  .  The  fourth  great 
tribe  of  the  Kalmucks  are  the  TorgoU,  who,  about 
1660,  separated  from  the  Dzungars.and  settled  in  the 
plains  of  the  Volga  whence  they  were  called  the  Kal- 
vDirkii  iif  the  Volf/ii;  but  finding  the  Russian  rule  too 
severe,  the  majority  returned  toDzungaria. 

No  Jlongol  or  Turkish  race  presents  such  charac- 
teristic traits  as  the  Kahnueks;  indeed  they  answer 
exactly  to  the  description  given  of  them  by  Jor- 
nandes  13  centuries  ago,  wdien,  under  the  name  of 
Huns,  the}'  devastated  scnilhern  Europe.  The  Kal- 
muck is  short  in  stature,  with  broad  shoulders  anda 
large  head;  has  small,  black  eyes,  always  appearing 
to  be  half  shut,  and  slanting  downwards  towards  the 
nose,  which  is  Hat,  with  wide  nostrils;  the  hair  is  black, 
coarse,  and  straight,  and  the  complexion  deeply  swar- 
thy. The  Kalmuck  is  considered  as  the  original  type 
of  the  Mongol  and  Manchu  races,  and  his  ugliness  is 
the  inde.x  of  the  purity  of  his  descent.  They  are  a 
nomad,  predatory,  and  warlike  race,  and  pass  the 
greater  part  of  their  lives  in  the  saddle.  Their  usual 
food  is  barley-flour  soaked  with  water,  and  their  drink 
is  the  "  koumiss  "  (made  from  fermented  mare's 
milk).  In  1829  Russia  established  a  Kalmnck  Insti- 
tute for  the  training  of  interpreters  and  government 
officials  for  the  Kalmucks  of  Russia,  a'.d  she  has 
since  been  making  great  efforts  to  introduce  civiliza- 
tion among  them.  Most  of  the  Kalmucks  are  Bud- 
dhists, but  a  few  hpve  adopted  Mohammedanism  or 
C'hristianitv. 

KALSA  CUTCHEEEY  — The  room  of  business,  where 
matters  pertaining  to  the  Indian  Army  are  transact- 
ed, and  all  matters  of  litigation  on  tliat  brancli  of  ser- 
vice are  determined. 

KAMPAK.— A  kind  of  hatchet  saber  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  without  a  hilt  or  cross-guard.  The  handle  is 
made  quite  straight,  and  it  forms  with  the  blade  a 
Latin  cross. 

KAMPTULICON.— The  name  given  to  a  kind  of 
floor-cloth,  which  is  said  to  be  made  of  india  rubber 


and  cork  ;  much  of  it  however,  consists  of  oxidized 
linseed-oi!  and  cork.  The  cork  is  reduced  to  a  state 
resenililing  very  line  sawdust,  and  kneaded  lip  with 
the  real  caoutchouc,  or  with  the  artificial  kind  made 
of  oxiilized  lins('(^d.oil,  the  whole  being  kept  very 
soft  by  heat.  'I'he  mass  is  then  made  into  sheets  by 
passing  through  cylinder  rollers  heated  witii  steam. 
The  sheets,  when  cold,  are  ready  for  use,  when  no 
ornamental  surface  is  required;  but  very  excellent 
designs  may  bi^  painted  upon  it,  the  same  us  upon 
ordinary  tloor-cloth.  Kanijitulit'on,  notwithstanding 
the  case  with  which  it  is  made,  is  more  expensive;  than 
lloor-cloth  made  liy  iiainting  hempen  or  linen  fabrics; 
it  has,  however  qualities  which  render  it  very  valu- 
able for  special  purposes;  its  elasticity  to.  the  tread 
not  oidy  makes  it  agreeable  to  walk  on,but  it  is  noise- 
less, and  is  consequently  well  adapted  for  Jiospital 
pas.sages  and  other  positions  in  whi.h  (puet  is  desir- 
able ;  it  is  also  im])ervious  to  damp,  and  thereby  well 
suiled  to  damp  stone  floors.  It  is  also  very  suitable 
for  lloor-clotlis  in  i)owder-houses,  but  is  not  so  dur- 
aiile  as  leather  hides. 

KANAUT.  A  term  used  in  India  to  designate  the 
wall  of  a  canvas  tent.     Sometimes  written  Kanut. 

KANDGIAR.  -A  Turkish  sword  very  much  like  the 
yataghans  and  tlissas.  It  is  generally , single-edged, 
without  guards.  It  is  very  often  ornamented  with 
diamonds  and  other  precious  stones.  Also  written 
J\  inifi'ii  r. 

KAPIGI-BACHI.— The  officer  in  charge  of  the  gates 
of  the  Sultan's  Palace.  The  name  is  also  applied  to 
a  Turkish  warrior.  The  name  Karauh  is  given  to 
IIh'  Sultan's  body-guards. 

KAETTIKEYA.— The  Hindu  Mars,  or  god  of  war, 
a  being  represented  by  the  Puranic  legends  as  sprung 
from  Siva,  after  a  most  miraculous  fashion.  The 
germ  of  Karttikeya  having  fallen  into  the  Ganses.  it 
w'as  on  the  banks  of  this  river,  in  a  meadow  of  Sara 
grass,  that  the  offspring  of  Siva  arose  ;  and  as  it  hap- 
pened that  he  was  seen  by  six  Nymphs,  the  Krittikds 
(or  Pleiades),  the  child  assumed  six  faces,  to  receive 
nurture  from  each.  Grown  up,  he  fulfilled  his  mis- 
sion in  killing  Taraka,  the  demon  king,  whose  power, 
acipdred  by  penances  and  austerities,  threatened  the 
very  existence  of  the  gods.  He  accomplished,  be- 
sides, other  heroic  deeds  in  his  battles  with  the  gi- 
ants, and  became  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
divine  armies.  Having  been  brought  up  by  the  Krit- 
tikas,  he  is  called  Karttikeya,  or  Shanmdtura,  the 
son  of  six  mothers  ;  and  from  the  circumstances  ad- 
verted to,  he  bears  also  the  names  of  Gdngeya,  the 
son  of  Ganga;  Sarahhi'i,  reared  in  Sara  grass;  S/ian- 
iinikha,  the  god  with  the  six  faces,  etc.  One  of  his 
common  appellations  is  Kumnrd,  youthful,  since  lie 
is  generally\represented  as  a  fine  youth;  and  as  he  is 
riding  on  a  peacock,  he  receives  sometimes  an  epi- 
thet like  Sikhivdhdna,  or  "  the  god  whose  vehicle  is 
the  peacock." 

KATAITYX.— A  Greek  casque,  of  the  8th  century, 
B.C.  It  was  made  of  leather  and  provided  with  a 
chin-strap,  but  had  no  crest. 

KATAN. — A  Japanese  sword.  Commonly  called 
Cnttan. 

KATZENKOPF.— The  German  name  for  the  uheeU 
lock  and  mortar  pistol  of  the  eleventh  centurv. 

KAVASS.— In  Turkey,  an  armed  Constable".  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  a  government  servant  or  cour- 
ier. 

KECHEEKLECHI.— Giiards  attached  to  the  person 
of  the  King  of  Persia  :  they  are  armed  with  a  mus- 
ket of  an  extraordinary  size  and  caliber.  The  Kech- 
erklechi  were  enlisted  and  formed  into  a  regidar 
Corps  al)out  the  middle  of  the  18th  century. 

KEENE  REMINGTON  MAGAZINE-GUN.— This  gun 
is  now  made  for  the  United  States  military  cartridge, 
forty-five  caliber,  sevent_v  grains  of  powder,  but  can 
be  adapted  to  the  use  of  other  forms  of  military  cart- 
ridge, such  as  the  Spanish  and  Russian.  The  maga- 
zine is  located  under  the  barrel,  thereby  enabling  it 
to  carry  the  greatest  possible  number  of  cartridges 


KEENE-BEMINGTON  MAGAZINE-GUN. 


150 


KEENE-EEMINGTON  MAGAZINE -GDR. 


witliin  a  given  weight  and  length  of  barrel.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  this  is,  for  many  reasons,  the  best  posi- 
tion in  which  to  carry  the  cartridges  of  a  magazine- 
gun. 

All  of  the  motions  are  direct  and  positive.  The 
cartridges  are  held  securely  in  position  while  pass- 
ing from  the  magazine  over  the  carrier  to  the  cham- 
ber in  the  barrel,  in  which  respect  it  has  a  decided 
advantage  over  other  magazine-arms.  The  cart- 
ridge does  not  pass  on  to  the  carrier  until  the  gun  is 
opened  for  the  purpose  of  loading,  so  that  there  is  no 
danger  of  a  cartridge  being  exploded  in  the  carrier 
in  case  a  defective  cartridge  i  s  fired  in  the  gun. 


ing  the  finger  from  the  trigger  ;  in  this  last  respect 
differing  from  other  magazine-guns,  which  can  only 
be  cocked  by  removing  the  hand  from   the  trigger. 

The  parts  are  all  large  and  strong,  and  can  be 
readily  removed  and  replaced  for  the  purpose  of 
cleaning  or  inspection.  The  magazine  is  so  arranged 
that  it  can  be  charged  while  the  breech  is  closed, 
thus  avoiding  the  entrance  of  dirt  into  the  working 
parts  of  the  gun.  The  gun  may  be  held  either  bar- 
rel up  or  reversed  for  this  purpose.  The  drawing 
exhibits  the  parts  with  the  nomenclature. 

To  charge  the  magazine.— Hold  the  arm  in  the  left 
hand,  the  butt-stock"under  the  right  arm.     Grasp  the 


Receiver. 
Guard. 

Carrier  Screw. 
Carrier  Screw. 
Trigger. 
Trigger  Pin. 
Carrier  Lever. 
Carrier  Lever  Spnngj 
Carrier  Lever  pin. 
Carrier  Lever  Screw. 
Carrier  Latch  Spring 
Carrier  Latch . 
Cul-off  Spring. 
Cut-ofl 

Cut  rff  Lever- 
Cut-off  Spring  Screw. 
Breech  Bolt. 
Extractor. 
Extractor  Bolt. 
Extractor  Spring. 
Locking  Bolt. 
Locking  Bolt  Spring. 
Locking  Bolt  Screw. 
Rear  Cap. 
Cocking  Lever. 
Cocking  Lever  Screw. 
Cocking  Lever  Link. 
Link  Screw. 
Link  Pin. 
Ham  mer. 
Rear  Cap  Screw. 
Firing  Pin. 
Hammer  Pin. 
Elector. 
Ejector  Screw. 
Main  Spring. 
Hammer  Fly. 


The  arm  is  always  left  at  lialf-cock,  and  the  lirccth  I  carlriilgc  between  the  thumb  and  the  forefinger  of 
locked  so  that  it  ciiiinot  be  jarred  open  and  the  cart-  [  right  hand,  and  press  it  forward,  liiillel  first,  into  the 
ridge  lost  out.  From  the  half-cock  it  can  be  brought  uiagazinc  with  the  end  of  the  Ihiiiiib,  which  mav  be 
to  the  fiill-cock  readily  and  ((uickly  while  the  arm  hehl  sideways  for  that  purpose.  The  magazine  may 
i8  being  carried  to  the  shoulder,  anil  without  remov-  1  be  charged  with  the  breech  either  open  or  closed,  and 


KEEP. 


IT)! 


KEHT  BUGLE. 


with  the  piit-nfT  lover  in  ittt  forwanl  or  Imckwiinl 
position  ;  but  it  in  more  convenient  to  do  so  with  tlie 
hreecli  rlnmtt  unci  the  eut-ofT  lever  liwh. 

To  loud  from  Ihe  miiLCii/ine.  First.  If  thearm  liiis 
been  lired  or  Ihe  hammer  is  down,  nnloek  and  draw 
bael<  tlie  bree<'h-l)olt  (iidi-hlii  and  willi  SNlll<'i(  nt  force 
to  brini;  it  eUnr  hiirk,  therel)y  raising;  and  loekin;^  the 


nnder  the  barrel,  and  is  operated  by  a  lever,  the 
liaekward  and  forwanl  movement  of  which  cocks  the 
liaininer,  opens  the  l)ree<h.  IhrowH  out  the  empty 
sliell,  and  lirin;^s  a  new  carlridtfe  into  place,  ready 
for  diseiiarjje.     Tlie  drawing  shows  the  action. 

The  following  may  be  noted  as  the  advantages  of 
this  arm  : — It  has  all  the  ref)uircments  requisite  to  u 


carrier  and  bringint;  up  a  cartridge.     Shove  the  bi>ll    lirst-class  inagazine-gun.     It  is  of  simple  construe- 
forward  and  lock  it ;  the  hammer  will  remain  at  half-    tiou,  and  has  fewer  parts  than  any  other  magazine- 


1,  recelver;2,  bottom  tang;  3,  levef ;  4,  breech-block;  ,5  top  cover;  (i,  ejector;  ' 
H,  main  spring;  13,  side-loadinf;  spiinE  cover,  iia  seen  from  the  back;  14,  tri"" 
spring;  17,  brcccli-block  piu;  IS,  currier-block  screw. 


carrier-block;  8,  bottom  plate;  10,  hammer; 
ir;  l.ij,  carrier-block  clamp;  16,  carrier-block 


cock.  If  it  is  desired  to  tire,  the  hammer  may  be  \  ritle  operated  by  a  lever.  It  is  strong.  The  parts 
brought  to  full-cock  while  the  arm  is  being  lifted  to  '  arc  of  such  si/.e'and  form  as  not  to  be  liable  to  break 
the  shoulder,  the  foretinger  remaining  on  the  trigger,  or  get  out  of  order.  It  is  made  of  the  best  material, 
Second.  If  the  arm  has  been  closed  and  left  at  iialf-  [  wrought  iron  or  steel,  as  is  most  suitable  for  each 
cock,  lower  the  hammer  and  then  proceed  as  before.  \  part.  It  is  very  easily  manipulated,  and  can  readily 
After  the  cartridge  has  been  transferred  from  the  |  be  understood'by  any  person  who  is  at  all  familiar 
magazine  to  the  chamber,  it  sliould  either  be  tired  |  with  fire-arms.  It  is  "safe,  accidents  from  premature 
or  removeil  from  the  gun  before  another  cartridge  is  I  di-scHarge  being  impossible.  The  resistance  to  the 
passed  through  tln'  carrier.  j    discharge  is  indirect  line  with  the  bore  of  the  barrel. 

To  use  the  arm  as  a  single  loader,  with  the  maga-  [  The  tiring  pin  cannot  reach  the  head  of  the  cartridge 
zine  in  reserve,  push  the  cut-otT  lever  forward.  This  iintil  the'breech  is  fully  closed— consequcutlv,  the 
cuts  off  the  passage  of  the  cartridge  from  the  mag- ,  piece  can  only  be  fired  when  the  breech  is  locked, 
azine.  The  arm  may  then  be  used  as  a  single  loader.  |  The  curtridge  umd  is  the  A5-calih(r  cfnter-fire.  United 
This  gun  is  so  made  as  to  be  left  at  half-cock  after  States  ODrernment  .itandard.  amtnining'iO grains  of 
loading;  but  if  it  is  preferred  to  have  it  left  at  full-  ixnrder  and  Ht)  grniiiHof  lead.  When  a  lighter  charge 
cock,  it  is  only  necessary  to  remove  the  hammer  is  desired,  the  United  States  carbine  cartridge— the 
fly.  No.  37.  which  is  let  into  the  tumbler  to  carry  the  same  length  as  the  above— but  loaded  with  only  55 
trigger  over  the  full-cock  notch.     See  .l/«^ff2/Hf-(/!/H.  I  grains  of"  powder,  may  be  used.     The  magazine  is 

KEEP.— In  media'val  fortification,  a  keep  was  the  |  charged  through  the  "side  of  the  receiver  when  the 


central  and  principal  tower  or  buililing  of  a  castle 
and  that  to  which  the  garrison  retired,  as  a  last  re 
sort,  when  the  outer  ramparts  had  fallen.  A  tine 
specimc'-i  of  the  ancient  keep  is  still  extant  amid  the 
ruins  of  the  Rochester  castle.  The  keep  was  simi- 
lar to  what  the  classical  ancients  called  the  citadel, 
inner  fort.  ^e&  Castle,  Fortification  aniX  Safety  l{e- 
douht. 

KEIR  METAX,— An  alloy  patented  in  England, 
which  ditTers  from  .iterm-metal  mainly  in  having  no 
'till.  This  alloy  consists  of  copper  100,  zinc  75, 
iron  10. 

KELT. — K  very  early  war-axe.  It  seems  to  have 
lieen  spiead  in  every  direction,  and  to  have  belonged 
to  no  country  in  particular.     It  was  also   called 'V/^ 

KENNEDY  RIFLE. -.V   novel  ritle  developed  and 


breech  is  closed,  and  the  rifle  can  be  used  as  a  single 
loader,  the  charged  magazine  being  held  in  reserve. 

The  arm  is  made  in  three  styles: — The  musket 
weighs  i)  lbs.  4  oz.  The  barrel  is  "33  inch.  It  carries 
when  loaded,  11  cartridges.  The  carbine  weisrhs  7 
lbs.  8  oz.  The  barrel  is  22  inch.  It  carries  when 
loaded,  7  cartridges.  The  spurting  rifle  weighs  9  to 
10  lbs.  The  barrel  is  38  inch.  It  carries  when  load- 
ed, 9  cartridires.     See  I'huenix  and  Whitney  liifle. 

KENT  BUGLE.— The  key-bugle  invented  by  Logier 
early  in  this  century,  and  named  after  the  buke  of 
Kent,  the  fi^ther  of  Queen  Victoria.  Ithassi.x  keys, 
and  is  the  predecessor  of  the  great  tribe  of  cornets. 
It  will  traverse  chromatically  a  compass  of  more 
than  two  octaves,  beginning  from  13  Hat  beneath  the 
stave  up  to  the  C  above,     "fhe  bugle  with  pistons  or 


introduced  by  the  Whiliuy  .Vrms  t'ompany.    It  is  a  |  with  cylinders  has  a  lower  compass  than  the  pre- 
repeating  or  magazine-ritle,  with  the  magazine  placed  :  ceding". 


KENTLEDGE. 


152 


EHEonrB. 


KENTLEDGE.— Old  cast-iron  articles  wliich  have 
become  uuserviceable,  such  as  condemned  guns,  shot 
and  shell,  etc. 

KERANA.— A  long. trumpet,  similar  in  shape  and 
size  to  the  speaking-trumpet.  The  Persians  use  it 
whenever  they  wish  to  make  any  extraordinary  noise, 
and  they  frequently  blow  it  with  hautboys,  kettle- 
drums, and  other  instruments,  at  retreat  or  sunset, 
and  two  hours  after  mid-niglit. 

KERN.— A  name  applied  formerly  to  Irish  and 
Gaelic  infantry  soldiers.  The  men  in  those  days 
were  armed  with  a  sword  and  a  dart  or  javelin, 
which  was  tied  to  a  small  cord,  so  that  after  they  had 
thrown  it  at  the  enemy  they  could  instantly  recover 
it.  and  use  it  in  any  way  they  thought  proper.  The 
javelin  was  called  '^kcne  which  is  also  the  Irish  for  a 
knife. 

KET'S  REBELLION. —  An  outbreak  which  took 
place  in  Eunland,  in  l.')4i),  \rader  the  leadership  of 
William  Ket,  a  tanner,  living  in  Wymondham,  Nor- 
folk. He  is  said  to  have  had  20.000  followers ;  but 
the  rising  was  suppressed  by  the  Earl  of  Warwick, 
after  an^engagement  in  which  more  than  2,000  of 
Insurgents  were  killed.  The  leader,  Ket,  with  others, 
suffered  death  on  the  gallows. 

KETTLE-DRUM. — 1."  A  drum  formed  by  stretching 
vellum  over  thecirctilar  edge  of  a  hemispherical  ves- 
sel of  brass  or  copper.  This  instrument,  which  gives 
forth  a  sharp  ringing  sound,  is  used  by  regiments  of 
cavalry  and  horse-artillery  in  lieu  of  the  ordinary 
cylindrical  drum,  which  would,  from  its  shape,  be 
inconvenient  on  horseback 

The  small  military  dnun  is  frequently  called  by 
this  name.  Tliey  are  still  used  in  pairs,  in  the  Eng- 
lish and  Prussian  armies,  and  elsewhere,  slung  on 
each  side  of  the  withers  of  a  cavalry-horse.     One 


i^== 


jiriim  is  tuned  to  the  keynote,  and  the  other  to  the 
tifth  of  the  key.  The  tuning  is  by  a  hoop  and  screws. 
Kettle-drums  are  not  usedln  the  United  States  mili- 
tary service,  but  are  much  used  in  orchestras  sup- 
ported upon  a  tripod,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  2. 
Kettle-drum,  as  applied  to  a  social  gathering,  orig- 
inated in  the  IJritish  army  in  India.  It  sometimes 
happened  in  the  emergencies  of  camp  life  that  in  an 
entertainment  given  by  officers  and  their  wives  there 
was  a  lack  of  "requisite  furniture,  and  the  heads  of 
kettle-drums  were  made  to  serve  in  place  of  tables 
to  hold  the  cups  of  tea.  So  by  metonymy  the  article 
used  gave  name  to  the  occasion  on  which  it  -vas 
useil.  The  name  <'ame  to  mean  an  informal  party, 
and  specilically  an  afternoon  party,  in  which  elabor- 
ate dress  and  costly  viands  gave  place  to  every-day 
attire  for  ladies  and  business  suits  for  gentlemen, 
with  very  simple  side-table  refreshments.  This  kind 
of  visit  \vas  introduc<Ml  into  Kngland  atatime  of  gen- 
eral linancial  depression  by  some  who  wished  to 
meet  their  frieiiiis  socially,  yet  could  not,  as  before, 
dress  expensively  and  entertain  sumptuously. 


KETTLE-DRUM  CART.— A  four-wheeled  carriage 
drawn  by  four  horses,  which  was  used  exclusively 
by  the  British  Artillery  as  a  pageant.  The  Ordnance 
flag  was  painted  on  the  fore  part,  and  the  drummer, 
with  two  kettle-drums,  was  seated,  as  in  a  chair  of 
state,  on  the  back  part.  This  cart,  which  is  finely 
engraved  and  richly  gilt,  has  not  been  in  the  field 
since  1743,  when  the  Kin^  was  present.  It  is  at  pres- 
ent kept  in  the  Tower  of  London. 

KETTLE-HAT.— A  cap  of  iron  worn  by  knights  in 
the  Jliddle  Ages. 

KEY.— 1.  A  bolt  used  on  artillery  carriages  to  se- 
cure cap-squares  and  for  analogous  purposes.  A  key- 
chain,  is  attached  to  the  key  to  prevent  it  from  being 
lost.  2.  A  common  heraldic  bearing  in  the  insignia 
of  sees  and  religious  houses — particularly  such  as 
are  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Peter.  Two  keys  in 
saltire  are  frequent,  and  kej's  are  sometimes  inter- 
laced or  linked  together  at  the  boirs — i.e. .rings.  Keys 
indorsed  are  placed  side  by  side,  the  wards  away  from 
each  other.  In  secular  Heraldry,  keys  sometimes 
denote  Office  in  the  State.     See  Key-point. 

KEY-POINT.— A  point  the  possession  of  which 
gives  the  control  of  that  position  or  country.  Great 
care  ntust  be  taken  to  always  direct  an  assault  upon 
the  key-point  of  the  position  in  order  that  the  main 
attack,  when  successful,  may  produce  a  lasting  bene- 
fit. When  about  to  commence  the  operations  of  a 
siege,  the  General  is  called  upon  to  decide  the  follow- 
ing :  1,  Which  part  of  the  position  is  easiest  to  carr}' ; 
2.  Which  part,carried,tgives  possession  of  the  rest;  or, 
which  part  is  the  key-point;  3.  Which  side  of  the  part 
selected  is  the  best  on  which  to  make  his  approaches ; 
and,  4.  Which  part  selected  would  be  the  best,  tak- 
ing into  consideration  the  establishment  of  his  de- 
pots and  lines  of  supply,  and  the  probabilities  of  an 
attempt  to  relieve  the  besieged.  These  questions  are 
partially  answered  before  the  posting  of  the  besieging 
army  is  completed,  as  it  would  be  bad  policy  to  have 
the  tr-jops  encamped  too  far  from  the  ground  where 
the  main  operations  of  the  siege  are  to  be  conducted. 
See  I'liiiit  of  Attnck. 

KEYSERLICKS. — A  name  commonlj'  applied  to  the 
Austrian  troops.  The  term  was  indeed  common 
among  the  British  soldiers,  when  they  did  duty  with 
the  Aiistrians,  and  invaded  France  in  1794.  See  Ini- 
peri(tlititti 

KHALASSIE. — An  Indian  sailor.  This  race  of  men 
come  chiefly  from  the  Chittagong  district.  Besides 
a  sea  life,  khalassies  take  service  on  shore,  and  form 
a  large  portion  of  the  native  establishment  attached 
to  arsenals  in  India,  bordering  on  the  seaside.  Dur- 
ing the  march  of  a  regiment  in  that  country,  they 
are  employed  in  looking  after  the  camp  equipage. 

KHAN. — A  title  of  Jlongolian  or  Tartar  Sovereigns 
and  Ijords.  A  Khanate  is  a  principality.  Khetgan 
means  "  Khau  of  Khans,"  but  has  seldom  been  ap- 
plied. The  word  Khan  is  probably  of  the  same  ori- 
gin as  King. 

KHEDIVE.— One  of  the  titles  of  the  Rviler  of  Egypt, 
a  triliutary  prince  of  the  Sublime  Porte,  who.  since 
1867,  has  exercised  absolute  power  within  his  own 
dominions.  The  first  Khedive  was  Ismail,  Sovereign 
of  Nubia,  Soudan,  Kordofan,  and  Darfour,  son  of 
Ibrahim  Pasha  (eldest  son  of  Mohammed  Alt  Pasha, 
founder  of  the  dynasty),  was  born  in  1830,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle.  Said  Pasha,  in  1863,  as  the  fourth 
Viceroy  of  Egypt,  He  traveled  through  the  Capitals 
of  Europe,  informing  himself  concerning  their  man- 
ners and  customs,  and  these  he  introduced  into  his 
own  dominions  on  his  return.  lie  fell  under  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  Sultan,  through  the  jealous  fears  of 
the  latter  regarding  Euro]n-an  ascendency  in  Egypt, 
but  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  him  important  con- 
cessions. By  a  firman  dated  May  21,  18(i(!.  he  gain- 
ed the  right  of  the  succession  in  the  direct  masculine 
line  in  his  branch  ;  by  that  of  ,Inne  8,  1867,  the  title 
Khedive,  or  Sovereign,  was  granted  him  ;  anil  by  the 
firman  of  Sept.  211,  1872,  he  olilained  the  right  to  in- 
crease his  army  and  navy  at  his  pleasure,  and  to  bor- 


KHODADAUD  SIRCAB. 


15^ 


KINO. 


row  money.  Fiimlly,  lio  wns  roiiocdod,  in  1H7I?,  Ilir 
rif^lit  to  coik'IikIi:  Irciilii'H  of  coiiimcrcc.  willi  llir  full 
iiiitonoriiyof  I  he  ail  mi  nisi  nil  iiii]  of  I  lie  Comilry.  Vcl 
(Irspilc  III!  Iliis,  tlir  Siilliiri  rclaiiicil  in  liis  liariilHllic 
ilispiisilioii  of  Die  (JoviTiimcnl,  in  Kirypl,  since,  in 
April,  1H7'.),  lie  proposeil  to  the  WesliTn  Powers  to 
,  dispose  Ismiiil  in  fnvor  of  liis  nnele,  Ilidim  I'asliii, 
the  rii^'hlful  heir.  This  proposition  was  not  receiv- 
cil  fuvorahly,  tlioiij;h  repealed  in  .lime,  and  1  hi' Sultan 
was  linally  induced  to  issue  a  lirman  ileposiiiL;  Isniad 
in  favor  of  his  son,  I'rince  .Moliammi'dTevlik.  This 
was  on  .lime  2li,  and  the  lirman  aliolished  that  of 
1MT;{,  and  deprived  the  Khedive  of  the  |io\ver  tocon- 
cluih^  treali<'s  with  Foreinii  I'owers,  and  to  maintain 
a  Nlandinnarmy.  Ismad  I'asha  aceordiiiLrly  quilliiiu; 
the  throne,  his  son  was  ])roelaiined  Khedive,  under 
the  title  i.f  Tcvlik  I, 

KHODADAUD  SIRCAR.— The  Covcrinnent  or  Kuler 
blessed  <ir  liehiv<'d  of  (ioil ;  it  was  a  lillc  assmned 
by  Tippoo  Sahib,  the  Sovereii;n  of  the  Kiiiijdom  of 
Mysort',  who  fell  in  (U'fense  of  his  Capital,  Serin;;- 
apatam.  when  it  was  slormeil.  May  4,  IT!)'.),  by  the 
Uritish  forces  under  Ijieutenant  (ieneral  llaiarri. 

KHOP.  -All  early  Kiryptian  iron  weapon,  about  G 
inches  lotiu;  and  roughly  formed,  from  stone,  in  the 
shape  nf  a  sceax. 

KHOUTTAR.  A  llimloo  weapon,  liaving  a  birge 
bl.iile  liki'  the  Ilalian  iini'lufe,  li\cd  on  to  a  S(|iiare 
liandle,  into  wdiich  the  hand  is  slipped,  and  thus  jiro- 
teetcd  as  far  as  the  wrisl.  Tliere  are  Kli'nittarn  in 
which  the  blade  is  divided  into  two  ])oinls.  but  they 
are  not  common.  Such  are  called  ser])ent-tonsue(l. 
KHYBER  PASS.— The  most  practicable  of  allopen- 
ings,  four  in  number,  I  lirough  tlie  Khyljcr  Mountains, 
and  the  only  one  by  which  caimoii  are  conveycil  he- 
tween  the  plain  of  P<'sliawur,on  the  riglit  bank  of  the 
upper  Indus,  and  thejilain  of  .Jelalabad.  in  northern 
Afghanistan.  It  is  ;!0  miles  in  lenglli,  liciiighere  and 
there  merely  a  narrow  ravine  between  almost  per- 
pendicular rocks  of  at  lestliOO  feet  in  height.  It  may 
be  said  to  have  lieen  the  key  of  the  adjacent  regions 
in  either  direction  from  the  days  of  Alexander  the 
Great  to  the  Afghan  Wars  ot  l)S;i!)^3,  (luring  which 
it  was  twice  forced  by  a  ISritish  army,  in  spite  of  an 
obstinate  defense  by  the  natives.  Tiie  Mrst  lighting 
in  tlie  Afghan  War  of  1878-79  was  in  forcing  an  en- 
trance into  this  pass,  over  which,  as  was  stipulated 
-in  the  conditions  of  peace,  the  Anglo-Indian  author- 
ities are  henceforth  to  have  full  control. 

KIBEE. — A  Haw  produced  in  the  bore  of  a  gnnl)y 
a  .shot  strikinir  against  it. 

KICKING-STRAP.— Astrap  used  indranglitto  con- 
trol a  violent  horse.  One  or  two  should  be  attached 
to  each  horse  battery.  It  is  fastened  to  the  shafts. 
and  passes  ovi'r  the  croup  of  the  horse,  thereby  pre- 
venting him  from  kicking. 

KIDifAPPERS.— A  name  formerly  applied  to  par- 
ties who  by  improper  means  decoyed  the  unwary 
into  the  army. 

KILLA. — The  Indian  term  for  castle,  fort,  or  fort- 
ress. The  Governor  or  t'ommaudaut  of  a  Killa  is 
known  as  KiUadar. 

KILLESE. — A  name  commonly  given  to  the  groove 
in  a  cross. bow. 

KILMAINHAM  HOSPITAL.— An  institution  near 
Dulilin  for  tlie  reception  of  woimdeil  and  pensioned 
soldiers.  U  was  originally  founded  by  King  Charles 
II.,  and  is  conducted  on  similar  principles  to  the  sis- 
ter Iiislituticm.  Chelsea  Hos]iital.  Kilmainham  Hos- 
pital is  maintained  liy  annual  Parliamentary  grant, 
and  provides  everything  necessary  for  the  comfort  of 
upw  ards  of  S'lO  veterans  and  otlieers.  The  General 
Commanding  the  Forces  in  Ireland  for  the  time  be- 
mg  \six  iiffifi'-i  the  Master  of  Kilmainham  Hospital, 
ami  has  his  residence  on  the  estate. 

KILN. — A  name  applied  to  various  kinds  of  fur- 
naces, ovens,  or  other  devices  made  of  stone.  l>rick, 
or  iron,  or  of  the  material  itself  to  be  operated  upon. 
Thev  mav  be  divided  into  intermittent  and  continu- 
ous, or  perpetual ;  or  into  f umace-Uilus,  oven-kilns, 


and  what  may  be  (ernii'd  mound-kilns,  such  as  are 
used  in  making  charcoal  ;  and  also  a  kind  whiih 
ari'  inlermecliate  between  oven  and  mound-kilns,  as 
certain  kinds  of  brick-kilns,  where  the  raw-brick  is 
a  part  of  the  kiln,  and  forms  a  Blrucliire  which  can- 
not be  strielly  called  an  oven.  'V\\i:  fn  man -kiln .  ii,r 
burning  limi-.stone,  may  be  of  an  intermittent  or  of 
a  perpetual  kind.  An  intermittent  kiln  is  one  in 
whi(  h  the  lire  is  let  to  go  out  after  the  charge  is 
burned  ;  a  continuous  kiln  is  one  which  Is  so  ar- 
raiigeil  that  the  charge  may  be  removed  and  a  fresh 
one  put  in  while  the  lire  is  kept  burning,  and  the 
furnace  kept  at  its  reiliicing  heat.  An  intermittent 
furnace-kiln  may  be  niadi'  of  stone  or  Ijriekof  an  oval 
form,  like  an  egg  standing  on  either  end.  That  form 
resemhrmg  an  egg  standing  on  its  larger  enrl  is  per- 
hajjs  the  most  common,  although  some  lime-kilns 
are  shaped  more  like  deep  bow  Is,  without  much  con- 
traction at  the  to|).  When^  wood  is  very  l)lentiful 
and  cheap,  and  the  lime  is  burned  for  agricultural 
])urposes.  so  that  ashes  is  ;i  desirable  ingredient,  a 
common  howl  sliajie  is  jierhaps  ])referable,  lie<'aiise 
it  is  readily  charged  with  both  limestone  and  wood, 
and  a  mass  of  wood  may  be  placed  upon  the  top  in 
addition  to  w  hat  is  used  in  the  charge,  by  which 
thorough  burning  will  be  secured.  In  a  furnace-kiln, 
a  grating  of  iron  is  jilaced  at  the  bottom,  or  an  arch 
of  open  brickwork,  and  then  the  charge  is  in!;<'nious- 
ly  ])laced.  lirst  with  fuel,  and  then  with  the  broken 
masses  of  limestone  in  such  a  manner  as  to  allow  the 
flame  to  pass  through  and  thoroughly  perform  the 
work  of  heating.  Tliese  kilns  may  he  from  10  to  30 
feet  high,  or  even  higher.  Intermittent  oval  kilns  are 
used  in  burning  Portland  and  other  kindsof  hydrau- 
lic cement,  and  they  are  40  to  ."jO  feet  high,  and  em- 
ploy coke  or  coal  for  fuel.  The  charge  is  usually 
composed  of  one  ))arl  of  coke  or  coal  and  two  parts 
of  raw  cement.  Tliere  arc.  however,  several  kindsof 
cement  which  do  not  reriuire  so  prolonged  high  heat 
as  Portland  cement,  and  these  might  be  burned  in  a 
kind  of  kiln  so  constructed  as  not  to  require  the  fire 
to  go  out  when  the  burne<l  contents  are  removed  so 
freiiuently.  These  kilns  are  cylindrical,  except  at 
the  bottom,  where  they  have  the  shape  of  an  inverted 
cone,  and  a  chamber  below  and  a  kind  of  spout  lead- 
ing into  it  from  the  bottom  of  the  cine,  so  that  the 
charge  when  burned  may  be  raked  down  from  time 
to  time  with  a  suitable  apparatus,  and  removed, 
while  it  may  be  renewed  at  the  top.  Cement-kilns 
should  be  lined  with  tire-lirick.  A  preferable  form 
of  continuous  kiln  is  one  in  which  the  kiln-cylinder 
is  charged  only  with  the  material  to  be  burned,  and 
a  current  of  flame  or  heated  gas  is  introduced  at  the 
sid<'  near  the  linttom.  The  lieat  thus  passing  up 
through  the  material  reduces  it  to  tl;e  proper  condi- 
tion, without  adding  any  por''on  of  the  ashes  of  the 
fuel  to  it. 

KILT  — A  dress  worn  by  men  living  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland,  andby  a  few  regiments  in  the  Brit- 
ish Army.  It  consists  of  a  loose  petticoat  extending 
from  the  waist  to  the  knees.  Tlie  kilt  was  worn  1  y 
British  chiefs  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  7th  cen- 
tury; it  was  made  of  skin,  but  striped  kilts  were 
common,  and  it  is  said  that,  in  all  probability,  the 
Scottish  kilt  was  known  among  the  British  earlier 
than  is  generally  supposed,  from  the  inhabitants  of 
North  firitain  being  on  intimate  terms  with  their 
neighbors,  and  likely  to  have  assumed  the  dress. 

KING. — The  person  vested  with  supreme  power  in 
a  State.  According  to  feudal  usages  the  King  was 
the  source  from  which  all  command,  honor,  and 
authority  flowed;  and  he  delegated  to  his  followers 
the  power  by  which  they  exercised  subordinate  rule 
in  certain  districts.  The  Kingdom  was  divided  into 
separate  Baronies,  in  each  of  wdiich  a  Baron  ruled. 
Lord  both  of  the  lands,  which  he  held  under  the  ob- 
ligatiim  of  rendering  military  service  to  the  King,  and 
in  many  cases  also  of  the  people,  who  were  vassals 
of  the  soil,  and  his  liege  subjects.  In  modem  limes 
the  kingly  power  often  represents   only  a   limited 


KING-AT-ABMS. 


154 


KIT. 


measure  of  sovereignty,  various  constitutional  checks 
being  in  operation  in  different  countries  to  control 
the  royal  prerocative.  Tlie  King  may  succeed  to  the 
tlirone  by  descent  or  inheritance,  or  he  may  be  elect- 
ed by  tlie  suffrages  of  some  body  of  persons  selected 
out  of  the  nation,  as  was  the  case  in  Poland.  Even 
when  the  kingly  power  is  hereditary,  some  form  is 
gone  through  on  the  accession  ot  a  new  King  to  sig- 
nify a  recognition  by  the  people  of  his  right,  and  a 
claim  that  he  should  pledge  himself  to  perform  cer- 
tain duties,  accompanied  by  a  religious  ceremony, 
in  which  anointing  with  oil  and  placing  a  crown  on 
his  head  are  included  as  acts.  By  the  anointing  a 
certain  sacredness  is  supposed  to  be  thrown  round  the 
roj-al  person,  while  the  coronation  symbolizes  his 
supremacy.  There  is  now  no  very  clearly  marked 
distinction  between  a  King  and  an  Emperor.  A 
Queen-regnant  or  Princess  wlio  has  inherited  the 
sovereign  power  in  countries  where  female  succes- 
sion to  the  throne  is  recogni'/.ed,  possesses  all  the  po- 
litical rights  of  a  King. 

In  England  it  is  said  that  the  King  never  dies, 
which  means  that  he  succeeds  to  the  throne  immedi- 
ately on  the  death  of  his  predecessor,  without  the 
necessity  of  previous  recognition  on  the  part  of  the 
people.  .  He  makes  oath  at  his  coronation  to  govern 
according  to  law,  to  cause  justice  to  be  adminis- 
tered, and  to  maintain  the  Protestant  Church.  He  is 
the  soiirce  from  which  all  hereditary  titles  are  de- 
rived, and  he  nominates  Judges  and  other  Officers 
of  State.  Officers  of  the  Ami}'  and  Navy,  Governors 
of  Colonies,  Bisliops,  and  Deans.  He  must  concur 
in  every  legislative  enactment,  and  sends  Embassies, 
makes  treaties,  and  even  enters  into  wars,  without 
consulting  Parliament.  The  royal  person  is  sacred, 
and  the  King  cannot  be  called  to  account  tor  any  of 
his  acts ;  but  he  can  only  act  politically  by  his 
Ministers,  who  are  not  protected  by  the  same  irre- 
sponsibility. A  furtlier  control  on  the  royal  pre- 
rogative is  exercised  by  the  continual  necessity  of 
applying  to  Parliament  for  supplies  of  money,  which 
practically  renders  it  necessarj'  to  obtain  the  sanc- 
tion of  that  body  to  ever}'  important  measure.  The 
crown  now  in  use  as  the  emblem  of  sovereignty  differs 
considerably  inform  indifferent  countries  of  modern 
Europe ;  but  in  all  cases  it  is  distinguished  from  the 
coronets  of  the  nobilitv  in  being  closed  above. 

KING-AT-ARMS—KING-OF-AEMS.— The  principal 
Heraldic  Officer  of  any  country.  There  are  four 
Kings-at-Arms  in  England,  named  respectively  Gar- 
ter, Clarencieux,  Norroy,  and  Bath,  but  the  first  three 
only  are  members  of  the  College  of  Arms. 

Garter  Principal  King-of-Arms  was  instituted  by  ! 
Henry  V.,  1417  a.  d.,  for  the  service  of  the  Order  of 
the  Garter.  His  duties  include  the  regulation  of  the 
arms  of  peers  and  tlie  Knights  of  the  Bath.  In  the 
capacity  of  King-of-Arms  of  the  Order  of  the  Gar- 
ter, he  has  apartments  witliin  the  Castle  of  Windsor, 
and  a  mantle  ot  blue  satin,  with  the  arms  of  St.  George 
on  the  left  shoulder,  besides  a  badge  and  scepter. 
His  official  costume  as  Principal  King-of-Arms  of 
England  is  a  surcoat  of  velvet,  richly  embroidered 
with  the  arms  of  the  Sovereign,  a  crown,  and  a  col- 
lar of  SS.  Tlie  insignia  of  this  office  arc  borne  by  Gar- 
ter impak'd  witli  his  paternal  arms,  the  latter  on  the 
dexter  side  of  the  shield.  These  are  argent.  St. 
George's  cross,  on  a  chief  gules  a  ducal  coronet  en- 
cir<?led  with  a  garter,  between  a  lion  of  England  on 
the  dexter  side  and  a  fleur-de-lis  on  tlie  sinister,  all 
or. 

Clarencieux  and  Norroy  are  Provincial  Kings-of- 
Anns,  with  jurisdiction  to  the  South  and  North  of 
the  Trent  res|ieclively.  They  arrange  a  register,  alone 
or  conjointly  with  (iarler,  the  arms  of  all  lielow  the 
rank  of  llie  peerage.  The  odicial  arms  of  Clarencieux 
are  argent  St.  George's  cro.ss,  on  a  chief  gules  a  lion 
of  England  ducally  crowned  or.  Those  of  Norroy 
are  argent  St.  George's  cross  on  a  chief  per  pale  az- 
ure and  gules  a  lion  of  England  ducally  crowned 
between  a  fleur-de-lis  on  I  lie  dexter  side,  and  a  key. 


wards  in  chief,  on  the  sinister,  all  or.  Both  Provincial 
Kings  have  a  crown  collar  and  surcoat.  The  crown 

is  of  silver  gilt. 

The  crown  of  a  King-of-Arms  is  of  silver  gilt,  and 
consists  of  a  circle  inscribed  with  Ihe  v/OTds,Miiierire 
mei  Deusseciindum  magmim  mUericordlam  tuam,  sup- 
porting 16  oak  leaves,  each  alternate  leaf  higher  than 
the  rest.  Within  the  crown  is  a  cap  of  crimson  sat- 
in turned  up  with  ermine,  and  surmounted  by  a  tas- 
.sel  wrought  of  gold  silk.  Kings-ofArms  were  for- 
merly entitled  to  wear  their  crowns  on  all  occasions 
when  the  Sovereign  woreliis;  now  they  assume  them 
only  when  peers  put  on  their  coronets.  The  installa- 
tion of  Kings-at-Arms  anciently  took  place  with  great 
state,  and  always  on  a  Sunday  or  Festival-day,  the 
ceremony  being  performed  by  the  King,  the  Earl 
Marshal,  or  some  other  person  duly  appointed  by  roy- 
al warrant. 

Bath  King-of-Arms,  though  not  a  member  of  the 
College,  takes  precedence  next  after  Garter.  His 
office  was  created  in  173.5  for  the  service  of  the  Order 
of  the  Bath.  On  Jan.  14,  1726,  he  Avas  constituted 
Gloucester  King-of-Arms  (an  office  originally  created 
by  Richard  III.,  in  whose  reign  it  also  became  ex- 
tinct), and  principal  Herald  of  Wales.  He  was  at  the 
same  time  empowered,  either  alone  or  jointly  with 
Garter,  to  grant  arms  to  persons  residing  within  the 
principality. 

The  chief  Heraldic  Officer  for  Scotland  is  called 
Lyon  King-of-Arms,  who  since  the  union  has  ranked 
next  to  Garter.  His  title  is  derived-from  the  lion 
rampant  in  the  Scottish  royal  insignia,  and  he  holds 
his  office  immediately  from  the  Sovereign,  and  not 
as  the  English  King-at-Arms,  from  theEarl  Marshal. 
His  official  costume  includes  a  crimson  velvet  robe 
embroidered  with  the  royal  arms,  a  trii)le  row  of  gold 
chains  round  the  neck  with  an  oval  gold  medal,  with 
the  royal  arms  on  one  side  and  St.  Andrew's  cross 
on  the  other ;  and  a  baton  of  gold  enameled  green, 
powdered  with  the  badges  of  the  Kingdom.  His 
crown  is  of  the  same  form  with  the  imperial  crown 
of  the  Kingdom,  but  not  set  with  stones.  Before  the 
Hevolution  he  was  crowned  b}'  the  Sovereign,  or  his 
Commissioner,  on  entry  on  office. 

There  is  one  King-of-Arms  in  Ireland,  the  Ulster. 
In  the  14th  century  there  existed  a  King-of-Arms 
called  Ireland,  but  the  office  seems  to  hav-e  become 
extinct,  and  Edward  VI.  created  Ulster  to  supply  the 
deficiency.  His  arms  are  argent,  St.  George's  cross, 
upon  a  chief  gules  a  lion  between  a  harp  and  a  port- 
cullis, all  or.  The  royal  ordinance  relative  to  the  Or- 
der of  St.  Patrick,  issued  May  17. 1833,  declares  that 
in  all  ceremonials  and  assemblies  Ulster  King-of-Arms 
shall  have  place  immediately c/to' the  Lj'on.  See 
Herald. 

KINK. — A  twist  in  a  rope  or  cord,  caused  by  the 
tightness  of  the  coil,  aud  a  relaxation  of  pressure  in 
the  direetiim  of  its  length.  The  best  rope,  however, 
rarely  kinks.  In  imcoiling  a  new  coil  of  rope,  pass 
the  end  at  the  core  to  the  opposite  side  and  draw  it 
out;  the  turns  of  the  rope  will  then  run  out  witliout 
kinking. 

KIKK  RIFLE. — A  breech-ioading  small-arm  having 
a  fixed  cliamlier  closed  by  a  movable  breech-lilock, 
which  rotates  aliout  a  horizontal  axis  at90°  to  the  axis 
of  the  barrel,  lying  Iielnw  the  axis  of  the  barrel  and 
in  front — being  moved  from  below  by  a  lever. 

This  piece  is  a  modification  of  the  well-known 
Spencer  repeating  rifie,  contaiuiug  in  an  unwieldy 
butt-stock,  six  magazine  tubes  instead  of  the  single 
one  usually  carried.  These  are  connected  on  a  cen- 
tral spindle  and  revolved  into  place  by  hand. 

KISSELBACHES. — A  name  commonly  applied  to  the 
soldiers  of  India. 

KIT. — 1.  A  cement  for  stuffing  canvas  to  place  over 
tlie  vents  of  carcasses  to  keep  out  the  damp.  2.  In 
military  language,  the  equipment  in  necessaries, 
such  as  shirts,  boots,  brushes,  etc.,  of  a  soldier,  but 
not  applicable  to  bis  uniform,  arms,  or  accouter- 
ments.     Formerly,  a  higli  bounty   was  given,  and 


KITCHEN  CAKT. 


155 


KNIGHTS. 


then  severely  cneroacherl  upon,  by  nialfinc;  the  re 
emit  pay  fur  his  l<it.  Tlir  fiilrcr  iiriiicipli:  is  ritjvv 
adoplcil  of  issulni;  a  free  kil  Id  ciicli  rccnjil,  with  a 
BinalhT  ))ounty.  Tlic  soldier  has  still  to  rcjilacc  nc- 
cessarics,  worn  out  or  lost,  at  his  own  expense,  liut 


performanre  of  certain  ciiiiies,  aniouL'  others  to  at- 
tend tlieir  Soverei^'ii  or  Feudal  Superior  on  Iiorst- 
liaik  in  lime  of  war.  The  institution  of  knifrht- 
hood,  as  eonfemil  hy  investiture,  an<i  with  certain 
oath   and   ceremonies,  arose   f,'rafliuilly    throu;,'liout 


he  ohtains  the  articles  at  wholesale,  and  very  low  :  Kurope   as  an  adjunct  of  the  feudal  system      The 
prices.     As  these  necessaries  are  so  eli(-ai)ly  procur- |  character  of   the  knight  was  at   once  military  and 

religious.     The    ilefense   and  recovery    of   the  holy 
sepulcher,  and  the  prcjti'Ction  of  pilgrims,  were  the 


ed,  it  is  held  a  very  heavy  military  offense  to  make 
awav  with  llieni. 

KITCHEN  CART.— A  traveling-kitchen  to  accom- 
pany troops  in  the  field.  These  carts  are  usuall_v 
supplied   at  the  rate  of  one  to  a  liattalion   for   1000 


ohjeots  to  which,  in  the  early  times  of  the  institu- 
tion, he  especially  devoteil  liimself.  'i'he  system  of 
knight-service,  introduced  into  Kngland  hv'William 


soups.  They  shoidd  he  provi<led  with  boilers  a  la  ,  the  Conqueror,  empowered  the  King  or  even  a  Su- 
Pnpin  with  an  ulterior  fire-place.  These  constitute  !  perior  Lord  who  was  a  subject,  to  compel  every 
the  body  of  the  cart,  the  superior  jiart  of  wliicli  is  ,  holder  of  a  ci-rtain  extent  of  land,  called  a  KninhVH 


furnished  with  iilaiik  to  lie  used  as  a  table.  At 
the  e.\tremity  of  the  cart  there  are  two  foot-boards 
upon  which  the  cooks  may  rest  while  working  dur- 
ing the  march.  I'apin's  digester  is  essential  to  cook 
well  and  rapidly.  The  interior  arrangement  of  the 
fire-iilace  which  is  suited  to  baking  is  very  ecouom. 
ical  in  fuel.     8ee  TmivUii;/-kitrlieH. 

KLICKET.— A  small  post<'rn  or  gate  in  a  palisade 
for  the  jiassage  of  a  sallying  parly.  Also  written 
Kliiiht. 

KNAPSACK.— A  bag  of  canvas  or  skin,  containing 
the  soldier's  necessaries,  and  worn  suspended  by 
straps   between   the    shoulders.     Those  used   in  the 


';/I'Vh 

tcf.  to  become  a  ni(-mber  of  the  knightly  order  ;  his 
investiture  being  accounted  proof  that  he  possessed 
tlie  recpiisite  knightly  arms,  and  was  sufliciently 
trained  in  their  use.  'The  "  Statute  of  Knights,"  of 
the  first  year  of  Edward  II.,  regulating  the  causes 
that  were  to  be  held  valid  to  excuse  a  man  from 
knightly  service,  sliows  that  in  the  14th  century  the 
knightly  office  was  not  always  eagerly  coveted;  yet 
its  social  dignity  was  very  considerable,  for  even 
Dukes,  if  not  admitted  into  the  order,  were  obliged 
to  yield  precedence  in  any  royal  pageant  or  piililic 
ceremony.  In  time  of  war,  each  knight  was  bound 
to  attend  the  king  for  40  days,  computed  from  the 
day  when  the  enemy  arrived  "in  the  country.  After 
the  long  war  between  France  and  England,  it  be- 
came the  practice  for  the  Sovereign  to  receive 
money  compensations  from  subjects  who  were  un- 
willing to  receive  knighthood,  a  system  out  of  which 
gri'W  a  series  of  grievances,  leading  eventuallv  to 
the  total  abolition  of  knight-service' in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II. 

Knighthood,  originally  but  a  military  distinction, 
came,  in  the  16th  century,  to  be  occasionally  con- 
ferred on  civilians  as  a  reward  for  valuable  services 
rendered  to  the  Crown  or  communitv.  The  first 
civil  knight  in  England  was  sir  Williain  Walworth, 
Lord  Mayor  of  Loudon,  who  won  that  distinction 
by  slaying  the  rebel  ^\'n\  Tyler  in  jireseuee  of  the 
King.  Since  the  abolition  of  the  knight-service, 
kiiiglitliood  has  been  conferred  without'any  regard 
to  ])roperty,  as  a  mark  of  the  Sovereign's  es'teem.  or 
a  reward  for  services  of  any  kind,  civil  or  military. 
,  In  recent  times  it  has  been  bestowed  at  least  as  often 
_  _  "  I  on   scholars,    lawyers,   artists,     or   citizens,    as  on 

British  army  are  ordinarily  of  black  painted  canvas  ;  [  soldiers,  and  in  many  cases  for  no  weiirhtier  service 
but  some  other  nations,  as  the  Swiss,  make  them  of  ;  than   carr)-ing  a  congratulatory  address  to   Court. 


thick  goat-skiu.  dressed  with  the  hair  on.  Thi 
knapsack  affords  by  far  the  easiest  way  of  carrying 
light  personal  luggage  during  a  march  or  walking 
tour. 

KNEBELSPIESS. — A  German  lance  used  about  the 
beiriiiuiu;;-  of  the  Dth  centurv. 

KNIGHT  BACHELOR.  'V\w  lowest  grade  of  kniglit- 
liooil,  now  only  conferred  in  the  I'liiled  Kiiig<loiii. 
Originally,  like  all  kniglilliooil.  a  military  distinc- 
tion, knighthood  of  this  description  came  to  be  often 
bestowed  on  civilians,  and  in  recent  times  it  has 
frequently  been  \  conferred  for  no  weightier  ser- 
vice than  carrying  a  congratulatory  address  to  C'ourt. 
It  is  generally  couferred  by  tlie  Sovereign  by  a  ver- 
bal declaration  accompanic'd  with  the  imi>ositiou  of 
the  sword,  and  without  any  patent  or  i list  rumen t.  The 
person  who  is  to  receive  the  honor  kneels  down  b<'- 
fore  the  Sovereign,  who  touches  him  on  the  shoulder 
with  a  naked  sword,  saying,  in  French:  "  Soh  ehev. 
alier  nu  nom  dr  Dicii  "  (He  a  knight  in  God's  name), 
and  then  adds  :  "  Rise.  Sir  A.  I?."  In  exceptional 
cases,  persons  have^beeu  made  Knights  Bachelor  by 
patent.  The  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland  oecasiou- 
allv  exercises  a  riLdit  of  conferring  kniirlithood. 

KNiaHT- ERRANT.—  A  wandering  knight ;  or  any 
knight  who  traveleil  in  search  of  adventures,  for  the 
purpose  of  exliibitiiig  military  skill,  prowess  and  gen- 
erosity.    See  Knighlx. 


The  ceremonies  practiced  in  co'nferring  knigl*tliood 
have  varied  at  different  periods.  In  general,  fast- 
ing and  bathing  were  in  early  times  necessary  pre- 
paratives. In  the  nth  century,  the  creation  of  a 
knight  was  preceded  by  solemn  confession,  and  a 
mklnight  vigil  in  the  church,  and  followed  by  the 
reception  of  the  Eucharist.  The  new  knight  offered 
his  sword  on  the  altar,  to  signify  his  devotion  to  the 
Church,  and  determination  to  lead  a  holy  life.  The 
sword  was  redeemed  in  a  sum  of  money",  had  a  be- 
nediction pronounced  over  it,  and  was  girded  on  by 
the  highest  ecclesiastic  present.  The  title  was  con- 
ferred by  binding  the  sword  and  spurs  on  the  can- 
didate, after  which  a  blow  was  dealt  him  on  the 
cheek  or  shoulder,  as  the  last  alTront  which  he  was 
to  receive  unrequited.  He  then  took  an  oath  to  pro- 
tect the  distressed,  maintain  right  against  miirht, 
and  never  by  word  or  deed  to  stain  his  character  as 
a  knight  or"  a  Christian.  A  knight  might  be  de- 
graded for  the  infringement  of  any  part  of  his  oath 
(an  event  of  very  rare  occurence),  in  which  case  his 
spurs  were  chopped  off  with  a  hatchet,  his  sword 
broken,  his  escutcheon  reversed,  and  some  religious 
observances  were  added,  during  which  each  piece  of 
armor  was  taken  off  in  succession,  and  cast  from  the 
recreant  knight. 

It  has  been  said  that  knighthood  could  originally 
he  conferred  by  any  person  of  knightly  condition, 

Im  1  t       >f     Cl\  t\\.\     Kl.rlit         *n        Ln.-.*^..-     I*      ...»  »        ^ 1.. •_;_* 3 


KNIGHTS.— Originally  Men-at-Arius  bound  to  the  ,  but  if  so,  the  right  t"o  bestow  it  was^early  restricted 


KNIGHT  SERVICE. 


156 


SNIGHTS-TEMPLAB. 


to  persons  of  rank,  and  afterwards  to  the  Sovereign 
or  his  representative,  as  the  Commander  of  anArm}-. 
In  England  the  Sovereign  now  bestows  knighthood 
by  a  verbal  declaration,  accompanied  with  a  simple 
ceremony  of  imposition  of  the  sword,  and  without 
any  patent  or  written  instrument.  In  some  few  in- 
stances, knighthood  has  been  conferred  by  patent, 
•when  the  persons  knighted  could  not  conveniently 
come  into  the  presence  of  royalty,  as  in  the  case  of 
Governors  of  Colonies,  or  other  persons  occupying 
prominent  situations  abroad.  The  Lord  Lieutenant 
of  Ireland  also  occasionally,  but  rarely,  exercises  a 
•dfll'gated  power  of  conferring  knighthood.  The 
monosyllable  "  Sir  "  is  prefixed  to  the  Christian  names 
of  knights  and  baronets,  and  their  wives  had  the 
lesjal  designation  of  "  Dame,"  wMiich  in  common  in- 
tercourse becomes  "Lady."  Persons  wlio  arc  simply 
knights  without  belonging  to  any  order  are  called 
in  England,  knights  hnchelors.  a  name  probably  cor- 
rupted from  lias  checalier.  Knighthood  of  this  kind 
is  now  only  conferred  in  Great  Britain.  A  degree  of 
knighthood  called  banneret  formerly  existed  in  Eng- 
land and  France,  which  was  given  on  the  field  of  bat- 
tle in  reward  for  the  performance  of  some  heroic  act. 
For  the  mode  in  which  that  dignity  was  conferred, 
see  Banneeet.  No  knight-banneret  has  been  created 
m  the  field  since  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  when  that 
honor  was  bestowed  on  one  Sir  John  Smith,  for  res- 
cuing the  royal  standard  from  the  hands  of  the  reb- 
els. George"  III.  twice  conferred  the  title  on  occa- 
sion of  a  review,  but  the  proceeding  was  considered 
irregular,  and  the  rank  of  the  knights  not  generally 
recognized.  The  form  of  helmet  which  the  require- 
ments of  the  later  Heraldry  have  appropriated  to 
knights,  entitling  them  to  place  it  over  their  arms, 
is  full-faced,  of  steel,  decorated  with  bars,  and  with 
the  visor  a  little  open.  For  the  different  orders  of 
knighthood,  see  separate  articles,  under  their  appro- 
priate headings,  in  this  work. 

KNIGHT-SERVICE.— A  tenure  of  lands  held  by 
knights  on  condition  of  performing  military  service. 
It  was  abolished  in  the  time  of  Charles  II.  of  Eng- 
lanil.     Sec  KnighU. 

KNIGHTS  TEMPLAR. — A  celebrated  Religious  and 
Mditary  Order,  founded  at  Jerusalem  in  the  begin- 


ning of  the  12tli  century,  by  Hugues  de  Paganes 
quired  from  the  Ahbot  and  Canons  of  the  Church 
and  Convent  of  tbe  Temple,  whence  the  Order  ob- 
tained the  name  of  the  "Poor  soldiers  of  the  Tem- 
ple of  Solomon,"  afterward  abbreviated  into  Tem- 
plars. The  knights  were  bound  by  their  rule  to 
hear  the  holy  office  every  day,  or  if  prevented  Ijy 
their  military  duties,  to  say  a  certain  number  of 
paternosters  instead :  they  were  to  abstain  from 
flesh  four  days  in  the  week,  and  from  eggs  and  milk 
on  Fridays.  They  might  have  three  horses  and  an 
esquire  each,  but  were  forbidden  to  hunt  or  fowl. 
In  the  earlier  period  of  their  history,  tl)e  Templars 
made  a  great  show  of  poverty,  contrasting  much 
with  tlieir  later  condition.  After  the  conquest  of 
Jerusalem  l5y  thf-  Saracens,  they  spread  over  Eu- 
rope ;  their  -valor  became  everywhere  celebrated ; 
immense  donation!;  in  money  and  land  were  show- 
ered on  them;  and  members  of  the  most  distin- 
guished families  thought  themselves  honored  by  en- 
rolment in  the  Order.  In  every  country  where  they 
existed,  thev  had  their  Governor,  called  the  Master 
of  the  Temple  or  of  the  Militia  of  the  Temple.  The 
Templars  had  settlements  in  England  from  an  early 
period.  The  first  was  in  London,  on  the  site  of 
Southampton  Buildings,  Holborn ;  but  from  1185 
their  principal  seat  was  in  Fleet  Street,  still  known 
as  the  Temple.  The  Round  Church  which  bears 
their  name  was  dedicated  by  Heraclius  in  1185. 

The  Templars  were  at  first  all  la3Tncn  and  of  noble 
birth.  Pope  Alexander  III.,  however,  in  1162, author- 
ized the  admission  of  spiritual  persons  not  bound  by 
previous  vows,  as  Chaplains  to  the  Order,  who  were 
not  required  to  adopt  the  military  vows.  A  third 
class  was  afterward  introduced,  consisting  of  laymen 
not  of  noble  birth,  who  entered  as  serving  brothers, 
some  of  them  being  attendants  on  the  knights,  and 
others  exercising  trades  in  the  houses  or  lands  of  the 
Order.  Eventually,  many  persons  became  affiliated 
members  without  taking  the  vows,  for  the  sake  of  the 
protection  afforded  them.  As  the  power  and  pros- 
perity of  the  Templars  increased,  so  did  their  luxury, 
arrogance,  and  other  vices,  which  gave  the  French 
Kings  pretext  for  endeavoring  to  suppress  them, 
and  lay  hold  of  their  possessions.  Accusations,  many 


A  *  ^ 


Reiiulnr  .Jewels — Knights  'remjihir. 
Gcoffroy  de  St.  Omer,  and  seven  other  French  I  of  which  were  absurd  and  incredible,  were  brought 
knigiits  for  the  protection  of  the  Holy  Sepulchcr,  against  them  by  two  members  of  their  own  body, 
and  of  Pilgrims  resorting  thither.  Baldwin  II.,  King  I  fliiir  principal  enemy  was  Philippe  IV.  of  France, 
of  Jerusalem,  bestowed  on  this  order  tbeir  tirsl  place  j  wlio  induced  Pope  Clement  V.  to  accede  to  a  scheme 
of  residence;    and  an   additional  building  was  ac- 1  by  which  the  whole  members  of  the  Order  were  seiz- 


KNOTS. 


157 


KNOTS. 


od  nnrt  imprisonert,  tlioir  lands  oonflsofttcd,  andmnny 
of  Ihciii  liicil.  {■(iiiviclcci,  1111(1  cxcciilcil  fcir  caiiilal 
(Tillies.  'I'lic  Kiij^lisli  'rcMiplars  wcri'  arri-slcd  liy  coiii- 
niaiiil  iif  Kdward  II.,  ami  a  t'ouncil  licld  in  lyondon 
in  lliO!)  having  coiiviclcd  llicm  (if  various  criTiics. 
nio.sl  of  which  were  probably  imaf;inary,  the  Kin;; 
seized  their  poBscHsions.  In  i;!13  the  whole  Order 
throiiujliout  KuroiK'  was  Huppressed  by  the  Coiinei! 
ol  Vieiiiie,  and  its  properly  bestowed  ou  the  l\nit,dits 
of  SI.  John,  to  wliieli  latter  Order  their  KiiKlish  po.s- 
sessioiis  were  formally  transferred  by  a  Statute  of 
Edward  II.  in  Vi'Xi.  The  habil  of  the  Templars  was 
white,  with  a  red  cross  of  eij,dit  points  of  the  Maltese 
form  worn  on  the  left  shoulder.  Their  war-cry  was 
"  Beau  S('anl-,"  and  their  banner,  which  bore  the 
game  name,  was  jiartcd  jier  fess  sable  and  ariient. 
They  also  displayed  above  their  lances  a  white  banner 
changed  with  the  Cross  of  the  Order.  Tlicir  badges 
were  the  AgniiK  Dii,  and  a  representation  of  two 
Kiiii^lils  mounted  on  om^  horse — indicative  of  the 
orifiiiinl  poverty  of  the  Order. 

KNOTS. — 1.  knots  of  dilferent  kinds  arc  borne  by 
dilTereiil  families  as  heraldic  badges,  and  are  occa- 
sionally introduced  as  charges  in  sliields.  Theforms 
of  some  of  them  ajipear  to  be  sueijested  by  the  ini- 
tial Idler  of  the  name  or  title  of  the  bearer.  In  the 
Wake  and  Ormonde  knot  it  is  not  ditticult  to  trace  a 
11' and  two  Os.  The  liourchicr  knot,  as  seen  on  the 
tomb  of  Archbishop  Uoiirchicr.al  Canterbury,  bears 
a  resemblance  to  two  7/s,  and  the  StatTord  knot  to 
two  <Sa.  The  Lacy  knot  contains  wittiin  it  a  rebus 
on  the  four  letters  of  the  name  Lacy. 

2.  A  twist  or  loop  in  a  rope  or  cord,  so  made  that 
the  motion  of  one  piece  of  the  line  over  the  other 
shall  be  stopped.  The  knot  owes  its  power  of  pass- 
ive resistance  to  the  friction  of  the  rope.  The  uses 
of  knots  are  infinite;  in  the  commonest  occasions  of 
life  one  or  two  simple  knots  are  indispensable ;  in 
building,  mining,  and  moving  ordnance,  knots  of 
curious  form  are  employed;  wdiilc  on  .sUiplioard, 
they  may  be  nunihercd  by  the  dozen,  and  each  is 
appropriated  to  a  speeilic  duty.  The  following  are 
the  more  important  knots  employed  in  mechanical  '. 
maneuvers  : 

Tirii  half  /titchex — Pass  the  end  of  a  rope  round 
the  standing  part  and  bring  it  up  thr«ugli  the  bight. 
This  is  a  iialf  hitch.  Take  it  round  again  in  the 
same  manner  for  two  half  hitches. 

A  clfjre  hitch — Pass  the  end  of  a  rope  round  a  spar, 
over,  and  bringing  it  under  and  round  behind  its 
standing  part,  over  the  spar  again  and  up  through  its 
own  ])art.  It  may  then,  if  necessary,  be  stopped  or 
hitched  to  its  own  part;  the  only  difference  between 
two  half  hitches  and  a  clove  hitch  being  that  one  is 
hitched  roimd  its  own  standing  ]iart  and  the  other 
is  hitched  round  a  spar   or  another  rope. 

Rmtnd  turn  and  ttco  half  hitches — Take  a  round 
turn  around  the  stakes  or  posts,  and  secure  the  end 
by  two  half  iiitchesaround  the  standing  part.  This  is 
useful  in  securing  the  guys  of  the  gin  to  the  stakes. 

.1  hinclineknttt — Take  the  end  of  a  rope  in  your  right 
hand  and  the  standing  part  in  your  left:  lay  the  end 
over  the  standing  part,  and  with  the  left  hand  make 
a  bight  of  the  standing  part  over  it ;  take  the  end 
under  the  lower  standing  part  up  over  the  cross,  and 
down  through  the  bight.  This  is  very  useful  in  form- 
ing a  temporary  eye  at  the  end  of  a  rope. 

S(ji/<i)'e  knot — Take  an  overhand  knot  round  a  spar; 
take  an  end  in  each  hand  and  cross  them  on  the  same 
side  of  the  standing  part  upon  which  they  came  up; 
pa.ss  one  end  round  the  other,  and  bring  it  up  through 
the  bight.  This  is.  sometimes  called  a  rcc/Xvi"?.  If 
the  ends  are  crsssed  the  wrong  waj-,  sailors  call  it  a 
granny  knot. 

A  timhir  hitch — Take  the  end  of  a  rope  rotmd  the 
spar,  lead  it  under  and  over  the  standing  part,  and 
pass  two  or  more  round  turns  around  its  own  part; 
pass  the  first  turn  oci  r  the  end  part  instead  of  through 
the  bight,  as  in  a  half  hitch.  Used  in  securing  the 
ends  of  the  trace-ropes  to  the  maneuvering  bolts. 


A  rnllinff  hitch— Psifn  the  end  of  tlie  rope  round 
a  spar;  lake  il  round  the  second  time,  nearer  to  the 
standing  jiart;  then  carry  it  across  the  standing  part, 
over  ami  round  the  spar  and  up  through  the  bight. 
A  strap  or  a  tail-block  is  fastened  to  a  ropi^  by  this 
hitch.  Used  in  shifting  the  fall  from  one  end  of  the 
windlass  to  the  other. 

A  blackirnll  hiU'h — Form  the  bight  by  putting  the 
end  of  a  rope  across  and  under  the  standing  part; 
put  the  hook  of  a  tackle  through  it,  the  center  of 
the  bight  resting  against  the  back  of  the  hook,  and 
the  end  jammed  in  the  bight  of  the  hook  by  the 
standing  part  of  the  rope. 

A  cntn-pair — Take  a  large  bight  in  the  rope,  and 
spread  it  open,  putting  one  hanilat  one  part  of  the 
bight  and  the  other  at  the  other,  and  letting  tlio 
standing  part  and  end  come  together;  turn  the  bight 
over  from  you  three  times,  and  a  small  bite  will  be 
formed  in  each  hand;  bring  the  two  small  bites  to- 
gether, and  jiut  the  hook  of  a  tackle  through  them 
both.  This  is  very  useful  in  applying  a  purchase  or 
tackle  to  the  fall  of^another. 

A  tlifitt  btnd,  (weavers  knot) — Pass  the  end  of  a 
rope  up  through  the  bight  of  another,  round  both 
parts  of  the  other,  and  under  its  own  part. 

Ca/rrirk  bend— Yorin  a  bight  in  the  rope  and  lay 
the  end  across  the  standing  part;  stick  the  bight  of 
another  rope  up  through  the  loop  thus'  formed,  and 
carry  the  end  over  the  end  of  the  first  rope  under 
the  standing  part,  and  through  the  loop  formed  by 
its  ownbigut;  stop  each  end  to  its  own  standing- 
part. 

Fisherman's  bend  (anchor  knot)— Take  two  turns 
around  the  gun-sling  or  spar  with  the  end  of  the 
rope ;  hitch  the  end  around  the  standing  part  and 
through  both  turns,  and  then  pass  the  end  over  the 
second  and  under  the  first  tuni. 

A  sheep  shank — Make  two  long  bights  in  a  rope 
which  shall  overlay  one  another ;  take  a  half  hitch 
over  the  end  of  each  bight  with  the  standing  part 
which  is  next  to  it. 

A  marlinspike  hitch. — Lay  the  marlinspike  upon 
the  seizing  stuff,  and  bring  the  end  over  the  stand- 
ing part  so  as  to  form  a  bight;  lay  this  bight  back 
over  the  standing  part,  putting  the  marlinspike  down 
through  the  bight,  under  the  standing  part,  and  up 
through  the  bight  again.  Very  useful  in  putting  on 
lashings  etc.  Stopping  is  fastening  two  parts  of  a  rope 
together,  as  for  a  round  seizing,  without  a  crossing 
or  riding.  Nippering  is  fastening  them  by  taking  turns 
crosswise  between  the  parts  to  jam  them,  and  some- 
times with  a  round  turn  before  eacli  cross.  They 
are  called  racking  tvrnn.  Pass  riders  over  these 
and  fasten  the  end.  This  is  a  convenient  way  to  se- 
cure a  fall  while  it  is  being  shifted  on  the  windlass. 
^■1  screir  is  applied  by  weaving  a  liglit  strap  through 
the  different  parts  of  a  fall,  bringing  the  two  ends 
together,  and  screwing  the  whole  up  tight  by  means 
of  a  stick  or  bar  passed  through  the  bights.  .1 
strap,  or  sling,  is  formed  by  knotting  or  splicing 
together  the  ends  of  a  short  strand  or  rope.  It  is  used 
for  hooking  tackles  into. 

Pointing-  -Unlay  the  end  of  a  rope  and  stop  it ; 
take  out  as  man)-  yams  as  are  necessarj-,  and  split 
each  yarn  in  two,  and  take  two  parts  of  different 
yams  and  twist  them  up  taut  into  nettles;  the  rest 
of  the  yams  are  combed  down  with  a  knife  ;  lay  half 
the  nettles  down  on  the  scraped  part,  the  rest  back 
upon  the  ropes,  and  pass  three  turns  of  twine  taut 
roimd  the  part  where  the  nettles  separate,  and  hitch 
the  twine,  which  is  called  the  warp  ;  lay  the  nettles 
backward  and  forward  as  before,  passing  the  warp 
each  time.  The  ends  may  be  whipped  and  snaked 
with  twine,  or  the  nettleshitched  over  the  warp  and 
hauled  taut.  The  upper  seizing  must  be  snaked.  If 
the  upper  part  is  too  weak  for  pointing,  put  in  a 
,  piece  of  stick.  This  is  an  elaborate  way  of  whip- 
i  ping  ropes,  and  requires  considerable  practice. 

Seiti/tg  a  rope  is  connecting  the  two  parts  with 
1  smaller  rope,  or  spun-yam.    Take  a  piece  of  spun- 


KNOUT. 


158 


KBIS. 


yarn  and  double  it ;  pass  the  bight  under  the  two 
parts  of  the  rope  to  be  seized;  put  both  ends  through 
it  and  liaul  taut,  using  a  level  applied  with  the  mar- 
linspike  hitch ;  separate  the  ends,  pass  them  around 
the  rope  in  opposite  directions  until  enough  turns  are 
taken,  hauling  each  turn  taut,  and  seeing  that  they 
lay  close  and  smooth.  Cross  the  seizing  by  passing 
the  ends  in  opposite  directions  between  the  ropes  and 
around  the  seizing,  and  linish  with  a  square  knot. 

^■1  lashing  is  applied  on  the  same  principles.  After 
Bufficient  turns  have  been  taken,  the  lashing  is /rap- 
ped by  taking  the  ends  around  the  turns,  hauling 
them  close  together,  and  making  the  lashing  tighter, 
of  course.  To  pass  a  shear  lashing. — Middle  the  lash- 
ing and  take  a  turn  round  both  legs  at  the  cross  ; 
pass  one  end  up  and  the  other  down,  aroimd  and 
over  the  cross,  until  half  of  the  lashing  is  expended; 
then  ride  both  ends  back  again  on  their  own  parts 
and  knot  them  in  the  middle  ;  frap  the  first  and  rid- 
ing turns  together  on  each  side  with  sennit.  This  will 
be  useful  in  rigging  shears  for  hoisting  guns,  when 
a  gin  is  not  available.  Any  two  spars  that  will  sup- 
port the  weight  can  be  used. 

The  knots  most  frequently  used  and  the  manner 
of  forming  them  are  described  under  the  appropri- 
ate headings. 

KNOUT — KNUT. — A  scourge  composed  of  many 
thongs  of  skin,  plaited,  and  interwoven  with  wire, 
which  was  formerly  the  favorite  instrument  of  pun- 
ishment in  Russia  for  all  classes  and  degrees  of  crim- 
inals. The  offender  was  tied  to  two  stakes,  stripped, 
and  received  on  the  back  the  specified  number  of 
lashes ;  100  or  120  were  equivalent  to  sentence  of 
death,  but  in  many  cases  the  victim  died  under  the 
operation  long  before  this  number  was  completed.  If 
a  culprit  survived  this  punishment  lie  was  banished 
for  life  to  Siberia.  The  whipping  was  inflicted  by  a 
criminal,  who  preferred  this  office  to  exile  to  Sibe- 
ria, and  who  was  constantly  kept  in  prison,  except 
when  his  services  were  required.  The  nobility  were 
legally  exempt  from  the  knout,  but  this  privilege  was 
not  always  respected.  In  earlier  times  the  nose  was 
slit,  the  ears  were  cut  off,  and  the  letter  V  for  vor 
(rogue)  was  branded  on  the  forehead;  but  this  ag- 
gravation was  abolished  by  Alexander  I.  The  knout 
was  abolished  by  the  Emperor  Nicholas,  who  substi- 
tuted the  pUti,  a  kind  of  lash. 

KODALLIE. — An  Indian  term.  A  tool  used  by  the 
natives  of  India  in  digging  all  kinds  of  earthwork. 
The  face  of  the  tool  is  shaped  like  a  hoe,  and  has  a 
short  handle  nearly  parallel  to  the  face.  It  is  used 
in  a  kneeling  or  sitting  position. 

KONKBI. — A  sword  of  the  Middle  Ages,  without 
a  hilt  or  crossguard.  The  handle  is  straight  and 
forms  with  the  blade  a  Latin  cross. 

KOBAZIN. — A  short  hauberk  or  jacket  of  scales. 
It  is  frequently  called  Jazeraii.  The  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  a  large  imbricated  hauberk,  covered  with 
overlapping  plates,  somewhat  like  the  small  hauberk 
of  the  8th  century. 

KOT  DUFFADAR.— A  non-commissioned  officer  in 
the  East  Indian  Native  Cavalry,  corresponding  with 
a  troop  Sergeant  Major.     See  Duffadar  Major. 

KOUL. — A  soldier  belonging  to  a  noble  corps  in 
Persia.  .  The  KouU  constitute  the  third  corps  of  the 
King's  Household  Troops.  They  are  men  of  note 
and  rank,  and  no  person  can  arrive  at  any  consider- 
able post  or  situation  in  Persia  who  has  not  served 
among  tlic  Kouls.  .  The  Commander  of  the  Kouls  is 
known  as  the  Kouler-Agasi,  and  is  usually  Governor 
of  a  considerable  Province. 

KRANKENTRAGER.— A  special  corps  organized  by 
the  (Jerman  Ami}' ;  its  duty  is  to  carry  the  sick  and 
wounded.  The  men  are  mostly  taken  from  the  Lnnd- 
tnehr,  but  some  are  students  from  hospitals  and  uni- 
versities. The  former  are  in  uniform,  and  the  latter 
in  plain  clothes  ;  but  all  wear  the  red  cross  on  their 
arm,  and  are  under  the  protection  of  the  Geneva 
Convention.  They  are  men  of  two  year.s'  service, 
kitelligent.of  good  character,  and  have  received  some 


theoretical  instruction  in  surgery  and  medicine.  The 
instruction  imparted  to  these  men  is  directed  by  Sup- 
erior Officers,  assisted  by  Surgeons.  They  arc  taught 
to  give  the  first  care  to  the  wounded ;  to  carry  them 
on  stretchers  and  to  form  the  stretchers,  from  any  im- 
provised material ;  to  transport  the  wounded  to  the 
ambulance  wagons  ;  to  prepare  the  wagons  for  that 
purpose  ;  and  to  perform  all  such  duties  as  shall  be 
required  of  them  during  a  battle. 

KBEBS. — A  complete  suit  of  armor,  comnosed  of 
imbricated  plates. 

KRIEGSSPIEL.— This  German  war  game  was  con- 
trived by  a  Prussian,  Councillor  Reiswitz,  in  order 
to  follow  with  greater  facility  the  campaigns  of  Na- 
poleon I.  His  sou,  an  artillery  officer,  found  it, 
by  reproducing  the  campaigns  on  a  map,  an  easy 
method  of  stud3'ing  the  different  movements  of 
troops,  and  caused  the  game  to  be  adopted  in  about 
1824  by  Feldmarschall  von  Muffling.  The  Kriegs- 
spiel  eventually  became  familiar  with  the  Army, and 
was  finally  introduced  in  the  military  schools  as  the 
best  means  of  studying  strategy  and  tactics.  This 
game  was  not  only  a  study,  but  a  favorite  pastime,  of 
VonMoltke's,Blunientliars, Prince  Frederick  Charles, 
and  of  other  German  officers,  who  took  a  prom- 
inent part  during  the  war  of  1870-71.  It  is  stated 
that  they  carefully  studied  for  years,  by  means  of  this 
game,  the  ground  on  which  they  carried  out  their 
operations  in  Prance.  The  Kriegsspiel  was  first 
introduced  in  England  after'  the  Franco-German 
war  (1870-71).  and  is  now  frequently  played  in  all 
the  large  garrison  towns  of  this  country.  A  club  has 
been  formed  at  Aldershott  for  that  purpose.  The 
necessary  apparatus  for  pla3'ing  the  Kriegsspiel  is 
composed  of  maps  carefully  prepared  on  a  scale  of  6 
or  8  inches  to  the  mile  ;  of  metal  blocks,  made  to 
scale,  as  nearly  as  possible,  representing  all  the  dif- 
ferent branches  of  the  service,  from  regiments  to 
skirmishers;  and  strings  of  beads,  for  cavalry  recon- 
noitering.  The  number  of  persons  taking  part  in 
the  game  consists  of  the  officers  commanding  the  two 
armies,  of  a  judge  or  chief  umpire,  supported  gen- 
erally by  two  or  three  umpires.  The  umpires  alone 
see  the  ground  occupied  by  the  two  forces.  Instruc- 
tions are  given  as  to  their  positions  ;  the  time  of  the 
j'ear,  the  length  of  the  days,  the  state  of  the  roads, 
etc.,  are  settled  beforehand.  The  losses  made  on  both 
sides  are  calculated  by  means  of  tables  carefully  pre- 
pared ;  they  form  a  large  volume,  and  were  publish- 
ed, in  1870,  by  Colonel  von  Trotha.  Other  circum- 
stances, such  as  troops  sheltered  by  earthworks,  ar- 
tillery firing  out  of  range,  are  taken  into  considera- 
tion ;  those  that  have  not  been  laid  down  in  the  rules 
are  decided  by  a  throw  of  the  dice.  Thus  the  action 
gradually  develops  itself  as  each  Arm_y  advances  on 
the  contested  ground,  till  victory  is  declared  for  one 
side  or  the  other.  The  principal  utility  of  the  game 
appears  to  be  in  the  arrangements  previous  to  and 
during  the  early  conduct  of  an  action.  When  the 
troops  get  to  close  quarters,  the  element  of  chance 
enters  so  largely  into  the  game  that  it  destroys  to 
a  very  great  extent,  the  dependence  that  may  be 
placed  on  the  issue  of  the  battle.  The  game,  liow- 
every,  affords  great  practice  in  the  drawing  up  of 
the  order  of  march  of  columns  previous  to  an  action, 
and  the  development  of  the  columns  of  march  into 
formation  for  attack.  In  the  hands  of  men  having 
some  military  experience,  this  game  becomes  a  cer- 
tain means  of  acquiring  and  perfecting  a  Science 
which  in  time  of  peace  cannot  be  easily  acquired.  It 
raises  questions  wliich  are  strategical  problems  of 
great  interest.     See  Strategos. 

KBIS. — A  dagger  or  poniard,  the  universal  weapon 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago.  It  is 
made  of  many  differentforms,  short  or  long,  straight 
or  crooked.  The  liilt  and  scal)bard  are  often  much 
ornamented.  Men  of  all  ranks  wear  this  weapon; 
and  those  of  high  rank,  when  in  full  dress,  some- 
times carry  three  or  four.  In  Java,  women  sometimes 
wear  it.     Also  written  CVeeatand  Kreea. 


K£NKA  OUN. 


159 


KKUPP  OUN. 


EBITKA  GUN.  The  .system  of  aUorod  hrccch-load- 
iiii;  iii\isUcls  of  Ui(-  Kii.ssiaii  service  is  tile  invention 
of  Sjlvester  Krnka,  a  re;jinieiilal  arMiorer  of  tlie 
Austrian  army.  Its  cliief  features  are  siniplieity  and 
coin])actness.  The  drawin;;  represents  tlic  Itreeeli 
system  with  tlie  breecli-bloeli  reniov('d.  Tlie  follow- 
ing arc  the  principal  parts,  viz  :  «  <,  is  tliat  portion  of 


the  hrceeh-framc  or  receiver  inlowliieh  th(>  liarn^l  is 
screwed;  r,  is  the  slot  or  well  in  wliieli  the  breecli- 
block  rests  when  the  chamber  is  closed  ;  m  is  the 
hole  into  which  is  screwed  the  point  of  the  hinge-pin 
aroiind  which  the  breech-block  revolves;  In  t,  isthe 
lug  in  rear  of  the  breech-block  through  which  the 
hitige-piu  passes;  c,  is  the  groove  by  which  the  cart- 
ridge is  inserted  into  the  chamber;  r  .1  t.  is  the  lug 
which  serves  as  a  support  for  tlie  breech-block  and  a 
stop  for  the  hammer. A  ;  i\  represents  the  extractor  in 
position;  k,  is  a  small  catch-pin  actuated  by  a  spring 
which  presses  into  a  small  indent  in  the  front  face  of 
the  breech-block  and  holds  the  block  in  place  with 
slight  friction;  d g,  are  broken  lines,  showing  the 
position  of  the  thumb-piece  of  the  breech-block 
when  closed  but  not  locked  down  by  the  hammer. 

The  lower  portion  of  the  block  is  semicircular  in 
form,  and  has  a  groove,  into  which  fits  a  raised  band 
or  rib,  r.  The  object  of  this  arrangement  is  to  in- 
crease the  strength  of  the  parts  to  resist  the  force  of 
the  ciiarge.  The  rear  corn<'r  of  this  rib  is  rounded 
off  tt5  prevent  it  from  interfering  with  the  insertion 
of  the  cartridge ;  the  firing-pin  is  pushed  back,  when 
the  lilock  is  opened  by  the  oblique  surface  of  the  notch , 
and  also  in  closing  the  block,  bj'  the  chamfered  cor- 
ner of  the  receiver,  s  t.  The  extractor  is  a  lever  of 
the  first  order,  and  is  operated  by  opening  the  breech 
smartly,  in  which  case  the  shell  is  thrown  out  clear 
from  the  receiver.  The  cartridge  belongs  to  the  cen- 
ter-fire system  of  Berdan.  The  shell  is  made  of  brass; 
the  head  is  folded  and  strengthened  with  a  re-en- 
forcing-cap.  The  caliber  of  the  Russian  altered  arms 
is  (iO,  or  0".<).     See  SmaU-armH 

KRUPP  GUN. — The  fabrication  of  cannon  is  the 
matter  of  chief  personal  interest  to  Herr  Krupp,  who 
watches  with  the  closest  interest  what  governments 
in  every  part  of  the  world  are  doing,  and  proposing 
to  do,  in  relation  to  their  armaments.  Xcarh'  every 
government,  except  England  and  the  United  States, 
hasbeena  purchaser  of  ICruppguns,  and  there  seems 
to  be  no  cessation  in  the  demand  for  them.  At  pre- 
sent Italy  and  China  arc  his  best  customers,  and  the 
12.5-ton  guns  for  the  Italian  government  which  he 
has  now  in  hand  are  the  most  prodigious  pieces  of 
ordnance  which  have  ever  been  made.  Krupp's  pre- 
eminence as  a  gun-maker  is  unquestionablj'  due  to 
his  ca:rly  perception  of  the  fact  that  steel  must  sup- 
plant iitin  in  the  fabrication  of  ordnance,  and  to  his 
posses'sion'  of  such  unrivaled  facilities  for  the  manu- 
facture of  steel  in  his  own  works.  New  ideas  in  the 
construction  of  ordnance  Ilerr  Krupp  docs  not  claim 
to  have  developed,  but  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  per- 
ceive that  breech-loading  cannon  would  completely 
take  the  place  of  muzzle-loaders.  It  was  this  change 
which  definitely  forced  the  abandonment  of  iron  in 
the  construction  of  cannon  in  Europe.  Krupp  satis- 
fied himself  that  the  wedge  system  of  breech-closing 
was  the  best,  and  in  spite  of  the  conclusion  of  the 
French  and  English  authorities  that  the  French  in- 


terlocking Bj'stcmis  superior,  Knipp  goes  ahead  and 
shows  no  sign  of  giving  up  the  system  with  which 
his  name  has  come  to  be  identified.  The  12.')-ton 
guns  are  :).')  calibers  in  length— that  is,  over  .W  feet. 
The  inner  tube  is  covere(l  with  steel  rings  to  the 
muzzle,  and  the  outer  jacket  at  the  breech  in  which 
the  breech-closer  is  placed  is  an  enormous  iiieci;  of 
steel.  Not  a  single,  part  of  these  extraordinary  guns 
could  be  produced  by  any  establishment  in  the 
I'nil<'il  Stales,  for  we  have  no  means  in  America  of 
hammering  or  working  such  enormous  masses  of 
metal.  The  largest  caliber  is  40  centimeters,  or 
something  over  10  inc-lies,  and  the  boring  of  a  tube 
of  this  size  is  an  important  operation.  The  core, 
when  i\\y  boring  is  completed,  is  still  a  ponderon.s 
cylinder,  which  can  itself  be  bored  and  used  as  a 
tiibe  of  a  smaller  gun.  The  cutting  of  the  rille 
grooves  in  a  large  gun  is  a  very  simple  operation  and 
not  a  protracted  one,  as  these  grooves  are  cut  simul- 
taneously, and  the  work  is  done  by  the  machines 
with  mathematical  accuracy.  Every  gun  is  tested 
on  the  grounds  near  the  shops  by  being  fired  lour 
times,  and  the  large  guns  are  then  sent  to  Jlepiien, 
in  north  (iermaiiy,  to  lie  tested  by  the  agents  of  the 
governments  which  jiurchase  them--if  such  tests  be 
desired.  Krupp  often  conducts  experiments  of  liis 
own  at  Meppen,  and  occasionally  large  numbers  of 
foreign  olficers  are  invited  to  be  present.  The 
drawback  to  such  elaborate  experiments  is  the  enor- 
mous expense  which  they  entail.  Considering  that 
the  butts  are  wholly  artificial  structures  of  sand  and 
masonry,  and  that  "the  hirgest  cannon  are  here  fired 
at  closeranges,  it  will  be  seen  that  great  strength  and 
security  are  required.  The  workman  in  charge  is 
pointed  out  as  a  person  who  has  "fired  more  can- 
non "  than  any  other  man  in  the  world.  The  trials 
at  Meppen  are  all  for  the. purpose  of  testingthe  range 
of  the  gun.  those  at  the  Works  to  test  the  strength 
of  the  gun.  Near  the  firing-grounds  at  Essen  is 
the  Ordnance  Museum,  where  are  retained  speci- 
mens of  everything  that  Herr  Krupp  has  accom- 
plished in  the  development  of  artillery. 

Tlur  principal  feature  in  the  Jleppen  programme  of 
1870  was  the  trial  of  Krupp's  40-ccntimcter  (l.'J.T.'J 
inch)  breech-loading  gun,  weighing  about  70  tons  17 
cwt.,  known  commonly  as  the  71-ton  gun.  The  trial 
was  specially  important  for  three  reasons:  1st. It  isthe 
first  breech-loader  whose  power  approaches  that  of 
the  100  and  80-ton  guns  made  in  England ;  2d.  It  is 
a  steel  gun ;  3d.  Its  proportions  are  based  on  results 
obtained  during  the  last  few  years. 

All  these  questions  are  interesting,  and  deserving 
of  so  much  attention  that  it  would  be  difficult  here  to 
deal  fairly  with  all.  For  the  purpose  in  hand,  how- 
ever, it  is  not  necessary  to  discuss  the  question  of 
the  respective  metals  of  the  guns,  because  it  can  eas- 
ily be  shown  that  there  was  nothing  in  these  exper- 
iments that  bears  upon  this  point  beyond  the  nega- 
tive fact  that  the  steel  guns  in  no  respect  exhibited 
any  fault.  We  may  safely  say  that  the  Woolwich 
guns  would  have  done  equally  well,  as  far  as  the  raa- 
teriiil  is  concerned,  for  the  pressures  in  Krupp's  guns 
were  by  no  means  excessive.  The  71-ton  gun,  for  exam- 
ple, was  not  subjected  to  as  high  a  pressure  as  the 
English  80-ton  gun  has  borne.  A  test  which  tries 
neither  gun  obviously  furnishes  us  with  no  means  of 
comparison,  and  hence  the  Meppen  trials  in  no  way 
furnish  data  for  the  discussion  of  the  relative  merits 
of  wrought-iron  and  steel  guns,  but  bear  entirely  on 
the  two"  other  questions,  "namely,  that  of  breech- 
loading  and  proportions — the  former,  as  concerns 
ease  in  working,  and  the  latter  power,  and  good  shoot- 
ing. 

The  Ill-ton  gun  was  mounted  as  for  coast  defense, 
on  a  traversing  platform,  and  a  carriage  nearly  of 
the  P^nglish  pattern  in  all  respects.  The  brackets 
were  made  of  wrought-iron,  the  gun  being  elevated 
by  multiple  gear,  acting  on  elevating  arcs,  fixed  on 
the  gun.  Beneath  the  carriage  were  two  hydraulic 
buffers.    A  modified  form  of  Cunningham's  chain 


KRUPP  GUW. 


160 


KBTTPP  GUH. 


gear,  was  used  for  traversing  the  platform,  which 
ran  on  trucks  on  three  concentric  racers,  the  pivot 
being  about  six  feet  iu  front  of  the  carriage  when  run 
up.  A  lifting  crane  was  attached  to  the  platform, 
fixed  on  a  sort  of  axle,  with  a  counter-lever  with 
powerful  spring,  which  required  considerable  force 
to  compress  it  by  bending  downthe  crane,  and  which 
decreased  the  work  of  lifting  the  projectiles  by  the 
same  amount,  thus  dividing  the  labor  of  lifting  the 
projectiles  into  two  operations. 

The  gun  was  easily  worked  by  a  detachment  of  fif- 
teen men.  Ten  rounds,  with  chilled  projectiles  were 
first  tired  ;  the  time  occupied  by  the  last  five  rounds 
was  twent3--four  minutes.  The  breech  piece  moved 
easily.  A  good  deal  of  oil  was  used  on  it.  The  breech- 
loading  certainly  saved  the  men  much  labor,  not  only 
in  the  actually  ramming  home  but  also  in  bringing  up 
the  projectiles,  since  it  was  not  necessary  for  them 
to  cross  of  the  racers  or  the  Cunningham  chain.  The 
charge  was  made  up  in  four  cartridges,  each  contain- 
ing 110  pounds  of  prismatic  powder.  The  least  sat- 
is&ctory  part  of  the  service  of  the  gun  considering 
everything,  was  the  ditficulty  experienced  in  the 
ignition  of  the  charge  and  in  remedying  miss-fires. 
The  vent  was  in  the  axis  of  the  piece,  and  a  disk  of 
calico  was  torn  off  the  bottom  of  the  cartridge  last 
entered,  to  expose  the  powder  to  the  fiash  of  the  tube. 
The  latter  was  of  a  bad  pattern,  short  and  weak.  No 
stress  is  to  be  laid  on  this,  as  the  remedy  is  obvious. 
A  primer  or  a  stronger  tube  would  rectify  this  fault. 
A  more  important  question  is  the  shooting  of  the 
gun  as  regards  power  and  accuracy.  The  chilled 
projectiles  had  0.078  in. windage,  which  is  about  the 
same  as  that  in  Woolwich  projectiles,  namely,  0.08 
inch  over  a  copper  rim.  The  common  shell  subse- 
quently fired,  however,  had  the  unpractical  windage 
of  about  0.01  inch  over  an  iron  body.  The  target  dia- 
grams show  a  remarkable  degree  of  accuracy,  chief- 
ly iu  the  vertical  direction,  which  argues  well  for  the 
regularity  of  the  charge,  which  surely  must  be  attri- 
buted to  the  prismatic  powder  employed.  It  stands 
to  reason  that  a  charge  composed  of  a  fixed  number 
of  prisms  of  uniform  size  and  density  gives  promise 
of  greater  uniformity  being  attainable  than  when 
pebbles  are  employed ;  and  Fhere  seems  no  reason  to 
doubt  that,  whatever  difficulties  were  at  first  experi- 
enced, this  has  been  achieved.  Surely  if  two  attempts 
are  made  to  obtain  regularity  in  powder — one  by 
employing  prisms  each  uniform  in  size  and  shape, 
and  if  possible  pressed  uniformly,  and  another  by 
means  of  pebbles  of  an  accidental  shape  from  uni- 
formlj-  pressed  powder-cakes — the  former,  though  it 
may  be  difficult,  offers  promise  of  ultimate  success 
in  the  higher  degree.  As  to  the  windage,  stress  can 
hardly  be  laid  on  the  great  reduction  in  the  case  of 
the  common  shell;  the  two  kinds  of  projectiles 
made  pretty  nearly  equally  good  practice. 

Lastly,  (IK  to  Vif  proporliimsfif  thebore  andchamher. 
The  bore  of  the  71-ton  gun  is  only  20  inches  shorter 
than  that  of  the  100-ton  gun  and  S.")  inclies  longer 
than  that  of  the  80-ton  gun.  The  chamber  in  length 
is  GO. 6  inches,  that  of  the  100-ton  gun  being  59.7  and 
of  the  80-ton  gun  59.6.  The  caliber  of  the  71-tou  gun 
is  15.75,  against  IG  iu  the  80  and  17.72  in  the  1004on 
gun.  Consequent!}',  the  bore  of  the  71-ton  gim  is  21.8 
calibers  long,  against  18  in  the  80  and  30.5  in  the  100- 
ton  gun.  The  diameter  of  the  chamber  of  the  71-ton 
gun  is  17.32  inches,  that  of  the  80  and  100-ton  guns 
being  18.0  and  19.7  inches,  respectively — that  is  to 
say  it  is  1 .57  inches  greater  than  that  of  bore,  as  com- 
pared with  2.0  inches  increase  in  the  80  and  1.98 
inches  in  I  he  lOO-ton  gun.  Speaking  generally,  then, 
the  bore  of  Krupp's  gun  is  relatively  rather  longer 
and  the  cliamber  less  enlarged  than  in  the  IDO-ton 
gun,  while  in  the  80-ton  gvm  the  bore  is  actually  the 
shortestand  theenlargenu'nt  of  the  chamber  actually 
the  greatest  of  tlu^  three.  On  these  proportions  nuiin- 
ly  depends  the  power  of  the  guns.  To  be  able  to 
make  a  comi)arison  between  them,  discrimination  is 
necessary.     It  would  not  be  right  to  take  e<pial  or 


proportionate  charges  as  the  basis  of  the  comparison, 
because  the  principle  on  which  a  long  gun  is  advo- 
cated is  that  any  greater  result  can  thus  be  got  from 
a  gun  with  a  given  strain  on  it,  but  at  the  expense  of 
some  waste  of  powder.     It  is  clear,  then,  that  look- 
ing to  the   endurance  of  the  gun  rather  than  the 
expenditure   of   powder,   the   basis   of  comparison 
should  be  propiirtionate  pressures.     It  would  scarce- 
ly be  right  to  say  equal  pressures,  because  the  thick- 
er gun  can  fairly  be  expected  to  bear  a  greater  strain 
than  the  thinner  one.     Now,  the  best  results  obtain- 
ed from  these  three  guns  are  as  follows :    The  80-ton 
gun  at  Woolwich,  with  a  proof-charge  of  445  pounds, 
giving  a  pressure  of  21.5  tons,  discharged  a  projec- 
tile weighing  1,728  pounds  with  a  velocity  of  1,657 
feet  per  second — having  32,938  foot-tons  stored  up 
work,  or  6.58.37  foot-tons  per  inch  circumference — 
equivalent  to  a  penetration  of  a  32. .34  inches  plate  of 
wrought-iron.     The  71-ton  gun  at  Meppen  is  report- 
ed on  one  occasion,   with  a  charge  of  485.1  pounds, 
giving  a  pressure  on  the  gun  of  20.92  tons,  to  have 
discharged  a  projectile  weighing  1,715  pounds  with 
a  velocitj'  of  1,703  feet  per  second — having  therefore 
34.489  foot-tons  stored-up  work,  or  697.02,foot-ton3 
per  inch  circumference — equivalent  to  the  penetra- 
tion of  a  plate  33.5  inches  thick.     During  the  public 
trials  in  August  the  71-tou  gun  was  not  tested  so 
severely,  and  it  is  therefore  right  to  class  the  above 
in  tlie  same  category  as  the  Woolwich  proof  round 
above  metioned.      In  August  the  average  weight  of 
the  chilled  projectiles   was   1,712.6  pounds.      The 
firing  charge  was  452  pounds,  the  initial  velocity  was 
1,648  feet,  the  stored-up  work  was  32,241  foot-tons, 
the  work  per  inch  circumference  651.59  foot-tons, 
equivalant  to  a  penetratian   of  32.12  inches.     The 
pressure  on  the  bore  was  19.85  tons.     The  highest 
result  hitherto  obtained  with  the   lOO-ton  gun,   of 
17.72  inches  caliber,  has  recently  been  furnished  by 
Captain  Noble  ;  it  is  as  follows :  Charge,  573  pounds: 
projectile,  2,000  pounds,    about ;    velocit}-,   1,725.5 
feet;  stored-up  work,  about,  41,300  foot-tons,  or  743 
foot-tons  per  inch  circumference,  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  penetration   of  nearly  35  inches  of  armor. 
The  pressure  on  the  bore  was  about  ,18.0  tons.     It 
is  quite  clear,  from  the  above,  that  the  71-ton  gun  is 
a  much  better  weapon  than  the  80-ton  gun,  inasmuch 
as  it  beats  it  in  every  respect.  It  fires  a  heavier  pro- 
jectile with  a  higher  velocity,  which  has  therefore 
more  energy  or  stored-up  work  and  an  inch  and  a 
half  more  penetration,  and  all  this  is  done  with  less 
pressure  on  the  bore  of  the  gun.     The  reason  is  that 
it  is  a  better  proportioned  gun,its  main  advantage  be- 
ing its  greater  length.     The  lOO-ton  gun  compares 
much  more  favorably  with  Krupp's  gun,  but,  never- 
theless, would  do  so  better  if  its  length  were  greater. 
The  main  difference  in  the  guns  depends  on  the  dif- 
erence  in  length ;  and  the  question  naturally  arises 
with  those  investigating,  how  is  it  that  the  English 
Government   is  now    completing   and   issuing   80- 
ton  guns  so  inferior  in  power  to  Krupp's  71-ton  gun, 
which  has  already  achieved  the  results  we  speak  of. 
The  answer  is,  that  the  guns  were  designed  for  the 
"  Inflexible,"  and  that,  being  mtizzlc-loaders,  the  ves- 
sel had  to  be  made  with  portions  of  the  deck  corres- 
ponding to  the  length  of  the  gun,  to  make  provision 
for  its  loading.     All  this  was  determined  years  ago. 
Since  that  time  invent/gations  have  shown  the  desira- 
bility of  greatly  increasing  the  length;  but  the  gun 
l)eing  a  muzzle-loader,  it  is  impossible  to  do  so.   For 
the  ship  iu  question,  a  muzzle-loader  is  limited  as  to 
its  length  by  inflexible  conditions;  and  all  that  can  be 
done  is,  by  enlarging  the  chamber,  to  utilize  to  the 
fullest  extent  the  disproportionate  thickness  of  metal. 
Apart  from  the  trying  instance,  however,  it  is  clear 
tliat  every  increase  in  length  is  in  favor  of  the  breech- 
loader, because  the  labor  Jind  inconvenience  of  muz- 
zle-loading increase  in  an  increasing  ratio  ;  and,  in 
the  case  of  turret  guns,  and  jirolialily  in  some  guns 
in  casemates  and  cupolas,  nmzzlc-loading  becomes 
eventually  almost  impossible. 


KRUPP  OUN. 


i(;i 


KEDPP  GUN. 


Very  rcnmrkabli'  results  were  DbUiincd  witli  smiill- 
pr  guns.  An  cxcfllciit  .ll-loii  M-iiicli  gun  wiis  tried, 
the  behavior  of  wliieh  closely  resembled  llial  of  the 
71-ton  gun,  ineludiiig  the  method  of  working,  occa- 
sional niiss-lires,  and  the  like.  An  11-ineh  (2«-centi- 
mcler)  howitzer,  a  4.i:i-in(h  (\0S>  centimeter)  siege 
gun,  and  a  H.7y-ineb  (!l.li  eentinieter)  were  tired, 
wliieli  <lid  well  but  need  not  behere  nolieed  indelail. 
A  long  .'i.ll-ineh  (l.'i-eentimeterj  gun  on  a  special  .sea 
service  carriage  with  oil  builer  gave  good  residts; 
also  an  8.37-incli  (21-cenlimeter;  iiowit/.er,  and  a  5.9- 
inch  (IS  centimeterj  mortar,  were  tired  at  dummy 
guns  in  a  battery  with  good  effect,  notwillislanding 
I  hat  some  of  the  fuses  failed  to  act.  Two  remarkably 
characteristic  guns,  ;i.4-iiich  (8.7-centimcter;,  were 
fired,  tixcd  on  pivots,  one  with  little,  and  the  other 
with  absolutely  no  ])rovision  for  recoil.  With  these 
is  naturally  connected  another  non-recoil  arrange 
nient  of  Krupp's,  now  well  known,  consisting  of  0.1- 
inch  (l.")  centimeter)  ",im,  muzzle  pivoting,  the  muz- 
zle being  ball-shaped  and  working  in  a  socket  in  an 
armor-plate.  These  three  guns  possess  peculiarities 
deserving  of  attention.  ' 

One  piece,  ;i.4  incliis  in  caliber,  was  14  feel  3:^  inch- 
es long.  Its  chamber  was  enlarged  to  an  extra- 
ordinary extent,  being  .'5. 9  inches  in  diameter.  The 
cartridge  was  a  long  bag,  very  loose  on  the  powder, 
made  so  as  to  admit  of  being  adjusted  in  the  cham- 
ber by  hand.  The  charge  was  7.7  pounds.  Two 
kinds  of  projectiles  were  tired — long  ones.  12..')  inch- 
es inlengtli,  weighing  22  pounds,  and  shorter  ones  9.5 
inches  in  length,  weighing  15  pounds.  The  initial 
velocities  of  these  projectiles  were  1,829  and  3,098 
feet  respectively.  The  maximum  pressure  was  11.0 
tons.  During  this  extraordinary  performances  the  gun 
was  held  rigidly,  being  lixed  on  a  strong  vertical  steel 
pivot,  and  so  steady  was  it  that  small  coins  placed  on 
its  barrel  were  not  shaken  off  on  ti  ing  except  near 
the  muzzle.  Eventually  a  Dutch  ''.licer  dis|)layed 
sufTicient  coutideuce  to  sit  astride  on  the  gun  wliiU' 
it  was  fired,  with  the  projectile  shooting  between 
his  legs  at  the  rate  of  about  2,000  feet  per  second. 
The  second  3.4  gim  somewhat  resend)led  the  above, 
but  had  provision  for  slight  recoil,  the  pivot  moving 
on  its  lower  end  as  a  center,  the  gun  forcing  the 
upper  end  back  against  a  piston  or  buffer.  The  muz- 
zle pivoting  6.1  gun  was  worked  easily,  the  armor 
absorbing  the  shock  of  recoil,  and  suffering  in  no 
way  apparently  beyond  the  structure  appearing  to 
spring  a  little  in  the  earth.  A  man  laid  it  while 
riding  on  a  sa^Jdlc  placed  on  the  chase  of  the 
piece;  he  employed  sights  directed  through  a  small 
hole  at  a  convenient  height  above  the  gun.  and  he 
tired  the  gun  himself  by  pulling  the  lanyard  while 
stillsitting  on  the  piece.  This  system  has  been  tried 
by  one  Goverment  experiment,  but  has  not  hitherto 
found  favor.  It  certainly  appears  as  ii  a  heavy  gun 
so  fixed  to  a  shield,  and  impressing  its  work  on  it 
every  round,  must  soon  destroy  the  structure;  l)ut 
apparently  it  would  take  a  very  long  time  for  a  med- 
ium gun  to  do  so,  and  it  is  possible  that  a  gun  so 
completely  protected  and  able  to  fire  with  such  great 
rapidity  might  perform  admirable  service  before  it 
failed  in  this  way.  so  that,  under  .some  conditions, 
such  a  gin<  might  be  very  valuable. 

The  ball  portion  of  the  muzzle  can  be  readily  un- 
screwed, and  so  can  the  disk  containing  the  socket 
into  which  it  fits  in  the  plate.  This  operation  can 
be  safely  performed,  a  shutter  being  riui  up  which 
completely  covers  the  opening  from  the  enemy.  It 
still  appears  possible,  liowever,  that  a  blow  from  a 
very  heavy  shot  might  distort  and  jam  the  screwed 
portion  of  the  plate.  Against  ordinary  siege  guns 
such  a  gun  working  with  all  the  speed  due  to  non- 
recoil,  and  with  such  an  extraordinary  measure  of 
security,  might  effect  much.  Two  trials  against  ar- 
mor took  place,  one  to  show  the  comparative  effects 
of  firing  against  chilled  and  soft  hammered  iron 
structures.  As  both  were  manufactured  by  Ilerr 
Krupp,  the  trial   cannot  be  regarded  as  a  represent- 


ative one  of  the  system  he  opposes,  and  it  would  be 
a  mistake  to  discuss  it  here.  The  other  was  the  fir- 
ing of  a  9.45-in<li  ("24-centinieiiT)  gun,  with  acharge 
of"l05.3  pounds  and  a  steel  projectile  weighing  348.3 
pounds,  at  a  target  which  consisted  of  a  front  12-incli 
wrouglit-iron  [ilate,  a  wood  layer  of  2  inches,  and  a 
liiick  wrought-iron  plate  of  8  inchi-s.  Tlu;  plates 
wens  rolled  at  Dillingeii.  The  shot  had  a  striking 
velocity  of  1,870  feet,  which  would  give  8,492  fool- 
tons  energy  or  stored-up  work,  a  penetrating  figure 
of  388.5  foot-tons  ijer  inch  circumference,  and  a 
penetration  of  19.33  inches  of  iron.  The  projectile, 
however  of  each  of  two  rounds  fired  passed  complete- 
ly through  the  entire  20  inches  of  ir<m  and  grazed 
a'bout  2.000  meters  farther  up  the  range.  The  plates 
were  indifferently  rolled,  and  contained  some  phos- 
phorus, it  is  said;  but  the  jienetration  of  the  sliot 
was.  after  making  all  allowances,  extraordinary. 
They  were  scarcely  deformed  in  ap])carance  wlien 
recovered.  The  steel  was  excellent.  Tliey  liadogival 
points,  the  heads  being  struck  with  a  radius  of  two 
diameters. 

To  simi  up,  the  features;which  chiefly  concern  us  in 
thesis  extraonlinarv  trials  are— 1st.  The  success  of 
the  breeeh-loailing'syslem.  2d.  The  great  results 
obtained  as  to  power  and  accuracy  of  tire.  3d.  The 
muzzle-pivoting  and  non-recoil  systems.  Although 
these  have  been  noticed  in  the  short  relation  already 
given,  one  or  two  words  may  be  useful  to  lead  a  dis- 
cussion. First,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  equally 
good  results  have  not  been  •btaiued  as  to  power 
when  guns  have  been  nuide  in  accordance  with  the 
conditions  arrived  at  by  recent  experiments,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  examples:  J'lro  years 
ago  the  new  tyiie  KIswiek  0-inch  gun  wjis  fired  with 
a  charse  of  33  pounds  and  a  projectile  of  82  pounds, 
the  initial  velocity  being  1.902  feet,  and  thetotal  en- 
ergy 2.057  foot-tons  :  the  same  gun,  with  a  charge  of 
37.5  pounds,  discharired  a  projectile  of  83  pounds 
weight  with  a  velocity  of  2,0;)1  feet,  having  2.:!03 
foot-tons  total  energy.  With  this  may  naturally  be 
compared  Krupp's  5.9-inch  gun,  fired  at  Meppcn, 
with  33,1  uounds charge,  and  with  projectiles  weigh- 
ing 88.2  and  112.5  pounds.giviiig  velocities  of  1,835.- 
3  and  1,608.7  feet,  and  total  energy  of  2.000  and  2,1- 
71  foot-tons  respectively.  On  one  occasion  it  is  re- 
corded in  Krupp's  printed  tables  as  having  fired  a 
shot  of  09  pounds  weicht  withacharse  of  37. 5  pounds 
with  a  velocity  of  2,135.8  feet,  liaviiig  2,183 foot-tons 
energy.  In  these  comparisons  the  Elswick  gun  has 
sliuliVly  the  advantage.  It  can  scarcely  fail  to  be  ob- 
served", however,  that  to  rival  the  residts  of  Krupp, 
Elswick  achievements,  and  not  of  Government  guns, 
are  instanced.  In  some  measure  this  may  be  account- 
ed for  by  the  fact  that  private  manufacturers  are  un- 
trammeled  by  routine,  and  a  master  of  tlie  question 
seizes  lessons  taught  by  experiments  and  works  them 
as  he  judges  best.  The  Government  does  not  encour- 
age the  manufacturing  departments  to  aim  at  taking 
the  lead  in  experimental  investigation.  There  are 
however,  one  or  two  serious  lessons  that  we  might 
learn  from  foreign  trials.  Take,  for  example,  the 
three  cases  of  breech-loading  guns,breecli-loading 
small-arm  rifles,  and  prismatic  powder.  .\ll  these 
have  been  taken  up.  tried,  and  discarded,  while  they 
were  steadily  worked  out  to  a  successful  issue  by 
Germany.  About  1853  the  needle-gun  was  tried  and 
rejected  in  England.  Prussia.acting  onherown  judg- 
ment, patiently  worked  at  it,  and  in  1803  or  1864  the 
entire  superiority  of  breech-loading  arms  became  in- 
disputablv  proved  and  they  were  universally  adopted. 
About  1860  the  English  tried  prismatic  or  pellet  pow- 
der, and  rejected  ii :  and  after  adopting  breech-load- 
ing guns  about  1858,  they  gradually  superseded  them 
about  1866  by  muzzle-loading  ordnance  ;  and  now, 
after  Germany  has  steadily  worked  out  these  ques- 
tions to  a  successful  i.ssuethey  are  trying  both  one 
and  the  other  again,  and  those  who  have  weighed 
the  results  obtained  by  them,  as  compared  with  those 
of  their  own  guns   and   powder,  can   hardly  doubt 


KEUPP  GUN  LIFT. 


162 


KKUPP  SEA  COAST  CAEEIAGE8. 


that  both  will  be  eventually  adopted.  Until  recently,  [ 
the  Italians  and  Englisli  were  the  main  supporters  of 
muzzle-loadina;  guns.  These  gens  were  character- 
ized also  bj'  being  made  of  wrouglit-iron,  whicli 
complicates  the  comparison  we  now  wish  to  make. 
Still,  the  fact  remained  that  England  and  Italy  liad 
muzzle-loading  guns  of  100  and  80  tons  weight,  and  I 
of  a  power  that  no  breech-loading  ordnance  could 
rival.  The  Meppen  trials  have  exhibited  a  gun 
which  entirely  surpasses  the  last-mentioned  piece, 
and,  for  its  weight,  compares  well  with  the  former.  , 
Instv'ad  of  dealing  with  a  theoretical  gun  existing  on- 
ly on  paper,  then,  we  have  one  in  thoroughly  good 
working  order,  loading  and  tiring  by  hand  with  a 
rapidity,  and  shooting  with  a  power  and  accuracy, 
far  beyond  the  achievements  of  the  80-ton  gun  up  to 
the  present  time.  This  result  is  not  due  to  a  want  of 
knowledge  but  to  the  impossibility  of  appl)'ing  knowl- 
edge to  the  case  of  the  80-ton  gun.  With  muzzle- 
loading  guns  on  the  present  English  system  they  have 
greater  labor  in  loading,  and  have  to  commit  them- 
selves to  the  length  of  their  gun  three  or  four  years 
before  they  bring  it  into  service.  To  argue  that  breech- 
loaders should  be  at  once  adopted  would  be  to  com- 
mit the  fault  we  have  complained  of  above,  but  sure- 
ly we  have  sufficient  reason  to  give  them  a  trial  on 
a.  large  scale.  If  breech-loaders  have  the  advantages  of 
ease  and  rapidity  in  working,  of  the  possiliility  of 
changing  their  length  without  revolutionizing  the 
surrounding  structure  of  the  ship,  and  of  affording 
greater  cover,  especially  when  nonrecoil  carriages  of 
any  kind  are  employed,  they  surely  deserve  afidl  trial 
even  at  the  cost  of  having  both  breech  and  muzzle- 
loading  guns  in  the  service.  See  Krvpp  Sea-coast 
Cnrringex,  and  Krnpp  Steel  Works. 

KEUPP  GUN-LIFT. —It  consists  of  two  quadran- 
gular pyramidal  pillars  23  feet  high,  made  of  angle- 
iron  riveted  together  and  strongly  braced,  as  shown 
in  engraving,  resting  each  on  a  solid  base  of  cast- 
iron.     The  pillars  are  connected  at  the  top  by  a  cross- 


beam 19J  feet  long,  made  of  two  principal  trussed 
beams  strongly  secured  by  cross-tics,  and  carrying  at 
the  middle  a  double  jjulley,  and  at  about  4  feet  dis- 
tant, on  either  side, a  single  pulley.  A  long  cliaiii  is  se- 
cured at  its  ends  to  the  windlasses,  17, passing  over  tlie 
pulleys  and  around  the  triple  block,  which  is  pro- 
vided with  a  double  hook  to  receive  the  ends  of  the 
sling-chains.  The  alpliabetical  order  of  the  letters 
indicates  the  maimer  in  wliicli  the  wheels  and  pin- 
ions actuate  each  other.  The  chain  thus  makes  a 
half  turn  on  each  single  pulley,  one  turn  on  the 
double  i)ull(^y,  and  one  and  a  half  turns  on  the  tri- 
ple  block,  as   shown   in  the  drawing,  the  ends  of 


the  chain  being  double  between  the  pulley  and  block. 
It  is  easy  to  see  how  a  limited  number  of  men,  oper- 
ating on  the  cranks  of  the  windlasses  on  both  sides, 
are  alile  to  raise  as  heavy  a  weight  as  a  12  or  14  inch 
gun.     See  Oun-lift,  and  Prussinn  Gun-lift. 

KKUPP  SEA-COAST  CAKELAGES.— The  top  carri- 
age is  composed  of  two  cheeks  connected  together 
by  a  front,  rear  and  liottom  transom.  The  latter,  of 
boiler-plate,  extends  under  the  bottom  of  the  cheeks 
their  entire  length,  and  is  shod  on  the  under  side 
wliere  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  rails  with  brass 
shoes  screwed  fast  to  it.  The  cheeks  for  the  G-inch 
gun  are  made  of  a  single  plate  1  inch  thick.  For 
the  larger  calibers  the}' are  made  of  two  plates  rivet- 
ed together,  with  a  wrought-iron  frame  between 
them ;  in  the  upper  side  of  the  frame  the  trunnion- 
beds  are  formed  toreceive  the  trunnions,  which  have 
bronze  friction-rings  fitted  on  them.  Cap-squares 
are  used  for  all  carriages.  Both  cheeks  are  pro- 
vided on  their  outer  faces  with  an  apparatus  for  giv- 
ing the  elevation.  It  is  composed  of  a  cog-wheel- 
operating  a  circular  rack  fastened  to  the  gun  by  a 
bronze  stud.  The  rack  is  held  in  place  engaged  with 
the  teeth  of  the  cog-wheels  by  a  small  roller  with  its 
a.\is  in  the  cheek. 

To  elevate  or  depress  the  gun  there  is  a  wheel  on 
the  left  side,  with  holes  in  its  periphery  to  take  a 
handspike ;  and  on  the  right  side  there  is  a  wheel 
with  handles.  In  carriages  for  heavy  guns  this  wheel 
is  not  on  the  same  axis  as  the  cog-wheel,  but  works 
in  a  pinion  to  gain  power  to  raise  the  gun.  The  gun 
is  held  in  any  desired  position  by  turning  a  check- 
screw  which  presses  the  wheel  against  the  check. 
In  firing,  the  top  carriage  rests  on  the  chassis  rail 
throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  shoe,  in  order  to 
distribute  the  pressure  arising  from  the  discharge 
over  a  greater  surface.  To  run  the  gun  into  liattery 
the  top  carriage  is  provided  with  four  truck-wheels. 
The  rear  pair  are  on  eccentric  a.xles,  and  can  be 
thrown  in  gear  by  turning  the  .axles  part  way  round; 
this  brings  the  front  wheels  in  play,  which 
turn  on  fixed  axles.  In  the  6-inch  gun-carriage 
each  pair  of  wheels  has  a  common  axle,  which 
has  its  bearings  in  the  two  cheeks,  and  the 
wheels  are  close  up  to  them  on  the  inside. 
The  bottom  transom  has  two  openings  left  in 
it  to  allow  the  rear  wheels  to  bear  on  the  rails. 
The  lever  of  the  rear  wheels  on  the  left  end 
of  the  axle  is  kept  in  position  by  a  latch  on  the 
cheek.  In  carriages  for  heavier  gims,  begin- 
ning with  the  0.7  inch  gun,  the  truck-wheels 
are  placed  between  the  two  plates  of  the  cheek, 
in  front  or  rear  of  the  frame.  Each  wheel  has 
its  own  axle. 

An  automatic  arrangement  is  made  to  nm 
the  gim  into  battery  after  firing,  without  any 
action  on  the  part  of  the  gunner.  This  device 
consists  of  two  wedge-sliaped  pieces  of  iron 
screwed  fast  to  the  top  of  the  rails  in  rear  of  the 
top  carriage.  When  the  gun  recoils,  the  rear 
wheels  run  up  these  inclined  planes,  the  rear 
end  of  the  carriage  is  raised  till  the  front 
wheels  are  brought  to  bear  also,  and  after  the 
recoil  the  carriage  runs  down  the  inclined 
planes  into  battery,  ready  for  the  next  fire. 
The  eccentric  axle  is  kept  from  turning  by  a 
key  in  the  check.  To  run  the  carriage  from 
battery  this  key  is  taken  out,  and  the  wheels 
also  be  thrown"  in  gear  by  turning  the  axle 
with  a  handspike  in  the  handspike-socket.  To  pro- 
vide for  the  possible  wear  of  the  front  wlieels,  and 
preserve  an  iMpial  and  quick  motion  when  running 
into  battery,  the  front  wheels  are  also  mounted  on 
axles  with  eccentric  boxes,  which  are  kept  in  posi- 
tion by  a  small  screw  in  each.  To  make  this  adjust- 
ment, remove  the  screw  and  turn  the  box,  which,  on 
accoi'int  of  its  eccentricity,  will  lower  tlie  axle  ;  it  is 
held  in  the  new  position  by  the  screw  i)la<ed  in  a 
second  hole.  Two  angle-irons  are  fastened  to  the 
bottom  transom  to  guide  the  top  carriage  in  its  re- 


the 

may 


XBCFP  SEA-COAST  CABBIAOES. 


1G3 


KBUFP  SEA  COAST  CABBIAGEB. 


coil ;  and   two  j^uido-liooks 
flanur  of  tli(:  mil  pnjvt'iil  thu 
loling  on  it.     India-rulihcr  In 
crs  are  proviilcd  to  liniiltlic 
and  rear.     In  the  (>-in<'li  carr 
placed  liy  the  curve  of  the 
which  join  lh(^  licittoni  transi 
rini,'H  are  fastened  to  the  rear 
the  holtom,  to  hook  the  rop( 
•carriat;e  from  battery. 

The  hydraulic  Ijultcr  is  use 


which  pass  iindor  the 
top  carriage  from  hul- 
irters  and  connter-hiirt- 
reidil  both  to  the  front 
iage  the  liurters  are  re- 
enil  of  the  angle-irons 
im  to  the  cheeks.  Two 
end  of  the  cheeks,  near 
.s  to  for  pulling  the  top 


d  to  regulate  and  check 


chassis  is  transmitted  directly  to  it.  The  rear  wheels 
have  several  holes  bored  radially  into  theni  to  receive 
the  i-nd  of  a  hanils[)ik(r  to  traverse  the  carriage  in 
giving  the  proper  diriction  to  the  gun.  liurters  and 
ciiunti'r-hurters  are  placed  on  thi-  front  and  rear  ends 
of  the  rails,  or  the  front  and  rear  transoins,  to  stop 
the  carriage  running  into  or  from  battery.  These 
hurt(-rs  are  made  each  of  a  steel  piston,  fitting  in  a 
box,  anil  holding  between  the  head  and  box  a  num- 
]){-r  of  India-rubber  diaks,  separated  from  each  other 
by  sheet-iron  rings. 


the  recoil  of  the  gun.  It  consists  of  a  forged  cast- 
steel  cylinder  bored  out  and  turned.  Its  rear  end  is 
closed  by  tlie  bottom,  screwed  on  anil  fastened  to  the 
rear  transom  of  the  chassis  by  screws.  The  front 
end  of  the  cylinder  is  also  screwed  into  a  piece  to 
which  the  cover  is  held  by  screws.  There  is  a  hole 
in  the  bottom  piece  for  tilling  the  C3'linder;  it  is  stop- 
ped with  a  screw  and  a  cock  in  the  cover  for  empty- 
ing it.  The  piston-liead,  with  four  holes  bored  in  it, 
fits  the  cylinder  closely,  and  to  it,  the  piston-rod  of 
cast  steel  is  fastened,  and  passes  through  the  cylin- 
der head,  the  joint  being  packed  with  hemp-packing 
and  l)ronze  packing-box.  The  end  of  the  piston-rod 
is  fastened  to  the  cross-bead,  which  is  bolted  to  the 
bottom  transom  of  the  top  carriage. 

Tlie  chassis  is  composed  of  two  rails,  connected 
together  by  transoms.  The  rails  are  wrought  iron, 
I-shapcd,  rolled  in  a  single  piece  for  thcsmallerguns, 
and  built  up  for  the  ll-inch  gun,  and  all  of  larger 
caliber.  The  front  transom  is  composed  of  two  plates, 
the  upper  and  lower  joined  together  in  the  middle  by 
cross-pieces  of  the  same  profile  as  the  rails.  The  rear 
transom  is  also  composed  of  an  upper  and  lower 
plate,  united  by  two  cross-pieces  riveted  to  the  plates 
with  angle-irons.  The  rear  end  of  the  hydraulic  cyl- 
inder is  bolted  to  the  front  one  of  these  cross-pieces 
through  an  intermediate  piece.  The  middle  tran- 
som, composed  of  a  plate,  re-enforced  with  angle- 
irons,  supports  the  front  end  of  the  cylinder,  which 
is  secured  to  it  by  its  brace.  The  front  and  rear 
transoms  of  the  C-inch  carriage  are  made  of  single 
plates,  placed  vertically,  and  re-enforced  at  top  and 
bottom  by  angle-irons.  The  traverse-wheel  forks  are 
made  fast  to  a  front  and  rear  bolster,  which  are  bolt- 
ed to  the  chassis.  Each  bolster  is  composed  of  two 
vertical  side  plates,  one  horizontal  plate  and  one  ver- 
tical plate,  with  the  necessary  angle-irons  to  unite  the 
parts  together.  The  rear  bolster  is  made  enough 
liigher  than  the  front  one  that  the  four  wheels  may  be 
all  of  the  same  size,  notwithstanding  the  inclination 
of  the  chassis,  which  is  necessary  to  make  the  gun 
run  into  battery  after  tiring.  The  traverse- wheel 
forks,  composed  each  of  a  front  and  rear  l)ranch,are 
bolted  to  the  under  side  of  the  horizontal  plate  of 
the  bolsters. 

The  traverse-wheels  are  of  cast  steel,  with  a  deep 
semicircular  groove  cut  in  their  periphery  to  fit  over 
the  traverse-circle,  which  is  nearly  semicircular  in 
cross-section,  so  that  a  large  part  of  the  recoil  of  the 


A  hinged  tongue,  bolted  to  the  front  transom  of 
the  chassis,  connects  it  to  the  pintle  in  front.  A  wind- 
lass, attached  to  the  rear  end  of  the  chassis,  is  used 
to  run  the  gun  from  batterj-.  It  has  a  drum  with 
raised  sides  for  the  rope,  and  is  operated  by  a  crank 
turning  a  wheel  and  pinion.  For  guns  of  very  large 
caliber  a  double  set  of  wheels  and  pinions  is  added 
between  the  crank  and  drum.  All  of  tliese  parts  are 
fastened  to  a  stirrup,  which  is  secured  by  means  of  a 
tenon  to  the  rear  end  of  the  rail.  To  run  the  gun 
from  battery,  hook  the  ropes  on  each  side  to  tlie 
rings  in  the  top  carriage|take  a  turn  around  the  drum, 
tighten  the  ropes  and  work  tlie  cranks.  In  the  car- 
riage for  the  6-inch  gun  the  arrangement  is  replaced 
by  a  simple  block-and-tackle,  which  is  hooked  in  tlie 
rings  in  the  rear  end  of  the  chassis. 

In  the  other  carriages  these  rings  are  fastened  to 
the  windlass-frame,  and  are  also  used  in  traversing 
the  carriage.  For  this  purpose,  commencing  with 
the  8-inch  sea-coast  carriage,  a  windlass  is  used,  fas- 
tened to  the  rear  end  of  the  chassis  by  a  boiler-plate 
frame,  strengthened  by  angle-irons,  to  which  all  of 
the  moveable  parts  are  attached.  The  principal  part 
is  tlie  drum,  around  the  circumference  of  which  the 
cliain  works,  fastened  at  its  two  ends  to  rings  out- 
side the  platform,  A  pair  of  horizontal  and  vertical 
leading  wheels  on  each  side  prevent  the  chain  from 
leaving  the  drum.  If  the  drum  be  turned  by  means 
of  the  crank  which  communicates  with  it  through 
the  wheel  and  pinion,  the  drum  moves  on  the  sta- 
tionary chain,  traversing  the  chassis  with  an  eas}' but 
rapid  enough  motion.  In  case  the  chain  breaks,  the 
chassis  may  be  traversed  with  handspikes.  A  crane 
is  provided  for  the  heavj'  carriages,  commencing 
with  the  8-inch,  for  elevating  the  projfctile.  It  is 
placed  on  the  right  side  of  the  chassis,  on  a  di- 
rect line  with  the  brcecli  of  the  gun,  when  it  is 
in  battery.  It  consists  of  a  curved  iron  upright, 
which  is  held  in  a  vertical  position  by  a  pillow-block 
and  collar,  and  is  rcadih'  turned  by  the  handle.  The 
drum  is  near  the  foot  of  the  upright.  By  turning  the 
crank,  motion  is  given  to  the  rope,  either  directly  or 
by  a  wheel  and  pinion.  One  end  of  the  rope  is  fas. 
tened  to  the  drum,  and  thence  it  passes  over  two  fixed 
pulleys  on  the  upright.  The  other  end  has  a  hook 
fastened  to  it.  This  hook  is  inserted  in  the  upper 
ring  of  the  shot-cart,  which,  holding  the  projectile, 
is  hoisted  up,  the  tongue  being  first  taken  out.  The 
[  crane  is  turned  until  the  carriage  touches  the  gun,  to 


KHUPP  RIFLING. 


164 


KRUPP  STEEL  WORKS. 


which  it  is  hooked.  The  shot  being  rammed  home, 
the  crane  is  turned,  and  the  empty  cart  is  lowered. 
Steps  are  attached  to  the  chassis  at  several  places  for 
the  convenience  of  the  gunners  (angle-irons  are  fas- 
tened to  the  rails,  and  oak  planks,  secured  to  them), 
as  the  step  for  the  gunner  in  pointing  in  rear  and 
across  the  chassis,  on  both  sides  of  the  chassis,  and 
between  the  rails,  for  the  men  serving  the  gun,  in- 
serting the  projectile,  the  charge,  etc. 

The  foundation  of  the  platform  is  of  brick  mason- 
rj-,  from  3  to  G  feet  thick,  acconling  to  the  caliber  of 
the  gun.  The  stability  of  the  foundation  being  the 
essential  condition  of  the  continued  good  working  of 
the  carriage,  the  masonrj-  should  first  of  all  have  a 
solid  bed.  If  the  soil  be  not  firm,  as  often  happens 
on  the  sea-coast,  the  foundation  should  be  made  by 
driving  piles,  on  which  a  good  bed  of  concrete  sliould 
be  laid,  and  may  be  made  still  more  solid  by  pieces  of 
railroad  iron. 

The  following  implements  are  supplied  for  the  car- 
riages :  Two  wooden  handspikes  (ash),  liaving  ends 
sliod  with  iron  and  made  to  fit  in  the  holes  of  the  ele- 
vating-wheel, in  the  rear  truck-wheels,  and  rear  trav- 
erse-wheels ;  one  wrench  for  tlie  packing-box;  a 
wrench  for  the  cock  and  the  filling-hole  screw  in  the 
hydraulic  cylinder;  a  screw-wrench,  and  asliot-cart. 
The  bod)'  of  the  cart  is  a  piece  of  curved  sheet-iron, 
on  which  the  projectile  lies.  It  is  held  in  place  by 
an  iron  strap  passing  over  it,  tlirough  whicli  two 
screws  pass  and  press  against  the  shot  between  two 
bands.  An  e_ye-bolt  and  ring  is  provided  on  the  top 
of  this  strap,  into  which  the  hook  of  the  crane-rope 
is  passed  to  hoist  the  shot.  The  front  end  of  the  cart 
has  a  flange,  with  two  liookstohang  it  to  the  breech 
of  the  gun,  where  it  rests  and  serves  as  a  guide  in 
loading.  Tlie  a.xle  and  two  bronze  wheels  are  placed 
a  little  in  front  the  center  of  gravity,  and  a  sheet-iron 
prop  at  the  rear  end,  and  also  the  pole,  which  can 
be  taken  off,  but  is  held  in  place  when  in  use  by  two 
hooks  below  and  two  studs  above. 

To  load  tlie  cart,  the  projectile  is  first  placedon  its 
base  and  the  cart  over  it;  the  screws  for  holding  the 
projectile  are  turned  down  ;  the  cart  is  then  righted 
and  the  pole  put  in  place.  For  every  battery ,"or  in 
large  batteries  for  every  three  guns,  there  is  added  a 
pair  of  windlasses  like  that  already  described  and 
used  in  running  tlie  top  carriage  back,  and  a  funnel 
with  a  graduated  scale  inside  giving  its  contents  in 
gallons.  Its  bottom  orifice  is  closed  by  a  cock,  and 
is  used  in  filling  the  cylinder  with  glycerine.  An  ex- 
tra bl(/ck  and  tackle  is  added  to  those  carriages  which 
have  no  windlasses. 

The  carriages  having  been  all  mounted  and  proved 
in  the  Shops  by  firing  and  working  them,  it  is  only 
required  for  mounting  them  in  batfery  that  the  cor- 
responding parts  should  be  secured  to  the  platform, 
which  should  be  level  and  firm.  The  pintle-plate 
sliould  be  laid  down  so  that  the  pintle  shall  be  exactly 
vertical.  The  rear  traverse-circles  should  be  placed 
on  the  arc  of  a  circle  described  with  tlie  pintle  as  a 
center,  and  a  mean  radius  of  l.T  feet,  for  all  sea- 
coast  carriages  from  G  to  11  inch  caliber. 

The  12-incli  carriage  is  similar  in  its  genera,  con- 
.struction  to  those  above  descril)ed.  It  admits  of  an 
elevation  of, the  gun  of  17",  and  a  depression  of  7". 
The  axis  of  the  trumiion-beds  is  !Ki.7  inclies  above 
the  platform.  Tlu^  elevating  apparatus  is  provided 
with  a  wheel  on  either  side  of  the  carriage,  having 
radiarl  handles  with  which  to  (iperate  it.  Tliis  wheel 
carries  a  pinion,  which  is  comiected  l)y  an  iuterine- 
diate  wheel  to  tluit  which  works  the  circular  rack, 
thus  gaining  power  to  raise'  the  breech.  The  rails 
have  a  dejitli  of  17,7  inches,  a  width  on  to])  of  0.3!) 
inches, and  an  inclination  of  4'^.  The  piston-head  of 
the  hydraulic,  cylinder  is  jiiereed  with  4  holes  .7(i 
inch  in  diameter  ;  I'.IJ  gallons  is  the  maxiniiiin  (juan- 
tily  of  glycerine  that  should  be  put  in  the  (ylinder. 
The  weight  of  the  top  carriage  is  12,4.')G  pounds; 
the  chassis,  33,842  pounds. 
The  14-inch  carriage  differs  from  the  12-inch  only 


in  some  minor  details.  The  axis  of  tlie  trunnion- 
beds  is  10.')  inches  above  the  platform.  The  carriage 
admits  of  the  gun  being  fired  over  a  parapet  of  78 
inches  in  heiglit,  with  an  elevation  of  19"  and  a  de- 
pression of  6°.  A  dial-train  is  attached  to  the  cir- 
cular rack  of  the  elevating  apparatus,  and  sliows  to 
the  gunner  working  the  wheel  the  degree  of  eleva- 
tion given  to  the  gun.  The  hydraulic  buffer  has  two 
cylinders  9  inches  interior  diameter,  in  place  of  a 
single  one.  They  are  placed  close  to  the  rail  on  each 
side  of  the  chassis.  Three  traverse-circles  and  three 
sets  of  traverse-wheels  are  used  instead  of  two. 

A  graduated  arc  of  a  circle  is  traced  on  the  plat- 
form in  rear  of  the  chassis,  with  a  pointer  fastened 
to  the  end  of  the  rail  to  give  direction  to  the  gun 
when  the  objt  ct  fired  at  cannot  be  seen  on  account 
of  darkness,  smoke,  or  fog.  Weight  of  the  top  car- 
riage and  chassis,  74,961  pounds.  See  Hydraulic 
Ihiffir,  Krupp  Gun,  Pldtfnrmx,  Sen-coast  and  Gar- 
rix'in  f'arriagen.  and  Siege  Carriages. 

KRUPP  RIFLING.— In  this  system  the  grooves  are 
quite  shallow,  their  sides  being  radial  aSd  forming 
sharp  angles  with  the  bore,  fhe  rifling  has  a  uni- 
form twist  of  one  turn  in  4.5  calibers  generallj-.  The 
grooves  are  wider  at  the  bottom  of  the  bore  than  at 
the  muzzle,  so  that  the  compression  of  the  lead-coated 
projectile  is  gradual,  and  less  force  is  expended  in 
changing  the  shape  of  the  projectile.  Tliis  change 
of  shape  is  effected  b}'  making  the  whole  groove  of 
the  same  size  as  at  the  muzzle,  and  then  cutting  away 
graduallyon  the  loading-edge  of  thegroove.  Of  course, 
as  the  twist  is  uniform,  the  driving-side  of  the  groove 
cannot  vary.  The  outer  surface  of  the  lead  coating 
of  the  projectile  is  in  raised  rings  with  grooves  be- 
tween, to  allow  space  for  its  being  drawn  down  in 
passing  tlirougli  the  bore.  The  advantages  of  this, 
or  the  compressing  system,  are  that  the  projectile  is 
centered  during  its  passage  tlirough  the  bore,  which 
prevents  balloting  ;  the  angles  of  departure  and  the 
initial  velocities  are  therefore  more  uniform,  and  the 
stability  of  the  axis  of  rotation  on  leaving  the  bore  is 
better  assured  ;  from  whicli  result  great  regularity  and 
precision  of  fire.  Tliere  is  little  or  no  difficulty  as  to 
erosion  of  the  metal  caused  by  the  gas  forcing  its  way 
between  the  projectile  and  the  bore.  The  lead  jacket 
of  the  forced  projectile  does  not  prevent  the  emplo)'- 
ment  of  heavy  charges.  Forced  projectiles  do  not 
wedge  in  the  bore.  The  regularity  of  the  movement 
of  these  projectiles  does  not  wear  or  injure  the  bore. 
Tlie  soft  metal  coating  prevents  damage  to  the  lands. 
The  bursting  of  a  projectile  covered  with  soft  metal 
has  comparatively  no  baneful  effect  on  the  gun. 

The  objections  to  the  system  are  the  severe  strains 
on  the  gun  by  suddenly  stopping  windage,  by  foul- 
ing, and  bj- forcing  the  projectile  into  a  bore  of  smaller 
diameter.  The  compressed  projectile  must  be  fired 
from  a  breech-loading  gun,  and  the  increasing-twist  is 
impracticable  from  the  great  length  of  the  soft-metal 
liearing.  The  soft  coating  of  the  projectile  is  liable 
to  injury  in  handling  and  in  store  ;  also  to  be  stripped 
on  firiuii. 

KEUPP  STEEL  WORKS  —The  widespread  reputa- 
tion of  the  steel  ])roduced  in  the  great  works  of  Ilerr 
Krupj),  at  Essen,  in  Prussia,  has  induced  us  to  give 
it  a  brief  notice.  His  manufactory,  always  a  large 
one,  has  been  gradually  increasing  in  size  during  the 
last  half  century,  imtill  it  now  covers  nearly  1000 
acres,  and  gives  employment  to  some  14,000  persons. 
For  large  nu'tallurgical  works,  Essen  is  favorably 
situated,  being  in  the  center  of  a  coal-bearing  area, 
where  coal  of  the  purest  kind  can  be  comparatively 
cheaply  procured.  There  is  also  at  hand  the  niangan- 
iferous  iron  ores  of  Prussia,  which  have  been  found 
so  excellently  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  steel; 
but  it  is  believed  tliat  the  admirable  organization  of 
every  |)art  of  bis  mauufactury  has  conduced,  as  much 
as  anything,  to  the  great  success  of  Krupp.  Witii 
laborers  and  lueclumics  who  have  passed  the  regu- 
lation-time in  the  Prussian  army,  overseers  trained 
in  the  German  technical  schools,  and  a  small  staff  of 


K8HATRIYA. 


165 


KU  KLUX. 


ex|)criciif((l  imalytifal  clicinisits,  he  liiiH  (ibvioiisly  a 
lljrcat  ji(lvaiitai/;('  in  rniifiiiclinj^  opiTjitifinM  where  or- 
der, syMteiii,  ami  skill  are  of  parunioiiiil  iiM|i(irlariee. 
IJiit  even  with  these  l)enelils,  Kriipp's  pruiliii-licinH 
wiiiilcl  iKil  liave  ^;ainecl  their  eelchrily,  were  it  not  for 
the  scrn|)uli)UH  (;are  with  wliicli  he  j)erfornin  every 
manipulation.  In  llie  article  Ihon  we  have  (lescribi'd 
th(r  inannfa<;turo  of  steel  by  the  cemi  lUation  and  Uri- 
te.mer  iirocesBcs,  but  there  are  several  other  methods 
of  inakini;  it,  and  one  of  these  is  by  the  deearburiza- 
tioii  of  east-iron  in  Ihe  ]iuddlili<;  furnare.  This  is  the 
process  by  which  Krupp  makes  liis  steel,  in  the  first 
inslance;  and  tiie  material  he  most  lar;;ely  employs  is 
spiefieleim'n,  or  specular  cast-iron,  a  hifjhly  crystalline 
variety,  usually  conlainini;  about  4  per  cent  of  man- 
ganese. This  iron  is  admirably  suited  for  conversion 
into  steel.  The  )iuddlin;;  process  for  steel  is  similar 
to  that  employed  for  iron,  except  that  Ihe  former  is 
conducted  al  a  lower  teniiierature,  and  re(|uires  nicer 
management;  but  in  the  case  of  steel,  llie  cast-iron 
to  be  operated  ujjon  is  never  previously  relined.  Cast- 
iron  til  the  extent  of  about  4  cwts.  is  melted  in  the 
puddling  furnace,  mixed  with  a  quantity  of  slai;  or 
cinder  (chietly  silicate  of  iron),  and  stirred  -with  a 
rabble.  Durins  this  operation,  the  carbon  in  the 
cast-iron  (\isually  about  .'5  per  cent)  is  irradually  oxi- 
dized by  tile  oxviien  present  in  the  ciniler;  ciirhonic 
oxide  is  produced,  and  as  it  escapes,  what  is  techni- 
cally termed  "  boiling"  takes  place.  When  the  ebid- 
lition  becomes  active,  the  temperature  is  raised  un- 
til the  appearance  of  incipient  solidilication  occurs: 
the  heat  is  then  lowered,  and  the  ordinary  process 
of  balling  proceeded  with.  Steel  thus  produced  \isu- 
ally  contains  from  0..'5  to  1  per  cent  of  carbon;  but 
if  the  temperature  is  not  skillfully  regulated,  the  car- 
bon becomes  wliolly  burned  away,  and  malleable  iron 
instead  of  steel  is  produi'cd. 

Puddled  steel,  although  tiseful  for  most  purposes 
in  the  arts  (except  cutlery),  nevertheless  wants  ho-  { 
mogeneity,  on  account  of  a  certain  intermixture  [ 
of  cinder,  which  is  ditlicult  to  get  rid  of  without  fu-  j 
sion — a  defect  which  is  ajit  to  prevent  it  from  weld-  j 
ing  perfectly.  In  Ivrui)p's  Works  the  puddled  steel  i 
is  renielteJ  into  crucibles,  in  order  to  convert  it  into  ' 
cast-sleel ;  and  it  is  the  wonderful  uniformity  of  qual- 
itj'  with  which  he  manufactures  this  in  very  large 
masses,  that  constitutes  the  superiority  of,  and  gives 
so  great  an  interest  to,  his  productions.  The  cruci- 
bles employed  are  made  with  extreme  care,  mainl}- 
from  lire-clay,  to  which  a  little  plumbago  is  added; 
their  capacity  varies  from  ."JO  to  100  lbs.,  and  it  is  re- 
ported that  as  manj'  as  100.000  are  kept  drying  at 
the  same  time.  After  being  once  used,  the  crucibles 
are  broken  up,  and  mixed  with  other  material,  to 
make  new  ones.  In  the  casting-house,  where  the 
large  ingots  are  run.  the  furnaces,  which  contain 
about  1,200  crucibles,  are  arranged  along  the  sides  of 
the  building ;  and  in  the  central  portion  the  steel 
molds,  varying  iu  ciipacity  from  100  lbs.  to  50  tons, 
are  disposed  in  line  between  two  pairs  of  rails,  upon 
which  runs  a  movable  crane.  It  is  iu  the  casting  of 
such  an  enormous  ingot  as  .50  tons  of  steel  (the  larg- 
e.st  yet  produced)  from  crucibles  of  small  capacity 
that  the  perfect  organization  of  Krupp's  Establish- 
ment becomes  more  strikingly  apparent.  At  a  given 
signal,  one  gang  of  workmen  remove  the  crucibles 
from  the  furnaces,  while  another  seize  them  with 
tongs  for  the  purpose,  and  pour  their  contents  into 
narrow  canals  of  wrought-iron,  lined  with  tire-clay, 
which  converge  into  the  opening  by  which  the  mold 
is  tilled.  This  is  the  critical  stage  of  the  operation, 
the  diftieulty  being  to  deposit  in  the  mold  a  contin- 
uous stream  of  melted  steel  of  about  the  same  de- 
gree of  beat,  so  as  to  cool  uniformly,  and  to  solidify 
into  a  perfectly  homogeneous  nuiss.  Of  such  uni- 
form soundness  are  some  of  Krupp's  large  steel  in- 
gots, that  one — shown  in  the  London  Kxhibition  of. 
18G3,  9  feet  high,  44  inches  in  diameter,  and  weigh- 
ing 21  tons — when  broken  across  ilid  not  show  the 
slightest  flaw,  even  when  examined  with  a  lens.     In 


order  to  manipulatt?  these  extraordinary  masses  of 
Htei'l,  there  is  a  steel  hainmer,  weighing  .50  tons — 
the  mechanical  marvel  of  the  Works  at  Essen  -which 
has  a  cyliniler  nearly  six  feet  in  diameter.  It  has  a 
50-lon  crane  at  racli  of  its  four  corners,  and  behind 
each  of  these  again  there  arc  four  heating  furnaces. 
A  movable  bench  on  low  massive  wheels  serves  to 
j  remove  alarge  ingot  from  any  of  the  furnaces,  which 
is  then,  by  means  of  the  powerful  cranes,  and  a  sys- 
I  tern  of  pulleys  and  crabs,  placed  on  the  anvil,  and 
worked  into  any  desired  shape.  The  anvil-face  weighs 
1H5  Ions. 

The  (pianlity  of  steel  manufactured  by  Ilerr  Krupp 
annually  amounts  to  about  125,000  tons,  represent- 
ing a  value  of  about  tH.tJOO.OOO.  It  consists  chief!)' 
of  rails,  tires,  crank-axles,  shafts,  mining  pump-rods, 
and  guns  I  hi'  proportion  of  ordnance  being  about 
Iwo-liftlis  of  the  whole.  Guns  have  been  made  at 
Essen  for  the  J'russians,  Austrians,  Helgians.  Dutch, 
Ilaliiins.  Turks.  .Japanese,  and  also  for  the  English, 
although  not  directly  ordered  by  the  Government. 
In  1874  the  works  included  1,100  smelting  and  other 
furnaces,  275  coke-ovens,  204  forges,  300  steam  boil- 
ers, 71  steam-hammers,  281!  steam-engines  of  10,000- 
hor.se  power,  1,0.50  machine  tools,  30  miles  of  railway, 
HO  telegraph  slalions.  a  clwmical  laboratory,  and  pho- 
tographic, lilhogra])hic,  printing,  and  bookbinding 
eslablishmenls.  Therit  is  a  tire-brigade  of  70  men, 
besides  l(i(S  watchmen.  In  1870  the  consumption  of 
coal  and  coke  logether  amounted  to  012.000  tons  ; 
that  of  gas,  7.:j00,000  cubic  meters  in  20.342  burners. 
Krupp  lias  built  good  houses,  hospitals,  etc..  for  his 
men.  Besides  the  works  at  Essen,  the  firm  possess- 
es several  mines  and  .smelting  works.  In  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  1807,  Krupp  showe<l  a  huge  gun  in- 
tended for  a  coast  battery  to  defend  the  attacks  of 
plated  ships.  It  was  made  entirely  of  cast-steel, 
weighed  50  tons,  and  could  projiel  a  shot  weighing 
1,080  lbs.  It  took  IG  months,  working  day  and  night 
without  interruption,  to  manufacture.  The  price  of 
the  gun  alone  was  £15.750.  and  of  its  carriage  and 
turn-table, which  weighed  respectively  15  and  25  tons, 
X'(),000  more.  In  the  Vienna  Exhibition  of  1873. Krupp 
showed,  iu  a  pavilion  by  themselves,  a  number  of 
most  interesting  objects  in  steel.  Among  them  were 
a  huge  gun  like  that  shown  at  Paris,  about  4  feet  6 
inches  in  its  greatest  diameter  ;  an  octagonal  ingot, 
weighing  fully  50  tons  :  and  a  marine-engine  shaft.  15 
inches  in  diameter.  He  also  exhibited  at  Philadel- 
phia in  187G.     See  Krupp  gun. 

KSHATBITA.— The  second  or  militarj-  caste  in  the 
I!r;ilimanii-al  social  system. 

KU-KLUX— KU-KLHX  KLAN.— The  title  of  a  Se- 
cret Association  which  existed  in  the  Southern  States 
from  1866  to  1872,  and  which  terrorized  that  section 
of  the  countr}-  diiring  the  period  in  question.  It 
was  first  made  known  as  an  active  agency  in  Ten- 
nessee, in  1867,  when  the  Governor  of  that  .State, 
William  G.  Brownlow,  called  tipon  the  U,  S.  mili- 
tary authorities,  to  suppress  violence  and  public  dis- 
turbances in  the  State,  which  were  traced  to  this 
organization.  The  history  of  the  Ku-klux  shows 
that  at  the  close  of  the  war  various  Societies  of  a 
political  character  were  formed  in  the  States  of  Ala- 
bama, Arkansas.  Georgia,  Kentucky,  Mississippi, 
North  and  South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Texas, 
under  the  names  of  the  Knights  of  Ihe  White  Cam- 
ellia, White  Brotherhood.  Constitutional  Union 
Guards,  Pale  Faces,  Invisible  Empires.  Invisible  Cir- 
cle, etc.,  all  of  which  were  eventually  lost  in  the 
broader  scope  and  more  powerful  and  permanent  in- 
fluence of  the  Ku-klux  Klan.  From  the  evidence 
afforded  it  would  appear  tliat  the  origin  of  these 
Secret  Societies,  and  more  particularly  of  the  one  we 
are  specially  considering,  is  to  be  found  in  the  dislo- 
cation of  poltical  and  social  interests  in  the  Southern 
.States  consequent  to  the  aggressive  influence  of  a 
long  and  devastating  condition  of  warfare.  In  expla- 
nation of  their  foundations.  ex-Confederates  claim 
that  they  were  preceded  by  organization  of  loyal 


KUL. 


166 


ETTBTCHI 


leagues,  which,  as  thev  allege,  were  formed  among 
the   Negroes  in   the   South   through  the  efforts  of 
"Carpet-baggers,"  so-called  radical  leaders  intrigu- 
ing in  the  interest  of  the  perpetuation  of  the  power 
of  the  Republican  Party  in  the  Southern  States.     It 
is  also  claimed  in  behalf  of  the  Southern  people  that, 
through  the  action  of  the  14th  and  loth  Amendments 
to  the'Constitution  of  the  United  States,  the  South- 
ern white  population  was  greatly  endangered  both 
in  its  homes  and  its  social  relations,  the  emancipated 
Blacks  being  generally  considered  in  the  light  of 
a  race  angered  by  long  and  bitter  servitude,  now 
armed  and  equipped  by  law  and  public  sentiment, 
and  only  waiting  opportunity  for  an  uprising  and 
to   grasp   the  balance    of   power  among   the  high- 
spirited  people  to  whom  they  had  been  slaves  for 
more  than  two  centuries.     This  is  the  Southern  ex- 
planation of  the  rise  of  the   Ku-klux.      Whatever 
may  be  the  measure  of  truth  contained  in  it,  this 
in  no  wise  militates  against  the  justness  of  public 
condemnation   of  its   acts.      By  Joint  Resolution, 
dated  April  20,  1871,  the  two  Houses  of  Congress 
ordered   an  investigation  into  the  condition  of  af- 
fairs in  the  States  recently  in  a  condition  of  insur- 
rection.    For  three  years"  the  press  had  been  filled 
with  detailed  statements  describing  acts  of  atrocity 
atiributed.to  the  secret  and  terrible  Ku-klux  Klan, 
which  rivaled  the  worst  instances  recorded  against 
the  Spanish  domination  in  the  Netherlands,  and  the 
bloody  scenes  of  the  French  Revolution.     In  every 
Southern  State  except  Virginia.  West  Virginia,  Del- 
aware, Maryland,  and  Florida,  assassination  of  Ne- 
groes and  white  Republicans  were  of  daily  occur- 
rence.    The  gift  of  suffrage  to  the  colored  man  had 
been  nullified  in  its  outcome  as  a  political  influence 
throush  the  system  of  terrorizing  which  utterly  pre- 
cluded the  free  suffrage  of  the  emancipated  Blacks. 
Besides  instances  of  special  massacres  covering  lar^e 
numbers,    and  of   which   there    occurred  many   m 
South  Carolina,  Louisiana.  Mississippi,  Texas   and 
Tennessee,    the  daily    and    nightly   assassinations, 
whippings,  burnings,  and  other  outrages  were  innu- 
merable."and  were  never  recorded.  In  reporting  the 
state  of  society  in  Texas,  the  evidence  given  is,  to 
the  effect  that  the  Negroes  were  murderedwith  sucl; 
frequency  that  there  was  no  possibility  of  keeping 
an  accurate  record  of  the  details.     On  the  basis  of 
reports  of  this  nature,  and  stimulated,  doubtless  by 
the  intense  public  feeling  in  the  North,  created  by 
the  gradually  spreading  conviction  of  the  lamenta- 
ble cleticiency  in  the  power  of  the  law  as  applied  in 
the   South,  Congress,    through  its  Committee,  pro- 
ceeded to  the  inv'estigation  ordered  by  the  Joint  Reso- 
lution to  which  we  have  already  referred.     The  re- 
sult of  this  investigation  appears  in  the  12  octavo 
volumes  reporting  tl^e  testimony  taken  and  published 
among  the  official  documents  (Senate)  of  the  year 
1872.  °  An  immense   mass  of  evidence  displays  the 
nattire  and  acts  of  the  Ku-klux,  and  fully  justifies 
the  title  "Conspiracy,"  which  Congress  bestowed  up- 
on that  organization.     While  the  Ku-klux  may  have 
originated  for  a  minor  purpose,  it  is  difficult  to  be- 
lieve that  this  tremendous  association  of  men  sworn 
to  fidelity;  having  its  ramifications  in  every  Southern 
State,  and  the  power  of  life  and  death  in  most  of 
them;    with  a  ritual,  oath,  grips,  pass-words,   and 
all  the  other  secret  and  systematic  machinery  neces- 
sary to  llic  carrying  out  of  the  most  hidden  and  dan- 
gero\is  purposes— it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  the 
real  motive  and  intention  of  the  Order  were  not  the 
subversion  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  rehal]ililation  of  the  leaders  of  the  Reliel- 
lion.     To  this  end,   the  negation  of  the  suffrage  in 
the  South,  and  the  efforts  to  defeat  reconstruction, 
may  reasonably  be  supposed  to  have  tended.     And 
whatever  diverse  opinions  may  be  held  regarding  the 
good  sense,  judgment,  and  patriotism  displayeil  in 
the  Reconstruction  Acts  and  tlie  metliods  ado])teil  to 
carry  them  into  effect,  it  is  impossible  to  view  with- 
out the  severest  censure  the  nature  of  the  opposition 


to  them,  as  conducted  by  a  bloody  and  revengeful 
association  of  exceedingly  cruel  and  implacable  men, 
intensely  crazed  by  the  facility  with  which  murder 
and  incendiarism  could  be  made  to  do  duty  for  what 
its  members  chose  to  consider  retributive  justice. 
Following  is  the  oath  of  the  Ku-klux  Klan,  as  it 
was  offerea  in  evidence  before  the  Investigating 
Committee  of  Congress:  "I  (name),  before  the 
great  immaculate  Judge  of  heaven  and  earth,  and 
upon  the  holy  evangelists  of  Almighty  God,  do,  of 
my  own  free  will  and  accord,  subscribe  to  the  follow- 
ing sacred  binding  obligation.  I.  I  am  on  the  side 
of  justice  and  humanity  and  constitutional  liberty, 
as  bequeathed  to  us  by  our  forefathers.  II.  I  re- 
ject and  oppose  the  principles  of  the  radical  party. 

III.  I  pledge  aid  to  a  brother  of  the  Ku-klux  Klan 
in  sickness,  distress,  or  pecuniary  embarrassment. 
Females,  friends,  widows,  and  their  households  shall 
be  the  special  object   of  my   care   and   protection. 

IV.  Should  I  ever  divulge,  or  cause  to  be  divulged, 
any  of  the  secrets  of  this  Order,  or  any  of  the  fore- 
going obligations,  I  must  meet  with  the  fearful  pun- 
ishment of  death  and  traitor's  doom,  which  is 
death,  death,  death,  at  the  hands  of  the  brethren." 
This  sufficiently  theatrical  obligation  becomes  im- 
pressive when  one  reflects  that  its  various  sections 
were  carried  out  with  absolute  rigor,  and  that  dis- 
obedience of  the  orders  of  the  Chief  of  a  klan  was 
actually  visited  with  instant  death.  Thus  were  the 
customs  of  the  Carbonari  paralleled  among  so  pro- 
saic and  conventional  a  people  as  the  Americans  so 
late  as  1871.  The  members  of  the  Order  were  ob- 
liged to  deny  their  membership,  even  when  answer- 
ing as  witnesses  in  a  Court  of  law,  and  were  obli- 
gated to  clear  each  other  by  their  testimony  in  such 
cases  or  when  acting  as  jurors.  The  Ku-klux  grad- 
ually died  out  as  an  active  organization  after  the 
investigation  of  1871 ;  and  although  certain  of  their 
methods  continued  to  obtain  during  the  progress  of 
elections  in  the  South,  the  return  to  sounder  sense 
and  better  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  people  of  that 
section,  and  the  improving  condition  of  the  relations 
between  the  North  and  the  South,  gradually  died 
away  with  the  passions  in  which  the  organization 
originated.  It  is  reported  that  there  were  at  one 
time  550,000  members  of  the  Ku-klux  Klan  in  the 
South,  of  which  number  40,000  are  said  to  have  been 
in  Tennessee. 

KUL. — The  Turkish  word  for  slave  to  the  Prince. 
The  Grand  Vizier,  the  Bachas,  the  Beigler  Beys, 
and  all  persons  who  receive  pay  or  subsistence  from 
situations  dependent  upon  the  Crown,  are  so  called. 
This  title  is  in  high  estimation  among  the  Turkish 
military,  as  it  authorizes  all  who  are  invested  with 
it  to  insult,  strike,  and  otherwise  illuse  the  com- 
mon people,  witliout  being  responsible  for  the  most 
flagrant  breach  of  humanity. 

KULLUM.  (Nauclea  parviikfra). — A  wood  used  in 
the  Bombay  Presidency  for  fuses.  It  is  a  very  light, 
soft,  close,  and  even-grained  wood,  of  a  light  brown 
color,  not  verj'  durable,  and  will  rot  when  exposed 
to  wet. 

KUNDA  DE  RAJAH.— An  IndiaH  sword  of  the  16th 
century,  3j  feet  long,  and  entirely  made  of  iron. 
The  blade  is  damascened,  and  the  handle,  guard  and 
hilt  are  beautifully  engraved. 

KURROL.— Tlic  Indian  term  for  the  advanced- 
guanl  (if  a  main  army. 

KURTCHI.— The  iVrsian  name  of  a  Militia.  It 
consists  of  one  body  of  Cavalry,  which  is  composed 
of  the  first  Nobility  of  the  Kingdom,  and  of  the  lin- 
eal (lecendants  of  the  Turkish  Conquerors,  who 
placed  Ismael  Soplii  on  the  throne.  They  wear  a  red 
turban  of  twelve  folds,  which  is  made  of  particular 
stuff.  This  turl)an  was  originally  given  them  by 
Ismael,  in  consideration  of  their  attachment  to  the 
religion  and  family  of  All.  In  consequence  of  their 
wearing  this  turban,  the  Persians  arc  always  called 
hv  tlie  Turks  KitiHin.^rhi  or  Red-heads.  The  Kurt- 
ciii  compose  a  body  of  nearly  18,000  men.  The  Com- 


KTANIZINO. 


Kw 


LABOEATOBT. 


mandinK  Offlrcr  nf  the  Kurfcl'.i  is  known  an  Knrtrhf- 

hdjichi,  wild  fiiriiicrly  liii'l  I'-f  iili'iilical  aiillinrilv 
timl  was  iirif;iiially  |)osstss'_-J  l)_v  Uu;  (.'(jnslublu  of 
Fraiii-c. 


tlmbrT,  ptf.,  from  rlry  rot  or  dcray.  Th'iH  moBt  fffl- 
lacioiiM  iiii-lliod.  wMirh  cdnsiHlH  of  injiclin^'  into  the 
|)or<ts  <jf  tin-  wood  aKoliilion  of  <orroKive  Hublimate, 
wiiH  iiivuiilcd  liy  .John    II.  Kyan,  wlio   waH  born   in 


KYANIZING.— A  proceKfl  for  proHerving  ordnance  !  Dublin,  Nov.  27,  1774,  and  died  in  IbOO. 


L 


LABAKl'M. — The  fatrio'ia  standard  of  the  Uoman 
Emperor  ('onsl>antii>(',  designed  tocomnienioratc  the 
miraculous  vision  of  the  cross  in  the  sky,  which  is 
said  to  have  appeared  to  him  on  his  way  to  attack 
Maxenlius,  awdtoliave  been  the  movinLC  cause  of  his 
conversion  to  Christianity.  Jt  was  a  loni;  pipe  or 
lance,  with  a  short  transverse  liar  of  wood  attaelied 
near  its  extremity,  so  as  to  form  somethinn;  like  a 
cross.  On  the  point  of  the  lance  was  a  golden  crown 
sparkling  with  gems,  and  in  its  center  tlie  mysterious 
monogram  of  tlie  cross  and  the  initial  letters  of  the 
name  of  Christ,  with  the  occasional  addition  of  the 
Greek  letters  Alpha  and  Omigii.  From  the  cross- 
beam depended  a  ])urple  banner,  decorated  with  i)re- 
cious  stones,  and  fully  surrounded  by  a  rich  border 
of  gold  cnd)roidery.  The  cross  was  s\djstituted  for 
the  eagle,  formerly  depicted  on  the  Roman  stand- 
ards, and  there  were  sonu'limes  other  emblems  of 
till'  Saviour.  Uetween  the  crown  and  the  cross  were 
beads  of  tlie  Emperor  and  his  family,  and  sometimes 
a  figure  of  Christ  woven  in  gold.     See  Staiidfinl. 

LABEL  LAMBEL.— In  Iferaldry,  the  mark  of  ca- 
dency which  distinguishes  tlie  eldest  son  in  liis  fath- 
er's lifetime,  familiar  tons  from  its  entering  into  the 
composition  of  the  arms  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  and 
other  members  of  the  royal  family.  It  consists  of  a 
horizontal  stripe  or  lillet,  with  three  points  depend- 
ing from  it.  When  the  mark  of  cadency  itself  is  des- 
ignated VLjiti\  its  points  are  called  InM.i.  It  is  said 
that  the  eldest  son's  eldest  son  should  wear  a  label 
of  five  points  in  liis  grandfather's  lifetime,  and,  simi- 
larly, the  great-grandson  a  label  of  seven  points,  two 
points  being  added  lor  each  generation.  The  label 
extended  originally  ([iiite  across  the  shield,  and  some- 
times occupied  the  upper,  though  now  it  is  always 
placed  in  the  lower  part  of  the  chief:  the  points,  at 
first  rectangular,  assumed  in  later  times  the  form 
called  pattue,  dove-tailed,  or  wedge-shaped,  and  more 
recently,  the  label  ceased  to  be  connected  with  the 
edges  of  the  shield.  Edward  I.,  in  his  father's  life- 
time, bore  the  arms  of  England  within  a  label  not  of 
three,  but  of  five  points  azure,  joined  to  the  head  of 
the  shield,  and  interlaced  with  the  tail  of  the  upper- 
most lion.  Edward  II.,  when  Prince  of  Wales,  used 
indilTerently  the  label  of  three  or  five  points,  as  also 
did  Edward  III.;but  from  the  time  of  the  Black  Prince 
downwards,  the  eldest  son  of  the  King  of  England 
has  invariably  differenced  his  arms  with  a  label  of 
three  points  argent,  and  the  practice  has  been  for  the 
younger  sons  also  to  bear  labels,  which  are  some- 
times of  other  colors  and  more  points,  and  differenc- 
ed by  being  charged  with  fleurs-de-lis,  castles,  tor- 
teaux,  hearts,  crosses,  etc.,  as  directed  by  the  Sov- 
ereign by  sign-manual  registered  in  the  C'ollege  of 
Arms.  The  practice  of  differencing  by  the  label 
which  is  thus  in  viridi  observantui  in  our  own  and 
other  royal  families,  is  less  used  by  subjects.  Like 
other  marks  of  cadency,  laliels  are  sometimes  borne 
as  permanent  distinctions  by  a  particular  branch  of 
a  family.     See  Hera'dry. 

LABORATORY.— This  term  is  generally  applied  to 
establishments  for  conducting  chemical  or  physical 
investigations,  or  for  chemical  manufacture.  Chem- 
ical laboratories  may  be  for  purposes  of  instruction, 
as  are  those  which  are  attached  to  colleges  or  other 
high  schfiols.  These  institutions  also  sometimes 
have   special  laboratories  for  research.      All  large 


private  manufacturinf;  cstablishtnentfl  where  chem- 
ical processes  are  employed,  to  a  considerable  extent 
have  laboratories  attached  to  them  in  which  invest- 
igations are  carried  on;  many  of  them  in  the  nature 
of  preparatory  trials  of  processes,  .to  facilitate  the 
process  of  manufacture.  A  government  manufac- 
tory is  sometimes  called  a  laboratory,  and  so  are 
many  smaller  private  establishments,  as  metallurgi- 
cal laboratories.  telegra|ih  laboratories,  et<-.  The 
following  fixtures  and  furniture  should  be  provided 
for  a  government  lalioralory. 

\.  Cartridije.litVL  . — .\  talile  for  making  cartridges 
for  small  arms,  12  feet  long  and  2\  feet  wide,  for  13 
men  or  boys  to  work  at.  and  the  length  in  that  pro- 
portion for  any  greater  number  ;  tables  for  cutting 
paper  anil  fiannel.  and  for  rolling  cases  on ;  choker 
for  rocket-cases;  press  f<ir  rocket  and  port-fire  cases; 
benches  for  cartridge-tables  :  stools.  Closets  should 
lie  partitioned  off  from  these  rooms  and  furnished 
with  cases,  drawers,  racks,  and  shelves  for  materials 
and  tools.  2.  FiUing-linnnc. — A  shelf.  3  feet  wide, 
for  weighing  on;  other  shelves  with  closets  under 
them;  tallies  with  raised  bonlers  for  filling,  folding, 
etc. ;  budge-barrels,  or  jiowder-barrels,  with  copper 
hoops  and  covers;  stools  for  scats  ;  footstools;  a  step- 
ladder;  stands  and  gutters  for  emptying  powder-bar- 
rels. 3.  Packing-hiiuse. — Tables,  benches  and  stools. 
4.  Store-houne. —  Shelf  for  weighing  on  the  shelves, 
drawers,  and  closets;  tables, scales,  stools,  seats,  step- 
ladder.  5.  Drit'ing-lKmsf. — Blocks  set  in  the  ground 
or  pavement ;  benches  and  stools.  In  favorabkrweath- 
er,  a  porch  attached  to  the  building,  or  a  tent,  may 
be  used  for  a  driving-room.  6.  Mixing-house. — Tables 
with  raised  edges ;  sieves,  etc.  7.  Furnacf -house. — 
Furnaces  ;  work-benches';  platform-balance  or  large 
scales;  atinner's  bench  and  tools,  with  a  vise,  an 
anvil,  and  a  chest  for  tools,  a  smith's  forge,  shovel 
and  poker,  stools,  etc.  8.  C«r;)fnfcr-.'(//"/.  — Turning- 
lathe  and  tools  ;  carpenter's  benches  and  tools.  9. 
Miigazini. — Shelves  and  frames  for  boxes  and  barrels. 
Two  kinds  of  furnaces  are  used  in  the  laboratorj- : 
In  the  first,  the  flame  circulates  around  both  the 
bottom  and  sides  of  the  kettle  :  in  the  second,  it 
comes  in  contact  only  with  the  bottom  ;  the  latter 
are  used  for  compositions  of  which  gunpowder  forms 
a  part.  Furnaces  are  built  of  bricks.  The  kettle  is 
of  cast-iron,  about  3  feet  in  diameter  at  the  top.  h.av- 
ing  a  rounded  bottom  and  a  flange  about  4  inches 
wide  around  the  top,  or  else  strong  handles  to  set  it 
by.  The  bottom  is  .T.")  inch  thick,  and  the  sides  .5 
inch.  By  setting  it  in  an  iron  plate  pierced  with 
holes,  encircling  the  bottom,  a  furnace  of  the  first 
kind  may  be  converted  into  one  of  the  second  kind 
by  stopping  the  holes. 

Fiirnm-efnr  reducing  the  tyxide  i>f  lead (rr  dross. — This 
furnace  is  built  in  the  open  air.  on  a  stone  or  brick 
foundation.  It  is  composed  of  a  cylinder  of  sheet- 
iron,  It)  inches  by  30  inches,  lined  with  refractory- 
clay  from  3  to  3  inches  thick.  The  interior  has  a 
form  of  an  inverted  frustum  of  a  cone,  terminating 
below  in  a  basin,  the  bottom  of  which  is  inclined 
toward  a  tap-hole.  The  fire  is  made  in  the  furnace, 
and  the  draught  supplied  by  a  bellows,  the  nozzle  of 
which  enters  at  the  top  of  the  reservoir.  The  dross 
and  the  charcoal  intended  for  its  reduction,  are 
thrown  on  the  fire  from  the  top  of  the  furnace.  The 
metal,  as  it  is  reduced,  flows  into  the  basin  and  escapes 


LABOBATOSY. 


168 


LABORATORY  MATERIALS. 


through  the  tap-hole  into  an  iron  vessel  and  ia  cast 
into  bars  or  pigs  as  desired.  In  the  field,  furnaces 
may  be  built  with  sods,  or  sunli  in  the  earth,  if  bricks 
cannot  be  readily  procured. 

F'urnax  built'inith  fmrlx. — Let  the  kettle  rest  on  a 
trivet,  the  feet  of  which  may  stand  on  any  piece  of 
flat  iron,  such  as  the  bottom  of  a  shot-canister,  or 
stand  for  grape,  the  bottom  of  the  kettle  about  1 
foot  from  the  ground ;  build  round  it  with  sods. 
The  door  of  the  furnace  is  10  inches  square :  the 
flue  of  the  chimney,  opposite  to  the  door,  G  inches 
square,  and  commencing  about  6  inches  from  the 
ground  ;  the  first  part  of  the  flue  inclined  at  an  an- 
gle of  about  15",  the  rest  vertical,  and  placed,  if  cir- 
cumstances permit,  against  a  wall  ;  the  top  of  the 
door  and  of  the  flue  ruay  be  supported  by  small  bars 
of  iron. 

Furnace  nun/i  in  the  earVi. — The  edge  of  the  ket- 
tle should  be  about  1  inch  above  ground,  and  the  bot- 
tom 13  to  15  inches  above  the  hearth  of  the  furnace; 
the  earth  is  dug  down  vertically  1  foot  from  the  ket- 
tle for  the  front  of  the  furnace,  and  the  door  is  cut 
10  inches  square.  The  earth  is  removed  and  sloped 
out.  so  as  to  give  access  to  the  door:  the  flue  is  bored 
out  on  the  opposite  side  with  a  crowbar ;  it  com- 
mences 6  inches  above  the  hearth,  and  comes  out  of 
the  ground  18  inches  from  the  furnace,  whence  it  is 
carried  horizontallj'  about  13  feet. 

In  furnaces  of  the  second  kind  mentioned  above, 
the  trivet  maj'  be  omitted,  and  the  kettle  may  rest  on 
the  sod  or  earth  for  about  1  inch  all  round,  and  the 
earth  rammed  in  against  the  sides  of  the  kettle. 

It  is  important  to  observe  the  following  precautions 
against  accidents : 

Avoid  as  much  as  possible,  the  use  of  iron  in  the 
construction  of  the  buildings,  fixtures,  tables,  bench- 
es, boxes,  etc.,  of  the  laboratory  ;  sink  tlie  heads  of 
iron  nails,  if  used,  and  fill  over  them  with  putty,  or 
paste  several  thicknesses  of  paper  over  tlicm.  Be- 
fore the  men  go  to  work  cover  the  floor  with  carpets 
or  paidins,  which  are  taken  up  carefully,  after  the 
men  leave,  and  carried  at  least  50  yards  from  the 
building,  and  there  shaken  thoroughly  and  swept. 
During  the  work  have  the  carpets  frequently  swept. 
Place  the  stores  in  cloth  bags  in  the  windows  ex- 
posed to  the  sun.  Prevent  persons  from  entering 
with  sabers,  swords,  or  canes,  etc..  or  with  matches 
about  their  persons.  Direct  all  who  work  where 
there  is  powder  to  wear  moccasins  or  socks,  and  to 
take  them  off  when  they  leave.  Direct  the  men  not 
to  drag  their  feet  in  walking.  Make  the  doors  and 
windows  to  open  and  close  easily,  without  friction  ; 
keep  tliem  open  whenever  the  weather  permits. 
Never  keep  in  the  laboratory  more  powder  than  is  ne- 
cessar\',  and  have  the  ammunition  and  other  work 
taken  "to  the  magazine  as  fast  as  it  isfinished.  Let  pow- 
der-barrels be  carried  in  hand-barrows  made  with 
leather  or  witli  slings  of  rope  or  canvas,  and  the 
ammunition  in  boxes.  Let  everything  that  is  to  be 
moved  be  lifted,  and  not  dragged  or  rolled  on  the  floor. 
Never  drive  rockets,  port-lTres.  etc.,  or  strap  shot  or 
shells  in  a  room  where  there  is  any  powder  or  com- 
position excej)!  that  used  at  the  time.  Loading  and 
unloading  shells,  driving  rockets,  pulverizing  the 
materials,  the  preparation  of  compositions  requiring 
the  use  of  fire,  and  in  which  the  components  of  gun- 
powder enter,  ought  to  be  done,  in  all  cases  when 
possible,  in  the  open  air  or  under  a  tent  far  from  the 
laI)oratory  and  magazine.  Never  enter  the  labora- 
tory at  night,  unless  it  is  indispensable,  and  then  u.se 
a  close  lantern,  with  a  wax  or  oil  light  carefully  trim- 
med. Allow  no  smoking  of  tobacco  near  the  lab- 
oratory. In  meling  lead,  be  sure  tliat  it  contains  no 
moisture;  put  the  ])igs  in  carefull}-,  and  do  not  use 
mure  than  will  fill  llu^  pot  two-tliirds  full.  U.se  tlie 
same  precaution  in  melting  all  fatty  substances.  See 
Pirew'irku,  Lnhnratnnj  Multridh.  and  Hnyal  Lahura- 
tori/. 

LABORATORY  MATERIALS.-  Laboratory  materials 
may  be  classified  as  follows:  1st.  Those  for  produc- 


ing light,  heat,  and  explosion.  2il.  Those  for  color- 
ing flames  and  producing  brilliant  sparks.  3d.  Those 
used  in  preparing  compositions.  4tli.  Those  used  in 
making  tools,  cases,  cartridge-bags,  and  for  miscel- 
laneous purposes. 

^Iaterials  for  Light.  Heat,  and  Explosion. — Po- 
ta'<n!um  nitrate (^niter),  KNO^. — For  use  in  the  labor- 
atory, niter  should  be  freed  from  all  foreign  substan- 
ces and  be  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  or  else  to  very 
minute  crystals.  It  is  best  pulverized  by  hand  in  the 
rolling-barrels  at  the  powder-mills;  but  it  may  be 
pulverized  by  hand  in  the  laboratory  as  follows:  Put 
into  a  roUing-hnrrel  50  pounds  of  dry,  refined  niter 
and  100  pounds  of  bronze  balls;  turn  the  barrel  for 
two  hours  and  a  half  at  thirty  revolutions  a  minute, 
striking  it  cautiously  at  the  same  time  with  a  mallet 
to  prevent  the  niter  from  adhering  to  the  sides. 
Separate  the  balls  by  means  of  a  brass-wire  screen, 
and  the  foreign  suljstanccs  with  a  hair  sieve.  Niter 
may  also  be  pulverized  by  pounding  it  in  a  brass 
mortar,  or  by  solution  as  follows  :  Put  14  pounds  of 
refined  niter  with  5  pints  of  clear  water,  in  a  broad 
and  shallow  copper  pan,  over  a  slow  fire,  and  as  the 
uit(>r  dissolves  skim  off  the  impurities  ;  stir  the  so- 
lution with  a  wooden  spatula  until  the  water  is  all 
evaporated,  when  the  niter  will  be  very  white  and 
fine.  Should  it  boil  too  much,  th<i  pan  must  be 
lifted  from  the  fire  and  set  upon  wet  sand  or  earth, 
and  the  niter  should  be  stirred  until  it  dries,  to  pre- 
vent it  from  adhering  to  the  pan. 

Piitnxxiiim  chlnriite,  KCIO^.  is  a  white  salt;  crystal- 
lized in  white  scales :  anhydrous;  not  altered  bj'  ex- 
posure to  the  air;  soluble  in  water,  more  in  warm 
than  in  cold;  insoluble  in  alcohol;  density,  1.989; 
decrepitates  and  fuses  at  about  500°;  at  about  720" 
it  is  decomposed  into  oxygen  and  potassium  chloride. 
This  salt  is  one  of  the  most  energetic  of  oxidizing 
bodies,  because  it  parts  with  its  o.xygen  so  readily, 
of  which  it  contains  a  very  great  quantity  (.8915 
of  its  weight).  Thrown  on  burning  coals,  it  melts 
quickly.  It  explodes  b.y  simple  contact  with  sulphuric 
acid;  mixed  witli  a  combustible  body,  the  mixture 
may  be  exploded  by  friction  or  by  a  blow.  It  should 
be  purchased  crj-stallized,  and  should  not  contain 
more  than  oue-thousandtii  of  its  weight  of  chloride 
of  sodium  or  potassium.  Its  purity  is  tested  by  means 
of  the  nitrate  of  silver  di.ssolved  in  distilled  water. 
731  grains  in  one-quarter  of  a  pint.  Dissolve  77  grains 
of  the  chlorate  in  300  grains  of  warm  water,  and  let 
the  solution  get  cold;  the  chlorate  will  be  precipitated 
in  crystals.  Add  to  the  liquid  about  tvvo  drops  of  the 
solution  of  the  nitrate  of  silver.  After  filtering,  the 
liquid  ought  not  to  give  a  precipitate  by  the  addition 
of  more  nitrate  of  silver. 

Mercury  fulminate,  CNC{NO^)Hg.  is  a  gray  salt, 
crystallized  in  fine  silky  needles;  soluble  in  water, 
more  so  in  warm  than  in  cold  water.  It  is  an  ex- 
tremely dangerous  substance  to  operate  upon  in  a 
drj-  state,  owing  to  the  readiness  and  violence  with 
which  it  explodes.  It  detonates  strongly  when  struck 
by  a  hard  body;  but  sometimes  trifling  friction  may 
serve  to  produce  this  effect,  even  when  employed 
Jn  a  moist  state.  Heated  to  300°  it  explodes,  evolv- 
ing an  exceedinglv  bright  flame.  It  is  decom- 
posed, with  explosion,  by  the  electric  spark,  and 
contact  with  strong  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.  The 
products  of  detonation  are  carbonic  acid,  nitrogen, 
and  vapor  of  mercury.  It  should  always  be  mani- 
pulated moistened  with  at  least  30 per  cent,  of  water. 
To  prepare  fulminate  nf  mercury. — Dissolve  in  a 
glass  retort  capable  of  holding  about  a  half-gallon, 
10  ounces  of  piu'e  mercury  in  five  poimds  nitric  acid 
(aciua-fortis),  of  the  specific  gravity  of  1.40.  The  so- 
lution is  made  by  placing  the  retort  in  a  water  or 
sand  bath  of  about  120°,  or  exposed  to  the  sun's 
rays  on  a  warm  day.  The  vapors  which  come  over 
arc  very  deleterious,  and  should  not  be  inhaled.  It 
ri'(|uires  about  eiglit  hours  to  thoroughly  dissolve 
th<' uiercury.  When  the  solution  is  complete,  pour 
the  licjuor  into  a  witle-mouthed  glass  vessel  capable 


LABORATORY   MATERIALS. 


]{-,<) 


LABORATORY   MATERIALS. 


of  liolcliiii;  H  lo  U)  i;iillmis,  iiiln  vvliicli  .T.OTr)  pounils 
of  alcohol  (i'lliyl)i  iilioiit  I!}  piiilM,  of  tlic  Hpccilic 
gnivily  of  .8.1  liiivc  been  previously  poured.  Ciiri- 
iiiusl,  hr'  liikeii  (o  /)'/)/;•  l/if  iiitriilr  :>/'  iiu rrnri/  mi  Ihr 
alfiiluil,  lis  lh('  reverse  inoile  of  iiii.xiii!;  Ilie  conipoiinil 
in  very  danserous.  (Jreat  lieat  is  evolved  diirini;  the 
etTervesceuee  which  ensues  from  the  mixture,  and 
the  !;lass  vessels  used  should  be  well  annealed,  and 
of  ii  form  lo  hear  a  hii;h  heal  without  l)reakinfj. 
Carliovs  of  thin  flinl-irliiss,  without  in<)uth-rini;s  or 
any  ahrupt  ehanire  in  thickness,  are  bi-st.  The  oper- 
ation shcjidd  be  performed  at  a  safe  distance  from  the 
lire',  nsthe  vajiors  of  ether  diseni^aged  are  hii;hly  in- 
flanunable.  When  reddish  fumes  l)ei;in  to  appear, 
tlioy  must  be  reduced  by  nddini;alcf)hol  in  small  ipian- 
tities.  The  proportion  of  alcohol  used  in  (he  whole 
operation  varies  accordinu;  to  the  strength  of  (he  acid 
and  ah'ohol,  and  also  with  the  static  of  the  \v<'atlier. 
The  proper  (|\iantity  is  that  which  is  just  sullicient 
to  keep  down  the  reddish  fumes,  and  is  determined 
1)V  trial  with  the  materials  used.  When  the  elTerves- 
cence  has  ceased,  the  fidminate  of  mcrciuy  is  found 
at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  as  a  brownish  precipitate. 
A  small  (luantity  of  water  is  potired  in,  and  the  con- 
fer.Is  transferred  to  the  wasliing-tub.whereit  is  repeat- 
edly washed  ill  soft  water,  until  the  vvati'r  no  lonjrer 
reddens  litmus-paper.  The  fulminate  is  in  the  form 
of  very  small  crystals,  of  a  lii;ht  i;ray<-olor  and  bri- 
liant  surface.  If  the  operation  be  well  and  carefully 
performed,  no  metallic  mercury  will  be  reprodin-ed. 
The  weight  of  the  fulminate  when  well  dried  will  be 
about  14  per  cent,  greater  than  that  of  the  mercury 
used.  If  the  proper  proportions  be  not  used  (or  if 
the  materials  be  not  of  good  quality),  the  product 
will  be,  instead  of  fulminate,  an  impaliiable  yellow 
powiler  which  is  incombuslible.  AVlieii  this  is  ob- 
serveil,  the  result  may  generally  be  corrected  by 
varying  the  proportion  of  alcohol  in  the  mixture. 
The  fulminate  of  mercury  is  kept  under  water,  in 
Btone  jars,  which  should  be  preserved  from  frost. 
Riill  hrhnxtone  is  used  for  melting,  and  flowers  of 
Bulphur  may  be  used  instead  of  roll  sulphur  |>ulver- 
ized.  The  purity  of  the  tiowers  is  more  lo  be  de- 
peniled  upon  than  that  of  the  roll  sulphur.  When 
inixi'd  wilh  potassium  chlorate,  however,  it  should 
be  washed  to  remove  sulphuric  acid.  8uli)liur  facili- 
tates the  ignition  and  combustion  of  compositions  to 
which  it  is  added. 

Ouup'>irdir--¥oT  compositions,  gunpowder  is  mriil- 
ed.  either  by  rolling  it  for  two  hours  with  once  and  a 
half  of  its  weight  of  balls,  or  by  beating  it  an  e(|iial  ' 
length  of  time  in  a  leather  bag.  or  by  grinding  it  with 
a  niullcr  on  a  mealiug-table.  Mealed  [lowder.  and 
pulvi'rized  saltpeter,  charcoal,  and  sulphur  are  gen-  j 
erally  obtained  from  the  powder-mills. 

Antimony  (regulus  of  antimony)  is  a  gr.avish-whitc 
metal,  very  brilUant,  with  a  highly  lamellated  struct- 
ure. Specific  gravity,  (i. 7  ;  melting  point.  80!^.  It 
is  easily  reduced  to  powder,  and  by  its  combustion 
with  sulphur  produces  a  strong  light  and  heat,  with 
a  blue  or  white  flame.  Antimony  is  never  found  |)ure  ; 
in  the  shops;  that  which  is  sold  uuih'r  the  name  of 
regulus  of  antimony  always  contains  a  little  snlpln.ret 
of  antimony,  arsenic, and  sometimes  the  sulphurct  of 
iron. 

Lnmpljlwk  is  the  result  of  the  incomplete  combus- 
tion of  resinous  substances.  It  is  com]iosed  of  80 
parts  of  carbon  and  20  of  impurities.  It  is  cnijiloyeu 
to  ((uicken  the  combustion  of  (-ertain  substances ; 
liut  before  it  is  used  it  should  be  washed  with  a  hot 
alkaline  solution,  to  remove  all  traces  of  empyreum- 
atic  oil. 

Coloring  Materials.  A  flame  is  colored  by  intro- 
ducing into  the  composition  which  produces  it  a 
substance,  the  particles  of  which,  being  interspersed 
through  the  flame  and  rendered  incandescent,  give  it 
the  required  color.  Coloring  substanci's  do  not  gen- 
erally take  part  in  the  combustion,  and  their  presence 
more  orless  retards  it.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  potas- 
sium chlorate,  a  more  powerful  oxidizing  agent  than 


niter,  is  used  in  lieu  of  it  in  compositions  for  colored 
lires.  There  are  a  gnat  variety  of  substances  whicli 
[rive  color  to  flames,  the  princijial  of  which  are  stron- 
iium  nitrate  and  sulphate  for  red,  barium  nitrair'  for 
green,  the  bicarbonate  of  soda  for  yellow,  copprT 
sulphate  for  purple,  copper  carl)onate  and  acetate 
for  blue.  Lampblack  is  employi'd  to  give  u  (rain 
of  rose-colored  lire  in  the  air.  and  powdered  flint 
glass  for  v\hite  llanii-s.  Sjiarks  are  produi-ed  by  in- 
troducing intothe  {omposition  fliings  or  thin  chips  of 
wroiiglit  or  last  iron,  zin'c,  steel, copper,  or  fragmentH 
of  charcoal. 

I  run.  Filings  and  very  thin  chips  give  most  bril- 
liant sparks  and  stars,  the  effects  of  which  depend 
almost  entirely  on  the  size  of  (he  particles  u.sed.  The 
tilings  must  be  made  when  wanted,  or  be  very  care 
fully  i)reserved  from  rust. 

('(iHl-iriin,  Pulverized,  it  gives  very  large  and  white 
sparks,  in  tireworks  ('Chinese  flrej.  Select  the  while 
cast-iron,  or  take  the  jiieces  of  utensils  with  thin 
sides.  To  pulverize  it  more  easily,  heal  it  to  a  red 
heat  and  (brow  it  into  cold  water. 

Steel. — In  fireworks,  filings  and  small  pieces  give 
the  most  brilliant  sparks. 

Zine  is  a  bhiish-wliite  metal,  usually  brittle,  and 
its  fracture  shows  a  crystalline  structure.  Specific 
gravity,  (>•!);  melts  at  (i8()":  is  volatilized  at  a  red 
heat,  and  lakes  fire  in  the  air,  burning  with  a  light 
flame.  At  400''  it  is  easily  reduced  to  a  powder  iu  p. 
mortar.  Granulated  zinc  is  used  lo  produce  a  blu- 
ish flame.  An  alloy  of  zinc  and  antimony  pulverized 
gives  beautiful  blue  drops.  The  oxide  of  zinc  (Jtinr. 
er.iiif  zinc)  produces  tlieap])earance  called  gold  rain. 
It  ought  to  be  purchased  in  scales,  not  in  a  powder, 
as  in  this  latter  case  it  may  be  mixed  with  foreign 
substances. 

Ciipjier  fiUngii  are  used  to  give  reddish  sparks  and 
a  ^eenish  blue  flame. 

Prepakino  Compositions. — Turpentine,  spirits  of 
turpentine,  Venice  turpentine,  tar.  pitch,  and  rosin, 
arc  chiefly  employed  in  the  jireparalion  of  composi- 
tions for  producing  light.  Alcohol,  whisky,  brandy, 
or  vinegar  is  used  in  mixing  compositifins  into  which 
niter  enters,  as  it  does  not  dissolve  niter.  It  should 
be  strong.  To  prevent  it  being  drunk,  mix  a  little 
asafetida  with  it.  Beeswax  and  mutton  tallow  are 
employed  in  mixing  compositions  intended  to  pro- 
duce heat  and  light. 

(fum  (Yrrti/f  should  be  transparent, yellowish- white, 
brittle,  insipid,  inodorous,  soluble  in  water  and  vine- 
gar, insoluble  in  alcohol.  It  is  used  in  solution  to 
give  body  and  tenacity  to  compositions,  or  to  make 
ilicm  burn  more  slowly.  It  should  be  prepared  as 
required,  for  when  in  solution  it  undergoes  a  decom- 
position. 
Miscellaneous  Materials — Coppfr'}^  a  red .  brilliant 
metal,  possessing  sreat  tenacity,  ductility,  andmalle- 
ability.  Specific  gravity,  8.0;  "fusible  at'about  1980". 
Copper,  being  bill  slightly  acted  on  by  saltpeter,  is 
employed  for  powder  measures,  utensils  for  refining 
saltpeter,  etc.  Copper  vessels  should  not  be  exposed  to 
a  great  heat, or  used  for  heating  compositions  contain- 
ing sulphur,  as  the  copper  would  be  rapidlyoxidized. 

Bronze  is  used  in  the"  laboratory  for  utensils  and 
implements  which  receive  blows  or  act  by  percussion, 
and  replaces  steel  and  iron  wherever  there  is  danger 
of  an  explosion  from  a  blow  or  from  friction. 

Branx  is  an  alloy  of  about  two  parts  of  cojjper  and 
one  of  zinc.  Brass  wire  is  used  for  ligatures,  for 
screens  and  sieves. 

Slieet-irun~%e\ec\.  the    softest  and  most  pliable. 
]  When  it  is  substituted  for  tin.  in  strapping  projec- 
tiles,  it  should  be    first  annealed  by  heating  it  to  a 
i  dull  red  heat. and  letting  it  cool  very  gradually  under 
warm  ashes,  not  exposed  to  the  air. 

Lend  is  a  lluish-white  metal,  bright,  but  tarnishes 
quickly  in  ihe  air.  Specific  gravity,  when  pure, 
11.48;" melt?  at  GOO'^,  and  volatilizes  at  a  red  heat. 
The  puritv  of  lead  is  judged  of  by  its  specific  gravi- 
tv.    To  de'termine  this,  after  having  weighed  the  pig, 


lABORATOP.Y  MATERIALS. 


170 


LABORATORY  MATERIALS. 


suspend  it  with  a  wire  in  a  vessel  of  water,  so  tliat 
it  shall  be  completely  immersed,  without  touching 
the  sides,  and  weigh  it  again.  The  weight  in  the 
air,  divided  by  the  difference  between  the  weight  in 
air  and  water,  will  give  the  specific  gravity,  which 
ought  to  be  11.35  for  lead  of  commerce.  Lead  melt- 
ed in  contact  with  air  is  soon  covered  by  a  coat  of 
gray  oxide,  which  rapidly  increases  in  thickness. 
The  formation  of  this  oxide,  or  dross,  is  prevented 
by  covering  the  lead  with  powdered  charcoal  or  ros- 
in. 

To  reduce  the  oxide  of  lead. — Put  in  a  kettle  about 
50  pounds  of  lead,  with  j\;  of  its  weight  of  powdered 
charcoal  or  grease  ;  cover  the  kettle,  and  raise  to  a 
red  heat ;  stir  the  mass.and  add  gradually  more  eoa'., 
as  it  assumes  a  3-ellow  color,  using  in  all  J  of  the 
weight  of  oxide  ;  dip  out  the  lead  with  an  iron  ladle. 
and  pour  it  into  iron  molds  or  pans.  After  having 
obtained  in  this  way  two-thirds  of  the  weight  of 
oxide,  in  lead,  throw  the  dross  into  a  tub  of  wa- 
ter, and  wash  it,  to  separate  the  ashes  and  coal;  dry 
the  remaining  oxide  and  grains  of  lead,  and  put 
them  in  a  ladle  with  j'j  of  their  weight  of  rosin  ; 
raise  to  a  red  heat,  set  fire  to  the  rosin,  shake  the 
ladle  and  pour  off  the  lead.  A  further  addition  of 
rosin  will  produce  more  lead ;  -^-^  of  the  weight 
of  dross  is  generally  used.  Tallow  may  be  used  in 
place  of  rosin.  When  the  quantity  of  dross  is  con- 
siderable, it  may  be  reduced,  in  a  similar  manner, 
in  a  small  cupola-furnace. 

Plinnber-f'  sAder  is  an  alloy  of  lead  and  tin,  in  the 
proportion  of  two  parts  of  the  former  to  one  of  the 
latter. 

Paper. — Paper  for  cartridge-box  wrappers  should 
be  homogeneous,  and  without  any  trace  of  stalks ; 
well  sized,  even,  pliable,  with  a  good  body  without 
being  too  thick,  free  from  folds  or  rents.  The  sheet 
when  moistened  ought  to  present  a  uniform  hue, 
without  spots  or  marblings.  Taken  out  of  tlie  water 
and  suspended  for  a  moment  by  the  extremities 
of  the  short  sides,  it  ought  not  to  tear  from  its 
own  weight.  The  sheet  crumpled  in  the  hand  or 
pinched  with  the  nails,  ought  not  to  tear  in  the 
folds,  and  when  torn  the  rent  should  be  fibrous. 
A  strip  of  paper  4  inches  wide  ought  not  to  break 
under  a  weight  of  40  pounds,  in  the  direction  of  its 
least  strength.  In  testing  the  strength  of  paper,  the 
two  ends  are  held  by  two  vises  of  hard  wood.  Each 
vise  is  composed  of  two  rectangular  jaws,  which 
can  be  brought  against  each  other  and  held  firmly 
by  means  of  screws,  or  by  tenons  on  one  jaw  pass- 
ing through  the  other  and  keyed  flrml}-  to  it.  A 
strip  of  paper  4  inches  wide  is  cut  and  inserted  in 
the  vises,  so  that  the  length  between  them  shall  be 
exactly  12  inches.  The  jaws  are  closed  tightlj-.  and 
one  vise  is  suspended  from  a  fixed  point  by  means 
of  a  cord  or  hook,  and  to  the  other  is  made  fast  the 

Siie  and  weight  of  paper. 


No.  ],  For  muBket-cart- 
ridgcB 

No.  -J.  For  mueket-cart 
ridge  wrapper 


No.  3.  Wrapper  for  Cart 
ridge-box 


No.  4.  Rockets  and  Port- 

lireH 

No.  5.  Fixed  aramuution 
No.  6.  Cannon-cart^idKe^ 
No.  T.  Fireworks 


Inches. 


13     Xl6>i 

18  X20 
riB  Xl4 
I  18     XIO 

'120   xao 

1.24    X20 

19  X88 
23;<<X24 
19  'x2:) 
13    Xl0>s 


Weisht, 
pounds. 


21 
27 
3-X 
45 

65 
60 
70 
20 


Proof 

weight, 

pounds. 


40 
101 


180 
22.'^ 
315 

85 


pan  of  a  balance.  It  is  loaded  gradually,  with  care, 
until  the  paper  gives  way.  The  strips  should  not 
lie  taken  from  tlie  edges  of  the  sheets  only,  but  from 
all  purls,  and  from  the  length  and  breath  sureess- 
ivelv.  for  in  these  two  directions  the  strength  is 
very  different.  Five  sheets  are  generally  taken 
from  each  ream,  in  which  only  one  sheet  can  have 


less  strength  than  that  allowed.  If  this  condition  be 
not  fulfilled,  the  ream  is  rejected. 

The  other  papers  are  tested  in  the  same  waj',  and 
shculd  possess  the  same  general  characteristics. 

Tow  should  be  entirely  of  hemp  or  flax,  clean.dry, 
sound,  free  from  stalks  and  foreign  substances. 

Merino  or  .lerge,  for  cartridge-bags,  should  be  made 
entirely  of  wool ;  it  should  be  strong,  closely  woven, 
twilled,  and  not  frayed;  the  width  should  be  even  in 
the  same  piece  ;  that  }  yard  wide  is  convenient  and 
the  most  common.  The  colors  are  to  be  preferred  in 
the  following  order ;  green,  gray,  yellow,  blue,  red, 
white  ;  reject  black,  which  is  almost  always  burnt 
and  weak. 

tVwiDfw should  be  the  strongest  and  closest  woven; 
it  is  used  for  the  sacks  for  fire-balls. 

Twine  should  be  strong,  smooth,  and  well  twisted 
.03  inch  thick  for  sewing  fire-balls,  etc. ;  from  .06 
inch  to  .08  inch  for  fixing  ammunition,  etc. 

Rope  should  be  even  and  well  twisted,  pliant  with- 
out being  soft,  made  of  hemp  of  good  quality,  water- 
rotted,  and  entirely  freed  from  stalk.  Its  size  should 
be  uniform  throughout  its  whole  length.  The  rope 
most  commonly  used  in  the  laboratory  is  white- 
hemp  rope,  froml  inch  to  1.5  inch  in  girth. 

Thread — Saddler's  thread,  of  flax,  three  strands ; 
used  with  paper  boxes  for  revolver  cartridges. 

Glue  should  be  hard,  dry,  transparent,  of  a  brown- 
ish red  color,  and  free  from  smell. 

To  Prepaee  Pastes  and  Glue. — Flour  paste — Sift 
the  flour  and  mix  it  with  8i  times  its  weight  of  water ; 
heat  it  gently,  stir  it,  and  let  it  boil  for  three-quarters 
of  an  hour  ;  when  it  becomes  ropy  pour  it  into  bowls 
and  pass  it  through  a  sieve  before  it  is  quite  cold. 
The  flour  yields  7  times  its  weight  of  paste.  Time 
required  to  make  it,  one  hour  and  a  half.  It  is  best 
made  of  rye  flour. 

Starch  paste. — Mix  wheat  starch  with  twice  its 
weight  of  water,  pour  it  gradually  into  6J  times  its 
weight  of  boiling  water,  and  let  it  boil  for  ten  minutes, 
stij-ring  it  all  the  time ;  then  proceed  as  before.  Starch 
yields '8  times  its  weight  of  paste.  Time  required, 
one  hour. 

Pantefor  pasteboard. — Mi.x  the  flour  or  starch  with 
12  times  its  weight  of  water;  this  yields  0  times  the 
weight  of  flour  and  11  times  the  weight  of  starch. 

Paste  mixed  with  glue- — The  addition  of  J5  of  glue 
makes  the  paste  fit  for  parting  sheets  of  parchment 
together  or  for  pasting  paper  on  wood.  Dissolve  the 
glue  separately  and  pour  it  into  the  cold  water  with 
which  the  flour  or  starch  is  mixed. 

Clieese  paste  is  made  of  fresh  white  cheese  and  also 
quicklime.  Pound  the  cheese  in  a  mortar  with  boil- 
ing water;  let  it  stand  and  decant  it;  repeat  this 
operation  three  or  four  times.  Pound  together  3 
parts  of  this  cheese  thus  prepared  and  one  part  of 
quicklime,  moistening  it  with  pure  water  till  the 
paste  ropes  like  honey.  Prepare  only  a  little  at  a 
time.  It  is  used  in  pasting  parchment  and  parch- 
ment paper.  These  diSerent  kinds  of  paste  should 
be  used  cold.  A  suppl}'  for  not  more  than  two  or 
three  days  should  be  made  at  one  time  ;  but  it  may 
be  preserved  longer  by  adding  alum  in  the  propor- 
tion of  tV  o^  "^*-'  weight  of  flour.  The  depredations 
of  rats  may  be  prevented  bj'  dissolving  a  like  pro- 
portion of  colocynth  in  the  water  with  which  the 
paste  is  made. 


Hair  iieven 
for  mixing 

compositionH. 


(50  meshes  in  1  inch,  or  2,500  in 
No.  1.        a  square  inch,  a  single  hair  in 

(    one  direction,  2  in  the  other. 

( 25  meshes  in  1  inch  or  (125  in  a 
No.  2.       square  ineli,  2  hairs  side  by 

(    side  in  eacli  direction. 

(12.5  meshes  in  1  inch  or  150  in 
No    3.-     one  scpiare  inch.  3  hairs  side 

(    by  side  in  each  direction. 

(18()  meshes  in  a  square  inch, 

(    lirass  wire. 


No.  4. 


The  mevex  for  the  laboratory  are  made   of   brass 
wire,  hair,  or  silk,  and  may  he  square  or  round. 


lABOBEB. 


I 


LACE. 


Brass  sieves  ought  to  be  used  only  for  dry  mutcri- 
nls.  A  silk  si(rvc  of  120  inrHlicH  In  ilic  liiiciir  iiidi  is 
used  in  preparing  gliiHs  duHl  for  priming  coniixisi. 
tions. 

t/lue  is  dissolved  in  its  own  weigh!  of  boiling 
water.  A  gliic-pot  willi  a  walcr-biith  hMouIiI  be  used 
to  avoid  burning  tlie  glue.  HcMnnvc  llic  pot  from 
tlie  fire  as  soon  as  llic  glue  is  found  to  lie  entirely 
dissolved.    See  Fir(ir<irl,-n. 

L'ABOREB.  In  a  military  sense,  any  direet  and 
concentrated  ('Ifort  wliicli  is  made  to  destroy  a  forti- 
fication. The  term  likewise  applies  to  llu'  working 
of  a  bomb  or  shell,  which  excavates,  plows  up,  and 
scatters  the  earth  about  wherever  it  bursts.  jMhirr- 
er  uii  riimi>art,  signifies  to  bring  several  pieces  of 
ordnance  discharged  from  two  oblicpie  diri'ctions  to 
bear  ujion  one  center.  Sbc'lls  an;  generally  used  on 
these  occasions,  and  the  chief  design  is  to  second 
the  operations  of  the  nuiuT  in  some  particular  part 
from  which  the  explosion  is  to  take  place. 

LAC-  A  substance  obtained  from  incrustations 
made  by  an  insect  (Cocoi.n  Inrca)  on  the  l)ranches  and 
twigs  of  many  trees  in  India.  The  lac  is  formed  by 
the  insect  into  cells,  snmewdiat  resembling  a  lioney- 
coiub.  in  which  the  insect  is  generally  found  entire, 
and  owing  to  whose  presence  stick-lac  yields  by  pro- 
per treatment  a  red  dye,  nearly,  if  not  c|uite,  as  bright 
as  that  olitained  from  cochineal, and  more  permanent. 
Lac  is  found  encircling  the  branches  of  tliese  trees 
in  the  form  of  a  tulie;  the  broken  branches  with  in- 
crustations at  various  distances  are  called  in  com- 
merce .v^/cAu^c,  which  ought  to  be  semi-transparent. 
The  coloring  matter  e.\hil)ite(l  liy  grinding  stick-lac, 
and  then  treating  it  with  water,  constitutes  seed-la'; 
which,  when  melted  up  into  masses,is  called  lump-lac. 
8hell-lac  is  obtained  by  f\irlher  purifying  the  seed- 
lac.  Lac  dyeconsistsof  the  coloring  matter  extracted 
from  the  stick-lac.  It  is  met  with  in  small  squares  sim- 
ilar to  indigo, and  is  used  as  red  dye  instead  of  cochi- 
neal. Lac  dye  is  largely  manufactured  in  India  and  ex- 
ported to  England.  In  IJengal,  lac  is  cliietly  produc- 
ed in  the  forests  of  Sylhet  and  at  Burdwan:  it  is  al- 
so procurable  in  the  Deccan;  but  Siam  and  Pegu  af- 
ford the  largest  supplies.  Shell-lac  is  used  for  the 
numufacture  of  sealing-wa.x,  also  as  varnish;  in  the 
latter  form  it  is  applied  for  setting  the  fulminating 
iharge  in  gun-caps,  and  in  coating  Boxer's  fuses  antl 
friction  tuIies. 

LACAY. — A  name  formerly  given  to  an  old  French 
militia.  The  word  is  found  among  the  public  docu- 
mculs  which  were  kept  by  the  Treasurers  lielonging 
to  the  Dukes  of  Britany  in  the  b5th  century. 

LACE. — An  ornamental  fabric  of  linen,  cotton,  or 
silk  thread,  made  cither  by  the  hands,  somewhat 
after  the  manner  of  embroidery,  or  with  machinery. 
The  manufacture  of  lace  by  hand  is  an  operation  of 
exceeding  nicety,  and  requires  both  skill  and  patience 
of  no  ordinary  kind,  and  the  best  productions  of  this 
fabric  surpass  all  other  applications  of  textile  mater- 
ials in  costliness  and  beauty. 

Whctlier  the  ancients  really  had  any  knowledge  of 
lace-making,  excepting  gold-lace,  which  will  be  men- 
tioned at  the  end  of  this  article,  is  not  known,  nor  is 
it  known  with  any  certainty  when  this  art  came  into 
practice  in  Europe  ;  but  there  is  good  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  poi rit-lafe ,  the  oldest  variety  known,  was 
the  work  of  Nuns  during  the  latter  half  of  the  14th 
and  the  beginning  of  the  15th  centuries.  This  point- 
lace  is  very  characteri.stic,  and  is  truly  an  art  pro- 
duction. The  artistic  character  of  the  patterns,  and 
the  wonderful  patience  and  labor  shown  in  carrying 
them  out,  places  them,  as  female  productions,  on  a 
parallel  with  tlie  decorative  works  in  stone,  wood, 
and  metal  of  the  Monks.  They  indicate  no  tiresome 
efforts  to  copy  natural  objects,  but  masterly  con- 
ceptions of  graceful  forms  and  tasteful  combinations. 
It  will  readily  be  supposed  that  an  art  depending 
.so  much  on  individual  skill  and  taste,  would  be  likely 
to  vary  exceedingly ;  nevertheless,  all  the  varieties 
esolve  themselves  into  few  well-marked  groups,  un- 


der three  distinct  classes.  The  first  class  is  the  Gut. 
jnire,  which  comprises  all  the  true  needle. worked 
lace,  whether  ancient  or  modem;  its  varieties  are: 
Itdse-polnt,  in  which  the  figures  are  in  higli  relief,  liav- 
ing  a  rich  endjossed  appearance  ;  VenfMan-point,  I'ur- 
tiigurne-p'iiiit.  .WiilltKe-point  ;  in  all  of  these  the  pattern 
is  flatter  than  in  the  liimr-point,  I'ointtrAlenmn,  and 
JlriiK.wlH-poiii/,.  The  last  twoare  still  made,  the  niod- 
<Tn  I'oint  d'Alencon  (pjitc  ripialing  in  beautj-  and 
value  that  made  in  the  middle  of  tin;  ITtli  century, 
when  its  manufacture  was  introduced  by-  the  cele- 
brated Colbert,  Chief  .Minister  of  Louis  XIV.  The 
I'oint  d'.Mencon  has  ver}- distinctive  characteristics. 
When  the  jiattern  is  once  designed,  each  portion  may 
be  worked  by  a  separate  perscm,  ami  the  various  fig. 
ures  are  then  connected  by  a  grounilwork  of  threads, 
which  are  so  passed  from  one  figure  to  anotlier  as  to 
represent  a  web  of  wonderful  delicacy  and  regulari- 


ty ;  small  spots  or  other  figiires  are  here  iind  there 
skillfully  worked  in  where  the  threads  cross  each 
other;  these  are  called  i/md/n,  and  not  only  add  much 
to  the  strength  of  the  fabric,  but  greatly  increase  its 
richness  of  effect.  In  all  these  varieties,  but  two 
kinds  of  stitches  are  employed,  and  these  differ  chief- 
ly in  the  greater  or  less  closeness  of  the  threads  em- 
ploj'ed.  First,  a  series  of  threads  are  laid  down  all 
in  one  direction,  so  as  to  cover  the  pattern,  and  then 
a  certain  number  of  these  are  taken  up  and  covered 
by  loops  of  the  cross-stitches,  orare  more  lightly  held 
together.  The  second  class  is  pilloir.lnre.  sometimes 
called  cushion  or  bobbin  lace,  from  the  pillow  or 
cushion  being  used  to  work  the  pattern  upon,  and  the 
various  threads  of  which  the  figures  are  made  up, 
each  being  wound  upon  a  bobbin,  usually  of  an  or- 
namental character.to  distinguish  one  from  the  other. 
The  pattern,  on  parchment  or  paper,  being  attached 
to  the  pillow  or  cushion,  pins  are  stuck  in  at  regular 
intervals  in  the  lines  of  the  pattern,  and  the  threads 
of  the  bobbins  are  twisted  or  plaited  round  th'em  so 
as  to  form  the  net-work  arrangement  which  is  char- 
acteristic of  this  class  of  lace,  the  patterns,  or  figur- 
ed portions,  being  worked  out  by  a  crossing  of 
threads,  which,  although  actually  plaiting,  gives  the 
effect  of  weaving.  The  varieties  of  this  lace  are  : 
Spanfsli,  grixindfd  Spanish. Saxony  lirus.iels.  Flemish 
lirusseli.Mechliyi,  Viihnrienne.H. Dutch. Lisle. Chantilly, 
silk  and  cotton  blonde.  Limerick.  Buckinghamshire  and 
noniton.  The  last  has  of  late  j-ears  become  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  the  varieties  made  in  Great  Britain. 
The  Irish  or  Limerick  lace  has  also  taken  a  high 
position.  The  third  class  is  machine-made  lace,  which, 
by  its  wonderful  improvement  and  rapid  develop- 
ment, has  worked  a  complete  revolution  in  the  lace 
trade,  so  that  the  prices  formerly  obtained  for  hand- 
made lace  can  no  longer  be  commanded,  whilst  ma- 
chine lace,  of  great  beauty,  has  become  so  cheap  and 
plentiful  as  to  be  worn  by  all  classes.  The  lace-ma 
chine,  or  frame,  as  it  is  technically  called,  is  so  com- 
plicated that  it  would  be  hopeless  to  convey  any  re- 
ally intelligil)le  appreciation  of  it  without  a  volumin- 
ous description  of  all  its  parts.  One  or  two  points 
of  chief  importance  may.  however,  remove  any  diffi- 
culty in  understanding  its  general  principles.  First, 
then,  as  in  the  loom,  there  is  a  series  of  warp-threads, 
placed,  however,  perpendicularly  instead  of  hori- 
zontally,and  not  so  close  as  in  ordinary  weaving,  the 
space  between  each  being  sufficiently  wide  to  admit 
of  a  shilling  passing  edgeways  between  them.  Be- 
hind these  threads,  and  corresponding  to  the  inter- 


LAC£RKE. 


172 


LACEEB8. 


spaces,  is  a  row  of  ingeniously  constructed  flat  bob- 
binj  or  reels  resting  in  an  arrangement  called  a  comb- 
tar  or  bolt-bar.     These   are  so  placed  that,  with  the 
first  movement  of  the  machine,  each  bobbin,  which 
carries  its  thread  with  it,  passes  through  two  of  the 
parallel  and  perpindicular  threads  of  the  warp,  and 
Is  lodged  in  another  and  similar  bolt-bar  in  front  of 
the  warp.     But   this  front  bolt-bar,  besides  an  ad- 
vancing and   receding  motion,  has   another   move- 
ment called  shogging — from  right  to  left.     When  it 
receives  a  bobbin  by  its  forward  motion,   it  draws 
back, bringing  the  bobbin  and  thread  through  two  of 
the  upright  threads ;  it  then  shogs  or  moves  to  one 
side,  and  goes   forward   again,    taking   the  thread 
through  the  next  two  warp-threads,  and  lodging  the 
bobbin  on  the  back  bolt-bar  again,  one  distance  be- 
yond its  last  space  ;    this  it   recovers   by  the  ne.xt 
movement,    and  it   again  passes   through   the   tirst 
space,  to  be  again  received  by  the  front  bolt-bar. 
By  these   movements  the  bobbin-thread  is  twisted 
quite  round   one  upright  thread   of  the   warp ;  an- 
other movement  then   shifts  the  bobbin,  so  that  it 
will  pass  through  the  ne.\t  pair  of  upright  threads, 
and  so  carry  on  its  work,  the  warp-threads  moving 
at  the  same  time,  unwinding  from   the  lower  beam, 
and  being   rolled  on  the   upper   one.     There  being 
twice  as  many  bobbins  as   there  are   threads  in  the 
warp,  each  bolt-bar  having  a  set  which  it  exchanges 
with  the  other,  and  all  being   regulated  with  great 
nicety,  a  width  of  lace  is  made  in  far  less  time  "than 
has  been  required   to  write   this  short  description. 
The  various  additions  to,  and  variations  upon,  these 
operations,  which  only  apply  to  bobbinnct,  for  the 
production  of  patterns,  are  so  numerous  and  com- 
plicated— each  pattern  requiring  new  complications 
— that  it  will  be  useless  attempting  to  describe  them; 
suffice  it  to  say,  the_v  all  depend  upon  the  variations 
which  can  be  given  to  the   movements  of   the  flat, 
disk-like  bobbins.     The  history  of  the  lace-machine 
is  not  very  clear  ;  it  is  said  to  have  been   originally 
invented  by   a   frame-work  knitter  of  Nottinghani, 
from  studying  the  lace  on  his  wife's  cap;  butlt  has 
continually  received   improvements,   among   which 
those  of  Heathcote,  in  1809 — the  first  to  work  success- 
fully— Morley,inl811  and  1824;  those  of  Leaver  and 
Turton,  and   of  Clark  and  Jlarl,  all   in  1811.     The 
manufacture  of  lace  by  machinery  is  chieflj'  located 
in  Nottingham,  whence  it  is  sent  to  all  parts  of  the 
world;  but  we  have  no  means  of  knowing  to  what 
extent,  for,  with  that  strange  perversity  which  dis- 
tinguishes the  statistical  administration,  only  thread- 
lace  is  mentioned  in  the  lists  of  exports,  whilst  the 
vast  production  of  cotton-lace  is  mixed  up  with  the 
returns  of  calico  and  other  fabrics  of  that  material. 
—  Gold-late  and  Siher-la'-e,   properly  speaking,  are 
laces  woven,  either  by  the  hand  or  by  machmery; 
from  exceedingly  fine  threads  of  the  metals,  or  from 
linen,  silk,  or  cotton  threads  which  are  coated  with 
still  finer  threads  of  gold  and  silver  ;  but  in  this 
country  it  is  too  common  to  designate  as  gold  or 
silver  lace,  not  only  that  which  is  rightly  so-called, 
but  also  fringe  made  of  the  materials,  and  also  gold 
and  silver  embroidery,  such  as  is  seen  on  trappings, 
and  upon  some  ecclesiastical  dresses,  etc.   Gold-lace 
is  made  in  Loudon,  but   considerable  quantities  of 
that  used  for  decorating  uniforms  and  other  dresses, 
etc.,  in  this  country, is  olUained  from  Belghmi, where 
it  is  an  important  branch  of  manufacture.     France 
supplies  much  of  the  gold  and  silver   thread  used, 
and  excels  all  other  countries  in  its  production,  in 
some  of  the  ni'ire  artistic  varieties  of  gold  and  silver 
lace  and  emijroiilcry.     Italy  has  lately  shown  great 
taste  and  skill.  Tin-  works  of  r^uigi  M:irtiniof  Milan 
attained  great  celebrity,  and   were  recently  said  to 
produce  aiiout  ilO.UOO  worth  per  annum. 

LACEENE.— The  sliort  woolen  military  cloaK  of 
the  Kiiiiians. 

LACHETE.-  An  opprobrious  term  which  is  fre- 
quently UM'd  among  the  French,  and  ajiplied  in  all 
instances  of  cowardice,  want  of  spiril.  etc. 


LACHICHE    SYSTEM    OF    FORTIFICATION.— This 

system  has  a  fnmt  similar  to  that  of  Cormontaigne, 
except  that  the  perpendicular  equals  \  of  the  front, 
and  tliat  the  salient  places  of  arms  have  fleches  for 
reduits.  In  order  to  avoid  the  effects  of  ricochet 
and  vertical  fires,  the  artillery  is  placed  under  case- 
mates. The  curtain,  the  reduits  of  re-entering  place 
of  arms,  and  the  faces  of  ravelin  have  casemates  open 
at  the  rear.  The  lower  gallery  serves  for  musketry, 
and  facilitates  the  ventilation  of  the  upper  case- 
mates. The  glacis  has  a  sufficient  command  to  mask 
all  the  masonry.  The  fleches  protect  the  covered- 
way  against  enfilade. 

LACKERS— LACQUERS.— Vamisiies  prepared  for 
coating  metal-work.  The  formula  usually  employed 
is  for  gold  color:  alcohol,  2  gallons;  powdered  tur- 
meric 1  pound  ;  macerate  fora  week,  and  then  filter 
with  a  covered  filter,  to  prevent  waste  from  evapor- 
ation; to  this  add,  of  the  lightest-colored  shell-lac, 

12  ounces ;  gamboge,  4  ounces  ;  gum-  sandarach,  3J 
pounds.  This  is  put  in  a  warm  place  until  tlie  whole 
is  dissolved,  when  1  quart  of  common  turpentine 
varnish  is  added.  A  red  lacquer,  prepared  by  sub- 
stituting 3  pounds  of  anuotta  for  the  turmeric,  and 
1  pound  of  dragon's  blood  for  gamboge,  is  exten- 
sively used. 

The  following  .ackers  are  used  for  iron  ordnance  : 
1.  Black  lead,  pulverized,  12  parts;  red  lead,  12 
parts;  litharge,  .5  parts;  lampblack,  5  parts;  and 
linseed-oil,  66  parts.  The  mixture  is  boiled  gently 
about  twenty  minutes,  during  which  time  it  is  con- 
stantly stirred.  2.  Umber,  ground,  3j  parts;  gum 
shellac,  pulverized,  3J  parts;  ivory-black,  3f  parts; 
litharge, 3J  parts;  linseed-oil,  78  parts;  and  spirits  of 
turpentine,  7j  parts.  The  oil  must  be  boiled  half  an 
hour.  The  mixture  is  then  boiled  24  hours,  poured 
off  from  sediment,  and  put  in  jugs,  corked.  3. 
Coal-tar  (of  good  quality)  2  gallons ;  and  spirits 
of  turpentine.  1  pint.  The  turpentine  to  be  added 
in  small  quantities  during  the  application  of  the  lack- 
er. In  applying  lacker,  the  surface  of  the  iron  must 
be  first  cleaned  with  a  scraper  and  a  wire  brush,  if 
necessary,  and  the  lacker  applied  hot,  in  two  thin 
coats,  with  a  paint-brush.  It  is  best  done  in  sum- 
mer, when  the  metal  is  heated  by  the  sun's  rays,  with 
gloves  made  of  sheep-skin,  the  wool  turned  out  ward.s, 
cut  0.4  inch  long,  the  thumb  alone  being  free.  Old 
lacker  should  be  removed  with  a  scraper,  or  by  scour- 
ing, and  not  by  heating  the  guns  or  halls,  by  which 
the  metal  is  injured.  About  5  gallons  of  lacker  are 
required  for  100  field-guns  and  1.000  shot ;  about  1 
quart  for  a  sea-coast  gun. 

The  lacker  for  small-arms  is  composed  of  beeswax, 

13  pounds;  spirits  of  turpentine.  13  gallons;  and  boil- 
ed linseed-oil.  1  gallon. 

All  the  ingredients  should  be  pure  and  of  the  best 
quality.  Heat  them  together  in  a  copper  or  earthen 
vessel,  over  a  gentle  fire,  in  a  water-bath,  until  they 
are  well  mixed.  For  holsters,  scabbards,  etc  ,  the 
following  is  used:  Prussian  blue  (in  lumps),  4  parts; 
sugar  of  lead,  j'j  parts;  aqua-fortis,  j',,  parts;  linseed 
oil,  boiled,  70  parts;  and  spirits  of  turpentine,  24.6 
parts.  This  mixture  is  used  for  the  first  and  second 
coats.  The  ingredients,  except  the  turpentine,  are 
boiled  together  in  an  iron  kettle  eight  hours,  when 
the  mixture  will  assume  a  brilliant  black  color. 
When  the  varnish  is  nearly  cool,  stir  in  the  turpen- 
tine. The  kettle  in  which  the  varnish  is  made  shoidd 
be  of  a  capacity  to  hold  double  the  quantity  of  var- 
nish to  be  boiled.  For  the  third  or  finishing  coat, 
the  following  is  used:  (ium  copal  (in  clean  lump), 
2(U  parts;  boiled  linseed-oil,  42i  parts;  iwid  spirits  of 
turpentine,  31  piirts.  To  make  this  varnish,  put  the 
copal  in  the  vessel,  set  it  on  a  cli;ircoal  fire  for  one 
hour,  in  wiiich  time  it  will  melt,  and  all  llie  watery 
particles  will  evaporate.  Add  the  oil  while  the  copal 
is  warm,  but  not  boiling  hot.  When  nearly  cool 
add  the  turpentine.  For.')  pounds  copal  and  the  pro- 
\)vT  jiroportionsof  oil  and  turpentine  the  vessel  should 
hold  6  gallons.     See  Pniutn. 


tACS  D'AMOUK. 


17a 


LAMBREQUIN. 


LACS  D'AMOUR.— In   HiTiildry,  a  cord  (if  ninnint,' 

UnniH  iisrd  as  III!  (•xlfriiiddc'cdnilion  to  Hurrouiid  tin- 
jirriis  (jf  widows  mill  iiniiiarricd  women;  llic  Cord- 
ti'iT,  wliicli  dilTcrs  hut  sli;,dilly  from  it,  Itciiig  used 
Ki:nilarly  willi  llie  shields  of  miirried  women. 

LACUNETTE.  ■  -An  early  term  in  fcjrliliciilion,  mj;- 
nilyiiii;  a  small  fosse  or  ditch.  The  word  (Uiiutti: 
has  since  liccn  ado|)lcd. 

LADDERBRIDGE.  A  temporary  hril;;e. formed  hy 
running;  a  cart  or  jjun  limber  into  tiie stream  und  se- 
ouriiii;  it  there,  willi  the  shafts  in  u  vertical  position. 
l>y  ropes  from  holh  sides  of  the  river,  one  cud  of  a 
ladder  from  each  hank  restini;  upon  it,  and  covering 
the  steps  or  runi^s  with  planks. 

LADLE.  -1.  For  carryiiii;  the  shot  to  the  pieces, 
there  are  two  kinds  of  ladles.  The  first  eon.sists  of 
u  rinj^and  stem  of  iron,  fastened  to  a  wooden  handle 
two  feet  lonir.  The  inner  top  edge  of  the  ring  is 
grooved  out  to  receive  the  shot.  The  other  ladle, 
for  carrying  the  largest  shot,  consists  of  a  similar 
ring,  to  wluch  stems  are  li.\ed  for  connecting  one 
single  and  one  double  handle,  so  that  two  men  can 
be  employed  to  carry  the  shot,  the  double  handle  be- 
ing to  prevent  the  ladle  from  turning  over.  ■ 

3.  An  implement  for  removing  the  powder  or 
projectiles  from  guns,  when  it  is  not  ilesired  to  dis- 
charge them.  It  consists  of  a  ladlediead,  made  of 
the  same  kind  of  wood  and  in  the  same  way  as  a 
ranuner-head,  and  the  laille  pmiier,  which  is  of. 
sheet-brass  or  copper,  fastened  to  tlie  head  with  cop- 
per nails. 

LADY  OF  MERCY,  OUR.— The  Spanish  Order  of 
Knighthood,  founded  in  1218,  by  James  I.  of  Ara- 
gon.  in  fnlhllment  of  a  vow  made  to  the  Virgin  dur- 
ing his  captivity  in  France.  The  object  for  which 
tlie  Order  was  instituted  was  the  redemption  of 
Christian  captives  from  among  the  Moors,  each 
knighl  at  his  inauguration  vowing  that,  if  necessarj' 
for  their  ransom,  he  would  renuun  himself  a  captive 
in  their  stead.  Within  the  tirst  six  years  of  the  ex- 
istence of  the  Order,  no  fewer  than  400  captives  are 
said  to  liave  been  ransomed  hy  its  means.  On  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jloors  from  Spain,  the  labors  of  the 
knights  were  transferred  to  Afrit-i.  Their  badge  is 
a  shield  party  per  fess  gules  and  or,  in  chief  a  cross 
pattee  argent,  in  base  four  pallets  gules  for  Aragon, 
the  shield  crowned  with  a  ducal  coronet.  The  Order 
was  extended  to  ladies  in  12(il.  1 

LADY  OF  MONTESA,  OUR.— Order  of  Knighthood,  I 
founded  in  liJlT,  by  King  James  II.  of  Aragon,  who, 
on  the  abrogation  of  the  Order  of  the  Templars, 
urged  Pope  Clement  V.  to  allow  him  t  ,•  employ  all 
their  estates  within  his  territory  in  founding  a  new 
Knightly  Order  for  the  protection  of  the  Christians 
against  the  Moors.  His  request  was  accedesl  to  by 
tiie  following  Pope,  John  XXII.,  who  granted  him 
for  this  purpose  all  the  estates  of  the  Templars  and 
of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  situated  in  Valencia. 
Out  of  these  was  founded  the  new  Order,  which 
King  James  named  after  the  town  and  castle  of 
Moutesa,  which  he  assigned  as  its  headquarters. 
The  Order  is  now  conferred  merely  as  a  mark  of 
royal  favor,  though  the  provisions  of  its  statutes  are 
Btill  nominally  observed  on  new  creations.  The  , 
badge  is  a  red  cross  edged  with  gold,  the  costume  a 
long  white  woolen  mantle,  decorated  with  a  cross 
on  the  left  breast,  and  tied  with  very  long  white 
cords. 

LAIDLEY   PRACTICE-MUSKET.— In  the  construe- 
tion  of  this  gun  the  same  form  and  motions  of  load-  , 
ing  and  tiring  as  in  the  service-ride  have  lieen  retain- 
ed as  nearly  "as  possible,  consistent  witli  a  moderate 
expenditure  in  its  production.     An  old  smooth-bore 
musket  is  taken,  reamed  out  for  a  length  of  eleven  { 
inches,  for  the  reception  of  a  coil  ribbon-spring,  on 
one  end  of  whicli  a  closely-fitting  piston  is  placed, 
having  a  stem  of  about  five  inches  attaclied  to  its  ' 
center  ;  a  hole  is  bored  through  the  breech-screw  and 
a  cut  made  on  its  under  side  to  receive  a  spring ;  a  [ 
circular  disk  with  a  flaring  hole  through  its  cent'er  is  j 


secured  in  the  barrel  just  in  front  of  the  end  of  the 
l)reech-screw  ;  a  short  liver  crosKi-s  the  end  of  the 
liarrel  just  in  front  of  this  disk,  and  is  held  in  posi- 
lion  by  the  sprijig  already  referred  to  ;  the  hole  in  the 
cone  is  enlarged  and  receives  a  small  spindle  with  a 
collar  at  its  middle,  which  prevents  it  from  coining 
out.  About  twelve  inches  from  the  breech  a  horizon- 
tal cut  is  made  tlirougli  the  top  of  tlie  barrel,  leaving 
an  opening  of  two  inches  in  length:  a  cylinilricai 
jilug.  having  a  hole  through  its  axle,  is  inserted  in 
the  barrel  at  this  place,  an  I  a  handle  screwed  in.  An 
inner  barrel,  having  a  liore  of  .22  inch  and  a  length 
of  17  inches,  its  upper  end  counter-bored,  is  inserted 
in  the  barrel  and  seeurerl  by  a  screw  ;  the  length  of 
the  block  is  such  as  to  close  the  space  between  the 
chambered  recess  and  the  end  of  the  inner  barrel.  A 
hole  is  bored  through  the  side  of  the  stock  to  com- 
municate with  the  liole  through  the  breech-screw. 
To  load  the  piece,  bring  the  hammer  to  the  half-cock 
and  compress  the  spring.  This  is  most  conveniently 
done  by  fixing  the  ramrod  in  a  cast-iron  block  at  an 
angle  of  about  45"  with  the  horizon.  Seize  the  mus- 
ket as  at  charge  bayonet,  insert  the  end  of  the  ram- 
mer in  the  muzzle,  and  jiress  the  musket  down  until 
the  spring  is  caught;  withdraw  the  musket,  hold  it 
in  the  left  hand  near  the  lower  band,  the  muzzle  in- 
clined downwards;  seize  the  handle  with  the  right 
hand,  turn  it,  and  draw  it  back  ;  takea  dart  between 
the  thumb  and  fore-tinger,  insert  it  in  the  bore,  and 
push  it  well  home  with  the  thumb.  Be  sure  that 
no  part  of  it  i)rojects;  close  the  breech-block  and  se- 
cure it  b)-  turning  the  handle.  Cock  the  piece,  and 
it  is  ready  for  tiring.  The  men  in  tiring  stand  at  u 
distance  of  1.'5  paces  from  the  target.  Two  men  use 
the  |same  gun,  tiring  alternately.  Each  man  after 
tiring  goes  to  the  target,  extracts  the  dart  with  a  claw 
tool,  and  records  the  value  of  his  shot.  The  other 
man  loads  and  fires  as  soon  as  the  preceding  dart  is 
removed  and  the  target  is  clear.  In  order  to  give  the 
soldier  the  benefit  of  practice-firing  at  ol)jectsat  long 
ranges,  the  difficulty  increasing  greatly  with  the 
distance  of  the  target,  owing  to  the  blur  on  the  sight 
when  the  eye  is  adjusted  to  the  proper  focus  to  see 
distant  objects,  place  a  target  at  f500  or  GOO  yards  dis- 
tant, or  as  far  off  as  convenient,  so  that  it  can  be  seen 
through  the  open  window ;  place  a  target  Vy  paces 
from  the  firing-stand,  at  such  a  height  that  the  dis- 
tant target  may  be  seen  4  or  5  inches  below  the  mid- 
dle of  its  lower  edge  ;  mark  on  the  floor  the  position 
for  the  feet  of  the  man  when  firing,  raise  the  longer 
leaf  ofjthe  sight,  aim  at  the  distant  bull's-eye,  and  fire; 
the  shots  will  strike  the  near  target  if  correctlj'  placed, 
and  the  accuracy  of  aim  will  be  shown  hy  the  score 
thus  made.  The  height  of  the  target  may  have  to  be 
adjusted  after  the  first  few  shots. 

LAISCHF.S.— Thin  metal  plates  which  the  ancient 
Gauls  placed  upon  the  buS-coats  of  infantry. between 
the  buff  and  the  lining. 

LAMBEAUX. — In  Heraldry,  a  cross  formed  in  the 
upper  like  a  cross  pattee,  but  with 
the  lower  limb  not  widened,  but  ter- 
minating in  a  label  of  three  points, 
I  "  having,"    according   to    Sylvanus 

_J — .  Morgan,   "a  srreat  deal  of  mystery 

^^^^^^^  in  relation  to'  the  top,  whereon  the 
^""^  first-born  Son  of  God  did  suffer,  send- 

LainhpauSi  \^„  out  three  streams  from  his  hands, 
feet,  and  sides." 

LAMBOYS. — In  ancient  armor,  laminated  .skirts  of 
small  overlapping  steel  plates.  These  took  the  places 
of  bnth  the  <(/(■<?.«  and  tuilles  of  the  somewhat  earlier 
times. 

LAMBREQUIN.- 1.  A  -word  used  in  Heraldry  in 
three  senses:  1.  The  mantling  attached  to  the  hel- 
met, and  represented  as  depending  over  the  shield. 
2.  A  wreath;  3.  The  point  of  a  label.  See  Label. 

2.  A  leathern  strap  or  flap  hanging  from  a  cuirass, 
which  is  often  highly  ornamented  and  made  to  reach 
as  far  as  the  thighs.  Lambrequins  frequently  cover 
the  helmet  to  protect  it  from  wet  and  heat. 


m 


LAMPION  DE  PARAPET.  1 


174 


LANCEB8. 


LAMPION  DE  PARAPET.— A  lamp  generally  used 
on  a  parapet  or  elsewhere  in  a  besieged  place.  It  Is  a 
small  iron  vessel  filled  with  pitch  and  tar,  which  is 
lighted  b)'  the  troops  as  occasion  may  require. 

LANCASTER  GUN.— A  species  of  rifled  cannon, 
which  has  been  partially  adopted  in  the  British  ser- 
vice. When  the  great  difficulty  of  rifling  heavy  ord- 
nance to  an  extent  to  give  a  sufficient  rotary  motion 
to  the  projectile  became  apparent,  Mr.  Lancaster 
devised  a  plan  by  which  grooves  might  be  dispensed 
■with  altogether.  Instead  of  a  strictly  circular  bore, 
he  gave  his  gun  an  elliptical  bore,  the  elipse  being  of 
very  small  eccentricit}'.  The  major  axis  was  not  in 
one  plane  from  end  to  end  of  the  gun,  but  was  made 
to  revolve  in  the  length,  until  it  had  moved  round 
one-fourth  the  periphery  of  the  elipse.  The  pro- 
jectiles are,  of  course,  elliptical  also  ;  elongated,  and 
somewhat  pointed  in  front  "When  tlie  shell  is  pro- 
jected, it  must  follow  the  twist  in  the  bore,  and  the 
rotary  motion  thus  imparted  is  retained  to  the  end  of 
the  range.  Several  Lancaster  guns  were  employed 
at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  and  some  of  them  burst. 
But  these  were  scarcely  fair  specimens,  being  service 
8-inch  guns  (with  circular  bore)  bored  to  Sir.  Lan- 
caster's elliptical  standard,  and  therefore  weakened. 
The  wrought-iron  guus  on  his  special  model  have 
given,  however,  more  certain  results.  The  special 
advantage  claimed  for  the  Lancaster  gun  is  that  it 
fouls  less  than  any  of  the  other  gtms  in  use.  See 
Ordnance.  , 

LANCASTER  HERALD.— One  of  the  six  Heralds  of 
England,  ranking  second  in  point  of  seniority.  His 
office  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Edward  III., 
in  the  34th  year  of  his  reign,  when  he  created  his  son, 
John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster.  Henry  IV.  rais- 
ed Lancaster  to  the  dignity  of  a  King-at-Arms.  Ed- 
ward IV.,  after  reducing  him  back  to  the  status  of  a 
Herald,  abolished  his  office,  which  was  revived  by 
Henrv  VII. 

LANCASTER  PROJECTILE.— The  earlier  projectiles 
of  this  class,  were  made  of  wrought-iron,  simply 
oval,  but  without  any  rifle-twist  upon  them  ;  but 
more  recently  the  shot  have  been  bent  to  the  shape 
of  the  bore ;  some  of  these  had  a  wrought-iron  cas- 
ing put  over  a  cast-iron  projectile,  and  this,  project- 
ing four  inches  to  the  rear,  carried  a  lubricant  which 
the  wooden  wedges  at  the  bottom  sent  out  whileex- 
panding  the  casing  so  as  to  flU  the  bore.  The  weight 
of  this  projectile  was  44  pounds,  and  its  capacity  for 
bursting  charge,  4J  pounds.  It  was  thick  in  the  rear, 
and  thin  in  the  front,  tapering  to  a  point. 

LANCASTER  RIFLE.— A  small-arm  having  a  slight- 
ly oblate  bore.  The  twist,  as  found  by  experience  to 
be  most  advantageous,  is  one  turn  in  52  inches.  The 
approved  diameter  of  the  bore  is  .498  inch. the  length 
of  the  barrel  being  32  inches.  An  eccentricity  of  .01 
inch  in  half  an  inch  is  found  sufficient  to  make  the 
bullet  spin  on  itsaxis  to  the  extreme  verge  of  its  flight. 
The  length  of  the  bullet  found  to  answer  best  with 
these  rifles  is  3|  diameters  in  length  with  a  windage 
of  .004  or  .005  of  an  inch. 

LANCASTER  RIFLING,— This  plan  of  centering  the 
shot  was  used  with  partial  success  by  the  Engl'^shin 
the  Crimea.  The  gun  is  rifled  with  two  rounded 
grooves,  each  about  one-third  the 
circumference  in  width,  so  that  the 
cross  section  of  the  bore  is  oval. 
( )nly  a  trace  of  the  original  bore  is 
left  at  its  minor  axis.  The  major 
axis  in  the  32-poundcr  is  6.97  in., 
and  the  minor  axis  0.37  in.,  so  that, 
considered  as  a  two-grooved  rifle, 
I.AMCAai£E.  (|„,  jjrooves  are  3-inch  deep  at  the 
centers.  The  abseni'C  of  shoulders  to  the  two  grooves 
converts  the  two  places  of  contact  of  the  projectile 
with  the  rifling,  into  circular  wedges  tending  to  burst 
the  gun  or  to  compress  the  projectile. 

LANCE. — 1 .  A  weapon  of  war  composed  of  a  sharp 
Bteel  blade,  from  8  to  10  inches  long,  grooved  like  a. 
common  bayonet  wilh  a  socket  at  its  base  and  two 


iron  straps  for  attaching  it  to  the  handle.  The  han- 
dle is  of  strong,  light  wood,  with  a  tip  of  iron  at  its 
lower  end  and  a  leathern  loop  at  its  center  of  gravity 
to  support  and  guide  the  lance.  It  is  usually  from 
8i  to  11  feet  long,  and  weighs  about  4J  lbs.  This 
weapon  is  not  used  in  the  United  States  service.  The 
Russians  have  their  regular  and  irregular  Cossacks 
armed  witli  the  lance.  The  Austrians,  also,  have 
Lancers  ;  but  the  Polish  cavalry  use  the  lance  better 
than  any  other  people.  The  lance,  when  not  in  use, 
rests  in  a  leather  boot  attached  to  the  stirrup,  the 
right  arm  being  passed  through  the  leather  loop  of 
the  lance  ;  or  by  putting  the  Tower  end  in  the  boot 
and  strapping  the  handle  to  the  pommel  of  the  sad- 
dle. Lancers  are  more  formidable  than  other  cavalry 
because  they  are  able  to  reachfurther.  Skill  in  com- 
bating a  lancer  consists  in  keeping  to  his  left,  in  order 
to  shun  his  lance.  Pressed  too  nearly,  the  Lancer 
must  have  resource  to  his  saber  and  let  his  lance  rest 
upon  his  arm.  The  moment  in  which  he  attempts 
to  seize  his  saber  is  dangerous  to  him.  TheMexi- 
can  cavalry  are  generally  Lancers.  2.  An  iron  rod 
which  is  fixed  across  the  earthen  mold  of  a  shell,  and 
which  keeps  it  suspended  in  the  air  when  it  is  cast. 
As  soon  as  the  shell  is  formed,  this  rod  must  be  broken, 
and  carefully  taken  out  with  instruments  made  for 
that  purpose.  Shells  ought  to  be  scrupulously  ex- 
amined with  respect  to  this  article,  as  they  could  not 
be  charged  were  the  lance,  or  any  part  of  it,  to  re- 
main within.  3.  An  instrument  which  conveys  the 
charge  of  a  piece  of  ordnance  and  forces  it  home  to 
the  bore. 

LANCE  A  FEU. — A  species  of  artificial  firework 
which  is  made  in  the  shape  of  a  fuse,  and  is  used  for 
various  purposes.  Its  composition  consists  of  3 
parts  of  best  refined  saltpeter,  2  parts  of  flour  of  sul- 
phur, and  2  parts  of  antimony;  the  whole  being 
pounded  and  mixed  together.  The  chief  use  of  the 
Lanm  a  feu  is  to  throw  occasional  light  across  the 
platform,  whilst  artificial  fireworks  are  preparing. 
They  likewise  serve  to  set  fire  to  fuses,  as  they  can 
be  taken  hold  of  without  danger.  Lance  de  feu  is  a 
species  of  squib,  which  is  used  by  the  garrison  of  a 
besieged  town  against  a  scaling  part}'.     See  Larues. 

LANCE  A  FEU'PUANT.- A  stink-fire  lance  prepar- 
ed in  the  same  manner  as  a  stink-pot,  and  used  by 
miners.  When  a  sapper  or  miner  has  so  far  penetra- 
ted towards  the  enemy  as  to  hear  the  voices  of  per- 
sons in  any  places  contiguous  to  his  own  excavation, 
he  first  of  all  bores  a  hole  with  his  probe,  then  dis- 
charges several  pistols  through  the  aperture,  and 
lastly  forces  in  a  Lance  a  feu  puant,  taking  care  to 
close  up  the  hole  on  his  side  to  prevent  the  smoke 
from  returning  towards  himself.  The  exhalation 
and  stinking  hot  vapor  which  issue  from  the  lance, 
and  remain  confined  on  the  side  of  the  enemy,  infect 
the  air  so  much,  that  it  is  impossible  to  approach  the 
quarter  for  several  days.  Sometimes,  indeed,  they 
have  had  so  instantaneous  an  effect,  that  in  order  to 
save  their  lives,  miners,  who  would  'persevere,  have 
been  dragged  out  by  the  legs  in  an  apparent  state  of 
suffocation.     See  Lances. 

LANCE-CORPORAL.— The  assistant  to  a  Corporal ; 
a  private  performing  the  duties  of  a  Corporal.  The 
Lance-corporal  ranks  above  a  private  in  the  line, 
and  usually  performs  the  duties  and  possesses  the 
authority  of  a  Corporal,  but  does  not  receive  a  Cor- 
poral's pay. 

LANCE  "knight.— A  German  foot-soldier ;  origin- 
ally cine  of  the  serfs  who  followed  the  camp  in  the 
service  of  the  common  soldiers.     See  LmixqueiteU. 

LJVNCE  REST.— A  projection  like  a  bracket,  on  the 
riglit  side  of  a  breast-plate  in  armor,  to  aid  in  bearing 
a  huicc. 

LANCERS. — A  description  of  cavalry  soldiers  who 
are  armed  with  lances.  The  type  and  perfection  of 
Lancers  are  the  Russian  Cossacks,  whose  long  lances 
enable  them  to  combat  with  enemies  at  a  distance 
from  .which  they  thcuisclvcs  take  little  harm.  The 
Lancers  were  brought  into  European  notice  by  Na- 


lANCES. 


175 


LAND  SUHVEYISO. 


pok'on,  who  t^ri'iitly  relied  iipnn  Home  Polish  repi- 
IiK'iits.  After  Hie  peace  of  IHIT),  Hie  arm  was  mlopt- 
(•(1  in  the  Kii^lisli  serviee,  liiil  it  is  thiiii^;lit  by  many 
thai  the  Hi'ilisli  l,ane<T  lias  a  weapon  too  short  to  en- 
alile  liim  to  char^jfe  on  an  infantry  sijiiare  with  any 
chanee  of  success. 

The  Ijan<*r,  like  the  I'oet,"  is  horn  not  fashioned." 
In  the  hands  of  the  Pole,  the  lance,  whether  used  to 
charj;;e  in  lini'  or  in  the  dispersion  of  ]iiirsiiit,  is  a 
truly  fearful  weapon;  but  to  those  to  whom  loni; 
praclice  in  its  use  has  not  made  it  a  second  nature, 
it  is  only  emharrassini;,  and  more  to  lie  avoided  by  a 
comrade  than  by  a  foeman.  Still  the  apprehension 
of  beini;  run  tliroutch  has  a  powerful  moral  elTect 
upon  a  man  ;  and  there  is  no  sounil  more  ajipalliug 
to  a  tlyinu;  enemy  than  "  Here  come  the  liancers." 

LANCES  Small  paper  cases,  .3  to  .4  inch  diam- 
eter. Idled  with  one  or  more  compositions,  each 
huniini:  with  a  tlanu-  of  a  particular  color.  They 
are  iiseil  to  mark  the  outlines  of  tinures,  and  an'  at- 
tached to  lin'hl  frames  of  wood  or  sticks  of  bamboo. 
To  make  the  cases,  cut  the  paper  into  rectangles  of 
a  length  equal  to  the  reipiired  length  of  the  case  and 
of  such  widths  as  to  make  the  case  three  thicknesses 
of  No.  7  paper.  The  length  of  the  case  is  generally 
about  leu  ^mes  its  e.xterior  diameter,  depending  on 
the  composition  with  which  it  is  to  be  tilled  and  the 
tiini'  it  is  required  to  burn.  Pastil  thi'  rectangleand 
roll  it  on  an  iron  former  with  tlie  hand.  When  the 
cases  are  dry,  ('ut  them  to  their  proper  length. 

Place  the  cases  in  holes  bored  in  a  block  of  hard 
wood,  the  holes  .02  inch  larger  than  the  case,  and 
their  depth  .25  inch  less  than  the  length  of  the  case. 
Drive  in  the  bottom  of  each  case  a  ladleful  of  clay. 
Insert  in  the  top  of  the  ease  a  small  funnel;  jjass  the 
drift  through  the  funnel  into  the  c;ise;  till  the  funnel 
with  composition;  rais<r  tlu'  drift  one  inch  above  the 
top  of  the  case;  press  it  to  the  bottom  and  give  it 
three  light  blows  with  a  rocket-drift;  continue  in  the 
same  way,  raising  the  drift  above  the  top  of  the  case 
between  each  volley  until  the  case  is  tilled  to  .2.5  inch 
of  the  top.  Prime  tlu^  lance  with  mealed  powder, 
moistened  with  gummed  water,  and  dip  the  end 
while  moist  in  rifle-powder.  When  the  case  is  to  be 
tilled  with  two  different  compositions,  drive  the  case 
with  the  first  composition  till  it  is  about  .2  inch  above 
the  required  height;  remove  the  surplus  to  the  exact 
height  with  a  gauge,  and  proceed  witli  the  second 
composition  as  with  the  first. 

Bore  holes  .02  inch  larger  than  the  lances,  and  .5 
inch  deep,  from  2  to  4  inches  apart,  according  to  the 
size  of  lance.  The  holes  should  be  bored  so  that 
the  lance  shall  be  horizontal  when  the  frame  is  in  po- 
sition. Dip  the  end  of  the  lance  in  glue,  and  press  it 
(irmly  in  the  hole,  arranging  the  lances  parallel  to 
each  other.  Or  they  may  be  fastened  to  the  frame  by 
means  of  sharp  nails  or  tacks,  driven  into  the  frame 
and  projecting  about  .4  inch.  The  end  of  the  lance 
is  pierced  with  an  awl,  dipped  in  glue,  and  thrust  on 
the  point  of  the  nails,  arranging  them  perpendicularly 
to  the  friinu".  See  I-'inwifrks. 

LANCE-SERGEANT.— An  acting  Sergeant.  This 
position  is  given  to  Corporals  when  additional  Non- 
commissioned officers  are  required  to  assist  the  ofti- 
cers  of  troops  and  companies  in  the  discharge  of  their 
duty.  If  the  Lance-sergeants  prove  themselves  effi- 
cient, they  are  usuallv  promoted  as  vacancies  occur, 

LANCES  LEVEES. -Uplifted  lances,  indicating  that 
the  enemy  was  beaten,  and  that  the  Chevaliers  or 
Gendarmes  should  close  the  day  by  giving  a  final 
blow  to  the  disordered  ranks. 

LANCE  SOCKET.— A  leather  socket  which  supports 
the  butt  of  tlie  lance  when  carried  on  horseback; 
called  also  hino -bucket.     See  Lance. 

LANCE  WOOD.— A  wood  valuable  for  its  great 
strength  and  elasticity.  It  is  produced  by  the  small 
tree  guatterin  tirgiita  (natural  order  unonetceee).  An- 
other species,  G.  Iniirifolin,  yields  the  wood  called 
white  lance-wood.  The  latter  is  not  nuich  used. 
Lancc-wood  is  of  great  value  in  carriage  construc- 


tions, when  it  is  used  for  shafts  and  carriage-polcH, 
for  which  it  is  esjireially  fitted.  The  part  used  is  the 
main  trunk  of  tlu-  tree,  which  is  very  straight,  and 
rarely  more  than  !)  inches  in  diameter,  with  the  bark 
on.  It  comes  in  small  quantities  from  the  West  In- 
dies, eliiilly.  however,  from  Jamaica. 

LANDGRAVE.  — A  (ierman  nobleman  of  arankcor- 
respoiidiMg  to  an  English  Karl.  The  wife  of  a  Land- 
grave is  known  as  Landgravine. 

LANDING.  In  fortiticalion,  the  portion  of  the  floor 
of  the  galli-ry,  between  the  frames  tlial  lioiind  the  en- 
trance to  a  return,  is  termed  a  luitiliiifi.  The  land- 
ing is  in  all  cases  horizontal,  as  well  as  that  [lortion 
of  an  obliipie  return  between  the  oblique  frame  and 
the  one  next  succeeding,  which  last  should  not  be 
placed  further  than  an  ordinary  interval  from  the 
furthest  point  of  the  obli(|ue  frame.     See  <lriUiry. 

LANDS. — In  ordnance,  the  sjiaces  between  the  fur- 
rows or  grooves  in  the  biirrel  of  a  rilled  t;un.  Seir 
liai'ril. 

LAND8BERG  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.  -This 
system  consists  of  three  unrevetted  eucientes  :  the 
first  of  tenailles  of  GO"  with  small  redans  in  the  re- 
entering angles;  the  second,  of  a  fausse-braye,  with 
bonnets  at  salient ;  the  third  of  an  envelope  of  125 
to  225  yards  faces  replacing  the  covered-way.  In  the 
nuiin  ditch  there  are  casemated  redoubts  for  mus- 
ketry and  artillery.  The  ramparts  are  much  exposed 
to  enfilade ;  and  all  the  more  so  since  there  is  no 
traverse;  the  absence  of  a  covered-way  exposes  the 
place  to  an  attack  of  vive  force ;  the  relief  being 
small,  escalade  may  be  resorted  to ;  there  is  no  pro- 
vision made  for  sorties;  and  the  space  left  for  houses 
is  very  limited.  Landsberg  calculates  that  the  out- 
lay will  be  much  less  than  for  Vauban's  hexagon, and 
that  a  vigorous  defense  may  be  expected  from  a  gar- 
rison of  20,000  men  and  00  gims. 

LANDSTURM.— The  Third  Reserve  of  the  German 
Army,  'I'he  German  soldier,  after  remaining  Z  years 
in  the  Active  Army,  4  in  the  Reserve,  and  5  years  in 
the  Landicehr,  is  draughted  into  the  LniKht.iirm. 
which  owes  its  origin  to  the  wars  of  the  First  Em- 
pire, and  was  formerly  a  force  raised  for  home  de- 
fense only.  But,  in  1874,  a  bill  was  passed  by  which 
the  Emperor  can  summon  that  force  of  his  own  au- 
thority in  case  of  urgency,  and  the  men  of  the  Third 
Reserve  can  be  draughted  into  the  Landieehr  if  their 
services  are  needed.  It  is  computed  tliat  this  new 
organization  will  increase  the  strength  of  the  Ger- 
man Army  up  to  nearly  two  millions  of  men. 

LAND-SURVEYING.— The  measurement  of  the  area 
of  a  portion,  whether  small  or  large,  of  the  earth's 
surface,  is  an  important  application  of  mathematics, 
and  involves  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  geome- 
try, trigonometry,  and  the  theory  and  use  of  the  in- 
struments employed  for  the  determination  of  angles. 
Fields  or  portions  of  ground  of  small  extent  are  nieas- 
ured  easily  and  with  sufficient  accuracy  by  a  chain 
(for  distances),  and  a  box-compass  or  cross-stafT  (for 
angles).  For  larger  areas,  the  use  of  the  surveyor's 
table  is  requisite ;  and  for  those  of  still  greater  ex- 
tent, in  which  the  greatest  accuracy  is  requisite  in  the 
determination  of  the  angles,  the  astrolabe,  theodo- 
lite, sextant,  circle,  refiecfor,  micrometer,  etc..  are 
used.  The  surface  to  be  measured  is  divided  into 
triangles,  which  are  separately  measured  and  calcu- 
lated ;  but  when  a  large  extent  is  included  in  ths 
measurement,  it  is  not  enough  to  proceed  from  one 
triangle  to  another,  in  which  way  an  error  at  the  out- 
set may  be  propagated  with  continual  increase;  hut 
a  t)ase  line,  as  long  as  circumstances  admit  of,  must, 
in  the  first  instance,  be  accurately  measured,  upon 
which,  by  means  of  the  measurement  of  angles,  all 
the  subsequent  calculations  are  made  to  depend. and 
lines  subsequently  measured  are  only  intended  to  be 
corrective  of  the  results  obtained  by  calctdation. 
When  the  extent  of  surface  is  still  greater,  as  when 
a  whole  country  is  to  he  measured,  points  here  and 
there  are  astronomically  determined,  their  meridians 
are  accurately  laid  down,  and  a  complicated  system 


LAND  TRANSPORT. 


176 


L  iNTERN  SLIDES. 


of  triangles  is  employed  to  insure  accuracy.  This  is 
called  tr'anc/nlntiiin. 

LAND  TRANSPORT.— A  branch  of  the  Control  De- 
partment. It  comprises  men  of  the  Transport  Com- 
panies, and  cattle  for  the  draught  orotherwiseof  the 
stores  and  baggage  of  an  arm}-.  Carts  or  wagons  of 
the  lightest  nature  should  be  used,  and  the  horses 
employed  to  draw  them  should  be  driven  and  not 
ridden.  Pack  animals  should  only  be  used  on  emer- 
gency, when  a  sufficient  number  of  carts  cannot  be 
obtained.  In  mountainous  countries,  resort  must 
be  had  to  this  kind  of  transport,  as  was  the  case  in 
Abyssinia.  But,  as  a  rule,  pack  animals  are  to  be 
avoided  as  being  the  worst  and  most  difficult  trans- 
port to  manage.  In  India,  the  transport  consists  of 
bullock  carts  of  the  country,  elephants,  and  camels. 
See  Military  Train. 

LANDWEHR.— A  military  force  in  several  of  the 
Gorman  States;  somewhat  corresponding  to  the 
militia  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  not  always  retained 
under  arms.  During  peace,  its  members  spend  most 
of  their  time  in  civil  pursuits,  and  are  called  out  for 
military  service  only  in  times  of  war  or  of  commotion 
— care  being  taken,  however,  that  they  are  suffi- 
ciently exercised  to  make  them  ready  for  such  ser- 
vice when  necessary.  The  name  Landwehr  was 
first  applied  to  the  Tyrolese,  who  rose  against  tlie 
French  ;  and  in  1805  "a  similar  force  was  raised  in 
the  other  German  Provinces  of  Austria,  which,  how- 
ever, the  Emperor  has  recently  abolished.  By  far 
the  most  elaborate  and  complete  system  of  land- 
defense  was  the  Prussian,  which  was  called  into  ex- 
istence in  1813,  when  all  Germany  rose  against  Na- 
poleon. As  early,  indeed,  as  1806,  or  earlier,  Mar- 
slial  Knesebeck,  then  a  Major  in  the  Prussian  Army, 
had  proposed  such  a  thing :  but  it  was  not  till  tlie 
opening  of  the  campaign  of  1813  that  the  Prussian 
Landwehr  was  organized  according  to  Scharnhorst's 
plan  by  a  Royal  Edict,  dated  Mar.  17.  At  first,  it 
was  designed  solely  as  a  land-defense,  properly  so 
called,  and  not,  what  is  now  the  case,  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  regular  army.  It  was  called  out  in  two 
separate  levies,  the  first  comprising  all  men  from  26 
to  33,  and  the  second  those  from  33  to  39.  The  old 
men  up  to  60  belonged  to  the  Landxtiirin,  which  was 
called  out  only  for  the  defen.se  of  house  and  hearth. 
After  the  second  peace  of  Paris  appeared  the  Land- 
wehrm-dnung  (Landwehr-regulation)of  April  21, 1815, 
according  to  which  the  country  was  divided  into  104 
districts,  each  of  which  had  to  furnish  a  battalion 
of  Landwehr.  To  every  battalion  of  Landwehr  was 
attached  one  squadron  of  L'hlans  ;  three  battalions 
formed  a  regiment ;  two  regiments,  a  Landwehr 
brigade,  which,  along  with  the  brigades  of  cavalry 
and  infantry,  was  placed  under  a  General  of  Division. 
By  tlie  Constitution  of  April,  1871,  the  Prussian  ob- 
ligatioH  to  serve  in  the  army  was  extended  to  the 
whole  German  Empire.  Every  German  capable  of 
bearing  arms,  after  serving  in  the  standing  army  for 
seven  years,  has  to  enter  the  Landwehr,  and  remain 
in  it  for  anotlier  five  years. 

LANE. — The  term  applied  to  a[body  of  soldiers  in 
two  ranks  standing  face  to  face,  forming,  in  fact,  a 
street,  passage,  or  lane.  The  French  call  this  form- 
ation haie,  or  hedge.  It  is  used  when  troops  form  a 
guard  of  honor  for  persons  of  rank  to  pass  through. 

LANGREL. — A  villainous  case-shot  made  up  of  var- 
ious fragments  of  iron  of  irregular  shape  and  size, 
so  as  to  fit  the  bore  of  the  cannon  from  wliich  it  is 
to  be  discharged.  It  was  formerly  much  used  for 
disabling  sails  and  rigging  of  ships.  Also  written 
Lanqracje. 

LANGTJED. — 111  Heraldry,  an  animal  whose  tongue 
is  of  a  dilTererit  color  from  its  body,  is  said  to  be  lan- 
guid i>{  lliHl  eiiliir.  It  is  understood  in  England  that 
unless  the  blazon  direct  otherwise,  all  animals  are 
langued  gules  whose  tincture  is  not  gules,  and  an 
animal  gules  is  langued  azure.  This  ruI(Mloes  not 
hold  good  in  Scottish  Heraldry,  wliere  "  when  tlie 
tongue,  teeth,  and  claws  are  of  different  tinctures 


from  their  bodies,  they  are  to  be  mentioned  as  arm- 
ed and  langued  of  such  a  tincture." — Nisbet.  When 
a  beast  or  bird  is  represented  without  teeth  or  claws, 
this  is  expressed  in  blazon  •'  sans  langue  and  arms." 
The  term  Lampasse  is  used  in  the  same  sense. 

LANGUE  DE  BOEUF.— A  sword  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, with  a  tapering  blade,  about  25  inches  long  and 
5  inches  wide  at  the  handle  end.  It  was  double  edged, 
and  very  much  resembled  the  pnrdzonium.or&msXi 
sword, of  the  ancient  Greeksiand  Romans,  which  they 
carried  on  the  left  side. 

LANGUET.— A  small  slip  of  metal  on  the  hilt  of  a 
sword,  whicli  overhangs  the  scabbard:  the  ear  of  a 
sword. 

LANSQUENETS.— German  foot  soldiers  raised  to- 
wards  the  end  of  the  15th  century.  They  enlisted 
voluntarily,  and  hired  themselves  out  as  mercen- 
aries to  any  power  that  was  willing  to  pay  them. 
Charles  VII.  of  France  first  added  them  to  his  infan- 
try. After  the  16th  century  the  name  fell  into  dis- 
use. 

LANSQUENETTE.— A  short,  wide,  two-edged,  and 
pointed  sword  of  the  16th  century.  The  handle  waa 
like  a  truncated  cone,  and  flattened  at  the  end  to  form 
the  pommel. 

LANTERN. — A  contrivance  for  the  purpose  of  giv- 
ing light :  it  ismiade  of  glass'or  any  transparent  mat- 
ter. There  are  two  kinds  of  'lanterns,  dark  andMua- 
rory,  which  are  used  at  night  ui  batteries  or  on  the 
line  of  march. 

LANTERNS. — 1.  An  implement  made  of  copper, 
resembling  a  round  spoon  ar  ladle.  It  is  fixed  to  a 
long  pole  and  serves  to  convey  gunpowder  into  a  piece 
of  ordnance.  2  A  Swiss  cannon  rammer,  on  a  long 
shaft,  the  end  of  which  contains  a  wadding  screw. 
It  was  first  used  in  the  15th  centur}-. 

LANTERN  SLIDES.— Contrivances  used  in  trans- 
cribing microscopic  despatches  sentbycarrier  pigeons 
in  time  of  war.  The  7iegatite  should  be  very  delicate 
and  full  of  details ;  rather  thin  without  being  flat, 
and  clear  in  the  shadows.  Intensification  should  be 
avoided,  except  in  the  case  of  line  work.  Especial 
care  should  be  taken  in  adjusting  and  focussing  the 
camera,  as  the  subsequent  enlargement  greatlj'  mag- 
nifies all  defects.  The  slide  is  simply  a  positive  taken 
from  the  negative, and  may  be  of  the  same  size, though 
it  is  generally  reduced.  This  operation  is  best  per- 
formed in  a  darkened  room  with  a  wooden  shutter 
in  the  window.  An  opening  in  the  shutter,  of  the 
proper  size,  is  arranged  to  hold  the  negative,  and  the 
camera  is  so  adjusted  that  the  positive  will  be  of  the 
proper  size  for  a  slide.  In  this  case,  transmitted  in- 
stead of  reflected  light  is  the  active  agent,  and  the 
length  of  exposure  is  very  much  reduced.  The  same 
care  as  before  is  necessary  in  the  adjustment  and 
focussing  of  the  camera.  The  light  passing  directly 
through  "the  negative  should  come  from  aclearskj'. 
In  case  the  horizon  line  is  near  the  prolongation  of 
the  axis  of  lens,  the  negative  will  be  unequally  illum- 
inated, and  the  positive  will  not  be  of  uniform  den- 
sitj-.  llVi /i/oto  are  preferable  for  both  negatives 
and  positives,  as  the  most  skillful  and  careful  man- 
ipulation will  not  insure  clear  glass  for  the  highest 
lights  of  the  latter  when  sensitive  drj-  plates  are 
used.  The  Collodion  should  be  of  a  shiny  color  and 
the  negative  bath  only  faintly  acid.  Give  free  ex- 
posure, and  rather  under-develop  with  an  acid  devel- 
oper in  order  to  obtain  the  requisite  density.  Use  45 
minims  of  glacialacetic  acid  per  ounce  of  Instantan- 
eous Developer.  After  the  plate  is  fixed,  should  the 
lights  be  found  veiled,  the  plate  may  be  cleanedhj 
flooding  it  with  tlie  following  solution: 

Potassium  Cyanide ! 30  grains. 

Water 1  ounce. 

Saturated  willi  iodine  until  clear.  Toning  is  best 
(hme  with  a  lO-grain  solution  of  plalinii'  chloride. 
It  will  fre(|ueiiliy  be  necessary  to  use  dry  plates  for 
lantern  slides  in'tead  of  wet  plates  because  of  the 
inconvenience  attending  the  use  of  the  latter.  See 
I'liolography. 


LANYAKD. 


177 


LA8UIHQ 


LANYARD.  -A  strniif;  cord,  oiif  cnil  of  wliifli  liiiH 
a  siimll  iniii  liook,  iinil  tlu;  other  ii  wooden  Imiulle. 
Itisuseilfor  exploding  tlie  friction-primer  wlien  ii 
piece  is  to  lie   tired. 

A  new  form  of  lanyiird  liiiHsi  slidinff  liiindle,  wliicli 
strikes  a  tixed  liiitton  on  tlie  cord,  iind  thus  explodes 
the  primer.  Tlii'  further  end  of  the  liinviird  is  held 
by  the  left  liiuid  at  the  lieight  of  the  breast,  while 
the  right  hand  slides  the  liandle  until  it  strikes  the 
l)ulton,  usually  opposite  tlie  right  side. 

LAPEL. — The  facings  of  a  coat.  Until  the  intro- 
duction f)f  epaulettes  in  IHli.  the  white  lapel  was  sy- 
nonymous with  a  l.ieutenant's  eonunission  in  tlie 
British  service.     Commonly  written  LiipclU. 

LAPIXHAE. — A  wild  race  inhabiting,  in  ancient 
times,  the  mountains  of  Tliessaly.  Tliey  derived 
their  name  from  a  mythical  ancestor,  LiipitlicK,  a  son 
of  Apollo,  and  the  lirother  of  C'entaiiros.  the  equally 
niytliical  ancestor  of  the  Centaurs.  A  bloody  war  is 
said  to  have  been  waged  lietween  the  kindred  races 
in  prehistoric  times,  which  ended  in  the  defeat  of 
the  ( 'ciitaurs,  but  thcLapithtc  were  in  tlieirturn  sub- 
dued by  Hercules. 

LAPPING.-  1.  The  process  a  gun  undergoes  after 
being  rilled,  also  after  "  proof."  for  the  purpose  of 
removing  any  little  burrs  which  may  be  thrown  up 


/  /  /         / 

on  the  edge  of  the  grooves  by  the  proof  rounds.  The 
lapping-machine,  represented  in  the  drawing  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  government  arsenals  and  armor- 
ies for  grinding  thin,  tlat  pieces  that  cannot  well  be 
clamped  for  milling  witliout  retaining  their  winding 
Irregularities.    With  this  machine  an  unskilled  work- 


man can  grind  a  true  surface  at  much  less  expense 
tliuii  mining  would  cost.  Diameter  of  lap,  18  inch- 
es ;  weight  of  machine.  flOO  [lounds  ;  speed  of  lap, 
l,r)()0  revolutions  perminute:  Hp<'ed  of  counter-shaft, 
(1  by  T)  inch  tight  and  loose  pulleys,  (12.')  revolution.s 
]ier  minute.  2.  The  wearing  away  the  land-surface 
in  a  rilled  gun  to  ease  the  entrance  of  the  projectile. 
LAPSE.  .\n  expression  formerly  used  in  the  Urit- 
isli  Army  to  signify  the  reversion  of  any  ndlitary 
property.  Thus,  upon  the  sale  or  purchase  of  on" 
commission  at  the  regulated  difference,  another 
(where  there  are  two)  is  said  to  lapse  to  government. 
Commissions  la|)se  or  fall  into  the  patronage  of  gov- 
ernment, when  vacancies  hajipen  by  death,  by  offi- 
cers being  superseded,  or  where  oflicers  apply  to  sell 
who  have  only  purchased  a  part  of  their  commis- 
sions, and  have  not  served  long  enough  to  be  entitled 
to  sell  the  whole  ;  in  which  case  they  are  only  per- 
mitted to  sell  what  they  actually  ])urchased,  and  the 
rcHiaiiidir  is  the  gift  of  the  government. 

LAP-WELD. — A  weld  in  which  the  welding  edges 
are  made  thin,  lapped  one  over  the  other,  and  weld- 
ed. 

LARGESSE. -^[onej' which,  in  early  time,  it  was 
the  praclice  to  grant  to  Heralds  on  certain  state  occa- 
sions, for  proclaiming  the  style  and  title  of  the  Sov- 
ereign and  his  Nobles.  The  regular  fees, 
as  recorded  in  one  of  the  Ashmolean  MSS., 
were:  "At  the  coronacion  of  the  king  of 
England  XlOOapparalled  in  scarlet.  At  the 
displaying  of  the  kinge's  banner  in  any 
campe,  100  markes.  At  the  displaying  of 
a  duke's  banner,  i.'20;  at  |a  marquis',  20 
markes;  at  an  carle's,  10  markes.  The  king 
marrying  a  wife,  i'.IO,  with  the  gifts  of  the 
kinge's  and  queene's  uppermost  garments; 
at  the  birth  of  the  kinge's  eldesl  son.  lOO 
markes;  at  the  birth  of  younger  children, 
£20.  The  king  being  at  any  syge  with  the 
crown  on  his  head,  i'.")." 

LARIAT. — A  long  cord  or  thong  of  leath- 
er with  a  noose.  The  term  is  now  com- 
monly applied  to  a  rope  \\  inches  in  cir- 
cumference and  30  feet  long,  made  of  Ital- 
ian hemp,  which  is  much  used  in  the  United 
States  Cavalry  service  to  picket  the  hor.ses 
while  grazing.     See  Laxxi. 

LASMES. — A  term  employed  in  Herald- 
ry. When  the  field  is  bestrewed  with  an 
indefinite  number  of  drops  of  a  blue  color, 
it  is  said  to  be  gnttedt  tariiie.1.  a  nomencla- 
ture pectiliar  to  British  Heraldry. 

LASCAR.-  IntheKast  Indies,  a  term  sig- 
nifying properly  a  camp-follower,  but  gen- 
erally applied  to  native  sailors  on  board 
of  British  ships.  The  Lascars  make  good 
seamen,  but  being  of  an  excessively  irrita- 
.  ble  and  revengeful  nature,  are  generally 
keptin  the  minority  in  aship'screw.  Such 
men.  under  the  name  of  Khalrvmien,  are  em- 
ployed in  some  of  the  Indian  arsenals.  At 
Hong  Kong  and  in  Ceylon  there  are  com- 
panies of  Lascars  in  the  pay  of  the  British 
Government. 

LASHES.— Formerly  General  Court-Mar- 
lials  could  sentence  a  soldier  to  receive  a 
■  crtain  number  of  lashes.  At  present  this 
mode  of  punishment  is  prohibited,  and  no 
person  in  the  military  service  is  punished 
by  flogging,  or  by  branding,  marking,  or 
tattooing  on  the  body. 
''  LASHING. — The  securing  together  any 
bodies  by  means  of  ropes  ;  there  are  two 
modes  generally  used,  viz.,  square  and  rf(- 
The  nature  of  rope  depends  on  the  work  to 
In  securing  sheers,  guns,  and  any  articles 
that  require  to  be  fixed,  lashing  is  resorted  to.  There 
are  three  kinds  of  rope  u.scd  forla.shing — l"g  line,  seiz- 
ing line,  urtiXHamhrii'  line.  Lashing  used  in  mount- 
ing and  dismounting  guns  are  of  different  dimensions. 


agntutl. 
be  dime, 


I.ASHIirO-BINGS. 


178 


I.ATHE 


LASHING  RINGS.— Rings  fixed  on  the  sides  of  ar- 
tillery traveling-carriages,  to  lash  the  tarpaulin,  as 
also  to  tie  the  sponge,  rammer,  and  ladle. 

LASH-EOFE. — A  rope  used  in  packing.  The  packs 
or  loads  are  made  fast  and  retained  on  the  animal's 
back  by  means  of  a  cinch  and  lash-rope.  The  cinch 
is  made  of  strong  canvas,  about  eleven  inches  wide 
and  one  yard  long,  doubled  so  that  the  edges  are  in 
the  middle.     Strong   pieces  of  leather  are  firmly 


stitched  on  both  ends  and  on  both  sides,  with  the 
canvas  cinch  lietwecn,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  A 
three-inch  iron  ring  is  made  fast  at  one  end,  and  a 
hook  of  hard  wood  at  the  other.  Natural  shapes  are 
usually  selected  for  the  hooks.  The  lash  rope  is  of  1} 
inch  hemp  rope  or  rawhide,  about  35  feet  long,  with 
one  end  spliced  to  the  cinch-ring,  the  other  end 
served.     See  Packing. 

LASSO. — A  long  stout  cord  or  thong  of  skin,  with 
a  leaden  ball  at  each  end,  employed  by  the  South 
Americans  in  capturing  wild  horses,  oxen,  etc.  It 
is  thrown  in  such  a  manner,  that  when  it  strikes  the 
neck  or  leg  of  the  animal  to  be  captured,  the  im- 
petus of  the  ball  causes  the  cord  to  coil  round  the 
limb.  The  hunter's  horse  is  furnished  with  a  saddle 
having  a  high  pommel,  so  that  the  hunter  may  coil 
his  end  of  the  lasso  round  it,  or  even  fix  it,  if  he 
chooses,  though  this  latter  practice  often  leads  to 
dangerous  consequences.  The  lasso  was  frequently 
used  against  European  soldiers  during  the  contest  of 
the  South  American  Republics  for  Independence; 
and,  though  with  very  little  success,  by  the  barbar- 
ians of  the  Russian  Army  against  the  French  sentin- 
els during  the  Crimean  War.  Similar  in  its  name 
and  application  is  another  implement  consisting  of  a 
stout  thong  of  hide  with  a  slip-noose,  used  in  many 
cotmtries;  but  chiefly  among  the  South  American  and 
Mexican  hunters.  It  requires  much  greater  address 
to  use  it  suceessfidly .  In  Mexico  the  lasso  is  called  a 
lariat. 

LASSO  HARNESS. — A  harness  consisting  of  a  brown 
leather  surcingle  and  one  trace.  The  surcingle  is 
rather  wider  than  a  common  girth,  and  is  composed 
of  two  pieces  (joined  together  by  rings),  one  of  which 
is  placed  over  the  saddle,  and  the  other  round  the 
belly  of  the  horse.  There  are  also  rings  at  the  end 
of  the  surcingle,"which  is  drawn  very  firmly  iviund  the 
horse,  and  fastened  tight  by  lapping  a  white  leather 
thong  (fixed  at  one  end  of  the  surcingle)  through 
these  rings.  There  are  two  descriptions  of  traces, 
one  being  8  and  the  other  12  feet  long.  They  have 
hooks  at  each  end,  and  when  the 'lasso  harness  is 
made  use  of  by  cavalry,  etc.,  to  assist  draught-horses 
in  moving  very  heavy  carriages,  or  in  dragging  guns, 
etc.,  up  steep  hills,  one  of  these  hooks  is  fastened  to 
a  ring  in  the  surcingle,  and  the  oIIht  to  the  carriage. 
When  two  horses  are  in  draught,  the  traces  must  be 
inside,  and  each  rider  should  keep  his  horse's  croup 
a,  little  outwards, 

LATCH  CROSS-BOW.— A  form  of  crossbow,  spec- 
ially Mclapli'il  for  sieges  and  for  shooting  at  a  mark. 
This  was  the  weapon  used  by  the  Genoese  at  Agin- 
«ourt  in  1420. 

LATERAL  COMMUNICATIONS.— In  warfare,  eom- 
IiuuiicalidMS  wliich  should  he  kept  up  between  the 
dillereul  i)ortions  of  an  army  wlien  moving  from  one 
■common  base  bydilTerent  roads  towards  an  enemy, 
so  that,  in  case  of  a  concentration  l)eing  recjuired  on 
any  particular  point,  instructions  and  orders  can  be 


readily  carried  out,  and  the  different  portions  of  the 
army  brought  together  with  rapridity.  To  prevent 
1  any  obstruction  to  comnumications  being  kept  up, 
e.<q5ecially  when  advancing  towards  the  enemy,  the 
several  roads  on  which  the  armj-  marches  should  not, 
if  possible,  be  separated  by  rivers,  morasses,  or  a 
mountain  ridge  ;  rivers  would  not  be  so  objectiona- 
ble, as  they  might  be  forded  or  crossed  by  bridges. 
Several  roads  tending  in  the  same  direction,  with 
ea.sy  means  of  concentration,  is  the  most  satisfactory 
way  of  moving  an  army. 

LATHE. — A  machine  in  which  the  object  revolves 
while  it  is  shaped  by  a  cutting  tool  applied  to  it.  The 
art  of  turning  is  of  great  importance   in   gun-con- 
struotion  and  is  extensively  applied  in  mechanics,  the 
most  delicate  articles  of  luxury  and  ornament,  equal- 
ly with  most  ponderous   machineries  being  produc- 
ed by  it.  As  an  art,  it  dates  from  a  very  earh-  period, 
and  Theodorus  of  Samos  (about  560  b.  c.)  is  na- 
med by  Pliny  as  its  inventor ;  but  long  before  this  per- 
iod, the  potters  w/teel,  the  earliest  and  the  simplest 
form  of  turning  machine,  was  in  general  use,  as  is 
evidenced  by  numerous  references  in  Holy  Writ.  The 
immense  variety  of  work  performed   by  lathes  or 
turning  machines  necessitates  great  variations  in  their 
construction  ;  but  their  mode  of  operation  is  alwaj-s 
the  same,  and  consists  in  fixing  the  work  in  position 
by   two  pivots  or  otherwise,  causing  it  to  revolve 
freely  round  an  axis  of  revolution,  of  which  the  two 
pivots  are  the  poles,  ond  holding  a  chisel  or  other 
cutting  tool  so  as  to  meet  it  during  its  revolution, 
taking  care  that  the  cutting  tool  be  held  firmly  and 
steadily,  and  moved  about  to  different  parts  of  the 
work  till  the  reqiured   shape  be  obtained.     Lathes 
are  generallj-  divided,  with  respect  to  the  mode  of 
setting  them  in  motion,  into  pole-lathes,  /</o<-lathes, 
liand-irheel  lathes;  and   ;)(wer.lathes ;  with   respect 
to  the  species  of  work  they  have   to  perform,  into 
cereif/'-lathes,  which  form  the  outside  surface,  and 
spindle,  mandrel  or  chuck  lathes,  which  perform  hol- 
low or  inside  work,  though  this  distinction  is  for  the 
most  part  useless,  as  all  lathes  of  good  construction 
are  now  fitted  for  both  kinds  of  work.     iJcrf-lathes 
are  those  used  by  turners  in  wood,  and  Jar-lathes  for 
the  best  sort  of  metal  work ;  and  the  small  metal 
center-lathe  employed  by  watchmakers  is  known  as 
a  turn-bench.     The  primitive  and  most  simple  form 
of  lathe  for  wood-cutting  is  the  pole-lathe.     It  con- 
sists of  two  planks  or  beams  placed  horizontally  side 
by  side  with  a  narrow  space  between  them,  which, 
being  firmly  supported  at  a  convenient  height,  con- 
stitute the  bed:  of  two  uprights  or  puppets  rising  from 
the  bed,  one  of  them  stationery  at  the  left  end,  and 
the  other  sliding  along  over  the  slit  between    the 
beams,  and  capable  of  being  fastened  at  any  requir- 
ed point  by  a  projecting  tenon  and  wedge  beneath  ; 
of   a   treadle  below  and   parallel  to  the  bed  ;    and 
of  an  elastic  pole  or  loth  (whence  some  derive  the 
name  lathe)  fixed  to  the  ceiling  above.     This  form 
of    lathe  is   well    adapted   for  turning    long    thin 
cj'linders   of  wood,   the  piece   to  be  turned  being 
held  fast  at  each  end  Ijy  the  conical  iron  or  steel 
point  projecting  from  the  inner  face  of  each  puppet. 
Motion  is  communicated  to  the  work  by  a  cord  which 
is  fastened  to  the  lathe  overhead,wound  twice  or  thrice 
round  the  work,  and  then  attached  to  the  treadle  be- 
low.    When  the  workman  presses  his  foot  on  the 
treadle,  the  work  commences  to  revolve  rapidly,  un- 
winding the  cord  towards  the  treadle,  and  winding 
it  up  on  the  side  next  the  pole,  causing  the  latter  to 
bend  considerably.  During  this  peri<id,  the  workman 
has  been  holding  his  cutting-instrument  to  the  work ; 
l)ut  after  the  treadle  has  been  quite  (iressed  down, 
he  removes  his  foot,  and  the  reaction  of  the  bent  pole 
causes  the  work  to  revolve  in  an  opjiosile  direction, 
till  the  pole  has  straightened  itself;   and  during  this 
latter  revolution,  no  cutting  is  done.  When  the  whole 
|)iece  is  to  be  turned,  the  cord  must  be  moved  from 
an  unfinished  to  a  finished  part  of  the  work.  For  the 
pole,  an  clastic  steel  bow  and  string  are  substituted 


aEAiiiNO,  IjATHEs.  etc.     1.  Focit-latliP.    2.  Screw-i'UttiiiK  Inthe.     3.  Spindle-lathe.    4.  Lathe  with  two  drills 
pivot-lathe.    1^'.  Wood  mid  metal-turner's  tools.    13.  Copyinj;  turning  bench.    1 1.  Turner's  tools.    15 
VI-494. 


/er-lalhe.     0.  Small  power-lathe 
support. 


7.  Wheol-ladie.    8,0.  Cross  sujiport.     10.  Spimlle-lathe.     11.  Jeweler's 


m 


UlTHE. 


179 


LATHE. 


wlicii  the  work  is  liglit  or  fine,  the  cord   licinii;  u(- 
tiiclicd  to  the  miilillo  of  the  Htriiii;,  anil  tlic  liow  fiis- 
tcni<i  lo  the  ccilini;  liy  its  <'ciitcr.     'I'lic  iiiIviimIiil^c  of 
the  polc-htllii'  is  timl  it  never  iici|iiiri'S  nu  iMi|ieliis  in 
llie  direction  of  tlic  cutting  motion,  for  wlieni'vertlic 
pressure  on  tlie  treiidlo  is  removed  the  reliction  of  th(t 
pole  tukcs  <'lTect ;  l)iit  llie  great  waste  of  time  dur- 
ing tlic  straiglitening  of  tlie  pole  and  rising  of  the 
treadle   has   caused    the   aljandonnient   of  tliis   ma- 
chine for  the   foot. lathe.      The    fool-latlic,  the    most  I 
common  and  generally  useful  form  of  lathe,  ditrers  i 
from    the    former    in    liaving    a    liiiiid-nUick   or  faul-  \ 
luad  iu  ulacc  of  the  left-hand  stationary  puppet.  This  ' 


large,  coarse,  conical  screw  for  holding  lirmly  any 
large  piece  of  wooden  work;  Wu:  liolU^ufcUuck,u.  strong, 
circular  cup  with  pirpiudicular  sides,  into  which  one 
end  of  the  wcjrk  is  lirmly  fastcneij  Ijy  u  mallet,  or.  if 
too  small.  Iiy  four  screws  working  inward  through 
its  sides;  the  rfr/7/-'7(«c^.  of  a  cylindrical  form  similar 
lo  the  last. but  with  a  square  cavity  for  holding  drills, 
tli(^  instrument,  and  not  the  work,  being  made  lo  ro- 
tate in  this  instance;  and  the  cmcenlric  cimtk,  a  most 
ingenious  piece  of  m(;chanism — a  fiat  plate  with  two 
slits  almost  to  the  center,  and  in  line  of  a  diameter, 
within  which  slits  works  a  spindle,  with  screw-ends 
carrying  two  steel  studs,  whose  heads  project  through 


head-.stock,  consists  of  two  supports  or  puppets 
firmly  connected  at  their  base,  and  fastened  at  right 
angles  to  the  bed  by  means  of  screws.  The  outer 
puppet  is  pierced  for  a  screw  and  the  inner  one  is 
supplied  with  a  steel  collar,  within  which  the  man- 
drel carrying  the  speed-pulleys  turns.  The  left  end 
of  the  mandrel  is  concave,  so  as  to  allow  the  steel 
point  of  the  screw  to  fit  closely.  A  rest,  which  slides 
along  the  slit  between  the  two  beams  of  the  bed.  and 
■which  may  be  clamped  at  any  point,  and  elevated  or 
depressed  as  is  found  necessary,  is  used  by  the  work- 
man for  the  purpose  of  leaning  his  cutting-tool  up- 
on, in  order  to  afford  it  a  greater  steadiness.  The 
pulleys  on  the  spindle  and  mandrel  are  of  different 
sizes,  and  so  arranged  that  when  the  endless  band  is 


the  slits  above  the  surface  mi  the  right  side:  these 
heads  carry  two  curved  pieces,  which  serve  as  clamps 
to  hold  the  work;  and  as  the  spindle-screws  are  of 
the  same  fineness,  and  with  right  and  left  threads, 
the  revolution  of  the  spindle  either  removes  both 
further  from  the  center  or  brings  both  nearer  to  it; 
hence,  when  the  studs  are  once  set  at  equal  dis- 
tances from  the  center,  they  alwa3'S  remain  so,  and 
the  work  may  be  removed  and  replaced  without  dan- 
ger of  destroying  the  adjustment.  All  these  chucks 
are  of  metal,  and  are  mostly  employed  for  heavy 
work ;  turners  of  wood  or  ivory  preferring  wood- 
chucks,  which  can  be  altered  as  required,  and  secur- 
ed  by  an  iron  ring  round  the  outside,  to  prevent  split- 
ting.    The  cutting-tools  employed  are  various ;  goug- 


placed  on  the  left-haml  pulleys,  an  extremely  rapid 
motion  is  communicated  to  the  mamlrel,  the  motion 
being  reduced, more  and  more  as  the  band  is  trans- 
ferred more  to  the  right,  till,  at  the  extreme  right. 
the  rotatory  motion  is  much  slower  than  that  of  the 
spindle.  When  the  foot-lathe  is  required  for  center- 
work,  the  inner  end  of  the  mandrel,  is  furnished  with 
a  point;  but  when  hollow  or  inside  work  is  to  be 
done,  it  nuist  be  armed  with  a  screw.  In  this  latter 
case,  certain  contrivances,  known  as  cAf/c^s. for  hold- 
ing the  work,  are  screwed  on  to  the  end  of  the  man- 
drel. Some  of  these  most  commonly  used  are  the 
screw-churk,  which  shows  on  its  right  side  a  fiat  cir- 
cular surface,  from  the  center  of  "which  projects  a 


es  are  used  to  rough  out  the  work — if  soft  wood 
— after  which  chisels  with  a  straight  oblique  edge 
are  employed;  the  instruments  for  harder  materials, 
aiich  as  ivory  or  bone,  are  smaller  than  the  former, 
and  have  their  sharp  edges  "better  backed  ;"  for  in- 
side-work, drills  are  first  employed  to  make  an  open- 
ing, and  then  cutting-tools  of  various  shapes  are  em- 
ployed, according  to  the  form  which  is  wished  to  be 
given  to  the  interior  surface.  Fig.  2  represents  a  fuU 
set  of  twelve  tools  for  use  with  flie  lathe.  To  avoid 
the  imperfections  in  the  workmanship  arising  from 
unsteadiness  of  hand  in  the  workman,  the  slide-reft 
is  employed.  This  valuable  addition  is  furnished 
witli  two  motions,  one  toward  the  work,   and   the 


LATIGO  STKAP. 


180 


LATTICED. 


other  along,  parallel,  or  at  an_v  inclination  to  it,  ac- 
cording as  cylindrical  or  conical  tiguresare  required; 
there  is  a  socket  for  tlie  chisel,  which  is  tirmly  held 
in  its  place  by  a  screw  ;  and  after  the  slide-rest  has 
been  adjusted,  the  operator  has  only  to  move  the 
rest  forwcrd  or  sideways,  as  may  be  required,  the 
motions  being  effected  by  two  screws  and  winches. 
The  /laml-icheti  lathe  is  similar  to  the  former,  but  so 
much  larger  as  to  reqnire  two  workmen,  one  of  whom 
is  employed  in  setting  the  instrument  in  motion  by 
turning  a  wheel.  Tlie  poirer-lathe,  represented  in 
Fig.  l,"is  similarly  set  in  motion  by  horse,  water,  or 
steam  power,  and  is  used  for  heavy  metal-work,  as  pi.s- 
ton-rods.iron  columns  of  various  kinds,  wheels,  artil- 
lery, etc.  This  machine  differs  from  the  foot-lathe 
chiefly  in  the  substitution  of  rack-work,  and  wheels 
and  pinions,  for  the  endless  band,  and  for  manual 
labor,  in  the  various  adjustments  of  the  machine, 
such  as  in  moving  forward  the  tail-stock,  etc.;  and 
In  the  mandrel  being  supported  by  both  puppets  of 
the  head-stock.  Fig.  3.  sliows  an  improved  sliafting 
attachment,  and  wiien  ifted  in  connection  willi  tlie 
lathe, makes  a  convenient  arrangement  for  turning  a 
large  amount  of  shafting.  The  latest  patented  device 
in  this  line  is  the  Pond  shaft  turning  attachment  with 
a  rotar}'  force  pump.  It  consists  of  a  reservoir  bolted 
to  the  sliding  rest,  having  strong  housings  to  be  bored 
to  receive  plain  split  rings  for  size  and  steadying,  or 
fluted  rings  that  will  mill  to  size.  Three  cutting  tools 
precede  and  one  water  polishing  tool  follows  above 
rings,  and  are  all  on  front  side  of  shaft  to  be  turned ; 
on  back  of  shaft  opposite  tlie  cutting  tools  is  an  ad- 
justable support.     Tlie  pump  attached  to   reservoir 


circular  figures  is  by  screwing  on  to  the  mandrel  an 
apparatus,  by  means  of  which  the  work  can  be 
thrown  out  of  the  center  of  rotation  at  regular  inter- 
vals; but  as  each  different  class  of  form  requires  a 
separate  kind  of  apparatus,  it  is  impossible  here  to 
describe  the  operations  in  detail.  One  species,  how- 
ever, known  as  rune-engine  turning,  and  employed  for 
producing  involved  curviliueal  figures,  such  as  ap- 
pear on  bank-notes  and  on  ornamented  gold,  silver, 
or  gilt  work,  is  so  peculiar  and  ingenious  as  to  call 
for  more  special  notice.  In  this  species,  the  stand- 
ards which  siipport  the  mandrel  are  no  longer  fixed 
at  right  angles  to  the  lied,  but  are  capable  of  oscillat- 
ing iiackward  or  forward  in  a  plane  parallel  to  the 
plane  of  rotation  of  the  mandrel,  and  are  so  acted  on 
by  a  spring  that  when  pushed  to  one  side  they  are  at 
once  restored  to  their  former  position  on  the  pressure 
being  withdrawn.  Suppose,  then,  a  metal  wheel  with 
its  rim  waved  or  indented,  fastened  concentrically 
on  the  mandrel,  and  the  mandrel,  pushed  aside  by  a 
fi.xed  steel  point  or  roller,  applied  to  the  rim  of  the 
wheel ;  the  reaction  of  the  spring  against  the  pres- 
sure of  the  roller  will  keep  the  latter  in  close  contact 
with  the  waved  rim  throughout,  and  will  produce  a 
definite  oscillatory  movement  of  the  mandrel  of  the 
chuck,  and  the  work  fastened  on  it,  and  consequent- 
ly— the  cutting  or  graving  tool  being  firmly  held  by 
the  slide-rest — definite  deviations  from  a  circle  in  the 
lines  marked  on  the  face  of  the  work.  The  wave- 
rimmed  wlieel,  called  a  roxelte,  may  be  replaced  by 
another,  and  that  by  a  third,  and  so  on  till  a  suffi- 
cient uumberof  different  waved  linesare  obtained.  A 
number  of  rosettes  are  generally  strung  at  once  oa 


driven  from  lathe-counter,  forces  water  on  to  each 
cutting  tool.  Pressure  of  each  stream  can  be  regu- 
lated as  desired.  The  reservoir  is  so  constructed  that 
it  catches  the  falling  water  which  is  pumped  again 
without  waste.  The  reservoir  may  be  readily  re- 
moveil,  leaving  regular  lathe  for  general  work. 

In  wood-turning,  the  wood  is  prepared  by  an  axe 
and  rasp,  must  be  lightly  though  firmly"  pressed 
against  by  the  cutting-tool ;  while  metal-w-ork  must 
be  cleaned  from  the. sand  of  the  mold  or  scales  of  the 
forge,  and  in  turning,  requires  less  care.  Soft  woods 
must  be  made  to  revolve  with  great  rapidity  ;  very 
hard  woods  and  brass  require  "much  less  velocity"; 
wrought  iron  and  copper,  still  less;  steel,  a  further 
dimiiiulion  of  speed  ;  and  cast  iron,  tlie  least  velocity 
of  all.  After  the  work  has  been  duly  shaped,  it  re"- 
quires  to  be  polished  ;  and  this  is  effected  while  it  is 
still  in  the  lathe  and  rotating,  by  applying  shark's 
skin  to  wood,  pumice-stone  and  chalk  to  ivory  and 
horn,  and  emery,  tripoli,  or  putty  powder  to  iiietals. 
Hitherto,  we  have  suppcjsed  that"  the  a5cis  of  revolu- 
tion of  the  work  is  lived,  and  eonseijuenlly  that  all 
work  was  turned  to  present  a  transverse  circular  sec- 
tion; but  other  forms  of  section  maybe  easily  ob- 
tained.   The  general  mode  of  obtaining  these"  non- 


tlie  mandrel,  and  the  fixed  guide  is  brought  into 
gearing  by  means  of  a  steel  band  called  a"  rubber, 
with  one  rosette  after  another.  Similar  concentric 
curves  of  greater  or  less  perimeter  are  obtained  by 
removing  the  slide-rest  from,  or  bringing  it  nearer 
to,  the  axis  of  revolution.  See  Axle-lathe,  Engine- 
lathe.  Iland-hithe. Heading-lathe,  Shafting-lathe,iipin- 
7iing-liitlie.  and  Turning. 

LATIGO  STRAP.— A  strong  strap  of  leather  used 
with  the  aparejo-eincha  to  tighten  the  aparejo.  It  is 
about  G  feet  long,  IMuches  wide  at  one  end  and  tap- 
ering to  J  inch  at  the  other.  See  Rammer-cloth  and 
Packing. 

LATRINES. — Conveniences  for  soldiers  in  camps 
and  liarracks.  !Much  nitention  has  of  late  been  de- 
voted to  their  construction,  a  large  percentage  of  the 
army  sickness  having  been  traced  to  their  defective 
and  inquire  conditi(ui. 

LATTE. — A  straight  saber  used  by  the  cuirassiers  • 
in  France. 

LATTICED.— Latticed,  or  Treille,  in  Heraldry  is  a 
term  apjilieil  to  a  shield  covered  with  a  decoration 
resembling  frelty,  but  differing  in  this  respect,  that 
the  pieces  do  not  cross  over  and  under  each  oilier: 
those  directed  from  dexter  chief  to  sinister  base  are 


LAUNCH. 


181 


LAY  TOaPEDO. 


pliKcd  Mp])<T!iioflt  and  elonf,  that  is  )iavo  nails  in- 
scrli'il  111  llic  joints.     See  Ileralilrij, 

LAUNCH.  'I'd  lamirli  a  f;iiii  or  iitliiT  ol)ject  for- 
ward iir  bacliward  is  In  innvn  it  ill  tlic  direction  of  its 
axis.  If  tile  \vci(;lit  is  siK'li  as  to  rciiuirc  levers  or 
handspikes,  they  are  jilaeed,  usually,  on  opposite 
sides,  and  the  power  applied  liy  l)eariiif:;ilowii,  at  tlu' 
same  time  carryini;  the  free  end  .if  the  lever  in  a  di- 
reelion  contrary  to  that  in  which  the  object  is  to  be 
moved. 

LAUNDRESS. — A  camp  woman,  usually  the  wife 
of  a  soldier,  employed  to  wash  siildier'.i  clothinu;. 

LAUREL. — By  the  ancient  Orceks,  the  laurel  was 
called  d(ipluie\  it  wa.s  sacred  to  Apollo.  iJcrry- 
beariug  twigs  of  it  were  wound  roun(i  the  forehead 
of  victorious  heroes  and  poets;  and  in  later  times, 
the  degree  of  Doctor  was  conferreilwith  this  ceremony 
whence  th(^  term  Lnurention  ;  and.  according  to  some 
the  term  Hachclor.  And  to  this  day  a  laurel  crown 
is  the  emblem  of  honor  to  which  poets,  artists  and 
warriors  aspire. 

LAVURE.  The  grains,  dust,  or  detached  pieces 
of  metal  which  fall  in  casting  cannon. 

LAW. — Ulackstone  says  Law  means  the  rules  of 
liuman  action  or  conduct.  This  detinition  is  too 
wide,  for  it  is  confined  only  to  such  rules  as  Courts, 
supported  by  proper  aulhority,  will  enforce.  The 
Law  of  Nature  consists  of  those  laws  which  are  com- 
inoii  to  all  mankind,  and  are  supposed  to  be.  as 
uearl)-  as  can  be  conj<'cturcd.  independent  of  tlie  ac- 
cidents of  time  and  place.  The  Civil  or  Municipal 
Law  of  a  nation  is  what  is  commonly  understood  by 
the  term  Law,  when  applied  to  a  particular  country. 
The  "Civil  Law"  is  also  sometimes  used /)«/•  exctl. 
lenee  to  denote  the  old  Koman  Law  as  embodied  in 
the  Institutes  of  Justinian,  the  Code,  and  other  parts 
of  wiiat  is  commonly  called  the  Citrpii.i  Juris  Civilis, 
Many  of  the  leading  doctrines  of  that  Law  have  been 
adopted  by  modern  nations.  England  is  the  civiliz- 
ed country  which  has  adopted  the  least  from  the  Code 
of  Law,  while  Scotland  follows  Continental  nations 
in  adopting  the  Itoman  or  Civil  Law  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, and  on  many  subjects  in  adopting  it  entirely. 
The  Law  of  Nations  is  subdivided  into  Pulilic  Inter- 
national Law,  and  I^rivate  International  Law,  or  the 
comitas  gentium.  Law  is  often  used  in  England  as 
contradistinguished  from  equity,  but  this  is  chieHy 
due  to  the  accidental  circumstance  that  there  is  a 
subdivision  of  Courts  into  Courts  of  Law  and  Equit}', 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  remedy  given.  Law 
is  also  often  in  popular  parlance  distinguished  from 
Justice,  the  latter  being  supposed  to  be  perfect  in  its 
nature,  or  as  near  the  standard  of  perfection  as  can 
be  supposed ;  whereas  there  are  numberless  cases  of 
injury,  hardship,  and  oppression  which,  owing  to 
human  infirmity,  no  system  of  human  laws  can 
adequately  redress ;  and  this  is  often  adduced  as 
confirmation  of  the  doctrine  of  future  rewards  and 
punishments.  Law  is  also  sometimes  subdivided 
into  Criminal  Law,  Constitutional  Law,  etc.,  accord- 1 
ing  to  the  particular  subject  matter.  See  Articles  of 
W(ir,  Execution  of  Laws,  International  Law,  Martial 
Lair,  and  Military  Law, 

LAW  OF  ARMS.— Certain  acknowledged  rules,  reg- 
ulations, and  precepts,  which  relate  to  war,  and  are 
observed  by  all  civilized  nations.  The  Law  of 
Arms  also  shows  how  to  proclaim  war,  to  attack  the 
enemy,  and  to  punish  offenders  in  the  camp,  etc.  ! 
LAW  OF  NATIONS.— Such  general  rules  as  regard  ! 
the  Embassies,  reception  and  entertainment  of  stran- 
gers, intercourse  of  merchants,  e.Kchange  of  prison- 1 
ers,  suspension  of  arms.  etc.  See  Internatirmal Laie. 
LAWS  OF  WAR.— The  recognized  rules  for  the 
conduct  of  civilized  warfare.  These  rules  relate  to 
the  treatment  of  prisoners,  non-combatants,  spies, 
traitors,  etc.  ;  the  disposition  of  private  propert)', 
the  rights  of  capture,  occupation  and  conquest,  the 
establishment  of  blockades,  tlie  rights  and  obliga- 
tions of  neutrals,  etc. 

LAYETTE.— A  three-sided  tray  or  box  without  a 


cover,  used   to  carry   powder  from  one  mortar  to 
anollier  in  powdcr-iiiills. 

LAYING  A  GUN.  In  gunnery,  pointing  a  gun  so 
timl  till'  projei-tile  shall  '•Irike  the  oliject  aimed  at. 
This  is  circctcd  by  bringing  th(^  top  of  the  notch  of 
the  hind  sight,  the  ape.v  of  the  foresight  Cwbelhcr 
muzzle  or  trunnion^,  and  the  object  in  line.  In  la^'- 
ing  a  rilled  gun,  Ww.  scales  for  elevation  and  deflrc- 
tion  must  be  first  adjusted.  This  being  done.  No.  1 
of  tJH^  gun's  crew  proceeds  to  lay  the  gun.  He 
places  himself  in  rear  of  the  gun,  bringing  Ids  eye  to 
a  level  with  the  top  of  the  hind  sight,  and  about  0 
inches  in  rear  of  it,  and,  when  laying  guns  where  it 
is  necessary  to  sloop,  places  his  feet  so  that  the  body 
is  well  balanced,  steadying  liimself  by  leaning  on 
the  gun  with  his  arm,  and  gives  thenecessarj'  orders 
for  elevating  or  traversing,  until  the  gim  is  laid  as 
above;  with  field  guns  lie  himself  elevates  or  de- 
presses. With  guns  tilted  with  a  traversing  liar,  the 
tinal  adjustment  is  given  by  No.  1  liimself.  In  lay- 
ing a  gun.  it  is  well  to  avoid  putting  the  back  of  the 
nail  on  IIk^  top  of  the  sight,  the  hand  to  cover  the 
eye,  holding  the  tangent  scale,  or  other  peculiarity. 
In  breech-loading  and  muzzle  loading  rifled  guns, 
provision  is  made  in  the  sighting  to  meet  wliat  is 
known  as  the  co?istant  i/ejlirtion  of  such  guns  caused 
by  rifling.  To  provide  also  against  deflection  liy  wind 
or  other  inaccuracies,  such  as  one  wdieel  being  higher 
lliaii  another,  a  delleclion  scale  is  attached  to  each 
gun.  Formerly,  guns  which  had  no  tangent  scale 
were  elevated  by  means  of  the  quarter  siglits  orquad- 
rant. 

LAY  TORPEDO.— From  the  date  of  the  destruction 
of  the  rebel  ram  Albermnrle,  in  18G4.  by  a  spar  tor- 
pedo invented  by  W.  W.  Wood  and  John  L.  Lay, 
('ol.  Lay  has  devoted  his  entire  time  to  the  inven- 
tion and  construction  of  submarine  torpedoes.  Sev- 
eral forms  of  Lay  spar  torpedoes  to  be  operated  on 
ship-board  are  in  use  in  the  Russian  Navj-.  The 
torpedo  or  explosive  charge,  usually  of  dynamite,  is 
fixed  to  the  end  of  a  long  spar,  and  is  thrust  out 
from  a  swift  torpedo  boat,  or  armor-clad  ship,  under 
the  hull  of  a  vessel  sought  to  be  destroyed,  and  there 
exploded.  The  electrical  self-propelled  torpedo  boat 
of  Lay's  invention  is  in  extensive  use  in  Europe, 
especially  in  Russia ;  and  two  such  boats  are  owned 
by  the  United  States  Government.  Some  of  the 
Russian  boats  were  built  in  the  United  States.  The 
boat  is  a  spindle;  in  length,  some  twelve  or  fifteen 
times  its  diameter.  The  boats  are  built  from  600 
pounds  to  2^  tons  in  weight,  and  cost  from  #3.000 
to  •'115,000  each.  Each  boat  carries  a  propelling  en- 
gine, the  motive  jiower  being  usually  carbonic  "acid 
gas,  retained  in  a  chamber  or  reservoir,  under  a 
pressure  of  600  to  1,000  pounds  per  inch  when  the 
reservoir  is  first  charged.  The  throttle  valve  is 
opened  and  closed  by  a  magnet,  or  by  a  gas  cylinder 
actuated  by  a  magnet.  The  boat  carries  a  coil  of 
telegraph  cable,  of  about  the  specific  gravity  of 
water.  As  the  boat  advances,  the  cable  is  reeled 
off.  and  passes  out  of  the  boat  through  a  jiipe,  which 
conveys  it  back  past  the  screw  propeller.  When 
the  cable  reels  out,  sea-water  is  permitted  to  enter 
the  cable  compartment,  and  so  maintain  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  boat.  The  rudder  can  be  set  to  port 
or  starboard,  or  held  amidships,  by  means  of  an  en- 
gine controlled  by  a  magnet  in  coimection  with  the 
telegraphic  cable. 

The  boat  will  usuallj-  run  just  under  the  surface 
of  the  water,  but  can  be  raised  or  lowered  in  the 
water  by  the  admission  or  ejection  of  water-ballast, 
the  water  being  forced  out  of  the  ballast  chambers 
by  the  pressure  of  gas  from  the  gas  reservoir  when 
a  cock  controlled  through  the  wire  is  turned;  or  the 
boat  may  have  rudders  to  deflect  it  upward  or  down- 
ward in  the  water,  these  rudders  being  controlled  in 
the  same  way  as  the  steering  rudder.  The  sight  rods, 
or  target  rods  which  project  above  the  water  have  the 
forward  side  painted  of  a  color  such  as  not  to  be 
easily  distinguished  from  the  water;  the  side  toward 


LAZASnS. 


182 


LAZT  TONOS. 


the  operator  is  bright  colored.  These  target  rods 
may  be  fixed  on  the  boat,  or  may  be  made  to  turn 
down  or  to  telescope  into  the  boat,  the  movement 
being  controlled  in  such  case  by  a  gas  cylinder  con- 
trolled by  a  magnet.  The  firing-pin  when  thrust  in, 
by  encountering  an  obstacle,  cuts  out  a  resistance 


crease  of  speed  is  obtained  is  not  yet  divulged.  The 
Whitehead  fish  torpedo,  of  English  invention,  is 
somewhat  like  the  Lay  torpedo  in  the  fact  that  it  is 
of  spindle  shape,  is  driven  by  a  screw  from  a  gas  en- 
gine inside,  and  carries  a  bursting  charge.  Here  the 
resemblance  ends,  as  the  torpedo,  when  once  pointed 


Thk  Lay  Torpedo  (Longitudinal  Section  1, 

A.  Dynamite  Chamber.  D.  Propelling  Engine. 

B.  Gas  Reservoir  Compartment.  E.  Engine  for  Operating  Diving  Ruddere. 

C.  Caiile  Compartment.  F.  Steering  Engine. 


Propellers. 
Cable  Tube, 
Firing-pin. 


coil  and  closes  an  electric  circuit  through  the  cable 
to  firt.  the  charge,  which  is  in  the  front  part  of  the 
boat;  or  the  operator  on  shore  or  ship-board  who 
directs  the  boat  through  the  telegraphic  cable  may 
fire  the  charge  by  a  touch  of  the  firing  ke_v  on  the 
key-board.  The  shore  or  operating  end  of  the  cable 
is  connected  with  an  electric  battery  tlirough  a  switch- 
board. Suitable  keys  on  the  switch-board  control 
the  tlirottle-valve,  steering-gear,  and  all  other  opera- 
tive mechanisms  on  the  boat,  by  a  current  through 
a  single  electric  wire.  The  ingenious  electrical  de- 
vices by  which  so  much  is  accomplished,  are  the 
inventions  of  Mr.  George  Haight,  Colonel  Lay's  idea 
having  been  to  have  a  separate  wire  in  the  cable 
for  each  machine  on  the  boat.  The  front  end  of 
the  boat,  which  carries  the  charge,  is  sometimes 
made  detachable,  and  is  thrown  off  from  the  boat 
before  firing;  generally,  however,  the  boat  is  to  be 
sacrificed  with  the  enemy  which  it  seeks  to  destroy. 
The  operator,  by  watching  the  sight  targets  through 
a  telescope,  is  enabled  to  guide  his  boat  to  the  enemy 
with  certainty,  or,  if  the  enemy  is  beyond  his  reach, 
he  can  direct  the  boat  back,  and  by  cutting  out  the 
tiring  circuit  on  his  switch-board  the  boat  can  be  safe- 
ly handled,  as  it  carries  no  percussion  firing  mechan- 
ism. The  lay  torpedo  boat  can  be  confrolfed  at  a  dis- 
tance of  more  than  a  mile  and  a  half.  As  recently  im- 
proved, it  will  run  for  distances  of  nearly  a  mile  at  the 
rate  of  about  thirteen  knots.  The  ditficulty  in  obtain- 
ing higher  speed  has  been  the  tendency  of  the  com- 
pressed gas  to  freeze  by  expansion.  Dr.  Kellogg,  of 
Hartford,  Conn.,  and  Sir.  Haight  have  each  devised 
apparatus  to  utilize  the  heat  of  seawater  to  prevent 
freezing,  and  with  the  sea  at  summer  temperatures, 
very  good  results  have  been  obtained,  in  increasing 
the  speed  of  the  boat.  Mr.  G.  H.  Reynolds,  of  the 
Pelameler  Works,  New  York,  has  also  made  valu- 
able iniprovemculs.  Messrs.  Geo.  Haight.  W.  IL 
Wood,  and  William  Winsor,  of  New  York,  have  re- 
cently invented  im  improveniciit  by  whirh  the  dan- 
ger of  freezing  of  the  gas  is  siil)staiitially  done  awiiy 
with,  and  a  speed  at  the  rate  of  sixteen  knots  is  said 
to  have  been  attained,  with  a  probability  of  still  fiir- 
ther   increase.     The  mechanism   bv  wliicli  I  Ids  in- 


and  started,  is  no  longer  under  control,  but  must 
go  its  course,  wherever  that  may  tend.  As  it  has 
less  speed  and  is  much  more  expensive  than  a  rocket 
of  equal  size,  it  would  seem  to  be  much  less  desir- 
able.    See  Torpedw.<i. 

LAZARUS. — A  military  Order  formed  at  Jerusalem 
b}'  the  Christians  of  the  West  when  they  were  mas- 
ters of  the  Holy  Land.  They  received  pilgrims  un- 
der their  care,  and  guarded  them  on  the  roads  from 
the  insults  of  the  Mohammedans.  This  Order  was 
instituted  in  the  year  1119,  and  was  confirmed  by  a 
Bull  of  Pope  Alexander  IV.  in  (1355),  who  gave  it  the 
rule  of  St.  Augustine. 

LAZT  TONGS.  —  Before  the  lazi/  tongs,  or  panto- 
graph, as  it  is  now  known,  was  introduced  much  time 
was  spent  in  contriving  some  ingenious  make-shift  to 
properlj'  transmit  the  reduced  motion  from  the  cross- 
head  or  trunnion  of  the  engine.  Fig.  1  shows  how 
the  Bacon  pantograph  attachment  is  applied  to  one 
of  the  adjusting  nuts  which  steady  the  cross-head  on 
the  brass  ways,  while  the  cross-head  lies  in  a  hori- 
zontal plane,  as  in  many  of  our  old-fashioned  hori- 
zontal engines.  One  of  these  adjusting  screws  is  lifted 
a  little,  the  two  long  links  are  shut  under  each  side 
of  the  screw  underneath  the  head,  and  the  head  then 
screwed  down  upon  them,  making  it  perfectly  rigid, 
but  at  the  same  time  not  altering  any  adjustment  of 
the  engine.  Here  a  little  point  must  be  borne  in  mind 
by  the  party  who  is  applying  this  device.  It  will  be 
seen,  by  reference  to  Fig.  1,  that  we  have  attached 
the  device  to  the  back  end  of  the  cross-head  on  the 
outside  of  the  guide,and  that  we  must  allovs-  the  cross- 
head  to  travel  precisely  as  far  one  way  as  the  other, 
and  must  take  the  end  of  that  side  of  the  cross-head  to 
which  we  have  made  the  attachment  for  our  center 
line,  and  not  calculate  from  the  center  nut  shown  on 
that  siileof  the  cross-head.  Now  the  post,  the  top  of 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  which  supports  the  other 
end  of  the  pantograph,  must  be  exactly  square  with 
the  portion  of  the  cross-head  to  which  we  have  at- 
tached the  pantograph, when  the  cross-bead  is  in  pre- 
cisely the  center  of  itstravcl.  In  other  words,  wemust 
allow  the  difference  between  the  ceulndnut  and  the 
one  on  the  end,  as  shown, from  which  to  (iblaiii   our 


LEAD. 


I8;i 


L£AD. 


central  line.  TIip  iirms  of  tho  pantograph  iito  shown    nnrl  the  brnsson  or  guitlcs.    Thn  head  of  the  post  is 
shut  up  lis  much  as  llicy  ciiii  hi-  when  iiltai  licil  prop-    also  shown  in  Fij;.  2.     In  Fij;.  ;i,  wr-  have  theCorliKM 
f.  The  support  of  Ihat  cml  of  the  panloj^raph  from  !  j;ui(l(^  when;  the  links  are    put  uniler  the  adjustini^ 


erly. 

the  post,  which  is  shown  at  its  outer  arms,  anil  the 
corci-screw  in  thi^  short  cross-har,  must  he  precise- 
ly in   line  when  the  paiiloLjrapli   is  in  this   position, 


screw  at  the  top.  This  may  he  done  hy  horinj^  a 
hole  into  the  cross-head  and  screwin);  in  a  piece  of 
three-eif^hths  round  iron,  the  outer  end  of  which  is 
(tatlenecl,  and  has  an  eye  drilled  throuf^h  it,  then 
dro[i  (he  taperiiiL^  stud  on  the  out  end  of  the  paiito- 
LTiiph  into  the  eye  whenever  it  is  desired  to  use  the 
paiilonraph.  Fi<;.  4  shows  the  old-fashioned  pen- 
iliiluMj  allachiMl  to  a  vertical  i;uide  or  way.  In  this 
case,  a  little  slot  in  the  lower  end  of  the  pantograph 


Fit'.  •')■ 
is  necessary  ;  the  links  may  not  necessarily  be  used 
in  the  positions  shown,  hut  may  be  brought  up  at 
right  angles,  leaving  the  slot  to  make  allowance  for 
the  circle  described.  This  attachment  avoids  drill- 
ing, tapping,  taking  out  the  screws  that  confine  the 
gibs,  or  defacing  the  engine  anywhere.  On  slow- 
moving  or  condensing  engines  these  attachments  can 
be  applied  so  that  the  i)antograph  can  at  any  time  be 
hooked  on  while  running. and  diagrams  can  be  taken 
from  the  high  or  low  pressure  cylinder,  from  the 
pmnps,  standpipc,  or  anywhere  that  is  necessary. 
It  is  a  simple  little  convenience,  and,  as  has  been 


Fif;.   1. 

else  the  diagram  is  worthless.  The  end  of  the  post 
must  be  high  enough. so  that  the  pantograph  lies  per- 
fectly easy  and  without  any  cross-friction  ordraught. 
Fig.  2.  shows  the  application  of  the  attachment  to  a 


%- 


perpendicular  guide  or  cross-head,  which  is  vertical. 
In  this  particular  case  the  two  links  are  run  un- 
der the  connection  between  the  cross-head  proper 


Viz.  4. 

so  clearly  and  frcriuently  shown,  it  saves  a  great 
deal  of  vexation  and  delay,  and  ensures  more  accu- 
racy in  the  work,  if  only  a  little  pains  are  taken. 
One  point  must  also  be  observed  in  using  the  panto- 
graph— that  is,  to  allow  a  little  leeway  between  the 
carrying  pulleys  of  the  mdicator  and  the  cord-peg. 
This  attachment  is  solely  manufactured  and  for  sale 
by  the  American  Steam  Gauge  Company,  of  Boston. 
It  costs  very  little,  and  it  is  certainly  a  labor-saving 
and  an  annoyance-preventing  device.  See  Panto- 
graph. 

LEAD. — l.The  slight /OTvwrrf  inclination  of  the  axle- 
tree-arm  is  called  Uie  lead;  the  hollow  of  the  "rm  and 
lead  together  are  termed  the  let  of  the  arm.  2.  A 
bluish-white  metal  of  considerable  brilliancy,  which 
soon  disappears  on  exposure  to  the  air.  owing  to  the 
formation  of  a  thin  tilm  of  oxide.  It  is  so  soft  that 
it  may  be  cut  or  beaten  into  thin  sheets,  but  in  duc- 
tility and  tenacity  it  is  low  in  the  scale  of  metals.  It 
is  readily  fusible  at  a  temperature  of  about  62.5'',  and 
at  a  higiier  temperature  it  absorbs  oxygen  rapidly 
from  the  air,  and  the  oxide  thus  formed"  volatilizes  in 
the  form  of  white  fumes.  The  combined  action  of 
air  and  water  on  lead  is  a  subject  of  great  practical 
importance,  in  consequence  of  the  metal  being  so 
frequently  employed  in  the  construction  of  cisterns 
and  water-pipes.  The  lead  becomes  oxidized  at  the 
surface,  and  the  water  dissolves  the  oxide  ;  this  so- 
lution absorbs  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere,  > 
a  film  of  hydrated  oxycarbonate  of  lead  (PbO.HO 
+PbO,CO„)  is  deposited  in  silky  scales,  and  a  fresh. 
portion  of  oxide  of  lead  is  formed  and  dissolved. and 
in  this  way  a  rapid  corrosion  of  the  metal  ensues. 
This  action  is  materially  increased  by  the  presence 
of  some  salts  and  diminished  by  the  presence  of  other 
salts  in  the  water. 


LEAD. 


184 


LEAS. 


Pure  lead  is  of  very  rare  occurrence.  Almost  all 
the  lead  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  galena,  the 
native  sulphite  of  lead,  by  a  process  to  be  presently 
explained.  The  lead  thus  obtained  is  often  nearly 
pure,  and  to  obtain  it  pfrfcctly  pure  it  should  be  re- 
duced with  black  flux  from  oxide  left  by  igniting  pure 
nitrate  or  carbonate.  The  compounds  of  lead  with 
oxygen  are  four  in  number — viz.,  a  suboxide  PbjO, 
which  is  a  black  powder  of  no  importance  ;  a  pro- 
toxide, PbO,  which  is  the  base  of  the  ordinary  salts 
of  the  metal:  abinoxide,  PbOo :  and  red  lead,  which 
is  a  compound  of  the  two  last-named  oxides,  and  is 
usually  represented  by  the  formula  2PbO,Pb02.  The 
protoxide  is  commonly  known  as  Litharge.  Jt  is  ob- 
taincd  on  a  large  scale  by  the  oxidation  of  lead  in  a 
current  of  air,  when  it  forms  a  scaly  mass  of  a  yellow 
or  reddish  tint.  If  the  oxidation  be  effected  at  a 
temperature  below  that  required  for  the  fusion  of 
oxide,  a  yellow  powder,  termed  Massicot.\s  obtained. 
Litharge  is  much  used  by  the  assayer  as  a  flux  ;  it 
enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  the  glaze  of 
common  earthenware,  and  it  is  employed  in  phar- 
macy in  the  preparation  of  plasters.  A  mixture  of 
1  part  of  Massicot  with  10  of  brickdust,  made  into  a 
paste  with  hnseed-oil,  forms  the  compound  known 
as  Dhil  Mantie,  which,  from  the  hardness  with  wliich 
it  sets,  is  frequently  employed  to  repair  defects  in 
stone-facings. 

The  most  important  of  tne  salts  of  the  protoxide 
of  lead  are— 1.  The  Carbonate  (PbO,CO„)  which  oc- 
curs native  as  a  beautiful  mineral  in  transparent 
needles  or  fibrous  masses,  and  which  is  prepared 
under  the  name  of  White  Lead  on  a  large  scale  as  a 
pigment  by  a  process  to  be  subsequent!}'  described. 
The  carbonate  is  insoluble  in  water,  unless  it  is 
largely  charged  with  carbonic  acid.  It  is  quickly 
blackened  by  exposure  to  hydrosulphuric  acid  (sul- 
phureted  hydrogen),  either  in  the  form  of  gas  or 
in  solution,  and  this  is  a  serious  drawback  to  the  use 
of  the  lead  salts  as  pigments.  2.  The  Sulphate 
(PbO.SOj),  wliich  occurs  native  in  white  prismatic 
crystals,  and  is  formed  as  a  heavy  white  precipitate 
on  adding  sulphuric  acid  or  a  soluble  svdphate  to  a 
soluble  lead  salt.  3.  The  J^itrate(FbO. "SO-),  which 
is  formed  by  dissolving  lead  or  its  protoxide  in  dilute 
nitric  acid.  4.  The  f'hrnmrite^,  of  which  the  princi- 
pal are  the  neutral  chromate  or  Clirume  Yellow 
(PbO.CrOj),  and  the  dichromate  or  Orange  Chrome. 
These  are  much  used  in  pigments,  and  in  calico-dye- 
ing. .5.  The  Acetates.  The  ordinary-  or  neutral 
acetate  (PbO,C4H303-|-3aq.)  is  prepared  on  a  large 
scale  by  the  solution  of  litharge  in  distilled  vinegar, 
and  evaporation,  when  the  salt  is  obtained  in  four- 
sided  prisms,  or  more  commonly  in  a  mass  of  con- 
fused minute  white  crystals,  which  at  213*  lose  their 
water  of  crystallization.  From  its  appearance,  and 
from  its  sweetish  taste,  it  derives  its  name  of  Sugar 
of  I^ead.  It  is  much  used  both  in  medicine  and  in 
the  arts.  Basic  acetate  of  lead,  regarded  by  some 
chemists  as  adiacetate,  and  by  others  as  a  triacetate, 
and  commonly  known  as  Goulard's  Extract,  is  pre- 
pared by  boiling  a  solution  of  sugar  of  lead  with  li- 
tharge, and  adding  alcohol,  when  the  salt  separates 
in  minute  transparent  needles.  It  is  the  active  in- 
gredient of  Croulard  Water,  which  is  imitated  by  the 
Liqn.or  Plmithi  Diaretatln  Dilutvs,  and  of  Goiilard's 
Cerate,  which  is  imitated  by  the  Ctratitm  Pliimhi 
Compo.iitum  of  the  London  ])harmaco]Ki'ia.  The  best 
tests  for  solutions  of  the  salts  of  lead  are  the  forma- 
tion of  a  black  sulphide  with  hydrosulphuric  acid,  or 
hydrosulphate  of  ammonia,  insoluble  in  an  excess 
of  the  reagent;  of  a  white  insnluljle  sulpliatc  with 
,  sulphuric  acid,  or  a  soluble  sulpliate  ;  of  a  yellow 
chromate  with  chromate  of  potash;  and  ii  yellow  io- 
dide with  iodide  of  ])otiissium.  All  the  sidts  (if  lead, 
insoluble  in  water,  are  soluble  in  a  solution  of  ])ot- 
ash.  Hefore  the  blow-pipe  on  charcoiil,  the  salts  of 
lead  yield  a  soft,  white  bead  of  the  metal,  surround- 
ed by  a  yellow  ring  of  oxide. 

Lead  was  largely  worked  by  the  Romans  in  Great 


Britain,  and  pigs  with  Latin  inscriptions  have  been 
frequently  found  near  old  smelting-works.  The  min- 
ing of  lead  in  England  was  formerly  regulated  by 
curious  laws  ;  some  places,  such  as  the  King's  Field, 
in  Derbyshire,  having  special  and  peculiar  privileges. 
It  was  the  custom  in  this  district  not  to  allow  the  ore 
under  any  circumstances  to  leave  the  mine  till  it 
was  measured  in  the  presence  of  an  official  called  a 
bar-7naxter,  who  set  aside  a  2.5th  part  as  the  King's 
cope  or  lot.  L^p  to  a  comparatively  recent  period, 
persons  were  allowed  to  search  for  veins  of  the  ore 
without  being  liable  for  any  damage  done  to  the  soil 
or  crops.  Lead  ore  is  pretty  generally  distributed, 
but  by  far  the  largest  supply  of  this  metal  is  obtained 
from  Great  Britain  and  Spain,  the  former  country 
yielding  some  75,000  tons  per  annum,  and  the  latter 
probabh'  an  equal  supply.  Nearly  a  fourth  of  the 
total  British  produce  is  procured  from  the  Northum- 
berland and  Durham  district,  where  there  exists,  at 
AUenheads,  one  of  the  largest  mining  establishments 
in  the  world.  Scotland  and  Ireland  furnish  only  a 
very  small  quantity.  AVith  the  exception  of  a  little 
from  the  carbonate  of  lead,  all  the  supplies  of  this 
metal  are  obtained  from  the  sulphide  of  lead  or  galena. 
The  lead  ore,  when  taken  from  the  mine,  is  broken 
up  into  small  pieces,  "botched,"  and  washed,  to 
separate  impurities.  Sulphide  of  lead,  when  toler- 
ably pure,  is  smelted  with  comparative  ease.  It  is 
first  roasted  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  From  20  to 
40  cwts.  of  galena  are  put  into  the  furnace  at  a  time, 
either  with  or  without  lime.  In  about  two  hours  the 
charge  becomes  sufficiently  roasted.  During  the 
process,  the  larger  portion  of  the  ore  (PbS)  takes  up 
four  equivalents  of  oxygen,  and  becomes  sulphate  of 
lead  (PbO,S03),  a  littie  oxide  of  lead  (PbO)  is  also 
formed,  while  another  portion  remains  unaltered  as 
sulphide  of  lead.  After  it  is  roasted  the  ore  is  thor- 
oughh'  mixed  together,  and  the  heat  of  the  furnace 
suddenly  raised.  This  causes  a  reaction  between  the 
unchanged  and  the  oxidized  portion  of  the  ore,  and 
reduces  much  of  the  lead,  sulphurous  acid  being  at 
the  same  time  evolved.  In  the  third  stage,  lime  is 
thrown  in  and  mixed  with  slag  and  unreduced  ore. 
When  this  becomes  acted  on,  the  whole  of  the  lead 
is  practically  separated  from  the  ore.  and  is  then  run 
oft  at  a  tap-hole. 

In  some  districts,  the  roasted  ore  is  smelted  on  a 
separate  ore-hearth  called  the  Scotch  furnace,  where 
the  heat  is  urged  liy  bellows.  Peat  and  coal  are 
used  as  the  fuel.  This  is  a  slower  mode  of  smelting 
than  the  last,  but  yields  a  purer  lead.  During  the 
operation  of  smelting,  a  considerable  quantity  of  lead 
is  volatilized,  and  carried  off  as/umg  or  smoke,  which, 
when  allowed  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere,  not  only 
involves  a  loss  of  lead,  but  destroys  all  vegetation 
for  some  distance  around  the  works,  and  poisons 
cattle  and  other  animals  feeding  near  them.  Much 
attention  has  of  late  been  paid  to  the  obviating  of 
these  evils,  and  several  plans  are  in  use  for  the  pur- 
pose. Where  it  can  be  done  no  method  is  more  effec- 
tive than  simply  conducting  the  smoke  from  the  fur- 
naces through  a  long  horizontal  flue — saj'  a  mile  in 
length — to  a  vertical  stack.  The  fume  condenses 
on  the  sides,  certain  openings  being  left  for  the  pur- 
pose of  collecting  it.  About  33  per  cent,  of  the  fume 
thus  recovered  consists  of  metallic  lead.  When  lead 
contains  antimony  and  tin  as  impurities,  they  are 
separated  by  fusing  the  metal  in  shallow  pans,  and 
allowing  it  to  oxidize  at  the  surface.  In  this  way 
the  antimony  and  tin  form  oxides,  and  as  such  are 
skimmed  off. 

Lead  is  an  important  metid  in  the  arts.  Rolled  out 
into  sheets,  it  is  largely  tised  for  roofing  ho\ises,  for 
water-cisterns,  and  for  wiiter-pijies.  It  is  also  of 
great  service  in  the  construction  of  large  chambers 
for  tlie  niaiuifacture  of  suliihuric  acid.  Its  value  for 
them;inuf;ictnreof  shot  is  well  known.  Alloyed  with 
antimony,  etc.,  it  is  largelvconsiimed for  type-metal, 
anil  with  tin,  for  solder.  "Much  lead  is  also  reqinred 
for  the  manufacture  of  pewter,  Britannia  Metal,  etc. 


LEAD  COATING  PROCESS. 


185 


LEAGUE. 


Of  (lie  (■()iii|Hiiin(ls  of  l<iiil,  other  than  iillnyn,  which 
occur  hirf^ciy  in  comuiktcc,  the  followini;  arc  the 
principal:  W/iiit'  /,ead  or  ('(irlniniUi'  nf  /,«('/. a  sub- 
stance very  extensively  used  as  white  paint,  and  also 
ti>  fiirni  a  liody  for  other  colors  in  paintini;.  As  much 
as  Ki.OIH)  tons  of  it  are  ainiually  made  in  KuLdand. 
While  lead  is  still  lari;(ly  made  by  the  olil  J)utch 
process  w  hicli  consists  in  freatint;  metallic  lead,  cast 
in  the  form  of  stars  or  uratinjrs.  in  such  a  way  as  to 
[greatly  facilitate  the  absorption  of  carbonic  acid. 
I'hese  stars  of  N'ad  iilaced  in  earthenware  vessels, 
somewhat  liki-  llower-pols,  and  conlainins  a  little 
weak  acetic  acid,  are  built  uji  in  tiers  in  the  form  of  a 
stack,  and  surrounded  with  spent  tan  or  horse-dun^;. 
The  hi'at  civen  out  from  the  dun;;  volatilizes  the  acid, 
which,  alont;  with  the  air,  o.xidizes  the  lead.  'I"he 
acetic  acid  changes  the  o.xide  into  the  acetate  of  lead, 
and  this  is,  in  turn,  converted  into  the  carbonate  by 
the  ('arbonic  acid  tjiven  olT  from  th(^  hotbed.  ]{y  this 
process,  nielallic  lead  re(|uires  from  0  to  8  weeks  for 
its  conversion  into  white  lead.  Several  less  tedious 
processes  for  the  manufacture  of  a  while  |)aiiit  from 
lead  have  been  tried  at  various  times,  but  the  only 
one  now  practiced  is  that  for  the  production  of  an 
oxychloride  of  lead,  by  acting  on  raw  galena  with 
liydrocliloric  acid.  Minium,  lied  Lead,  irr  lied  Oxide 
of  f^eiiif,  is  much  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of 
Hint-glass  and  porcelain,  and  to  some  extent  as  a  pig- 
ment. It  requires  to  be  made  of  very  pure  lead,  as  a 
slight  trace  of  copi)er  wovdd  impart  a  color  to  glass. 
Minium  is  prepared  by  healing  Mn.iKicut,  or  protoxide 
of  lead,  to  a  temperature  of  tiOO"  F.  in  iron  trays,  in 
a  reverberatory  furnace,  carefully  avoiding  fusion. 
More  oxygen  is  thus  gradually  absorbed  ;  and  a  com- 
pound of  the  proto.xide  and  the  peroxide  of  lead  is 
formed,  having  a  bright  red  color,  which  is  the  red 
lead  of  commvrcii'.  — Lil/iiirge  has  been  already  no- 
ticed. 

LEAD-COATING  PROCESS.— The  process  of  lead- 
coating  projectiles,  chemically,  as  adopted  by  Ord- 
nance Otiicers,  is  as  follows:  1.  The  projectiles 
must  be  turned  olT  smoothly  and  brightly.  2.  Keep 
them  in  a  pickle  or  solution  of  zinc  and  vitriol  (pro- 
portion tliree  pounds  of  zinc  to  each  pound  of  vi- 
triol,) until  they  show  a  metallic  appearance;  about 
20  pounds  of  vitriol  to  100  shells  of  nine  pounds, 
and  enough  water  to  cover  the  surface  to  be  coated; 
the  projectiles  being  set  upright  in  a  wooden  box 
lined  with  lead.  The  zinc  prevents  the  acid  from 
acting  too  violently  on  the  iron.  3.  After  the  pickle, 
immerse  them  in  clear  water,  and  then  in  a  bath  of 
one  pound  of  lime  to  2f  gallons  of  water.  4.  Hub 
the  surface  with  rags  and  sand  until  a  clear  metallic 
appearance  shows  itself;  wipe  dry  with  rags  and 
saw-dust ;  brush  off  the  saw-dust.  5.  Heat  the 
projectiles  to  that  degree  that  a  drop  of  water  thrown  \ 
on  them  will  boil  at  once.  6.  Dip  them  in  a  solu- ' 
lion  of  one  part  of  sal-ammoniac  to  four  parts  of 
water  (hot.)  7.  Then  cover  them  with  a  thick  j 
layer  of  powilered  sal-ammoniac.  8.  Being  perfectly 
dry,  dip  them  into  the  molten  zinc  until  they  have 
the  same  temperature  as  the  zinc.  9.  Wipe  off  the 
dripping  zinc  with  gloves  previously  saturated  with 
the  solution  of  sal-ammoniac  (6).  The  gloves  must 
have  dried  without  being  wrung.  10.  Cover  them 
again  with  powdered  sal-ammoniac.  11.  Dip  them 
into  molten  pewter  for  about  half  a  minute.  (For  j 
projectiles  of  hardened  iron  the  coating  with  zinc  is  i 
dispensed  with. )  13.  Wipe  off  the  dripping  pewter 
with  the  sal-ammoniac  gloves.  VS.  Cover  them ' 
again  with  the  powdered  sal-ammoniac.  14.  Put  I 
them  in  the  mold  and  pour  the  molten  lead  in.  The  I 
process  to  the  zinc  coating  (8)  is  the  same  or  similar 
to  the  galvanizing,  only  more  caution  is  taken  to 
have  very  smooth  surfaces.  The  process  from  the 
tin  coating  to  the  ^casting  must  be  done  quickly. 
The  mold  for  the  final  casting  is  of  cast  iron,  made 
of  two  halves,  working  on  a  heavy  hinge,  and  con- 
nected to  a  heavy  bottom  plate,  and  opened  and  shut 
by  a  pair  of  long  handles.     The  inside  must  be  pol- 1 


Ished.  Its  interior  diameter  must  be  a  little  longer 
than  the  diameter  of  the  llnished  coated  projectile. 
The  molil,  |)rior  to  casting,  is  warmed  ho  that 
drops  thrown  on  will  boil  at  once,  and  receives  a 
coaling  of  grease,  which  should  be  allowed  to  dry 
before  casting.  The  casting  is  tested  by  making  in- 
cisions which  will  show  whetlier  it  ailheres  lirndy  to 
the  iron  or  will  peel  <jff.  The  projectile  is  tinishcd 
by  turning  olf  in  the  lathe  the  lead  coating  to  the 
<lesired  dimensions;  prove  them,  and  screw  in  the 
bottom  or  bead-screws.     See  C'uated  J'ri>jectiUH. 

LEADERS.  Long  paper  tubes  of  small  diameters 
inclosing  a  strand  of  (piick-malch.  They  are  used 
to  communicate  lire  rajiidly  from  one  point  to  an- 
other. The  velocity  of  combustion  is  from  1  to  2 
yards  per  second,  (fepending  upon  the  size  of  the 
tube,  being  niorc^  rapid  as  the  tube  is  smaller. 

Leaders  are  made  by  rolling  a  strl|)  of  thin  paper, 
2^>  inches  wide,  as  obli(iuely  as  possible,  on  a  ram- 
rod, or  cut  the  paper  into  trapezoids  4  inches  wide 
at  one  base  and  2}  at  the-  other:  jjaste  the  edges  of 
the  strips  O.'J.'i  inch,  and  roll  them  on  a  ramrod  so 
that  one  end  shall  be  enlarged,  funnel-shape.  When 
dry,  pass  a  strand  of  quick-match  through,  and  let 
it  project  about  an  inch  at  each  end. 

To  unite  them  into  a  long  line,  insert  the  end  of 
one  into  another  a  distance  of  .7.')  inch,  and  tie  them 
with  a  thread.  If  the  line  be  long,  first  .stretch  a 
piece  of  twine,  and  attach  the  leader  to  it  every  few- 
feet.     See  FireirnrkK. 

LEADING. — The  clogging  of  the  grooves  of  a  rifle 
with  lead  from  the  bullet ;  one  of  {he  principal  ob- 
stacles against  continuous  accurate  shooting.  It  is 
obviated  by  covering  the  bullet  with  a  paper  patch 
or  bv  using  a  lubricant  in  the  cancllures. 

LEADING  COLUMN.— The  first  column  that  ad- 
vances from  the  right,  left,  or  center  of  any  army  or 
batt;ilion. 

LEADING  FILE.— The  first  two  men  of  a  battal- 
ion or  company  that  marches  from  right,  left,  or 
center,  bv  files.     See  Vile-leader. 

LEADING  FLANK.— When  a  line  breaks  into  col- 
umn in  order  to  attack  an  enemy,  the  Leading 
Flank  is  that  which  must  always  preserve  the  line  of 
appvi  in  all  movements  in  front.  The  first  battalion, 
or  company  of  every  column  which  conducts,  is 
called  the  head  or  leading  flank  of  that  column. 

LEADING  QUESTION— In  the  proceedings  of  Mili- 
tary Tribunals,  a  question  to  a  witness  which  sug- 
gests the  desired  answer.  Such  questions  are  objec- 
tionable except  under  certain  conditions. 

LEAD  OUT. — A  command  in  the  mounted  service 
to  cause  the  horses  to  be  taken  from  the  stable  or 
picket  line  preparatory  to  mounting  or  harnessing. 

LEAF  SIGHT.— A  form  of  elevating  rear  sights, 
consisting  of  several  hinged  leaves  of  different 
heights.  It  is  usually  attached  to  the  tangent  .sight, 
and  is  often  called  a  Sliding  Lenf-head.     See  Sigld. 

LEAGUE. — 1.  A  measure  of  length  of  greal  anti- 
quity. It  was  used  by  the  Romans,  who  derived  it 
from  the  Gauls,  and  estimated  it  as  equivalent  to 
1500  Roman  paces,  or  1.376  modem  EnglieJi  miles. 
The  League  was  introduced  into  England  by  the 
Normans,  probably  before  the  battle  of  Hastings 
(1066),  and  had  been  by  this  time  lengthened  to  2 
English  miles  of  that  time,  or  2^^  modern  English 
miles.  At  the  present  day,  the  League  is  a  nautical 
measure,  and  signifies  the  20th  part  of  a  degree— i. 
e.,  3  geographical  miles,  or  3.456  statute  miles.  The 
French  and  other  nations  use  the  same  nautical 
league,  but  the  former  nation  had  (until  the  intro- 
duction of  the  metrical  system)  two  land-measures 
of  the  same  name,  the  legal  posting-league  =  2.42 
Eng.  miles,  and  the  league  of  25  to  the  degree,  which 
is  =  2.76  statute  English  miles. 

2.  The  term  generally  employed  in  the  IBtli  and 
17th  centuries  to  designate  a  political  alliance  or  co- 
alition. The  most  famous  Leagues  were  those  of 
Cambray,  Schmalkald,  Niimberg,  etc.  But  the  name 
has  a  peculiar  importance  in  the  history  of  France, 


LEAGUE  OF  MASBACH. 


186 


LEATHEA 


as  applied  to  the  opposition  organized  by  the  Duke 
of  Guise  to  the  granting  of  tlie  free  exercise  of  their 
religion  and  political  rio;hts  to  the  Huguenots.  This 
League,  known  as  the  Holy  League,  was  formed  at 
Peronne,  iu  1576,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Religion  in  its  predominance;  but  the  object 
of  the  Guises  was  rather  to  exclude  the  Protestant 
Princes  of  the  Blood  from  the  succession  to  the 
throne.  For  an  account  of  the  civil  war  that  ensued, 
see  Hixtinre  de  la  Ligue  (H  vols..  Par.  1829). 

LEAGUE  OF  MAKBACH.— Under  the  rule  of  Count 
Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen  and  his  successors,  Sua- 
bia  became  the  most  rich,  civilized,  and  powerful 
country  of  Germany,  and  the  Ducal  Court  was  the 
resort  of  the  Minnesingers ;  but  the  wars  of  the 
Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  and  the  quarrel  with  the 
French  respecting  Naples,  put  an  end  to  the  Dynas- 
ty in  1268.  The  Ducal  Vassals  in  Suabia  rendered 
themselves  almost  independent,  and  professed  to 
acknowledge  no  lord  but  the  Emperor.  During  these 
dissensions  arose  the  Lordships  of  Wiirtemberg  and 
Baden,  with  numerous  lesser  States,  holding  direct 
of  the  Crown,  and  opposed  to  them  the  Cities,  which 
strove  also  for  an  equal  independence,  and  at  last,  in 
reward  of  important  service,  obtained  in  1347  great 
additional  privileges.  A  number  of  them  united  to 
make  common  cause  against  the  neighboring  Feudal 
Lords  in  1376  (known  as  the  First  Suabian  League) ; 
an  opposite  league  was  formed  between  Wiirtem- 
berg, Baden,  and  17  towns  in  1405, called  the  League 
of  JIarbach;  and  both  took  part  in  the  war  of  Swiss 
Independence,  the  former  in  support  of  the  Swiss, 
the  latter  of  the  Austrians.  At  last,  the  towns,  which 
had  been  rapidly  increasing  in  wealth  and  power,  de- 
cided at  Ulm,  in  1449,  to  form  a  standing  army,  and 
a  permanent  military  commission,  for  the  forcible 
preservation,  if  necessary,  of  peace  and  order ;  and 
the  Count  of  Wiirtemberg,  the  most  powerful  of  the 
opposite  party,  having  joined  them,  was  appointed 
Military  Chief  of  the  League,  which  ultimately  grew 
up  into  the  Great  Suabian  League,  and  exercised  both 
administrative  and  judicial  authority  over  the  whole 
country,  effectively  repressing  feud.al  quarrels.  In 
1512,  Suabia  became  one  of  the  ten  circles  into  which 
Germany  was  now  divided,  received  its  complete  or- 
ganization in  1563.  and  retained  it  almost  without 
change  till  the  dissolution  of  the  Empire  in  1806.  But 
during  this  period,  the  wars  of  the  towns  with  Wiir- 
temberg, the  Peasants'  War,  of  which  Suabia  was 
one  of  the  foci,  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  those  be- 
tween France  and  the  Empire,  destroyed  the  demo- 
cratic constitution  of  the  towns,  and  with  it  their  en- 
ergy, and  then  their  prosperity  disappeared,  leaving 
now  no  relic  which  could  suggest  th^ir  former  great 
political  importance. 

LEAGUER. — 1 .  The  camp  of  a  besieging  army ;  less 
often  a  camp  in  general;  a  siege  or  beleaguering.  2. 
A  confederate,  or  one  who  unites  in  a  league. 

LEAST  SQUARES.— The  method  of  Least  Squares, 
in  astronomy  and  problems  of  motion,  is  the  best 
mode  hitherto  discovered  of  obtaining  the  most  cor- 
rect result  from  the  number  of  observations  upon 
any  phenomenon.  These  observations  are  assumed 
to  differ  slightly  from  each  other,  and  to  be  all  of 
equal  value,  that  is,  taken  under  equally  favorable 
conditions,  and  with  equal  instruments.  Theordi- 
Tiary  and  long  established  mode  of  approximating  to 
the  trulli  in  such  cases,  is  by  finding  the  arithmetic 
mean,  and  accepting  it  as  the  correct  result ;  but  in 
all  cases  where  the  result  required  does  not  come  di- 
rectly from  observation,  but  requires  to  be  discover- 
ed by  calculation,  this  simple  and  usefid  method  is 
inapplicable,  and  that  of 'Least  Squares, 'which  gives 
more  prol)al)le  corrections,  is  adopted.  The  nielhod 
is  fcjuudcd  (in  a  tliciirem  which  was  first  propounded 
by  Legeudre  in  1806,  more  for  the  sake  of  insuring 
uniformity  among  calculators  thati  from  any  belief 
in  its  intrinsic  value;  l)ut  it  wasafterwardslhorough- 
ly  discussed  and  proved  by  GnuwM  and  Lajilnce.  that 
"if  the  mean  of  a  number  of  distinct  observations  be  j 


so  tiken.  that  the  sura  of  the  squares  of  its  differ- 
ences from  the  actual  observations  (generally  desig- 
nated errors)  shall  be  a  minimum, tliis  mean  will  be. 
under  the.se  circumstances,  the  correctest  obtainable 
value."  The  process  by  which  the  mean  thus  obtain- 
ed is  shown  to  be  the  most  trustworthy  approxima- 
tion is  too  long  for  insertion  here  ;  but  it  may  not  be 
undesirable  to  give  an  example  of  the  most  common 
form  of  the  method  as  occurring  iu  astronomy.  Let 
there  be  a  series  of  equations- 

X  =     X-- 

X,=  3x- 

X  ^  4x  ■ 

Xl=-x+  3^-i-  3i 
where  the  unknown  quantities  are  x,  y,  and  «,  con- 
nected by  various  (the  more  the  better)  equations 
with  X,  X,,  etc.,  quantities  which  must  be  deter- 
mined by  actual  observation.  Suppose  the  value  of 
the  quantities  thus  found  to  be  3,  5,  21,  and  14,  then 
since  by  hypothesis  all  these  four  observations  are 
erroneous,  the  errors  are  3  —  X,  5  —  X,,  21  —  Xj, 
14;—  Xa,  or 

8—   X—   y  —  1t, 
5  —  3k  —  2y  —  52, 

21  —  4a;  —   y  —  4z, 

14+  x^Zy  —  Zz. 
The  squares  of  these  four  errors  are  now  added  to- 
gether ;  and,  to  find  the  values  of  x,  y,  and  s, 
which  will  render  this  sum  (call  it  S)  a  minimum, 
we  must  differentiate  S  with  respect  to  x,  y.  and  «in 
turn,  and  putting  each  of  these  partial  differential 
coefficients  equal  to  zero,  we  obtain  the  three  equa- 
tions, —  88  +  27x  +  8^/  +  30«  =  0 ;  —  76  +  8j  -}- 
15y  +  25z  =  0,  and  —  157  -f  30^;  -|-  25y  +  54j  =  0 ; 
from  which  the  most  trustworthy  values  of  x,  y,  and 
z  can  be  found  by  common  algebra- 

LEATHER.— The  skins  of  animals  chemically  al- 
tered by  the  vegetable  principle  called  tannin,  or- 
tannic  acid,  so  as  to  arrest  that  proneness  to  decom- 
pose which  is  characteristic  of  soft  animal  substances. 
Its  invention  reaches  beyond  the  dawn  of  history  and 
was  probably  among  the  earliest  germs  of  civiliza- 
tion; for  as  the  skins  of  animals  would  naturally  be 
among  the  first  articles  of  clothing,  any  means  of  pre- 
serving them  more  effectually  than  by  drj'ing  would 
be  highly  prized.  The  discovery  that  bark  had  this 
effect  was  doubtless  the  result  of  accident.  The  prin- 
ciple of  its  action  was  unknown  up  to  the  present 
century ;  and  the  same  unvarying  method  has  been 
employed  from  the  earliest  times  until  the  last  few 
years,  when  the  invention  of  new  processes  has 
much  faciliated  the  manufacture. 

The  skin  of  all  animals  used  in  the  production  of 
leather  consist  chiefly  of  gelatine,  a  substance  which 
easily  enters  into  chemical  combination  with  the  tan- 
nic acid  found  in  the  bark  of  most  kinds  of  trees,  and 
forms  what  may  be  termed  an  insoluble  tanno.gela- 
tin.  This  is  tlie  whole  theory  of  tanning,  or  con- 
verting the  skins  of  animals  into  leather.  Former- 
ly, oak-bark  was  supposed  to  be  the  only  tanning 
material  of  any  value  ;  but  latelj-  very  numerous  ad- 
ditions have  been  made  to  this  branch  of  economic 
botany. 

In  addition  to  the  process  of  tanning  in  making 
leather,  there  are  other  modes,  one  of  which  is  taw. 
ing,  another  dren-v'ng  in  oil.  The  following  are  the 
skins  which  form  the  staple  of  our  leather  manufac- 
ture :  ox,  cow,  calf  and  kip,  buffalo,  horse,  sheep, 
lamb,  goat,  kid,  deer,  dog,  seal,  and  hog.  These  are 
consumed,  in  a  great  degree,  in  the  construction  of 
military  equipments  and  appliances.  The  term  pelt 
is  applied  to  a!)  skius  before  they  are  converted  into 
leather.  When  simply  made  into  leather  in  the  state 
we  find  in  shoe-soles,  it  is  called,  "  Rough  Leather;" 
but  if,  in  addition,  it  is  submitted  to  the  process  call- 
ed currying,  it  is  termed  "  Dressed  Leather."  Tlio 
following  trade-terms  are  in  general  use  :  hides  or 
crop-hides,  butts  and  backs,  bends,  offal,  and  skins. 
The  comiilcte  hide  when  rounded,  wilh  the  cheeks, 
shanks,  and  belly-pieces,  etc.,  pared  off,  is  called  a 


LEATHEB. 


187 


LEATHEB. 


butt;  the  pieces  cut  ofT  constitute  the  nffal;  iiml  nkinn  in  Iiirfie  qu.-intltieH  from  AuHlralia  and  the  Cape  of 
are  all  the  lii;liter  forms  of  leather,  such  as  sheep,  |  Oood  Mope.  The  latter  with  the  cape  skin,  are 
coat   deer,  etc.  I  used   for    liook-liinding,    jrhivcs,   etc.      Lauih-skinH 


are  imported  also  from  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Spain,  and 
tewed  and  dyed  for  making  gloves,  in  imitation  of 
kid.  A  great  portion  of  all  sorts  of  lambs  and  sheep 
lire  tawed  and  used  for  aprons,  sewing  harness, 
plaster-skins,  tying  up  bottles,  lining  shoes,  and  other 
Sheep  and  lamb  skins  are  imported  (in  the  wool)   jobbing  and  inferior  purposes.     Deerskins  are  dress- 


LEATHEB  CANNON. 


188 


LEATHEB  CANNON. 


ed  by  the  oil  process,  and  form  a  great  portion  of  tlie 
80-called  s/(«m')^  leather,  which  derives  it  name  from 
the  chamois  of  the  Alps,  from  the  skin  of  which  it 
was  formerly  made.  Dog-s/cins  are  tanned  or  tawed 
for  gloves,  and  for  thiu  shoes  and  boots.  Seal-xk/ns 
are  manufactured  into  the  so-called  "patent  leather," 
by  varnishing  their  upper  surface.  The  manufacture 
of  this  kind  of  leather  has  of  late  become  of  great 
importance  to  the  London,  Edinburgh,  and  New- 
castle tanners.  Iloff  OT  pig  .ikin^  are  imported  from 
Russia  and  other  countries,  and  many  are  supplied 
b3'  Scotland ;  their  use  is  chiefly  in  the  manufacture 
of  saddles,  etc.  Walrus  a.nd  Ilippopr/tamus  hides  are 
tanned  in  considerable  numbers  for  the  use  of  cutlers 
and  other  workers  in  steel  goods,  "buffliug-wheels" 
being  made  of  them  often  an  inch  thick,  which  are 
of  great  importance  in  giving  the  polish  to  metal. 
Lately,  belts  for  driving  machinery  have  successful- 
ly been  made  from  them.  Knngarno-skins  of  various 
species  are  tanned  or  tawed  in  Australia,  and  form 
a  kind  of  leather  in  great  favor  for  dress-boots. 

The  first  process  in  making  tanned  sole  leather  is  to 
soak  the  skins  or  hides  in  water  for  a  greater  or  less 
time,  to  wash  and  soften  them;  they  are  then  laid  in 
heaps  for  a  short  time, and  afterwards  hung  in  heated 
rooms,  by  which  means  a  slight  putrefactive  decom- 
position is  started,  and  the  hair  becomes  so  loose  as 
to  be  easily  detached.  This  process  of  "  unhairing  " 
is  mostly  followed  in  America ;  but  in  Great  Britain 
milk  of  lime  is  used  for  soaking  the  hide  till  the  hair 
loosens.  Hides  or  skins  intended  for  dressing  pur- 
poses, such  as  shoe,  coach,  harness,  or  book-binding, 
after  the  hair  is  taken  off  by  the  lime,  have  to  be 
submitted  to  a  process  called  "  bating,"  for  the  pur- 
pose of  reducing  the  thickening  or  swelling  occas- 
ioned by  the  introduction  of  the  lime,  and  for  cleans- 
ing the  skin  from  grease  and  other  impurities.  This 
is  effected  by  working  the  skins  in  a  decoctiou  of 
pigeons'  or  dogs'  dung  and  warm  water,  and  no 
dressing-leather  is  ever  submitted  to  bark  or  shumac 
■without  undergoing  this  process. 

The  first  attempts  at  improvement  in  tanning'were 
the  method  invented  by  Mr.  Spilsbury  in  1823,  and 
the  improvement  on  this  method  by  Jlr.  Drake,  of 
Bedminster,  in  1831.  The  principle  consisted  in  caus- 
ing the  ot/ie  or  tan-liguor  to  filter  through  the  hides 
under  pressure.  For  this  purpose,  in  Drake's  process, 
the  edges  of  the  hides  were  sewed  up  so  as  to  form 
a  bag.  The  bags  being  suspended,  were  filled  with 
cold  tan-liquor,  which  gradually  filtered  through  the 
pores  of  tiie  hides,  and  impregnated  them  with  the 
tannin.  The  processes  by  infiltration,  however.have 
been  entirely  abandoned  for  heavy  leather,  as  they 
have  the  effect  of  rendering  the  leather  porous  and 
deficient  in  firmness. 

Various  patents  for  improvements  in  tanning  have 
been  in  operation  of  late  years.  Hercpath  and  Cox, 
of  Bristol,  tied  hides  to  each  other  to  form  a  long 
belt,  and  pressed  them  between  rollers,  to  squeeze  out 
the  partially  exhausted  tan-liquor  from  the  pores,  so 
that  a  stronger  liquor  might  be  absorbed.  Messrs.  J. 
and  G.  Cox,  of  Gorgie  Mills,  near  Edinburgh,  made 
an  improvement  on  this  mode  bj'  attaching  the  hides 
to  a  revolving  drum,  so  that  the  hides  press  on  each 
other  on  the  top  of  the  drum,  but  hang  suspended  in 
the  tan-liquor  from  the  lower  part:  and  thus,  by  the 
hides  being  alternately  in  and  out  of  the  liquor,the 
tanning  is  quickly  effected. 

Tniring  consists  in  dressing  the  skins  with  anti- 
se]itic  materials,  so  as  to  preserve  them  from  decay; 
but  by  this  operation  no  chemical  change  is  effected 
in  the  gelatine  of  the  skins ;  hence,  tawed  leather 
can  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glue.  In  tawing, 
the  first  process  is  careful  washing,  next  dressing 
them  with  lime,  then  removing  the  liairor  wool,  and 
lastly,  steeping  tlicm  in  some  one  or  more  of  the 
various  mixtures  wliich  are  used  for  converting  skins 
into  leatlier  by  tliis  method. 

]iesidea  tanning  and  Uiin'ng.  many  kinds  of  leath- 
er require    the  currier's  art  to  bring  them  to   the 


state  of  completion  required  for  military  purposes. 
The  currier  receives  tlie  newly  tanned  skins, 'and 
finds  them  harsh  to  the  feel,  and  rough  on  the  flesh- 
side.  He  removes  all  the  roughness  by  carefully 
shavingwith  a  peculiar  knife.  After  soaking  in  clean 
water,  he  then  scrapes  the  skin  with  considerable 
pressure  upon  a  scraping-tool  or  slicker,  and  thus  re- 
moves any  irregularities.  The  moisture  is  then 
removed  as  much  as  possible,  and  oil,  usually  cod 
oil  and  tallow,  are  rubbed  over  the  leather,  which 
is  laid  aside  to  dry  completely,  and  as  the  moisture 
leaves  it.  the  oil  penetrates.  When  quite  dried  and 
saturated  with  the  oil,  the  skin  is  rubbed  on  a  board 
with  rounded  ridges,  by  which  a  peculiar  grained 
appearance  is  given,  and  the  leather  is  rendered 
very  pliable.  In  currying,  almost  every  variety  of 
leather  requires  some  variation  in  the  processes  em- 
ployed, but  the  currier's  object  is  in  all  cases  to 
give  a  suppleness  and  fine  finish  to  the  skins. 

Moroem  Leather,  formerly  an  article  of  import  from 
the  Barbary  coast,  is  now  prepared  in  large  quanti- 
ties in  this  country  from  goat-skins  ;  sheep-skins  are 
also  used  for  imitation.  It  is  alwaj-s  dyed  on  the 
outer  or  grain  side  with  some  color,  and  the  leather- 
dresser  in  finishing  gives  a  peculiar  ribbed  or  a  rough- 
ly granulated  surfaace  to  it,  by  means  of  engraved 
boxwood  balls  which  he  works  over  the  surface. 

Russia  Leather  is  much  valued  for  its  aromatic 
odor,  which  it  derives  from  the  peculiar  oil  of  the 
birch-bark  used  in  tanning  it.  The  fact  that  this  odor 
repels  moths  and  other  insects,  renders  this  leather 
particularly  valuable  for  binding  documents  ;  a  few 
books  in  a  library,  bound  in  Russia  Leather,  being 
effective  safeguards  against  insect  enemies.  It  is  also 
said  to  destroy  or  prevent  the  vegetable  evil  called 
mildew,  to  which  bo»ks  are  so  very  liable. 

The  drawing  represents  a  side  of  leather,  and  is 
made  to  the  scale  of  one  inch  to  the  foot ;  the  marks 
show  the  size  and  shape  of  the  specimens  tested, and 
the  figures  give  the  strain  in  pounds  at  which  each 
piece  broke,  the  permanent  elongation  in  fractions 
of  an  inch,  and  weight  in  ounces  and  drachms.  The 
pieces  were  each  11 J  inches  long  by  2  inches  wide, 
and  were  taken  out  of  the  exact  portion  of  the  hide 
on  which  they  arc  marked. 

These  test  were  made  by  Messrs.  Riehle  Brothers, 
at  the  testing  department  of  their  works,  for  the 
obvious  reasons  of  determining  by  actual  experi- 
ment, the  tensile  strength  of  the  different  portions  of 
a  side  of  leather. 

These  tests  have  been  the  means  of  awakening  new 
interest  in  important  investigations,  as  to  the  com- 
parative value  of  sides  of  leather  for  special  military 
purposes,  and  as  to  the  best  means  of  producing  the 
best  results.  Until  comparatively  lately  the  testing 
of  iron  and  other  metals,  excepting  by  the  crudest 
methods,  was  almost  entirely  neglected,  but  now 
testing  has  become  a  necessity,  and  the  value  of 
metals  is  determined  between  buyer  and  seller  by 
their  endurance  under  certain  tests  that  are  brought 
to  bear  upon  them,  and  that  correspond  to  the  spec- 
ial use  that  they  may  be  required  for.  This,  no  doubt, 
will  also  be  the  method  of  determining  the  value  of 
leather,  especially  that  used  for  belting,  etc..  and  the 
comparison  of  tests  made  with  patented  and  rubber 
belting  is  interesting  and  useful.  See  Testing  Ma- 
chine a. 

LEATHER  CANNON.— A  variety  of  cannon  intro- 
duced by  tiustavus  Adolphus  into  the  army  on  ac- 
count of  their  mobility.  Undeniable  evidence,  how- 
ever, of  tlieir  earlier  existence,  though  of  a  smaller 
size,  is  found  in  the  "  Landesliuter  Ilarnisch-Kam- 
mer-Inventurium  "  of  15(>2,  iu  which  mention  «s  made 
of  a  "  Lange  lederne  Buehse  mit  Kugel-Modell." 
Although  Gustavus  Adolphus  improved  and  per- 
fected the  leather  <annon  which  he  introduced  into 
his  army  in  l(i2<>,  and  used  iu  the  siege  of  Worm- 
ditt,  yet  neilher  he  nor  the  German  Freiherr  Mol- 
ehior  von  Wurmbrandt,  nor  the  North  British  Baron 
Robert  Scot,  can  be  regarded  as  the  inventor.     The 


LEAVE  OF  ABSENCE. 


189 


LEAVE  OF  ABSENCE. 


invciilion  iscviilcntly  of  niiiclirnrlier  dale.  A  Iciillicr 
inorliir  for  firiiif^  sliclls,  on  cxliiliilion  in  llic  ArMcniil 
at  Venice,  wiih,  tlie  Vcnctiiins  iiHBcrt,  iniide  in  i;j4l) ; 
it  is  very  liliely,  liowovcr,  tliiit  ilH  orij^in  is  Honu-- 
wlial  I'urliiT.  One  is  liiTi;  rcininilol  of  the  niiiny  siili- 
slitutcs  fornielal  ordnance,  cspri'ially  of  the  wooden 
cannon  (entirely  bound  witli  iron  lioops;,  wliicli  arc 
frequently  menlioncd  in  the  period  from  152.')  to 
:  1530. 

The  leather  cannon  varied  from  a  l-i)r.  to  a  4-pr. 
The  bore  consisted  of  a  copper  cylinder,  of  the 
[  thickucBS  of  thrce-fourtli.s  of  the  diaineter  of  the 
ball  used.  The  lcnfj;lh  of  the  cylinder  was  sixteen 
calibers  ;  cascable  and  lirecch  were  screwed  into  the 
cylinder.  The  vent,  of  copper,  was  screwed  into 
the  breech.  The  entire  length  of  the  bore  was 
covered  with  iron  hoops,  over  which  a  number  of 
ropes  were  woinid,  which,  in  turn,  were  covered 
with  several  layers  of  varnish.  Over  these  layers 
another  round  of  ropes  was  wound,  and  over  this 
was  spread  a  layer  of  cement.  This  process  was 
repeated  until  tlie  coat  was  of  the  thickness  of  two 
calibers;  the  last  coalinj;eonsisted  of  tarred  leather, 
which  ii'i^'*'  t'""  eannon  its  name.  The  charge 
amounted  to  one-fourth,  rarel_v  one-third,  of  tlie 
weight  of  the  ball ;  the  cannon  was  loaded  only  with 
canister.  Canister-shot,  until  that  time  only  used  in 
sieges, was  introduced  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  into  the 
field  .service,  and  consisted  mostly  of  musket  liullets, 
though  old  pieces  of  iron  were  very  often  used.  The 
shot  were  put  into  wooilen  and  tin  boxes,  linen  bags, 
and  sometimes  only  in  rude  wicker  baskets.  The  lea- 
ther cannon,  of  i)0  lbs.  weight,  with  its  light  carriage, 
was  easily  drawn  by  two  men.  This  cannon,  however, 
by  no  means  met  the  high  expectations  entertained  of 
it.  Already  in  1031  the  Swedes  ceased  using  this  na- 
ture of  gun,  because  at  the  battle  of  Breitenfeld  it  not 
only  became  so  overheated  that  the  charges  ignited 
of  themselves,  but  it  also  gave  a  very  short  and  tm- 
reliablc  range.  In  103!).  a  certain  Lieutenant  Wolf 
Muller,  of  C'hemnit/,,  circulated  the  report  that  he 
wius  in  po.ssession  of  a  secret  for  the  construction  of 
lejither  cannon  which  had  many  and  decided  advan- 
tages over  metal  ordnance.  The  Elector  of  Saxony 
orderoil  t)olnnel  von  Schwalbach  to  investigate  and 
to  report  sis  ti>  its  worth.  The  report  of  the  Colonel 
was  found  to  be  favorable,  and  expressed  in  these 
words: — "Owing  to  their  light  weight,  easy  trans- 
porUition,  and  saving  of  powder,  as  well  as  the  ad- 
vantages they  offer  in  the  field  against  the  enemy,  and 
in  nicnmtiiinous  and  swampy  regions,  in  which  latter 
places  heavy  cannon  can  seldom  be  used  at  all,  such 
pieces  cannot  be  too  highly  regarded,"  etc.  The  Elec- 
tor ordered  the  construction  of  two  leather  cannon.for 
which  were  given  "  fifty-seven  florins  three  groschen 
ready  money  ;  seventeen  florins  three  groschen  for 
sixty  pounds  pewter  ;  fifty-one  florins  three  groschen 
for  two  and  one-fourth  himdred-weiglit  refined  cop- 
per. Of  the  copper,  the  coppersmitli  received  two 
hundred-weight,  with  which  lie  made  a  tube  four 
and  one-half  ells  long,  weighing  ninety  pounds,  and 
used  twelve  pounds  for  muzzle  and  vent.  The  waste 
in  melting  twice  amounted  to  si.xteen  pounds,  the  re- 
mainder was  left  to  the  smith  as  paj-  for  his  work." 
The  trial  with  these  leather  guns  could  not  have 
been  very  satisfactory,  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
following  item  in  a  record  of  weights  of  the  Ar- 
mory at  Dresden,  June  14,  1030:  '•  Inventory  of  the 
weights  of  copper  and  pewter  of  the  bunt  leather 
pieces  in  the  Elector's  Armory  at  Dresden  : — Copper, 
one-half  hundred-weight,  twenty-six  pounds  ;  pew- 
ter, thirty-four  pounds."  Xo  mention  being  made 
of  these  guns  at  a  later  period,  it  is  taken  lor  grant- 
ed that  this  one  failure  was  thought  sufficient  to  cool 
all  enthusiasm  for  leather  cannon. 

LEAVE  OF  ABSENCE.— The  permission  which  of 
ficers  and  soldiers  of  an  army  obtain  to  absent  them- 
selves from  duty.  In  the  British  service,  in  applying 
for  leave,  theWar  Office  form  is  used.  The  General 
Commanding  has  the  power  to  grant  leave  within 


monthly  returns.  For  special  duties,  the  olllcerwho 
is  to  |ierform  the  work  in  the  interim  is  to  be  named 
in  the  application  for  leave.  The  apiilicalion  of  a 
Medical  OHlcergocs  first  to  the  principal  .Medical  Of- 
ficer in  I  he  division  or  garrison  ;  that  of  a  IXV'naster 
to  tlie  War  Ollice,  accom])anied  bv  a  certificate  from 
a  Hoard  that  his  accounts  are  satisfactory,  cash  oal- 
ance  correct,  acting  Paymaster  engaged,  and  de- 
claration made  that  the  real  Paymaster  is  answerable 
for  substitute.  The  application  of  an  oHIcer  pro- 
ceeding  on  nick  leave  must  be  accompanied  liy  a 
mediciil  certificate.  If  the  officer  is  not  \\\if\y  to  re- 
join soon,  it  is  usual  for  the  Medical  Board  to  ask  the 
General  to  assemble  the  Board,  or  to  get  him  to  apply 
to  the  Horse  Guards,  should  the  regulations  point 
out  this  to  be  the  course  to  be  pursued.  In  the  In- 
dian military  service,  leave  of  absence  includes  three 
kinds: — 1.  Furlough  in  or  out  of  India  on  sick  or 
general  leave ;  2.  Genera!  leave  on  private  Imsinesg, 
or  on  sick  certificate  in  India,  or  short  leave  to  sea;  3. 
Privilege  leave.  In  the  rules  which  govern  an  officer's 
furlough  in  or  out  of  India,  there  is  no  distinction  be- 
tween »/>/•  and  /jtneriil  leave  with  respect  to  allow- 
ances,hitherto  drawn,  both  being  included  under  the 
general  term,  furlough;  provision,  however,  is  made 
for  the  obtainment  of  leave  under  medical  certificate 
without  all  the  restrictions  applicable  to  furlough 
when  taken  without  it.  In  the  rules  under  the  head 
of  furlough,  it  is  shown  that  an  officer  of  the  Indian 
Army  must  serve  six  years  after  his  return  from  Eng- 
land or  elsewhere,  after  taking  furlough,  before  he 
is  entitled  to  any  more  leave  counting  as  service  :  but 
should  the  ofllcer  in  question  have  accumulated  leave, 
so  that  after  two  years'  absence  he  has  still  one  or  two 
years  leave  due  him,  hewill  be  permitted  three  years 
after  his  return  to  proceed  again  on  leave  witliout 
loss  or  appointment.  ,Short  Uare,  not  exceeding  three 
months,  may  be  taken  to  sea  on  certain  conditions; 
but  ab.sc'nce  from  India  for  any  longer  period  is  treat- 
ed as  furlough.  Privilege  UavefoT  sixtj-  orninety  days 
(depending  upon  the  part  of  the  country  an  officer  is 
cantoned  in),  in  each  year,  is  granted  to  all  officers 
in  military  emploj-  without  loss  of  allowances;  should 
this  time  be  exceeded,  it  nu»t  be  converted  into  gen- 
eral leave,  unless  sickness  has  been  the  cause  of  de- 
tention. 

In  the  United  States  service  leaves  of  absence  are 
not  granted  so  that  a  company  will  be  left  without 
one  of  its  commissioned  officers,  or  a  garrisoned  post 
without  two  commissioned  officers  and  competent 
medical  attendance ;  nor  is  such  leave  granted  to  an 
officer  during  the  season  of  active  operations  except 
on  urgent  necessity. 

No  leave  of  absence  exceeding  seven  days,  except 
on  extraordinary  occasions,  when  the  circumstances 
must  be  particularly  stated,  is  granted  to  any  officer 
until  he  has  joined  his  regiment  or  corps,  and  served 
therewith  at  least  two  years.  In  giving  permission 
to  apply  for  the  extension  of  a  leave  of  absence,  the 
tenn  of  the  extension  is  stated.  The  term  of  the 
extension  approved  by  the  Department  Commander  is 
regulated  by  the  season  and  the  usual  opportunities 
for  reaching  the  officer's  station,  so  that  he  may  not 
be  absent  during  the  time  for  active  operations. 
Leaves  of  absence  are  granted  for  periods  specified 
as  "  one  month,"  "  one  month  and  ten  days,"  "  two 
months,"  etc.,  instead  of  so  many  days,  and  com- 
mences on  the  day  the  officer  departs  from  his 
proper  station.  The  expiration  of  his  leave  must 
find  him  at  his  post.  Leave  for  one  month,  begin- 
ning on  the  first  day  of  a  calendar  month,  expires 
with  the  last  day  of  the  month,  -whatever  may  be 
its  number  of  days.  Commencing  on  an  intermedi- 
ate day  of  a  month,  the  leave  will  expire  with  the 
day  preceding  the  same  day  in  the  next  month. 
The  day  of  departure,  whatever  the  hour,  is  counted 
as  a  day  of  aliscnce;  the  day  of  return,  whatever  its 
hour,  as  a  day  of  duty.  The  Commander  of  a  post 
way  take  leave  of  absence  not  to  exceed  seven  days 
at  one  time,  or  in  the  same  month,  reporting  the  fuct 


LE  BOULENOE  CHS0N06BAFH. 


190 


L£  BOULENOE  CHBONOGBAPH. 


to  his  next  Superior  Commander ;  and  in  time  of  peace 
the  Commander  of  a  post  may  grant  leaves  of  absence 
not  to  exceed  seven  days  at  one  time,  or  in  the  same 
month.  A  Department  Commander  may  grant  leaves 
for  one  month,  or  extend  to  that  period  those  granted 
by  Post  Commanders  :  a  Military  Division  Command- 
er, for  two  months,  or  extend  one  month  a  leave 
granted  by  a  Department  Commander  under  him ; 
the  General  of  the  Army,  four  months,  or  extend  to' 
that  period  a  leave  already  granted.  Applications 
for  leaves  of  absence  for  more  than  four  months,  or  to 
officers  of  Engineers  and  Ordnance,  or  officers  of  the 
General  Staff  or  serving  on  it  (Aides-de-Camp  ex- 
cepted), for  more  than  one  month,  are  referred  to  the 
Adjutant  General  for  the  decision  and  orders  of  the 
Secretary  of  War.  Officers  are  not  permitted  to 
leave  the  United  States,  to  go  beyond  sea,  without 
a  special  permission  from  the  War  Department.  Offi- 
cers of  the  army  traveling  or  stopping  in  foreign 
countries,  whether  on  duty  or  leave  of  absence,  are 
expected  to  avail  themselves  of  all  opportunities, 
properly  within  their  reach,  for  obtaining  information 
of  value  to  the  militarv  service  of  the  iTnited  States, 
especially  that  pertaining  to  their  own  arm  or  branch 
of  service.  Verbal  perniits  for  less  than  t%vent}--four 
hours  are  not  counted  as  leaves  of  absence.  But 
for  every  other  absence  of  whatever  duration,  the 
date  of  departure  and  return  is  noted  on  Post,  Regi- 
mental, Department,  and  Division  Returns  against 
each  officer  borne  thereon.  Permission  to  hunt  is  not 
considered  as  a  leave  of  absence  or  charged  as  such 
if  the  officer,  on  his  return  to  his  station,  tiles  with 
his  Commanding  Officer  a  certificate  that  his  absence 
has  been  solely  employed  in  hunting,  and  furnishes 
as  complete  a  description  of  the  country  passed  over 
as  circumstances  permit.  Officers  when  absent  on 
account  of  sickness  or  wounds,  or  lawfully  absent 
from  duty  and  waiting  orders,  receive  full  pay;  wlien 
absent  with  leave  for  other  causes,  full  pay  during 
auch  absence,  ntit  exceeding  in  the  aggregate  thirty 
days  in  one  year,  and  half-pay  during  such  absence 
exceeding  thirty' days  in  one  year.  When  absent 
■without  leave,  they  forfeit  all  pay  during  such  ab- 
sence, unless  the  absence  is  excused  as  unavoidable. 

By  an  Act  of  Congress  approved  in  187(i,  an  officer 
may  permit  his  leave  to  accumulate  for  a  period  not 
exceeding  four  years.  He  may,  moreover,  enjoy 
five  months'  continuous  leave  on  full  pay,  if  the  fifth 
month  of  such  leave  is  whoU}-  distinct  from  the  four 
year  period.  An  officer  on  leave  over  this  time  re- 
ceives half-pay  only.  When  an  officer  is  absent  tm- 
der  certificate  of  disability  duly  accepted,  on  account 
of  sickness  or  wounds,  he  is  entitled  to  tlie  same  pay 
as  if  an  order  had  been  issued  granting  him  a  sick- 
leave.  Officers  absent  on  certificate  of  disability 
should  so  arrange  that  the  certificates  niaj'  cover 
entire  calendar  months,  and  not  monthly  periods 
commencing  with  intermediate  days.  The  pay-ac- 
count of  every  officer  on  leave  should,  throughout 
the  period  of  his  absence,  exhibit  the  date  of  com- 
mencement of  leave,  the  authority  for  liis  absence, 
and  in  case  the  account  is  for  tlie  month  in  which 
the  absence  terminates,  the  date  of  return  to  duty. 
In  all  cases  the  day  of  departure  or  relief  from  duty 
is  counted  as  a  day  of  absence,  and  the  day  of  return 
as  a  day  of  duty.  In' determining  the  portion  of  a 
leave  of  absence  for  which  an  officer  is  entitled  to 
full  pay,  no  time  is  considered  outside  of  a  period  of 
four  successive  leave  years,  including  the  leave  year 
or  years  in  which  the  absence  is  taken.  The  leave 
year  is  reckoned  from  June  20th  to  the  following 
June  19th  inclusive.  lu  estimating  tlie  period  of 
absence  during  any  one  leave  year,  each  and  every 
day's  absence  is  included.  Every  officer  who  is 
dropped  by  the  President  from  the  rolls  of  tlu'  Army 
for  absence  from  duty  three  months  without  leave, 
forfeits  all  pay  due  or  to  become  due.  See  Furlough 
aJld   Si(:k-lr<ire. 

LE  BOULENOE  CHRONOGRAPH.— In  this  instru- 
ment tlie  time  between  two  events  is  ascertained  by 


notiag  the  distance  of  the/rf«  fall  of  a  heavy  body 
during  the  interval,  the  beginning  and  end  of  this 
distance  being  made  to  accord  with  the  occurrence 
of  the  events  tjy  means  of  the  galvanic  current.  It 
can  be  used  not  only  as  a  micro-chronometer,  but 
directly  as  a  velocimeter.  The  drawing  shows  the 
instrument  ready  for  use,  for  taking  velocities,  and 
for  measuring  minute  intervals  of  time  To  olitain 
velocities  at  once,  two  electric  circuits  are  establish- 
ed, a  fixed  distance,  saj'  fifty  meters,  apart,  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  be  successively  broken  by  the  pro- 
jectile in  its  flight.  The  first  current  circulates 
through  the  electro-magnet  A,  whose  armature  is  a 
long  cylindrical  rod  C, called  the  chrmiometer,  furnish, 
ed  with  two  enveloping  zinc  tubes,  D  and  E,  called 
rerordrrs.  The  second  current  passes  by  the  electro- 
magnet, B,  whose  armature,  the  shorter  rod,  F,  is 
called  the  registrar.  The  third  active  element  of  the 
instrument  is  the  indenter,  consisting  of  a  circular 
knife,  fixed  in  a  mainspring,  which  can  be  cocked 
by  means  of  a  catch  on  a  lever. 

On  the  breaking  of  the  first  circuit,  the  chrono- 
meter falls  vertically  ;  on  the  rupture  of  the  second 
the  registrar  falls  in  its  turn,  depresses  the  free  end 
of  the  lever,  and  thus  releases  the  mainspring ;  the 
knife  juts  forward,  strikes  the  falling  chronometer, 
and  indents  the  upper  recorder.  As  shown  below,  a 
very  simple  relation  holds  between  the  dent  thus  ob- 
tained and  the  velocity  of  the  projectile  which  caused 
it.  Even  with  this  brief  description,  a  moment's 
thought  will  show  that  the  lower  the  velocity  the 
higher  up  shall  the  recorder  be  indented. 

The  above  succint  account  of  the  action  of  the  in- 
strument is  sufficient  for  a  comprehension  of  its  the- 
ory. As  an  irn'gin  of  reference  for  the  falls  of  the 
chronometer, we  take  the  dent  imprinted  on  the  low- 
er recorder,  when  the  knife  is  "  let  off,"  while 
the  chronometer  is  suspended.  Let  //  lie  the  height 
above  the  origin  of  the  dent  due  to  the  shot;  then, 
as  the  chronometer  followed  the  law  of  falling 
bodies  from  the  beginning  of  its  movement  up  to  the 


time  it  was  struck  bv  the  knife,  we  have  T 


as  the  time  corresponding  to  this  fall.   It  would  also 
be  the  time  of  the  trajectory  between  the  targets  (giv- 

50 
ing  a  velocity  of  —  meters  to  the  projectile;,  orovid- 

T' 
ed  the  chronometer  began  its  fall  at  the  precise  in- 
stant the  first,  and  the  knife  struck  it  at  the  precise 
instant  the  second  current  was  broken.  But  this  is, 
in  reality,  not  so ;  for,  after  the  breaking  of  the  first 
current,  a  certain  interval,  <(>,  elapses  before  the  elec- 
tro-magnate is  sufficiently  demagnetized  to  permit 
the  fall  of  the  chronometer,  which  will  accordingly 
be  retarded  by  this  time,  and  the  observed  duration 
of  trajectory  will  be  too  small  by  the  same  quantity. 
On  the  other  hand,  from  the  lireaking  of  the  sec- 
ond current  up  to  the  instant  of  the  knife  striking 
the  chronometer,  the  following  intervals  elapse :  o' 
for  the  sufficient  demagnetization  of  the  electro-mag- 
net, B.  t'  for  the  fall  of  the  registrar  to  the  disk 
of  the  indenter.  t"  for  the  release  of  the  catch,  t'" 
for  the  knife  to  clear  the  horizontal  distance  to  the 
falling  chronometer.  The  observed  time  T'  is  then 
too  great  by  the  quantity  (</+  t'  -\-  t"  -j- 1'"),  and  too 
small  by  *.  For  the  true  time  of  flight,  T,  we  have, 
therefore,  T'  —  (</  +  t'  +t "  +  t'"  —  *)  =  T'  —i. 
For  T  =  *,  we  have  T'  =  t,  whence  to  obtain  the 
value  of  t  we  have  only  to  break  both  circuits  sim- 
nltaueonsly,  and  note  the  resulting  time  of  fall ; 
since  after  this  common  rupture,  there  passes  the 
time  ■{.  before  the  chronometer  falls,  and  (o'  -)-*'  + 
t"  -j-  t'")  before  it  struck  ;  until  it  is  dented  there 
elapses  tlien  tlie  time  ((>'  -\-  t'  -\-  t"  -\-  V"  — *)  or  t. 
As  will  be  shown  presently,  the  instrument  can 
be  so  adjusted  as  to  give  t  a  constant  value, 
say  0"  .!■').  Whenever  desirable,  we  can  very  readi- 
ly ascertain  whether  the  apparatus  is  thus  adjusted 


LE  BOULENOE  CHBONOOHAPH. 


191 


LE  BOULENOE  CHBONOOBAJH. 


or  not,  by  usinj;  tlio  ilixjiinrtor,  wliicli  is  in  Itotli  cir- 
ciiilH.  Iftlic  ri'sull ins  (lent  '''  1 10.29"""  alidvc  tin- 
oriirin  (lli(^  licif;lit  corrcHiiondins;  to  O'M.'i  at  \Val<;r- 
town  Arsciiiil),  llicii  tlir  instrnnK'nt  is  properly  Hct. 
Dcpi'ndcnl  upon  this  coiKiilion.wo  ran  fix  in  ailvanci- 
I  lie  iK'iiilil  (Mirrcsponilini^  to  any  irivcn  velocity  of 
proji'i-lile.  For  example,  with  iin  inilial  veliieily  of 
.'iOO  Mielers,  I  lie  projeelile  will  piisM  over  I  lie  50  iiielers' 
interval  Iietweeii  the  circuits  in  U".l,  and  tlie  instru- 
iiient  will  record  0".15+0".l,  or0".25,  andthe  lieight 
will  therefore  be 


H  = 


9.8037  X  0".2.5» 


-=30G.36niin. 


Rrci]>rocally,  if  tlio  slintpivps  a  dent  300. 36"""  above 
the  oriij;iii,  we  conclude  thul  the  jirojectilc  was  mov- 
inii;  wiili  a  velocity  of  .')()()  meters.  Tiie  lieirrlits  cor- 
resiioudiuij;  to  all  velocities  within  the  ordinary  limits 
of  exijcnuicuts  have  liceu  calculated  aud  iuscribed 


also  serves  as  a  stand  for  mount  in^  it.  After  unpack- 
ing the  liox  screw  on  the  sectional  iron  tripod,  then 
stand  it  independently  of  the  lloor,  so  that  it  maybe 
subject  to  as  little  viiiration  as  possible,  and  fasten 
se(Mirely  in  its  place  the  trianf;;ular  plate  that  carries 
the  indeiiter  and  column.  The  electro-ina;;net» 
are  commonly  attached  by  jiassini^  the  threaded 
stems  throui^li  the  column,  and  llien  ti^rhtenii^; 
with  the  milled  nuts.  The  ilisjiinctor  shoiihl  be 
])laced  very  near  the  instrument,  within  easy  reacli  of 
the  operator.  Ordinarily  one  seven-inch  chromic 
potash  cup  will  be  found  sutlicient  for  tlie  registrar 
circuit,  and  three  cups  for  tin-  chronometer.  As  so 
little  power  is  reipiired,  we  would  recominenfl.  if 
easily  attainalile,  that  Daniell's  or  Hill's  batteries 
be  used  as  givinif  most  constant  action.  Two  re- 
corders are  ]iiit  ou  the  chronometer.  These  lubes 
should  be  liLflitly  tapped,  before  being  slipped  on, 
to  insure  a  snug  tit.  Care  must  be  taken  tliat  the 
lower  recorder  rests  closely  against  the  bob, 


on  a  metal  rule,  furnished  with  a  sliding  index,  Tchioh 
thus  aJords  a  simple  means  for  directly  measuring 
the  velocity  of  the  projectile  tired.  The  shot  having 
given  the  indent,  we  adjust  the  rule  to  the  chronom- 
fiter,  slide  the  beak  of  the  index  into  the  notch,  and 
read  ofl:  the  velocity. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  when  it  is  desired  to 
measure  velocities  directly,  two  targets  must  be  set 
up  50  meters  apart.  The  chronometer  circuit  passes 
through  the  first,  and  the  registrar  through  the  sec- 
ond, the  disjunctor  being  in  both.  Should  local  diffi- 
culties intervene  to  prevent  the  targets  being  set  up 
exactly  50  meters  apart,  multiply  the  velocity  read  , 

from  tue  scale  by  the  constant  ratio  — where  D  is  the 

50 
actual  space  in  meters.     For  transport,  the  diflferent 
parts  of  the  instrument  are  packed  in  a  box,  which 


The  currents  befng  properly  established  and  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  enable  the  magnets  to  maintain  the 
rod-armatures,  the  next  step  is  the  adjustment  of 
the  apparatus,  which  comprises  these  three  opera- 
tions: 1.  Leveling  the  instrument.  2.  Regulating 
the  power  of  the  electro-magnets.  8.  Fixing  the 
height  of  the  disjunctor-reading.  The  instrument  is 
set  up  for  firing  in  the  same  manner  as  for  taking  a 
disjunctor  reading.  To  avoid  confusion,  numbered 
ink-marks,  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  apart,  are 
made  around  the  bases  of  the  two  recorders,  and 
each  mark  is  successively  brought  in  line  with  the 
cut  on  the  ring  as  the  firing  progresses,  by  which 
means  the  dems  arc  made  on  equidistant  straight- 
line  elements.  The  zincs  can  thus  receive  about 
twenty  dents,  and  then  be  turned  end  for  end  and 
receive  twenty  more.  The  shot  having  given  a  dent, 
apply  the  rule  to  the  chronometer  in  the  manner 


LES. 


192 


LEE  MAOAZINEGUN. 


described  for  tracing  the  disjunction  circle,  bring 
the  veruier-l<nife  against  the  edge  of  the  notch, 
clamp  it,  and  read  olT  the  velocity.  The  experiments 
for  the  day  being  over,  the  date  is  inscribed  on  the 
proper  recorder,  and,  if  deemed  necessary,  it  may  be 
filed  for  future  reference,  If  tlie  foregoing  directions 
as  to  the  setting-up  and  adjustment  of  the  instru- 
ment are  carefully  followed,  not  only  will  there  be 
no  appreciable  variation  in  the  disjunctor-readings 
before  any  shot,  but  they  will,  remain  constant  from 
round  to  round.  See  Sreger  Chrnnngraph,  Chrono- 
scope,  Disjunctor,  Iruienttr.  and  Micro-chronometer. 

LEE. — A  term  employed  in  target  practice  to  de- 
note the  quarter  to  which  the  wind  is  directed,  as 
distinguished  from  windward,  or  the  part  ichence  the 
wind  comes.     Also  written  Leeward. 

LEEK.— The  Welsh  emblem,  in  consequence  of  a 
command  from  Dewi,  or  David,  afterwards  Arch- 
bishop of  St.  Davids',  in  519.  On  the  day  that  King 
Arthur  won  a  great  victory  over  the  Saxons,  Dewi 
is  said  to  have  ordered  the  soldiers  to  place  leeks 
in  their  caps. 

LEE  MAGAZINE-GUN.— This  gun,  patented  in  1879 
in  Europe  and  America,  is  entirely  novel  in  principle 
and  not  only  obviates  all  the  objections  found  in 
tubular  magazine  systems,  but  has  numerous  and 
marked  advantages  peculiar  to  itself.  Thearm  is  of 
the  bolt  class,  which  years  of  use  in  the  armies  of 
Russia,  France,  Italy,  Prussia,  and  other  great  pow- 
ers, has  proved  to  possess  all  the  essential  qualities 
of  a  military  weapon.  The  drawing  gives  a^sectional 
view  of  this  gun  with  the  magazine  in  place,  and  it 
will  be  noticed  that  the  parts  are  few  in  number. 
The  resistance  in  this  gun  is  direct,  and  is  taken  on 
both  sides  of  the  receiver;  a  lug  being  constructed 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  bolt  and  opposite  the  shoul- 
der on  the  bolt  handle,  which  locks  ilsi'lf  firmly  into 
a  recess  made  for  that  purpose  in  the  receiver,  there- 
by affording  an  equal  bearing  on  each  side  instead 
of  on  one  side  only,  as  in  most  other  bolt  systems. 
The  extractor,  also,  is  of  new  design,  having  direct 
action  and  great  power. 


notch  cut  on  the  extractor-spring  next  the  shoulder 
of  the  bolt  handle,  the  extractor-spring.  Q,  is  pressed 
forward,  releasing  the  hook  on  its  under  side,  from 
the  pin  with  which  it  engages  when  in  place.  This 
releases  the  extractor-spring  and  the  extractor,  and 
the  bolt  may  then  be  drawn  out  of  the  receiver.  By 
pressing  forward  and  downward  on  the  lug  of  the 
key-sleeve,  F,  it  is  released  from  the  bolt,  together 
with  the  thumb-piece,  E,  the  firing-pin,  C,  and  the 
mainspring,  D.  To  assemble  the  bolt  and  its  parts, 
the  pieces,  E,  C,  and  D,  are  placed  in  their  proper 
position,  and  the  lug  of  the  key -sleeve,  F,  is  pressed 
upward  into  its  locking-notch  "in  the  bolt.  Return- 
ing the  assembled  bolt  into  its  place  in  the  receiver, 
lay  the  extractor  in  its  notch  on  the  bolt  and  place 
the  extractor-spring  in  position,  giving  the  bolt  a 
sharp  push  forward,  and  the  hook  will  engage  itself 
on  the  pin  on  the  bolt-rib  created  for  the  purpose, 
and  the  arm  is  ready  for  use.  For  simplicity,  strength, 
ease  of  manipulation,  rapidity  and  certainty  of  fire, 
this  system  is  not  excelled  as  a  single  fire  breech- 
loader by  any  other  in  use. 

To  change  this  single  fire  breech-loader  to  a  maga- 
zine arm,  consists  simply  in  introducing  through  a 
slot  or  opening  cut  through  the  stock  and  receiver, 
forward  of  the  trigger  guard,  a  magazine  made  to 
contain  five  (more  or  less)  cartridges,  which  inser- 
tion or  removal  can  be  effected  more  quickly  than  a 
single  cartridge  can  be  loaded  into  or  ejected  from  any 
ordinary  single  breech-loader.  The  magazine  is  held 
in  place  by  the  magazine  catch,  K,  which  engages 
into  a  notch  or  depression  in  the  rear  of  the  maga- 
zine, as  shown  in  the  drawing,  and  can  be  released 
in  a  moment  by  an  upward  pressure  on  the  maga- 
zine catch,  K,  at  its  lower  end,  where  it  projects 
downward  into  the  trigger  guard.  The  magazine  is 
retained  so  firmly  and  secure  in  poeition  that'll  is  im- 
possible for  it  to  become  accidentally  released,  no 
matter  how  roughly  the  arm  is  used  or  how  severe  a 
shock  it  may  receive.  These  magazines  are  pressed 
into  shape  from  one  piece  of  metal,  and  are  strength- 
ened by  a  rib  made  on  their  rear  and  bottom  interior, 
which  renders  them,  although  weighing  but  about 
three  ounces,  strong  and  rigid  enough  to  endure 
without  injury  any  shock  or  blow  itable  to  be  re- 
ceived in  rough  service.  They  may  be  adapted  to 
cartridges  of  any  length.     The  cartridges  are  held 


XOMKN'CLAIURE. 


A.  Receiver. 

14.  Bolt. 

(_'.  Firing-pin. 

D.  Main-spring. 


E. 

Thumb-Piece. 

T.  TrigRer. 

!•'. 

Ktv->l<-cve. 

K.  Magazine-catch. 

G. 

Kxtractor. 

1,.  Sere-nprinf;. 

11. 

Sere. 

M.  Magazine. 
S.  fJnard-Bcrew. 

N.  'Mncnzine-spring. 
O.  Trii;i;i  r-guard. 
P.  stock. 
K.  Tang-ecrew. 


The  arm  can  be  carried  while  lo.adcd  with  perfect  j  in  a  nearly  horizontal  position,  the  flange   or  head 


safety  by  withdrawing  the  thumb-])iecc,  E,  to  the 
half-cock  notch,  whicli  operation  fixes  the  bolt  firm- 
ly to  its  closed  position,  and  locks  the  firing-pin  barU- 
waril  clear  from  the  carlridge  until  the  thuml)-picc<r 
is  drawn  back  to  full-cock,  when  the  piece  may  be 
fired.  Tlic  case  and  rapidity  with  which  this  arm 
can  be  dismounted  and  assembled  is  noticeable.  I$y 
inserting  the  point  of  a  knife  or  screw-driver  into  the 


of  each   being  in  advance  of  the  one  below  it,  as 
,  shown,  rendering  it  impossible  for  anything  to  im- 
,  pinge  upon  the  primer  of  either  cartridge,  and  thus 
obviating  every  possible  danger  of  premature  dis- 
'  charge  in  the  magazine.     The  cartridges  are  fed  up- 
ward into  the  system  by  the  magazine  spring,  N,  as 
re(iuired,  and  l)eing  held  strongly  in  position,  no  de- 
formation of  the  bullet  is  possible.      By  actual  ex- 


LEE  MAGAZINE  GUN. 


VJ-6 


LEE  UAOAZINE  GUN. 


ix-riinciil,  tin-  liullcl  i)f  curlriilj^'i'H  ho  licld.  iin<I  r-x- 
poHcil  lo  the  recoil  received  fnmi  (Uie  liiinclred  slwits 
tired  ill  tlu'  arm,  showed  no  diiiiiiiiHion  in  leii).;tli. 

'Pile  siiiiplicily  of  llieiiiiiu'ii/.iiH'  iiieeliaMisiii  proper 
of  lliis  iiriii  is  uiieiiualled  and  reniarUalile,  eonsislin;,' 
(inly  of  llire(t  jjieeeH-  Uie  niaKa/.ine,  M,  llie  inaj^a- 
zine-sprin;;,  N,  anil  llie  nianazine-ealcli,  K,  and  in- 
i-liliiUdili/,  a  small  siiring;  which  operates  in  a  slot  in 
the  side  of  the  receiver,  and  i)roje('ls  over  the  open-  i 
in};  throuj^h  which  the  carlridi^es  pass  upward  from 
tlie  inaj^azinc,  formini;  a  bottom  to  the  receiver,  wdule 
the  arm  is  iH'infi;  used  as  a  sini;le  loader.  The  c<]m- 
ple.\ity  of  the  maijazine  ineclianism  in  most  repeal- 
in;;  arms,  with  the  conseiiuent  lial)ilily  lo  lireakaf;e 
or  derangement,  has  been  one  of  the  objections  of  I 
fered  lo  their  adoption  for  military  purposes.  When 
the  magazine  is  i)Ut  into  place  (accomiilished  eitlxT 
liy  pressure  or  liya  sharp  tap  of  the  hand;,  Ihe  head 
of  Ihe  upper  <artridi;e  is  relieved  of  its  tension 
af;ainsl  tlie  inclined  tlanf;es  on  tlie  rear  and  upper 
part  of  the  magazine,  by  its  pressure  ugaiust  the  uudur 


openiiig  Ihe  breech  flraws  back  the  upper  cartridpe, 

relieviiiL'  ils  front  en<i  from  tlie  hemispherical  de- 
pression ill  which  it  rested  ;  the  spring.  N,  lifts  the 
biillel  end  of  Ihecartridge  upward,  and  free  from  tlu; 
magazine,  the  bolt  moving  backward  just  far  enough 
to  allow  its  front  end  to  pass  in  rear  of  the  head  >l 
the  cartridge,  which  head,  thus  relieved,  rises  by  the 
iiresHure  of  the  spring,  N,  snniciently  to  engage  the 
end  of  the  bolt.  The  forward  movement  of  the  bolt 
then  carries  this  cartridge  into  the  chamber  •f  the 
barrel.  On  opening  the  system  and  withdrawing  the 
bolt  the  e.vtractor  ejects  with  certainty  the  exploded 
sheli,  and  the  same  operations  apply  until  the  maga- 
zine is  exhausted.  . 

It  is  intended  that  two  or  more  miigazines  shall  be 
furnished  with  ea<li  arm,  which  are  to  be  carried, 
charged  in  the  carlri<lge  box  or  pocket  of  the  sol- 
dier The  ma<'azines  can  be  charged  with  cartridges 
(live  is  the  number  recomniench'd  that  they  shall 
contain),  each  in  less  than  live  seconds.  It  is  <iuite 
practkable  that  i»U  ammunition  issued  lo  troops  be 


A  B  CD 

side  of  the  bolt,  B  (the  upper  edge  of  the  rear  wall  |  contained  in  these  magazines,  which  may  be  made, 
of  the  magazine  being  slightlv  hollowed  to  the  shaiie  if  required,  very  light,  of  skeleton  form,  and  of  such 
of  the  bolt).     The  rearward"  motion  of  the  bolt  in    cheap  construction  as  will  admit  in  action  of  their 


LEFAUCHEUX  GUN. 


194 


LEOIOR 


being  dropped  and  left  on  the  field,  as  are  the  ex- 
hausted shells  of  expended  cartridges.  The  arm  can 
be  used  as  a  single  loader  until  the  need  of  rapid  tir- 
ing becomes  apparent,  when  at  the  word  of  com- 
mand, the  charged  magazines  may  be  inserted  and 
used.  The  least  intcliigent  soldier  can  obey  this  order 
without  looking  at  the  arm.  While  removing  or  in- 
serting the  magazine,  the  arm  should  be  held  firml;>' 
at  the  grip  by  the  soldier's  kight  hand,  in  a  vertical 
position.  it  is  believed  that  the  feature  of  de. 
taclmhUity.  as  arranged  in  tlie  Lee  system,  will  par- 
ticularlj-  commend  itself  to  the  minds  of  military  au- 
thorities. The  ease,  rapidity,  and  certainty,  with 
which  the  charged  magazines  can  be  inserted  into, 
or  removed  from  the  arm,  places  it  in  the  power  of 
the  officers  of  disciplined  troops  to  positively  control 
the  expenditure  of  ammunition.  The  soldier  may 
use  his  arm  as  a  single  loader  until  the  vhal  moment 
when  a  rapid  fire  is  needed.  At  the  order  a  loaded 
ma'iazine  can  in  an  instant  be  inserted,  and  a  volley 
of  five,  to  be  immediateh'  succeeded  by  five,  ten,  or 
fifteen  more  shots  (if  as  manv  as  four  magazines  be 
supplied),  rapidly  delivered.  It  will  require  but  little 
drill  to  teach  the  ordinary  soldier  to  deliver  twenty- 
one  well  directc;!  sliots  from  this  gun  in  fort}'  sec- 
onds. E  :pcrts  at  the  Armory  fire  that  number  easily 
in  thirty  s  'conds.  Using  the  d-tachnble  magmineH,  the 
necessity  of  all  njj.o/' appliances  is  obviated,  and  the 
danger  of  the  soldiers  becoming  so  confused  in  the 
heat  and  excitement  of  action  as  to  err  in  the  proper 
adju  t  nent  of  the  cut-off,  need  not  be  feared. 

This  arm  possesses  evident  advantages  over  all 
masaziuc-truns  having  lubidar  magazines,  placed 
under  or  above  the  barrel,  or  in  the  l)utt-stock.  In 
such  magazines  the  cartridges  ride  lengthwise,  one 
following  another:  the  bullet  of  one  coming  directly 
in  contact  with  and  resting  on  the  primer  of  the  .-ar- 
tridire  next  it.  All  of  the  cartridges  are  forced  to- 
ward the  breech  mechanism  by  a  spiral  spring,  which 
must  be  of  sutficient  strength  to  support  the  weight 
of  the  column  of  cartridges,  and  force  them  into  the 
receiver  or  breech  of  the  arm  as  fast  as  required,  and 
of  necessity  it  must  have  very  con.siderable  stiffness 
or  streugtii.  A  French  army  cartridge,  which  is 
about  the  average  weight  of  military  cartridges  in  | 
use.  weighs  more  than  1,-'^  ounces.  The  weight  of  j 
a  column  of  five  such  cartridges  would  be  seven  | 
oimces.  fo\ir-fifths  of  which  weight  would  in  a  tulni- ' 
lar  masazine,  rest  upon  the  point  of  tlie  bullet  of  the 
last  cartridge,  and  which  bullet  comes  directly  in 
contact  with  the  primer  of  the  cartridge  in  advance 
of  it.  Add  to  this  compressive  force  the  possibility 
of  the  cartridge  having  extra  sensitive  primers,  and 
the  soldier  or  marksman  may  reasonably  shrink 
from  t!ie  possibility  of  an  accident  which  would 
proI)ablv  kill,  or  maim  for  life.  It  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  .■illude  to  the  demoralizing  effect  a  single  in- 
stance of  premature  explosion  of  a  cartridge  contained 
in  the  t\ibular  magazine  of  a  military  weapon  would 
have  upon  the  soldiers  of  a  command  armed  there- 
with. Such  an  accident  would  probably  at  least 
seriously  wound  the  operator,  and  the  knowledge 
that  such  c'lsn.'dties  are  possible  would  cause  the 
men  to  shrink  from  bringing  their  arms  to  the  slioul- 
der,  and  if  tired  at  all,  tlu'ir  guns  would  be  held  at 
arm's  length,  as  far  as  possible  from  the  person, 
without  aim  or  probable  effect. 

Another  serious  disadvantage  pertaining  to  all  tii- 
bular  magazine  systems,  is  the  imavoidable  defor- 
mation of  all  cartridge  bullets  carried  therein.  In 
till'  drawin'.r.  A,  sliows  perfect  cartridges  fwitli  inside 
primers),  as  in  position  while  contained  in  a  tubular 
magazine-rifle,  at  "  Order  Arms":  B,  shows  one  of 
the  cartridges  with  its  head  depressed,  the  fulminate 
of  the  inside  primer  compressed,  and  the  bullet  fiat- 
tened  ,  C,  shows  perfect  cartridges  (witli  outside 
primers)  as  in  position  wlnle  contained  in  a  tubular 
mai;azine-rifle  at  "  Order  .\rms";  and  1).  shows  one 
of  "he  cartridges  with  its  bullet  flattened  and  com- 
pr<'9aed  (t'o'j  of  an  inch),  and  the  primers  deformed; 


the  deformity  in  each  case  being  due  to  the  recoil  of 
100  rounds.  Even  the  ordinary  jolting  inciiient  to 
an  infantry  march,  greatly  aggravated  in  the  case  of 
cavalry,  will  in  a  short  time  so  batter  and  deface  the 
point  of  the  lead  bullet — thus  increasing  its  diam- 
eter— as  to  materialh'  impair  its  accuracy  in  flight, 
besides  rendering  it  difticult  to  force  it  into  place  in 
file  chamber  of  the  barrel,  and  with  the  possibility 
of  wedging  the  enlarged  bullet  so  tightly  into  the 
chamber — the  carfridM  being  only  part  wav  home — 
that  any  attempt  to  withdraw  the  charge  may  separ- 
ate the  bullet  from  the  cartridge  case,  leaving  the 
lead  jammed  into  the  chamber,  removable  only  by 
use  of  a  rammer  introduced  through  the  nuizzle. 
The  soldier,  baffled  and  confused  by  an}'  failure  of 
his  arm — which  failure  is  liable  to  occur  at  the  su- 
preme moment  which  decides  the  fate  of  battle — will 
lie  less  efficient  than  if  armed  with  the  obsolete  muz- 
zle-loader, which,  although  slow,  is  suppfiseil  to  be 
tolerably  sure.  A  final  objection  to  all  tubular  mag- 
azine s}'stems  is  that  the  balance  of  the  arm  is  con- 
stantly being  changed.  Each  cartridge  expended 
from  the  magazine  alters  the  relative  weight  which 
one  extremity  of  the  arm  bears  to  the  other,  and 
must  radically  affect  the  accuracy  of  the  soldier's 
him.     See  Mngmine  (,un. 

LEFAUCHEUX  GUN.— A  breech-loading  gun  of  pe- 
culiar merit.  The  under-guard  of  the  barrel  formed 
of  two  pieces  of  iron  having  a  joint,  is  maintained  in 
a  right  line  by  a  rigid  plate  which  supports  it.  This 
plate  may  be  made  to  revolve  on  its  axis  with  a  hori- 
zontal l)ackward  and  forward  movement,  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  hand,  when  it  withdraws  its  silpport  from 
the  under-guard,  which  forthwith  jields  and  severs 
the  breech  from  the  rest  of  the  barrel.  The  chamber 
which  is  to  receive  the  cartridge  thus  is  exposed  and 
the  piece  is  loaded.  The  cartridge  itself  at  its  base 
is  provided  with  a  large  cap.  from  which  projects  a 
pin  or  small  nail;  this  fits  an  opening  in  the  breech 
of  the  gun.  and  the  hammer  strikes  it  and  so  fires 
the  piece.  To  breech-loading  militar}'  rifles  con- 
structed on  the  Lefaucheux  system  it  would  be  im- 
possible, or  at  least  impracticable,  to  add  the  bay- 
onet ;  for  the  use  of  the  bayonet  in  actual  conflict 
would  be  almost  certain  to  lead  to  a  complete  sepa- 
ration of  Ihe  two  parts  of  the  piece. 

LEGATE— LEGATION.— As  commonly  used  in  mod- 
ern times  tlie  word  Legate  is  applied  to  the  person 
charged  liy  the  Pope  of  Rome  to  represent  him,  or 
the  Konian  Church,  at  the  seat  of  Government  of  a 
foreign  country,  or  at  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  of  the 
C'luiFLh.  But  the  word  need  have  no  such  restricted 
use.  It  was  employed  by  the  Romans  under  the  Re- 
public, before  the  Church  controlled  Rome,  to  in- 
dicate .any  person  sent  by  the  Government  on  a  spe- 
cial mission  of  importance  to  another  Government, 
or  even  to  a  Conquered  Province;  when  a  Legate 
Ireiiuently  became  acting  Governor  b_v  virtue  of  such 
commission.  Legntns  among  the  Romans  was  a  sy- 
nonym of  Ambassador.  Envoy  Extraordinary,  Le- 
gate, Ambassador,  are  three  words  signifj-ing  near- 
ly the  same  thing:  the  first  two  indicating  a  fresh  or 
special  appointment  for  a  specific  object,  and  the 
last  a  more  permanent  mission.  The  term  Legation 
includes  all  that  appertains  officially  to  the  position 
of  a  Legate,  an  Ambassador,  or  an  Envoy  Extraor- 
dinary, viz.,  his  Secretaries,  Attaches,  Family,  and 
Residence.  We  speak  of  the  Residence  of  the  Amer- 
ican Legation,  but  by  "A  call  at  the  Legiition"  one 
may  mean  a  call  on  any  officer  or  any  of  the  fami- 
lies of  the  officers  of  tlie  Legation,  meaning  then  by 
Leiration  the  seat  of  re.-idence  of  its  memlxTS. 

LEGION. — A  legion  in  the  Roman  military  system, 
corresi)onded  in  force  and  organization  to  what  in 
modern  times  we  should  call  a  corps  (Turmi'i .  It  dif- 
fered in  constitution  at  different  periods  of  Roman 
history.  In  the  time  of  the  Rejiulilic,  a  legion  com- 
posed 4,.'"'00men.  thus  divided:  1  ,'21)0  /iiistut'.  or  inex- 
perienced troops;  \,200  priiici/u/i.  or  well-trained  sol- 
diers; 1.200  xeliies,  or  skirmishers;  600  triarii,  or  pila- 


LEOIONABII. 


195 


LELEGES. 


n^vi;t(;riinsfi)rmingarpsrrvf';  ami  '.WOe/jiiitfji,  knitjlits 
who  actcil  as  cavalry,  and  l)cloni^'i'il  to  families  of 
rank.  Uuring  tliis  jiiTiod  llic  Icf^ioiis  were  formed 
forliic  season,  standiim  armies  lieiiii;  of  laler  j;rowtli. 
Tlii^  liastali,  principes,  anil  Iriarii.  formed  lliree 
separate  lines,  ea<'li  (iiviiieil  into  II)  iiiiiiil jdiH  or  com- 
panies, 130  men  each  in  the  case  of  the  two  front 
lines  an  I  00  men  in  the  triarii.  A  maniple  was  coin- 
man  led  by  a  Centurion  or  ('ai)lain,  who  had  a  Se. 
cond  Centurion,  or  Ijieutenant,  and  two  Hiiti-olllcers, 
or  Heri;eants,  under  him:  as  non-commissioned  otH- 
cers. there  was  a  /><'c<(//».i, or  Corporal. to  every  s(|uad 
or  tent  of  ten  men.  'I'lie  senior  Centurion  of  each  [ 
line  commanded  that  line, anil  had  therefore  functions 
corresponding  to  a  modern  |jieuteiiant-coloni-l.  The 
jtrimipiinx,  or  senior  Centurion  <if  the  triarii,  was  the 
most  important  rej^imental  olllcer,  and  comnninded 
the  legion  in  the  absence  of  the  Tribunes.  The  300 
cavalry  formed  a  rej;iment  of  ten  tiinnat,  or  troops 
of  30  horsemen, each  under  three  JJfcnrioiis.oi  whom 
the  senior  had  the  comnuuid.  The  velites  were  light 
troops,  not  formiuj;  p:'rt  of  the  line  of  battle;  had 
apparently  uo  olticcrs  of  their  own;  and  wen'  attach- 
ed to  the  30 maniples  in  eijual  jiroportions.  Tlu-  Stalf 
of  the  legion  consisted  of  six  Tribuiu'S,whonuina!;e<l 
the  paying, quartering, i)rovisioning, etc.  of  the  troops, 
and  who  commanded  the  legion  in  turns  for  a  period 
each  of  two  months.  Tliis  command,  although  in- 
couvcnient.  lasted  till  the  tinu-s  of  the  civil  wars, 
when  a  L  gatun^tir  rjieutenant-general,  was  ap|)ointed 
a  permanent  Comiuanilant  of  the  legion.  The  of- 
fensive weapons  of  the  hastali  and  principes  were 
two  barbed  iron-headed  javelins,  one  of  which  was 
hurled  at  tlic  enemy  on  the  first  onslaught,  while 
the  other  was  retained  as  a  defense  against  cavalry. 
The  triarii  had  long  pikes.  In  addition  to  these 
arms, every  soldier  bore  a  very  short,  strong,  cut-and 
thrust,  two-edged  sword.  The  legionaries'  defen- 
sive armor  consisted  of  a  plinned  liemlet,  breast- 
plate, iron-bound  boot  for  the  right  leg,  and  a  semi- 
cylindrical  shield  4  feet  long  by  21  broad.  The  veli- 
tes had  uo  defensive  armor,  were  lightly  armed, 
and  in  action  usually  operated  for  ilanking  pur- 
poses. Each  maniple  bore  an  ensign  aloft,  and  each 
legion  had  its  distinguishing  eagle,  l'])  to  the  time 
of  Marius,  service  in  a  legion  was  sought  as  honor- 
able occupation,  and  men  of  some  means  were  alone 
eligible  ;  but  Marius  enlisted  slaves,  and  turned  the 
legions  into  corps  of  a  purely  mercenary  army.  At 
the  same'  period,  the  manipular  formation  was 
abolished,  the  three  lines  were  assimilated,  and  the 
legion  was  divided  into  10  cohorts,  each  of  three 
maniples.  Soon  the  cohorts  were  raised  to  000  men, 
making  the^legion  O.OIK)  infantry, besides  cavalry  and 
velites.  It  was  ranged  in  2  lines  of  .5  cohorts  each  ; 
but  Caesar  altered  tlie  formation  to  3  lines,  of  re- 
spectively 4,  3,  and  Scoliorts.  During  the  latter  Em- 
pire, the  legion  became  complex  and  unmanageable  ; 
many  sorts  of  arms  being  thrown  together,  and  bal- 
istiB,  catapults,  and  onagers  added  by  way  of  artil- 
lery. Having  so  degenerated  from  its  pristine  sim- 
plicity and  completeness,  the  legionary  formation 
was  soon  overthrown  amid  the  incursions  of  the 
victorious  barbarians.     See   Tltuixdering  Legimi. 

LEGION AKII.-  The  second  of  three  classes  of  sol- 
diers in  t  lie  Roman  Army  ;  the  soldiers  of  the  legions. 

LEGION  OF  HONOR. --.\.n  Order  of  merit  instituted 
under  tlie  French  Republic  in  1S02  by  the  First  Consul, 
as  a  recompense  for  military  and  civil  services.  It 
was  ostensibly  founded  for  the  protection  of  repub- 
lican principles  and  the  laws  of  equality,  and  for  the 
abolition  of  differences  of  rank  in  society,  everj'  so- 
cial grade  being  equally  eligible ;  but  its  real"  aim 
doubtless  was,  by  popularizing  the  idea  of  personal 
distinction,  to  pave  the  way  for  establishment  of  the 
Kmpire  and  of  the  more  exclusive  titles  of  nobility 
that  were  to  accompanj'  it.  The  proposal  for  its  in- 
stitution was  at  first  violently  opposed  by  the  legis- 
lative body  and  the  tribunate, ou  democratic  grounds, 
and   carried  eventually  by  a  very  narrow  majoritv. 


The  Order  originally  comprised  three  classes-  Grand 
Ollicers,  Commanders,  and  Legionaries.  The  cm.ss  of 
(Irand  Ollicers  was.fm  the  coronation  of  Napoleon  I., 
divided  into  Kidghlsof  the  (jran<l  Kagic  fthe  highest 
classy,  and  (jrand  Ollicers.  On  the  restoration  of  the 
Hoiirbons,  the  legion  was  retained,  but  remodeled  so 
as  to  iose  much  of  its  original  character.  The  eagle 
was  called  a  cross,  and  tlie  efligy  of  ilenry  JV.  re- 
placed that  of  Napoleon.  The  Knights  of  the  Grand 
Kagle  liecame  Grand  Oosse--,  the  Legionaries  were 
tran.sformed  into  knights,  and  the  numerous  educa- 
tional institutions,  founded  by  Napoleon  forthcchil- 
dren  and  relatives  of  the  members  of  the  Order, were 
much  reduced  in  scale.  In  1837  a  new  military  class 
called  Ollicers  was  admitted.  Vnder  the  president- 
ship of  ],ouis  Napoleon,  part  of  the  jiroperty  of  Louis 
I'hillippe,  which  had  been  reston-d  to  the  State,  was 
set  apart  as  an  endowment  for  the  legion,  and  new 
regulations  were  made  regarding  the  jiensions  of  the 
ditferent  classes.  The  original  form  of  decoration 
was  reintroduc<'il,  which  under  the  S<cond  Kmjiire 
was  somewhat  modilicd.  As  worn  then,  it  consisted 
of  a  cross  of  ten  points  of  white  enamel  edged  with 
gold,  the  points  connected  with  a  wreath  of  laurel 
proper,  and  in  the  center,  with  an  azure  circle  charged 
with  the  words  "Napoleon  III..  Kmpereurdes  Fran- 
cais,"  was  a  head  of  the  Emperor.  The  cross  is  en- 
signed  by  the  inipirial  crown  of  France,  and  worn 
attached  toared  ribbon.  Tlie  (iraii  1  Ollicers  also. as 
a  general  thing, wore  on  the  right  breast  a  silver  star 
charged  with  the  imperial  eagle.  The  same  star 
was  generally  worn  on  the  left  breast  by  the  Knights 
Grand  Cross, and  their  cross  was  attached  to  a  broad 
red  ribbon  which  passes  over  the  right  shoulder. 
The  vast  numbers  of  this  Order,  and  the  insignifi- 
cance of  many  of  the  persons  on  whom  it  has  been 
conferred,  have  dctracttd  much  from  its  value.  The 
number  of  members  in  1872  was  00,17!) ;  but  the  law- 
passed  in  that  year,  that  only  one  new  member  should 
be  added  for  every  two  vacancies,  reduced  the  mem- 
bership in  the  next  five  years  (1877)  to  ;")i),208.  The 
revenue  of  the  College  of  the  legion  has  been  aug- 
mented by  the  addftion  of  property  belonging  to 
Louis  Philippe.  Out  of  this  fund  pensions  are  paid 
to  those  members  of  the  Order  who  have  served  in 
the  Army  or  Navy ;  the  civilian  members  receive  no 
pension.  By  the  existing  statutes,  candidates  in 
times  of  peace  must  have  served  in  some  military  or 
civil  capacity  for  20  years;  exploits  iu  the  field  or 
severe  wounds  constitute  a  claim  in  time  of  war. 
Two  distributions  take  place  in  the  year.  The  nomi- 
nation of  military  persons  takes  place  on  parade,  and 
of  civil  in  the  Courts  of  Justice.  No  ignoble  punish- 
ment can  be  inflicted  on  a  member  of  the  Order  so 
long  as  he  belongs  to  it.  To  rise  to  a  superior  rank, 
it  is  indispensable,  at  least  for  natives  of  France,  to 
have  passed  through  the  inferior  grades. 

LEGS. — Human  legs  are  not  unfreqiiently  borne  as 
charges  in  Heraldry,  sometimes  naked,  sometimes 
booted,  and  they  may  be  coupled,  /,  e.,  cut  evenly 
off,  or  erased,  cut  with  ajagged  edge,  and  that  either 
at  the  thigh  or  below  the  knee.  The  knee  when  rep- 
resented is  always  embowed.  A  remarkable  device 
of  three  legs  in  armor,  conjoined  at  the  thighs,  and 
flexed  in  triangle,  forms  the  insignia  of  the  ancient 
Kingdom  of  ilan,  with  the  appropriate  motto,  Quo. 
cunque  jecerin  stabit.  The  classical  symbol  of  the  Isl- 
and of  Sicily  (Trinacria)  was  formed  of  three  naked 
legs  similarly  conjoined,  and  the  triple-mountained 
Isle  of  Man  might  have  awakene  1  in  its  Norman  Sov- 
ereigns some  recollections  of  their  Mediterranean 
con(|uests. 

LELEGES. — An  ancient  and  warlike  people  which 
peopled  the  Islands  of  ^-Egean,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  of  Pelasgic  origin.  Authorities  differ  as 
to  its  exact  identity,  some  having  confused  the  Le- 
leges  with  the  Carians,  with  whom  thej*  are  said  to 
have  united  in  support  of  the  Trojans.  Homer  rep- 
resents .Vltes.  King  of  the  Leleges,  as  having  been 
the  father-in-law  of  Priam.     Pausanias  considers  Le- 


LENGTH  OF  BOEE. 


196 


LEH8. 


lex,  the  founder  of  this  race,  to  have  been  a  foreign- 
er from  Eiivpt.  and  that  he  became  King  of  Megara. 
According  "to  this  authority,  the  grandson  of  Lelex, 
Pylus  by  name,  founded  the  eity'of  Pylus  in  Slesse- 
nia  witli  a  colon_y  of  Megarian  Leleges.  Tlie  last 
that  is  recorded  of  the  Leleges  is  that"they  joined  the 
Carians  in  colonizing  the  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 

LENGTH  OF  BOEE.— The  slmr  rate  of  burning  of 
mealed  powder,  which  was  originally  used  in  can- 
non, led  to  the  belief  that  the  longest  pieces  gave  the 
greatest  ranges.  In  spite  of  much  experience  to  the 
contrary,  this  belief  was  entertained,  even  after  gun- 
powder received  its  granular  form ;  and  several 
pieces  were  made  of  enormous  length,  with  the  ex- 
pectation of  realizing  corresponding  ranges.  A 
culverin  was  cast  during  the  reign  of  Charles  V. 
which  was  58  calibers  long,  and  fired  a  ball  weigh- 
ing 36  lbs.:  but  on  trial,  "this  piece  was  found  to 
have  actuallylc.ss  range  than  an  ordinary  12-pdr.  gun. 
The  experiment  of  reducing  its  length,  by  succes- 
sively cutting  it  off  to  .'iO,  44,  and  43  calibers,  was 
tried,  and  it  was  found  that  tlie  range  increased  at 
each  reduction  until  it  gained  3,000  paces. 

That  the  length  of  the  bore  has  an  important 
effect  on  the  vcfocity  of  the  projectile,  will  be  read- 
ily seen  by  a  consideration  of  the  forces  which  ac- 
celerate and  retard  its  movement  in  the  piece.  The 
fi'-rderating  force  is  due  to  the  expansive  effort  of 
the  inflamed  powder,  which  reaches  its  maximum 
when  tlie  grains  of  the  charge  are  completely  con- 
verted into  vaiior  and  gas.  This  event  depends  on 
the  size  of  the  charge,  and  the  size  and  velocity  of 
combustion  of  the  "grains.  With  the  same  or  con- 
stant accelerating  force,  the  point  at  whicii  a  projec- 
tile reaches  its  maximum  velocity  depends  on  its 
density,  or  the  time  necessary  to  overcome  its  inertia. 
The  retarding  forces  in  action,  are— 1st.  The  fric- 
tion of  tlie  projectile  against  the  sides  of  the  bore : 
this  is  the  same  for  all  velocities,  but  is  very  differ- 
ent for  all  the  different  metals  ;  2d.  The  shocks 
of  the  projectile  striking  again.st  the  sides  of  the 
bore:  these  will  vary  with^the  angle  of  incidence, 
which  depends  on  the  windage,  and  the  extent  of 
(he  injury  due  to  the  lodgment  and  balloting  of  the 
projectile:  3d.  The  resistance  offered  by  the  col- 
umn of  air  in  front  of  the  projectile:  this  force  will 
increase  in  a  certain  ratio  to  the  velocity  of  the  pro- 
jectile and  length  of  the  bore.  As  the  accelerating 
force  of  the  charge  increases  up  to  a  certain  point, 
after  which  it  rapidly  diminishes,  as  the  space 
in  the  rear  of  the  projectile  increases,  and  as  the 
retarding  forces  are  constantly  opposed  to  its  motion 
it  follows,  that  there  is  a  point  where  these  forces 
are  equal,  and  the  projectile  moves  with  its  greatest 
velocity:  it  also  follows  that,  after  the  projectile 
passes"this  point,  its  velocity  decreases  until  it  is 
finally  brought  to  a  state  of  rest,  which  would  be  the 
case  in  a  gun  of  great  length.  The  length  of  bore 
which  corresponds  to  a  maximum  velocity  depends 
upon  the  projectile,  charge  of  powder,  and  material 
of  wliich  the  piece  is  made;  and  taking  the  caliber 
as  the  unit  of  measure,  it  is  found  that  Uiis  length  is 
greater  for  small-arms  which  fire  leaden  projectiles 
than  for  guns  which  fire  solid  iron  shot,  and  greater 
for  guns  than  for  howitzers  and  mortars,  which  fire 
hollow  projectiles.  It  may  be  l)roadly  staled  that 
with  suitable  powders,  the  following  relations  should 
exist  between  the  charge  and  the  length  of  bore,  in 
order  that  there  may  be  a  profitable  use  of  the 
charge: — 

Charge.  T>ength  of  hnre. 

I  the  weight  of  shot About  20  calibers. 

I  "        ..*-.."         ...       "       30        " 
I  "        "         "      "        .  .  .  .       "       85 
In  each  case  a  greater  length  of  bore  would  give 
increased  velocity,  but  it  would  be  oblained  at  the 
expense    of   aililitional   weight,  whicli  Ciin  be  better 
ulilizid  I'iscwhcre  in  tin-  gun.     See  ('(tnnnn. 

LENGTH  OF  CANNON.      In  smoolb-bore  guns,   the 
distance  between  the  rear  of  tlu  base  ring  and  face 


of  tne  muzzle,  measured  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  axis. 
The  length  of  B.  L.  R.  guns  is  measured  from  be- 
hind the  breech  to  the  face  of  the  muzzle,  the  breech 
screw  not  being  included,  and  the  length  of  M.  L. 
R.  guns  from  the  neck  of  the  cascable  to  the  face  of 
the  muzzle.  The  length  of  a  mortar  is  the  whole 
distance  from  face  to  breech,  measured  along  the 
axis.  The  length  of  guns  is  sometimes  expressed  by 
their  calibers;  but  this,  except  with  smooth-bore 
guns,  is  a  very  inaccurate  method  of  comparing  tlie 
lengths  of  rifled  guns.  To  say  with  smooth-bore 
guns  that  they  were  so  many  calibers  long,  wassufti- 
ciently  accurate,  because  the  weight  of  charge  and 
shot  was  always  in  proportion ;  but  with  rifled  guns, 
which  not  only  differ  in  this  respect  very  greatly 
from  smooth-bore  guns,  but  even  among  themselves, 
to  speak  in  this  manner  is  very  misleading.  A  68-pr. 
gun  has  about  the  same  length  of  bore  as  the  8-inch 
rifled  gun,  and  is  conse(iuently  the  same  length  in 
caliber;  but,  as  the  charge  of  the  latter  is  double 
that  of  the  former,  the  number  of  expansions  with 
an  8-inch  gun  is  only  h;ilf  of  what  it  is  with  a  68-pr. 
The  more  scientific  wa}-,  is  to  designate  the  length 
of  bores  bv  the  number  of  expansions  ot  the  charge. 

LENGTH  OF  FUSE.— This  expression  has  reference 
to  the  period  a  fuse  is  required  to  burn,  the  time  being 
determined  by  the  range.  Fuses  (time),  such  as  are 
used  with  M.L.R.  English  guns,  burn  a  certain  num- 
ber of  seconds,  viz.,  5,  9,  and  20  seconds  respectively. 
The  use  and  object  of  these  different  fuses  are  as  fol- 
lows :  The  5-second  fuse  is  used  with  shrapnel  shell 
(G.  S.  gauge),  up  to  the  80-pr.  inclusive.  This  fuse 
is  very  necessarj'  for  F.  S.  shrapnel  shell,  which 
must  be  burst  with  great  accuracy  to  develop  its 
power.  The  9-second  fuse  is  used  with  common 
and  shrapnel  shell  (G.  S.  gauge),  up  to  80-pr.  in- 
clusive, at  long  ranges.  The  20-second  fuse  is  used 
for  common  shell  (G.  S.  gauge,  garrison  service), 
up  to  the  80-pr.  inclusive,  at  long  ranges.  It  is  only 
used  in  the  F.  S.  for  high-angle  firing  from  the  7-pr. 
gun.  It  is  not  available  for  shrapnel,  as  it  has  no 
powder-channels.  B.  L.  R  guns  use  fuses  of  the 
same  lengths  as  above.  The  following  will  be  found, 
as  a  general  rule,  nearly  correct  for  getting  the 
length  of  fuse  with  muzzle-loading  rifled  guns.  Di- 
vide the  number  of  hundreds  of  j-ards  in  the  range 
by  2,  and  add  1  up  to  1,000  yards,  2  up  to  2,000 
yards,-  and  so  on,  for  length  of  fuse  in  tenths  of 
inches. 

LENGTH  OF  PEOJECTILES.— This  length  necessa- 
rily varies  in  the  different  descriptions  of  projectiles 
for  the  same  gun,  inasmuch  as  it  is  to  some  extent 
subordinate  to  the  consideration  of  bringing  them  all 
(with  certain  exceptions)  to  the  same  weight,  but  it- 
has  been  decided  that  a  length  of  two  calibers  at  least 
is  necessary  for  very  accurate  shooting,  and  it  is  de- 
sirable for  good  Ills  riia.  or  destructive  effect  on  im- 
pact, at  any  but  very  short  ranges, to  have  the  weight 
great  in  proportion  to  the  caliber,  or  in  fact  to  the 
surface  of  resistance,  and  of  course  this  is  favored  by 
an  increased  length  of  projectile. 

LENS. — A  circular  section  of  any  transparent  sub- 
stance, having  its  surfaces  either  both  spherical,  or 


1  one  of  them  plane  and  the  other  spherical.    A  ray  of 
j  light  in   passing  through  a  lens   is  bent  towards  its 
I  thickest  part :   hence  lenses  are  either  convex  (thick- 
est in  the  middle)  or  concave  (thickest  at  edges).  The 
former  make  the  rays  more  convergent  than  before, 
j  the  latter  make  them  more  divergent.     The  point  to 
which  the  r;iys  converge, or  from  which  they  diverge, 
'  is  called  a  focus-  principal  focus  when  the  rays  are 


LEOPARD 


197 


LETEE, 


parallel.  Tlic  focus  for  a  ronvex  lens  is  real,  i.e.,  the 
rays  actually  pass  llirou(;li  it.  and  form  an  inverted 
ima^e  .smaller  iir  larger  than  llie  object  aci'ordiiuraH 
the  ol)ject  is  at  a  distance  i;reater  or  less  than  twice 
the  |>rinripal  focal  lcni;lli  ;  liiit  the  imaife  is  iTect  and 
maijnitied  if  thi^  olijcct  be  within  the  principal  focal 
leni^th,  Kor  a  concave  lens  the  focus  is  virtual— the 
rays  seem  to  conii'  from  it  and  form  an  erect  iniuj;e 
smaller  than  thi'  object. 

The  lenses  in  the  drawinfc,  thoUi;h  they  may  be  of 
the  same  focal  length,  have  |)eculiar  propiTties  which 
render  them  suitable  for  particular  ojjtical  instru- 
ments; thus,  the  convexo.plane  lens  has  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  aberration  of  a  plano-conve.v,  or  Iwo- 
tliirds  of  an  e(|ui-convex  or  crpii-concave  of  the  same 
focal  liMiiith;  but,  in  general,  the  e(pii-conve.x  is  the 
most  desiral>le  form,  .\berralion  has  been  to  opti- 
cians what  refrai'tion  is  to  the  astronomer,  an  unwel- 
come intruder,  which  s])oils  his  linest  theories,  and 
limits  the  accuracy  of  his  results.  This  alierration 
lias,  indeed,  liecii  destroyed  by  combinini;  lenses  of 
equal  and  opposite  aberrations,  as  for  instance,  imit- 
inj^.  by  means  of  C!anada  balsam,  a  dind)l(!  convex 
with  a  double  concave.  A  still  belter  method  would 
be  the  fornuition  of  lenses  having  one  side  si»herical, 
and  the  iilher  of  an  ellipsoidal  or  a  hyjierboloidal 
form  ;  but  this  has  not  yet  l]een  successfully  accom- 
plished. Convex  lenses  of  giass,  rock-salt,  ice,  etc., 
may  be  used  as  "  burning-slasses,"  since  radiant  heat 
is  refracted  according  to  the  same  laws  as  light  — the 
hot  focus  being  nearly  coincident  with  the  luminous 
one.  I'latiniuu,  gold,  etc..  liave  been  fused  iu  three  I 
or  four  seconds  liv  tins  means. 

LEOPAHD. —  The  leopard  has  been  descrilx'd  by  ' 
sonu'  Heralds  as  the  issue  of  the  pan!  and  lioness; 
and  tlic  circumstance  that  such  liybrids  are  unjiro- : 
ductive,  is  assigned  as  a  reason  for  appropriating 
that  animal  to  the  armorial  ensigns  of  Abbots  and  f 
Abbesses.  However,  the  representations  of  leopanis, 
at  least  in  English  Heraldry,  are  so  exactly  like  those  I 
of  the  lion  passant  gardant,  that  it  has  been  made  a 
question  whether  there  is  any  ditference  between 
the  two,  and  it  has  more  especially  been  a  keenly- 
contested  point  whether  the  three  animals  in  the 
royal  escutcheon  of  England  were  lions  or  leopards,  i 
In  early  tinu-s  we  find  them  blazoned  in  both  ways,  j 
and  the  true  solution  of  the  qiiirstw  vexiitii  seems  to 
be,  that  at  one  period  the  heraldic  leopard  came  to 
be  considered  as  a  mere  synonym  for  the  lion  passant 
gardant,  though  the  two  animals  were  originally  re- 
garded as  distinct.  In  the  infancy  of  Heraldry,  be- 
fore distinctive  aiipellations  were  invented  for  the 
different  attitudes  of  animals,  it  was  customary  to 
draw  a  lion  in  the  attitvide  since  called  rampant,  and 
a  leopard  as  passant  gardant.  This  difference  of  posi- 
tion sufficiently  indicating  which  animal  was  meant, 
they  were  otherwise  similarly  represented,  and  no 
attempt  was  made  toexhibit  the  spots  of  the  leopard. 
By  and  by,  as  coats  of  armor  were  multiplied,  it 
became  necessary  to  difference  them  by  varying  the 
position  of  the  animals  depicted  ;  and  the  blazoners 
of  those  days,  thinking  more  of  attitude  than  of  zo- 
ology.had  recourse  to  a  compromise  in  their  nomen- 
clature. The  lion  was  naturally  supposed  to  be  ram- 
pant and  in  profile,  the  leopard  passant  gardant. 
AVhen  the  conventional  animal  that  might  stand  for 
either  was  passant  and  in  iirotile,  he  was  designed  a 
lii>n-leapnrde  ;  and  when  rampant  gardant  he  was  a 
leopard-lionne.  The  king  of  beasts  was  very  early 
assumed  as  his  appropriate  insignia  by  the  Sovereign 
of  England,  as  well  as  by  the  Sovereigns  of  other 
countries  in  western  Europe.  The  lion  was  at  first  I 
borne  singly,  and  his  natural  attitude,  like  that  of  I 
other  lions,  was  considered  ti>  be  rampant.  But  when  \ 
a  second  and  third  lion  were  added,  it  became  less 
convenient  to  draw  them  in  therampant  attitude,  and 
the  lions  became  lions-leopardeor  passant,  as  seen  in 
the  seal  of  King.Iohn  :  a  further  change  of  position 
to  passant  gardant  made  them  heraldically  leopards. 
Edward  III..  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  and  Richard 


leoi)ard. 


Kerby  was  designaletl  Leopard  Herald   in  the 

of  Henry  IV.:   and  it  was  not  till  the  middle  fjf  tl 


Nicholas 
reign 


II.,  speak  rif  their  crest  of  the 

Llth  century  that  thi'  lions  of  England  regained  their 
original  name.  Though  leopards,  properly  so  called, 
hardly  occur  in  English  Heralilry,  liaving  (lassed  into 
lions  passant  gardant.  their  beads  or  faces  are  occa- 
sionally borne.  If  no  part  of  the  neck  is  shown,  the 
proper  blazon  is  a  leopard's  faci' ;  if  a  portion  of  the 
neck  is  lira wn.  it  is  a  leopard's  head. erased  orcouped, 
a<coriling  as  it  is  cut  olf  evenly  or  with  a  jagged  edge. 

LE8GHIANS.  A  body  of  liW.OOO  people,  inliabitin)^ 
the  mounliiins  of  western  Dagheslan  in  the  C'aucawiH 
(Asiatic  Kussia;,  and  speaking  various  languages. 
For  many  years  they  maile  a  brave  resistance  to  Hus- 
sian  aggression.  Siiici-  IH.')!)  they  have  been  peace, 
alile  Their  religion,  a  niodilication  of  Islamism,  ig 
(loled  Murailisni,  and  was  founded  about  Wid  by  a 
native  I'rophet. 

LE8SE.  A  machine  covered  with  rawhides,  used 
as  a  mantelet  by  the  ancient  (ireeks  for  ilitfiTciit  jiur- 
jioses. 

LETTER  BOOK.-  A  book  containing  the  entry  of  all 
otlici.il  letters  written  by  the  Commanding  Ollicer.  or 
under  his  direction,  to  the  jiublic  departments,  and 
to  individuals,  on  regimental  business.  It  contains 
ail  alphabetical  index,  and  a  sejiarate  index  for  the 
public  departments.  It  need  not  be  preserved  be- 
yond three  years,  after  it  is  completed,  care  being 
taken  to  k<(p  copies  of  such  letters  as  may  be  likely 
to  be  reipiired  for  reference. 

LETTER  OF  MARQUE.  The  commission  authoriz- 
ing a  Privateer  to  make  war  U|)on,  or  seize  the  prop- 
erty of  another  nation.  It  must  be  granted  by  the 
Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty,  or  b_v  the 
Vice  Admiral  of  a  distant  Province.  Vessels  sailing 
under  such  commissions  are  commonly  spoken  of  as 
Lettmnf  Maniue.  Making  war  without  Letters  of 
Marque  by  a  private  ves.^el.  is  piracy.  Letters  of 
Marque  were  abolished  among  European  nations  at 
the  Treaty  of  Paris,  in  185(5. 

LETTRE  DE  PASSE.— A  paper  which  was  formerly 
signed  by  the  Kings  of  France,  authorizing  an  offi- 
cer to  exchange  from  one  regiment  to  another. 

LETTEES  DE  CACHET.— The  name  given  to  the  fa- 
mous warrants  of  imprisonment  issued  by  the  King.s 
of  France  before  the  Revolution.  All  Royal  Letters 
{Lettres  Riiyatix)  were  either  Lettrnt  Pittenten  or  Let- 
tren  de  Cachet.  The  former  were  open,  signed  by  the 
King,  and  countersigned  bj'  a  Minister,  and  had  the 
great  Seal  of  State  appended.  Of  this  kind  were  all 
ordinances,  grants  of  privilege,  etc.  All  Letters  Pat- 
ent were  registered. or  enterinnUd  by  the  Parliaments. 
These  checks  on  arbitrary  power  did  not  exist  with  re- 
gard to  Lettres  de  Cachet,  also  called  Lettres  Cloaen, 
or  sealed  letters,  which  were  folded  up  and  sealed 
with  the  King's  little  seal  (cwliet),  and  by  which  the 
Royal  pleasure  was  made  known  to  individuals  or 
to  corporations,  and  the  admistration  of  justice  was 
often  interfered  with.  The  use  of  Lettres  de  Cachet 
became  much  more  frequent  after  the  accession  of 
Louis  XIV.  than  it  had  been  before,  and  it  was  very 
common  for  jiersons  to  be  arrested  upon  such  a  war- 
rant, and  confined  in  the  Bastile,  or  some  other 
State  Prison,  where  some  of  them  remained  for  a  very 
long  time,  and  some  for  life,  either  because  it  was 
so  intended,  or.  in  other  cases,  becau.se  they  were  for- 
gotten. The  Lieutenant  General  of  the  Police  kept 
forms  of  Lettres  de  Cachet  ready,  in  which  it  was 
only  necessary  to  insert  the  name  of  the  individual 
to  be  arrested".  Sometimes  an  arrestment  on  Lettres 
de  Cachet  was  a  resource  to  shield  criminals  from 
justice. 

LEVEE. — This  term  originally  meant  visits  of  cer- 
emony paid  in  the  morning  among  persons  of  rank. 
It  is  now  vmderstood  to  mean  an  assembly  at  Court, 
on  state  occasions, of  those  of  Her  JIajesty's  subjects 
whoare  entitled  to  the  privilege  of  presenting  them- 
selves before  the  Sovereign.  The  privilege  of  holding 
levees  is  also  accorded  to  Her  Majesty's  representa- 


LETEE  EN  MASSE. 


198 


LEVELING  BAB. 


I 


lives  at  home  and  abroad,  to  the  Field  Marshal  Com- 
manding in  Chief,  and  other  hif;h  Functionaries. 

LEVEE  EN  MASSE.— A  general  rising  of  the  people 
of  any  country, either  for  the  purpose  of  self-defense, 
or  to  "answer  the  intention  of  its  governing  powers. 
See  L'vy. 

LEVELERS. — A  party  which  arose  in  the  army  of 
the  Long  Parliament,  "when  it  overawed  that  body, 
and  sentthe  King  to  Hampton  Court  in  1047.  They 
determined  to  level  all  ranks,  and  establish  an  equal- 
ity of  titles  and  estates  througout  the  Kingdom.  Sev- 
eral of  the  officers  belonging  to  this  party  were  cash- 
iered in  1649, and  on  the  departure  of  Cromwell  for 
Ireland,  at  the  close  of  that  year,  they  raised  mviti- 
nies  in  various  quarters,  and  were  put  "down  liy  Fair- 
fax with  bloodshed.  They  were  not  only  treated  as 
traitors  by  the  King,  but  persecuted  by  Cromwell  as 
dangerous  to  the  State.  In  politics  their  fundamental 
principles  included:  1.  The  impartial  authority  of 
the  If.w;  2.  The  legislative  power  of  Parliament;  3. 
Absolute  equality  before  the  law;  4.  The  arming  of 
the  people  for  securing  the  enforcement  of  the  laws, 
and  the  protection  of  their  liberties. 

LEVELING. — Level  is  a  terra  applied  to  surfaces 
that  are  parallel  to  that  of  still  water,  or  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  direction  of  the  plum-line;  it  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  instrument  employed  in  determining  the 
amount  of  variation  from  perfect  levelness.  The  in- 
strument ordinarily  is  a  cylindrical  glass  tube  very 
slightly  conve.x  on  one  side,  and  so  nearly  filled  with 
water,  or  what  is  better,  with  alcohol,  that  only  a 
small  bubble  of  air  remains  inside.  The  level  is  then 
mounted  on  a  three  or  four  legged  stand,  with  its 
convex  side  upwards,  and  by  means  of  a  pivot  and 
elevating  screws,  is  made  capable  of  assuming  anj' 
required  position.  If  the  level  be  properly  construct- 
ed, the  bubble  should  lie  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the 
tube  when  the  instrument  is  properly  adjusted,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  the  line  of  sight  of  the  telescope  at- 
tached to  the  level  should  be  accurately  parallel  to 
the  surface  of  still  water.  In  ordinary  levels,  this 
first  condition  is  seldom  seen,  and,  instead,  two 
notches  are  made  on  the  glass  to  mark  the  position  of 
the  two  extremities  of  the  bubble  when  the  instru- 
ment is  level.  The  tube  and  bubble  should  be  of  con- 
siderable length  to  insure  accuracy.  A  very  hand- 
some level  o^  precision,  constructed  by  Fauth  and 
Company,  United  States,  for  the  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey,  is  employed  for  the  most  exact  work.  It 
can  also  be  used  as  a  gradienter,  the  micrometer 
screw  for  raising  or  depressing  the  telescope  being 
made  with  the  utmost  exactness,  and  being  provid- 
ed with  a  graduated  head.  The  telescope  has  an 
aperture  of  li  inches,  and  10  inches  focus,  with  two 
astronomical  eye-pieces,  magnifying  40  and  60  times 
respectively.  Tlie  pivot-rings  are  of  phosphor-bronze, 
and  rest  on  agate.  The  striding  level  is  chambered, 
and  one  division]  equals  3  seconds  of  arc.  The  hor- 
izontal circle,  of  five  inches  diameter,  divided  on 
silver,  reads  to  30  seconds ;  the  center  is  of  steel ; 
clamp  and  spring  tangent  motion. 

Custom  has  established  the  measurement  of  abso- 
lute levels  from  the  average  surface  of  the  ocean — 
the  mean  between  high  and  low  water — as  the  zero 
level  ;  when  reckoned  from  any  other  zero  level, 
they  are  relative  levels.  Leveling,  or  finding  the 
difference  l)etween  tlie  levels  of  two  or  more  points. 
is  designated  by  the  term  hypsometry  in  geodesy. 
ThiTc  are  three  ))rinci])al  and  indepenileut  melliods 
of  leveling.  Tlie  first  depends  upon  the  fact  that 
the  surf;iees  of  lluids  at  rest  are  perpendiculiir  to  the 
dircclion  of  the  force  of  gravity  ;  upon  this  is  l)ased 
the  common  level.  In  th(^  second  method,  trigono- 
metrical leveling,  we  must  know,  first,  the  zenith 
distance,  or  the  angle  between  the  zenith  of  the  sta- 
tion and  the  object  whose  height  we  wish  to  find 
(making  a  correction  for  the  effect  of  refraction.) 
and.  second,  we  nuist  know  or  accurately  (lelermine 
the  horizontal  distance  from  the  sl.'itiou  to  the  oli- 
jccl  determined  usually  by  triaugulation.     In  accu- 


rate work  a  careful  adjustment  of  the  theodolite, 
the  instrument  used  in  this  method,  is  necess;iry. 
Local  attraction  sometimes  causes  a  deflection  of 
the  pluml)-line,  thus  affecting  measurements  of  ze- 
nith distance.  Atmospheric  refraction  is  a  more 
important  element  of  uncertainty,  for  which  reason 
the  horizontal  distance  should  not  exceed  12  or  15 
miles.  The  coefficient  of  refraction  is  irregular,  and 
varies  with  the  temperature  and  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere ;  it  is  most  steady  and  nearest  its  mini- 
mum between  10  a.  m.  and  2  p.m.  From  the  above 
data,  the  difference  in  level  is  easily  calculated.  The 
weight  of  the  atmosphere  bearing  upon  a  unit  of 
surface  diminishes  in  a  geometrical  progression  as 
the  heights  increase  in  an  arithmetical  progression ; 
therefore,  by  the  third  method,  heights  are  deter- 
mined with  the  barometer.  Physicists  have  con- 
structed numerous  formula;  embodying  tlie  law  of 
Mariotte,  and  introducing  corrections  for  tempera- 
ture, expansion  of  air.  and  the  effect  of  latitude  and 
height  upon  the  action  of  gravity.  It  is  believed 
that  considerable  accuracy  can  be  attained  by  this 
method,  particularly  if  the  annual  means  of  temper- 
ature and  pressure  for  the  stations  whose  difference 
in  level  it  is  desired  to  find  are  substituted  in  the 
formulae.  Aneroid  barometers  have  Iieen  graduated 
to  indicate  heights  up  to  12.000  or  16,000  feet;  they 
give  only  approximate  results.  If  a  delicate  appara- 
tus for  determining  the  boiling  point  of  water  be 
used,  the  corresponding  heights  taken  from  a  table 
will  give  the  reading  of  the  barometer  at  that  point, 
so  that  the  instrument  itself  can  be  dispensed  with. 
This  depends  upon  the  fact  that  the  boiling-point  of 
water  decreases  as  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
becomes  less.     Ses  Theodulite  and  Y  Level. 

LEVELING  BAR.— A  square  steel  bar  with  par- 
allel faces,  somewhat  longer  than  the  distance  be- 
tween the  sights  on  the  largest  gun.  The  rear  end 
is  bevelled  at  an  angle  of  60°,  the  angle  at  which 
the  sight  is  placed.  It  has  a  central  line  marked  on 
it  throughout  its  length,  on    the    under  side,  and 

s        s 


along  the  bevelled  end.  It  has  also  marked  on  its 
sides,  near  the  forward  end,  the  distance  at  which 
the  sights  should  be  placed  for  each  class  of  gun. 
It  is  also  fitted  with  screws  for  bringing  it  to  a  level. 
The  leveling-bar  being  laid  on  the  front  sight,  and 
its  bevelled  end  taking  against  the  rear  sight-liar, 
bring  it  to  a  level  with  the  spirit-level  and  screws. 
This  will  give  the  true  guide  for  angle  of  rear  sight- 
bar,  and  the  lafter's  proper  plane.  As  soon  as  rear 
sight-box  is  fitted,  bore  hole  for  same  through  rear 
sight-mass.  The  hole  is  bored  with  the  rear  sight- 
box  (in.  and  the  latter  is  kept  down  in  its  place 
by  a  sling  around  cascabel  set  up  by  a  handspike. 
The  rear  sight  being  fitted  true  as  to  the  leveling- 
bar,  again  level  the  arm  of  sighting-tompion,  and 
streteii  the  thread  back  over  the  gun,  this  time  bring- 
ing the  thread  to  the  exact  middle  of  the  rear  sight- 
notch.  Now,  in  theory,  the  thread  ought  to  come 
directly  over  the  inilal  pointof  the  base-ring,  and  over 
the  mark  already  accurately  laid  off  on  the  front 
sighl-mass;  but  ))ractically  this  is  never  the  case,  as 
it  is  aliiiiist  imiKMsililf  to  fit  a  rear  sight-box  so  true 
as  to  bring  the  middle  of  the  sight-notch  in  the  ex- 
act line  of  sight  already  laid  off.  It  will  lie  found, 
>ipon  stretching  the  thread  the  second  time,  that  it 
will  fall  a  trifle  one  side  or  other  of  the  inilial  point 
on  base-ring.  So.  virtually,  it  is  necessary  again  to 
lay  ofT  a  line  of  sight .  Willi  a  measure  take  the 
distancethat  the  Ihrciid  fulls  to  one  side  of  the  initial 
|ioinl  on  base-ring.  Take  this  same  ilistiince  thatthu 
thread  is  out,  and  lay  it  off  horizontally  on  the  cross- 


LEVELING  RODS. 


I'.l'.l 


LEVELING  BODS. 


li.ir  iif  the  v<rii<iil  sightinR-arm.  Of  course,  when 
llic  thread  is  also  mov('<l  tliiH  distunrc  on  tlio  siglit- 
ini;  iinii,  the  thread  will  fall  I  he  same  dislunce  to 
one  Hide  on  the  front  sitrlit-iiiiiss ;  Iherefori'  mark 
this  last  point  where  the  thread  falls  over  the  front 
si;:lit-mass.  and  thus  is  estalilished  the  second  and 
final  line  of  siLcht.  Also  mark  the  point  where  the 
thread  now  crosses  the  base-rinj;,  and  this  is  the 
final  initial  point  to  be  marked  for  a  full  due  on  the 
liase-rinir.  Where  the  thread  crcjsses  the  front  sight- 
mass,  hold  the  front  sight  itself  directly  under  the 
thread.  When  the  front  sight  mass  was  lined  out. 
at  the  same  time  with  the  rear  sighl-nniss  a  regula- 
tion distance  was  given  from  base-ring  to  center  of 
front  sight -mass,  and  from  this  central  iioint  the 
mass  was  marked  cml  and  cut.  See  dniri'iii  Sig/iti. 
LEVELING  RODS  The  various  Icveling-rods  used 
by  American  engineers  are  made  'n  two  or  more 
part.s,  which  slide  from  each  other  as  they  are  ex 
tended  iu  use. 


tliese  depressed  surfaocH  arc  painted  white,  divided 

into  feet,  tenths  and  hundredths  of  a  foot, and  the  leet 
and  tenths  figured.  The  front  piece  reads  from  the 
bottom  'ipward  to  seven  feet,  the  foot  figures  being 
red  and  an  inch  long,  the  tenth  figures  black,  and 
eight-tenths  (if  an  inch  long.  When  the  roil  is  ex- 
tended to  full  length  the  front  surface  of  the  rear 
half  rea<ls  from  seven  to  thirteen  feet,  and  the  whole 
front  of  the  rod  is  fiiri.red  continuously  and  becomes 
a  self-reading  rod  thirteen  feet  long.  The  l)ack  sur- 
face of  the'  rear  half  is  figured  from  seven  to  thirteen 
feet,  reading  from  the  top  down  ;  it  lias  a  scale  also 
by  which  'he  rod  is  read  to  two-hundredths  of  afoot 
as  it  is  extended.  The  larL'et  is  round  and  made  of 
sheet-brass  raised  on  the  perimeter  to  increase  its 
strength,  and  is  paint<-d  in  white  and  red  quadrants  ; 
it  has  also  a  scale  on  its  chamfered  edge,  reading  to 
two-hundredths  of  a  foot.  When  a  level  of  less  tlian 
seven  feet  is  (h'sired  the  target  is  moved  up  or  down 
the  front  surfaee.  the  rod  being  closed  together  and 


^ 


u 


\<^ 


The  PJtilndelphia  rod.  plicwn  in  Fig.  1,  is  made  of  I 
two  strips  of  cherry,  each  about  lliree-fourths  of  an 
inch  thick  by  one  and  a  half  inches  wide  and  .seven 
feet  long,  connected  together  by  two  metal  sleeves, 
the  npiwr  one  of  which  lias  a  clamping-screw  for  fas- 
tening the  two  parts  together  when  the  rod  is  raised 
for  a  liieher  reading  than  seven  feet.  Both  sides  of 
the  back  strip  and  one  side  of  the  front  one  are  plan- 
ed out  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  below  the  edges ; 


l^ 


Fig.  3.  Fig.  4.  Fig.  5. 

clamped  ;  but  when  a  greater  height  is  required  the 
target  is  fixed  at  seven  feet  and  the  rear  half  slid  out. 
the  scale  on  the  back  giving  the  readings  like  those 
of  the  target  to  twtvhundredths  of  a  foot. 

The  Troy  rod  shown  in  Fig  2.  is  a  self  reading 
rod  up  to  six  feet,  or  can  be  read  by  a  vernier  on 
the  rear  piece  to  thousandths  of  a  foot  as  usual. 
It  has  two  targets  as  shown,  both  fastened  to  the 
front  half  of  the  rod,  the  lower  one  having  its  center 


LEVEB. 


200 


LEVEK. 


line  just  three-tenths  above  the  end,  and  the  target 
exactly  six  feet  above  the  lower.  There  is  a  clamp- 
ing piece  with  screw  on  the  back  of  the  rod  below 
the  target,  by  which  the  two  parts  are  clamped  to- 
gether when  desired.  The  face  of  the  front  piece  is 
recessed  like  that  of  the  Philadelphia  Rod,  painted 
white,  divided  to  feet  and  hundredths,  and  figured 
as  represented.  The  side  of  the  front  half  is  divided 
to  feet  and  hundredths,  read  by  a  vernier  on  the  top 
of  the  rear  lialf  to  thousandtlis,  and  figured  from  the 
top  downwards,  beginning  with  three-tenths,  that 
being  the  lieight  of  the  center  line  of  the  lower 
target.  When  a  level  of  less  than  six  feet  is  taken 
on  the  rod  the  observation  is  made  by  the  lower 
target,  and  the  reading  is  direct  as  given  on  the 
side  ;  but  when  a  greater  height  is  taken  the  upper 
target  is  sighted  upon,  and  si.x  feet  added  to  the 
reading  on  the  side  in  every  instance,  and  thus  a 
reading  up  to  twelve  feet  readily  obtained. 

TheiV^cw)  York  ?'«(f  is  made  of  maple,  in  two  pieces, 
sliding  one  from  the  other,  the  same  end  being 
always  held  on  the  ground,  and  the  graduations  start- 
ing from  that  point.  The  graduations  are  made  to 
tenths  and  hundredths  of  a  foot,  the  tenth  figures  be- 
ing black,  and  the  feet  marked  with  a  large  red  figure. 
The  front  surface,  on  which  the  target  moves,  reads 
to  about  six  and  a  half  feet ;  when  a  greater  height 
is  required,  the  horizontal  line  of  the  target  is  fixed 
at  the  highest  graduation,  and  the  upper  half  of  the 
rod,  carrying  the  target,  is  moved  out  of  the  lower, 
the  reading  being  now  obtained  by  a  vernier  on  the 
graduated  side,  up  to  an  elevation  of  twelve  feet. 
The  mountings  of  this  rod  are  differently  made  by 
different  manufacturers.  We  shall  give  those  which 
are  mostly  used.  The  target  is  round,  made  of 
thick  sheet  brass,  having,  to  strengthen  it  still  more, 
a  raised  rim,  which  also  protects  the  paint  from  being 
defaced.  The  target  moves  verj-  easily  on  the  rod, 
being  kept  in  any  desired  position  by  the  friction  of 
the  two  flat  plates  of  brass  which  are  pressed  firm- 
ly against  the  two  alternate  side?,  by  small  spiral 
springs,  working  in  little  thimbles  attached  to  the 
baud  which  surrounds  the  rod.  There  is  also  a 
clamp-screw  on  the  back,  by  which  it  may  be  se- 
curely fastened  to  any  part  of  the  rod.  The  face  of 
the  target  is  divided  into  quadrants,  by  horizontal 
and  vertical  diameters,  which  are  also  tlie  boundaries 
of  the  alternate  colors  with  which  it  is  painted.  The 
colors  usually  preferred  are  white  and  red ;  some- 
times white  and  black.  The  opening  in  the  face  of 
the  target  is  a  little  more  than  a  tenth  of  a  foot  long, 
so  that  in  any  position  a  tenth,  or  a  foot  figure,  can 
be  seen  on  the  surface  of  the  rod.  The  riglit  edge 
of  the  opening  is  chamfered,  and  divided  into  ten  e- 
qual  spaces,  corresponding  with  nine-hundredths  on 
the  rod  ;  the  divisions  start  from  the  horizontal  line 
which  separates  the  colors  of  the  face.  The  vernier, 
like  tliat  on  the  other  side  of  the  rod,  reads  to  thou- 
sandths of  a  foot.  The  clamp,  which  is  screwed 
fast  to  the  lower  end  of  the  upper  slidiug-piece,  has 
a  movable  part  which  can  be  brought  by  the  clamp- 
screw  firmly  against  the  front  surface  of  the  lower 
half  of  the  rod,  and  thus  the  two  parts  immovably 
fastened  to  each  other  without  marring  the  divided 
face  of  the  rod. 

Fig.  3  represents  another  form  of  this  favorite 
rod,  introduced  by  the  Messrs.  Gurley,  United 
States.  In  this  rod,  a  third  or  fovirth  piece  is  added 
to  the  two  of  the  old  rod,  giving  thus  a  rod  of 
greater  length,  anil  at  the  same  time  making  it  more 
compact  an<l  portable.  The  divisions,  the  verniers, 
readings,  and  target  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
old  rod.  Tliere  are  two  varieties  of  the  three- 
parted  rod,  one  sliding  to  allow  a  reading  of  thir- 
teen feet  and  the  other  extending  to  fourteen  feet ; 
the  first  when  closed  is  only  five  feet  long,  the  last 
but  a  little  over  five  and  a  half  feet.  The  four-parted 
rod  is,  when  closed,  but  five  feet  in  length,  but  can 
be  extenilcd  to  sixteen  feet. 

The  ArckiUn'tif^    rod  is    a  very   light   and  simple 


sliding  rod  made  of  maple,  in  two  parts,  each  seven- 
eights  of  an  inch  square,  and  wlien  closed,  about  five 
feet  six  inches  long.  As  shown  in  Fig.  4,  the  front 
half  is  divided  on  two  sides  to  feet,  tenths,  and 
hundredths,  reading  by  verniers  on  the  target  and 
side  to  thousandths  of  a  foot.  The  target  is  smaller 
than  those  of  the  rods  already  described,  but  of  suffi- 
cient size,  and  moves  on  the  closed  rod  when  levels 
1  of  less  than  five  feet  and  four-tenths  are  to  be  taken. 
When  a  greater  height  is  needed  the  target  is  fixed 
!  at  the  highest  division,  the  front  half  carried  above 
1  the  rear  part  and  clamped  at  any  point  desired,  by 
the  clamp-screw,  as  shown,  the  height  being  now 
read  off  by  the  vernier  on  the  lower  half  up  to  ten 
feet.  This  rod  is  adapted  for  use  with  any  level, 
and  is  so  light  and  efficient  that  we  believe  it  will 
come  into  general  use  ;  when  it  is  to  be  used  by  an 
architect,  the  divisions  are  made  in  feet,  inches  and 
sixteenths,  and  no  verniers  are  then  required. 

The  Bontonrod,  shown  in  Fig.  5,  is  formed  of  two 
pieces  of  light  mahoganj'  or  baywood,  each  about 
six  feet  long,  and  sliding  easily  by  each  other  in 
either  direction.  One  side  is  furnished  with  a 
clamping  piece  and  screw,  and  a  small  vernier  at 
each  end,  the  other  or  front  piece  carries  the  target 
and  has  on  each  side  a  strip  of  satinwood  inlaid 
upon  which  divisions  of  feet,  tenths  and  hundredths 
are  marked  and  figured.  The  target  is  a  rectangle 
of  wood  fastened  on  the  front  half,  is  painted  black 
and  white,  and  has  its  middle  line  just  three-tenths 
above  the  end  of  the  rod.  Each  tenth  of  the  rod  is 
figured  decimally  in  three  figures  or  to  hundredths 
of  a  foot,  and  by  the  verniers  is  read  to  thousandths. 
The  target  being  fixed,  when  any  hieght  is  taken 
above  six  feet,  the  rod  is  changed  end  for  end,  and 
the  divisions  read  by  the  other  verniers ;  the  height 
to  which  the  rod  can  be  extended  being  a  little  over 
eleven  feet.  This  kind  of  rod  is  very  convenient 
from  its  great  lightness,  but  the  parts  are  made  too 
frail  to  endure  the  rough  usage  of  this  countr)-,  and 
therefore  American  engineers  have  generally  given 
the  preference  to  others,  made  heavier  and  more 
substantial. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  there  is  what  is  termed  a 
Telemeter  rod,  formed  of  two  pieces  of  pine,  each 
three  and  a  half  inches  in  width, seven-eighths  of  an 
inch  thick,  and  six  feet  long.  Both  sides  of  the  rods 
are  painted  white,  the  inner  surfaces  Deing  also  re- 
cessed to  protect  the  divided  surface,  with  divisions 
in  black  of  feet,  tenths,  and  lumdredths,  and  figured, 
the  feet  in  red,  the  tenths  in  black.  The  two  pieces 
are  connected  by  a  strong  iron  hinge,  and  folded  in 
transportation;  when  in  use,  they  are  opened,  laid 
flat,  and  joined  firmly  in  line  by  a  wooden  bar,  about 
eighteen  inches  long,  held  to  each  piece  by  two 
strong  brass  screws,  which  enter  into  metal  sockets 
secured  in  each  part  of  tlie  rod.  This  is  a  self-read- 
ing rod.  and  is  often  used  in  connection  with  tlie 
micrometer  wires  to  ascertain  distances  by  a  simple 
observation  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Philadelphia 
rod. 

A  rod  of  English  make  Is  sometimes  used,  in 
which  the  two  smaller  upper  parts  slide  out  of  a  larg- 
er and  lower  one  which  answers  as  a  case  ;  when 
closed  the  rod  is  five  feet  long,  and  extends  to  four- 
teen feet.  It  is  divided  on  a  recessed  face  to  feet, 
tenths,  and  hundredths,  the  divisions  being  painted 
and  figured  like  those  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Tele- 
meter rods.  This  is  also  furnished  with  divisions 
in  meters,  decimeters,  and  in  centimeters ;  length 
when  closed  one  and  a  half  meters,  and  sliding  out 
to  four  meters.     See  T  Level. 

LEVER. — This,  the  most  simple  and  common, 
but,  at  the  same  time,  most  important  of  the  seven 
mechanical  powers,  consists  of  an  inflexible  rod — 
straight  or  bent,  as  the  case  may  be— supported  at 
some  jioint  of  its  length  on  a  prop  which  is  called 
{\\v  fulrrum,  and  having  the  ireight  to  be  moved  I'nd 
power  to  move  it  applied  at  other  two  points.  In  the 
accompanying  illustrations,  AB  is  the  lever,  F  the 


lETEE  HITCH. 


201 


LEVER  SHEARING  MACHINE. 


fulcrum,  A  mid  15  llic  pi)int«  of  iinplifntion  of  P  and 
W,  the  power  (or  |)rcsHurc;  mid  wci^lil  rcHpiclivi'ly. 
If  l\u:  iiniiH  Al*'  mid  15K  lie  c-(iiiiil.  tin-  powrr  I'  mid 
the  weight  VV  iiiu.Mt  also  lie  e(|iml  to  produce  e(|iii- 
libriuiii ;  if  the  ariii  of  the  power,  A  F,  be  loiii<c-r 
than  the  arm  of  the  weii^ht,  HF,  thi'ii,  to  produee 
cquilihriuiii,  the  power  I'  must  he  less  than  the 
weifilit  W.  and  I'/w  vrmii  ;  if  AF  lie  donhle  the  lenjjtli 
of  liF,  then  1',  to  produce  e(|uilil>rinni,  must  he 
half  of  W  ;  and,  i^eneriiUy,  as  is  hIkjuii  in  the  ele- 
mentary treatises  on  mechanics,  t/ii'  jioirir  and  wright 
<tre,  in  the  inverm:  ratio  of  tkcir  dinlnnceK  from  tlie ful- 
crum. This  is  equally  true  for  straight  or  bent 
levers;  but  the  distanc(!  of  the  power  and  weight 
from  the  fulcrum  is  not,  in  all  cases,  the  actual 
length  of  the  amis,  hut  the  lengths  of  perpendiculars 
from  the  fulcrum  upon  the  directions  of  the  jiower 
and  weight.  The  principle  holds  good,  whatever 
be  the  relative  jiositions  of  the  power,  weight  and 
fulcrum ;  and  as  there  can  be  three  dilTerent  ar- 
rangements of  these,  we  thus  obtain  what  are  called 
"  the  three  kinds  of  levers."  Tlie  firxt  *mrf(Fig.  1)  is 
•where  the  fulcrum  is  placed  between  the  power  and 
the  weight ;  the  balance,  spade  (wdien  used  for  raising 
earth),  the  see-saw,  etc.,  are  examples  of  this;  and 
scissors  and  pincers  are  examples  of  double  levers 


Levers  of  the  third  kind  are  used  when  velocity,  or 
a  large  e.xlent  of  motion,  is  required  at  the  expeiwc 
of  power,  and  we  conse(piiMitly  lind  this  form  nnicli 
used  in  the  structure  of  the  lindis  of  aninuils.  The 
structure  of  the  human  arm  fFig.  4;,  is  a  very  good 
example  of  this;  the  fulcrum  is  the  HOcket(^C>of  llic 
elbow-joint,  th<^  power  is  tin:  strong  muscle  ftlie  bi. 

I  ce/m),  which  passes  down  the  front  of  the  /lur/i^nin, 
and  is  attached  at  A  to  the  rot/ii/M  ("as  shown;;  the 
weight  is  the  weight  of  the  ffjrearm,  together  with 
anything  hild  in  the  hand,  the  two  being  supposed 
to  be  conibini'd  into  one  weight  acting  at  Ji.  IJy 
this  arrangement,  a  large  extent  of  motion  is  gained, 
by  a  slight  contraction  or  extension  of  the  mu.scle. 

1  When  a  large  mechanical  advantage  is  required, 
this  may  be  obtained,  without  an  inordinate  length- 
ening of  the  lever,  b)'  means  of  a  very  simjile  com- 
bination of  them.  Here  the  levers  have  their 
arms  in  the  ratio  of  3  to  1,  and  a  little  consideration 
will  make  it  plain  that  a  power  (P)  of  1  lb.  will  bal- 
ance a  weight  of  27   lbs. ;   but   in   this   instance  the 

'  particular  (lefect  of  the  lever  as  a  mechanical  power 
shows  itself  prominently  ;  for  if  the  weight  has  to 
be  lifted  2  inches,  the  power  re()uires  to  be  depressed 
(2x27  or)  .'54  inches;  and.  as  the  extent  of  the  power 

i  cannot  be  largely  increased  without  inconvenience, 


^T 


ITe 


Fig. ; 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  .3. 


of  the  same  kind.  Levers  of  the  .tei-orui  f^ind (F\tr.  2) 
are  those  iu  which  the  weight  is  between  the  power 
and  the  fulcrum  ;  examples  of  this  are  the  crowbar, 
when  used  for  pushing  weights  forward,  the  oar — 
the  water  being  the  fulcrum,  and  the  row-lock  the 
point  of  applicaticm  of  the  weight — and  the  wheel- 
barrow ;  and  of  double-levers  of  this  kind  we  have 
the  nut-crackers  as  an  ordinary  example.  In  lev- 
ers of  [t>ie  third  kind  (Fig.  3).  the  power  is  always 
between  the  weight  and  the  fulcrum.  Fishing-rods, 
whips,  umbrellas,  and  most  of  the  instruments  used 
with  the  hand  alone,  are  levers  of  the  third  kind:  and 
shears,  tongs,  etc..  are  examples  of  double  levers  of 
this  class.  It  is  evident  that,  to  produce  equilibrium 
in  levers  of  the  first  kind,  the  power  may,  according 
to  the  ratio  of  the  lengths  of  the  arm,  be  either 
greater  or  less  than  the  weight ;  in  the  second  kind 
it  must  always  be  less  ;  and  in  the  third  kind,  always 
greater.  This  is  expressed  in  technical  phrase  b)' 
saying  that  the  first  kind  of  lever  gives  a  mechanical 
aricnntfige  or  disndeantage,  the  second  alwa)-s  gives 
a  mechanical  advantage,  and  the  third  always  a  me- 
chanical disadvantage.  Levers  of  the  second  kind, 
■  having  the  same  mechanical  advantage,  are,  when 


Vvj..   I. 


worked  by  man.  twice  as  powerful  as  those  of  the 
first  kind,  because  in  one  case  he  uses  his  muscular 
force  as  the  power,  in  the  other  case  only  his  weight. 


the  advantages  of  this  machine  are  confined  within 
narrow  limits.     See  Mechanicol  Powers. 

LEVEB  HITCH.— A  knot  similar  to  the  drag-rope 
knot  or  woolding-stick  hitch.  It  is  used  for  tight- 
ening ropes,  but  instead  of  turning  the  woolding- 
stick  round,  it  is  applied  on  the  principle  of  the  lever. 

LEVER  JACK. — An  adjustable  fulcrum  with  a  lever 
fifteen  feet  long,  used  chiefly  for  greasing  the  axles 
of  traveling  carriages.  It  consists  of  a  wooden 
stand,  made  of  two  uprights  and  framed  into  one  bed. 
Two  lever-plates  (cast  brass)  are  fastened  to  the  large 
end  of  the  lever  by  screws,  and  prevent  the  lever  from 
slipping  on  the  fulcrum-pin.  See  Mechanical  Ma- 
neiivfr.1. 

LEVEE-RING,— A  wrought-iron  ring,  fitting  on  the 
circular  part  of  the  breech-screw  of  the  Armstrong 
gun.  It  is  kept  in  place  by  two  split  keep-pins  which 
work  in  a  groove  round  the  breech-screws.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  lever  and  tappet  arrangement  is  to  give  a 
powerful  momentum  in  tightening  up  and  releasing 
the  vent-piece  from  its  seat  in  the  gun. 

LEVER  SHEARING-MACHINE.— It  is  evident  that 
in  all  punching  or  shearing-machines,  driven  by  a 
belt,  there  must  be  a  conversion  of  the  rotary  motion 
of  the  driving  pulley  into  a  reciprocating  motion  of 
the  punch  or  shear  blade.  To  obtain  the  requisite 
power,  many  revolutions  of  the  driving  pulley  must 
occur  to  one  stroke  of  the  punch.  In  crank  machines, 
the  whole  pressure  of  the  cut  comes  directly  on  the 
crank  pin,  which  must  perform  a  good  portion  of  its 
revolution  under  this  heavy  strain  at  whatever  speed 
the  crank  shaft  mat'  be  running.  This  limits  the 
power  of  such  machines  to  the  practical  pressure 
sustainable  on  a  given  surface  at  a  given  velocity. 
When  the  vertical  slide  which  carries  the  punch  "is 
operated  by  a  lever,  the  .sliding  motion  of  the  part 
of  the  lever  in  contact  with  the  vertical  slide  is  al- 
most inappreciable  :  the  pressure  extends  over  large 
surface  with  little  motion;  so  with  the  fulcrum  pins 
over  which  the  lever  works ;  with  very  little  and 
very  slow  motion  of  these  parts  much  pressure  is 
admissible,  while  the  long  end  of  the  lever  is  operat- 


LEVER  SHEERS. 


202 


LEWIS-EICE  HAOAZHTE-OUN. 


ed  upon  by  the  lifting  cam  acting  under  compara- 
tively light  pressure.  Added  to  this  economical  use 
of  power,  with  the  very  greatly  diminished  friction- 
al  resistance,  comes  the  possibility  of  so  shaping  j 
the  cam  which  is  designed  to  lift  the  lever  as  to 
cause  the  motion  of  the  punch  to  be  about  uniform 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  stroke,  to  return 
quickly,  and  then  to  dwell  during  any  required  por- 
tion of  the  revolu'.ion  of  the  cam-shaft  at  the  top  of  \ 
its  stroke.  Therefore,  in  comparing  machines  using 
the  crank  or  eccentric  with  those  employing  the  lev- 
el and  cam,  if  in  both  cases  the  same  pulley,  belt, 
and  gearing  is  used,  running  at  the  same  rate  of 
speed,  and  making  the  same  length  of  stroke  at  the  1 
punch  or  shear  blade,  it  will  be  found  that  there  is  a 
capability  of  punching  larger  holes  or  of  shearing 
thicker  plates  when  the  cam  and  lever  are  used  than  ; 
when  the  crank  or  eccentric  is  employea.  On  the  ^ 
lever  punch  and  shears  is  arranged  a  four-toothed 
clutch  on  the  main  shaft,  to  be  used  in  stopping  and 
starting  the  plunger.  This  admits  of  quicker  work 
than  w^ien  the  cam  is  shifted  on  the  main  shaft.  The 
tail  end  of  the  lever  is  made  to  drop  on  a  block  of 
wood  held  in  a  box  at  the  back  of  the  machine,  and 
the  adjustment  of  the  length  of  block  to  limit  the 
fall  of  the  lever  enables  the  stroke  to  be  controlled, 
and  in  thin  metal  to  carry  the  punch  close  to  the 
plate  with  less  drop  than  when  thicker  iron  is  being 
punched,  so  obtaining  a  longer  dwell  for  setting  the 
plate. 

In  the  Seller's  machine,  the  heavy  wrought  iron 
lever  in  the  housing  easily  raises  the  blade  by  its 
own  gravity,  and  the  cam  which  moves  tlie  lever 
is  so  shaped  as  to  cause  the  motion  of  the  blade  in 
cutting  to  be  at  a  uniform  rate  of  speed.  Returning 
quickly  it  dwells  for  some  time  at  the  top  of  its 
stroke. thus  giving  ample  time  to  shift  the  plate  for  the 
next  cut.  In  the  earlier  machines,  the  lifting-cam  ' 
was  moved  sideways  from  under  the  lever  when  it 
was  desired  to  stop  the  machine.  This  could  only 
be  done  when  the  cam  was  free  from  pressure  at 
the  end  of  the  stroke,  and  in  starting  again  the  cam 
could  only  be  pushed  in  when  in  proper  position  in 
regard  to  the  lever.  The  cam  is  now  kept  in  posi- 
tion under  the  lever  and  is  attached  to  or  detached 
from  the  shaft  by  means  of  a  four-toothed  clutch, 
which,  while  it  can  only  be  withdrawn  at  the  com- 
pletion of  the  stroke,  yet  at  the  same  time  will 
permit  the  starting  again  to  be  effected  in  any  one 
of  four  positions  of  the  driving  wheel  in  relation  to 
the  cam,  thus  saving  much  time,  and  also  pre- 
venting the  damage  to  the  machine  likely  to  arise 
from  working  the  cam  only  partly  under  the  lever. 

Tlie  shear  blades  are  placed  so  as  to  he  right  for 
tiimming  edges  of  plates,  not  for  cutting  bar  iron. 
Operated  by  a  heavy  wrought  iron  lever  within  the 
housing.  Independent  stop  motion  by  means  of  a 
four-toothed  clutch  in  the  housing.  Blades  rest 
open  when  clutch  is  out  of  gear,  vertical  motion 
of  blades  li  inches.  Can  be  used  to  shear  plates  of 
iron  ^1  inch  thick.  Fast  and  loose  pulleys  on  the 
machine  36  inches  diameter,  7  inches  face,  which 
should  make  114  revolutions  per  minute.  See 
Angle  Shenring-inachine,Power  Shears,  and  Shearing- 
ma~hin.f. 

LEVER  SHEERS. — A  contrivance  consisting  of  a 
long. heavy  spar,  with  one  end  resting  on  the  ground, 
and  the  other  supported  on  two  short  spars,  crossed 
an<l  securely  lashed  together.  The  butt-end  of  the 
spar  is  heavily  weighted,  and  is  usually  sunk  a  little 
in  the  ground,  resting  against  a  board  or  slab  of 
wood,  to  prevent  the  earth  from  yielding  to  the  pres- 
sure of  the  force  acting  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the 
spar,  and  tending  to  force  the  end  of  it  into  the 
ground.  A  rear  guy  is  also  employed,  to  prevent 
short  cross  spars,  or  sheers,  from  falling  to  the  front. 
The  pressure  of  the  spar  or  lever  at  the  point  where 
the  sliort  spars  cross  prevents  them  from  incliningto 
the  rear. 

LEVET.— A  blast  of  ft  trumpet— probably  that  by 


whicn  soldiers  are  called  in  the  morning.     This  term 

is  now  obsolete. 

LEVIGATION.— A  process  of  the  laboratory  for  con- 
verting different  substances  to  a  smooth,  uniform 
powder  by  grinding  them  between  two  Hat  surfaces. 
The  same  process  essentially  is  used  in  grinding 
paints,  printing  inks,  and  drugs. 

LEVY. — Thecompulsory  raising  of  a  lot  of  troops 
from  any  specified  class  in  the  comnumity  for  pur- 
poses of  general  defense  or  offense.  When  a  country 
is  in  danger  of  instant  invasion,  a  levee  en  matue  is 
sometimes  made — i.  e.,  every  man  capable  of  bearing 
arms  is  required  to  contribute  in  person  towards  the 
common  defense.  On  less  urgent  occasions,  the  levy 
may  be  restricted  to  a  class,  as  to  men  between  18 
and  40  years  of  age.  At  other  times,  a  levy  of  so 
many  thousand  men  of  a  certain  age  is  decreed,  and 
the  districts  concerned  draw  them  by  lot  from  among 
their  eligible  male  population.  In  armies  sustained 
by  volunteering,  the  levy, which  is  a  remnant  of  bar- 
barous times,  is  unnecessra}' ;  but  the  system  was 
frequently  resorted  to  in  France  before"  the  enact- 
ment of  the  Conscription  Laws:  1862  has  shown  great 
levies  in  the  United  States  of  America ;  and  in 
any  country  where  great  danger  is  apparent,  and 
volunteers  are  not  suftioiently  numerous,  recour.se 
must  at  all  times,be  had  to  a  levy  of  the  people. 

LEWIS. — An  ingenious  mode  of  lifting  heavy 
weights.  It  consists  of  three  pieces  of  iron,  two  of 
them  wedge-shaped,  and  the  third  straight,  which, 
when  placed  together  with  the  straight  piece  in  the 
center,  form  a  dove-tailed  wedge.  Tlie  wedge  is  in- 
serted in  a  hole  of  similar  shape,  cut  either  in  stone 
or  in  metal.  To  the  end  of  each  of  the  pieces 
a  rin^is  attached,  throughw  hich  a  horse-shoe  ring 
is  passed,  and  to  this  the  rope  or  chain  is  securely 
fastened. 

LEWIS  HOLES.— The  holes,  in  which  the  shell- 
hooks  work  in  the  10-inch  and  13-inch,  mortar  shells. 
They  take  the  place  of  the  early  liign,  which  are  ob- 
jectionable because  of  being  knbced  off  in  trans- 
port or  piling. 

LEWIS-RICE  MAGAZINE-GUN.— This  gun  belongs 
to  that  system  in  which  a  fixed  chamber  is  closed 
by  a  moveable  breech-block  rotating  about  a  horizon- 
tal axis  at  right  angles  to  and  below  the  axis  of  the 
barrel ;  in  front,  the  lock  is  conaled.  The  breech- 
block is  operated  by  a  lever,  and  is  locked  by  a 
cam.  The  cam  is  held  in  position  by  a  spring, 
one  branch  of  which  serves  as  a  trigger-spring.  The 
breech-block  is  simply  a  box  containing  the  firing- 
pin,  a  bell  crank  lever,  one|arm  of  which  controls  the 
motion  of  the  firing-pin,  the  mainspring,  trigger- 
spring,  etc.  The  box  is  closed  by  a  cover,  in  a  slot 
in  which  is  situated  the  extractor.  In  operating  the 
lever,  so  as  to  open  the  block,  a  point  bears  against 
the  surface  of  the  cam,  presses  it  forward,  and  un- 
locks the  piece.  During  the  unlocking,  the  lower  arm 
of  the  firing-pin  lever  is  so  moved  by  the  nose  of  the 
cocking-lever  as  to  cause  the  upper  arm  to  retract 
the  firing-pin.  When  the  lever  has  been  rotated  suffi- 
ciently, the  trigger-spring  causes  the  nose  of  the  trig- 
ger to  enter  the  full-cock  notch  ;  at  the  same  time 
the  shoulder  of  the  cam  rides  over  the  point  of 
the  trigger.  The  piece  cannot  then  be  fired  until  the 
cam  isin  its  seat.  The  extractor  is  a  flat  blade, 
turning  on  the  same  axis  as  the  lever,  and  operated 
by  the  shoulders  of  the  slot  in  the  cover  of  the 
breech-block  in  which  it  lies.  The  magazine  is  in 
the  butt-stock.  It  is  lomied  at  the  siile,  near  the 
rear,  by  first  withdrawing  the  magazine-tube  nearly 
its  full  length.  When  the  breech-block  is  opened, 
a  cartridge  is  forced  by  the  magazine  spring  against 
the  cartridge-stop  As  the  block  is  closed,  the  stop 
descends,  due  to  its  arm  working  in  a  slot  on  the  in- 
ner surface  of  the  receiver,  and  the  cartridge  enters 
the  chamber.  A  fork  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
receiver  prevents  the  cartriilge  being  thrown  out 
when  tlie  block  is  eloped,  and  also  guides  it  into  the 
chamber.     A  cut-off  is  situated  on  the  left  side  of 


LETDEN  JAB. 


203 


LEYDEN  JAB. 


the  receiver.  It  may  be  ho  set  us  to  [irevenl  the 
breecli-bloek  openiiif!;  fur  enough  to  ill  low  (■iirl  riders 
to  feed  from  the  miin'"'n''-  1 ''e  picc'e  miiy  tlii'ii  he 
iiHed  us  a  sinj^le-loader.  As  a  manuzine  niiii.  li  mo. 
tioiis  are  neeessary  lo  operate  il,  viz.:  opened,  elo.sed, 
tired.  Ah  a  siiip;le-loailiT,  4  motions  are  neeessary, 
viz.  :  o]iened,  loailed,  clcjsed,  tired.  This  t;un  carries 
.*)  earljid^^cs  in  tin-  miiLCaziDr  and  one  in  the  eliamhrr. 
If  the  breech-bloek  be  opened,  liie  six  cartridges 
mtiy  be  loaded  directly  in  the  muguzitie.  See  Maga- 
tiiif-(/i/n. 

LEYDEN  JAR.-  The  ))rinclple  of  tlie  Leyden  jar 
was  discovered  by  Musciiciibroecli  at  licyden  in 
17-4.'),  In'nce  its  name,  (iralath.  in  (ierniany,  174(>, 
fonliinied  the  clcctri(t  lialtcrv  liy  combininfj;  a  series 
of  jars;  and  tinally  I)rs.  Watson  ami  Bevis,  by 
covering  the  ontside  of  tlie  jar  with  tinfoil,  lironght 
it  to  the  complete  stale  in  whieli  we  now  have  it. 
The  mouth  of  the  jar  is  generally  closed  by  a 
wooden  stopper,  through  wliicli  passes  the  stalk  of 
a  brass  knol>  or  ball,  surmounting  the  whole.  The 
couneetion  between  the  inside  coating  and  the  hall 
is  completed  by  a  cliain  e.vtending  from  the  stalk  to 
the  bottom  of  the  jar.  If  this  jar  be  jiut  on  au 
insulating  stool,  so  that  sparks  can  pass  from  the 
prime  conductor  of  a  machine  to  the  knob,  when 
tlie  jar  is  thus  insulated,  one  or  two  sparks  pass,  an<l 
then  tlie  charge  seems  complete,  for  no  more  sparks 
will  follow,  though  tlie  action  of  the  machine  is 
continued;  or  if  they  do,  they  are  immediately 
dissipated  from  the  knob  in  a  brush  discharge.  If 
then,  however,  the  knuckle  of  the  experimenter  lie 
brought  near  the  outer  coating,  sparks  begin  again 
to  pass  freel}' ;  and  for  every  spark  of  +  electricity 
that  passes  between  the  machine  and  the  knob,  a 
corresponding  spark  of  the  same  name  at  once 
passes  between  the  knuckle  and  the  outer  coating. 
This  continues  for  some  appreciable  lime,  and  then 
the  jar  apjiears  to  be  again  completely  saturated.  It 
is  now  said  to  be  fully  charged.  The  outside  of  the 
jar  can.  in  this  slate,  be  handled  freely,  and  if  it  be 
still  on  the  insulating  stool,  So  may  also  the  knob, 
although  when  the  hand  first  approaches,  it  receives 
a  slight  spark.  But  if,  when  the  e.\|)erimenter  lias 
one  hand  on  the  outer  coating,  lie  bring  the  other 
hand  lo  the  knob,  before  it  can  reach  it,  a  siraighl. 
highly  brilliant  spark  passes  between  the  knob  and 
his  hand,  and  he  experiences  a  shock  of  great  vio. 
lence.  If  he  try  the  same  Ihiug  again,  a  feeble  spark 
and  shock  again  ensue,  and  the  jar  is  now  thorough- 
ly discharged.  As  it  is  hi.glily  inconvenient,  if  not 
dangerous,  to  discharge  the  jar  through  tlie  body, 
discharging  totign  are  used  for  that  purpose,  which 
consist  of  two  brass  arms  ending  in  balls,  and  moved 
on  a  hinge  by  glass  handles. 

A  very  instructive  experiment  may  be  made  wlien 
the  coatings  are  fitted  to  the  jar  so  as  to  be  removed 
at  pleasure.  After  the  jar  is  charged,  it  is  put  on  an 
insulating  stand.  The  inside  coating  is  lifted  out  by 
the  knob,  and  a  slight  spark  is  got  by  the  hand  in 
doing  so.  The  jar  is  now  taken  up  by  one  hand, 
and  the  outside  coating  is  removed  l)y  tlie  other,  and, 
as  before,  another  feeble  spark  is  got.  The  whole 
is  now  built  up  in  inverse  order  and  discharg- 
ed, when  the  spark  is  nearly  as  brilliant  as  when 
it  is  discharged  at  once  witliout  such  dissection. 
From  this  it  may  be  positively  argued  that  the 
charge  of  the  jar  lies  in  the  glass  and  not  in  the  coat- 
ings, and  that  it  is  very  likely  that  in  all  cases  it  is 
in  the  dielectric  the  charge  resides ;  that  the  con- 
ductors, whicli  are  usuallj-  looked  upon  as  the  seat 
of  the  charge,  are  merely  tlie  limiting  surfaces  or 
exponents  of  it.  A  portion  of  the  total  charge  may 
reside  in  them,  but  no  more  than  is  found  on  two 
similar  contiguous  dielectric  surfaces.  Taking  this 
for  granted,  it  is  easy  to  explain  the  action  of  the 
Leyden  jar.  The  electrifying  power  of  the  charging 
machine  is  exerted  on  two  dielectrics— the  glass  ol 
the  jar  and  the  air — the  external  limit  in  both  cases 
being  tlie  surrounding  objects  which  constitute  the 


ground.  The  action  on  the  air  through  the  inside 
coaling  or  the  knoli  is  ipiile  similar  to  what  we  find 
in  the  case  of  any  body  lo  be  charged.  Tlie  action 
through  the  glass  is  peculiar,  because  we  are  shut 
out  from  it.  The  limits  of  this  action  are  the  inside 
KurfaccH  of  the  inside  and  outside  coatingH.  The 
air  charge  we  participiale  in  as  we  move  in  it.  \Ve 
are,  however,  ipiite  ixt<rnal  lo  the  action  on  the 
glass;  but  if  we  coulil  move  about  in  il  between  the 
coatings,  w(' should  find  things  there  exactly  similar, 
80  far,  at  least,  as  kind  of  action  is  c<jncerned,  lo 
what  we  find  in  charged  air.  Seeing  thai  the  glass 
of  th(?  jar  is  a  thin  and  good  dielectric,  and  the  air 
much  thicker  and  more  difhcull  to  polarity,  the 
chargitig  power  of  the  macliine  is  exi-rtcd  for  the 
most  ]iart  in  the  glass,  the  [lolarilication  in  the  air 
being  comiiaratively  slight.  A.ssuming  electricity  to 
be  a  polarilication  of  molecules,  the  electricity  of  the 
jar  resides  Ihus  in  glass,  and  to  a  much  less  extent 
in  the  air.  The  potential  at  the  inner  coaling  is  the 
same  as  that  at  the  knob,  for  any  connected  system 
of  good  conductors  must  be  at  the  same  potential.  We 
judge  of  potential  bjjihe  air  charge,  and  thus  we  take 
the  potential  at  the  knob  as  the  ])oteiilial  at  the  inner 
coating.  The  spark  got  from  the  knob  of  the  insulat- 
ed jar  is  small  compared  with  that  of  the  charging 
machine, and  as  sparking  distance  is,  generally  speak- 
ing, proportional  lo  potential,  the  potentialof  the  jar  is 
much  below  that  of  the  charging  machine.  Thus, 
a  Lei/dtn  jar  is  a  (•ontrivaniu-  fur  acfumnlating  large, 
quanlitieH  of  eUctriciti/ at  a  lor  potential.  The  thin- 
ner the  glass,  the  greater  will  be  llie  accumulation 
of  electricity,  but  the  feebler  will  he  the  potential 
of  the  jar.  When  the  electric  field  is  limited,  as  in 
the  glass  of  the  Leyden  jar,  it  is  s(mietimes  said  to 
be  bound,  as  distinguished  from  the  fref  charge  of 
an  ordinary  air  field.  When  the  knob  of  Iheinsu- 
lated  jar  is  touched,  a  spark  is  got.  and  if  the  finger 
be  then  removed  to  the  outer  coating,  another  spark, 
but  of  the  ojiposite  name,  is  obtained,  and  the  knob 
is  again  prepared  to  give  a  spark,  and  this  alternat- 
ing process  may  be  continued  till  the  jar  is  emptied. 
Wien  the  inner  coaling  is  touched,  the  outer  coat- 
ing becomes  insulated,  and  Ihus  the  potential  alwaj-s 
shifts  to  the  insulated  coating  with  an  opposite 
name  lo  what  it  had  before,  tach  spark  olitained 
by  the  finger  in  going  from  one  to  the  other  con- 
sumes so  much  of  the  energy  of  the  charge,  and  so 
the  potential  is  gradually  lowered.  Whcnlhe  jar  is 
discharged  liy  the  tongs,  the  charge  of  the  dielectric 
glass  is  thrown  into  the  dielectric  air.  The  particles 
of  the  glass,  though  more  easily  electrified  than 
those  of  air.  having  a  higher  specific  inductive  ca- 
pacity, offer  a  much  greater  resistance  to  discharge 
than  those  of  air.  At  the  same  stase  of  polarilica- 
tion, the  air  gives  way,  while  the  ^lass  still  keeps 
polaritied.  I  fence  a  jar  with  glass  "only  a  fraction 
of  an  inch  in  thickness  can  give  rise  lo  an  air-spark 
of  several  inches;  besides  this,  the  charge  in  the 
glass  is  somewhat  uniformly  distribuledT  In  the 
air,  with  the  tongs,  the  force  of  the  charge  is  con- 
centrated on  a  certain  region  of  il,  and  the  breakin<T 
down  of  the  conductive  resistance  of  the  air  is  more 
easily  effected.  The  feelile  residual  spark  from  the 
jar,  after  the  first  main  discharge,  is  due  to  what  is 
called  electric  absorption.  Somehow,  the  electricity 
given  to  a  dielectric  is  not  immediately  available 
when  a  circuit  is  offered,  the  dielectric  taking  some 
lime  to  recover  itself.  This  is  observable  in  all  solid 
dielectrics,  but  no  trace  of  such  action  is  found  in 
air.  The  sparking  or  xtriking  distance  of  the  jar  in- 
dicates the  potendal  of  the  charge.  The  quantity 
may  be  measured  by  the  turns  of  the  charging 
machine.  It  is  found  that  when  the  same  quantity 
is  given  ;io  two  jars,  one  double  the  other  in  point 
of  covered  surface,  the  striking  distance  of  the  large 
jar  Js  only  half  that  of  the  small  jar ;  and  that  to 
charge  the  large  one  so  as  lo  obtain  the  same  length 
of  spark,  twice  the  quantity  must  be  given.  If  two 
jars  be  taken  of  the  same  size,   and  one  of  them  be 


UBEETY,  EQUALITT,  FRATEENITT. 


204 


LIEUTENANT  COLONEL. 


charged,  we  finil  that,  on  connecting  their  outside 
coatings,  a  spark  passes  wlieu  their  l^nobs  are 
brought  together,  and  that,  wlien  now  the  double 
jar  is  discharged,  the  spark  is  onlj'  half  as  long  as 
was  got  from  the  single  jar  discharged  directly. 
The  quantity  discharged  finally  in  the  double  jar 
was  the  same  as  in  the  single  jar.  but  the  potential 
was  half.  The  spark  occurring  at  the  participation 
of  the  charge  accounts  for  the  loss  of  potential  For 
great  power,  large  surfaces  are  necessary.  This  can 
be  obtained  either  by  constructing  a  large  jar,  or  by 
uniting  several  small  jars  together  so  as  to  act  as  one. 
The  latter  method  is  preferable,  as  we  can  vary  the 
surface  according  to  the  number  of  jars  employed. 


A  combination  of  small  jars  united  together  as  one 
is  called  an  electric  battery.  A  very  convenient  form 
of  electric  battery  is  shown  in  the  drawing.  The 
knobs  of  each  jar  communicate  with  a  large  central 
one  b_y  arms  of  brass  moving  on  hinges,  and  the 
outer  coatings  are  put  in  a  conducting  connection, 
by  being  placed  on  an  insulated  stool  covered  with 
tinfoil.  The  interior  coatings  are  conveniently 
charged  by  a  long  projecting  arm  from  the  central 
knob,  and  the  exterior  ones  by  connecting  the  stool 
with  the  knob  of  the  unit  jar.  or  by  a  wire  with  the 
ground.  Any  jar  can  be  throvvn  out  of  action  by 
throwing  back  its  arm.     See  Elertririty. 

LIBERTY,  EQUALITT,  FRATERNITT.— For  nearly 
a  century,  these  three  words  have  been  accepted  as 
embodying  the  creed  of  those  who  maintain  the 
rightful  supremacy  of  the  numerical  majority;  and 
they  have  been  sounded  as  the  watchword  of  that 
formidable  movement  known  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe  as  "Tlie  Revolution."  of  which  the  object  was 
to  assert  this  supremacy  by  overturning  the  existing 
fabric  of  society.  When  contrasted  with  the  demo- 
cratic creed  of  antiquity,  the  only  novelty  which  the 
modern  symbol  exhibits  consists  in  the  proclamation 
of  "  Equality ;"  for  "  Liberty,"  in  the  widest  sense — 
meaning  thereby  the  ultimate  extension  of  political 
power  to  the  whole  body  of  the  citizens — has  been 
the  object  of  the  most  enlightened  politicians  of  all 
ages;  whilst  the  protest  in  favor  of  "  Fraternity  "  is 
a  mere  sentimental  commonplace,  about  the  specu- 
lative soundness  of  which  there  never  was  any  real 
difTerence  of  opinions. 

The  first  state  document  of  importance  in  which 
the  doctrine  of  "  Equality"  is  set  forth  is  the  Ameri- 
can Declaration  of  Independence  of  July  4,17T().  This 
celebrated  document  proceeds  thus:  "We  hold 
these  truths  to  be  self-evident :  that  all  Men  are  mat- 
ed Kpial;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator 
witli  certain  unalienable  riglits;  that  among  tliese are 
life,  liberty,  and  the  |)ursuit  of  happiness,"  etc. 
This,  as  we  liave  said,  was  in  177G.  Hut  as  a  specu- 
lative opinion,  the  doctrine  of  "Equality"  had  been 
proilaimed  by  Hobbes  more  than  a  century  before, 
and  from  his  lime  down  to  the  period  at  which  it 
thus  received  practical  recognition,  it  had  never 
been  lost  sight  of  by  the  class  of  speculiilors  to 
which  Ilobbes belonged.     Under  different  forms  and 


from  various  points  of  view,  it  had  been  reasserted 
by  Spinosa,  Rousseau.  Helvetius,  and  ultimately  by 
^  the  class  of  political  declaimers  whose  works  were 
simultaneous  with  the  American,  and  immediately 
proceeded  the  French  Revolution. 
j      LIBRARIES — Military  Libraries  are  either  garrison 
I  or  regimental.      The  former  comprise  large  collec 
tions  of  books, with  newspapers,  games, lectures,  etc., 
j  in  commodious  rooms,  and  are  Intended  to  win  sol- 
diers from  the  gin-shops  and  vicious  haunts  which 
I  are  ever  prevalent  in  garrison  towns.     Attempts  liave 
been  made  to  provide  the  soldiers  with  books,  both 
for  instruction  and  amusement;  but  statistics  prove 
that  the  men  patronize  few   liesides  fiction  and  trav- 
els,   and  religious   books,  not  at  all.       Regimental 
Libraries  are  smaller  collections  of  books, which  ac- 
company   regiments  in   their  various   movements. 
The    charge'for  Military  Libraries   in   the  British 
Army  wasT  for  1870-77.  the  sum  of  £4,085. 

LICORNE — An  improved  howitzer  introduced  by 
tlie  Russians  in  1777.  Short,  light  cannon  intented 
to  throw  large  projectiles  with  comparative  small 
charges  were  used  by  the  Dutch  in  the  early  part  of 
the  17th  century  and  came  into  almo.st  general  use 
during  that  century,  prior  to  the  introduction  of  the 
lii'itrne.     See  Ilmmtzer. 

LICTORS.— Among  the  Romans,  the  official  attend- 
ants of  Magistrates  of  the  highest  rank.  They  car- 
ried the  fnsce»  before  the  Magistrates,  clearing  the 
way,  and  enforcing  the  use  of  the  appropriate  niarks 
of  respect.  It  was  their  duty  to  execute  the  punish- 
ments ordered  by  the  Magistrates,  such  as  scourging 
with  rods  and  beheading.  They  were  originally  free 
men  of  the  plebeian  order,  [and  not  till  the  time  of 
Tacitus  could  the  office  beheld  by  freedmen.  Slaves 
were  never  appointed  Lictors. 

LISE. — A  warlike  machine  which  was  formerly 
used  to  throw  large  stones  against  a  fortified  place, or 
upon  an  enemy. 

LIEUTENANT.— A  term  applied  to  a  variety  of  offi- 
ces of  a  representative  kind.  Thus,  in  military  mat- 
ters, a  Lieutenant-general  personates  with  each  div- 
ision of  an  army  the  Geueral-in-Chief.  A  Lieutenant- 
^ofonf?  commands  a  battalion  for  a  Colonel  in  the 
latter's  absence.  But  the  title  Lieutenant,  without 
qualification,  denotes  the  second  officer  and  deputy, 
or  locum-t^nen/i,  of  the  Captain  in  each  company  of 
cavalry  or  infantry.  A  Lieutenant  in  the  British  Foot- 
Guards  ranks  as  Captain  inthe  Army, and  exchanges 
with  a  Captain  in  another  regiment.  Captain-lieu- 
tenant,  an  obsolete  rank,  was  the  .subaltern  who  com- 
manded the  "  Colonel's  Company  "  in  each  regiment. 
— A  Secand  Lieutenant  is  the  junior  subaltern  of  a 
company,  and  corresponds  to  what  formerly  was  an 
Ensign.  In  the  United  States  Army  and  Marine  Ser- 
vice, the  Lieutenant  ranks  next  after  the  Captain  and 
there  are  two  grades.  First  and  Second  Lieutenant, 
the  latter  being  the  lowest  commissioned  officer. 
These  grades  rank  with  those  of  Master  and  Ensign 
in  the  United  States  Navy. 

In  the  British  Navy,  Lieutenant  is  a  misnomer  in 
the  case  of  the  officer  bearing  that  title.  His  func- 
tions in  all  respects  correspond  to  those  of  a  Captain 
in  the  Army,  with  whom  he  ranks,  and  with  whom 
he  also  nearly  matches  in  regard  to  pa)'.  A  Lieuten- 
ant's full  pay  is  10s.  a  day ;  and  his  half-pay  ranges, 
according  to  length  of  services,  from  4s.  to  7s.  a  day. 
Six  jears'  service  afloat  are  requisite  to  qualify  an 
officer  for  the  rank  of  Lieutenant,  and  the  candidate 
has  also  to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  in  sea- 
manship  and  general  professional  knowledge.  As 
leaders  in  all  minor  enterprises,  such  as  boat  expedi- 
tions, culling  out. etc.  Lieutenants  in  war  time  carry- 
off  most  of  tile  laurels  awarded  to  actions  of  singular 
personal  daring. 

LIEUTENANT  COLONEL.- The  rank  in  the  United 
Stales  Army  next  atiove  Miijor  anil  next  below 
Colonel,  anci  answering  lo  lliat  of  Commander  in 
the  Navy.  In  the  British  Army  it  is  nominally  the 
second  officer  in  a  regiment  ;  but  virfially  a  Lieu- 


LIEUTENANT  DE  LA  COLONELLE. 


205 


LIFE  SAVING  ROCKETS. 


temint-colonel  commands  every  Itiitlalion  of  infan- 
try and  rcf^inir'nl  of  eavalry.llie  |)0»l  of  Colonel  liiMni; 
merely  iin  liiinorable  Hineeiire,  with  MMually  t'l.OOO 
a  j'ear  allaelied,  awarded  to  some  (ieneral  Ollicer. 
The  Ijieulenant-coloiiel  is  responsil)le  for  Die  dis- 
cipline of  his  l)attali<in,  tlie  comfort  of  his  men,  and 
ultimately  for  every  detail  comiccted  with  their 
organization.  He  is  assisted  hy  the  Major  and 
Adjiitanl.  In  the  artillery  and  eni^dneers,  where  the 
rank  of  Colonel  is  a  sidislanlive  rank,  with  lanu'ilile 
rei;imenlal  duties,  all  the  functions  of  Mculenanl- 
Colonel  are  more  limited,  one  having;  eharire  of 
every  two  halt<'ries  of  artillery,  or  two  companies  of 
en';rineers.  The  pay  of  a  Mi'Ulcnanl-colonel  varicK 
i.'l.  '.Is.  2(1.  per  diem  in  the  Household  Cavalry  to  17s, 
in  the  Infantry  of  the  Line.  Five  years'  rcfrimental 
service  as  Lieutenant-colonel  enlilles  an  ollicer  to 
hrevet  rank  as  Colonel,  wlii<h.  while  im]irovin);  his 
position  in  the  Army,  docs  not.  however,  affect  his 
status  in  his  re!;iment. 

LIEUTENANT  GENERAL.— In  the  United  States 
army  the  rank  mxt  heneath  that  of  General;  the  latter 
under  the  President,  bcin>;  Connnandcr-in-Chicf. 
It  was  tirst  authorized  by  Congress  in  ITIIH,  and  be- 
stowed upon  General  Washinj^ton,  in  view  of  the 
then  anticipated  war  with  France.  After  Washini;- 
ton's  death  the  rank  remained  in  abeyance  until 
18.')i5,whcn  it  was  revived  (in  brevet)  by  ^.!on(j:res8  for 
General  Winfield  Scott,  at  whose  deatli  it  again 
lapsed.  In  18C4  it  was  again  revived  by  special  Act, 
and  conferred  on  General  U.  S.  Grant,  on  whose  pro- 
motion by  the  creation  of  the  grade  of  General  in 
his  behalf.  Major  General  William  T.  Sherman  be- 
came Lieutenant  General  ;  and,  on  his  succession  to 
the  rank  of  General,  Major  General  I'hilip  II.  Sher- 
idan was  promoted  to  be  Lieutenant  General,  and  so 
reuMuns  until  the  present  time,  1884.  See  General 
Officer. 

LIEUTENANT  DE  LA  COLONELLE.— The  Second 
Otlicer.  or  what  was  formerly  styled  the  Captain- 
Uentiniint  of  the  Colonel's  C'ompany  of  every  in- 
fantry regiment  in  France.     See  Lienteniint. 

LIEUTENANT  DU  ROI.— During  the  Monarchy  of 
France  there  was  a  Deputy  Governor  in  every  forti- 
fied place, or  strong  town, who  commandeil  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  Governor, and  wdio  was  a  check  vipon  his 
conduct  when  present.  This  same  person  was  called 
Lieutenant  du  Hoi.  Lieutena/iti  den  Garden  Fran- 
ca'xe.i  et  Siii.tnes  bore  the  rank  of  Lieutenant-colonel, 
and  took  precedence  of  all  Captains.  Lieutenants 
Proi-incifiux  d" Artillerie  were  certain  officers  belong- 
ing to  the  old  Erench  service,  and  immediately  at- 
tached to  the  artillery,  who  bore  the  title  or  name  of 
the  particular  Province  in  which  they  were  stationed. 
Several  of  these  Lieutenants, who  had  military  employ 
ment  under  the  Board  of  Ordnance  received  the 
rank  of  Lieutenant-general  in  the  Army  from  the 
Kinir.  and  could  rise  to  the  most  exalted  stations. 

LIFE  GUARDS.— The  mounted  body-guard  of  the 
Sovereign.  In  the  British  Army  there  are  two  corps 
BO  designated.  They  never  leave  the  country  except 
in  a  verj"  great  emergency.  These  regiments  were 
engag<Hi  in  the  Peninsula,  and  were  present  at  the 
liattle  of  Waterloo,  where  they  greatly  distinguished 
themselves.  The  two  regiments  of  Life  Guards  wear 
a  cuirass  over  a  scarlet  tunic.  Their  headpiece  is  a 
steel  helmet.  Tlie  remainder  of  their  dress  consists 
of  leather  breeches,  long  gauntlets,  and  jack-boots. 
Their  weapons  are  the  sword  and  the  carbine.  See 
GuardK. 

LIFE  OF  PIECE. — An  expression  denoting  the 
Icngtli  or  time  or  the  number  of  rounds  a  piece  of 
ordnance  will  stand  before  it  becimics  unservice- 
able. This  is  estimated  in  smooth-bore  ordnance  at 
from  1.000  to  1.200  rounds  with  service  charge  and 
one  sliot.  Experience,  however,  has  shown  that  it 
is  not  so  much  the  number  of  rounds  fired  which 
destroys  a  gun  as  tlie  high  elevation  given  to  it  to 
obtain  extensive  range.  Guns  tired  horizontally,  or 
at   no   greater   elevation  than  .'i'^  or  6^.  do  not  ex- 


perience the  great  strain   whicli  a  gun  fir<-d  at  .'iO" 
would,  and  the  reason   is  obvious,  as  guns  firi'd  at 
a  low  elevation   recoil   in   proiiorlion  to  the  relative 
weight    and    friction    of    the    projectile  ;     whereas, 
when  elevated    to   ^iO",  the-   gun  cannot  recoil,  the 
force,    therefore,    is  exerted    downwards,    and    the 
L'un  impinges  on  itsstipporl,  whicli  is  comparatively 
iiMiniivalile  ;  thus  the  force  which   displaced  the  gun 
ill    the    tirst   instance  is  now    exerted  on   the  sides  of 
the  gun.     The  initial  velocity  is  also  increased  with 
the  angle   of  jirojection,    which  (-auseH  the  shot   to 
press  more  upon  the  charge  and  thus  to  increase  the 
resistance    of     the   exjiansion   of    the   gases.     This 
increased  resistance  also  adds  to  the  strain  upon  the 
gun.     Suflicient   experic-iice  has  not  yet  been  had  of 
rilled  guns  to  state  what  number  of  rounds  the  dilTer- 
ent   classes  of  such   ordnance  can  bi-ar,  but  it   may 
be  inferred  that  their  endurance  will  be  considerable. 
LIFE  ROCKET  DEPARTMENT,-  That  branch  of  t  he 
Marine  Department  of  the-  liourd  of  Trade  which  has 
thcnianagement  of  life-rockets,  mortars,  lines,  buoys, 
and  belts,  divides  with  the  National   Life-boat  Insti- 
tution the  laborsconnected   with   the   prevention   of 
shiiiwreck,  and  the  rescue  of  shipwrecki-d  persons. 
This  has  been  the  arrangement  since   18.').').      Until 
that  year  the  life-mortars  in  use  were  partly   under 
the  control  of  the  Admiralty,  sometimes    under  the 
Board  of  Customs,  partly  under  the  Institution  just 
named,  and  partly  belonging  to  private  individuals. 
The  Merchant  Shipping  Act,  passed  in  18.')4.  and  put 
in  force  the  following  year,  placed  the  whole  under 
a  different  organization.     To  work  out  properly  the 
rocket  and   life-saving  system,   a  topographical  or- 
ganization is  in  the  tirst  instance  adopted.  The  coasts 
of  the  United  Kingdom  are  classified  into  59  coast- 
guard divisions  or  wreck  registrars'  districts:  and 
the  coast-guard  Inspector  of  each  division  or  district 
has  control  over  all  the  rockets,  mortars,  buoys,  belts, 
and  lines  kept  at  the  various  seaside  stations  in  his 
district.  There  were  in  1874  about  300  such  stations; 
some  supplied  with  mortars,  some  witli  rockets  as 
well  as  mortars,  but  the  greater  number  witli  rock- 
ets only.     Most  of  the  mortars  are  Boxer's  improve- 
ment on  Manby's  ;  and  most  of  the  rockets  are  Box- 
er's improvement  on  Dennett's.      Boxer's   rockets, 
found  more  effective  than  mortars,  are  made  at  the 
Royal  Labratory,  at  Woolwich,  and  are  supplied  by 
the  War  Department  to  the  stations,  on  requisition 
from  the  Board  of  Trade ;  as  are  likewise  mortar- 
shot   and   shell,   fuses,  portfires,   signal-lights,  gun- 
powder, etc.    At  each  station  is  kept  a  cart,  express- 
ly made  to  contain  all  the  requisites  for  the  rocket 
apparatus,  read}'  packed.     Eighteen  rockets  are  sup- 
plied with  each  apparatus ;  and  a  new  supply  is  ob- 
tained before  these  are  exhausted.       Between  1874 
and  1880,  the  system  has  extended  year  by  year  in 
the  number  of  stations  and  of  men;  but  while  the 
details  of  organization  have  changed,  no  new  princi- 
ple has  been  introduced.      Simlper  apparatus,  con- 
sisting of  life-belts  and   life-lines,  is  kept  at  a  much 
greater  number  of  stations.      The  system  is  worked 
by  the  coast-guard,  the  men  being  paid  for  period- 
ical drilling,  and  for  regular  service.      Special  ser- 
vices are  rewarded  with  uifts  of  money,  medals,  etc. 
LIFE-SAVING  ROCKETS.— When  a  life-boat  is  not 
at  hand,  or  a  raging  sea  and  a  shoal  coast  renders  its 
use  impracticable,  a  distressed  ship  may  often  re- 
ceive help  from  shore,   provided  the  distance  be  not 
too  great  for  the  throwing  of  a  rope.     A  small  ropo 
may  draw  a   thicker,  and  that  a  hawser,    and  the 
hawser  may  sustain  a  slinging  apparatus  for  bringing 
the  crew  on  shore.     For  short  distances.   Captain 
[  Ward's  hearing-stick   has  been    found  useful :    it  is 
I  simply  a  piece  of  stout  cane  about  2  ft.  long,  loaded 
at  one  end  with  2  pounds  of  lead,  and  at  the  other 
Send  is  securely  attached  to  a  thin  line.    It  is  whirled 
round  vertically  some  2  or  3  times,  and  then  let  go  ; 
j  but  it  cannot  be  relied  on  for  more  than  .50  ^ards. 
Kites  of  various  kinds  have  been  employed,  but  are 
not  found  to  be  certain  enough  inaction.    The  tiring 


IITTING  JACK. 


20G 


LIFTIHG  JACK 


by  gunpowder  of  some  kind  of  missile,  with  a  line  of 
rope  attached  (o  it,  is  the  method  which  has  been 
attended  with  most  success.  In  17!)1  Sergeant  Bell, 
of  tlie  Royal  Artillery  devised  a  mode  of  tiring  a  shot 
and  line  from  a  distressed  ship  to  the  shore.  It  was 
afterwards  found  to  be  more  practically  useful  to 
fire  from  the  shore  to  the  ship.  In  1807  Captain 
Manby  invented  his  lifi'-iiu.n-tar,  an  ordinary  5^  in. 
24-pounder  coehorn, fixed  at  a  certain  angle  in  a  thick 
block  of  wood.  The  missile  discharged  from  it  was 
a  shot  with  curved  barl)S,  something  like  the  flukes 
of  an  anchor,  to  -catch  hold  of  the  rigging  or  bul- 
warks of  a  ship.  How  to  fasten  the  sliot  to  the  rope 
was  at  first  a  difficulty  :  cha'.ns  were  not  found  to 
answer  :  but  at  length  strips  of  raw-hide  were 
found  suitable.  To  assist  in  descr3-ing  the  exact  po- 
sition of  a  distressed  ship  on  a  dark  night. in  order  to 
aim  the  mortar-rope  correctly.  Manby  used  a  chem- 
ical composition  as  a  firework,  which  would  shine 
out  in  lirilliant  stars  when  it  had  risen  to  a  certain 
height.  A  third  contrivance  of  his  for  replacing 
the  shot  by  a  shell  filled  with  combustibles,  in  order 
to  produce  a  bright  light  which  would  render  the 
rope  visible  to  the  crew,  was  not  so  successful. 

Many  variations  have  been  made  in  the  line- 
throwing  apparatus.  Colonel  Boxer  has  recently 
substituted  a  hidt  for  the  shot,  with  four  holes  at  the 
end  ;  fuses  thrust  into  these  holes  shed  a  light  which 
marks  the  passage  of  the  bolt  through  the  air.  Tren- 
grove's  rocket-apparatus,  invented  in  1821,  consisted 
of  an  ordinary  8-oz.  sky-rocket.  Certain  practical 
difliculties,  liowever,  affected  it.  and  it  did  not  come 
much  into  use.  In  1832  Dennett's  apparatus  was  in- 
vented. It  nearly  resembled  the  old  sky-rocket,  but 
with  an  iron  case  instead  of  a  paper  one,  and  a  pole 
8ft.  long  instead  of  a  mere  stick  ;  it  weighed  23  lbs., 
was  propelled  liy  9  lbs.  of  composition,  and  had  a 
range  of  350  yards.  A  ship's  crew  having  been  sav- 
ed by  the  aid  of  this  rocket  at  Bembridge,  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  the  Board  of  Customs  caused  man}-  of 
the  coast  guard  stations  to  be  supplied  with  the  ap- 
paratus in  1834.  Carte's  apparatus,  brought  for- 
ward in  1842,  depended  on  the  use  of  a  Congrevc 
rocket  instead  of  an  ordinary  sky-rocket.  It  does 
not  appear  that  this  apparatus  was  ever  adopted  b}- 
the  authorities.  Mr.  Dennett  next  sought  toimprove 
the  power  of  his  apparatus  by  placing  two  rockets 
side  by  side,  attached  to  the  same  stick  ;  and  it  cer- 
tainly did  increase  the  range  to  400  yards ;  but  as  the 
simultaneous  and  equal  action  of  the  rockets  could 
not  be  always  insured,  the  scheme  was  abandoned. 
Colonel  Delvigne,  of  the  French  army,  invented  a 
life-arrnir,  to  be  fired  from  an  ordinary  musket.  It 
is  a  stick  of  mahogany,  shaped  like  a  billiard-cue; 
the  thicker  end  presses  on  the  powder;  while  the 
thinner  end.  loade<l  with  lead,  is  fitted  with  loops  of 
string  ;  a  line  or  thin  rope  is  attached  to  the  loops, 
and  the  thin  end  of  the  stick  projects  beyond  the 
barrel.  The  jerk,  when  the  arrow  or  stick  is  fired, 
causes  the  loops  to  run  down  the  stick  to  the  thick 
end;  this  action  has  an  effect  like  that  of  a  spring, 
preventing  the  stick  from  dartinit  forward  so  sud- 
denly as  to  .snap  the  line.  The  apparatus  will  send 
an  arrow  of  18  oz,  to  a  distance  of  80  yards,  with  a 
mackerel  line  attached.  Another  French  contriv- 
ance, Trcmlilay's  rocket  with  a  barbed  head,  was 
soon  adopted  for  the  Emperor's  yacht ;  but  as  it  is 
to  be  fired  from  the  sliiji  to  the  shore,  it  partakes  of 
the  same  defects  as  Sergeant  Bell's  original  inven- 
tion. The  most  effective  apparatus  yet  invented  is 
Colonel  Boxer's.  Finding  that  Dennett's  parallel 
rockets  on  one  stick  do  not  work  well,  he  succeeded 
after  many  trials  in  a  mode  of  placing  two  rockets 
in  one  tube,  one  behind  the  other.  The  head  is  of 
liard  wood;  there  is  a  wrought-iron  case,  with  a 
partition  l)etween  the  two  rockets.  When  fired,  the 
foremost  rocket  carries  the  case  and  the  attached 
line  to  its  maximum  distance,  and  the  rearmost 
rocket  then  gives  these  a  further  impetus.  The  ef- 
fect is  found  to  be  greater  than  if  the  two  rockets 


i  wt  re  placed  side  by  side,  and  also  greater  than  if  the 

quantity  of  composition  for  the  two   rockets  were 

[  made   up   into   one  of  larger  size.      The  rocket  is 

1  fired  from  a  triangular  stand,  and  is  lighted  hy  fuse, 
port-fire,  or  percussion-tube  ;  tlie  elevation  is  deter- 
mined by  a  quadrant  or  some  similar  instrument. 

Tlie  lines  used  with  these  several  projectiles  have 
varied  greatly;  but  the  best  is  found  to  be  Italian 
hemp,  spun  loosel}'.  It  is  very  elastic,  and  when 
thick  enough  for  the  purpose,  500  yds.  weigh  46  lbs. 
In  Boxer's  rocket,  the  line  passes  through  tlie  tail  of 
the  stick,  then  through  the  head,  where  it  is  tied  in 
a  knot,  with  India-rubber  washers  or  buffers  to  les- 
sen the  jerk.  The  line  is  carefully  wound  on  a  reel, 
or  coiled  in  a  tub.  or  faked  in  a  box  provided  with 
pins  ranged  round  the  interior— to  enable  the  line  to 
run  out  quickly  without  kinking  or  entangling. 
Dennet's  faking-box  for  this  purpose  is  the  one  now 
generally  adopted. 

Life-belts,  jackets,  and  buoys  of  various  kinds  are 
used,  made  of  cork,  inflated  India-rubber,  etc. ;  but 
one  apparatus  now  employed  in  conjunctitm  with 
the  life-rockets  is  know-n  by  the  curious  name  of 
petticoat-hreeclies.  or  more  simply,  xlhig  life-bui>y.  It 
is  not  strictly  either  a  belt  or  a  buoy,  but  a  garment 
in  which  a  man  may  be  slung  clear  out  of  the  water. 
When  a  rocket  has  been  fired,  and  a  line  has  reached 
the  distressed  ship,  signals  are  exchanged  between 
the  ship  and  the  shore;  a  thicker  rope  is  pulled  over 
the  ship  by  means  of  the  line,  and  a  hawser  by 
means  of  the  rope.  When  all  is  stretched  taut  by 
fastening  to  the  masts,  etc.,  anv  articles  can  be  read- 
ily slung  and  drawn  to  and  fro.  The  petticoat-breech- 
es,was  originally  invented  by  Lieutenant  Kisbee,  and 
consists  of  a  circular  cork  life-lnioy  forming  the  top 
ring  of  a  pair  of  canvas  breeches ;  one  of  these  is 
hauled  over  from  the  shore  to  the  ship;  a  man  gets 
into  it,  his  legs  protruding  below  the  breeches,  and 
his  armpits  resting  on  the  buoy;  and  he  is  hauled 
ashore  by  block-tackle.  The  crew  of  a  wrecked  ship 
can  thus  one  by  one  be  relieved.  To  prevent  losing 
the  hawser  and  other  apparatus,  when  the  last  man 
has  left  the  ship,  an  apparatus  called  a  hawser-cutter 
is  used  working  in  the  ship,  but  worked  from  the 
shore. 

After  the  destruction  of  the  Northfleet  in  18T3,  off 
Dungeness,  an  exhibition  was  organized  at  the  Lon- 
don Tavern,  to  which  the  inventors  of  new  life-sav- 
ing appliances  were  invited  to  contribute.  Among 
the  apparatus  were  Hurst's  lifi-raft.  consisting  of  a 
double  pontoon,  bridged  over,  stowed  outside  a  ship, 
and  lowered  by  simply  cutting  the  lashings;  Christie's 
life-raft,  a  large,  rectanguliir  framework,  rendered 
buoyant  by  numerous  air-tight  spaces, some  of  wliich 
are  available  for  stowing  water  and  provisions;  and 
Parrott's  tuhulnr  life-rnft,  composed  of  c\'lindrical 
air-bags  made  of  painted  canvas,  supporting  a  floor- 
ing of  sail-cloth  and  netting,  and  rendered  rigid  by 
poles  fixed  in  various  directions.  JIany  other  novelties 
were  displayed  at  the  London  Tavern,  and  also  at  a 
similar  collection  in  tlie  annuiil  International  Exhi- 
bition, in  the  forms  ot  life-boats,  rafts,  garments, 
belts,  buoys,  etc.  See  Aw-hirr-mcket,  licxrlJfe- 
suxing  Rocket,  Chandlfr  Anrhiyr-ihot,  Delvigne  Life- 
saving  Oun,  German.  Life-saving  Horket,  Hooper 
Life-saving  Rocket.  Hunt  Life-saving  Rockets.  I^yle- 
Kmery  Grapple-s/iot.  Manby  Shot,  Parrptt  IJfe-sav. 
ing  Mortar.  Rockets.  Russian  LJfe-saving  Rocket. Shot- 
lines.  !ind  Signal  Rocket. 

LIFTING  JACK. — A  geared  screw,  with  a  project- 
ing fool  or  hook  at  its  lower  end,  for  lifting  heavy 
weights.  This  jack. as  used  at  military  posts. consists 
of  the  following  detailed  parts;  1  beil:  1  handle;  2  ri- 
ret-bolts  No.  3  A,   to  strengthen  the  bed;  4  ira»bers; 

2  mits;  2 eye-plates  for  the  braces,  let  int<i  tlie  ends 
of  the  bed,  and  fastened  by  4  sereirs.  3  inch,  and  1 
.<,creir,\  inch.  No.  U!;  1  .itaml  (cast-iron);  isteadying- 
points.ncTvvicd  into  the  bottom  of  the  stand;  3  bra- 
ces, fastened  to  the  stand  at  the  upper  end  by  2  bolts 
No.  2;  1  screw,  eaine  size  and  pitch  as  the  elevating 


XIOHT. 


207 


LIQKZ 


screw  for  caHfniatc  carrmRps;  Ifitot;  1  plnlt',  fusten- 
t'J  to  tlie  foot  by  3  srreir.i,  U-incli,  No.  14;  I  imt;  1 
liiiiion  for  llic  lioislinji-.Mcrew 
(hi'iiHS),  liki'  IlioHc  fur  IIm'  CHSe- 
Iiiali'  I'li'valiiii;  screw;  1  hIih/I 
for  pillion,  kejit  in  plaee  l)y  one 
siTfii-./iin  lei  ill  the  staiiil  ;  1 
crank,  lield  to  tlie  shaft  liy  1 
/n/J  No.  4;  1  wooden  liandle, 
fastened  by  1  irai/iir ;  1  nut 
No.  3;  and  I  rrip.jilifti',  let  into 
tlie  liead  of  the  stand  one- 
eii^bth  of  an  iiieb  and  fasleiied 
liy  4  hitU-m-ri'irii  No.  1.  This 
jaelc  is  now  <iiiile  superseded 
by  the  liydraiilio-jack.  The 
jack  represenled  in  the  draw- 
ini;  isiised  forneiieral  purposes, 
,  is  simple,  eoiiipaet  and  power- 
ful. .\  nooil  suhsliliite  for  a 
jack  are  two  handspikes  placed 
under  the  a.xle-lrce,  when,  with 
the  aid  of  Iw^o  robust  nunners, 
the  carriaij;e  can  be  raised  to 
take  off  the  wheel.  The  jack 
known  as  Clerk'n  is  the  coininou 
screw-jack  of  the  service,  in  a  easl-iron  conical  bo.\, 
with  metal  top  and  triangular  b;ise.  This  jack  is 
of  i;reat  power,  and  used  for  heavy  carriaj^cs  in 
lieu  of  the  '■toolhand  iiinion  "  and  "screw-jack." 
There  are  other  jacks  in  the  service,  such  as  the  rack 
a«rf;)/H/"«,  liftiini  ;j  tons  ;  llfdey's,  which  varies  in 
power  from  2  lo  30  tons  :  and  Taiiijye^s  liydrniilii-, 
cap;ilile  of  liflint;  from  4  lo  30  tons.  See  Jack-screw, 
anil  Mirhiiniciil  Maiwiirera. 

LIGHT.     Opiics  ranks   ne.\t   to  dynamics  in  the 
cate^-ory  of  nearly  rj'cc?  sciences— that  is,  of  sciences 
whose  fundamen'l:d  principles   are    so  well   known. 
Unit  the  resull  of  almost  any  new  experimental  com- 
bin;ilion  can  be    predicted    niathemalicnilly.     Given 
the  forces  acting  on  a  body,   the  laws  of  motion  en- 
ables us.  by  purely    mathemalical  processes,   to   de- 
termine ,the  conseipient  motion.     Though    we    have 
not  as  yi't  arrived  ;it  equal    iierfection  in  optics,    we 
are  ccrl;unly  far  on  the  way,  and  proliably  have  now 
attained  nearly  all  the  jirogress  (independent  of  ini- 
proveinents  in    our  malhematical    methods)    which 
will  be  made  until  the  next  great  step  in  molecular  j 
physics  shall  give  us  the  clue  to    the  nature  of  the 
minute    motions    on     which     light,    heat,    electric  j 
currents,  ami  magnetism  depend.     The  most  extra- 
ordinary and  almost  inciedilile  pri'dictions  of  theory  ! 
have  been  verified   by   exiierimeiit.   and   at   present  i 
the  ditferenccs  between  theory  and  experiment  may 
be  divided   into  two   elas.ses.    corresponding  to  the 
above  exceptions.     The  first  are  those  depending  on  I 
the  imperfections  of  ni;ithematical  iirocesses.  where, 
because,  for  example,  as  we  are  ye",  unable  to  ob- 
tain the  exact  solution  of  a  certain  differential  equa- 
tion, we  have  to  content  ourselves  with  an  approxi- 
mate one.     Hut  I'very  improvement  in  our  means  of 
approximation  is  found  to  introduce  a  closer  agree- I 
meut  between  theory  and  experiment.     This  difReul-  | 
ty  may  safely  be  left  to  mathematicians.     It  is  other-  [ 
wise  with  the  second  ditticulty.     This  dcpemls  on 
our  ignorance  of  the  ultimate  nature  of  matter,  and  | 
our  consequent  inability  to  apply  mathematical  rea-  I 
soiling  in  a  perfectly  correct  and  siifiicieiitly   com- 
prehcus'.ve  manner.     Here,  the  experimenter's  work 
is  still  required,  and  it  is  in   this   direction  that    we 
must  in  all  probability  now  look  for  important  ex- 
tensions of  our  knowledge.     Optics  is  divided   into 
tw.)  parts  pliysiciil  and  gcirmetn'cn' .      Of  these,   the 
latter  contents  itself  willi  assuming  certain  obvious 
experimental  truths,  such  as  the  f.act.  that  light  in  a 
unirorni  meilium  moves  in  straight  lines,   the   ordin- 
ary l;iws  of  rellection  ami  refraetiou,  etc.,  and  mak- 
ing these  its  b;isis,  employs malliematics  to  develop 
their  further  con.sequences.     It  is  thus  that   theory 
has  shown  how  lo  carry  to  their  utmost  perfection 


Buch  exquisite  specimens  of  art  as  the  best  teiescopeg 
and  microscopes  of  the  present  day.  Hut  these  in- 
vestigations, and  their  practical  appliialion,  are 
I  wholly  indepeiideni,  of  the  nuliirr  of  light,  and  can- 
not be  alfi-eled  by  discoveries  in  that  direction.  It 
is  otherwise  when  wi'  conii^  to  physical  ojitics.  This 
cominenceM  with  the  question  :  "  WIkiI  in  light .'"  and 
then  endeavors  to  diMluce  from  the  nature  of  light 
the  (rxperiinental  laws  which,  as  we  have  seen,  are 
assumed  as  the  basis  of  geometrical  opiics.  IJy  two 
perfectly  distinct  classes  of  astronomical  observa- 
tions— aberration  and  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satel- 
lites -W('  know  that  light  takes  time  to  pass  from 
one  body  to  another  -the  velocity  being  (enormous — 
about  300,000  miles  per  second.  Hence  it  follows, 
that  either  mntter  oreiiirgy  must  be  transferred  from 
a  body  to  the  eye  before  we  can  see  it.  Here  we 
have  "at  once  the  rival  physical  theories  of  light, 
which  have  alternately  had  the  advantage  of  one  an- 
other  in  explaining  observed  phenomena.  It  is  only 
of  late  years  that  an  <'l/)f?'''w(«<////(  rrncin  has  finally 
decided  between  them — by  showing  one  of  them  to 
be  utterly  incompatible  with  a  result  of  ob.servation. 
Newton  adopteil  tin;  corpuscular  theory,  in  which 
light  is  supposed  to  consist  of  material  particles— i.  e., 
he  adopted  the  first  of  the  two  possible  hypotheses; 
and  he  gave  the  first  instance  of  the  solution  of  a 
problem  involving  molecular  forces,  by  deducing 
from  this  theory  the  laws  of  rellection  and  single  re- 
fraction. We  shall  see  immediately  that  this  beauti- 
ful investigation  led  to  the  destruction  of  the  theory 
from  which  it  was  diiduced.  But.  independent  of 
this,  there  are  many  grave  and  obvious  objections  to 
the  corpuscular  theory:  for  it  involves  es.senlially 
the  siipposilion  of  material  particles  impinging  on 
the  ej'e  with  the  astounding  velocity  of  300.000  miles 
per  second.  If  such  particles  weighed  but  the  mil- 
lionth of  a  pound,  each  would  have  something  like 
ten  times  the  momentum  ('',  c.,  the  battering  power), 
and  six  miUiim  times  the  vis  viva  or  kinetic  energy 
(/.  p.,  the  penetrating  power),  of  a  rifle-bullet.  Sup- 
pose them  a  inillitm  times  smaller — yet  as  millions 
of  millions  of  them  must  ever  be  supposed  to  enter 
the  eye  at  once,  coming  from  everv'  point  of  the  sur- 
face of  every  visible  olijed.  it  seems  impossible  to 
reconcile  such  a  hypothesis  with  the  excessive  deli- 
cacy of  the  organs  of  vision. 

It  is  not  pretended  by  the  advocates  of  the   rival 
hypothesis,    undulatory   theory  of   light,  that    they 
understand  exactly  the  nature  of  the  transference  of 
energy  on  which  they  suppose  light  to  depend;   but 
they  take  from  the  analogy  of  sound  in  air,  and   of 
waves  in  water,  the  idea  of  the  existence  in  all  space 
of  a  highly  elastic  fluid  (or  quasisolid).  provisional- 
ly named  the  ether,  and  they   suppose  light  to   con- 
sist in  the  propagation  of  waves  in  this  lluid.    Huy- 
geus  has  the  credit  of  having  propounded,  and  ably 
developeil  and  illuslrated,  this  theory.     As  we   have 
seen  above,  no  third  hypothesis   as  "to  the  nature   of 
light  is  admissible.     JIany  strong  arguments  against 
the  truth  of  the    corpuscular  theory    had  been    fur- 
nished by  experiment,  especially  in  the  early  part  of 
the  present  century:  and  as  they  were  always  met  by 
further  and  more    extraordinary    properties  which 
had  to  be  attributed  to  the  luminous  corpuscles,  the 
theory  had  become  complicated  in  the  most   fearful 
manner;  and  this  of  itself  was   an  almost  complete 
disproof.     Still.it  held  its  ground,  for  Newton's  old 
objection  to  the  rival  theory,  viz..    that  on    the    un- 
dulatory hypothesis  there  should  be   no  shadows  at 
all  (witness  the  analogy  of  sounds  heard  round  a  cor- 
ner), was  as  yet   unanswereil.     This  dilliculty    was 
overcome  by  Young,  to  whose   sagacity   we  are  in- 
debted fortheidea  of  interference,  which  completely 
explained  the  apparent  discrepancy.     But  the  ques- 
tion between  the  rival  llieories  was  finaliy  settled  by 
Fi/eau  and  Foucault.  who.  by  processesenlirely  dif- 
ferent, but  agreeing  in  their  results,  determined  the 
velocity  of  light  in  air  and  in  water.     Now,  Newton 
had  shown  that  refraction,  such  as  that  of   lisht  by 


tlOHT. 


208 


LIGHT. 


water,  if  predicated  of  moving  pnrtides.  requires  that 
tliey  should  move  faster  in  water  than  in  air.  Huy- 
gens,  again,  had  clearly  shown,  that  if  such  refrac- 
tion be  predicated  of  trdreit.  they  must  move  much 
slower  in  water  than  in  air.  Fizeau  and  Foucault  | 
found,  by  direct  measurement,  that  light  moves 
slower  in  water  than  in  air.  Hence,  it  is  certain 
that  light  consists  in  the  transference  vf  energy^  7u>tof\ 


k 


\\\e  front  of  a  plane  wave  which  is  passing  in  the  di- 
rection CD;  i.  e.,  suppose  all  particles  of  the  ether 
in  the  plane  AB  (perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
paper)  to  be  similarly  and  equally  displaced.  Ac- 
cording to  Huygens,  we  must  suppose  every  particle, 
P,  to  be  itself  the  source  of  a  wave,  which,  from  the 
uniformity  of  the  medium,  will  spread  with  the  same 
velocity  in  all  directions.     With  center  P,  and  radius 


B 


Fig.  1. 

mutter  and  the  undulatory  theory  is  based  upon 
this  fact.  But.  as  to  the  manner  in  which  energy  is 
thus  transferred,  we  are  entirely  ignorant.  The  com- 
mon assumption  is.  that  waves  of  distortion  are 
propagated  in  the  ether.  The  nature  of  this  motion 
will  be  described  under  Wave.  But  many  other 
modes  have  been  suggested,  one  of  the  most  notable 
of  which  is  that  of  Rankine.  Here  the  particles  of 
ether  are  not  supposed  to  be  displaced,  but  each  is 
merely  made  to  turn  an  axis  as  the  wave  of  light 
passes  it ;  the  particles  having  polarity  by  virtue  of 
which  they  arrange  themselves  in  similar  positions 
when  no  light  is  passing,  and  by  which,  also,  any  ro- 
tation of  one  particle  produces  a  consequent  rotation 
of  those  in  its  neighborhood.  For  the  explanation  of 
most  of  the  common  phenomena  of  optics,  it  is  quite 
iudilTerent  which  of  these  assumptions  we  make, 
and,  indeed,  theory  has  not  yet  been  carried  far 
enough  to  enable  us  to  devise  experimental  methods 
of  testing  which  is  the  more  likely  to  be  the  case  in 
nature.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  on  that  all 
we  know  at  present  is,  that  light  certainly  depends 
on  the  transference  of  energy  from  one  part  of  the 
luminiferous  medium  to  another  ;  what  kind  of  en- 
ergy is  tran.sferrcd,  vibratory  or  oscillatory  motion, 
or  rotation,  etc.,  is  a  problem  which  may  possibly 
forever  remain  unsolved.  But  vibrator)-  wave- 
motion  being  that  with  which  we  are  most  familiar, 
as  in  earthquakes,  .sound,  waves  in  water,  etc.,  we 
naturally  choose  this  as  the  mo.st  easily  intelligible 
basis  of  explanation  and  illustration.  And  we  shall 
now  briefly  show  how  the  laws  of  linear  propagation, 
reflection,  single  refraction,  interference,  diffraction, 
dispersion,  polarization,  and  double  refraction  may 
be  accounted  for. 

We  assume,  then,  that  light  consists  in  a  succes- 
sion of  waves,  and  for  our  earlier  inquiries  it  does 
not  matter  whether  they  be  (like  those  of  sound) 
waves  of  condensation  and  rarefaction,  in  which  the 
vilirations  take  place  in  the  direction  of  the  ray.  or 
(like  those  in  water)  waves  of  distortion  or  displace- 
ment wilhont  condensation,  in  which  case  the  lu- 
minous vibrations  must  be  assumed  to  take  place  in 
some  direction  perprndioilar  to  the  ray.  The  phe- 
nomena of  polarization  and  double  rcfracti(m  show 
us  that  the  former  of  these  hypotheses  is  very  unten- 
al)le. 

Propagatldn  nf  l.ioht  in  a  Vnifurm  Isotropic  Medium 
-  (.\n  iso1ro|)ic'  m(  ilium  is  such  that  if  a  cubical 
porlion  be  taken,  it  possesses  precisely  the  same 
|)roperlies  whatever  be  the  directions  (if  its  sides. 
Glass  and  water  are  isotropic,  rock-salt  and  i<'e  are 
„ot.)— Suppose  AB  (Fig.  I)  to  represent  ut  any  time 


Fig.  2. 

the  space  which  light  passes  over  in  any  assigned 
interval,  t,  describe  a  sphere  represented  in  section 
by  a  circle  in  the  figure  Do  the  same  for  adjacent 
points,  Pj,  Pj,  etc.  Let  Pi  be  the  intersection  of 
the  circles  whose  centers  are  P  and  Pj,  p«  that  of 
the  circles  whose  centers  are  P,  and  P^,  and  so  on. 
Then,  asp,  is  equidistant  fxova.  V  and  P,,  and  (ap- 
proximately) from  all  points  of  a  small  circular  space 
between  P  and  P,  on  the  wave-front  AB,  all  the  sep- 
arate wave-disturbances  coming  from  these  points 
to  p-i  will  be  in  the  same  pha^e,  and  will  therefore 
combine  so  as  to  strengthen  each  other ;  while  in 
other  directions  they  will  be  in  different  phases  and 
combine  to  destroy  each  other.  The  locus  of  all 
such  points  aspi,  Pj,  etc.,  will  therefore,  at  the  end 
of  the  time  t.  contain  all  particles  of  the  ether  equally 
and  similarly  disturbed,  and  will  thus  be  the  new 
wave-front.  But  it  is  obviously  a  plane  parallel  to 
AB.  Also  the  disturbance  at  P  has  passed  to  p,  ; 
and,  when  the  distance  PP,  is  taken  as  verj'  small, 
Ppi  is  perpendicular  to  the  wave-front  AB.  Hence, 
in  such  a  medium,  it  is  readily  seen  that  a  plane 
wave  remains  plane,  and  always  moves  with  uni- 
form velocity  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  its 
front.  [There  is  a  difficulty  as  to  what  becomes  of 
the  disturbance,  which,  according  to  Huygen's  as- 
sumption, ought  to  travel  tack  into  the  dotted  por- 
tions of  the  spheres ;  and  it  is  not  easy  to  account 
for  the  absence  of  this  on  mechanical  principles. 
But  we  are  content  here  to  take  for  granted  that  no 


Fig.  a. 

waves  are  propagated  backward  from  the  main 
wave,  as  a  fact  clearly  proved  by  experiment.]  Since 
a  small  portion  of  the  surface  of  any  curved  wave 
nuiy  be  considered  as  plane,  we  now  see  how  any 
such  wave  will  be  prnjiagaled  in  an  isotropic  medi- 
um.    Erecting  perpendiculars  at  every  point  of  the 


LIGHT. 


2(  »il 


LIGHT. 


siirfiu^o  of  the  curved  wave,  and  laying  (ilV  iilonj; 
theBo  lines  the  spiicc  which  lif;ht  jmHseH  over  in  a 
ijivr'n  interval,  and  the  cxtreiiiilicH  form  a  new  ttiir- 
faee,  which  in  llie  wavc-frdiil  after  the  lapse  nf  that 
interval.  lifjlirlion  at  <i  I'lnne  Snrfwi'.  Suppose 
AB  (Fii;.  2)  to  he  a  plane  wavi'-front.  innviiif;  in  tlie 
(iireclioM  of  \Mi  pcrpcnilicular  to  .Mi.  I.ci  A''  he 
the  rellcctinj;  surtaee.  and  let  the  intersection  of  the 
plane  of  the  wave-front  with  the  relleetini;  surface 
be  a  line  through  A  perpendi<idar  to  the  paper. 
When  H  has  arrived  at  I).  A  would  have  arrived  at 
//,  and  1'  at  <j  (where  hll  is  parallel  to  H,\.  anil  I'f/ 
and  \li  to  Mil),  hail  it  not  been  for  the  rellictinK 
surfac(«  Hence,  when  ]5  is  at  h,  A  has  diverf,'e(l 
into  a  sphere  of  radius  All,  V  from  /)  into  a  sphere 
of  radius,  ]>q;  and  so  for  each  point  of  the  wave- 


FiK.4. 

front.  Now,  the  spheres  so  described  about  A  and 
p  as  eenteis  obviously  touch  the  plane  hli:  conse- 
tpiently  they  touch  the  other  plane  hn,  wliich  makes 
the  angle  AJ«  equal  to  XbB.  Now,  lina  is  the  front 
of  the  reflected  wave,  and  A«  is  the  direction  in 
which  it  is  proceeding.  Hence,  obviously,  the  ordi- 
nary laws  of  reflection.     8ee  fatiijitrirs. 

Ilefraction  at  a  Plane  Surface  hihi  an  hntnipir  Med- 
ium— Here  we  take  account  of  the  change  of  veloci- 
ty which  light  suffers  in  passing  from  one  medium 
to  another.  In  Fig.  3,  A,  P,  H.  i,  ;).  g,  and  H  repre- 
sent the  same  as  before-but  suppose  Ak  now  to  re- 
present the  space  through  which  the  wave  travels  in 
the  second  medium,  while  it  would  travel  from  1$  to 
A  in  the  first.  With  center  A,  and  radivis  A'f,  describe 
a  sphere.  Let  ha  touch  this  sphere  in  a.  Then  /la  is 
the  front  of  the  refracted  wave.  For,  i(  prr  be  drawn 
perpendicular  to  i«, we  have  prr:  Aa-.:  hp;  AA::  pq:  A/i. 
Hence,  while  A  travels  to  <?.  and  B  travels  to  A,  P 
travels  to  p,  and  thence  to  tt.  And  the  sines  of  the 
angles  BA*  and  Aba,  which  are  the  angles  of  in- 
cidence and  refraction, are  to  each  other  as  Bh  to  A'(, 
/■.  e.,  as  the  velocity  in  the  tirst  medium  is  to  that  in 
the  second.    See  Dinptrien. 

It  is  quite  obvious  from  the  above  figure  that  the 
lenK  the  velocity  in  the  second  medium  the  more 
nearly  does  the  refracted  ray  enter  it  at  right  angles 
to  its  surface.  As  a  contrast  we  may  introduce  here 
a  sketch  of  Newton's  admirable  investigation  of  the 
same  problem  on  the  corpuscular  hypothesis.  Let 
U  and  V  be  the  velocities  in  the  two  media,  a  and  H 
the  angles  of  incidence  and  refraction.  Then  the 
forces  which  act  on  the  corpuscle  being  entirely  per- 
pendicular to  the  refracting  surface,  the  velocity 
paraUcl  to  that  surface  is  not  altered.     This  gives 

U  sin.  a  =  V  sin.  Ji. 

Also  the  kinetic  energy  is  increased  l)y  the  loss  of 
potential  energy  in  passing  from  the  one  medium  to 
the  other.     Hence,  the  square  of  V  exceeds  that   of 
V  by  a  quantity  which  depends  only  on  the  nature 
of  the  two  media  and  of  the  corpuscle.     This  shows 
that  V  is  the  same  whatever  lie  the  direction  of  the 
lay,  and  then  the  first  relation  proves  that  the  sines 
of' the  angles  of  incidence  and  reflection  are  iiiiyr.-e'i/  j 
as  the  velocities  in  the  two  media,  (.  c,   the  refract- 
ing ray  is  more  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  refract-  ' 
ing  surface  the  greater  is  the  velocity  in  the  second  ! 
medium.       It  is  very   singidar   that    two   theories  j 
so  widely  dissimilar  "should  each  give  the  true /a'"  | 
of  refraction  :  and  in  connection  with  what  has  just  j 


been  said,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  i.n  iIm  corpuK- 
cular  theory  a  corpuscle  passes  from  one  point  to 
another  with  th(^  least  wtiaii,  while  on  the  undula- 
I  tory  theory  it  passes  in  the  least  time.  Hamilton's 
grand  i)rincii)le  of  rarip'n;/  actinn  includes  both  of 
tlufse.  I ntirference  Fre^nel's  moile  of  exhibiting 
this  phenomenon  ('whose  discovery,  as  before  said, 
is  due  to  Young)  is  very  simple  and  striking.  An 
isosceles  prism  of  glass,  with  an  angh;  very  nearly 
180°,  is  placed  CFig.  4)  in  front  of  a  brilliant 
point  (the  image  of  the  sun  formed  by  a  lens  of  very 
short  focus,  for  instance;.  '\'\u-  effect  of  the  prism 
is  that  light  which  passes  from  ()  through  the  por- 
tion (^K  ai)pears  to  have  come  from  some  point  such 
as  A  (the  image  of  ()  as  seen  through  the  upper  half 
of  the  prism).  Similarly  the  light  which  has  passed 
through  l'(2  appears  to  come  from 
some  point  B.  The  light  which 
has  jiassed  through  tiie  jjrism  is 
to  lie  received  on  a  white  screen 
ST.  At  the  point  T,  which  is  in 
the  jirolongation  of  the  line  OQ, 
the  distances  T.V  and  T15  are 
equal  ;  but  for  no  other  [joint,  as 
U  in  the  line  ST,  are  I'.V  and  VR 
equal.  Suppose  U  and  V  to  he 
such  that  L'.V  and  I'B  difTer  in 
length  by  half  a  wave-length  of 
some  particular  color.  VA  and  VB 
by  a  whole  wave-length  of  the  same;  then  waves 
'  arriving  at  T,  as  if  from  A  and  B,  have  of  necessity 
passed  over  equal  spaces,  and  consequently  their 
crests  must  truly  coincide,  so  that  at  T  tlieyreen- 
force  each  other.  But  at  U  a  hollow  from  A  is  met 
I  by  a  crest  from  B,  so  that  darkness  is  the  result.  At 
V, again, crest  and  crest  coincide.  And]|so  on.  Hence, 
if  we  are  experimenting  with  one  definite  color  of 
light,  the  effect  on  the  screen  is  to  produce  at  T.  V, 
etc.,  bright  bands  of  that  color,  all  parallel  to  the 
edges  of  the  prism  PQK.  At  points  like  U  there  are 
dark  bands.  And  the  length  of  a  wave  can  easily  be 
calculated  from  this  experiment;  for  the  lengths  of 
OQ  and  QT  can  be  measured,  and  knowing  the 
angles  of  the  prism  and  its  refractive  index  for  the 
particular  color  employed,  we  can  calculate  the  posi- 
tions of  A  and  B.  We  have  then  only  to  measure  the 
distance  TV  between  the  centers  of  the  two  adjoin- 
inw  Ijright  bars,  and  then  geometry  enables  us  to  cal- 
culate the  difference  of  the  lengths  of  V.V  and  VB, 
which, as  we  have  seen. is  the  length  of  a  wave.  The 
results  of  this  experiment  show  how  very  minute  are 
these  wave-lengths  for  visible  rays.     Thus  for 

Inch. 
Kxtreme  Red,  the  wave-length  in  air  is  ...0.00002(j6 

•'     Vlclet.         •'         "  " O.OOOtJKJi 

These  are,  roughly,  the  7j,J,-,5  and  the  g,-J„-  of  an 
inch.  Seeing,  then, "that  light  describes  200,000  m. 
persecond,  the  number  of  waves  which  enter  the  eye 
per  second  are  : 

Extreme  Red 4(50  ndllions  of  millions. 

Violet 730 

These  numbers,  compared  with  those  of  sonorous 
waves  show  the  extraordinary  difference  in  delicacy 
between  the  optic  and  auditory  nerves,  liut  where- 
as the  range  of  the  ear  is  somewhere  al  out  12  oc- 
taves, that  of  the  eye  is  less  than  one. 

Diiip<ri<ion. — \\'e  have  just  seen  that,  b)'  Fresnel's 
interference  experiment,  waves  of  different  length 
are  separated  (for  in  the  last  figure  the  position  cf 
the  bright  line,  V, depends  on  the  length  of  the  waves 
which  produce  it).  But  the  different  colors  are 
also  separated  by  common  refraction,  as  in  New- 
ton's celebrated  experiment.  This  shows,  of  course, 
that  in  refracting  media,  waves  of  different  colors 
move  with  different  velocities;  and, as  the  violet  arc 
more  refracted  than  the  red,  it  appears  that  the 
shorter  waves  move  more  slowly  in  glass  or  water 
than  the  longer  ones.  In  free  space,  waves  of  all 
lengths  travel  with  equal  speed,  else  all  stars  ought 
to  appear  drawn  out  into  spectra,  in  consequence  of 


LIGHT. 


210 


LIGHT 


the  earth's  annual  motion.  Also,  a  star  suddenly 
breaking  out.  or  suddenly  vanishing  (a  phenomenon 
several  times  observed),  sliould  flash  out  in  the  first 
instance  red,  and  gradually  become  wliite,  or  it 
should  grailually  decay  from  wiiite  to  violet,  which 
is  not,  however,  observed  to  be  the  case.  These 
facts  are,  ineeed,  the  most  difficult  to  explain  of  any 
to  which  the  rmdulatory  theorj-  has  as  yet  been 
applied.  Fresnel,  indeed,  appears  to  have  been  in 
possession  of  a  solution  of  the  difficulty,  but  the 
appendix  to  one  of  his  papers,  to  which  he  more 
than  once  refers  as  containing  this  explanation,  was 
not  found  among  his  MSS.  C'auchy  and  others 
have,  however.by  very  delicate  investigations, shown 
that,  if  the  furms  exerted  hy  the  moleriileti^iif  a  refracting 
body  on  the  ether  are  exerted  thrnuglr  distances  com- 
parable with  the  length  of  a  irave,  the  velocity  of  light 
will  then  depend  on  the  wave-length.  The  velocity 
is.  in  fact,  shown  to  be  represented  by  a  formula 
such  as  this; 

B 
A 

where  A  and  B  are  constant  quantities  for  a 
^iven  medium,  and  ^  is  the  length  of  a  wave.  The 
larger  ff  is.  the  less  will  be  "the  second  term  of 
the  formula,  and  therefore  the  velocity  will  be  the 
greater.  A  very  singular  result  follows  from  this 
same  formula— viz.,  that  the  velocity  will  become 


disturbances  which  give  rise  to  this  ray  are  propa- 
gated in  spherical  waves  in  the  crystal.  He  showed 
also  that  the  other  ray  could  be  jaccounted  for.  if 
the  disturbances  to  which  it  is  due  were  propagated 
in  the  form  of  an  oblate  spheroid  touching  the  sphere 
with  the  extremities  of  its  axis,  that  axis  being 
parallel  to  the  crystallographic  axis  of  the  mineraT. 
The  following  diagram  (Fig.  5)  when  carefully  ex- 
amined will  make  this  apparent: — P  is  the  point 
where  the  ether  is  disturbed.  Two  waves  spread  from 
P  in  the  form  shown  jn  the  cut.  the  line  ABP  being 
the  axis  of  rotation  of  the  spheroid,  and  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  crystal.  Thus,  let  rays  a\.  etc.  'Fig. 
6J,  of  which  ABis  the  wave-front,  fall  upon  .the  sur- 
face A*  of  such  a  crystal;  and  let  AC  be  the  direc- 
tion of  its  axis.  t)raw.  about  A  as  a  center,  the 
sphere  and  spheroid  into  which  the  disturbance  at  A 
spreads  in  the  crystal  while  light  in  air  passes 
from  B  to  b.  Then  if  planes  be  dlawn  through  the 
line  b  (perpendicular  to  the  paper)  so  as  to  touch  the 
sphere  in  /Jjand  the  spheroid  in  B^,  these  planes  will 
touch  respectively  all  the  intermediate  spheres  and 
spheroids  produced  by  disturbances  at  points  be- 
tween A  and  A.  Thus,  bB^  and  bB^  are  the  new 
wave-fronts  and  the  ray  »A,  falling  on  the  crystal,  is 
divided  into  the  two  A/?,  and  AB^.  Of  these  Afi,  is 
the  ordinary  ray,  and  being  produced  by  spherical 
waves,  has  all  the  properties  to  be  looked  for  in  the 
case   of   a  ray  ordinarily  refracted.      It  obviously 


B 

Fig.  .5. 

more  and  more  nearly  equal  to  A  as  the  wave  length 
is  srreater.  Hence,  waves  of  low  radiant  heat, 
which  are  merely  waves  of  light  which  are  incap- 
able of  producing  vision,  must  be  crowded  together 
toward  a  limit,  not  very  far  l)eyond  the  red  end  of 
the  spectrum.  Polarization— \N<^  n(5W  come  to  a 
set  of  phenomena  which  give  us  some  furtlier  infor- 
mation as  to  the  nature  of  lunnniferous  waves. 
When  two  beams  of  light,  such  as  those  in  Fresnel's 
experiment,  are  polarized  in  planes  perpendicular 
to  each  other  before  they  meet,  they  do  not  interfere. 
This  is  in  accordance  with  the  assumption  required 
for  the  explanation  of  the  existence  of  polarization 
itself— viz.,  that  the  viljrations  of  the  ether  take 
place  transversely  to  the  direction  of  the  ray. 
Double.  Refraaion—Om  assumptions,  forced  upon 
Tis  by  experimental  results,  are  now  so  far  complete 
that  we  may  proceed,  after  Fresnel,  to  apply  them 
1o  the  explanation  of  double  n-fraction.  Tins  ex- 
planation is  extremely  l)ciuitifnl.  and  wlien  pub- 
lished, was  justly  hailed  as  tlie  greatest  step  in 
physical  science  which  had  been  nfade  since  New- 
ton deduced  the  facts  of  physical  astronomy  from 
the  law  of  gravitation.  As  we  have  seen  above,  in 
treating  of  siiuple  reflection  and  refractiim,  that  the 
form  and  velocity  in  and  with  which  a  disturb- 
ance spreads  frr>,n  any  point  of  a  wave  is  all 
that  is  required  for  the  dVlermination  of  the  course 
of  a  ray.  we  must  endc'iivor  to  find  the  form  in  which 
a  disturbance  spreads  in  a  double-refraclingcryslal  ; 
and  this  should  lead  us  to  a  construction  for  each  of 
the  two  rays.  Huygens  had  .'ilreaily  pointed  out 
that  one  of  the  two  rays  produced  by  Iceland  spar 
folows  the  ordinary  law  of  refraction.     Hence  the 


Fig.  6. 

moves  forw.ard  perpendicularly  to  its  front,  as  A 5, 
is  perpendicidar  to  B^b.  But  it  is  otherwise  with 
A/?j,  which  is,  in  general,  not  perpendiculav  to  its 
front,  B^b.  Again,  if  AC.  the  axis  of  the  crystal  be 
not  in  the  plane  of  incidence,  the  ray  Afl„  is  not  in 
that  plane ;  so  that  here  we  have  refraction  out  of 
the  plane  of  incidence.  The  exact  accordance  of  this 
construction  with  observation  was  proved  by  the 
careful  experiments  of  Wollaston.  We  have  only 
to  add,  that  the  two  rays  AH,  and  Ai?„  are,  in 
all  cases,  completely  polarized  in  planes  at  right 
angles  to  each  other.  The  experiments  of  Brewster 
showed  that  in  b}'  far  the  greater  number  of  minerals 
and  artificial  crystals,  both  rays  art.'  extraordinary — 
i.e..  neither  of  tliem  can  be  accounted  for  by  dis- 
turbances propagated  spherically  in  the  crystal. 
But  no  tentative  process  could  lead  to  the  form  if 
the  wave-surafce  in  this  most  general  case.  Here 
Fresnel's  genius  supplied  the  necessary  construction. 
He  assumes  that  the  ether  in  a  crystallized  body  is 
possessed  of  different  rigidity,  or  ditl'erent  inertia, 
in  different  directions  ;  a  suiijiosifion  in  itself  ex- 
tremely |)robable,  from  the  mechanical  and  other 
properties  of  crystals.  In  the  general  case  there 
are  shown  to  be  three  principal  directions  in  a 
crystal,  in  any  one  of  which,  if  the  ether  be  displaced, 
the  resulting  ehistic  force  is  in  the  direction  of  the 
disiilacenient.  Kach  of  these  is.  in  all  eases,  jier- 
pendiciilar  to  the  others.  Any  given  dis])lacement 
of  tlie  I'ther  corresponds  to  |iarlial  ealeidalile  dis- 
placements parallel  to  each  of  these  lin<'s,  and  thus 
the  elastic  force  consequent  on  any  disiilacement 
whatever  is  known  if  we  know  those  for  the  three 
rectangular   directions.      All    the  calculations   are 


LIGHT  AETILLEBY  BATTERY. 


211 


LIGHT  INFANTHY. 


thus  <ii'pcnd(mt  on  tlirrr  mimbers  only,  for  each  sub- 
stiince.  It  would  uncliily  limRtlicn  lliis  uriicle,  and 
bcHidc-H  would  lead  um  into  diHfussinns  fur  loo  re- 
condite for  a  work  Uk('  this,  to  cnli-r  upon  the  ipics- 
tion  whether  the  vibrationa  in  polarized  liiilit  ar<f 
perprndiriilnr  to  or  in  the  plane  of  polari/alion,  a 
Bubjeet  whifdi  has  recently  lieen  well  invcHlijfated 
by  Stokes;  or  to  consider  ilie  |irodnclion  of  ellipti- 
cally  polarized  jii^lit  by  rellection  at  tlw  surface  of 
metals,  diamond,  etc.;  and  various  oilier  most  im- 
portant |)ointsof  the  theory.  We  can  oidy  mention 
that  Green,  Caucliy,  Stokes,  and  olliers,  who  have 
entered  deeply  into  the  nieclianical  question  of 
luminiferous  vibrations,  have  found  themselves 
obliged  to  take  into  account  the  mrrmnl  wave, 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  Fresnel  neglected.  Fluo- 
rescence, spectrum  analysis,  anil  various  othiT  im- 
portant recent  ailditions  to  the  theory,  must  lie 
nicMcly  mentioned;  as  also  the  very  remarkabl<' 
observation  of  JIaxwell,  which  appears  to  coiuiect 
liiz^ht  and  electricity,  and  was  derived  from  a  theory 
which  assumes  the  ether  to  be  the  vehicle  of  elec- 
tricity and  mai;netism  as  well  as  of  linht  and  heat, 
and  by  which  it  appears  that  the  velocity  of  light  is 
expressible  in  terms  of  the  static  and  kinetic  units 
of  electricitv. 

LIGHT  ARTILLERY  BATTERY.— A  mounted  Bat- 
tery of  tield-guns.  In  Ihe  I'nited  Stales  army,  for 
the  purpose  of  dilTusing  instruction,  the  Lieutenants 
of  the  live  artillery  regiments  are  passed  through  the 
School  of  Light  Artillery  in  their  respective  regi- 
ments, so  that  no  Lieutenant  will  be  in  that  School 
more  than  two  years  at  any  one  tour.  From  this 
rule  may  be  [excepted  Lieutenants  in  command  of 
companies  the  Captains  of  which  are  indefinitely  ab- 
sent. Adjutants,  Regimental  Quartermasters,  togeth- 
er with  such  others  as  from  accidental  causes  may 
be  unable  to  ride.  If  a  vacancy  happen  in  the  grade 
of  Captain  of  a  Battery  designated  as  a  Light  Battery, 
it  will  be  tilled  by  the  order  of  the  Secretary  of  War, 
on  the  recommendatitm  of  the  Colone'.,  who  usually 
name*  the  Captain  best  qualified  for  the  service.  Ev- 
ery Battery  of  Artillery  actually  armed  and  eqviipped 
as  a  Battery  of  Ilorse-artillerv  or  a  Light  Battery, 
and  serving  as  such,  is  allowed,  for  annual  practice, 
as  many  blank  cartridges  and  friction-primers  for 
instruction  antl  drill  as  may  be  deemed  necessary  by 
the  Battery  Commander,  and  apjiroved  by  the  Post 
Commander.  Such  Batteries  are  also  permitted  to 
expend  in  target  practice,  annually,  twentj--five  pro- 
jectiles for  each  gun  of  the  command. 

LIGHT-BALLS. — Preparations  in  pyrofechny.made 
in  the  same  manner  as  fire-balls,  except  that  iliere  is  \ 
no  shell  in  them,  as  they  are  u.sed  for  lighting  up  our 
own  works. 

They  continue  alight  from  9  to  16  minutes.accord- 
ing  to  the  caliber.  Light-balls  are  of  four  different 
natures,  viz  :  10-inch.  8-inch,  5i-inch.  and  45-inch.  I 
Their  form  is  oblong,  and  about  1^  caliber.  The 
skeleton  frame  is  made  of  wrought  iron,  and  is  par- 
tially covered  with  canvas,  and  filled  with  composi-  | 
tion  which  burns  with  a  brilliant  light. 

The  proportion  of  composition  is  as  follows:  — 

lbs.     oz      drs. 

Saltpeter.  groTind fi        4        0, 

Sulphur,  ground 2         8         0 

Rosin,  pounded 1       14        0 

Linseed  oil,  boiled 0        7        8 

See  Firi'-IiaUn  and  Firewm-fcn. 

LIGHL-BARREL. — A  common  powder-barrel  pierc- 
ed with  numerous  holes,  and  filled  with  shavings  that 
have  been  soaked  in  a  composition  of  pilch  and  ros- 
in ;  it  serves  to  light  up  a  breach,  or  a  l)ottom  of  a 
ditch.     See  Fireworks, 

LIGHT  BOBS.-  In  the  British  service,  the  familiar 
term  used  for  the  light  infantry. 

LIGHT  CAVALRY.— Regiments  of  mounted  sol- 
diers who,  from  their  light  equipment  and  active 
horses,  are  especially  adapted  for  making  long 
marches,  performing  outpost  duties,   skirmishing. 


etc.  The  experience  of  the  wars  of  1806  and  1870-71 
has  shown,  clearly  and  convincingly,  that  the  splen- 
did charges,  which  in  the  days  of  Frederick  and 
Napolc-on  frequriitly  ilc:cided  the  fate  of  battles,  have 
jiassed  away,  and  tiiat,  in  Ihe  future,  it  is  before  an 
action  that  the  main  role  of  Ihe  cavalry  will  be  foimd 
to  lie.  Since  the  introiluction  of  arms  of  precision, 
the  duties  of  this  branch  may  well  be  considered 
purely  strategical,  as  cavalry  can  seldom  be  employ- 
ed to  take  a  decisive  part  in  a  battle.  Upon  this 
branch  now  devolves  the  task  of  preparing  the  way 
fi>r  an  engagement,  hy  recimnoiterinij  the  positions  of 
the  enemy,  and  giving,  as  to  his  movements,  as 
much  valuabh^  information  as  possible.  Light  caval- 
ry can  therefore  be  used  as  a  screen  to  mask  the 
movements  of  the  advancing  orretreating  army,  and 
like  a  swarm  of  spies,  to  search  the  country  of  the 
enemy,  gather  information  from  all  (piarters,  facili- 
tate and  often  render  uiuiecessary  an  armed  attack, 
and,  finally,  bitwilder,  by  harassing  the  foe.  Em 
ployed  as  erliiiri-urs  or  feelers  in  every  direction,  they 
make  a  ring  of  mystery  arounil  their  own  army.  The 
enemy  does  not  know  their  whereabouts,  while  they 
carryback  valualile  information  to  their  chiefs.  The 
duties  now  thrown  upon  the  light  cavalry  soldier 
demand  much  increased  intelligence,  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  o|)erations  of  war.  The  value  of  good 
information  is  so  im]iorlanl.  and  the  evil  of  bad  so 
great,  that  it  would  never  be  safe  to  trust  anybody 
of  ordinary  trained  men  to  fulfil  these  duties.  Light 
cavalry  form  an  important  branch  of  the  Intelli- 
gence Department,  and  it  may  be  well  said  that 
'  They  are  the  eyes  and  ears  of  an  army."  The  hus- 
sar regiin<-nts  form  the  light  cavalry  of  the  British 
army:  but  thejlancers  and  the  dragoons,  although 
classed  as  medium  cavalry,  are  often  employed  in 
the  same  duties. 

LIGHT  HORSE.— All  mounted  soldiers  that  are 
lightly  armed  and  accoutered  for  active  and  desul- 
tory service  :  such  as  dragoons,  hussars,  mounted 
riflemen,  etc.     See  Lii/U  Cavalry. 

LIGHT-HOUSE  BOARD.— A  body  organized  in  tlie 
United  States,  in  accordance  with  an  Act  of  Congress 
approved  Aug.  .31,  1853,  and  having  the  control  and 
management  of  all  lights. buoys, beacons,  etc.,  on  the 
coasts  of  the  United  States.  It  consists  of  eight  per- 
sons, viz.,  two  officers  of  high  rank  in  the  Navj-.two 
officers  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  two  civilians  of 
high  scientific  attainments,  an  officer  of  the  Navy, 
and  an  officer  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers — the  two 
latter  serving  as  Secretaries.  The  Board  as  thus  con- 
stituted is  attached  to  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasurj'.who  is  Ex-officio  President  of  the  same. 
A  chairman,  elected  by  the  members  Irora  their  own 
number,  is  chosen  to  preside  in  the  absence  of  the 
President  Ex-officio.  The  Board  is  required  to  meet 
four  times  a  year,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
is  empowered  to  call  it  together  whenever,  in  his 
judgment, the  exigencies  of  the  service  may  require  a 
meeting.  It  actually  meets  almost  every  week  in  the 
year.  The  coast  and  tlie  waters  of  the  country  are  di- 
vided into  districts, each  of  which  is  served  by  an  offi- 
cer of  the  Army  or  the  Navy  in  the  capacity  of  Light- 
House  Inspector,  and  other  officers  are  emploved 
from  time  to  time,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  "the 
service.  The  different  subjects  reqinring  attention 
are  first  referred  to  standing  committees,  who.se  duty 
it  is  to  investigate  and  report  to  the  Board  what  ac- 
tion, if  any,  is  required.  The  two  Secretaries  per- 
form all  routine  and  general  administrative  duties 
under  the  orders  and  regulations  of  the  Board. 

LIGHT  INFANTRY.— A  body  of  armed  men  select- 
ed and  trained  for  rapid  evolutions.  The  service  of 
Light  Infantry  often  demands  great  individual  ad- 
dress, intelligence,  and  quite  well  developed  phvsica! 
powers  ;  a  combination  of  qualities  not  ea-ilv  found, 
and  seldom,  indeed,  without  careful,  habitual  train- 
ing. Whereas,  in  Infantry  of  the  Line,  the  qualities 
of  the  individual  are  of  less  importance. as  results  here 
depend  almost  solely  upon  the  action  of  the  mass. 


LIGHT  INFANTRY  COMPANY. 


212 


LIGHTNING  C0NDUCT0E8. 


The  habitual  order  of  battle  of  Light  Infantry  is  the 
dispersed  order ;  and  whether  acting  offensively  or 
defensively,  it  depends  for  its  results  upon  the  effect 
of  its  fire,  resorting  to  the  close  order,  and  using  the 
bayonet,  only  exceptionally.  As  each  individual, 
although  immediately  supported  by  his  own  file- 
clo.ser,  and  those  on  his  right  and  left,  is  still  often 
thrown  upon  his  own  resources,  being  obliged  to  take 
cover  where  he  can  most  conveniently  tind  it,  he 
must  be  a  good  marksman,  cool,  deliberate,  and  cir- 
cumspect ;  since  it  may  become  necessary  to  keep  an 
enemy  occupied  hours,  and  even  days  together, 
pressing  on  him  at  one  moment  and  yielding  to  him 
the  next,  or  holding  with  tenacity,  and  disputing 
inch  by  inch  some  particular  point,  as  it  may  suit 
the  views  of  the  General  in  command.  In  Infantry 
of  the  Line, as  success  depends  upon  th^  action  of  the 
mass,  ensemble,  judgement,  coolness,  and,  determina- 
ion  should  alwavs  characterize  all  its  movements 
whether  it  delivers  its  tire  in  line,  forms  in  column 
to  attack  with  the  bayonet,  or  throws  itself  into  a 
sriuare,  to  await  the  charge  of  the  enemy's  cavalry. 
The  duties  of  Light  Infautry  are  to  open  an  engage- 
ment, and,  after  it  is  fairly  under  way,  to  keep  it 
going;  turning  it  to  advantage  if  successful,  other- 
wise breaking  it  off.  In  its_  relations  to  the  Infantry 
of  the  Line  it  should  cover 'the  flanks  of  the  latter: 
clear  the  way  for  its  advance  by  rooting  the  enemy 
out  of  all  covers,  and  then  holding  them  if  requisite. 
Upon  it  devolves  all  advanced-post,  detachment,  and 
advanced  and  rear-guard  service. 

LIGHT  INFANTRY  COMPANY.— In  the  British  ser- 
vice, a  company  of  active,  strong  men  carefully  se- 
lected from  the  rest  of  the  regiment.  It  always  oc- 
cupies its  place  on  the  left  of  the  battalion  until  called 
for.  When  the  call  sounds,  the  Light  Company 
orders  arms  and  unfixes  baj-onets  without  word  of 
command,  and  remains  in  readiness  to  move. 

LIGHT  MARCHING  ORDER.— A  term  applied  to 
troops  lightly  accoutered  for  detached  service — usu- 
ally paraded  with  arms,  ammunition,  canteen,  and 
haversack. 

LIGHTNING  CONDUCTORS.— The  following  points 
and  precautions  should  be  carefully  observed  in  the 
construction  of  powder-magazines  and  factories,  in 
localities  visited  by  lightning:  experience  shows  that 
metal  in  a  building,  whether  disposed  of  in  the  form 
of  a  conductor  or  otherwise,  never  attracU  light- 
ning. That,  provided  the  surfaces  of  metals  are  not 
Interrupted  by  bodies  possessing  a  less  conducting- 
power,  a  building  entirel)'  of  metal  will  be  the  safest 
of  all,  and  that  such  buildings  require  no  further 
lightning-conductors  than  connection  with  the  earth 
over  the  masonry  foundations  on  which  thej'  are 
often  laid.  That,  with  regard  to  a  building  of  brick 
or  stone,  the  object  must  be  to  establish  a  sufficient 
mimber  of  lines  of  electrical  conductors,  extending 
from  its  most  elevated  and  prominent  points  to  the 
ground;  and,  further,  bring  the  building  into  a  con- 
dition similar  to  that  of  a  metal  bviilding  by  means  of 
other  conductors  generall}'  attached  to  more  promi- 
nent lines  of  the  building  itself,  such  as  the  ridges, 
angles,  and  caves.  There  is  no  advantage  but  the 
ciintrary,  in  endeavoring  to  insulate  the  conductors 
from  llie  building. 

The  Ix'st  material  for  conductors  is  copper,  either 
in  tubes  U  to  2  inches  diameter  and  .IS.')  inch  to  .2 
inch  thick,  or  a  wire  rope.  All  melnl  surfaces, 
whether  lead,  copper,  or  iron,  on  ridg<'S,  roofs,  gut- 
ters, or  coverings  to  doors  or  windows,  to  be  con- 
nected by  plates  of  copper  with  the  conducting  .sys- 
lem.  Lead,  on  account  tjf  its  low  conducting  power, 
cannot  be  altogelher  depended  upon.  One  or  more 
s<ilid  <-oppcr  rods  lo  project  freely  into  tlie  iiir,  about 
T>  feet  above  the  liighest  points  of  the  liuilding  to 
wliich  the  main  conductors  are  applied.  The  sum- 
mit of  the  rod  to  be  pointed;  but  gold,  gilt  or  i)Iat- 
inum  tops  are  unnecessary.  The  termination  of  the 
conductors  below  to  be  led  into  damp  or  porf>us  soil, 
when   the  Ijuilding   liappens   tii  stand  upon  it ;   but. 


when  the  soil  is  dry,  two  or  three  trenches  to  be 
cut,  radiating  from  the  foot  of  the  conductor  to  a 
depth  of  18  inches  or  two  feet,  and  30  feet  in  length, 
and  either  the  conductor  carried  along  the  liottom 
of  the  trenches  or  old  iron  chain  laid  in  them,  care- 
fullj'  connected  with  the  foot  of  the  conductor.  The 
trenches  to  be  then  filled  up  to  one  foot  in  depth 
with  coal-ashes  or  other  carbonaceous  substance, 
and  afterwards  with  earth  or  gravel. 

If  it  be  possilile,  in  regulating  the  surface  drainage 
to  lead  a  flow  of  water,  during  the  rain  which  gen- 


erally accompanies  thunder-storms,  over  the  site  of 
the  trenches,  it  will  be  an  additional  precaution. 
Tanks  are  useless,  except  where  the  water  flows 
freely  into  them  from  the  surrounding  soil,  and  even 
then  they  are  superfluous  as  appendages  to  the  con- 
ductors. 

The  conductors  for  brick  or  stone  magazines  with 
.slate  roofs  should' consist  of  a  sheet-copper  strip  4 
inches  wide. and  .12.5  inches  thick, covering  the  ridge, 
and  securely  fixed  to  it  by  wrought-copper  nails. 
At  each  end  of  the  ridge  a  solid  copper  rod  .5  inch 
in  diameter  is  securely  fixed  to  the  conductor  on  the 
ridge;  and  projects  about  5  feet  above  the  high- 
est point  of  the  buUding.  Upper  end  of  this  rod 
is  carefully  pointed  Copper  strips  about  3  inches 
wide,  or  copper  tubes  nearly  one  inch  in  diameter, 
pass  down  the  angles  of  the  hip,  and  are  firmly 
secured  to  the  copper  eaves-gutter.  The  descending 
water-pipes,  made  also  of  copper,  and  fastened  to 
the  face  of  the  building  by  copper  holdfasts,  are 
connected  at  their  lower  end  to  the  underground 
conductor  by  a  piece  of  copper,  3  inches  wide, 
wrappeii  around  the  lower  end  of  the  water-pipes  and 
riveted  to  the  imdergrotind  conductor.  The  under- 
ground conductor  runs  out  from  the  building  4  feet, 
and  then  branches  into  two  parts,  each  8  feet  long, 
2  inches  wide,  and  .Vi^i  inch  thick.  These  conduc- 
tors are  about  2..'>  feet  from  the  surface  of  the 
ground  at  the  lower  end,  and  arc  covered  with  coal 
ashes  and  earth.  The  copper  sheathings  on  the 
doors  and  windows  are  connected  with  the  lower 
end  of  the  water-pipes  bj-  flat  copper  strips,  2  inches 
wide,  fixed  to  the  water-table  1)V  copper  nails  driven 
into  wooden  plugs  about  10  feci  apart.    When  lubu- 


IIGHTNINO  MAGAZINE  GUN. 


213 


LIMBER. 


lar  coiKluclnrs  cannot  be  had  of  suniciciil  IcnKtIi  in 
one  pic('<;,  llicy  arc  <'onni'ctcil  ]ty  n  union  joint,  anil 
Ntrcngtiicncd  l)y  a  small  pipe  or  fcrrnlc,  about  4 
inches  lont;,  insiilcthc  tube,  anilrivi'ted  to  each  end. 
Buildiiif^s  which  liave  the  eavcs-^;ullers  and  down- 
pipes  niad(M>f  tin  or  xinc  should  liavi^  a  main  <'on- 
ductor  communicatini;  directly  with  the  f^round  ;  it 
shoidd  also  be  connected  with  the  eaves-flutters,  and 
the  down-pipe  should  connect  by  a  mi'tallic  commu- 
nication with  thegronnd,  ruiuiiii!;  out  some  distance 
from  the  buildinf^.  Incase  of  liuildini;s  sitiiale<l  on 
a  dry  or  rocky  soil,  ('special  pains  must  always  b(^ 
taken  to  lay  down  old  chains  or  other  condiiclors  in 
various  directions,  to  at  least  a  distance  of  10  to 
t.'i  yards,  anil  from  1  foot  to  \.r>  feet  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  i;round  ;  and,  if  i)Ossibli',  lead  a  How  of 
rain  over  the  surface  of  the  cround  about  or  near 
the  condnctor.  Let  the  conductor  terminate  in  a 
large  surface  of  moist  earth  whenever  it  can  be  ef- 
fected. 

If  copper  be  not  used  for  conductors,  /.inc  is  the 
next  best  material  of  which  they  can  be  made.  If 
iron  be  used,  it  shoidd  be  in  the  .ohape  of  galvanized 
wrought-iron  pipe,  not  less  than  2  inches  in  diame- 
ter, tirmly  screwed  together  in  joints  of  e.xtra  thick- 
ness. 

Copper  tube,  of  a  thickness  of  from  .12.')  to  .3 
inch  is  always  to  be  preferred  :   it  has  more  than  five 


times  the  capacity  for  conducting  electricity  that 
iron  has,  and  more  tlum  three  times  that  of  zinc. 
See  Piiirdir  DijuiU. 

LIGHTNING  MAGAZINE  GUN.— The  inventors  of 
this  rilie,  the  (Jolt's  Patent  Kire-arnis  Maniifacttiring 
Co.,  have  adopted  the  left-handed  method  of  hand- 
ling, which  enables  the  breech-action  to  be  nuieh 
simplified  and  lightened  without  detracting  from  its 
strength.  The  cartridge  used  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  44  caliber  C'olt  revolver;  it  contains  40  grain 
of  powder,  and  the  b\illet  weighs  200  grains.  The 
drawing  shows  the  arm  and  its  parts  in  position 
ready  for  tiring. 

To  load  and  tire,  tiring  the  piece  to  the  shoulder  in 
the  usual  wa}' ;  grasp  the  handle  of  the  slide  -•l,with 


over  the  cartridge-head  hrfirre  the  inagazine-gute 
will  allow  another  cartridge  to  \»-  fed  to  the  carrier, 
thus  preventing  blorking  of  the  breech-action.  The 
liring-pin  is  held  liack  positively  until  the  cartridge 
has  entind  the  chamber,  when  the  bolt  is  locked  so 
that  ]irciiialure  explosion  is  impossible.  The  ham- 
mer jis  automatically  locked  and  unlocked  by  the 
hook  on  the  rear  end  of  the  magazine-gate.  By 
this  arrangement  the  rille  may  be  loaded  and  dis- 
charged by  the  reciprocating  motion  of  the  slide, 
keejiing  the  trigger  constantly  pressed  back  during 
the  motion  by  I  he  forefinger  of  the  right  hand.  The 
magazine  can  only  be  charged  when  the  slide  is 
drawn  to  the  rear. 

To  take  apart  the  rifle,  take  out  the  tang-screw. 
Draw  oir  the  butt-stock.  Take  out  the  magazine- 
screw  at  the  front  end  and  remove  the  magazine. 
Take  out  the  two  side  screws,  cock  the  piece,  draw 
the  slide  about  half  way  to  the  rear,  and  withdraw 
the  trigge--plale.  Slide  the  bolt  dear  back,  insert  a 
punch  in  the  small  hole  on  the  left  hand  side,  and 
push  out  the  locking-brace  pin.  and  slide  out  the 
lock.  The  other  parts  can  be  removed  without  spec- 
ial directions.  To  assemble  the  rifle,  replace  the 
jiarts  in  the  reverse  order  from  that  given  for  tak- 
ing the  rifle  apart      See  Colt  Mar/(tzine-rijle. 

LIGHTS.  —In  pyrotechny,  lights  are  made  by  press- 
ing lance  or  similar  composition  in  shallow  vessels, 
or  in  cases  of  large  diameter.  The  burning  surface 
being  large,  the  light  attains  a  great  intensity. 

Shallow  earthern,  wooden,  or  metal  vases  or  paper 
cases  are  used.  The  vase  or  case  is  filled  with  dry 
composition,  slightly  pressed  in ;  or  composition, 
moistened  with  gummed  water  maj'  be  used  and 
pressed  in  the  case  more  compactly.  It  is  primed 
i)y  powdering  the  surface  first  with  a  mixture  of 
eipial  parts  of  the  comitositiou  and  mealed  powder, 
and  then  with  powder  alone.  Cover  the  top  over 
with  paper,  pasted  on  the  sides  of  the  case.  Through 
the  center  of  the  cover  i)ass  several  strands  of  quick- 
match,  spreading  them  over  the  suface  and  uniting 
them  on  the  e.xterior  in  a  single  strand. 

When  the  light  is  made  with  dry  composition,  the 


the  left  hand  and  draw  it  to  the  rear.  The  first  part 
of  this  movement  raises  the  locking  brace, /?,from  the 
abutment.  C,  acts  upon  the  tiring-pin-lever,  /.'.with- 
draws the  firing-pin,  E,  and  releases  the  magazine- 
gate,  F.  causing  it  to  hold  back  the  cartridge  in  the 
magazine.  Continuing  the  movement,  the  bolt.  O, 
moves  to  the  rear,  ejects  the  cartridge-shell,  cocks 
the  hammer,//,  and  raises  the  carrier, /,so  that  when 
the  movement  is  finished,  the  cartridge  is  in  proper 
position  to  enter  the  chamlier.  The  slide  is  then 
drawn  forward.  This  movement  carries  the  bolt  for- 
ward, drives  the  cartridge  into  the  chamber,  throws 
down  the  carrier  into  position  to  receive  another  car- 
tridge, and  the  rifle  is  ready  for  firing. 

A   feature   peculiar   to   this  rifle   is,  the   lock   is 
brought  clear  forward  and  the  extractor  is  hooked 


case  must  be  placed  in  a  vertical  position.  It  may 
be  placed  horizontally  if  moistened  composition  be 
used  and  firmly  packed. 

Torch-ligliU  for  funeral  ceremonies  are  made  bj' 
impregnating  large  strands  of  cotton  with  a  thin  al- 
coholic pap,  the  whole  arranged  in  vases  like  an  oil- 
lamp,  the  pap  replacing  the  oil.      See  Fire>ri>rks. 

LIMBEE. — To  suit  a  gim-carriage  to  the  easy  and 
rapid  transportation  of  its  load.it  must  be  convert- 
ed into  a/"'/)--wheel  carriage,  which  is  done  by  at- 
taching it  to  another  iiry-wheel  carriage,  called  a 
Umber.  The  field-limber  is  composed  of  an  -nxletree 
(1),  a/orA  (2).  two  hound.t  (.3  3),  a  splinter-bar  (4), 
ivt'O  foot-boa fd.i  (5  5),  a  pole  (6),  &piiitle-huok  and  key 
(7),  two  pole-gokes  (8),  and  a  pole-pad  (9).  A  side 
view  of  the  limber  is   shown  in  the  article  Caisson. 


UUBES-CHAIH. 


214 


LIMITS. 


with  the  manner  of  attaching  the  rear  carriage  to  the 
pintle-hook.  The  limber  a.\le-lree  is  made  of  iron, 
imbedded  in  a  body  of  wood,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
gun-carriage.    Ttie  fork  constitutes  the  middle  por- 


tion of  the  limber,  and  is  the  portion  to  which  the 
pole  is  attached.     It  is  formed  of  a   single  piece  of 
wood  one   end  of  which  is  mortised  into  the  axle- 
body,  and  secured  by  the  pintle-hook  bolts,  and  the 
other  is  cut   into  the   shape  of  a  fork,  to  receive  the 
tenon  of  the  pole.  The  hounds  are  two  wooden  rails 
which  are  bolted  to  the  axle-body  and  splinter-bar. 
They  serve  to  support   the  ends  of  the  limber-chest 
andfoot-boards,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  trans- 
mitting the  draught  of  the  horses  to  the  axle-tree. 
Tlie  chest  is  firmly  secured  by  a  stay-plate  which 
is   situated  at   the    bottom  of    the  cut  in  the  fork, 
and  two  stay-pins,  which  pass  through  holes  near 
the  rear  ends  of  the  hounds.     The  spUnter-bar  is  a 
piece  of  wood  placed  cross-wise  with  the  pole,  and 
is  firmly  secured  to  the  fork  and  hounds.     It  has 
four  hooks,  to  which  the  traces  of  the  wheel  horses 
are  attached.     The  pole,  or  tongue,  is  employed  to 
regulate  the  motion,  and  give   direction  to  the  car- 
riage.    The  point  of  attachment  of  the  rear  carriage 
being  near  the  axle-tree,  and  there  being  no  sweep- 
bar,  "the  weight  of  the  pole   is  mostlj-  supported  by 
the  collars  of  the  rear  horses  :  it  should  therefore 
be  made   of   strong,  light  wood — asli   is   generally 
used  for  this  purpose.     As  the  pole  is  liable  to  be 
broken  in  ordinarj'  service,  the  method  of  attaching 
it  to  the  fork  should  alwa3's  be  such  that  all  of  the 
fragments   can  be  promptly   removed,   and  a  new 
pole  inserted.  The  foot-boards  are  secured  to  the  fork 
and  hounds  in  a  proper  position  for  the  feet  of  the 
cannoneers  to  rest  upon,  while  riding  upon  the  lim- 
ber-chest.     The   pintle-hook   is   a  stout  iron  hook 
firmly  fastened  to  the  rear  of  the  axle-tree,  for  the 
purpose  of  attaching  the  rear  carriage.      This  mode 
of  attachment  is  simple,  strong,    and  flexible— quaXi- 
ties  which  are  essential  to  rapid   movements   and 
great  endurance.  The  point  of  the  hook  is  perforated 
with  a  liole  for  the  pintle-key,  which  prevents  the 
carriages  from  separating  while  in  motion.      In  the 
old  system  of   field-carriages,  the  operation  of  lim- 
bering   and  of  imlimbering  was  so  difficult,  that  a 
rope,  called  a  "prolouge,"  was  used  to  connect  the 
gun-carriage  and  limber  in  action.     This  implement 
is  still  retained,  but  the  same  necessity  does  not  ex- 
ist for  using  it.     All  field-carriages  should  admit  of 
being  turned  in  the  shortest  possible  space.     This 
depends  upon  the  size  of  the  front  wheels,  the  dis- 
tance  between   the  front   and   rear  a.xle-trees.  the 
position  of  the  pintle,  and  the  thickness  of  the  stock 
at  the  point  where  the  front  wheel  strikes  it.     Not- 
withstanding that  the  front  wheels  are  made  higher 
in   the   present   system   of  field-carriages  tlian"  the 
(Jribeauval  system,  which  preceded  it,  the  carriages 
of  tli('   former   have   greater  facilit}'  of  turninjf  in 
consequence    of   the   diminished   thickness   of  the 
stock.     See  i) iin-i'arrimjes. 

LIMBER  CHAIN.— A  keep-chain  wliich  goes  round 
■  the  iiinlli-  ami    confines  the  trail  to  tlie  liml)er,  pre- 
venting its  llyini;  off  the  limber-hook. 

LIMBER  CHEST.— The  ammunition  or  tool-chest 
belonging  to  the  limber  of  an  artillery  carriage  of 
any  (h-scription.  Those  of  the  gun-carriage  and 
caisson  are  fitted  up  as  ammunition-cliests,  while 
those  of  the  forge   and  battery  wagon  contain  re- 


spectively tools  and  stores  for  blacksmiths,  and  for 
carriaL'c-makers'  and  saddlers'  use. 

LIMBER  HOOK.— The  hook  on  the  limber  to  which 
the  trail  of  the  gun  is  attached. 

LIMBERING-UP  HOOP.— A  stirrup-handle  on  the 
trail  of  a  gtm  by  which  the  piece  is  moved  in  lim- 
bering and  unlimbering. 

LIMBER  PITS.— Artificial  cover  provided  in  war- 
fare for  tlie  limbers  of  guns.  They  are  usually  12 
feet  long,  Ti\  feet  wide  at  bottom,  7  feet  at  top,  3 
feet  deep,  and  provided  with  ramps  at  each  end. 
A  pit  of  this  size  can  be  executed  in  two  liours  by 
eight  men.  Each  pit  should  cover  a  limber  and 
two  horses. 

LIMENARftUE.— An  office"  of  distinction,  which  ex- 
isted in  the  Roman  Empire.  The  persons  invested 
with  it  were  directed  to  watch  the  frontiers  of  the 
Empire,  and  they  commanded  the  troops  that  were 
employed  upon  tliat  service. 

LIMITARY.- The  guard  or  superintendent  placed 
at  tlie  confines  or  boundaries  of  any  Kingdom  or 
State. 

LIMITATION  OF  TIME  OF  PROSECUTION.— In  the 
United  States  Army,  no  person  is  liable  to  be  tried 
and  punished  by  a  General  Court-Martial  for  any  of- 
fense which  appears  to  have  been  committed  more 
than  two  years  before  the  issuing  of  the  order  for 
such  trial,  unless,  by  reason  of  having  absented  him- 
self, or  of  some  other  manifest  impediment,  he  shall 
not  have  been  amenable  to  justice  within  that  per- 
iod. 

LIMITES  ROMANI. — The  name  of  a  continuous 
series  of  fortifications,  consisting  of  castles,  walls, 
earthen  ramparts,  and  the  like,  which  the  Romans 
erected  along  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  to  protect 
their  possessions  from  the  numerous  attacks  of  the 
Germans. 

LIMITS. — The  importance  of  the  notion  of  a  limit 
in  gunnery  cannot  be  over-estimated,  since  many 
branches  of  mathematics,  including  the  differential 
calculus  and  its  adjuncts  consist  of  nothing  else 
than  tracing  the  consequences  which  flow  from  this 
notion.  The  following  are  simple  illustraticms  of 
tlie  idea :  The  sum  of  the  series  l-t-i  +  T+i  + 
etc.,  approaches  nearer  and  nearer  to  2  as  the  num- 
ber of  terms  is  increased  ;  thus,  the  several  sums  are 
H,  \,\  IJ,  1}!,  etc.,  each  sum  always  differing  from 
2"by  a  fraction  equal  to  the  last  of  the  terms  which 
have  been  added ;  and  since  each  denominator  is 
doulile  of  the  preceding  one,  the  further  the  series 
is  extended,  the  less  the  difference  between  its  sum 
and  2  becomes ;  also  this  difference  may  be  made 
smaller  than  any  assignable  qtiantitj- — say,  -njo'oirtt 
— by  merely  extending  the  series  till  the  last  denom- 
inator becomes  greater  than  100,000  (for  this,  we 
need  onl}'  take  18  terms  ;  3  terms  more  will  give  a 
difference  less  than  -nnnrBlra  '■>  ^'^^  ^o  on);again,  the 
sum  of  the  series  cannever  be  greater  than  2,  for  the 
difference,  though  steadily  diminishing,  still  sub- 
sists ;  under  these  circumstances,  2  is  said  to  be  the 
limit  of  the  sum  of  the  series.  We  see,  then,  that 
the  criteria  of  a  limit  are,  that  the  series,  when  ex- 
tended, shall  approach  nearer  and  nearer  to  it  in  value 
and  so  that  the  difference  can  be  made  as  small  as  we 
please.  Again,  the  area  of  a  circle  is  greater  than 
that  of  an  inscribed  hexagon,  and  less  than  that  of  a 
circumscribed  hexagon  ;  but  if  these  polygons  be  con- 
verted into  figures  of  12  sides,  the  area  of  the  inter- 
ior one  will  be  increased.and  thatof  the  exterior  one 
diminishi'd,  llie  area  of  the  circle  always  con- 
tinuing intermediate  in  position  and  in  value  ;  ami 
as  the  number  of  sides  is  increased,  each  poly- 
gon approaches  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  circle 
m  size;  and  since,  wlien  the  sides  are  equal,  this 
difference  can  be  made  as  small  as  we  please,  the 
circle  is  said  to  be  the  limit  of  an  equilateral  polygon 
the  number  of  whose  sides  is  increased  indefinitely; 
or,  in  another  form  of  words  commonly  used.  "  The 
polygon  approaches  the  circle  as  its  limit,  when  its 
sides  increase  without  limit,"  or  again,  "  When  the 


LiailTS  OF  FIRE. 


215 


LINE. 


nimiber  of  sides  is  infinite,  llie  ijolyj-'oii  liiciinies 
H  circle."  When  wi;  use  the  terms  ••iiitinite"  ami 
"  zero  "  in  inatheniitties,  imthini;  more  is  ineiint  Ihiin 
tlmttlie  (|iiiintily  In  wliieh  the  term  is  applied  is  iii- 
crt'tixlntj  iritftniit  liiiu't  or  tliminUitinij ittiUjiiiitt'ltl',  and, 
if  this  were  kept  in  mind,  tlieri'  would  he  mucli  less 
confusion  in  the  ideas  eonneeled  with  thes(;  terms; 
from  the  same  cause  has  arisen  the  discussion  c(jn- 
cernim;  the  p()ssil)ilily  of  what  are  called  vanishing 
fractions  (/.  e.,  fractions,  whose  numerator  and  de- 
nominator become  zero  simultaneously;  having  real 
!»  —  1     0 

values;  thus =  -  when  x=  1;  but  by  divi- 

a;    —  1     0 
sion  we  find  that  the  fraction  is  equal  to  «+  1. 
which  =  2,    when  a:   =:   1.     Now,    this   discussion 
could  never  have  arisen  had   the   question  lieen   in- 

J»  —  1    ■ 

terpreled  rightly,  as  follows  :         approachesto 

X  —  1 
2  lis  its  limit,  when  x  continually  apjiroaches  1  as  its 
limit,  a  proposition  which  can  be  proved  true  by  sub- 
stituting successively  ;i,  2,  H,  1|,  1,'j,  Iti'io'  e'c, 
when  the  corresponding  values  of  the  fraction  are 
4.  ;).  2J,  2|,  2|Jf,,  2,iif,,  etc.  The  doctrine  of  limits  is 
employed  in  the  dilTereutial  calculus.  The  tiest  and 
most  com])letc  illustrations  of  it  are  found  in  New- 
ton's I'riiiripid,  and  in  the  chapters  on  maxima  and 
minima,  curves,  summation  of  series,  and  integra- 
tion generally,  in  the  ordinary  works  on  the  calcu- 
lus. 

LIMITS  OF  FIRE. —'Within  the  limits  of  the  zones 
of  (lavjger,  ])ositions  are  found  for  front,  for  reverse, 
an<l  for  enlilading  tire.  If  the  two  faces,  for  exam- 
ple, of  a  work  be  prolimged  to  intersect  the  extreme 
limit  of  dangerous  ground,  the  sector  whic'i  they 
embrace  is  termed  the  limits  of  dirrct  or  fnmt  fire; 
since,  from  every  position  that  can  be  taken  up 
within  this  sector,  a  direct  fire  alone  can  be  brought 
to  bear  upon  the  two  faces.  The  two  sectors  which 
lie  adjacent  to  this  are  termed  the  limits  of  lateral,  or 
reverse  fire,  since  they  afTord  positions  from  which  a 
reverse  fire  can  be  obtained  against  one  of  the  faces, 
and  a  front  fire  upon  the  other.  It  is  also  only  within 
these  last  limits  that  positions  for  enfilading  the  terre- 
pleins  of  the  faces  can  be  obtained.     Sec  Defilement. 

LINCH-FIN. — A  pin  through  the  end  of  an  axle-arm 
of  an  artillery  carriage  to  keep  the  wlx'el  on.  A  hook 
attached  to  the  head  of  the  ])iii  and  embracing  the 
axle-arm  prevents  the  pin  from  being  jolted  out.  A 
ring  against  which  the  linch-pin  rubs  is  called  the 
Liwli-pin  Wa-ilKr. 

LINE. — 1.  In  fencing,  an  imaginary  line  opposite 
to  the  fencer,  wherein  the  shoulders,  right  arm,  and 
the  sword  should  always  be  found,  and  wherein  are 
also  to  be  placed  the  two  feet  at  the  distance  of  18 
inches  apart.  2.  In  tactics,  a  body  of  men  in  either 
one  or  two  ranks;  generally  a  body  of  troops  drawn 
up  with  an  extended  front.  3.  An  expression  used 
in  the  15ritish  Army  to  distinguish  ordinary  Cavalry 
and  Infantry  from  the  Guards.  Artillery,  and  Engi- 
neers. It  obviously  takes  its  origin  from  the  fact 
that  the  troops  in  question  constituted  the  usual 
"  Line  of  Battle."  4.  The  Line  Officers  of  the  Navy  ; 
and  Army  in  the  L'nitcd  States  are  divided  into  eleven  i 
grades,  and  their  comparative  rank  on  the  active  or 
retired  list  is  as  follows: 

The  Admiral  of  the  Navy  ranks  with  a  General  of 
the  Army. 

The  Vice  Admiral  of  the  Navy  ranks  with  a  Lieu- ! 
tenant  General  of  the  Army. 

10  Rear  Admirals  of  the  Navy  rank  with  Major 
Generals  of  the  Army.  \ 

2.5  Commodores  of   the  Navy  rank  with  Brigadier  : 
Generals  of  the  Army. 

50  Captains  of  the  Navy  rank  with  Colonels  of  the  1 
Army. 

90  Commanders  of  the  Navy  rank  uiih  Lieutenant 
Colonels  of  the  Army.  1 


80  Lieutenant  Commanders  of  the  Navy  rank  with 

.Majors  of  I  he  .\rmy. 

2H()  I.iiMitenants  of  the  Navy  rank  with  Captains  of 
the  Army. 

100  .Masters  of  the  Navy  rank  with  First  Lieuten- 
ants of  tiie  Army. 

100  Knsigns  of  the  Navy  rank  witli  Second  Li(Mi- 
anls  of  the  Army. 

.Midslilpmen  of  the  Navy. 

All  SlalV  Olliiirs  are  appointed  by  the  President 
with  the  sanclion  of  the  Senate.  He-  also  appoints 
for  vessels  in  actual  service  all  Warrant  Ollicers. such 
as  boatswains,  gunners,  sail-makers,  and  carpenters, 
that  may  be  reipiirefl.  All  ollicers  not  entitled  to 
hold  warrants  are  called  I'elly  Ollicers.  AH  ctlicers 
of  the  Army  above  the  grade  of  Sergeant  hold  their 
authority  by  commissions,  and  are  therefore  termed 
Commissioned  Officers,  to  distinguish  them  from 
Non-commissioned  (officers. 

Presi<ient  Fillmore  in  General  Orders,  No.  ."jil,  of 
ISiOl,  has  given  the  following  satisfactory  exposition 
of  the  use  of  the  word  IJiie  in  our  Statute  Book  : 
The  132(1  Article  of  War  provides  that  "If.  upon 
marches,  guards,  or  in  (|Uarters,  different  corps  of 
the  Army  shall  happen  to  join,  or  do  duty  together, 
the  officer  highest  in  rank  of  tlie  Line  of  the  Army, 
.Marine  Corps  or  Jlililia,  by  commission  there,  on 
duty,  or  in  quarters,  shall  command  the  whole,  and 
give  orders  for  wliat  is  needful  to  the  service,  unless 
otherwise  specially  directed  by  the  President  of  the 
United  Slates,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case." 
The  interpretatiim  of  this  Act  has  long  been  a  sub- 
ject of  controversy.  The  difficulty  arises  from  the 
vague  and  uncertain  meaning  of  the  words  '"Line 
of  Uie  Army,"  which,  neither  in  the  Knglish  service, 
(from  which  most  of  our  military  terms  are  bor- 
rowed), nor  in  our  own,  have  a  well-defined  and  in- 
variable meaning.  By  some  they  are  understood  to 
designate  the  Regular  Army  as  distinguisiied  from 
the  Militia;  by  others,  as  meant  to  discriminate  be- 
tween officers  by  ordinary  commissions  and  those  by 
brevet ;  and,  finally,  by  others,  to  designate  all  offi- 
cers not  belonging  to  the  Staff.  The  question  is 
certainly  not  without  very  great  difficulty,  and  it  is 
certainly  surprising  that  Congress  should  not  long 
since  have  settled,  by  some  explanatory  law.  a  ques- 
tion which  has  been  so  fruitful  a  source  of  contro- 
ver.sy  and  embarassmcnt  in  the  service.  The  Pres- 
ident has  maturely  considered  the  question,  and 
finds  himself  compelled  to  dilTcr  from  some  for 
whose  opinions  he  entertains  a  very  high  respect. 
His  opinion  is,  that,  although  these  words  may  some- 
times be  used  in  a  different  sense,  (to  be  determined 
by  the  context  and  subject-matter,)  in  the  122d  Article 
of  W'ar,  they  are  used  to  designate  those  officers  of 
the  ,\rmy  who  do  7iot  belong  to  the  Staff,  in  contra- 
distinction to  those  who  do,  and  that  the  article  in- 
tended, in  the  case  contemplated  by  it,  to  confer  the 
command  exclusively  on  the  former.  The  reasons 
which  have  brought  him  to  this  conclusion  are  briefly 
these  :  1st.  It  is  a  well-settled  rule  of  interpreta- 
tion that  in  the  construction  of  stntntes,  words  of 
doubtful  or  ambiguous  meaning  are  to  be  understood 
in  their  usual  acceptation.  Now  it  must  be  admit- 
ted that,  in  common  parlance,  both  in  and  out  of  the 
Army,  the  words  '•Line"and  •StatF'  are  generally 
used  as  correlative  terms.  2d.  Another  rule  of 
constructiou  is,  that  the  same  word  ought  not  to  be 
understood,  when  it  can  be  avoided,  in  two  different 
senses  in  different  laws,  on  the  same  subject,  and, 
especially,  in  different  parts  of  the  same  law.  Now 
in  another  article  of  this  same  law.  the  words  '•  Line 
andi>taff  of  the  Arm}  "  are  clearly  and  beyond  ques- 
tion used  as  correlative  and  conlradistinctive  terms. 
The  same  remark  applies  equally  well  to  almost 
every  case  in  which  the  words  "•  Line  "  and  "  Staff" 
occur  in  the  numerous  Acts  of  Congress.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  but  one  Act  of  Congress  in 
which  the  words  "  Line  of  the  Array"  have  been  pur- 
posely employed  to  designate  the  Regular  Army  in 


LINEAX  RANK. 


216 


LINE  OF  COnNTERMAECH. 


contradistinction  to  the  Militia,  and  none  in  ■which 
they  have  been  manifestly  used  as  coutradistinctive 
of  brevet.  3d.  If  Congress  had  meant  hy  these  words 
to  discriminate  between  officers  of  the  Reg  alar  Army 
and  those  of  the  Militia,  or  between  officein  by  bre- 
vet and  by  ordinary  commission,  it  is  to  be  presum- 
ed that  tiicj-  would  have  employed  those  terms,  re- 
spectively, which  are  unequivocal,  and  arc  usuallj' 
emploj'ed  to  express  those  ideas.  4th.  If  we  look 
at  the  policy  of  the  law,  we  can  discover  no  reasons 
of  expedieucj-  which  compel  us  to  depart  from  the 
plain  and  ordinary  import  of  the  terms  :  on  the  con- 
trarj%  we  may  suppose  strong  reasons  why  it  ma}' 
have  been  deemed  proper,  in  tlie  case  referred  to  by 
the  Article, to  exclude  officers  of  the  Staff  fromcom- 
mand.  In  the  first  place,  the  command  of  troops 
might  frequently  interfere  with  their  ajipropriate 
duties,  and  thereby  occasion  serious  embarrassment 
to  the  service.  In  the  next  place,  the  officers  of  some 
of  the  Staff  Corps  are  not  qualified  by  their  habits 
and  education  for  the  command  of  troops,  and  al- 
though others  are  so  qualified, it  arises  from  the  fact 
that  (by  laws  passed  long  subsequently  to  the  Ar- 
ticle in  question)  the  officers  of  tlie  Corps  to  which 
they  belong,  are  required  to  be  appointed  from  the 
Line  of  the  Army.  Lastly,  officers  of  the  Staff 
Corps  seldom  have  troops  of  their  own  Corps  serv- 
ing under  their  command,  and  if  the  words  "Offi- 
cers of  the  Line"  are  understood  to  apply  to  them, 
the  effect  would  often  be  to  give  tliem  command 
over  the  officers  and  men  of  all  the  other  Corps,  when 
not  a  man  of  their  own  was  present — an  anomaly  al- 
ways to  be  most  scrupulously  avoided  where  it  is 
is  in  any  manner  possible  to  do  so.  5th.  It  is 
worthy  of  observation  that  Article  25,  of  the  first 
"  Rules  and  Articles."  enacted  by  Congress  for  the 
government  of  the  Army,  corresponds  with  Article 
122  of  the  present  Rules  and  Articles,  except  that  the 
words  "  of  the  Line  of  the  Army  "  are  not  contained 
in  it.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  these  words  were 
inserted  intentionally  with  a  view  to  a  change  in  the 
law,  and  it  is  probable  that  some  inconvenience 
had  arisen  from  conferring  command  indiscrimin- 
ately on  officers  of  the  Line  or  the  Staff, and  had  sug- 
gested the  necessity  of  this  change.  It  is  contended, 
liowever,  that  Sec.  lO.oftheAct  of  1795,  enumerates 
the  3Iajor  General  and  Brigadier  General  as  among 
the  Staff  Officers,  and  that  this  construction  of  the 
Article  would  exclude  them  from  command,  which 
would  be  an  absurdity.  No  such  consequence  would, 
however,  follow.  The  Article  in  question  was  obvious- 
ly designed  to  meet  the  case  (of  not  unfrequent  occur- 
rence) where  officers  of  different  Corps  of  the  Army 
meet  together  witli  no  officer  among  them  who  does 
not  belong  exclusively  to  a  Corps.  In  such  a  case, 
there  being  no  common  Superior,  iuthe  absence  of  some 
express  provision  conferring  the  power,  no  officer, 
merely  of  a  Corps,  would  have  the  right  to  command 
any  Corps  but  his  own;  to|obviate  this  difficulty,  the 
Article  in  effect  provides  that,  in  such  an  event,  the 
Officer  of  the  Line,  highest  in  rank,  shall  command 
the  rest.  But  if  there  be  a  Major  General  or  Briga- 
dier General  present,  the  case  contemplated  by 
the  Article  does  not  exist.  No  question  can  arise 
as  to  the  right  of  command,  because  the  General  Offi- 
cer, not  belonging  to  any  particular  Cc^rps,  takes  the 
command  by  virtue  of  the  general  rule  which  assigns 
the  command  to  the  officer  highest  in  rank.  See 
Brerrt.  Coniiiiand.  and  Rank. 

LINEAX  RANK.  — The  rank  of  a  Line-officer  in  his 
particular  arm  of  tlie  service.  The  Unenl  promotion 
of  a  Line-officer  is  his  promotion  according  to  sen- 
iority in  the  arm  of  service,  as  opposed  to  promotion 
in  the  reiriment. 

LINE  OF  BATTLE.— The  formation  of  an  army  for 
battle.  In  all  actions  it  is  necessary  to  place  troops 
in  such  a  formation  previous  to  making  the  assault, 
or  in  showing  front  to  the  adversary,  as  shall  expose 
them  as  little  as  possiljle,  and  yet  place  them  in  the 
readiest  mode  to  carry  out  the  orders  of  the  Com- 


mander. It  has  been  the  custom  from  a  verj'  ancient 
date,  coming  to  us  from  the  Romans,  and  an  ac- 
•x-pted  principle  by  most  nations,  that  an  army, 
when  drawn  up  for  battle,  should  be  formed  in  three 
distinct  lines  ;  the  fimt  line,  to  commence  the  battle  ; 
the  second,  to  support  it.  and  to  fill  up  the  gaps;  the 
third  which  is  in  rear  of  all,  as  a  reserve. 

This  triple  formation,  though  modified,  remains 
much  the  same  at  the  present  day;  but  instead  of 
deployed  lines  or  lines  of  heavy  columns,  the  troops 
are  placed  in  lines  of  half-column  formation.  This 
has  been  rendered  necessary  from  the  withering  fire 
and  long  rauge  of  the  present  arms  of  precision, 
which  necessitate  the  reduction  of  the  front  of  bat- 
talions. It  has  also  become  necessary,  whether  tak- 
ing the  offensive  or  standing  on  the  defensive,  that 
shelter,  either  artificial  (such  as  shelter-trenches)  or 
natural,  should  be  taken  advantage  of  to  screen  the 
men  as  much  as  possible,  and  so  not  to  expose  them 
(in  the  case  of  an  attacking  party)  more  than  can  be 
helped  before  the  moment  of  formation  previous  to 
the  final  rush  in  upon  the  enemj^'s  position. 

LINE  OF  CIRCUMVALLAIION.— The  front  and  the 
rear  of  camps  around  a  besieged  place  are  secured 
by  lines  of  field  works.  The  exterior  line  of  works, 
termed  the  Line  of  CircumtaUation,  should  form  an 
unbroken  line  of  intrenchments  composed  of  the 
most  simple  clementarj'  parts,  as  tenailles,  redans, 
etc.,  witli  a  slight  profile;  its  chief  object  being  to 
prevent  succors  of  small  detachments  from  slipping 
into  the  place.  The  interior  line,  termed  the  LJne 
of  CounterTalliition.  is  composed  of  detached  works, 
which,  if  the  garrison  is  strong,  should  be  in  defens- 
ive relations.  The  main  points  whicli  sliould  be 
occupied  by  these  works  are  the  principal  avenues 
to  the  defenses,  and  the  positions  selected  for  the 
parks  of  the  siege-train;  to  secure  these  points  from 
the  attempts  of  the  garrison,  and  to  render  the 
entrance  of  large  convojs  into  the  defenses  imprac- 
ticable. The  lines  are  so  placed  as  to  leave  a  space 
of  about  200  yards  between  them  and  the  front  and 
rear  of  the  camps. 

When  the  great  extent  of  ground  that  must  be 
taken  up  ly  a  besieging  force,  in  the  investment  of 
anj-  considerable  posiflon,  which  requires  to  be 
entirely  surrounded  to  cut  off  all  communication 
between  it  and  the  exterior,  is  taken  into  considera- 
tion, particularl}-  now  when  rifled  guns  have  ac- 
quired such  long  ranges,  it  will  be  seen  tliat  com- 
plete lines  of  circumvallation  will  be  seldom 
practicable,  and  in  most  cases  must  be  of  too  weak 
a  character  to  serve  as  an  intrenched  defensive 
position  for  the  besieging  force  to  receive  battle 
within  them.  Accordingly,  in  the  later  sieges  in 
Europe,  continuous  Hues  of  circumvallation  have 
been  seldom  resorted  to ;  the  besiegers  contenting 
themselves  with  occupying  oulj-  the  main  points  of 
their  position  liy  field  works,  and  giving  the  inter- 
vening space  such  protection  as  could  be  afforded 
by  strong  patrols  and  posts  This  departure  from 
former  practice  arose,  iu  most  cases,  from  the  want 
of  strength  of  the  besieging  force,  and  was  fre- 
quently attended  by  the  very  events  against  which 
lines  are  chiefly  effectual  in  guarding.  As  a  field 
of  battle  against  a  succoring  force  of  sufficient  strength 
to  cope  with  the  besieging  army,  a  position  taken 
behind  a  line  of  circumvallation  is  but  in  rare  excep- 
tions eligible,  a  maxim  tliat  applies  to  all  extended 
and  weak  lines ;  and  iu  :ilniost  every  case,  where  a 
serious  effort  has  been  made  against  such  positions 
it  has  proved  successful,  and  has  entailed  heavy 
loss  on  the  besiegers.  But,  it  must  be  repeated,  as 
tills  is  not  the  object  of  these  lines,  they  are  not 
open  to  this  objection ;  and,  as  they  have  been 
found  serviceable  for  the  sole  purpose'  to  which  they 
should  be  applied,  they  ouglit  to  be  thrown  \\\i  in  all 
cases  where  the  means  of  the  besiegers  will  admit  of 
it.     See  I ntrt  itrhtd  <'oin]is. 

LINE  OF  COUNTERMARCH.— A  sort  of  a  trench 
whicli  the  besieged  make,   and  push  forward  from 


LINE  OF  COUNTEKVALLATION. 


217 


LINE  OF  OFEBATIONB. 


tlir  cliicis,  for  llic  purpose  of  coiintfractiiig  tlic  ene- 
inv's  works. 

LINE  OF  OOUNTERVALLATION.  The  line  of  Held 
works  coiislnu-lrd  In  froiil  of  tlic  ciiinps,  anil  oiillir 
side  next  to  till-  licsi(i;i-(l  i)osilion.  to  defend  llie 
(•iiinps.  parks,  and  trains  against  any  attacks  whieU 
iniulil  be  made  by  the  besiei;('d.  See  Line,  of  (Ur 
ftnin<l'l(ttiink. 

LINE  OF  DEFENSE.  A  line  rcprcsentiiiK  the  flight 
of  a  rille-b;ill  from  the  jilaee  \vh<Te  the  soldiers  stand, 
to  seour  th<'  fare  of  the  li;islioM.  The  line  of  de- 
fense should  never  exceed  the  ranije  of  Ihi'  rille.  It 
is  eilhi'r./(r7(«/t^,  or /v(_y(f?i<.  The  iirst  is  when  it  is 
drawn  from  tlie  aii;;le ;  the  last,  when  ills  drawn 
from  a  point  in  a  cnrtain,  ranging  the  face  of  the 
bastion  in  forliliealion. 

LINE  OF  DIRECTION.— In  gunnery,  the  line  for- 
merly m.irked  upon  guns  by  a  short  ])oint  upon  the 
mu/./.le.  and  a  cavity  on  the  base-ring,  todircct  the 
eye  in  ]ioinliug  tlu^  gnn. 

LINE  OF  FIRE. — 1.  In  gunnery,  the  production  of 
the  axis  of  the  gnn  directed  upon  a  point  which  is 
ill  a  vertical  distance  above  the  object  to  be  struck, 
(■orres|)onding  to  the  time  of  tlight  re((uired  for  the 
range,  and  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  shot  will  be 
brought  to  the  object  by  the  force  of  gravity. 

2.  In  forliliealion,  this  term  ailmits  of  two  distinct 
licccplalions  ;  fir.it,  when  it  is  found  necessary  to 
give  an  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  a  ramjiart  or  an 
inlrenchment  covers  any  space  of  groimd  by  the 
(lis<-harge  of  ordnance  or  musketry,  lines  must  be 
drawn  to  represent  the  distances  traversed  by  the 
shot,  etc. — these  lines  are  called  linen  "f  fire,  being 
representations  of  the  actual  ranges  ;  semnd,  all  that 
extent  of  a  rampart  or  intrenclmient  from  which  the 
projectili-  of  ordu.anee  or  uuisketrv  are  discharged. 

LINE  OF  LEAST  RESISTANCE.— The  shortest  dis- 
tance from  the  center  of  the  charge  of  a  mine  to  the 
open  air.  Assuming  the  crater  to  be  of  the  form  of 
a  truncated  cone,  as  is  usual,  the  radius  o  d,  of  the 
lower  circle,  being  also  assumed  at  one-half  the  ra- 
dius p  n,  of  the  upper  circle,  then  the  radius  p  B, 
of  the  tipper  circle,  is  termed  the  n-nter  radius,  and 
tlie  line  o  p,   drawn  from  the  center  of  the  powder 

A  p a 


perpendicular  to  the  surface  where  the  explosion 
takes  place,  the  line  nf  least  r'sistnnce.  The  lineo  b, 
drawn  from  the  same  center  to  any  point  in  the  cir. 
ctnnference  of  the  upper  circle,  the  radius  af  eiphis'im. 
A  mine  with  a  line  of  least  ri'sistance  not  greater  than 
nine  feet,  formed  by  sinking  a  shaft  from  the  surface 
of  the  ground  and  placingthe  charge  at  the  bottom  of 
it,  is  tenneil  a  fougasse. — See  Crater. 

LINE  OF  MARCH.— The  arrangement  of  troops  for 
marching;  also,  the  course  or  direction  taken  by  an 
army  or  smaller  command. 

LINE  OF  METAL.— The  profile  cut  from  the  U])per 
surface  of  tlie  piece  by  a  vertical  plane  passing 
through  the  a.xis  of  the  bore.  When  pointing  a  jiiece, 
the  li7ie  /if  metal  is  accurately  determined,  and  the 
piece  is  i»o  maneuvered  as  to  iiriug  the  line  of  metal 
into  the  jilane  of  tire. 

LINE  OF  METAL  ELEVATION.— In  gunnery,  the 
visual  line  connecting  the  front  and  back  sight  when 
the  latter  is  at  its  lowest  point.  /.  c,  connecting  the 
notch  on  the  swell  of  the  muzzle,  or  dispart  sight, 
when  the  trunnions  are  perfectly  horizontal. 

LINE  OF  OPERATIONS. — All  lines  of  communica- 
tion leading  towards  an  enemy's  base  do  not  offer 
eiiual  advantages  to  an  army  acting  on  the  offensive. 
Some  lead  more  directly  and  otter  more  security 
than  others  in  an  advance  on  the  enemy  ;  some 
ma}'  offer  greater  advanfages  than  others  when  our 
superiority  lies  either  in  infantry  or  in  cavalry  ;  some 


ari'  more- favorable  nstoHiibsislIng  an  army,  or  alTord 
ing  it  more  convenient  Iransportion,  or  in  enabling 
us  to  turn  the  enemy's  position  ;  others  again  receive 
better  siipjiort  from  the  Itase  of  operations,  etc.  The 
taliiit  of  a  (ommanding  (jeneral  is  chiefly  shown  in 
weighing  the  advantages  and  (h'fects  of  eacli  of 
these  circumstances,  and  selecting  from  them  the 
best.  A  line  of  operations  is  said  to  hvnimple  when 
the  army  corjjH  moving  against  the  enemy  are  kept 
tOL'etlier.  or  at  least  are  not  so  far  separated  as  to  be 
be3'ond  mutual  su|iporting  distances.  These  Cfirps 
conse(|ueiilly  niusl  all  move  on  roads  nearly  parallel, 
anil  not  too  far  apart,  and  without  any  impassable 
ohslruclions  between  them.  A  line  of  operations  is 
said  to  be  doulile  when  an  army  divided  into  two 
parts  follows  two  sensibly  iiarallel  roads  which  are  so 
far  asunder  that  the  two  ])orlions  cannot  be  reunited 
upon  the  same  day  on  the  same  t-eld  of  battle. 

Unless  we  are  superior  to  the  enemy  on  each 
line,  both  in  niimbersand  the  moral  qualities  of  our 
troops, a  double  line  of  ojjeralions  is  purely  disadvan- 
tageous to  us;  and  particularly  so  if  the  two  lines 
diverge  as  we  advance;  for  the  enemy,  by  throwing 
himself  between  the  two  fractions  of  our  army,  may 
beat  each  of  them  separately,  and  find  himself  in  an 
attitude  to  inlercei)!  our  communications.  The  more 
rapidly  the  double  lines  diverge,  the  greater  will  be 
danger  and  the  certainty  of  success  to  the  enemy. 

Here  we  find  a  marked  ilitTeieiice  lietween  what 
may  be  termed  a  ^'trategieal  and  a  tactical  operation. 
In  the  latter  the  greatest  danger  that  an  army  can 
run  is  to  be  surrounded  on  the  field  of  battle  ;  where- 
I  as  an  army  that  throws  itself,  by  a  strategical  move- 
1  meni,  between  several  fractions  of  an  enemy's  army 
beyond  supporting  distance  of  each  other,  may, by 
superior  activity,  defeat  them  all  in  succession. 

The  only  case  in  which — the  armies  on  the  two 
sides  being  sensibly  of  equal  strength,  and  control- 
ling reasons  calling  for  it— a  dimble  line  can  be  fol- 
lowed, in  the  face  of  a  General  of  respectable  abili- 
ties, is  when  the  latter  has  also  adopted  double  di- 
vergent lines,  or  lines  very  far  asunder.  But  in 
this  case  our  double  line  must  be  an  interim-  one,  or 
lie  between  those  of  the  enemy,  so  that  the  two  frac- 
tions may,  in  case  of  need,  support  each  other  if 
attacked ;  or  be  suddenly  concentrated  so  as  to  at- 
tack one  of  the  fractions  on  the  enemj-'s  exterior 
line,  the  other  in  this  case  being  beyondsupporting 
distance  of  the  one  attacked.  This  principle  of  in- 
terior lines,  particularly  when  they  converge  as  we 
advance,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  only  a  modification 
of  the  one  of  a  single  line.  It  only  amounts  to 
keeping  the  fractions  of  our  army  in  such  distances 
from  each  other  that  they  are  nearer  together  than 
those  of  the  enemy,  and  can  be  concentrated  on  any 
one  of  his  before  it  can  be  reinforced  by  the  others. 
Still,  it  must  be  observed,  that  it  is  always  safer  to 
maneuver  on  a  single  line  than  upon  two,  although 
they  may  be  interior. 

It  is  important  not  to  confound  double, or  multiple 
lines,  with  the  various  lines  of  communication  over 
which  fractious  of  an  army  are  necessarily  marched, 
in  order  to  concentrate  oii  a  particular  point.  In  this 
case  the  movements  of  all  concur  to  the  same  end  ; 
the  army  corps  are  momentarily  separated  only  to 
march  with  greater  convenience  and  rapidity":  to 
reconnoiter  the  ground  more  thoroughly  over  which 
they  move:  and  to  live  more  comfortably.  This  mo- 
mentary separation  of  our  forces,  to  be  again  united 
at  the  moment  of  battle,  when  well  executed,  is  the 
very  acme'  of  good  generalship.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
means  of  keeping  the  enemy  for  a  long  time  uncer- 
tain of  our  real  intentions  as  to  the  point  of  attack. 
To  know  when,  in  turn,  to  scatter  our  forces  to  em- 
brace a  greater  e.xteut  of  country,  when  circum- 
stances permit  or  call  for  it,  and  then  to  concentrate 
them,  in  order  to  strike  a  decisive  blow,  is  one  of 
the  most  marked  features  in  the  qualities  of  a  irreat 
Captain,  No  General  of  modern  times  has  shown 
this  trait  in  as  Ligh  a  degree  as  Napoleon. 


LINE  OF  SIGHT. 


218 


LINE  OF  WOEKS. 


When,  by  the  eventualities  of  a  campaign,  we  find 
ourselves  "rather  forced  to  abandon  our  primitive 
line  of  operations  and  take  up  some  new  one,  tlic  lat- 
ter generally  receives  the  appellation  of  au  aeeifle?it- 
al  line  of  operations.  This  term  is  not  properly  appli- 
cable to  a  line  voluntarily  taken  up,  to  march  upon  a 
point  which  the  enemy  may  have  weakened  by  with- 
drawing from  it  troops,  under  the  apprehension  that 
he  was  threatened  on  some  other.  This  change  of 
line,  so  far  from  being  an  accident,  is  the  legitimate 
fruit  of  profound  combinations,  and  may  be  the 
cause  of  important  successes.  The  primitive  line 
was,  to  some  extent,  a  feint;  and  the  line  apparently 
but  secondary  the  true  one;  it  cannot  therefore  be 
termed  accidental;  it  will  be  thus  simply  the  7iewline 
(if  operations 

In  like  manner  in  a  retrogade  movement  an  army 
may  abandon  its  natural  line  of  retreat  and  take  up 
another,leadiug  off  laterally  from  it,  for  the  purpose 
of  enticing  the  enemy  into  a  district  of  country  less 
favorable  to  him,  and  at  the  same  time  to  throw  him 
further  off  from  his  main  object.  The  line  of  re- 
treat in  this  special  case  will  be  sensiblv  parallel 
to  our  own  frontier  instead  of  being,  as  it  is  gener- 
alh',  perpendicular  to  it.  This  new  line  of  retreat 
also  cannot  be  classed  under  the  head  of  accidental 
lines,  since  it  is  one  voluntarily  adopted,  and  pre- 
sents advantages  over  the  natural  line  of  retreat. 
It  has  received  the  name  of  the  parallel  retreat,  a 
term  sufficiently  expressive  of  the  thing  itself.  To 
be  successfully  executed  the  retreatiug  army  should 
not  be  too  inferior  in  force  to  the  enemj',  and  should 
run  no  risk  in  being  cut  off  from  its  own  frontier  b}' 
moving  too  far  from  it.  The  local  features  are  par- 
ticularly to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  such 
operations.  If  they  are  of  a  broken  character, 
the  movement  will  be  the  less  periJous ;  if,  on  the 
contrary,  the  country  is  open,  and  without  strong 
natural  points  of  defence,  the  safest  plan  will  be  to 
regain  our  frontier  by  the  shortest  line. 

When  a  choice  between  several  lines  of  operation 
is  offered,  it  will  be  best  to  adopt  the  one  where  the 
army  can  be  most  easily  subsisted,  and  in  which, 
according  to  the  kind  of  troops  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed, the  army  will  be  most  secure  from  the  ene- 
my's enterprises  If  the  army  is  superior  to  the  ene- 
mj-  in  cavalr_y,  it  will  u;iturally  prefer  to  move  over 
au  open  district  and  country:  it,  on  the  contrary,  its 
main  strength  lies  in  its  infantry,  it  will  prefer  to 
skirt  along  the  foot  of  a  mountainous  range,  or  to 
march  through  a  broken  country.  A  line  oif  opera- 
tions parallel  and  near  to  a  river  presents  the  advan- 
tage of  having  its  wing  nearest  the  water  course  per- 
fectly secure  from  attack,  whilst  the  river  itself  fur- 
nishes an  excellent  communication  for  bringing  for- 
ward men  and  the  supplies.  The  defensivepositioa 
taken  up  by  the  enemy  also  has  great  weight  in  de- 
termining the  direction  of  the  line  of  of  operations. 
If  he  occupies  cantonments  extending  over  a  consid- 
erable line,  the  most  natural  line  will  be  the  one  by 
which  the  army  can  throw  itself  into  the  center  of 
the  enemy's  isolated  corps,  and  thus  separate  them 
and  beat  them  in  detail.  By  attacking  one  wing  of 
a  position  of  this  kind  we  sho\ild,  in  all  likeliliood, 
force  back  one  corps  after  another  vipon  the  neiirh- 
boringone,  until  in  tlie  end  the  whole  would,  in  tliis 
way,  lie  concentrated  in  their  natural  order  of 
retreat.  If,  on  tlie  contrary,  the  enemy's  corps  are 
in  proper  supporting  distance  of  each  other,  the 
natural  jiniiit  of  attack  is  certainly  one  of  his  wings, 
l)r(ivi(led  that,  in  making  the  said  movement,  the 
line  of  operations  of  our  own  army  is  not  left  ex- 
posed; for  the  first  of  all  necessities"  Isneverto  place 
eitlier  our  base  or  our  line  of  operations  in  jeopardy. 
The  choice  to  be  made  will  also  depi'ud  upon  the 
characters  and  military  talents  of  the  enemy's  Gener- 
als, the  quality  of  the  forces,  their  moral  condition, 
etc.,  etc.;  these  are  points  which  carry  such  great 
weight  with  al)le  Commanders  that  they  have  of- 
ten been  known  to  have  adopted  plans  the  very  re- 


verse of  what  they  would  have  done  under  contrary 
circumstances,  according  to  their  being  in  front  of 
one  or  another  General.  Turenne, having  for  his  op- 
ponent Conde,  did  not  allow  himself  to  do  things 
which  seemed  to  him  as  easy  and  a  matter  of  course 
before  the  Archduke.  On  one  occasion,  in  1654,  he 
lost  some  men  while  passing  within  the  range  of 
grape  in  front  of  the  Spanisli  lines,  wliich  called 
forth  remarks  from  some  of  the  officers  accompany- 
ing him.  To  these  he  replied:  "The  march  we  are 
making  would  be  very  imprudent  before  Conde's  po- 
sition; but  it  is  very"important  that  I  should  exam- 
ine thoroughly  this  position  ;  and  I  am  so  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  Spanish  service,  that  I  feel  assur- 
ed that  before  the  Archduke  has  been  informed  of 
it,  has'sent  word  to  Conde,  and  called  together  his 
council,  I  shall  have  completed  it  and  returned  to 
camp."  "See,"  .said  that  Captain  who  more  than  the 
other  was  capable  of  pronouncing  a  judgment  on 
such  points,  "here  is  something  that  pertains  to  the 
divine  portion  of  the  art,"  In  truth,  military  genius 
manifests  itself  in  just  such  subtle  distinctions  and 
delicate  shades.  See  Base  of  Operations,  and  Ohjec- 
tive  Point. 

LINE  OF  SIGHT.— In  gunnery,  the  right  line  passing 
through  the  notch  of  the  tangent-scale  and  tip  of  the 
trunnion-sight  (at  any  elevation),  and  the  object. 
See  Pointing. 

LINE  OF  WORKS.— When  it  is  necessary  to  hold 
for  a  time  a  line  of  considerable  extent  by  a  force  in- 
ferior to  that  whicli  may  be  brought  against  it,  the  line 
should  be  fortitied  by  intrenchments,  consisting  of  a 
series  of  works  laid  out  according  to  the  approved 
principles.  The  kind  of  work  forany  particular  po- 
sition on  the  line  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the 
locality  it  is  to  occupy  and  the  manner  in  which  it 
will  combine  with  those  adjacent  in  securing  mutual 
support  throughout.  Such  lines  are  frequently  from 
fifteen  to  twenty,  or  even  thirty  miles  in  length,  ex- 
tending over  every  variety  of  country,  andm  their 
construction  call  for  the  highest  skill  in  military  en- 
gineering. They  are  constrvicted,  usually,  either  for 
tlie  protection  of  important  towns,  cities,  and  depots; 
or  to  make  secure  the  base  of  operations  and  lines  of 
communications  of  any  amy  maneuvering  in  the 
field  :  or,  by  stretching  across  peninsular  regions,  to 
restrict  the  theater  of  operations  of  the  enemy;  or 
for  surrounding  and  besieging  a  place ;  or  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  the  enemy  in  position  with  a  part 
of  an  army  while  the  remainder  makes  a  flank  or 
other  strategic  movement.  The  civil  war  of  1861-65 
afforded  numerous  instances  of  each  of  these  con- 
ditions. 


The  same  general  principles  apply  to  lines  as  to 
other  field-works  ;  but,  from  their  gre;it  extent,  they 
usually  receive  only  a  slight  relief,  and  tlu'  simplest 
angular  figures  are  adopted  for  their  plan.  In  laj'- 
ing  them  out,  advantage  should  be  taken  of  all  tlie 
natural  features  presented  liy  the  position,  so  as  to 
diminish  the  labor  of  erecting  artificial  ones.  The 
flanks  of  a  line  or  posit  ion  are  generally  weak  points. 
Wlien  possible,  one  or  lioth  should  rest  on  natural 
l)oints  of  support.  A  flank  not  so  supported  must 
lie  secured  by  slronir  works  espeeiidly  well  garnished 
with  artillery.  A  iioiul  that  Ikis  nnt":i  clear  field  of 
fire  is  a  weak  jioint,  iind  should  be  strongly  intrench- 
ed, so  that  the  enemy  may  not  have  advantage  of 
hills,  ravines,  or  oth"er  shelters  in  approaching  the 
line.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  determining  the 
kind  of  artillery  for  such  positions.     The  field  of 


LINES. 


I'll) 


LINES 


fire  hc'inp;  rontnirtpcl,  lone  ranijc  \<i  not  of  so  much 
iniporliiiu'r  as  iiliility  In  sciircl]  hdiinil  llii'  <'iiciiiy'H 
shelter,  iir  In  lliriiw  a  greal  mass  of  prnjeclili's  in  a 
liiiiil<'(l  liiiw.  Mortars,  howitzers,  aiiiLiMaehitie-;;iins 
will  he  fiiuiid  servicealili'.  In  estalilishiiii;  a  line  of 
w<irk8,  tile  most  important  ohjeel  should  he  to  eov- 
er  every  portion  of  the  front  within  fair  ranj;"' with 
(lireet  or  cross  lire.  To  aeecjmplish  this,  all  promi- 
lieiil  l)oints  alomj  the  line  are  fnrlilied,  eaih  with  a 
wiirk  havini;  a  Iraee  most  suited  lo  Ihe  ecjiifcirmalion 
of  liiat  parlieular  site.  The  most  important  of  these 
.shonld  lie  inclosed  works  npon  the  hastiiiii-front 
])rinciple,  and  of  consiilerahh-  size,  capahle  of  endiir- 
iiifi  an  independ<'iit  attack.  Smaller  inclosed  works, 
such  a.s  redouhls  and  star  forts,  occnijy  ""'  Hi'<'ond- 
ary  points.  Between  the  works  thus  Incaled extend 
riJIi-trciu'hiH,  capahle  of  shelterini;  infanlry.  The 
line  is  therefdre  conipiised  of  a  series  of  works  mutu- 
ally supporting  each  other  and  covering  ever}' avenue 
of  approach. 

The  arlillery,  of  which  there  should  be  an  abun- 
dance, will  naturally  he  jilaced  in  the  works  occupy- 
ing the  most  cimimanding  and  salient  positions. 
These  works  should  never  be  so  far  apart  as  to  be 
out  of  mutual  tlaidving  range  of  Ihe  arlillery  with 
which  they  arc  armed.  It  is  the  dut}'  of  ollicers  of 
arlillery  to  co-operate  with  those  of  engineers  in  se- 
lecting the  positions  of  the  works  that  are  to  he  arm- 
ed with  artillery,  and  to  determine  the  kind  and 
quantity  to  be  placed  in  each.  As  infantry  troops 
constitute  the  chief  garrison  of  works  of  this  nature, 
they  will  be  recpiired  to  construct  them,  leaving  to 
the  artillery  the  constructiiui  of  magazines,  emliras- 
ures,  and  the  other  a<-ccssories  pertaining  to  their 
special  arm.  Oeuerally  these  works  ary  thrown  up 
very  hastily,  and  often  when  an  immediate  attack  is 
apprehended;  this,  lo  a  considerable  e.\tent,  decides 
not  only  the  nature  of  the  works,  but  the  parts  of 
them  that  rei|uire  tlu^  first  attention.  Subsequently, 
if  time  permits,  they  are  strengthened,  improved, 
and  worked  into  better  shape.  As  far  as  jiractica- 
ble,  the  line  should  be  composed  of  inclosed  works, 
for  the  reason  tliat  should  the  enemy  concentrate 
and  break  through  at  any  point,  he  will  not  be  able 
lo  sweep  the  line  to  the  right  and  left  by  taking  it  in 
Hank  and  rear.  To  storm  ami  capture  each  work  in 
succession  would  be  an  operation  too  cosily  for  hiin 
to  undertake. 

It  is  ailvisable  in  most  instances  to  have  in  fro  n 


SfSOy. 


forcing  hig  way  through  the  main  line,  from  obtain- 
ing easy  possession  ofiheiu  by  the  rear.  Sites  for 
them  should  be  selected  with  a  view  of  olitaining 
from  them  a  searching  'ire  of  the  front  line  in  reverse. 
This  line  of  works,  although  apjiarenlly  iiUTt  in  rear, 
unist  he  ke|)t  fully  armed  and  manned,  ready  lo 
driven  the  enemy  from  any  part  of  the  main  line  that 
he  may  succeed  in  obtaining  possession  of.  Promi- 
nent salients  in  the  main  line  are  especially  inviting- 
to  the  enemy;  hehinil  these  a  second  line  should  be 
prepared,  so  placed,  if  (lossible,  that  should  the  ene- 
my obtain  the  nniin  lin('  he  will  be  within  musketry 
range  of  the  second,  an<l  hi-  forced  with  wearied 
troops  lo  undertake  the  capture  of  it.  See  FiiUl 
Furtifimtiun,. 

LINES.-  The  field-works  known  as  lines  are  divi- 
ded into  several  classes,  according  to  thi^  object  for 
which  they  are  constructed;  or,  according  to  som(t 
peculiar  arrangement  of  their  parts,  or  some  other 
characteristic  ipiality.  They  are  most  generally 
classified  us  r<intinnfd  Uiuh  and  lineji  with  iiitervatx. 
There  are  no  openings  in  a  continued  line,  except 
those  made  for  the  use  of  the  defense.  Continued 
lines  have  been  much  used  in  past  military  opera- 
tions, and  will,  in  all  probability,  be  used  in  the 
operations  of  the  future.  They  may  be  usefully 
employed  where  a  jiassive  defense  only  is  to  be 
made,  and  where  the  position  to  be  defended  is 
limited  in  extent,  and  not  exposed  to  flank  attacks. 
They  are  not  fitted  for  an  active  defense,  and  they 
have  the  serious  disadvantage  of  being  untenable, 
when  any  part  of  the  line  has  been  taken  by  the 
enemy.  They  require  a  large  amount  of  labor  lo 
construct  ;  and  it  is  a  very  doubtful  <pieslion, 
whether  the  advantages  they  give  compensate  for 
the  time  and  labor  employed  in  their  construction. 

Lines  with  intervals  differ  from  the  continued 
lines, by  leaving  intervals  along  the  front  of  Ihe  posi- 
tion, which  intervals  present  no  obstructions  to  an 
enemy  moving  through  them,  excepting  so  far  as 
they  may  be  (lefendeil  liy  the  fire  of  the  works,  or 
may  be  obstructed  by  natural  obstacles. or  by  artificial 
ones,pliieed  along  the  front.  The  works  formingthc 
line  ma}'  be  placed  so  close  to  each  other  as  to  be  in 
defensive  relations  ;  or  they  may  be  so  far  apart,  as 
lo  admit  only  of  their  defending  the  intervals  between 
them. 

If  an  obstinate  defense  is  to  be  made,  a  second  line 
should  be   used.      It   should  as  a  general   rule  be 

^soy 


Pl.an  of  a  Linn  with  IntRrvnIs  of  Lunettes, or 
of  the  line,  within  easy  musket  ran;:e,  a  line  of  stnall 
red;ins  or  bmettes  ;il  intervals  of:ihoiU  l.filHI  y;irds. 
Each  of  these  shiniUl  be  capable  of  holding  from  one 
lo  two  hundred  infantry  ami  four  to  six  tield-pieces. 
This  line  of  outworks  would  form,  as  it  were,  a 
species  of  picket-line,  keeping  the  enemy  from  close- 
ly observing  and  harassing  the  main  line,  and  would 
Cfmstitute  an  advanced  line  of  battle,  ag;iinst  which 
the  tirst  shock  of  the  enemy  is  partially  thrown 
aw:iy,  and  he  dare  not  attempt  to  neglect  them  ; 
for  ;'in  endeavor  to  penetrate  through  the  intervals 
woiUd  expose  his  flanks  to  a  close  and  deadly  flank 
and  cross  fire.  The  redans  lieing  ojien  towards  the 
main  line,  could  not  be  held  if  captured  by  the  ene- 
my, A  somewhat  similar  line  of  works  should  be 
established  in  rear  of  the  main  line.  They  shoidd, 
however,  have  their  gorges  stockaded  or  otherwise 
closed  to    prevent  the  enemy,  should  he  succeed  in 


Square  Redoubts  flanked  by  Retired  Redans. 

I  placed  behind  the  first,  and  distant  from  it,  abotii 
one-fourth,  and  certainly  not  grciiter  tlian  one-half, 
of  llu'  distance  between  the  works  in  the  first  line. 
When  artillery  is  used  in  the  second  line,  a  good 
position  would  be  about  six  hundred  yards  distant 
from  the  first.  This  places  the  second  line  just  out 
of  range  of  aimed  musketry  fire,  but  in  close  range  of 
arlillery  fire.  .\  third  line  of  field-works  is  some- 
times liuilt.  The  general  arrangement  of  the  works 
of  this  third  linewith  the  works  of  the  first  and  second, 
conforms  to  the  princijiles  employed  in  arranging 
the  work  in  the  second  line.  A  third  line  might  be 
usefid.  in  case  of  an  active  defense,  since  the  works 
placed  along  this  line  can  be  utilized  as  screens  for 
the  reserves  and  for  bodies  of  cavalry.  A  fourth 
line  would  evidently  be  of  no  practical  service  in 
the  defence  of  a  position.  A  force. unable  to  retain 
possession  of  outer  lines,  could  not  hold  the  fourth. 


LINESUEN. 


220 


LINKED  SHELLS. 


The  number  of  Hues,  whether  a  single  one,  or 
two,  or  three  in  number:  the  kinds  of  worlis  to  be 
used  on  each  line;  the  distauee  apart  of  the  works 
on  each  line;  the  distance  apart  of  the  lines;  and 
the  details  oif  their  construction,  depend  upon  the 
natural  features  of  the  ground,  the  numbers  and 
kinds  of  troops  which  are  to  occupj' them,  the  range 
of  the  arm  used  in  their  defense,  and  the  time  dis- 
posable in  which  to  construct  them. 

Certain  advantages  are  claimed  for  lines  with  in- 
tervals. These  advantages  may  be  brietiy  stated  to 
be  as  follows  1.  The  lines  with  intervals  admit  of 
either  passive  or  active  defense.  They  are  peculiar- 
ly fitted  for  the  latter.  3.  Lines  with  intervals  are 
more  easily  adapted  to  the  natural  features  of  the 
ground  than  continued  lines.  3.  For  the  same  ex- 
tent of  front,  they  require  fewer  men  to  defend  them, 
and  the  works  require  less  labor  to  construct,  than 
other  kinds  of  lines.  4.  They  admit  of  a  bct-ter  use 
being  made  of  raw  and  inexperienced  troops.  5.  A 
line  with  intervals  may  still  be  defended,  even'after 
a  part  of  the  line  has  lieen  captured,  or  after  the  en- 
emy jias  broken  through  the  line. 

The  main  defect  inherent  in  lines  of  this  class,  is 
the  sub-division  of  the  defenders  into  several  inde- 
pendent commands,  b}'  wbich  unit}-  of  action  of  the 
whole  command  is  impaired.  This  defect  is  reduced 
somewhat  by  a  proper  disposition  of  the  works.  A 
few  capacious  and  strong  works  are  better  than  a 
large  number  of  small  ones.  Experience  has  shown 
that  a  bodj'  of  one  thousand  men,  in  a  single,  well- 
constructed  work  will  offer  a  more  effective  resist- 
ance to  the  attacks  of  an  enemy  than  the  same  num- 
ber would,  when  scattered  aniong  three,  four,  or 
more,  smaller  works.  The  difficulty  which  a  Gen- 
eral would  meet, in  obtaining  experienced  officers  tit 
for  these  independent  commands,  and  in  having 
these  officers  to  act  in  unison  with  each  other,  gives 
sufficient  grounds  for  such  a  result  to  be  expected 
under  ordinary  circumstances.  See  Bastioned  Line, 
CremaflUre  Line,  Multiple  Lines,  Redan  Line,  Mog- 
niat  Line,  Ser/-ated  Li?ie,  and  Tenyiaille  LJne. 

LINESMEN.— A  term  frequently  applied  "in  the 
British  service  to  the  infantrymen  of  the  Regular 
Arniv. 

LINES  OF  COMMUNICATION.— A  term  applied  to  all 
the  practicable  routes  and  roads  connecting  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  an  army  occupying  the  theater  of 
war.  Therefore,  as  the  army  moves  from  its  base, 
the  lines  of  operatimis  become  lines  of  communiea- 
Von,  and  since  these  lines  of  operations  are  generally 
the  longest  and  most  important  lines  ofcommunieji- 
tion,  it  is  to  them  that  the  simple  term  communica- 
tions generally  refers.  All  the  routes  used  b}'  the 
trains  employed  in  provisioning  an  army,  form  a 
part  of  the  communications.  The  m6st  important, 
safest,  and  most  convenient  of  these  routes,  all  other 
things  being  equal,  will  be  the  central  one,  or  the 
one  leading  from  the  center  of  the  army  back  to  its 
base.  This  ])articular  route  is  sometimes  designated 
as  the  li>n>tf  mipplies. 

LINES  OF  EETEEAT.— The  roads  passed  over  by 
an  army  when  advancing  are  ordinarily  the  roads 
taken  when  the  army  retires  or  is  driven  back.  In 
the  latter  case  they  are  known  as  Lines  of  Retreat, 
and  are  Single,  double  diverging,  etc,  according  to 
their  number  and^jjosition.     Sec  Retreat. 

LINES  OF  TORRES  VEDRAS.— Famous  lines  of  de- 
fense within  which  Wellington  took  refuge  in  1810, 
when  he  found  it  impossible  to  defend  the  frontier 
of  I'ortugal  against  the  French  armies;  and  from 
which,  in  the  year  following,  he  issueil  on  thiit  car- 
eer of  slow  iuid  hard-won  victory,  which  ended  in  Ihe 
expulsion  of  llie  Frencli  from  the  Peninsula.  The  j 
first,  or  outermost  of  these  lines,  extending  from  Al- 
liandra.  on  the  Tagus.  to  the  mouth  of  llie  Siz;indro, 
on  the  sea-coast,  ami  following  the  windings  of  the 
hills,,  was  29  miles  long  ;  \\\v\'<emnd (and  bv  far  the 
most  formidable)  from  (I  to  10  miles  behind  "the  first, 
stretching  from  t2uintella,nn  the  Tagus, to  the  mouth  , 


of  tl'e  St.  Loreuza,  a  distance  of  24  miles ;  the  third, 
situated  to  the  southwest  of  Lisbon,  at  the  verj- 
mouth  of  the  Tagus,  was  verj'  short,  being  intended 
to  cover  a  forced  embarkation,  if  that  had  become 
necessary.  The  entire  groimd  thus  fortified  was 
c(]ual  to  FiOO  scjuare  miles. 

LINES  WITH  INTERVALS.— When  the  front  to 
be  defended  is  covered  by  a  number  of  field-works, 
scattered  along  this  front,  and  placed  near  enough 
together|to  sweep  the  intervals  with  their  fire,  the 
whole  arrangement  forms  a  disposition  called  a  I^ine 
with  Intervals.  Field-works  placed  so  near  to  each 
other,  that  each  one  can  bring  its  fire  to  bear  upon  the 
ground  in  front  of  those  adjacent,  are  said  to  be  in 
defensive  relations  with  each  other.     See  Lints. 

LINGERER.—  One  who  pretends  to  be  indisposed, 
in  order  to  avoid  his  tour  of  duty.  Hence  the  ex- 
pression malingerer, or  a  soldier  who  avoids  duty  in 
a  disreputable  manner. 

LINKED  REGIMENTS.— In  localizing  the  forces  of 
the  British  Army,  it  is  laid  down  that  in  each  of  the 
sub-districts  of  "the  country  two  regiments  shall  be 
permanentlj'  selected  (whether  absent  or  present)  to 
be  so  localized,  and  the  mode  of  selection  is  of  regi- 
ments having  any  connection  with  the  countj-. 
These  regiments  are  termed  li?iked,  and  in  the  case 
of  one  of  the  regiments  going  or  being  on  foreign 
service  requiring  men  to  make  up  its  numbers,  sol- 
diers are  drafted  from  the  regiment  remaining  at 
home. 

LINKED  SHELLS.— Admiral  the  Hon.  Arthur  A. 
Cochrane  has  recently  devised  a  novel  method  of 
marine  attack  and  defense.  Its  verj-  novelty  may 
tend  to  prejudice  against  it  those  who  are  saturated 
with  the  conviction  that  nothing  new  which  is  also 
good  can  be  devised  in  warfare  ;  but  the  whole 
scheme  is  at  once  so  simple,  so  ingenious,  and  so 
easil3'  and  cheapl}-  tested,  that  it  commends  itself  to 
impartial  minds.  He  proposes  to  strew  the  line  of 
approach  of  a  hostile  ironclad  preparing  to  ram,  or 
the  wake  of  a  ship  when  retreating,  or  the  course  of 
an  enemy  engaging  on  the  broadside,  with  floating  or 
partly  submerged  torpedoes,  through  which  thepur- 
suer  dare  not  attempt  to  pass.  These  torpedoes  could 
be  thrown  to  some  distance  from  the  ship  by  n\eans 
of  mortars,  which  would  fire  very  small  charges  of 
powder.  Thus  the  13-inch  service  mortar,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  4.5  degrees,  has  a  range  of  850  yards  with 
3  pounds  of  powder,  and  with  half  a  pound  of  pow- 
der a  range  of  180  yards  when  projecting  a  shell  of 
aboit  180  pounds  weight.  The  shells  would  have  a 
charge  of  high-class  explosive,  say,  of  35  pounds 
weight,  surrounded  by  an  envelope,  whether  of  thin 
metal  or  other  material,  of  sufficient  capacity  to  buoy 
the  bursting  charge  and  of  strength  to  resist  the  pro- 
jectmg  charge  of,  sa}',  H  povmds  of  powder.  The 
shells  would  be  connected  by  a  floating  line  100  feet 
or  200  feet  in  length,  of  small  diameter,  but  of  great 
strength ;  such  coupled  shells  could  be  very  readily 
fired  from  two  mortars  simultaneously  by  electricity; 
the}'  could  be  placed  quite  close  together ;  or  the 
mortars,  of  which  there  would  likely  be  .six  or  eight 
on  a  large  ship's  deck,  might  be  placed  at  a  distance 
apart  of  50  or  80  feet  on  the  line  of  keel  or  otherwise, 
the  rope  still  connecting  the  shells.  The  action  of 
the  air  on  the  connecting  line  when  the  shells  were 
fired  would  be  to  draw  the  shells  together;  but  it  is 
not  anticipated  that  this  would  be  a  practical  diffi- 
culty over  the  ranges  expected,  viz.,  from  200  to 
1,200  yards  as  the  mortars  would  be  slightly  deflect- 
ed from  each  other.  It  is  proposed  to  use  such  shells 
against  shi])s  on  their  ne;ir  approach  liy  firing  them 
across  and  just  ahead  <if  the  ship.  It  is  clear  thiit  if 
the  hostile  ship  slill  jiroceeded,  she  would,  by  foul- 
ing the  rope,  dniw  Ihe  shells  alongside  and  be  blown 
up,  and  as  the  shells  would  be  concussive  and  fitted 
with  time-fuses,  they  would  doubtless  not  fail  to  act. 
Should  the  ship  stop  in  time  to  avoid  the  shells,  oth- 
ers could  be  thrown  astern  of  or  over  her,  so  as  to 
hamper  her  nu)venients.     Under  any  circumstances, 


LINOLEUM. 


221 


LINOLEUM. 


the  liostile  sliip  could  not  ram  her  cnciny,  iiml  by 

Htoppiiii;  would  olTcr  a  pood  liirijcl  for  mortar  hIicIIh 
III  lie  llirnvvii  on  licr  decks,  iirid  lor  iirlillcrv  liro. 

|l  is  iiropoMcd  to  cuiiiloy  HJiclls  of  HcvcTid  clasMcs  : 
"A"  shells  chariced  willi  explosives,  eupalile  of  tloat- 
ins  on  water,  eased  ill  metal  or  other  material,  and 
united  liy  a  lloatini;  rope  ;  to  he  tired  across  the  hows 
of  shii)s,  or  dropped  across  ships  or  ports  in  a  tidi*- 
way.  "B"  sliells,  cluir;;ed  with  explosives,  of  slight- 
ly i;reater  specilic  i^ravity  than  water;  such  to  h(^ 
rcLfulatcd  as  to  \]\v.  depth  they  shall  sink  in  watiT  hy 
means  of  an  India-ruhher  luhe  or  other  material ; 
such  tuhe  to  he  seciirely  attached  to  the  shell  when 
it  is  fired,  or  hy  a  line  to  the  shell  when  it  is  ncct.s- 
sary,  tilled  with  air  and  attached  to  the  shell.  lu 
the  case  of  land  service,  such  a  luhe  could  bo 
easily  tilled  with  explosive,  and  sucli  tuhe  could 
h<'  attached  to  a  second  shell,  for  clcarini;  ])arapets, 
treuclies,  etc,,  underspecial  circumstances.  "A" 
shells  would  he  useful  to  clear  hostile  ships  out  of 
rivers,  tideways,  and  to  blow  tip  buttresses  of  liridges 
floatini;-hridges,  sucli  as  those  lately  used  in  the 
Danube,  preventiiiLi;  ships  entering;  the  Danlanelles, 
etc.  "B"  shells,  on  beini;  thrown  near  the  ships  and 
buoyed  by  a  |)ractically  invisilile  tul)e,  at  a  deiith  of 
Bay,  l.T  feet,  woidd  be  very  fatal  on  explodini;.  "B" 
shells  could  be  thrown  on  the  line  of  advance  of  a 
torpedo  ;  and  when  enterins;  a  hostile  port,  defend- 
ed 1>3'  submerged  torpedoes,  they  could  be  thrown  in 
advance  of  ships  entering,  and  rej;ulaled  by  means 
of  the  buoy  line,  to  exploile  at  any  depth,  or  on  the 
bottom,  tlius  cleariiif;  the  channel.  The  shells  could 
be  cased  in  metal  and  made  in  sections,  or  could  be 
made  of  paper  suitably  preivared.  Shells  from  mor- 
tars are  now  considered  to  be  eltieient  in  proportion 
to  their  fallins;  weijrht.  The  shells  suijgested  would 
be  elHcient  in  pro|)ortion,  not  to  their  weight,  but  to 
the  charge  of  explosive  carried.  From  the  small 
weight  of  the  mortars,  very  small  charge  and  small 
recoil,  they  could  be  most  readily  fitted  to  any 
ship  almost  without  strengthening  fitments,  and 
In  the  case  of  numerous  river  steamers  would  add 
but  little  to  the  draught  of  water.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  success  or  failure  of  the  whole  scheme  de- 
pends on  the  possibility  of  firing  linked  shells,  so  that 
iheir  line  of  flight  would  be  nearly  (larallel,  and  on 
the  construction  of  the  shells.  Nothing  but  direct 
experiment  can  decide  the  first  point;  but  it  might 
be  settled  in  a  day  for  an  outlay  of  a  few  jiounds. 
The  construction  of  the  shells  obviously  presents 
some  difficulties.  Admiral  Cochrane  has  proposed 
several  designs  for  shells  intended  to  overcome  these 
difficulties.  It  may  be  fairly  assumed  that  fire  from 
mortars,  whose  shells  would  be,  or  might  be,  con- 
nected by  a  slight  line,  would  be  very  inaccurate, 
particularly  in  high  and  cross  winds.  But  if  one  is 
driven  to  make  comparison  of  efficiency. the  accurac}- 
of  artillary  fire  in  ships  in  high  cross  winds  may  be 
seriously  questioned,  and  the  accuracy  of  action  and 
aim  of  torpedoes  fired  from  or  at  ships  in  motion 
may  be  very  niucli  more  seriously  questioned,  par- 
ticularly if  fired  at  more  than  .500  yards  distance. 
The  bows  and  the  sterns  of  ships  are,  as  a  rule, 
now  the  favored  points  for  projecting  the  torpedoes, 
and  compressed  air.  steam,  steam  pistons,  and  gun- 
powder, are  being  tried  to  endeavor  to  obtain  a  sat- 
isfactory nu'ans  of  projecting  them  into  the  water, 
after  which  they  have  to  find  some  yet  undiscovered 
process  of  making  them  go  straight  to  the  object  to 
be  struck,  a  result  wliich,  when  there  is  any  sea  on, 
or  the  boat  or  vessel  is  in  motion,  will  never  be  ac- 
complished in  any  degree  to  be  relied  on.  A  com- 
parison may  be  made  between  the  effect  of,  say.  a 
100-tou  gun,  80  feet  long,  burning  400  or  .500  pounds 
of  powder,  and  projecting  a  shot  of  three-quarters 
of  a  ton,  against  a  2(5-iiicli  armor  plate,  and  that  of 
one  of  the  shells  proposed  by  Admiral  Cochrane, 
falling  when  charged  with  20  pounds  or  30  pounds 
of  gun  cotton,  on  the  deck  or  into  the  barbette  bat- 
tery of  a  10,000  tons  ironclad.     Further,  when  the 


cost  of  the  100-ton  gun.  the  powder  and  shot  fitments, 
and  complication  of  hydraulic  gear  recpiired  to  work 
such  a  gun,  are  cimsidered.as  against  a  iy-in<;li  mor- 
tar, weigliing  perhaps  12  hundred. weight,  and 
requiring,  so  to  say,  no  science  to  work  it  what- 
ever, the  advantage  s<rems  notal)ly  in  favor  of  mor- 
tars as  the  principal  arm.  It  may  be  observed  that 
a  sea-service  i:i-inch  mortar  weighs  about  .5  tons; 
its  shell,  loaded,  about  200  pounds,  carrying  a  bursl- 
ini;  charge  of  some  10  pounds,  and  when  tire.ialau 
angle  of  4.5  degrees,  with  y  pounds  of  powder,  ranges 
H.50  yards ;  but,  as  at  jiresent,  Adndral  Cochrane 
only  suggests  shells  of  a  weight  of,  say,  1(X)  pounds, 
and  that  to  be  projected  to  a  distance  of,  say,  1,200 
yards,  and  that  as  the  mortars  should  be  made  of 
phosphor-bron/.e,  12  cwt.  might,  it  is  assumed,  suf- 
lice  for  the  vvi'igiit  of  the  mortar.  The  S.  S.  mor- 
tars have  to  face  the  firing  of  200-pound  shells  up  to 
a  range  of  4.000  or  .5.000  yards.  Mortar  firing  and  sus- 
tained efforts  to  improve  mortars  have  been  but  littl3 
considered.  Hifled  mortars  are  hardly  known;  and 
the  suspended  mortars-  Roberts'  patent,  on  turn- 
tables for  f  .•a  service  and  used  in  the  Baltic  in  18.54 
— have  dropped  out  of  sight,  though  they  were  stated 
to  offer  many  advantages  in  principle,  while  faulty 
mel:il  and  construction  were  ipioted  against  them. 

LINOLEUM. — A  peculi;ir  jireparaticjii  of  linseed-oil, 
which  is  variously  emiiloyed  for  military  purposes. 
In  1849  Nicies  and  Uochelder  independently  discov- 
ered that  chloride  of  sulphur  will  solidify  oil,  and 
render  il  usable  in  many  new  ways.  In  18.5!)  JI.  Per- 
ra  communicated  to  the  Academic  des  Sciences  the 
details  of  a  mode  of  effecting  this  by  mixing  and 
melting  the  ingredieiits.and  pouring  the  mixture  out 
in  a  thin  layer.  By  varying  the  proportions  the  re- 
sulting substance  pssumes  varying  degrees  of  con- 
sistency. Thus,  100  linseed  oil  -|-2;)  chloride  of  sul- 
phur jiroduces  a  hard  and  tough  substance;  100  oil 
-|-15  chloride  a  supple  substance  like  India-rubber; 
and  100  oil  -|-  5  chloride,  a  thick  pasty  mass.  This 
third  kind  dissolves  well  in  oil  of  turpentine.  Jlr. 
Walton  afterwards  found  that,  by  the  application  of 
heat,  linseed  oil  will  become  hard  without  the  addi- 
tion of  chloride  of  sulphur.  He  conceives  that  it  is 
not  a  mere  drying,  but  a  real  oxidizing.  Linseed-oil, 
first  boiled,  is  applied  as  a  layer  to  a  surface  of 
wood  or  glass,  then  dried;  then  another  laj-er;  and 
so  on  till  the  required  thickness  is  produced.  The 
sheet  is  then  removed,  and  is  found  to  be  very  much 
like  India-rubber  in  elasticitj^;  in  fact,  the  produc- 
tiim  of  a  layer  by  this  means  is  analogous  to  the 
smearing  of  clay-molds  with  caoutchouc  juice  to  pro- 
duce India-rubber,  as  practiced  in  South  America. 
The  drying  is  a  little  expedited  by  adding  a  small 
portion  of  oxide  of  lead.  The  solid  oil  is  crushed, 
and  worked  thoroughly  between  heated  rollers;  and 
when  treated  either  with  shellac  or  with  naphtha,  it 
becomes  applicable  in  various  manufacturing  forms. 
The  term/ymwif^m  properly  applies  to  the  hardened 
or  tRe  oxidized  oil  itself,  but  is  cheifly  u.sed  as 
a  designation  for  one  of  the  substances  made  from 
or  with  it,  a  kind  of  floor-cloth.  When  the  oxidized 
oil  is  rolled  into  sheets  it  becomes  a  substitute  for 
India-rubber  or  gutta-percha.  When  dissolved  as  a 
varnish  or  mastic  and  applied  to  cloth  it  is  useful  for 
water-proof  textiles,  felt-carpets,  carriage-aprons, 
wagon  and  cart-sheets,  nursing-aprons,  water-beds, 
tank-linings,  table-covers,  etc.,  according  to  the  mode 
of  treatment.  When  used  as  a  paint,  it  is  useful  for 
iron,  for  wood,  and  for  ships'  bottoms.  When  used 
as  cement.it  possesses  some  of  the  useful  properties 
of  marine  glue.  When  vulcanized  or  rendered  quite 
hard  by  heat  it  may  be  filed,  planed,  turned,  carved, 
and  polished  like  wood,  and  used  for  knife  and  fork 
handles,  moldings,  etc.  When  brought  by  certain 
treatment  to  the  consistencj-  of  dough  or  putty.it  may 
be  pressed  into  embossed  molds  for  ornamental  ar- 
ticles. When  used  as  a  grinding-wheel,  touched 
with  emery,  it  becomes  a  good  cutter.  Lastly  when 
mixed  with  ground  cork,  pressed  <m  canvas  by  roll- 


LINSTOCK. 


222 


LISSB£EO£S  FUSES. 


ers,  tlie  canvas  coated  at  the  back  with  a  layer  nf  the 
same  oil  in  the  state  of  paint,  and  the  upper  or  prin- 
cipal surface  painted  and  printed,  it  becomes  the 
Lhwleum  floor-cloth,  for  the  production  of  which  a 
factory  has  been  established  at  Staines.  Dunn's  pat- 
ented fabric  fur  similar  purposes  has  no  oil  in  it;  it 
is  a  mixture  of  cork-shavings,  cotton,  or  wool  fibers, 
and  coutchouc,  spread  upon  a  cotton  or  canvas  back, 
and  embossed  with  patterns  ;  it  is  a  kind  of  kamp- 
tidicnn. 

LINSTOCK. — An  iron-shod  wooden-staff  used  in 
gunnery,  for  holding  the  lighted  linstock  in  readi- 
ness tobe  applied  to  the  touch-hole  of  the  cannon. 
In  old  pictures,  tlie  linstock  is  seen  planted  in  the 
ground  to  the  right  rear  of  each  piece,  with  a  match 
smoking  at  each"  of  the  ends  of  the  fork  in  which  it 
terminates. 

LION.— The  lion  holds  an  important  place  among 
the  animals  borne  in  coat-armor.  As  early  as  the 
13th  century,  the  king  of  beasts  was  assumed  as  an 
appropriate" emblem  by  the  Sovereigns  of  England, 
Scotland.  Norwav,  Denmark,  the  native 
Princes  of  Wales",  the  Counts  of  Flanders 
and  Holland,  and  various  other  European 
potentates.  Lions  occur  in  different  posi- 
tions. 1.  The  earliest  attitude  of  the 
heraldic  lion  is  rampant  (a),  erect  on  his 
hind  legs,  and  looking  before  him,  the 
head  being  shown  in  profile,  as  he  ap- 
pears in  the  Arms  of  Scotland,  and  origin- 
ally did  in  those  of  England.  This  was 
the  normal  position  of  a  lion  :  but  as  the 
royal  animal  came  to  be  more  generally 
used  by  all  who  claimed  to  have  any  kindred  with 
royalty,  and  to  ))e  granted  to  favorite  followers  by 
way  of  augmentation,  some  diversity  of  attitude  was 
adopted  for  distinction's  sake.    3.  Rampant  gardant 


celebrated  winged  lion  of  St.  Mark,  adopted  by  the 
Uepublic  of  Venice.  The  Island  Kepuljlicbore.  azure, 
a  lion  winged  or  sejant,  holding  between  his  fore- 
paws  a  book  open  argent,  in  which  are  the  words. 
Pax  tibi  Marm  Evanyflhta  meu.i.  Two  or  more  lions 
borne  on  one  shield  are  sometimes  (though  never 
when  on  a  royal  coat")  blazoned  Lwnceh.  See  Ilir- 
aldry. 

LIP-STKAP. — ri.  small  strap  with  a  buckle  passing 
from  one  cheek  of  the  bit  through  a  ring  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  curb  chain  to  the  other  cheek,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  the  horse  from  seizing  the  cheek 
of  the  bit  in  his  mouth. 

LIS. — A  warlike  macliine  used  by  the  Ancients. 
It  consisted  of  apiece  of  wood  or  a  stake,  about  the 
size  of  the  human  body,  which  was  made  smaller  at 
the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  and  resembled  a  lily  not 
yet  blown.  Several  of  these  were  tied  together  with 
ozier  or  willow  twigs,  and  were  used  for  the  security 
of  a  camp.  They  were  not  unlike  the  palisades  of 
the  present  day. 


(ti).  erect  on  the  hind  legs,  and  affronte  or  full-faced, 
3.  Rampant  regardant  (c),  erect  on  the  hind  legs, 
and  looking  Ijackwards.  4.  Pa.^sant  (d).  in  a  walk- 
ing position,  with  the  head  seen  in  profile.  H.  Pas- 
xant  gardant  (e),  waJking.  and  with  the  head  af- 
fronte'. 6.  Pamint  regardant,  walking,  and  with 
head  looking  behind.  7.  Statant,  with  all  four  legs 
on  the  ground.  8.  Sal/ant,  in  the  act  of  springing 
forward  on  his  prey.  9.  Sejant  (J),  rising  to  pre- 
pare for  action.  10.  Sejant  affronte,  as  seen  in  the 
crest  of  Scotland.  11.  Couchant,  lying  down,  but 
with  his  head  held  well  erect,  and  his  tail  beneath 
him.  13.  IJarmant,  asleep,  with  his  head  resting 
on  his  fore-paws.  13.  fhioard  or  Cone,  with  his  tail 
hanging  between  his  legs.  The  lion  passant  gar- 
dant is  often  blazoned  as  the  linn  of  England;  and 
at  a  time  wlien  terms  of  blazonry  were  compara- 
tively few,  it  was  confounded  with  the  leopard, 
and  "hence  the  lion  passant  and  rampant  gardant 
came  to  be  called  respectively  the  lion-le<yparde,  and 
leopard-lionne.  Two  lions  may  be  depicted  rampant 
riimhatant — i.  e.,  face  to  face — or  rampant  addoxse. 
placed  back  to  back.  Among  leonine  monsters,  we 
liave  two-headed  lions,  bicorporate  and  (ricorporatc 
lions,  lion-dragons  and  lion-])oisscms.  There  is  also 
the  IJohcmiun  lion,  with  two  tails,   and  the   more 


LISCHINE  TENT.— A  Russian  hospital  tent  of  pe- 
culiar construction,  and  well  endorsed  b}-  militar)' 
men.  The  frame  is  of  iron,  and  is  covered  with  thin 
pieces  of  board  10  feet  long  and  1  foot  wide,  over- 
lapping each  other  like  Venetian  blinds.  The  ridge 
is  of  canvas.  The  iron  frames  are  four  in  number. 
It  has  the  advantage  of  being  cheaper,  more  durable, 
warmer,  and  capable  of  better  ventilation  than  the 
canvas  tent.     See  Tents. 

LISSBERGEB  FUSES. — The  [Lissbcrgcr  percussion 
fuse,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  consists  of  a  copper  tapering 
body,  A.  with  enlarged  head,  but  closed  at  the  rear 
b_v  a  brass  screw-plug,  which  is  hollow  nearly  its 
entire  length.  Fitting  this  screw-plug  is  a  brass  hol- 
low cylinder  tilled  with  a  friction  composition ;  the 


lower  part  of  tlie  cylinder  is  closed.  A  wire,  whose 
lower  end  is  serrated  and  twisted,  passes  through 
central  holes  in  the  screw-plug  and  the  solid  cylin- 
drical plunger  :  it  has  its  upper  end  loojied  1o  form 
a  shoulder  against  the  plunger,  lietween  the  plun- 
ger and  the  end  of  the  scrcw-pIug  is  a  disk  of 
h'athcr. 

The  lower  end  of  the  scrcw-plug  is  closed  by  a 
small  ((uantity  of  ride-powder,  and  a  disk  of  leather 
presseii  in.  The  fuse -body  has  about  the  .same  taper 
rearward,  and  is  inserted  in  tlie  shell  the  sameasthe 
ordinary  paper  lime-fuse;  when  inserted  in  a  shell 
whose  Might  is  suddenly  arrested,  the  serrated  wire 
is  drawn  forward  by  the  phmger.  igniling  the  fric- 
tion composition,  and  setting  fire  to  the  charge. 


LIST. 


223 


UTTEB. 


The  time-fuse  is  an  imliimry  paper  fuse.  A,  sliown 
in  KIlt.  2,  which  is  iirnileil  liy  nieiins  (if  un  inerlin 
isniter.  Tlie  iirniter,  H,  (-(insists  (if  fourpiirts:  A 
lirass  solid-headed  sliell,  siiirlilly  taperinu:  on  the  ex- 
terior, liavintr  holes  in  the  liead  and  side-openings 
fortheeseaiie  of  ijas;  thniUL'h  the  head  of  Iheliody, 
A.  is  introduced  a  hollow  brass  cyrnider. whose  low- 
er end  is  cut  and  closed;  within  this  cylinder  is  a 
lead  plumper  and  a  friction-pellet.  At  the  instant  of 
discharge,  the  friction-pellet  is  forced  back  and 
throui;h  the  routjh-closcd  end  of  the  cylinder  by  the 
]ilunij;er  and  the  tiine-fnse  is  thus  iirnited.     Sec  Fiim. 

LIST. — 1.  A  line  inclosini;  or  forniini;the  extremi- 
ty of  a  piece  of  trniund,  or  field  of  combat  ;  hencc^in 
the  |)lural,  the  i:r(iund  or  lield  enclosed  for  a  race  or 
condial.  'I\iinli  r  Die  ///.v^i,  is  to  acce])t  a  cliallcnirc, 
or  eni^age  in  a  coi\test.  2,  To  cnjraire  in  the  ])ublic 
service  by  enrolling  one's  name,  as  soldiers  ;  to  in- 
close for  combat.  3.  A  roll  or  a  catalogue  ;  as  the 
Army  h'ltt.  the  Pni/  TJut,  etc. 

LISTENING  GALLERIES-  The  galleries  of  a  forti- 
lication,  le;iiling  outwards  from  the  counter-scarp 
gallery,     See  GdMi  ry. 


comparatively  small  amount  and  in  bad  proportions. 
Neither  does  the  presence  of  these  substances  add 
liny  thing  to  the  safety  of  the  mixture.  They  tend 
to  lower  its  tiring-  pouit,  and  render  it  more  easily 
explodeil.  Its  cii.iracteristicH,  as  compared  with  dy- 
namite, are:  1.  (Jreater  sensitiveness  to  temperature, 
exjiloding  at  120",  while  dynamite  exi)lo(le»  at  lliO"; 
2.  (ireater  sensitiveness  to  moisture  from  the  presence 
of  the  hygro.scopic  nitrate  of  soda  ;  'A.  The  gases  from 
the  explosion  always  contain  carlK  nic  oxide  from 
the  carbon  in  the  compound :  4.  For  ecpial  volumes 
it  has  the  lesser  explosive  power.  See  Dynamite, 
Kxphm'Te  Agents,  and  Nitm-fjlycerine. 

LITTEE— A  sort  of  a  stretcher  or  liurdlc-bed  on 
which  the  wounded  are  carried  off  the  lield  of  battle. 
It  is  especially  used  for  the  badly  wounded,  who  can 
only  be  carried  lying  down.  In  1859  a  Medical 
Board  was  convened  to  examine  the  subject  of  hos- 
l)ital  transport.  Besides  various  recommendations 
regarding  the  kind  of  veliicles  suitable  for  the  con- 
veyance of  patients  and  of  supplies,  the  Hoard  ad- 
vised that  IwiUinrHe  littrrx  should  be  constructed  and 
issued  to  the  frontier  posts,     This  recommendation 


LITHOFRACTEUE.— An  explosive  mixture  having 
the  following  composition : 

Nitro-glvccriue .'52.10  per  cent. 

Kie.slguhr ;i0.00 

Coal 12.00 

Soda-saltpeter 4.00 

Sulphur 3,00 

100.00  '• 
Sometimes,  instead  ^.f  the  sodium  nitrate,  the  po- 
tassium of  barium  salt  is  used,  and  variations  made 
in  the  (juantity  of  uilro-glycerine  containvd  iu  it. 
Like  all  the  uilro-glycerine  jireparations,  it  has  no 
necessarily  definite  composition,  it  being  merely  a 
mixture  made  according  to  the  caprice  of  the  manu- 
facturers. This  preparation  is  made  by  Krebs  Bros. 
vt  Co.  in  Cologne,  and  has  been  used  to  some  extent 
in  Europe.  It  is  claimed  by  the  makers  that  the 
other  substances  (coal,  saltpeter,  and  sulphur)  mixed 
with  the  nitro-glycerine  increase  the  quantity 
of  gas  delivcreci,  and,  therefore,  the  explosive 
force  also.  This  isnot,howcver,correct."Nitro-glycer- 1 


was  approved,  and  the  specifications  for  the  con- 
struction of  such  litters  were  incorporated  in  the 
Hegulatious  for  the  Army.  The  form  of  litter  re- 
commended appears  to  have  been  derived  from  ex- 
periences ill  Florida  and  Mexico.  The drawimr  shows 
the  manner  of  its  construction  and  its  (lifferent 
parts.  It  weighs  8.S  pounds  :  the  poles  are  32  inches 
iu  diameter  and  It)  feet  long;  the  sections  are  44,  8 
and  3^  feet  respectively  from  front  to  rear.  Xunier- 
ous  improvised  litters,  constructed  on  the  same  gen- 
eral plan,  have  been  extensively  emi)lo3ed  iu  Indian 
Campaigns  and  in  travel  over  very  rough  counlrv. 
During  the  late  war  in  this  country,  a  number  of 
persons,  actuated  by  motives  of  patriotism,  human- 
ity, or  interest,  devised  and  brought  to  the  notice  of 
the  War  Departmcut  forms  of  couve^-ance  for  the 
sick  and  wounded,  in  localities  impracticable  for 
wheeled  vehicles.  Several  of  these  were  apparently 
suggested  by  the  descriptions  of  Delafield  and  Mc- 
Cleilan  of  the  horse-litters  and  cacolets  they  had  ob- 
served in  the  Crimea.  A  number  of  sets  of  these 
litters  and  cacolets  were  purchased  by  the  United 


ine  is  so  sudden  in  its  explosion  that  nothing  can  I  States  Government,  but  were  never  used  with  suc- 
be  added  to  it  from  the  slower  burning  of  any  of  the  cess.  The  drawing  shows  the  British  Crimean  mule- 
other  combustible  ingredients,  which  are  present  in  '  litter,  also  the  very  easy  p(wilion  of  the  wounded  sol- 


LITTEB. 


224 


LITTEB. 


(iier  when  ready  for  transport,  and  the  equipment. 
In  the  litters  and  cacolets  now  issued  in  the  French 
Army  there  are  improvements  providing  for  making 


the  sections  of  the  litter  rigid,  so  that  it  can  be  used 
temporarily  as  a  stretcher,  for  reduction  in  weight, 
and  for  greater  compactness  in  packing.  The  mule- 
chairs  and  litters  now  issued  by  the  British  Koj-al 
Carriage  Department  are  lighter  and  more  conven- 


Amode  of  transporting  sick  and  wounded  by  lit- 
ters that  at  one  end  rest  on  the  ground,  so  that  the 
patient  is  drawn,  but  only  partially  sustained,  by  the 
pack-animals,  is  mentioned  by  early  travel- 
ers among  the  North  American  Indians. 
Parkman  indicates  that  in  the  war  with 
Pontiac,  in  1763,  the  Colonists  carried 
their  wounded  by  this  contrivance,  and, 
in  a  later  work,  refers  to  the  ti-a-cee  used  by 
the  Oregon  Indians  ;  and  Lewis  and  Clark 
resorted  to  it  in  1805,  to  carry  a  wounded 
hunter  of  their  party.  Latterly,  this  meth- 
od of  transport  has  received  much  atten- 
tion from  medical  officers,  as  well  adapted 
to  the  exigencies  of  frontier  service.  As- 
sistant Surgeon  JIcGillycuddy,  United 
States  Army"^  has  made  the  accompanying 
drawing  of  such  an  appliance  attached  to 
a  horse.  A  sacking  bottom  is  lashed  to 
two  poles  that  are  separated  by  traverses, 
and  secured  to  the  stirrup-leathers  of  a 
cavalry  horse  equipped  with  the  regula- 
tion saddle.  The  soldier's  pack  makes  a 
pillow,  and  a  blanket  is  thrown  over  him. 
In  this  contrivance  the  utmost  limit  of 
simplicity  has  been  attained.  This  form 
of  litter  is  draicn,  while  the  Uco-horfe  lit- 
ter is  carried,  it  being  substantially  a  stretcher, 
either  horses  or  mules  being  substituted  for  the  men 
who  act  as  stretcher-bearers.  In  the  latter,  one  ani- 
mal is  harnessed  between  the  poles  before,  and  the 
second  between  the  poles  behind ;  the  patient  being 


lent  than  those  used  in  the  Crimea.  The  drawing 
shows  the  British  Army  mule  litter  attached  to  its 
pack-saddle.  It  weighs  84  pounds,  without  bedding 
or  pack-saddle.  With  the  paillasses  and  pack-sad- 
dle, the  weight  is  167  pounds.  The  weight  of  a  pair 
of  English  litters,  used  in  the  Crimea,  was  138 
pounds  and  13  ounces,  without  the  pack-saddle.  So 
far  as  experience  has  gone,  every  form  of  litter  and 
cacolet  has  been  disapproved  for  one  cause  or  an- 
other by  tlie  United  States  War  Depiirtment.  Al- 
though used  in  European  services  and  in  Algeria, 
with  satisfaction  and  under  favorable  circumstances 
eilliiron  plains  or  on  open  rolling  country,  in  our 
mounlaiiioiis  coiuitry,  they  are  only  a  troul)lesome 
and  liarl)arous  encumbrance, cruel  alike  lollie  wound- 
ed and  the  jiack-aniinals.  This  aversion  lo  sick-tran- 
sport by  cacolets  and  double  lillcrs  is  doubtless  due 
to  defects  in  administration  rather  than  to  any  de- 
merits of  the  system,  without  efficient  animals  and 
packers  it  is  vain  to  anticipate  useful  results  from  the 
best-contrived  aiii)liances.  Used  with  the  greatest 
adviintiiL'i-  in  Algeria,  and  in  the  Crimea,  the  French 
caco.cts  and  lillers  were  adopted  by  the  Brilish  .\r 
my  .iledical  Department  with  satisfactory  results. 


placed  on  a  piece  of  canvas  or  other  material,  stretch- 
ed between  the  poles  in  the  intermediate  space.  Such 
a  litter  was  extemporized  by  Assistant  Surgeon  A. 
Hartsuff,  United  States  Arniy,  as  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing. 

This  litter  possesses  the  disadvantage  of  accident 
in  case  the  two  animals  do  not  work  well  tog<'ther ; 
also,  if  the  animals  keep  step,  the  litter  begins  to  vi- 
brate, from  the  regularity  of  the  motion,  and  in- 
creases to  such  a  degree  as  to  almost  throw  the 
patient  out.  Again,  the  litter  cutting  off  the  sight 
of  the  ground  from  the  rear  animal,  makes  him  par- 
\  ticidariy  liable  to  stumble.  All  things  considered, 
:  it  would  appear  that  the  one-horse  litter  is  far  su- 
peri(jr  to  this  form,  and  the  exiiericncc  of  all  having 
had  occasion  to  use  both  contrivances,  contirms  this 
opinion.  The  aparejo  is  the  favorite  pack-saddle 
for  general  ])urposes  in  America,  and  it  is  believed 
that  auibulance-chairs  and  litters  can  be  adjusted 
with  facility  to  these  saddles;  what  is  essential  is 
that  there  should  be  trained  animals  and  skilled 
jiackers.  Until  these  indispensable  adjuncts  nr'i 
[irovided  the  contrivances  found  useful  in  European 
armies  cannot  be  advantageously  employed    in  our 


LITTLE  FORTIFICATION. 


225 


LOADING. 


scrvifc,  iind  imdiial  fifllcers  will  ]>(•  i-Dnipcllcfi  to  re- 
Horl.  in  ciiicrf^ciicicM  Id  Mic  Inivcc  or  to  llii-  two-liorai; 
litter,  i'li-v  A  mini  limce,  (JiVJ/lrl,  Strrlj^hi^r  tind  '/'raoV  ; 
also  ('/tan/,  JJiiarw.,  OreeiUmf,  McMlihrry,  und  'J'/un- 
tlc  J.itUrn. 


find  till  thr  Kpform   Mill   in  1832.   they  hii<l  tin- ex- 
cliiMivc  privilc^^c  of  votiii};  for  MeniherM  of  Purlia- 
iiicril  for  till'  I'ily. 
LIVE  SHELLS.— Shells  loaded  with  their  burHting 

clrii  "".  !•■  ii.jy  for  Hcrvice. 


LITTLE  FORTIFICATION.- The  name  piven  to  the 
first  division  of  tlie  lirst  system  of  Vauban,  when  the 
exterior  .side  of  the  fortiliealion  does  not  exceed  'ihO 
yards.  It  is  used  in  the  eonslnietion  of  citadels,  small 
forts,  crown-worlis,  and  horn-works.  See  Fortifica- 
tion. 

LIVE- HEAD.— The  hf<id-iiU>rk  of  a  lathe,  which  con- 
tains the  lire-npindle  ;  in  conlradistinclion  to  Ihv.dfnd- 
head  or  t/til-nUick,  which  contains  ihv  dtod-xpi/itllt'. 

LIVERY. — A  word  applied  in  its  origin  to  the  cus- 
tom whicli  prevailed  under  the  Merovinijian  and 
Carlovingian  Kinsrs.  of  delivering  splendid  liahits  to 
the  members  of  their  households  on  great  festivals. 
In  the  days  of  chivalry,  the  wearinij  of  liverj'  was 
not,  aa  now,  conlined  to  domestic  servants.  The 
Duke's  son,  aa  page  to  the  Prince,  wore  the  Prince's 
livery,  the  Earl's  son  liore  the  Dtike's  colors  and 
badge,  tlie  son  of  the  Esquire  wore  the  livery  of  the 
Knight,  './rl  tlie  son  of  the  gentleman  that  of  the 
Esquire-  Cavaliers  won^  the  livery  of  their  mistres- 
ses. There  was  also  a  large  class  of  armed  retain- 
ers in  livery  attached  to  many  of  the  more  powerfid 
nobles,  who  were  engaged  expressly  to  use  the 
strong  hand  in  their  masfer'.s  quarrels.  By  the  col- 
ors and  badge  of  the  retainer  was  known  the  master 
under  whom  he  served.  The  livery  colors  of  a  fam- 
ily are  taken  from  their  armorial  bearings,  being 
generally  the  tincture  of  the  tield  and  that  of  the 
principal  charge,  or  the  two  tinctures  of  the  field  are 
taken  instead,  where  it  has  two.  Tncy  are  taken 
from  the  first  quarter  in  case  of  a  quartered  shield. 
These  same  colors  are  alternated  in  the  wreath  on 
which  the  crest  stands  The  royal  family  of  Eng- 
land have  sometimes  adopted  colors  varying  (|uite 
widelj'  from  the  tinctures  of  the  arms.  The  Plan- 
tagnets,  for  instance,  had  scarlet  and  white  colors  . 
the  House  of  York,  murrey  and  blue;  wliite  and 
blue  were  adopted  b_v  the  House  of  Lancaster; 
white  and  green  by  the  Tudors  ;  yellow  and  red  by 
tlie  Stuarts,  and  lij'  William  HI.:  and  scarlet  and 
blue  by  the  House  of  Hanover.  An  indispensable 
part  of  the  livery  in  former  times  was  the  badge. 
The  Church  of  Rome  has  its  liveries  for  Apostles, 
Confessors,  Martyrs,  Virgins,  and  Penitents.  The 
Freemen  of  the  91  guilds  or  corporations  which 
embrace  the  different  trades  of  London,  are  called 
Liverymen,  because  entitled  to  wear  the  livery  of 
their  respective  companies.  In  former  times  the 
Wardens  of  the  companies  were  in  use  yearly  to 
deliver  to  the  Lord  Jlaj-or  certain  sums,  20  shillings 
of  which  was  given  to  iudividvials  who  petitioned 
for  the  money,  to  enable  them  to  procure  sufticient 
cloth  for  a  suit,  and  the  companies  prided  themselves 
on  the  splendid  appearance  which  their  livv>ries 
made  in  tlie  civic  train.  The  Common  Councilmcn, 
Sheriffs,  Aldermen,  and  some  other  superior  officers 
of  the  city  are  elected  bv  the  Liver\nien  of  London  ; 


LIVING  FORCE.— That  force  of  a  body  in  motion 
which  determines  the  work  of  which  it  is  capable. 
It  is  measured  by  tlie  product  of  the  mass  and  the 
square  of  the  velocity.  See  Forrt,  and   Work. 

LIZIERE. — The  berme  or  narrow  i)ath  round  forti- 
fications between  the  parapet  and  the  ditch,  to  pre- 
vent the  earth  from  falling  in. 

LLAMA.  This  aninuil  was  in  general  use  as  a 
beast  of  bunhii  on  the  Peruvian  Andes  at  the  time 
of  tlie  Spanish  conquest,  and  was  the  only  beast  of 
burden  used  by  the  natives  of  America  before  the 
horse  and  ass  were  introduced  by  Europeans.  It  is 
still  much  used  in  this  capacity  on  the  Andes,  the 
peculiar  conformation  of  itsfeet  enabling  it  to  walk 
securely  on  slopes  too  rough  and  steep  for  anj'  other 
animal.  The  working  of  many  of  the  silver  mines 
of  the  Andes  could  scarcely  be  carried  on  but  for  the 
assistance  of  llamas.  The  burden  carri<(l  by  the 
llama  should  not  exceed  12.')  pounds.  When  too 
heavily  loaded  the  animal  lies  down  and  refuses  to 
move,  nor  will  either  cq^xing  or  severity  overcome 
its  resolution.  It  is  generally  very  patient  and  do- 
cile. Its  rate  of  traveling  is  about  12  or  l.")  miles  per 
day.     See  Pack  Animaln. 

iiOAD. — 1.  A  word  of  command  in  the  Manual  of 
Arms,  executed  as  follows  :  The  Instructor  com- 
mands— 1.  Sgiiad,  2.  Load.  Execute  the  first  motion 
of  about  face ,  the  left  knee  slightly  bent :  at  the  same 
time  drop  the  piece  into  the  left  hand  at  the  lower 
band,  elbow  against  the  body,  the  small  of  the  stock 
two  inches  below  the  right  breast,  the  barrel  sloping 
downward  at  an  angle  of  about  twent}--five  degrees, 
the  right  hand  at  the  small  of  the  stock.  (Two.) 
Look  toward  the  chamber,  open  it.  remove  tlie  car- 
tridge-case if  nccessarj-.  take  a  cartridge  from  the 
cartridge-box,  and  hold  it  near  the  chamber,  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  first  two  fingers.  (Three.) 
Place  the  cartridge  in  the  bore,  pressing  it  home 
with  the  thumb,  close  the  chamber,  cast  the  eyes  to 
the  front ;  carry  the  right  hand  to  the  small  of  the 
stock,  and  raise  the  muzzle  to  the  height  of  the  chin. 
1 .  Carry,  2.  Arms.  Kesume  the  carry  with  the  right 
hand,  at  the  .same  time  face  to  the  front.  (Two-) 
Drop  the  left  hand  by  the  side.  With  cartridges, 
the  commands  for  loading,  previou-  to  the  first  are: 
1.  With  ball  (or  blank)  cartridge .  2.  Load.  2.  The  term 
"load"  is  also  applied  to  to  the  charge  of  a  fire-arm. 
Sei'  T.'iadinfi  and  Manual  o/Arm.t.  Fig.  14. 

LOADER. — An  instrument  used  with  smooth-bore 
siege  howitzers  to  steady  the  shell  in  the  passage 
down  the  bore.  The  fixed  iron  band  which  crosses 
the  hollow  hemisphere  of  the  loader  has  a  hole  in  it 
which  embraces  the  fuse,  and  which  on  reaching  the 
bottom  of  the  bore  can  be  easily  disengaged. 

LOADING. — In  loading  guns  and  howitzers,  the 
powder  is  carefullj'  put  up  in  a  cartridge-bag  of 
woolen  cloth,  which  is  either  attached  to  or  carried 


LOADING  BAR. 


226 


LOCK. 


separate  from  tlic  projectile,  depending  on  the  weight  i 
of  tlie  projectile.  In  ramming  a  charge,  only  a  suf-  j 
ficient  force  should  he  used  to  send  it  home,  as  the  i 
space  which  the  powder  occupies  affects  the  initial  I 
velocity.  In  loading  mortars,  the  powder  is  poured  : 
from  tlie  cartridge-bag  into  tlie  chamber,  and  level-  1 
ed  witli  the  hand  ;  the  shell  is  then  carefully  lower- 1 
ed  upon  it  with  the  hooks.  After  a  piece  has  been 
discharged  the  bore  should  be  well  sponged,  to  ex- 
tinguish any  burning  fragments  of  the  cartridge  that 
may  remain:  and  to  prevent  the  current  of  air  from 
fannini;  any  burning  fragments  that  may  collect  in 
the  vent,  it  should  be  kept  tirmly  clo.sed  with  a 
thumb-stall  in  the  operation  of  sponging.  E.xperi- 
ence  shows  that  the  use  of  a  wet  sponge  is  danger- 
ous, as  it  contributes  to  form,  from  the  fragments 
of  the  cartridge-bag,  a  substance  which  retains  fire. 
It  may  be  sometimes  necessary  to  fire  projectiles 
that  are  either  very  much  smaller  or  larger  than  the 
bore.  If  it  be  desired  to  use  a  gun-shell,  or  solid 
shot,  which  is  very  much  smaller  than  the  bore, 
it  should  be  very  securely  strapped  to  a  stout 
sabot  which  fits  the  bore ;  if  a  mortar-shell,  it  is 
placed  in  the  center  of  the  bore  by  means  of  wedges, 
and  the  s\irrounding  space  is  filled  up  with  earth. 
Jlortar-shells  are  fired  from  guns  and  howitzers,  by 
digging  a  hole  in  the  groimd  about  20  inches  deep, 
and  placing  in  it  two  pieces  of  stout  plank  inclined  at 
an  angle  oil  45",  for  the  support  of  the  breech  ;  the 
chase  is  supported  on  a  moveable  wedge,  which  rests 
on  skids  firmly  secured  with  platform  stakes ;  the 
charge  of  powder  is  then  inserted  in  the  bore,  and 
the  projectile  is  placed  on  the  muzzle. and  secured  by 
passing  strings  over  it,  and  tj'ing  their  ends  to  a 
rope,  which  encircles  the  neck  of  the  chase.  Pieces 
fired  in  tliis  wav  shoidd  be  elevated  40"  or  45";  thus 
situated,  tlie  fuse  of  the  8-inch  mortar-shell  takes 
fire  from  very  small  charges ;  but  the  10-inch  fuse 
shovdd  be  primed  with  strands  of  quick-match, 
-which  are  allowed  to  hang  over  the  sides  of  the 
shell. 

LOADING-BAR. — A  more  convenient  implement 
than  the  sliell-hooks  fcir  carrying  and  loading  the  i 
shell.  It  is  simply  a  bar  of  round  iron  about  twofeet 
long,  fashioned  into  a  ring  if!  one  end  for  a  handle, 
and  having  a  screw  cut  on  the  other  end,  which 
screws  into  a  shallow  hole  tapped  in  the  shell  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  fuse-hole.  When  the  shell  is 
lowered  into  the  bore  an<l  adjusted,  the  bar  is  un- 
screwed and  removed. 

LOADING  SIDE  OF  AGUN.— The  side  of  the  grooves 
of  a  gun,  by  which  a  projectile  passes  down  the  bore 
of  a  rilled  gun  from  tlie  muzzle.  The  studs  of  the 
shot  press  against  this  side  when  being  loaded,  but 
on  being  forced  out  by  the  explosion  of  the  charge, 
they  press  against  the  other  side,  termed  the  driv'ng 
side. 

LOADING-TONGS. — Tongs  for  placing  in  the  charges 
and  sliclls  of  siege  howitzers.  They  are  formed  of 
two  arms,  so  hinged  together  that  the  bent  ends  of 
the  short  arms  will  enter  the  ears  of  the  shell,  and 
the  grooved  and  widened  ends  of  tlie  long  ones 
w^ill  clasp  between  them  the  cartridge.  The  imple- 
ment is  made  of  such  a  length  that  the  cartridge  can 
"be  thrust  into  the  chamber  by  reaching  in  one  hand, 
lioldiiiix  the  tongs  with  the  cartridge  in  iiosilion. 

LOCALIZATION.— The  act  of  establishing  troops, 
depots,  nia^.iziues,  etc.,  in  any  appointed  jilace,  di- 
viding lliem  into  a  number  of  small  centers  indepen- 
dent of  each  other  In  case  of  mobilization  of  an 
army,  each  appointed  town  forms  a  place  of  rendez- 
vous, where  men  on  furlough  and  those  behmgingto 
the  reserve  meet  to  obtain  their  arms  and  ('(luipment, 
and  lo  he  ilrilled  until  they  are  draughted  into  tlie 
re'jirnriils  in  Ihc  field,  or  join  the  army  of  reserye. 
LOCAL  RANK.  The  rank  given  to  an  ollicer  in 
Her  Majesty's  service  serving  in  a  foreign  land  with 
other  troops,  whi-rehy  he  is  placed-in  hispropei  posi- 
tion, as  regards  ec|uality  of  rank,  with  those  ollicers 
whose  tirsl  commissions  are  of  the  same  date,  but 


wh>have  been  more  fortunate  in  promotion.  For 
instance,  a  British  officer  located  in  India,  with  his 
regiment  and  with  troops  belonging  to  the  Indian 
Army,  may  find  himself  junior  in  rank  to  an  Indian 
officer,  tliough  his  first  commission  is  of  the  same 
date;  to  equalize  their  standing  in  the  country,  what 
is  termed  local  rank  is  conferred  by  the  Commander 
in-Chief  in  India. 

LOCATI  LITTER.— A  single  mule-litter  designed  by 
II.  Ijt>cati,  of  Turin,  for  the  passage  of  the  narrowest 
defiles,  avoiding  as  far  as  possible  obstructions  from 
tree-branches  overhead  or  impediments  on  either 
side.    It  is  looked  upon  with  much  favor  in  Europe, 


The  drawing  shows  a  cross-section  of  this  litter,  with 
its  frame,  braces,  and  cover,  C.  D.  E.  F.,  attached  to 
its  saddle,  A.      See //«  r. 

LOCHABER  AXE.— An  axe  with  a  curved  handle 
;uid  very  liroad  blade.  It  was  the  ancient  weapon 
of  the  Highlanders,  and  was  carried  by  the  Old  City 
Guard  of  Edinburgh. 

LOCBAGE. — In  Greek  antiquity,  the  title  of  an  offi- 
cer who  commanded  a  cohort. 

LOCHOI.— The  designation  for  a  file  in  the  elemen- 
tary tactical  formations  of  the  Greeks.  The  com- 
position of  the  grand  phalanx  was  as  follows:  Te- 
traphalangarchia  =  4  I'lialnnxm  =  16  Chilinrchicf  = 
G4  S^yntnijiiiata  —  25fi  Tet.rarchim  =  1024  LocIki!  or  files 
=  4  090  Enimvtia>  of  4  men  each.  It  is  thus  seen 
that,  in  the  various  formations,  one  division  of  the 
whole  could  be  made  by  the  powers  of  2  or  4. 

LOCK — 1.  In  fencing,  to  seize,  as  the  sword-arm 
of  an  antagonist,  by  turning  the  left  arm  around  it, 
in  order  to  disarm  him.  2.  That  part  of  a  fire-arm 
by  which  the  powder  is  fired.  Muskets,  in  their 
earliest  u.se,  were  fired  by  the  hand  applying  a  slow 
match  to  the  touch-hole.    Towards  the  end  of  the 


14th  century,  the  first  improveinent  appeared  in  the 
tiuit-hl/'i-k.  This  consisted  of  a  crooked  iron  lever, 
in  the  end  of  wliicli  the  iii;itch  was  fixed.  15y  a  pin- 
gear  of  a  simple  n;iturc,  jiressure  on  the  trigger 
iirouffht  the  match  ;icciinite|y  down  on  the  powder 
pan,  of  which  the  lid  had  previously  been  thrown 
forward  by  the  hand.  This  mode  of  firing  involved 
the  carrying  of  several  yards  of  slow  match,  usually 
wound  round  the  body  :ind  the  pie<-e ;  rain  extin- 
guished the  match,  .'lud  wind  dispersed  the  jiowder 
in  the  pan,  so  ?liat  the  malch-lock,  clumsy  withal, 
was  bill  an  iinc<Tl;iin  ;ippar:ilus. 

Superior  to  the  in:ilch-lock  was  the  wheel-lock,  in- 
troduceil  at  Nuremberg  in  1517,  in  which  fire  was 
))roduced  by  friction  between  a  ])iece  of  flint  or  iron 
pyrites  and  a  toothed  wlu'cl.  The  ni('<'haiiism  which 
generated  the  sparks  simultaneously   uncovered  the 


LOCK  CTLINDEB. 


227 


LOCKIWG  CHAIR, 


pan,  so  lliat  tlio  diini^ors  from  wind  and  rain  were 
averted;  Iml  before  tirin(^,tli<'  apparatiiM  reimired  to 
lie  wound  up  like  a  clock,  anil  therefore  llie  charf^es 
could  not  be  frefjuent. 

The  wheel-lock  continued  for  a  loni;  jicriod  to  be 
used  in  (ierMiany.  ami  parliaily  in  Kranee.  In 
the  Spanish  dominions,  however,  its  place  was  sup- 
plied by  the  simpler  contrivance  called  the  snan- 
haunce,  snapphalui,  or  lh(^  asnaphan  lock,  of  nearly 
contemporaneous  invenlion,  which,  aetini;  by  means 
of  a  sprini;  outsiile  of  the  lock-plate,  produced  lire 
Ihroui^h  tiie  coiii'ussiou  of  a  Hint  aijainst  lh<'  ribbed 
lop  of  the  powder-pan.  lis  positions  of  half  and 
full-cock  were  obtained  by  th(t  insertion  of  a  pin  to 
stay  tlu' operation  of  the  mainsi)rinn.  In  the  jniil- 
dle  of  the  17lh  century  the  /m^-iw^:  was  invented, 
oond>inin';  the  action  of  the  wheel-lock  and  the  snap- 
liaunce,  while  it  was  incontcslably  superior  to  either. 
After  combatinj;  nuu'h  prejudice,  it  was  universally 
adoi)ted  i?i  the  armies  of  western  Knrope  by  the  com- 
nu'iicement  of  the  IHth  <'eiUury.  Muskets  cnibrac- 
im;  it  obtaineil  the  nanu' of  "fusils,"  ,'i  Krencli  adap- 
tation of  the  Italian  word  fun'lf,  a  Hint.  With  suc- 
cessive improvenu'nts,  the  Hint-lock  continued  in 
general  use  until  the  introduction  of  [hi;  pi.TCwmi'm- 
Tiick  almost  in  our  own  day;  and  among  eastern  and 
barbaric  nations  the  tlint-lock  is  still  extant.  Its 
great  superiority  over  the  snaphaimce consisted  in 
the  '■  tumbler  "  (of  which  itresently)  and  also  the 
"scear,"  appliances  still  retained  in  the  percussiou- 
lock,  which  enabled  the  positions  of  half  and  full 
cock  to  be  taken  up  without  the  intervention  of  pins, 
always  uncertain  in  their  action. 

The  principle  of  the  percussion-lock  is  the  produc- 
tion of  lire  by  thefallini;  of  a  hanuner  upon  some 
detonatini;  pow<ler,  the  explosion  of  which  pen- 
etrates well  into  the  charsre  in  the  barrel  of  the 
gun.  The  first  practical  ap|ilication  of  tliis  principle 
to  lire-arms  is  due  to  the  Hev.  .Mr.  Forsyth  of  Bel- 
helvie,  in  Aberdeenshire.  Various  forms  in  which 
to  ignite  the  detonating  ])0wder  have  been  devised, 
but  that  generally  accepted  until  within  the  last  few 
years  was  the  copper  cap,  fitting  tisjhtly  on  the 
nipple  of  the  gun,  charged  with  a  detonatincc  com- 
pound, and  exploded  by  the  hanuner  fallinu;  upon 
it.  The  mainsprinc;  commimii'atcs  through  the 
swivel  with  the  tumbler,  which  conccutrically  with 
the  hammer  moves  on  the  tumbler-nail.  After  the 
liammcr  has  delivered  its  stroke,  its  further  progvcas 
in  the  direction  required  by  the  spring  is  buvred  by 
tlie  nipple.  On  pulling  back  the  hammer  to  the 
position  of  half-cock  the  tumliler  turns  wi'.h  it,  and 
the  pointed  end  of  the  scear  (which  nuves  tm  the 
scear-nail  as  center),  inlluenced  by  the  ;<f  ear-spring 
falls  into  a  notch  in  the  tumbler.  On  forcinir  back 
the  liammer  to  full-cock,  however,  the  scear  will 
move  down  to  a  shallower  notch:  and  on  the  lever 
end  of  the  scear  being  raised  by  the  trigger,  it  brings 
down  the  liammer  with  a  heavy  blow  on  tlu'  cap. 
To  keep  the  works  firmly  in  their  .several  places,  a 
"  bridle"  is  screwed  over  them  which  includes  the 
pin  through  the  tmnbler  in  its  widt'a.  Since  the 
adoption  of  lireech-loadimr  arms,  tlie  action  of  the 
lock  is  so  far  varied  that  the  hamnuT  usually  falls 
on  a  movable  pin,  which  is  impelled  against  a  de- 
tonating charge  |)laced  in  the  body  of  the  cartridge 
itself.  A  spiral  spring  around  the  pin  brini;s  it  back 
to  the  position  necessary  for  aiuither  blow.  The 
advantasre  of  this  arrangement  is  that  one  operation 
of  loading  is  substituted  for  the  double"  process  of 
loadins  and  capping. 

The  conditions  to  be  fidtilled  in  the  construction 
of  a  military  lock,  are — 1st.  The  production  of  tire, 
and  its  comnumication  with  the  char<;e,  should  be 
certain,  and  under  the  perfect  control  of  the  soldier. 
2d.  The  cap  shoidd  be  placed  up<m  the  cone  with 
facility,  and  it  should  not  be  displaced  in  handling 
tlie  piece.  3d.  Fragments  of  the  cap  should  not 
incommode  persons  near  by.  norsliould  the  sras  gen- 
erated by  the  explosion  of  the  cap  corroile  or  injure 


the  cone,  barrel,  or  stock.  4th.  There  should  be 
no  danj;cr  of  accidental  explosions.  The  ordinary 
percussion  lock  as  commonly  constructed  is  com- 
po.sed  (if  \l\\v,  lork-filate,  to  whidi  the  several  parts 
are  altache<l,  anil  jiy  which  the  lock  is  fastened  to 
tlie  stock  ;  [\u-  hanuner,  whiith  strikes  ujjon  the  cap, 
and  ex))lodes  the  composition  ;  the  mahinprinp, 
which  sets    the    hammer  in   motion;    the  t'liiMir, 

j  or  axle,  by  which  the  power  of  the  maiuspring  Ib 

!  connnunicated  to  th(^  hammer;  tlic  near,  ax  lever, 

j  the  point  of  which  fits  into  the  notches  of  the 
tumbler,  and  holilstlu^  hammer  in  therei|uired  posi- 
ti<in;  the  notches  arr;  desiijnated  as  the  /i/W-c^cA 
niitrli,  and  Mifrty-notcli ;  the  KKir-xjirinrj.  whirrh  pres- 
ses the  point  (jf  the  sear  well  into  the  tiindiler  notch, 

\\\w  hridlr^  which  is  pierced  with  two  holes  for  the 
inner  pivots  of  the  Hear  and  tumbler ;  the  nwitel, 
which  joins  the  mainspring  and  tumbler.  The 
foreijoing  constitute '.he  essential  parts  of  an  ordi- 
nary pen'ussion-lock;  in  addition  to  these,  the  new 
service  lock  is  supplied  with  Maynard's  self-priming 
ajiparatus.  TIk' ]irimer  user!  in  this  apparatus,  is  a 
loni;  strip  of  iia])er  containimr  about  (iO  charges  of 
percussion-powder,  distributed  at  uniform  interval.s. 
The  strip  is  wound  up  in  the  form  of  a  coil,  and  in- 
serted in  a  cavity  cut  into  the  exterior  surface  of  the 
lock-plate,  called  the  nuigazine.  One  end  of  the  coil 
protrudes  throuiich  an  opening  in  the  inafjiizijie,  so 
that  the  center  of  the  first  charge  of  percussion. 
]>owder  is  directly  over,  but  not  in  contact  with,  the 
top  of  the  cone.  When  the  lock  is  sprung,  the  pri- 
mer is  accurately  cut  olf  by  a  knife-edge  located 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  face  of  the  hammer, 
carried  forward  and  promptly  exploded  on  the 
top  of  the  cone.  Xfefding-finr/'-r,  connected  with  tho 
tumbler,  pushes  out  another  primer,  when  the  ham. 
nier  is  brought  to  the  po^-iticu  of  "  full-cock."  Othei 
methods  arc  used  for  sclf-priming.  in  some  of  whiclj 

i  the  primer  is  enclose,-i  iu  the  cartridge  itself;  but  few 
are  found,  under  all  eireumstauces.  to  lie  as  reliable 
as  the  comiuoa  perouisionlock.  In  the  back-action 
lock,  the  m>iiii;4p:ing  is  placed  in  rear  of  the  tum~ 

1  bier,  and  thr,  scar-spring,  as  a  separate  part,  is  dLs. 
pen.sed  witli.     The  nioitise,  which  forms  a  bed  for 

I  this  lock,  seriously  affects  the  strength  of  the  stock 
at  tlie  hp.ndle;  and,  for  this  reason,  the  front-action 
li,(^k  is  generally  preferred  for  military  arms.  The 
drav.-ing  shows  the  Parker  lock  at  full-cock.  See 
,Sprinfjji(M  liijtf- 

LOCK-CYLINDEE.— A  component  part  of  most  ma- 
chine-guns. Behind  the  carrier-Uvrk  the  shaft  car- 
ries another  cyliuder.ealled  the  Ivck-cylhulfr.m  whose 
surface  guide-grooves  are  formed,  which  are  in  line 
with  the  barrels, and  in  which  slide  long  breech-plugs 
or  locks,  called  Uick-tuhes  or  plnngcru,  by  which  the 

I  cartridges  are  thrust  into  the  barrels, and  which  close 
the  barrels  and  resist  the  reaction  of  the  charges  when 
they  are  fired.  This  cylinder  is  called  the  lock-cylin- 
der, because  each  plug  or  lock  contains  a  spiral  main- 
spring acting  on  a  firing-pin  or  hammer,  by  which 

I  the  charge  is  fired,  so  that  the  plug  performs  all  the 
functions  of  a  gun-lock,  as  well  as  of  a  breech-plug. 
See  Gatling  (run. 

LOCKET. — A  name  sometimes  applied  to  the  chape 
of  a  sword-scabbard;  the  metallic  part  jiut  on  the  end 
to  prevent    the   point    of  the   sword   from  piercing 

i  thniugh  it. 

LOCKING  ANGLE.— The  turning  angle  of  carriages, 
or  the  angle  formed  between  the  gun-carriage  and 

I  limber,  when  the  wheel  of  the  latter  conies  in  con- 
tact with  the  trail. 

LOCKING-CHAIN.— The   work  of  holding  liack  a 

I  carriage,  on  descending  ground,  devolves  on  the 
pole-horses.  When  the  descent  is  verj-  steep  and 
the  load  large,  they  are  relieved  of  a  portion  of  this 
work  by  attaching  a  chain  to  one  of  the  rear  wheels, 
iu  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  it  from  turning,  and 
thereby  changing  the  friction  on  the  axle-arm  to  fric- 
tion on  the  ground.     In   field-carriages,    one  end  of 

I  the  locking-chain  is  secured  to  the  stock  by  an  as- 


LOCKING-PLATE. 


228 


L06ABITHM8. 


sembling-liolt,  and  the  other  is  passed  around  the 
felloe,  and  secured  to  itself  by  a  key.     In  siege-car- 
riages, wliere  the  load  is  much  heavier,  a  shoe  is  at- 
tached to  the  chain,   upon  which  the  wheel  rides. 
This  prevents  the   tire   from    being   worn   and    the 
wheel  from  being  strained  ;  at  the  same  time,  the  op-  j 
eration  of  locking  and  unlocking  cau  be  performed  [ 
without  stopping  the  carriages.     The  lock-chains  on 
caissons  are  fastened  to  lock-chahi  bridles  under  the 
front  ends  of  the  side-rails,  and  are  held  up  by  lock-  j 
chahi  hi'iks  fastened  to  the  outside  of  the  side-rails.  , 

LOCKING-PLATE.— A  plate  of  metal^tixed  on  each  I 
side  of  the  trail  of  a  wooden  field  carriage,  at   that 
point  where  the  wheel  of  the  limber,  when  it  is  turn- 
ed round,  comes  in  contact  with  the  trail,  called  the  j 
locking  angle.  The  plate  being  thus  placed,  the  trail 
can  receive  no  damage,  as  the  plate  acts  as  a  fender. 

LOCK-NAIL.— One  of  the  pins  by  which  the  parts 
of  a  gim-lock  are  secured  to  the  lock-plate.  In  the 
old  form  of  lock,  they  are  the  tumbler.pin.ma'ni'pring- 
screir.  .wrir-pin,  bridle-xcrew,  hammer-nail,  and  ham. 
r/ier-xpr/itf/  screfc, 

LOCK-NUT.  — A  nut  placed  in  contact  with  the  main 
nut,  on  the  same  shaft,  to  keep  the  main  nut  from 
tiirning.  It  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  construc- 
tion of  artillerj-  carriages,  the  elevating  gears,  etc. 
It  is  alsocalled"./rt"'-""i!  or  check-nut. 

LOCK-PIECE.— A  block  of  metal  at  the  outer  open- 
ing of  the  vent  for  the  attachment  of  the  lock.  As 
friction-tubes  are  now  used  for  firing  cannon  in  the 
land  service,  this  part  is  omitted. 

LOCK  PLATE.— The  plate  in  a  small-arm  which 
covers  the  lock,  and  to  which  the  mechanism  is  at- 
tached. 

LOCKSPIT. — In  field  fortification,  the  small  cut  or 
trench  made  with  a  spade,  about  a  foot  wide,  to  mark 
out  the  first  lines  of  a  work. 

LOCK  STEP.— A  mode  of  marclung  by  a  body  of 
men  going  one  after  another  as  closely  as  possible, 
in  which  fheleg  of  each  moves  at  the  same  time  with, 
and  closely  follows,  the  corresponding  leg  of  the  per- 
son directly  before  him. 

LOCOMOTIVE  CRANE.  -Cranes  of  this  type  consist 
of  a  rotary  crane,  usually  of  the  pillar  variety, mount- 
ed upon  a  suitable  ear  or  truck,  and  provided  with 
an  independent  boiler  and  engine, the  power  of  which 
is  utilized  for  hoisting, lowering  and  rotating  the  load, 
and  also  for  propelling  the  car  upon  its  tracks.  Loco- 
motive cranes  are  of  a  great  convenience  in  large 
works  of  all  kinds  where  the  buildings  cover  much 
ground  and  are  connected  Ijymeans  of  railroad  tracks, 
By  means  of  these  tracks  the  crane  can  be  transfer- 
red from  one  place  to  another,  to  suit  the  require- 
ments of  the  work,  and  can  Ije  utilized  also  for  trans- 
ferring heavy  loads  from  one  building  to  another. 
They  are  useful  also  upon  freight  wharves, where, by 
means  of  a  track  laid  near  the  edge  of  the  wharf  .they 
can  be  utilized  for  unloading  vessels,  and  also  for 
transferring  heavv  loads  from  one  vessel  to  another. 
The  construction  of  cranes  of  this  type  is  varied  ac- 
cordini:  to  the  requirements  o*  the  work  to  be  done. 
See  ('riniei. 

LOCOMOTIVE  TORPEDOES.— During  the  war  be- 
tween Oreal  liril.ciu  and  tlie  United  States  in  1812- 
14.  this  name  was  applied  to  certain  mysterious  boats 
invented  by  Fulton  and  other  Americans  for  the  pur- 
pose of  navigating  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  injuring  the  bottoms  of  hostile  vessels.  In  those 
days  of  hand-to-hand  naval  war,  all  these  designs 
(which,  by  the  wa>',  were  failures)  were  looked  upon 
as  little  less  llian  diabolical.  The  progress  of  de- 
structive weapons  during  half  a  century  has  removed 
this  aversion.  The  moilern  torpedo  is  of  two  kinds 
— first,  the  locomotive  torpedo,  which  is  in  various 
ways  projected  against  the  side  of  a  hostile  vessel; 
secondly.  Ilie  liveil  torpedo,  a  kind  of  stationarv 
liomb-siiell  inlemieil  to  explixle  under  the  bottom  of 
the  enemy's  ship.  To  these  fi.xed  torpedos  it  is  now 
more  usual  to  give  the  appropriate  name  of  subma- 
rine mines. 


Of  locomotive  torpedoes  there  are  three  classes : 
(1.)  The  Whitehead  'fish  torpedo,'  which  has  a  fish- 
shaped  ease,  and  is  propelled  in  a  straight  line  under 
water  by  means  of  a  small  screw-propeller  driven  by 
compressed  air.  It  is  discharged  from  a  carriage 
on  tlie  deck  of  a  man-of-war,  and  exjjlodes  on  im- 
pact against  the  object  aimed  at.  The  secret  of  the 
construction  has  been  sold  by  the  inventor  to  the 
Austrian.  Russian,  and  English  Navies.  (2.)  The 
Harvey  ■  towing  torpedo,'  which  is  towed  out  at  an 
angle  from  the  side  of  the  attacking  shij),  and  ma- 
neuvered so  as  to  come  in  contact  with  the  bottom 
of  the  ship  attacked.  It  is  exploded  either  mechan- 
ically on  contact,  or  by  means  of  an  electric  fuse,  the 
wire  being  inserted  in  the  towing  line.  (3.)  Boom, 
or  outrigger  torpedoes,  which  are  carried  on  long 
booms  in  the  bows  of  boats  or  steam-launches,  and 
thus  driven  against  the  side  of  a  hostile  ship  and  ex- 
ploded. Torpedo  boats  are  becoming  a  special  feat- 
ure of  European  Navies  :  they  are  swift  steamers 
not  more  than  60  feet  long,  lying  low  in  the  water, 
and  steaming  up  to  19  knots  an  hour.  The  Polyi  h'- 
mus,  added  to  the  English  Navy  in  1881,  is  an  ar- 
mored ram,  expressly  an<l  cunningly  designed  for 
torpedo  warfare  (carrying  Whitehead  torpedoes)  and 
is  a  formidable  vessel,  240  feet  long.  See  Torjcdoen. 
LODGE  ARMS. — An  old  word  of  command,  which 
was  used  on  guards  and  pickets  for  the  men  to  place 
their  arms  in  front  of  the  guard-house  or  quarter- 
guard. 

LODGED. — A  term  in  Heraldry.  A  beast  of  chase, 
as  a  stag,  is  said  to  be  lodged  when  l}'ing  down  with 
its  head  erect;  a  beast  of  prey  in  the  same  position 
is  said  to  be  eouchant. 

LODGING-MONEY.— An  allowance  in  the  British 
Army,  granted  to  officers  and  others,  for  whom  suit- 
able  quarters  cannot  be  provided  in  barracks.  Mar- 
ried Sergeants  and  private  soldiers  who  are  married 
"  with  permission."  are  entitled  to  lodging-money  at 
various  rates  up  to  8s.  a  week,  when  separate  rooms 
in  barracks  cannot  be  spared  for  the  accommodation 
of  each  couple.  The  total  charge  for  lodging-money 
in  the  Army  Estimates  amounts  to  about  A'lOO.OOO. 

LODGMENT.— 1 .  In  gunnery,  the  hollow  or  cavity  in 
the  under  part  of  the  bore,  where  the. shot  rests  wlien 
rammed  home;  it  is  formed  in  smooth-bore  ord- 
nance, after  much  firing,  from  the  elastic  force  of  the 
powder  acting  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  projec- 
tile, and  forcing  it  down,  so  as  to  occasion  an  ellipti- 
cal indentation.  2.  In  fortification,  an  intrenchment 
hastily  thrown  up  on  a  captured  breach  or  outwork, 
in  order  to  maintain  the  position  against  recapture. 
See    S;,;,e. 

LOGARITHMS. — A  series  of  numbers  having  a  cer- 
tain relalicin  to  the  series  of  natural  numbers,  by 
means  of  which  many  arithmetical  operations  are 
made  comparatively  easy.  The  nature  of  the  relation 
will  be  understood  by  considering  two  simple  series 
such  as  the  following,  one  proceeding  from  unity  in 
geometrical  progression,  the  other  from  0  in  arith- 
metical progression: 
Gctiiiulricnl  pcrics— 1.  2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  64.  128,  256,  512,  etc 
AritliniL-liciil  scries— 11,  1,  2,  3,    4,    5,    8,      7,      8,      9,  elo. 

Here  the  ratio  of  the  geometrical  series  is  2,  and  any 
term  in  the  arilhmelical  series  expresses  how  often 
2  has  been  nuilliplied  into  1  to  produce  the  corres- 
pcuiding  term  of  the  geometrical  series;  thus,  in 
proeceiling  from  1  to  32,  there  have  been  fi  steps  or 
nudtipliealions  by  the  ratio  2;  in  other  words,  the 
ratio  of  32  lo  1  is  compounded  five  times  of  the  ratio 
of  2  to  1.  It  was  this  conceptiim  of  the  relation 
that  led  to  giving  the  name  of  logarUhmt:  to  tlu! 
arithmetical  series,  the  word  logarithm  nwwmns.  "  the 
ninnber  of  the  ratios."  As  to  the  use  that  may  be 
made  of  such  series,  il  will  be  observed  tl'al  the  sum 
of  any  two  logarithms  (as  we  shall  now  call  the  lower 
series)  is  the  logarithm  of  their  product  ;  e.g.,  9 
(=3-t-(>J  is  the  logarithm  of  .512  (=8  X  1)4).  Simi- 
larly, the  difference  of  any  two  lo'arithms  is  the 
logarithm  of    the  quotmt  of  the  numbers;  a  mult- 


LOGARITHMS. 


229 


LOOAHITHMS. 


pic  of  any  logarithm  is  the  logarithm  "f  tin-  rorrcH- 
poiuliiiK  number  raised  to  tlw  power  of  I'le  multi- 
ple; (■.■;..Hf^  4  X  3)isthel(itrarillim  of  arw)  (  Id''), 
and  a  sulimultiple  of  a  logarithm  is  the  loi;ari1lim  of 
the  eorrespondinu;  root  of  itH  mnnher.  In  this  way; 
with  eomiilete  tal)len  of  numl)ers  ami  their  eorres- 
p()n<lini;  lof^arillnns,  addition  is  maiie  to  talte  the 
place  of  midtiplieation,  svihlraetion  of  division,  miil- 
tipli<-alion  of  involution,  and  division  of  evolutir)n. 
In  order  to  make  the  series  above  niven  of  ]iraetieal 
nse.  it  would  be  iii'cessary  to  eomplete  thi'Ui  by  iii- 
terpolatini;  a  set  of  means  between  tlie  several  terms, 
as  will  be  explained  below.  We  have  chosen  2  us 
the  fundamental  ratio  or  base,  as  beini;  most  con- 
venient for  illustration;  but  any  other  mnnber  (m- 
tei^ral  or  fractional)  mifjlit  be  taken;  and  every  dif- 
ferent base  or  nifl-ij.  fives  a  dilTerent  system  of  lo^a- 
rilhms.  The  system  now  in  use  has  10  for  its  base; 
in  otiier  words,  H)  is  the  nundier  whose  li/i;arithm 
is  1.  The  idea  of  niakinc;  use  of  series  in  this  way 
would  seem,  upon  inipiiry.  to  have  been  known  to 
Archimedes  and  Euclid,  without,  !iow<'ver,  resnlt- 
inj;  in  any  practical  scheme;  but  by  the  end  of  the 
Kith  century,  triu^onometrical  oiterations  had  become 
so  complicated  that  the  wits  of  several  m;ithemati- 
cians  were  at  work  to  di'vise  means  of  shortenini; 
them.  The  real  invention  of  loi;arithms  is  now  uni-  1 
versally  ascribed  to  John  Napier,  Haron  of  Merchis- 
toun,  who  in  l(il4  printed  his  Ciinoii  Mirahiliii  Li<<]-\ 
arithmorum.  His  tables  only  ^iveloi;arithms  of  sines,  j 
cosines,  and  the  other  functions  of  anjiles;  tiiey  also 
labor  under  the  three  defects  of  beim:  sometimes  +  | 
and  sometimes  — ,  of  dccrcasiiiff  as  the  corri'spond-  i 
iuit  natural  numbers  increase,  and  of  having  for  their 
rm\iT  (the  immber  of  which  the  logarithm  is  1)  the  ' 
number  which  is  the  sum  of 

1  1 

1  +  1-1 1 ■+,  etc.    These 

1.3  1.2.3 

defects  were,however,sooii  remedied:  John  Spcidell, 
in  1019,  amended  the  tables  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  logarithms  became  all  positive,  and  increased 
along  with  their  corresponding  natural  numbers.  lie 
also,  inthc  sixth  edition  of  his  AVork  (1()24), construct- 
ed a  table  of  Napicr'.s  logarithms  for  the  integer  num- 
bers, 1,  2,  3,  etc.,  up  to  and  including  lOllO.  with 
their  differences  and  arithmetical  complements,  be- 
sides the  numerous  other  improvements.  Speidell's 
tables  are  now  known  as  hyperholie-  lognrithms.  But 
the  greatest  improvement  was  made  in  Kil'i  by  Pro- 
fessor Henry  Briggs.  of  London,  who  substituted 
for  Napier's  inconvenient  "  radi.x  "  the  number  10, 
and  succeeded  before  his  death  in  calculating  the 
logarithms  of  30,000  natural  numbers  to  the  neyv 
radi.x.  Brigg's  exertions  were  doubly  seconded  ; 
and  before  1028  the  logarithms  of  all  the  natural 
ntunbers  np  to  100.000  had  been  computed.  Com- 
puters have  since  chiefly  occupied  themselves  rather 
in  repeatedly  revising  the  tables  alreadj'  calculated 
than  in  extending  them. 

The  following  is  the  simplest  method  of  construct- 
ing a  table  of  logarithms  on  Brigg's  system.  The 
log  of  10  =  1;  the  log.  of  100  (which  is  twice  com- 
pounded of  10)  =  2-  ;"the  log.  of  1000  =  3-,  etc.;  and 
the  logarithms  of  all  powers  of  10  can  be  found  in 
the  same  manner.  The  intermediate  logarithms  are 
found  by  contin\iaUy  computing  geometric  means 
between  two  numbers,  one  greater  and  the  other 
less  than  the  number  required.  Thus,  to  tind  the 
log.  of  5,  take  the  geometric  mean  between  1  and  10, 
or  3'102...,  the  corresponding  arithmetic  mean  (the 
log.  of  one  being  0,  and  that  of  10  lieing  1-)  being  '5; 
the  geometric  mean  between  3-lti2...  and  10. or  .')103 
..  ,  corresponds  to  the  arithmetic  mean  between  '.5 
and  1".  or '75 ;  in  a  similar  maimer  the  geometric 
mean  between  3-ie2...  and  .5023....  or  4'210....  has 
its  logarithm=i  (•T.5  •.5).  or  -025  :  this  operation  is 
continued  till  the  result  is  obtained  to  the  necessary 
degree  of  accuracy.  In  this  example,  the  twenty- 
first  result    gives  the  geometric   mean  =  .l-OOO.OOS, 


and  the  corresponding  arithmetic  mean— ■0i)8, 970, 
which  is  in  ordinary  calculations  used  as  the  loga- 
rithm of  .').  Sinc<^  division  of  immbcrH  corresponds 
to  subtraction  of  logarithms,  and  since  2=V-',  the 
log.  of  2=  log.  10  log.  r,=\-  —  -098970  =-301030. 
Tlic  logarithms  of  all  prinx-  numliers  are  found  in 
the  sami'  way  as  that  of  .T  ;  thosi;  of  composite  num- 
bers are  obtained  by  the  ad<lition  of  the  logarithms 
of  their  factors  ;  thus,   the   log.  of  0^  log.  2      log.  3 

.•301030  -477121  =-7781.'»l.  "  This  method,  though 
simple  in  principle,  involves  an  enormous  amoiiul  of 
calculation;  and  the  following  method,  which  de- 
pends on  the  modern  algebraic  analysis,  is  much  to 
be  prefc-rred.  According  to  this  method,  logarithms 
are  considered  as  indices  or  powers  of  the  radix; 
thus,10"  =  l,  10-»'"""^2,  10-'"'"=='=3,  10-=1(W, 
etc. ;  and  the  laws  of  logarithms  then  become  the 
same  as  those  of  indices.  Let  r  represent  the  radix 
// the  natural  number,  a;  its  logarithm;  theny=r'[, 
or,  iiutting  l+afor  r,  y—  (l-j-")"  ;  and  it  is  show-n 
by  the  binomial  and  exponential  theorems  (see  the 
ordinary  works  on  algebra;  that  y  =\-\-Ax-\- 
A'x^'    A^x^ 

— I-  • [-,  etc..  where  .4=r— 1— ^(r— 1 1=  -t-  i 

1.3      1.2.3 
(r — 1)* — .  etc.,  the    former    eejuation    expressing  a 
number  as  the  sum  of  different  multiples  of  its  Ic-ga- 
rithm  and  the  radix. 

1 

1  A 

If  —  be  now  substituted  for  x.  then,  y  =  r  ^  1  + 
A 
1  1 

1-1 1 (-.   Ptc.  =  2-71828182....  which,   as 

1.2       1.2.3 
before  mentioned,  is  Napier's  rad.x,  and  is  generally 
1 

A  'a 

called  c;  then  r  ^r,  or  r=ie  .or  A  is  the  logarithm 
of  r  to  the  base  of  radix  e.  Then,  referring  to  the 
above  mentioned  value  of  A,  we  have  log.  iV  (i.e.. 
log.  of  ;■  to  the  base  of  f )  =  /■  —  1  —  i  {r  —  1 )"  -4"  i 
(;■  — 1)^  — .  etc.,  or,  as  before,  putting  \-\-n  for  r. 
a-       u^ 

log.  e(l  +  '<)  =  « 1 •  '■'''■•  •    <i  series  from 

2        3 
which  log.  >(1 -|- a)  cannot  be  found,   unless  a  be 
fractional.      However,   if  we   put  —  '(  for  a,   log. 

e(l  —  «)  =  —  a ,  etc.;  and  subtracting 

2  3 

this  expression  from  the  former,  log.  c(l  +a)  — log. 


e(l 


(1  j^  „X                     a'      a^ 
I  =  2  (a  -^ 1 h, 
1  —  a/                      3        .5 
etc.).   and.   for   the   sake  of  convenience,   putting 

ii  -f  1  1  +  «  1 

for .  in  which  case  a  =: ,  we 

w  \-~  a  2«  + 1 

"+1  (      1  1 

finally  obtain  log. =  2 1 

^       Zu  C2«+l      3(2«  +  l)» 

1  ) 

■\ ,  +  etc.  ■  ,  or  log.  e(w  +  l)=log.  e-u 

5(3«+l)»  ) 

^  ( ]_ 1_ _|_ ]_ 

"  {      2«  +  1  32'/ +  1)'  5(2«  +  l)« 

+,  etc.  If  1  be  substituted  for  u  in  this  for- 
mula, the  Napierian  logarithm  of  2.  is  at  once  verj- 
readily  obtained  to  any  degree  of  accuracy  requir- 
cd;  if  2  be  put  for  «.the  Napierian  logarithm  of  3  can 
be  calculated,  etc.  Now.  as  logarithms  of  any  system 
I  have  always  the  same  ratio  to  one  another  as  the  cor- 
.  responding  logarithms  of  any  other  system,  no  matter 


LOOEUDNT. 


230 


LOOKING  GLASS  SIGNALINO. 


what  its  base,  if  a  number  can  be  found  wiiicli.when 
multiplied  into  the  logaritlini  of  a  certain  number  to 
one  base,  gives  the  logarithm  of  tlie  same  number  to 
another  base,  this  multiplier  will,  when  nuiltiplied 
into  anjsr  logarithm  to  the  first  base,  produce  the  cor- 
responding^logarithm  to  the  other  base.  The  multi- 
plier is  called  the  modulus,  and,  for  the  conversion 
of  Na]):erian  into  common  or  Brigg's  logarithms,  is 
equal  to  •4342y44...;  so  that  to  find  the  coinrii'in  loga- 
rithm of  any  nnmber,  fir^t  find  the  Napierian  logar- 
ithm, and  multiply  it  by  ■4343944...  As  in  Brigg's 
system  the  logarithm  of  10  is  1,  and  that  of  100  is  3, 
it  follows  thatall  numbers  between  10  and  100  have, 
for  their  logarithms,  unity  +  a  proper  fraction,  in 
other  words,  the  integer  portion  of  the  logarithms 
of  all  numbers  of  twotigures  is  unity;  similarly,  the 
integer  portion  of  the  logarithms  of  all  numbers  be- 
tween 100  and  1000  is  2.  and,  in  general,  the  integer 
portion  of  the  logarithm  of  an}-  number  expresses  a 
number  less  by  unit.y  than  the  number  of  figures  in 
that  number.  This  integer  is  called  the  characterintir, 
tlie  decimal  portion  being  designated  as  the  man- 
tissa. 

As  the  logarithm  of  1  =  0.  the  logarithms  of  quan- 
tities less  than  unity  would  naturally  be  negative  ; 
thus,  the  logarithm  of  h  would  be— "30103,  but,  for 
convenience  in  working,  the  mantissa  is  kept  always 
positive,  and  the  negative  sign  thus  only  applies  to 
the  characteristic :  the  logarithm  of  i  or  ••5  would 
thus  be  1-69897,  the  characteristic  in  this  and  similar 
cases  expressing,  when  the  fraction  is  reduced  to  a 
decimal,  the  number  of  places  the  lirst  figure  is  re- 
moved from  the  decimal  point ;  thus,  tiie  logarthm 
of  ■000-5  is  4-09897.  Logarithms  are  of  frequent  ap- 
plication in  the  solution  of  problems  of  gunnery,  etc. 

LOGEMEKT.— Any  place  occupied  by  ruilitary  men, 
for  the  time  being,  whether  they  are  quartered  upon 
the  inhabitants  of  a  town,  or  are  distributed  in  bar- 
racks. Wlien  applied  to  soldiers  that  have  taken  the 
field,  it  is  comprehended  under  the  several  heads  of 
huts,  tents,  etc. 

LOGISTICS. —Bardin  considers  the  application  of 
this  word  bj'  some  writers  as  more  ambitious  than 
accurate.  It  is  derived  from  Latin  Logista,  the  Ad- 
ministrator or  Intendant  of  the  Roman  armies.  It  is 
properly  that  branch  of  the  military  art  embracing  all 
details  for  moving  and  supplying  armies.  It  includes 
the  operations  of  the  ordnance,  quartermaster's,  sub- 
sistence, medical,  and  pay  departments.  It  also  em- 
braces the  preparation  and  regulation  of  magazines, 
for  opening  a  campaign,  and  all  orders  of  march  and 
other  orders  from  the  Gcncral-in-C'hief  relative  to 
moving  and  supplying  armies.  Some  writers  have, 
however,  extended  its  signification  to  also  embrace 
Strategy. 

LOG-LINE. — The  cordage  used  for  lashing  to  gun- 
aprons,  sponge  and  muzzle  caps,  etc.  There  is  also 
a  log-line  made  in  India  which  is  used  for  choking 
rockets;  for  handles  for  ca.se-shot,  etc. 

LOG  PAPER. — A  thin  drawing  paper  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  paper  fuses,  etc. 

LOG  REVETMENT.— A  revetment  made  of  tnmks 
of  small  trees  or  saplings  laid  horizontally  one  on  the 
other. and  siipported  by  posts  sets  into  the  lianiiuette. 
At  frecpu-nt  intervals  tie  beams  are  dovetailed  be- 
Iween  tlie  logs,  and,  extending  six  or  eight  feet  into 


the  parapet,  are  secured  to  horizontal  anchoring  logs. 
For  intrcnchments  hastily  thrown  up.  this  is  the  most 
usual  form,  rails  or  timber  of  any  kind  being  used. 
See  I{ir,tnirnt. 

LOMBARDS. — A  German  people  of  the  Suevicfam- 
ily,  not  very  luimerous.  but  of  distinguished  valor. 
who  played  an  important  part  in  the  early  history  of 


Europe.  The  name  is  derived  from  Longohardi ,  or 
Langiibardi.  a  Latinized  form  in  use  since  the  12th 
century,  and  was  formerly  supposed  to  have  been 
given  with  refeu-nce  to  the  long  beards  of  this  peo- 
ple :  but  is  now  derived  rather  from  a  word  yjarta, or 
barte.  which  signifies  a  battle-axe.  About  the  4th 
century  they  seem  to  have  begun  to  leave  their  orig- 
inal seats  (on  the  Lower  Elbe,  where  the  Romans 
seem  to  have  come  first  in  contact  with  them  about 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  eraj. and  to  have  fought 
their  way  southward  and  eastward,  till  they  came 
into  close  contact  with  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire 
on  the  Danube,  adopted  an  Arian  form  of  Christian- 
ity, and  having  been  for  some  time  tributary  to  the 
Heruli,  raised  themselves  upon  the  ruins  of  their 
power,  and  of  that  of  the  Gepida",  shortly  after  the 
middle  of  the  6th  century,  to  the  position  of  Masters 
of  Paunonia,and  became  one  of  the  most  wealthy  and 
powerful  nations  in  that  part  of  the  world.  Under 
their  King  Alboin,  they  invaded  and  concpiered  the 
north  and  center  of  Italy  (.508 — .569).  The  more  com- 
plete triumph  of  tlie  Lombards  was  promoted  by  the 
accession  of  strength  which  they  received  from  other 
tribes  following  Uiem  over  the  Alps — Bulgarians, 
Sarmatians,  Pannonians,  Norici,  Alemanni,  Suevi, 
Gepidie,  and  Saxons — for  the  numbers  of  the  Lom- 
bards themselves  were  never  very  great.  3.  Cannon 
of  peculiar  form  in  former  use,  and  originally  em- 
ployed by  the  Lomliartls.     See  Bombard. 

LONG-BOW.— A  bow  of  the  height  of  the  archer, 
formerly  used  in  England  for  war  and  sport.  The 
term  is  now  sj-nouymous  with  buic,  and  used  in  con- 
tradistinction to  C'ruHs-hotr.     See  Bu^r. 

LONGE. — The  training  ground  for  the  instruction 
of  a  young  horse,  to  render  him  quiet,  tractable,  and 
supple  ;  to  give  him  free  and  proper  use  of  his  limbs, 
to  form  his  paces,  and  to  prepare  him  in  all  respects 
for  the  cavalry  service. 

LONGEVITY  PAY.— An  extra  rate  of  pay  for  long 
service.  It  has  recently  been  decided  by  the  Supreme 
Court  that  service  as  Cadets  must  be  taken  into  ac- 
count in  computing  Longevity  Pay.  The  service  per- 
formed as  enlisted  men  of  Regulars  or  Volunteers  is 
also  to  be  counted. 

Under  secton  1284.  Revised  Statvites,  a  soldier  who 
completes  a  term  of  five  years'  continuous  service, and 
re-enlists  within  thirty  days  thereafter,  is  entitled  to 
an  additional  allowance  of  .#2  per  month  ;  and  for 
each  successive  and  continuous  re-enlistment  imder 
the  same  conditions  he  is  entitled  to  a  further  ad- 
dition of  $1  per  month.     See  Pay. 

LONG  ROLL.— When  the  troops  should  form  sud- 
denly to  meet  the  enemy,  the  signal  "  <«  ff77n,«,"  is 
sounded  or  the  "  long  roll"  is  beaten.  The  troops 
after  assembling  on  their  compan.y  parades. form  rap- 
idly in  front  of  their  camps.  In  the  cavalry,  if  the 
troops  are  to  form  mounted,  the  signal  "fo  A<^.ic"  is 
sounded. 

LONG- ROLLER. — A  round  piece  of  wood.  6  inches 
in  diameter,  and  3i  feet  long,  having  a  groove  cut 
round  it  in  the  middle,  for  the  reception  of  the  gun 
when  placed  upon  it.  It  is  used  to  move  a  gun  in 
the  direction  of  its  axis,  on  skids,  on  a  hard  snujoth 
surface,  such  as  a  platform,  etc.  Two  of  them  are 
used  at  once,  and  the  gun  moving  upon  them,  gains 
twice  the  distance  passed  over  by  the  roller. 

LOOKING-GLASS  SIGNALING.— A  nuthod  of  sig- 
naling invented  ami  extensively  used  by  theNorth 
American  Indians,  both  on  the  I'hiins  and  in  the  re- 
gions west  of  the  KoiUy  .Mountains.  The  rellection 
of  the  sun  is  flashed  from  a  small  piece  of  a  mirror 
held  in  the  hand,  and  in  this  manner  a  Chief  is  fre- 
quently enabled  to  direct  the  movements  of  his  war- 
riors with  the  greatest  ease  and  certainly  from  a  dis- 
tant point  overlooking  the  field.  This  method  of 
sigiudiiig.  modified  by  the  resources  of  science,  has 
been  lately  inlroiluced  into  the  Knglish  service,  and 
uscil  lioth  in  India  and  Southern  Africa.  A  great 
advantage  of  this  method  over  the  ordinary  signal 
system  is  that  the  apparatus  ism' re  portable,  bu^  it 


LOOPHOLED  GALLERIES. 


231 


LORAEII. 


can  he  siu'cchfiilly  used  (inly  in  rcfrions  wliiTc  llic 
ulnios|)lirrc  JH  clciir  of  cloiiils  tliri>iiuli  conHidcriiblc 
|icriii(ls  (if  lime.  Anybody  wlio  liiiH  iiny  idea  (if  Ilic 
iirdiiiury  incllidd  of  lclcnrii|iliinL'  liy  clcclricily  with 
IIm-  car  alplialx't,  will  uiidcrsland  how  sjiaccs  of 
lime  may  lie  cnipldycd  to  indicalc  Ictlcrsnnd  words 
by  means  of  tlic  eye.  Tlicrc  arc  two  nictliods:  the  rc- 
tlcclor  nmy  bi;  obscnrcd  cxccpl  wlicti  the  screen  is 
temporarily  removed  to  pnxhicc  a  llasli  or  letter;  or 
the  rellcclor  may  be  kept  exposed  except  when  it  is 
olisciired  to  prodnce  a  letter.  The  lirst  method  is 
said  to  be  the  easier  for  the  liej;imicr,  bill  the  second 
less  fatiiiiiiiiti;  lotliecye.  Thedislance  Ihroiifih  which 
this  mode  of  comiiiunication  may  be  curried  on  varies 
with  the  size  of  the  mirrors  ami  the  clearness  of  the 
atniosphere.  From  the  llimalavas  a  .'i-inch  mirror 
Iins  communicated  distinct  sij^nals  (iO  miles.  The  in- 
Ktriiment  could  be  used  with  ijood  success  on  the 
Andes.  When  the  sijinalini;  station  forms  an  anj^le 
ftrcaler  than  a  rij;bt  aiitrle  between  tlie  sun  and  the 
rcceivinix  station,  two  mirrors  are  used  to  prevent  too 
prcal  a  loss  of  rays  by  obliiiue  rellectioii.  The  mir- 
rors arc  mounted  on  tripods,  and  arc  held  by  a  socket, 
or  a  universal  joint.  Uesides  its  use  as  a  sifjiialing 
instrinuent,  the  helio!;ra|)h  has  served  to  delinc  dis- 
tant jioints  in  a  survey,  and  for  this  purpose  was  em- 
ployed in  the  triaiiiiulation  of  India.  It  was  also 
used  by  tlie  late  Astronomer-Uoyal  of  Kn);hinilat  the 
Cape  of  (iood  Hope  in  vcrifyin;;  the  arc  of  the  meri- 
dian.    See  }ff}it>(jrit)>}itj. 

LOOPHOLED  GALLERIES.  Vaulted  passages  or 
cascmales,  usually  iilaceil  liehind  the  counterscarp 
revetment, and  behind  the  gorijesof  detached  works, 
liavinn  holes  pierced  throujih  the  walls, to  enable  the 
defenders  to  briin;-  a  musketry  fire  from  unseen  posi- 
tions, upon  the  assailants  in  tlie  ditch.  I;(Hiplioles, 
however,  are  not  contined  to  i;alleries.  In  modem 
fori itical ions,  the  revetments,  both  scarp  and  count- 
erscarp, are  very  generally  pierccil  for  a  musketry 
fire. 

LOOP  HOLES.— In'fortification,  loop-holes  are  small 
apertures  in  tlip  walls. tlirough  which  sharp-shooters 
may  tire.  The  loop-hole  should  widen  towards  the 
outside,  that  the  shooter  may  have  a  sweep  witli  his 
ritle;  and  it  is  of  importance,  on  that  account,  so  to 
fashion  the  sides  tliat  a  bullet  ma}'  not  iienelrale. un- 
less tired  straight  into  the  center.  For  Ibis  |)iirposc, 
the  stones  arc  generally  laid  stepwise,  although  oth- 
er forms  are  frcciuently  resorted  to.  Walls  are  read- 
ily made  available  for  purposes  of  defense  by  loop- 
holing  them,  the  mode  of  doing  it  varying  with  their 
height  and  situation.  It  is  a  general  rule  that  loop- 
holes must  be  so  i)laced  that  an  enemy,  if  he  suc- 
ceeds in  ru.shing  up,  shall  not  be  able  to  make  use  of 
them.  To  prevent  this  they  should  be  8  or  9  feet 
above  the  ground  on  the  outside;  liut  on  the  inside 
the  banquette  from  which  the  defenders  are  to  fire 
should  not  be  more  than  about  4  feet  (i  inches  below 
them.  A  portion  of  the  wall  not  less  than  18  inches 
high  should  be  left  above  the  loop-holes  to  screen  the 
men's  heads  when  tiring.  These  points  are  attain- 
alile  in  several  ways  ;  if  the  walls  are  high,  the  loop- 
holes may  be  made  near  the  top,  and  :i  lemporary 
stage  or  earthen  baniiuette  might  lie  [ilaced  inside  ; 
if  the  wall  is  not  over  6  feethigli,  the  loop-holes  may 
be  made  at  4  feet  0  inches  above  the  inside  level, and 
a  ditch  made  outside.  The  quickest  way  of  making 
a  loop-hole  is  to  break  tlie  wall  down  from  the  top 
for  about  3  feet,  and  then  to  till  it  up  at  the  top  with 
a  stone  or  sand  bag.  If  the  wall  should  be  low.  a 
piece  of  timber  supported  on  a  couple  of  stones 
would  be  a  ready  expedient.  If  expo.sed  to  the  Hre 
of  artillery,  a  wall  will  not  afford  good  cover,  but 
it  may  be  intproved  by  sinking  a  trench  in  rear  and 
throwing  the  earth  against  the  wall,  or  by  digging  a 
ditch  in  front  and  throwing  the  earth  over  the  wall. 

LOOSEN. — To  open  ranks  or  tiles  from  close  order. 
To  loosen  is.  in  fact,  to  lose  that  firm  continuity  of 
line  or  perpendicular  adherence,  which  constitutes 
the  true  basis  of  military  operations.     The  lock-step 


was  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  counteracting  tlie 
mlschievouH  eirects  of  loose  inarching,  liiit  It  pro- 
duced a  greater  liiconvenient'e.  and  has  therefore 
been  laid  aside.  The  equal  pace  and  marked  time 
correct  both. 

LOOTEES.  An  Fast  Indian  term  for  a  body  of  ir- 
regular horsemen,  who  plunder  and  lay  waste  the 
(■(Mintry,  and  harass  the  enemy  in  their  march.  The 
word  is  derived  from  l/ml,  plunder  or  iiillage,  and  is 
fr('i|U(nllv  wrillen  Limtim  and   h/otj/   WiiU"irK. 

LORAIN  SIGHT.  Owing  to  the  great  range  ut 
which  rilled  guns  are  used,  and  of  the  accuracy  of 
tire  demanded  of  them,  it  is  important  that  they 
should  be  provided  with  aiming  apparalus  more  jier- 
fect  than  the  coarse  and  clumsy  siirhts  heretofore  sup- 
posed to  be  siitlicieiil  for  arlillcry  jiiirposes.  The 
Ijorain  sight,  of  which  th(r  following  is  a  brief  de- 
scription, combines  the  properties  most  desirable  in 
a  sight  for  heavy  rilled  guns.  Tliis  instrument  is  es- 
sentially alraiisit  with  a  vertical  and  hori/ontal  limb, 
the  former  to  give  the  re(|uired  elevation  or  depres- 
sion,and  the  latterto  give  proper  allowance  fordrifl. 
The  telescope  (A)  has  a  top,  a  front  and  rear  open 
sight  («)•  used  to  bring  the  object  aimed  at  within 
the  field  of  view.  The  vertical  limb  (H)  is  graduated 
to  degrees.  The  least  count  of  the  vernier  is  six 
minutes.  The  tangent  screw  (C)  elevates  or  de- 
l)resses  the  telescope.  The  horizontal  limb  d);  has 
a  scale  of  20"  on  each  side  of  the  zero,  which  is  gradu- 
ated to  degrees.  Thest;indards  (K  E'j  are  sujiported 
!.y  the  horizontal  limb.  The  tangent  screw  CFj  moves 
the  horizontal  limb  to  right  or  left.     The  base  of  the 


instrument  (G)  has  on  it  the  vernier  (g)  of  horizon- 
tal limb,  the  least  c(nnit  of  which  is  six  minutes. 
When  in  use,  this  instrument  sits  in  a  seat  (ri)which 
is  screwed  on  to  the  right  trunnion  of  the  gun.  This 
seat  is  so  placed  that  the  plane  of  its  top  is  parallel 
to  the  horizontal  plane  through  the  axis  of  the  bore. 
When  the  vertical  limb  is  at  zero,  the  axis  of  the  tele- 
scope will  be  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  bore,  if  the 
zero  of  the  horizontal  limb  coincides  with  the  mark 
(Oon  the  seat.  The  mark  (/)  is  on  a  movable  piece  (A-) 
and  attached  to  the  seat,  and  its  position  is  easily  lie- 
lermined.  The  elevations  given  with  this  sight  and 
with  a  (piadrant  do  not  agree,  the  latter  being  meas- 
ured from  the  horizontal  and  the  former  from  the 
line  from  sight  to  object.  In  tiring  from  above  an 
object,  the  Felescopic  sight  re(iuires  more  elevation 
than  the  quadrant.  If  from  below  an  object,  it  re- 
quires less  elevation  than  the  ([uadrant.  When  the 
piece  is  to  be  fired,  the  instrument  is  lifted  out  of  ils 
seat.  One  instrument  suffices  for  three  or  four  guns, 
it,  being  carried  from  piece  to  piece  as  they  are  pre- 
pared for  firing.  For  short  range  and  rapid  firing, 
the  pieces  should,  in  addition,  have  the  ordinary 
sighting  arrangements.  The  proper  place  for  the 
sight  is  on  the  left  trunnion  ;  but  as.  with  carriages 
now  constructed,  it  would  be  interfered  with  by  the 
crane,  it  is  placed  on  the  right  trimnion. 

LORASII.— Among  the  Homans,  officers  whose 
business  it  was.  with  whips  and  scourges,  to  com- 
pel the  gladiators  to  eng;ige.  The  Lorarii  also  pun- 
ished slaves  who  disobeysd  their  masters. 


LOBD. 


232 


LOSSES. 


LORD. — A  title  ejiven  in  Great  Britain  to  persons 
Ddlile  In-  birtli  or  by  creation.  Peers  of  tlie  Realm 
are  so  styled,  incluiiinsi  such  Arcbbisliops  or  Bishops 
as  are  members  of  the  House  of  Lords,  who  are  Lords 
Spiritual.  By  courtesy,  the  title  Lord  is  given  to  the 
eldest  sons  of  Dukes,  Marquises,  and  Earls,  prefixed 
to  an  inferior  title  of  the  Peerage,  and  to  the  young- 
er sons  of  Dukes  and  Marquises,  prefi.xed  to  their 
Christain  name  and  surname.  The  following  per- 
sons bear  the  title  Lord  in  virtue  of  their  employ- 
ments: the  Lord-Lieutenaut  of  Ireland  and  Lords- 
Lieutenant  of  Counties,  Lord  Privy  Seal,  Lords  of  the 
Treasury  and  of  the  Admiralty,  the  Lord  High  Ad- 
miral, Lord  Great  Chamberlain,  and  Lord  Ciiamber- 
lain.  Lord  High  Constable,  Lord  High  Almoner, 
Lord  High  Steward,  Lord  Steward  of  the  Household, 
Lords  in  Waiting,  Lords  of  the  Bedchamber,  Lords 
Justices,  the  Lord  Chief  Baron  of  Exchequer,  the 
Lord  Chief  Justice,  the  Lord  Lyon,  the  Lord  Mayor 
of  London,  York,  and  Dublin,  and  the  Lords  Pro- 
vost of  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow.  The  Committee 
of  the  Scottish  Parliament  by  whom  the  laws  to  be 
proposed  were  prepared,  were  called  Lords  of  the 
Articles.  The  favored  beneficiaries,  who,  after  tlie 
Scottish  Reformation,  obtained  in  Temporal  Lord- 
ship the  Ijenefices  formerly  held  by  Bishojis  and  Ab- 
bots, were  called  Lords  of  Erection.  Persons  to 
whom  rights  of  regality  were  granted  in  Scotland, 
were  termed  Lordsof  Regality.  The  representative 
of  tlie  Sovereign  in  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Church  of  Scotliuid  is  called  the  Lord  High  Commis- 
sioner. Tlie  Judges  of  the  Courts  of  Session  and 
Justiciary  in  Scotland  have  the  title  "Lord  " prefixed 
to  their  surname,  or  .some  territorial  designation  as- 
sumed by  them  ;  and  throughout  the  three  kingdoms 
Judges  are  addressed  "My  Lord,"  when  presiding  in 
Court. 

LORD  LIEUTENANT.— In  Great  Britain,  the  Lord 
Lieutenant  of  a  count}' is  a  permanent  Provincial 
Governor  appointed  by  the  vSovereigu  by  patent  un- 
der the  Great  Seal.  The  office,  in  England,  arose 
from  the  occasional  Commissions  of  Array  issued  liy 
the  Crown  in  times  of  danger  or  disturbance,  requir- 
ing experienced  persons  to  muster  the  inhabitants  of 
the  counties  to  which  the  Commissioners  were  sent, 
and  set  them  in  military  order.  The  right  of  the 
Crown  to  issue  such  Commissions  was  denied  by  the 
Long  Parliament,  this  question  proving  the  immedi- 
ate cause  of  the  breach  between  Charles  I.  and  his 
subjects.  Their  legality  was  established  at  the  re- 
storation b_v  a  Declaratory  Act.  The  Lord  Lieuten- 
ant  is  now  the  permanent  local  Representative  of  the 
Crown,  who,  on  the  occasion  of  an  invasion  or  rebel- 
lion, has  power  to  raise  the  militia,  form  regiments, 
troops,  and  companies,  and  give  Commissions  to  ofti- 
cers.  The  bistor}'  of  the  office  seems  to  have  been 
somewhat  similar  in  Scotland.  The  "Lieutenant" 
is  commanded  to  "raise  the  County"  whenever  it 
may  be  necessary  to  bring  the  rebellious  and  unruly 
possessors  of  castles  and  fortalices  into  subjection; 
and  though  his  powers  were  executive  rather  than 
judicial,  he  seems  sometimes  to  have  had  authority 
to  exercise  the  functions  of  the  Sheriflf,  or  overrule 
liis  decisions.  The  Lord  Lieutenant  of  a  comity  is 
at  the  head  of  tiie  Magistracy,  the  Militia,  and  the 
Yeomanry;  he  nominates  officers  of  militia  and  vol- 
unteers, and  is  the  Chief  Executive  Authority,  form- 
ing the  settled  channel  of  communication  between 
the  Goveriunent  and  the  Magistracy  for  tlie  preser- 
vation of  public  tranquility.  Under  him  are  perma- 
nent Dejiutv-Lieutenants  appointed  bv  him. 

LORD  LIEUTENANT  OF  IRELAND  —the  Viceroy  or 
Dipiilv  iif  llie  Sovereign  to  whom  the  Government  of 
Ireland  is  coiiiniitted.  Tlie  olliee  has  existed  from  a 
remote  ])eriod,  the  appointment  having  been  made 
under  different  desigii;itions.  His  powers  were  in 
(•arly  times  very  exiensive,  almost  regal.  For  the 
last  half  century  following  the  Revohition  the  Lord 
[lieutenant  resided  little  in  Ireland,  visiting  it  only 
once  in  two  years  to  hold  the  session  of  Parliament. 


!  Some  Lords  Lieutenant  never  went  to  Ireland  at  all, 
and  occasionally,  instead  of  a  Viceroy,  Lords  Justic- 
es were  appointed.  The  Lord-Lieulenant  is  ap- 
pointed under  the  Great  Seal  of  the  United  King- 
dom, and  bears  the  Sword  of  State  as  the  symbol  of 
Ills  vice-regal  office.    He  lias  the  assistance  of  a  Privy- 

j  Council  of  as  members,  appointed  by  the  Sovereign, 
and  of  OflJcers  of  State.  He  is  commissioned  to  keep 
the  peace  and  the  laws  and  customs  of  Ireland,  and 
to  see  that  justice  is  impartiall)'  administered.  He 
has  the  control  of  the  police,  and  may  issue  orders 
to  the  General  commanding  the  troojis  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  Civil  Authority,  the  protection  of  the 
public,  the  defense  of  the  Kingdom,  and  the  sup- 
pression of  Insurrection.  ^'He  may  confer  knignt- 
iiood,  and,  previous  to  its  disestablishment,  had  the 
disposal  of  church  preferment,  as  well  as  all  the  oth- 
er patronage  of  the  country.  The  grant  ing  of  money, 
and  lands,  and  pensions,  of  all  titles  of  honor  except 
simple  knighthood,  the  appointment  of  Privy-Ci.iin- 
cilors.  Judges,  Law  Officers, and  Governors  of  Forts, 
and  the  appointment  to  military  commissions,  as  a 
common  thing,  are  reserved  to  the  Sovereign,  act- 
ing,however,on  the  Lord  Lieutenant's  advice  and  re- 
commendation. No  complaint  of  injustice  or  oppres- 
sion in  Ireland  is  entertained  by  the  Sovereign  until 
first  made  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant,  who  is  in  no  case 
required  to  execute  the  royal  instructions  in  a  matter 
of  which  he  may  disapprove  until  he  can  communi- 
cate with  the  Sovereign  and  receive  further  orders. 
Yet,  notwithstanding  the  dignity  and  responsibility 
of  his  office,  the  Lord  Lieutenant  acts  in  every  mat- 
ter of  importance  under  the  direct  control  of  the  C'ab- 
inet  of  Great  Britain.  Tlie  views  and  opinions  of  the 
Cabinet  on  all  the  more  important  questions  con- 
nected with  his  government  are  communicated  to 
him  by  the  Home  Secretary,  who  is  held  responsible 
for  the  Government  of  Ireland,  and  with  wiiom  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  Lord  Lieutenant  to  be  in  close  cor- 
respondence ;  on  matters  of  revenue  he  must  be  in 
constant  communication  with  the  Treasury.  On  his 
occasional  or  temporary  absence  from  Ireland, L'^rd- 
Justices  are  appointed,  who  are  usualh'  the  Lord- 
Primate,  the  Lord  Chancellor,  and  the  Commander 
of  the  Forces.  His  salary  is  £20,000,  with  a  resi- 
dence in  Dublin  Castle,  as  well  as  one  in  Phcenix 
Park.  His  tenure  of  office  depends  on  that  of  the 
Ministry,  of  which  he  is  a  member.  A  Roman  Cath- 
olic is  ineligible  for  the  Lieutenancy  of  Ireland. 

LCRICA  — A  curiass.  or  coat  of  mail  worn  bj-  the 
Roman  soldiers,  made  of  various  materials.  The 
ordinary  kind  consisted  of  a  skin,  or  a  piece  of  strong 
linen  covered  with  small  plates  of  iron,  which  re- 
sembled, both  in  their  shape  and  in  their  manner  of 
overlapping  each  other,  the  scales  of  a  serpent  or  fish. 
Sometimes  cuirasses  or  hauberks,  composed  entirely 
of  iron  rings  linked  together,  were  worn  by  the  Ro- 
man JIaxtnti.  A  less  flexible  but  more  impervious 
defense  was  the  cuirass  made  of  hard  leather  or  of 
metal,  and  consisting  of  two  parts  (the  one  covering 
the  breast  and  abdomen,  and  the  other  the  back^, 
united  by  hinges  and  leather  thongs. 

LORIMER. — A  maker  of  bits,  spurs,  stirrup  irons, 
all  metal  mountings  for  saddles  and  bridles,  and 
generally  of  all  articles  of  horse-furniture.  In  Lon 
don.  the  loriniers.  who  had  previously  formed  part 
of  another  guild,  were  incorporated  by  letters  patent 
in  1713;  in  the  Scottish  burghs  they  have  been  com- 
prehended  as  a  branch  of  the  corporation  of  hammer- 
men. Cutlers,  locksmiths,  and  brass-foundcis  have 
been  considered  as  in  the  exercise  of  branches  of  the 
lorimer  art.  and  therefore  bound  to  enter  with  the 
cor[ioration.  The  Court  of  Sessions  in  WM  held 
it  to  be  a  gross  violation  of  the  exclusive  privi- 
leges of  the  lorimer  craft  to  manufacture  bits, 
slirrup-irons,  and  other  metallic  articles  of  horse- 
furniture,  with  a  view  to  silver-plating  thcra  before 
selling. 

LOSSES. — 1.  Killed,  wounded,  and  captured  per- 
.sons,  or  captured  property.  2.  In  the  British  Army 


tOUP  DES  ANCIER8. 


233 


LOWELL  BATTEEY  GUH. 


there  is  a  regular  provision  made  for  indemnification 
for  louses  by  fire;  by  Hliipwreck;  in  action  willi  tbi^ 
enemy  by  capture  at  sea;  liy  deslniction  or  capture 
of  a  public  store-house;  bv  the  destnictionof  articles 
or  horses,  to  prevent,  their  falling'  into  the  hands  of 
the  enemy,  or  to  prevent  the  sprcailini?  of  an  infec- 
tious disorder.  In  thi'  I'nitcd  Slati'S  it  would  seem 
just  that  Conu'rcss  shoulil  cslalilish  some  general 
rules  re-'ulatiiu;  such  matters.  The  prini'iple  of  selt- 
liii"-  all  such  claims  by  special  Uvu'islation  cunnot  but 
hear  hardly  on  a  number  of  individuals,  and  also 
probably  in  the  end  imposes  greater  burdens  upon 
the  treasiirv.  , 

LOUP  DES  ANCIENS.  An  iron  instrument,  nuule 
in  llic  sluipi-  of  a  tiiiaillc,  bv  means  of  wlii(!li  the 
ancieiils  .i;rap|)lcd  the  batteriiig-raius,  and  broke 
tbemiu  the  midiUe. 


mounted  with  four  barrels  arranged  in  a  circle. 
Aftir  firing  from  one  barrel  until  it  may  become 
hiMited,  it  is  moved  aside  by  a  simjilc  movement,  and 
another  brought  into  action,  and  so  on.  The  tirsl 
barrel  becomes  cooled  before  it  is  again  brought  into 
use.  so  that  a  continuous  tire  can  lie  maintained  for 
any  length  of  tiiiw.  Th(^  barrels  bi-ing  hung  ui)on 
trunnions  may  be  disconnectefl  from  the  machine  or 
tilted  upvvaril's,  allowing  them  to  be  readily-  inspect- 
ed or  cleaned,  also  facilitating  tlie  extraction  of  any 
obstruction. 

The  working  parts  are  exceedingly  simple  and 
strong,  requiring  but  a  few  seconds  for  their  remov- 
al or  ri'placement,  and  ciin  t)e  mani|)ulatecl  liy  any 
ni.in  of  orilinarv  capacity.  The  tiring  is  from  the 
center  of  the  machine,  and  therefore  is  not  diverted 
from  its  aim  Ijy  the  recoil.    The  lock  has  two  extract- 


LOUIS.— The  name  of  a  Military  'Order  in  France, 
instituted  by  I^ouis  XIV..  in  1(593!  Their  collars  were 
of  a  llanie  color,  and  passed  from  left  to  right.  The 
King  was  always  (iraud  Master.  Commonly  written 
KitifihU  of  St.  '[joiih. 

lover's  "WAR.— In  French  history  a  name  given 
to  a  civil  war  in  the  year  l.WO.  during  the  reign  of 
Ilenry  IV.  It  was  so  called  because  it  arose  from 
thi>  jealousies  and  rivalries  of  the  leaders,  who  were 
invited  to  meet  at  the  Palace  of  the  (Jueen-Mother. 

LOW  BLAST  FURNACE.— A  metallurgic  furnace 
in  wliich  the  air  of  the  blast  is  delivered  at  moderate 
iiressure. 

LOWELL  BATTERY  GUN.  This  gun  is  of  the  Mi- 
trailleur  order.  It  may  be  mounted  with  one  or  any 
number  of  barrels,  but  the  firing  is  confined  to  one 
at  a  time,  and  requires  but  one  lock.     It  is  generally 


ors,  which  are  not  dependent  upon  springs,  but  op- 
erating positivelv,  in.sure  the  extraction  of  the  empty 
shells  under  all  circumstances.  The  cartridges  are 
fed  into  a  hopper  from  which  they  are  fakeu  by  two 
carrier-rolls  and  deposited  one  by  one  between  the 
jiliinger  and  opening  in  the  barrel.  The  plunger 
then'forces  them  into  the  chamber  of  the  barrel,  fires 
them  and  extracts  the  empty  shell,  leaving  it  in  the 
position  which  it  occupie<l  before  firing.  The  next 
motion  of  the  carrier-rolls  throws  out  the  shell  and 
lirings  another  loaded  cartridge  into  position  to  be 
forced  into  the  barrel.  It  is  impossible  for  the  empty 
shell  to  he  carried  around  a  second  time,  by  which 
the  gun  might  be  closrged. 

The  drawins  sliows  the  gun  mounted  upon  its 
improved  gun-carriage.  The  mechanism  of  this 
carriage  is'^so  arranged  that  the  gun  can  be  level- 


U)WELL  BATTEKY  GUN. 


234 


LOWELL  BATTEEY-GUH. 


ed,  adjusted  or  trained  to  be  effective  in  any  posi- 
tion, either  at  elevation  or  depression.  When  op- 
erating upon  roiigli  or  uneven  ground  and  when 
frequent  changes  "of  position  are  necessary,  this 
arrangement  is  of  nuicli  vahie,  as  it  enables  the 
gunner  to  bring  the  gun  into  any  desired  position 
iu  a  very  shoriT  time,  Attaclied  to  tlie  carriage  are 
two  skeleton  cages  or  crates,  wliere  four  thousand 
cartridges  can  be  deposited  and  carried  with  the 
gun,  and  at  tlie  same  time  be  within  easy  reach 
of  the  operator  and  fed  directly  to  the  magazine, 
requiring  no  transfer  of  the  ammunition  after  it  is 
packed  "at  the  place  of  manufacture.  Three  men 
can  work  the  gun  steadily  and  continuously  when 
the  carriage  is  used. 

The  following  points  shoula  be  noticed  in  connec- 
tion with  this  gun:  The  tiring  being  from  the  cen- 
ter of  the  macliine,  the  barrel  is  not  diverted  from 
its  aim  by  the  recoil,  whereas  in  most  machine-guns 
the  tiring"-barrel  is  located  some  distance  from  the 
center  of  the  machine,  and  the  barrel  is  consequent- 
ly soon  diverted  by  the  continued  recoil.  The  tiring 
being  confined  to  one  tiarrel  at  a  time, other  cool  and 
clean  barrels  are  kept  iu  reserve, so  that  a  continuous 
fire  may  be  maintained.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
barrels  of  a  rapid  firing  machine  gun  become  over- 
heated after  a  few  hundred  shots,  and  thereby  be- 
come practically  inoperative  until  cooled.  As  the  fir- 
ing is  confined  to  one  barrel  at  a  time  the  gun  is 
not  rendered  inoperative  by  the  bursting  of  a  cart- 
ridge shell  or  other  obstruction  in  the  chamber,  as 
the^obstructed  barrel  may  be  instantly  moved  aside, 


occupying  but  little  space,  and  requiring  but  a  few 
seconds  for  ils  removal  and  replacement,  it  can  all 
be  taken  from  the  gun  and  packed  in  a  close  bo.\ ; 
by  which  it  can  be  kept  in  condition  for  use  at,  all 
times.  In  making  long  marches  over  dusty  roads  the 
mechanism  of  some  guns  is  liable  to  be  clogged  by 
dust  and  found  inoperative  when  called  into  action. 
The  Lowell  Battery  Gun  requires  no  feed  case  or  any 
preparation  or  transfer  of  the  ammunition  whatever, 
but  the  cartridges  are  fed  directly  from  the  packages 
as  they  are  prepared  at  the  factory  into  a  trough 
which  convej'S  them  one  by  one  to  the  carrier  rolls. 
By  this  arrangement  two  men  can  keep  up  a  contin- 
uous fire  for  any  length  of  time.  It  is  well-known 
that  when  feed  cases  are  required  for  working  ma- 
chine-guns, a  large  force  is  required  to  fill  and  apply 
them.  Frequent  jams  also  occur  in  transferring  the 
cartridges  from  the  feed-cases  ;  to  the  hopper,  and 
the  feed  cases  being  necessarily  of  delicate  construc- 
tion they  are  liable  to  injury. 

The  plunger  of  this  gun  isprovidea  with  two  strong 
extractors,  operating  positively  and  not  depending 
on  springs.  These  extractors  are  arranged  to  grasp 
the  cartridge  shell  at  opposite  sides  and  remain  lock- 
ed until  the  shell  is  fully  withdrawn.  Extractors  op- 
erated by  springs  are  liable  to  slip  over  the  flange  of 
the  shell  when  U  sticks  in  the  chamber  of  the  barrel, 
preventing  the  further  operation  of  the  gun  until  re- 
moved. The  ejection  of  the  empty  shells  does  not 
depend  upon  gravity,  but  is  absolutely  forced  out  by 
the  positive  movement  of  the  carrier  rolls.  This  fea- 
ture will  be  appreciated  by  those  who  have  exper- 


and  another  brought  into  position.  Most  machine 
guns  become  more  or  less  disabled  when  one  barrel 
IS  obstructeil  by  the  non-extraction  of  the  empty 
shell, and  in  some  cases  entirely  so  until  the  obstruc- 
tion is  removed.  The  barrel  and  working  parts  nuvy 
be  removed  and  replaced  in  a  few  seconds,  allowing 
them  to  be  readily  inspect;'d  and  cleaned  or  removed 
for  ])rotection  or  other  purposes. 

In  nu>st  machine  guns,  the  barrels  are  made  fast  to 
the  frame  work,  rendering  ins|)ection  and  cleaning 
(juite  diflicult.  and, the  working  parts  being  encased, 
considerable  time,  anil  services  of  an  expert  are  re- 
quired to  extract  any  obstruction.     The  mechanism 


ienced  the  dilficidty  attending  the  failure  of  the  ejec- 
tion of  a  shell.  The  barrels  are  firmly  fixed  in  the 
breech  plate  and  retiuire  no  adjustment  after  the  fir- 
ing has  begun.  But  few  tools  are  required  to  dis.sect 
the  machinery,  all  of  which  and  a  spare  plunger  are 
packed  with  tlu'  gun.  r(i|uiring  no  sjiare  article  or 
tool  box  to  be  carried  willi  it.  The  lateral,  oscillat- 
ing or  traverse  motion  is  very  simiilc,and  can  be  op- 
erated by  the  gunner  while  firing,  and  be  made  to 
cover  any  desired  space  at  any  distance  and  returned 
to  a  fixed  jiosition  without  cessation  of  firing.  This 
j  gun  can  lie  worked  and  fired  by  two  men  steadily 
I  and  continuously  4tl0  shots  per  nunute  ;  and,  by  the 


UOW  STEEL. 


235 


LOBBICAnOH. 


tssistiincf  of  u  lliird  niun  to  fffd.  it  ran  lie  wrirkcd  at 
U\r  rule  of  (ilKI  prr  iiiiinili'.laUiiii;  llii'  carlridiri's  from 
the  boxi'M  HS  till  V  ciiinc  from  llic  factiiry.  My  llir  ad- 
dilion  of  a  second  ]>Iiiiii;(T  the  niiinliiT  of  hIioIs  per 
minut("  can  l>c  doulilcd.  'I'lic  lock  is  conslniclcd  up- 
on a  new  principal,  is  very  simple,  ;tiiil  not  liable  to 
be  iiijure(l  or  disabled  by  wear. 

'I'lie  drawiiin  sbows  the  j;mi  moiiiiled  on  a  tri[>od 
and  ready  for  liriiif;,  Russia,  after  llioroMi;li  inves- 
tigation fpy  its  naval  olllcers,  bought  twenty  Lowell 
Battery  (inns,  Tlie  I'niled  States  Navy  lias  adopted 
it.  California  has  imrchased  three  for  its  State  pris- 
ons. Ohio  lias  one,  and  other  Stales  are  in  negotia- 
tion for  them  for  use  by  militia  eomi)anies  stationed 
in  cities. 


I  tenacity,  and  a  lower  range  of  ductility  depending 

on  its  proportitin  of  carbon.  It  has  lesfl  extensibility 
within  the  elastic  limit  than  hifli  steel,  but  greater 
beyond  it;  or,  in  other  words,  greater  dnctility.  Iih 
great  advantagi-  over  wroiight-iron  for  general  pur- 
poses is  that  it  can  be  melted  at  a  practicable  heal 
,  and  run  into  large  masseH,  posgessing  soundness  and 
tenacity.  Its  advantageH  for  cannon  are  greater 
elasticity,  tenacity,  and  hardness.  Its  tenacity  when 
suitabli-  for  cannon  is  about  !»0,(KK)  lbs.,  or  three 
times  as  much  as  cast  gun-iron,  and  .'iO  per  cent, 
more  than  the  Ijest  wroughl-iron.  The  dittlcidty  in 
the  use  of  steel  for  large,  homogeneous  guns  is  the 
great  size  of  the  hammers  required  to  work  the 
blocks  into  which  it  is  cast.  See  Steel. 
LOYALIST.— A  peraun  who  adheres  to  his  Sover- 


A  comparison  of  this  gun  with  rival  guns  detracts 
nothing  from  the  Lowell.  While  the  Gatling  gim 
has  ten  locks  and  ten  barrels,  all  revolving  at  each 
shot,  the  Lowell  Battery  gun  has  but  one  lock  and 
uses  but  one  barrel  at  a  time.  The  disabling  of  one 
lock  or  barrel  of  the  Gatling  renders  it  useless  until 
repaired  by  a  skillful  mechanic.  A  disarrangement 
of  the  Lowell  can  be  remedied  by  the  renewal  of  a 
lock  or  change  of  the  barrel,  which  can  be  done  in 
live  seconds  by  any  person  of  ordinary  capacity. 
See  Mitchinr  dun  and  Buttery  Guns. 

LOW  STEEL. — This  variety  of  steel  is  often  known 
as  "mild  steel,"  ''soft  steel."  "homogeneous  met- 
al," and  "homogeneous  iron,"  and  is  made  by  fusing 
wrought-iron  with  carbon  in  a  crucible,  after  which 
it  is  cist  into  an  ingot  and  worked  under  a  hammer. 
As  it  contains  less  carbon  than  high  steel,  it  has  a 
greater  specitic  gravity.  It  can  be  welded  without 
difficulty,  although  overheating  injures  it.  It  more 
nearly  resembles"  wrought-iron  in  all  its  properties. 
although  it  has  much  greater  hardness  and  ultimate 


[  eign,  or  to  the  constituted  authority:  especially  one 
who  maintains  his  allesriance  to  his  Prince  or  "(Jov- 
ernment,  and  defends  his  cause  in  times  of  revolt. 

LOZENGE. — In  Heraldry,  a  charge  generally  enu- 
merated among  the  sub-ordinaries,"in"the  shape  of  a 
rhombus  placed  with  the  acute   angles  at  top  and 
bottom.     The  horizontal  diameter  must  be  at  least 
eipial  to  the  sides,  otherwise  it  is  not  a  lozenge,  but 
a  fusil.     The  term  hti  ngy  is  applied  to  a  field  divid- 
1  ed  by  digaonal  lines  crossing  one  another  at  regular 
j  intervals  so  as  to  form  a  diamond  pattern,  the  com- 
I  partments  being  of  alternate  tinctures.    See  JJeraldry. 
j      LUBRICATION. — The  application  of  a  substance  to 
a  surfaceforthe  purpose  of  making  it  smooth.   This 
substance,  which  is  called  a  lubricant,  may  be  either 
a  liquid,  a    semi-li{iuid,   or  a  solid.     Plu'mbago.  or 
black-lead,  is  in  most  common  use  as  a  solidlubri- 
canl   but  powdered  soap-stone,    or  talc,  is  \ised  for 
many  purposes,  as,  for  instance,  bv  shoemakers  upon 
the  inside  of  the  heels  of  boots  a"nd  shoes  to  facili- 
tate the  pulling  on.     When  it  is  desired  to  have  a 


LU6S. 


236 


LUTE. 


rope  or  cord  slip  over  a  liearine,  as  a  pin,  or  a  pulley 
■which  refuses  to  turn,  it  is  usual  to  smear  it  with 
lard.  Grease  is  the  common  lubricant,  hut  for  ma- 
chinery, or  thebearins;  of  axles  generally,  other  sub- 
stances may  be  added  which  will  materially  reduce 
the  friction.  Mineral  oils,  particularly  the  thicker 
portions  of  petroleum,  have  valuable  lubricating  pro- 
perties, and  may  be  used  either  alone  or  added  to 
lard,  tallow,  or  animal  oils,  according  to  the  size, 
weight  and  velocity  of  the  rev  alving  shaft.  Oils  are 
used  for  high  speed  ;  pasty  lubricants  for  large  and 
heavy  bearings.  There  are  a  great  variety  of  lubri- 
cants used  for  the  a.xles  of  artillery  carriages,  maiij' 
of  them  patented.  Perhaps  the  most  favorite  lu- 
bricant  fo  rlight.  fine  road  carriages,  which  are  fur- 
nished with  tight  bo.\es,  is  castor  oil.  When  the  box 
is  not  tight, a  mixture  of  lard  and  rye  flour  is  used  to 
advantage. 

It  has  the  property  of  lasting,  when  mixed  in  the 
proportion  of  alxiut  4  parts  of  grease  to  one  (if  llmir. 
Black-lead  may  be  \iscd  in  combination  witli  lard 
and  flour,  or  it  may  alone  be  mixed  with  lard  or  oil. 
Some  vehicles  are  inade  with  wooden  axles,  and  for 
these  common  pine  tar  is  an  economical,  lasting, 
preservative,  and  etticient  lubricant.  Its  application 
may  be  alternated  with  lard,  or  a  mixture  of  lard  and 
tallow,  or  lard,  tallow  and  flour :  but  it  is  well  to 
have  some  tar  always  present.  Wherever  great  deli- 
cacy of  motion  is  required,  as  in  watches  and  other 
time-pieces,  the  lubricant  must  be  very  fluid.  The 
lubrication  may  be  performed  by  manual  application, 
or  mechanical  devices  niaj'be  employed.  There  are 
many. kinds  of  lubricators.  They  are  in  the  form  of 
reservoirs,  which  discharge  their  contents,  the  lub- 
ricants, as  fast  as  they  are  consupied  by  the  revolv- 
ing shaft  or  piece  of  moving  machinery.  A  simple 
and  often  a  very  efficient  lubricator  is  an  inverted 
oil-can  suspended  over  the  bearing  or  place  which 
requires  lubrication.  When  a  pasty  lubricant  is  used, 
it  may  be  applied  on  a  sponge  or  brush,  if  the  situ- 
ation favor  such  application.  The  ingenuity  of  the 
operator  is  often  advantageously'  exercised  as  well  as 
that  of  the  inventor. 

LUGS. — The  ears  of  the  ordinary  bomb-shell,  to 
wliich   the  hooks  are  applied  when  lifting  it. 

LUNETTE.— 1.  An  iron  ring  at  the  end  of  the  trail 
of  a  fleld-piece,  which  is  placed  over  the  pintle-hook 
of  the  limber  in  limbering  up  the  gun.  The  term  is 
also  applied  to  the  hole  through  an  iron  plate  on  the 
under  side  of  the  stock  of  a  siege-piece,  into  which 
the  pintle  of  the  limber  passes  when  the  piece 
is  limbered.  2.  Arteld  work  consisting  of  two  faces 
forming  a  salient  angle,  or  one  projecting  towards 
the  enem}-.  and  two  flanks,  parallel,  or  nearly  so,  to 
the  capital  or  imaginary  line  bisecting  the  salient 
angle.  In  shape,  it  is  like  the  gable  end  of  a  house. 
It  is  intended  for  the  defense  of  avenues,  farm- 
houses, bridges,  and  the  curtains  of  field-works. 
The  term  is  specially  applied  to  a  .small  work  beyond 
the  ditch  of  the  ravelin,  to  supply  its  deficiency  of 
salieucy,  and  formed  at  the  re-entering  angle  made 
by  the  ravelin  and  bastion.  The  lunette  has  one 
face  perpendicular  to  the  ravelin,  andthe  other  is 
iK'arly  perpendicular  to  the  bastion.  The  term  luni't- 
t'lii.i  is  applied  to  a  smaller  sort  of  lunettes.    !See  Field 

LUNETTES  D'ARCON.— In  order  to  bring  the  lu- 
nettes further  olf  the  jilaee  anil  diminish  the  defect 
of  their  gorge,  (ieneral  D'Arcon  has  constructed 
lunettes  which  bear  his  name,  and  which  are  sup 
posed  to  be  eapalile  of  defending  themselves.  This 
work  has  the  same  dimensions  as  an  ordinary 
lunette,  except  that  the  salient  angle  may  be  made 
as  open  as  deemed  necessary.  The  gor;;e  is  closed 
by  u  liiiip-holcd  wall  18  feet  high,  and  a  mund  tower 
l.T  feet  in  diameter  .separated  from  a  terreplein  by  a 
ditch  I'J  feet  wide. 

LUNGE.— An  extended  thrust  in  fencing  and  bay- 
onet exercise.  The  lunges  are  used  the  sanu'  as 
the  tiirusla,  auddillcr  frouithem  only  in  advancing 


tiie  left  foot,  so  that  the  left  leg,  from  the  foot  to  the 
knee,  shall  be  vertical.  In  both  the  thrust  and  the 
Iiuige,  the  body  must  be  covered  on  the  side  of  the 
adversary's  piece.  See  Bayonet  Excem'se  and  Thrust. 
LUNT. — The  match-cord  formerly  used  for  firing 
cannnn. 

LUSTRATION.— In  antiquity,  purification  by  sac- 
rifices and  various  ceremonies.  The  Greeks  and 
Komans  purified  the  people,  cities,  fields,  armies, 
etc..  defiled  by  crime  or  impurity.  This  was  done 
in  several  ways,, viz.:  by  fire,  water,  sulphur,  and 
air,  tlie  last  by  fanning  or  agitating  the  air  around 
the  thing  purified.  When  Servius  Tullius  had  num- 
bered the  Roman  people,  he  purified  them  as  they 
were  assembled  in  the  Campus  Martins  ;  and  after 
wards  a  lustration  of  the  whole  people  was  per- 
formed every  fifth  year  before  the  Censors  went  out 
of  office.  On  that  occasion  the  people  assembled  in 
the  Campus  Martins,  when  the  sacrifices  termed 
SHoeetaurlliii.  consisting  of  a  sow,  sheep,  and  ox, 
after  being  carried  thrice  around  the  people,  were 
offered  up,  and  a  great  quantity  of  perfumes  was 
burned.  This  ceremony  was  called  J.nstriim.  It 
was  instituted  by  Servius  Tillius,  .566  b.c,  and  per- 
formed for  the  last  time  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian. 
The  term  Limtrnm  was  given  also  to  the  period  of 
five  j-ears  lietween  the  lustra.  The  army  was  puri- 
fied before  a  battle  by  causing  the  soldiers  to  defile 
before  the  two  quivering  halves  of  a  victim,  while 
the  Priest  was  engaged  in  offering  certain  prav'ers. 
The  establishment  of  a  new  Colony  was  preceded 
by  a  lustration  with  sacrifices.  Home  itself,  and 
in  fact  all  the  towns  within  its  dominion,  al- 
ways underwent  a  lustration  after  being  visited  by 
some  great  calamity.  The  lustration  of  fields  were 
performed  after  sowing  was  finished,  and  before 
reaping  began.  The  lustrations  of  flocks,  designed 
to  keep  them  from  disease,  was  performed  every 
j'ear  at  the  festival  of  the  Palilia,  when  the  shepherd 
sprinkled  them  with  pure  water,  thrice  surrounding 
the  fold  with  savin,  laurel,  and  brimstone  set  on  fire, 
and  afterwards  ottering  incense  and  sacrifices  to 
Pales,  the  tutelary  goddess  of  shepherds.  Private 
houses  were  purified  with  water,  a  fumigation  of 
laurel,  juniper,  olive-tree,  and  the  like,  a  pig  being 
offered  as  a  victim.  Infants  were  purified,  girls  on 
the  third.  Iioys  on  the  ninth,  day  after  birth,  then 
named  and  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  god 
of  the  family.  The  lustration  of  a  funeral  pile  was 
by  having  the  spectators  march  round  it  before  a  fire 
was  kindled.  Whatever  was  used  at  a  lustration 
was  cast  into  a  river,  or  some  other  inaccessible 
plrfce,  as  to  treail  upon  it  was  considered  ominous  of 
some  great  disaster. 

LUTE. — A  term  employed  in  the  laboratory  to  de- 
note a  substance  used  for  effectually  closing  the 
joint  of  apparatus,  so  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  va- 
por or  gases,  or  for  coating  glass  vessels  so  as  to  ren- 
der them  more  capable  of  sustainging  a  high  temper- 
ature, or  for  repairing  fractures.  For  ordinary  pur- 
poses, lutes  made  of  common  plastic  clay  or  pipe- 
cla)'  with  an  admixture  of  linseed-meal  or  almond- 
powder,  or,for  common  stills,linseed-meal  and  water 
made  into  a  paste,  are  quite  sufficient :  for  more  deli- 
cate experiments, /<(«  lute,  covered  over  with  moist- 
ened bladder,  is  used.  Lutes  for  coating  glass  ves- 
sels are  generally  composed  of  Stourbridge  clay  or 
Windsor  loam,  mixed  with  water  ;  but  the  most 
simple  method  is  to  brush  the  glass  retort  over  with 
a  paste  of  jiipe-clay  and  water,  dry  it  quickly  and  re- 
peat the  operation  till  a  suflicient  thickness  of  coat- 
ing is  obtained.  Other  lutes  in  frequent  use  are  ]\'il- 
li'ji'ii  lute  (!'  paste  conqioscd  of  a  solutiim  of  borax  in 
boiling  water  with  slaked  lime),  various  mixtures 
of  biifax  and  clay,  nf  lime  and  white  of  egg,  irnii 
rriiieiit,  moislcned  bladder,  paper  prepared  with  wa.x 

!  and  turpentine,   and   caoutchouc.      The    use   of  the 
last  nauu'd   lute   has  on  accotnit   of   its    llcxiliibilily 

,  and  con.sequent  non-liability  to  accident,   been   ra- 

I  pidly  extending. 


LUZERNER. 


287 


LYON  KINO  OF  ARMS. 


m 


LUZERNER.— A  name  u'lvpn  to  the  pdlr.hiimmir 
ill  <iciiii;iiiy  mill  S\vilzcrliin<l,  it  lieiiif;;  ii  faviirilc  iirm 
<if  llir  pcnplc  (if  Lucerne. 

LYCANIEN8.-  ,\  leriii  iipplied  liy  (lie  I'Veneli  pi 
llie   I  liMiLriiriiiii  liii;lil  infiinlry. 

LYING  OUT  OF  QUARTERS.  In  the  Inilcd  StHlcH 
army,  any  ulllcer  nr  .scililier  ulm  lie  s  (nil  of  liis  i|iiiir- 
tcrs,  jrarrison,  or  ciinii),  willioiit  leave  fniin  his  Sii- 
jierior  Otliccr,  is  iiiinisheil  as  a  Cinirt-.Martial  may 
(lireel. 

LYLE  EMERY  GRAPPLE  SHOT.  This  iiroipctilo 
wasdeviseil  by  MeiileiianI  I).  A.  Lylc,  I'nited  States 
Army,  and  Mr.  C  10.  ICniery,  diaiinhlsiiian  at  the 
National  Arniorv.  It  is  intended  for  use  in  eoiinec- 
tioii  with  Die  2i-iiieli  Lyle  iruii  fur  life-saviiii;  pur- 
poses. It  is  an  eliinjjaled,  solid,  east-iron,  smooth- 
bore projectile,  with  a  wrought-iron  base  and  shank. 
In  form  the  sliot  is  cyliiidro-ocival.  The  radius  of 
the  ofrival  head  is  eipial  to  the  diameter  of  the  pro- 
jectile. An  a.xial  cavity,  l.ao  inclis  (8.175  centimet- 
ers) deep  is  horerl  in  the  rear  end  of  llic  shot.  u|)on 
whose  interior  cylindrical  surface  is  cut  a  female 
screw-thread  to  eiif^aije  the  screw  on  the  wroui;ht- 
iron  iiase.  The  base  has  a  cylindrical 
jj^K  a.\ial  cavity  drilled  through  it,  with  a 
<#^^\  rounded  tiroove  on  one  side  to  accoin- 
niodale  the  stop  and  stop-sprinj;.  Tlie 
W^  ^  front  end  of  this  cavity  is  enlarged  by 
counter-boring,  to  a!low  the  necessary 
longitudinal  play  of  the  shank-head  in 
opening  and  closing  the  llukes.  The 
screw  on  this  end  tils  accurately  that 
in  the  body  of  the  .shot.  At  the  rear 
end  of  the  base  are  formed  live  sectoral 
slots,  e((iiidislant  circuniferentially. 
'«'>  '  fl  These  slots  receive  the  heads  of  the 
1 '  vHm  flukes,  which  are  fastened  to  the  base 
at,  these  points  by  rivets.  Circular 
grooves  are  milled  out  between  the  slots 
to  allow  the  insertion  of  the  rivets. 
The  shank  is  of  forged  wrtughl  iron. 
The  front  end  of  this  bolt  has  a  screw- 
thread,  upon  which,  after  insertion  in 
the  axial  cavity  of  the  base,  a  nut  is 
placed.  This  end  of  the  bolt  is  riveted 
after  screwing  on  the  nut.  A  rectangu- 
lar groove  on  one  side  of  Ihe  shank  re- 
ceives the  stop  and  spring.  Five  lugs, 
placed  cqiiidistantly  around  the  shank 
near  the  forward  end,  serve  as  points 
jl'S  of  attachment  for  the  links  that  extend 
the  llukes.  The  rear  end  of  the  shank 
[JlillI  /vSS  contains  an  eyt'-hole  for  attaching  the 
line  in  tiring.  Kach  link  is  coni])osed  of 
two  tlal  pieces  of  Troy  steel,  with  holes 
at  each  end  to  receive  the  rivets  that 
connect  them  with  the  shank  andthike. 
The  flukes,  five  in  number,  ;>re  also 
0./i  il£5)  made  of  Troy  steel.  Each  fluke  lias  a 
rounded  notch  near  its  uiipcr  or  for- 
t  ward  end  to  accommodate  the  corres- 
ponding lug  on  the  shank  when  closed. 
All  edges  or  angles  are  carefully  round- 
ed. The  details  of  form  and  coustruc- 
l[  tion  permit  the  use  of  the  projectile  in 
the  2i-incli  gun  already  in  the  service, 
and  prevent  the  entanglement  of  the 
line  as  much  as  possible  in  tiring.  The 
\ai\i  \r  projectile  is  inserted  in  the  gun  point 
I  I^Bfh  "■''*'■  ■^^illi  the  tlukes  closed,  as  shown 
nul  ij  WtS  ™  ""'  drawing,  and  the  line  tied  in  the 
eye-hole  of  tiie  shank.  In  this  posi- 
tion the  base  of  the  shot  is  toward  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun;  the  llukes  [lartially 
enter  the  bore  while  the  shank  extends 
beyimd  the  muzzle.  In  tiring,  the  pro- 
jectile describes  the  tirst  part  of  its 
trajectory  base  foremost;  the  strain 
upon  the  shank  being  toward  the  rear,  the  tlukes  are 
kept  closed:  but,  as  soon  as  the  projectile  reverses, 


•111 


m 


the  tension  on  the  line  draws  tint  the  shank  to  llie 
limit  of  its  pint/  in  the  base,  sjireading  the  (liikes  to 
their  full  extent.  \Vh(  n  the  head  of  the  shank  reach- 
es the  bottom  of  the  counter-bore  in  Ihe  base  of  lli<! 
shot,  Ihe  slop  is  thrown  out  by  Ihe  action  of  the  slop- 
spring,  and  a  s(piare  shoulder  (alches  on  llie  base 
and  prevents  the  closing  of  Ihe  llukes.  The  latter 
may  be  ojiened  anil  closed  readily  by  band.  To  close 
the  llukes  [iress  Ihe  lliumb  upon  the  .stop  until  the 
shoulder  is  disengaged,  and  then  push  in  the  shank 
genlly  till  its  head  strikes  the  front  ind  of  the  count- 
erJiore. 

When  vessels  arc  stranded  the  crews  sometimes 
fasten  a  line  or  rope  to  a  cask,  spar,  buoy,  or  raft, 
and  heave  it  overboard,  hoping  that  the  wind  anrl 
waves  will  throw  it  on  the  shoie  lo  be  seized  by  ])er- 
soiis  there,  llius  establinhiiigcommunicalion  between 
the  wreck  and  beach.  It  freipjently  occurs,  however, 
that  lliere  is  an  inshore  current  that  carries  the  float- 
ing object  along  parallel  to  the  coast,  in  which  case 
the  object  desired  fails  lo  be  attained.  This  jirojectile 
was  devised  for  the  purpose  of  liring  over  the  line  thus 
paid  out  from  the  stranded  vessel,  soastopassa- 
l)ov(>  that  line  at  some  desired  ))oint  between  the  cask 
or  buoy  and  the  vessel,  and  then  by  hauling  in  the 
attached  shot-line,  the  flukes  grapple  the  ship's  line, 
and  enable  the  life-saving  crew  on  shore  to  land  the 
buoy  and  secure  the  line  from  the  vessel.  There  are 
other  uses  to  which  it  may  be  put  that  will  readily 
suggest  themselves  to  llio.se  familiar  with  the  service. 

The  following  are  the  principal  dimensions  of  the 
shot ; 

Inchcp.   Cent. 

Total  lenpth  of  hnrty  anrl  liuf(>  ]a..')0..34.289 

Length  of  ogival  tiead S.17—  0.5118 

Hadius  of  licad ii.50—  6.;«0 

Lt-nutli  of  cylindrical  liarl «.83r,24.Wj7 

Diameter  of  cylindrical  part 2.50—  ti,8.W 

A.xial  cavity— Length 1.25—  .3.17.5 

Banc— Total  length 2.75-  8.985 

Shank— Total  length 13.25^.^3.(1.54 

Total  Icntth  of  shotandKliank  llukes  closed aS.."*— 59.(W9 

Tolal  length  of  shot  and  hhank.  tlukCB  extended    84,W)-62-483 
Diftance  of  center  of  gravity  from  bflpe 5.00=  l'.;.7(Hl 

The  weight  of  the  shot  is  18.318  +  lbs.  =  8.2G4 
kilos.   See  Anchtir-rtiiket,  ChandUr  A nchorsKut.  and 

Lifl-Hlirluf/   Rni-hi't-^. 

LYON  KING  OF-AEMS.-  The  title  borne  since  the 

first  half  of  the  loth  century  by  the  chief  heraldic 
oflicer for  Scotland,  lie  is  the"  Presiding  Judge  in 
the  Lyon  Court,  and  appoints  the  Heralds.  I'ursiii- 
vanls.  and  Messengers-at-Arms.  Unlike  the  Eng- 
lish Kings-of-Arms,  he  has  always  exercised  juris- 
diction independently  of  the  Constable  and  Marshal, 
holding  office  directly  from  the  Sovereign  by  C(  ni- 
missiou  under  the  Great  Seal.  In  Scotland  he  takes 
precedence  "  of  all  Knights  and  Gentlemen  not  being 
officers  of  state,  or  Senators  of  the  College  of  Jus- 
tice." In  England  he  ranks  after  Garter,  and  before 
the  Provincial  Kiug-of-Arms.  Since  the  revival  of 
the  Order  of  the  Thistle,  he  has  been  King-of-Arms 
of  that  Order.  So  sacred  has  his  person  been  held 
that,  in  1515,  Lord  Drummond  was  declared  guilty 
of  treason,  attainted,  and  imprisoned  in  Blackness 
Castle,  for  striking  Lyon.  Prior  to  the  Revolution, 
Lyon  was  solemnly  crowned  at  Holyrood  en  i  nter- 
iug  on  oftice  by  the  Sovereign  or  his  Commissioner, 
his  crown  being  of  the  form  of  Ihe  royal  crown  of 
Scotland,  but  enameled  instead  of  being  set  with 
jewels.  The  crown  is  now  only  worn  at  corona- 
tions ;  and  that  actually  supplied  on  occasion  of  the 
last  four  appointments  has  been  similar  to  the  crowns 
of  the  English  Kiug-of-Arms.  Lyon's  badge  or  me- 
dal, suspended  by  a  triple  row  of  gold  chains,  or  on 
common  occasions  by  a  broad  green  ribbon,  exhib- 
its the  Arms  of  Scotland,  and  on  the  reverse.  St.  An- 
drew on  his  cro.ss;  and  his  baton  is  of  gold  enamel- 
ed green,  powdered  with  the  badges  of  the  Kingdom 
and  with  gold  ferrules  at  e;ich  end.  Besides  the  vel- 
vet tabard  of  a  King-of-Arms,  he  has  an  embroi- 
dered crimson  velvet  robe;  and  as  King-of-Arms  of 
the  Thistle,  a  blue  satin  mantle,  lined  with  white, 
with  at  St.  Andrew's  cross  on  he  left  shoulder. 


LYMAN  CAHTRIDGE. 


238 


LYUAN  CAKTBIOOE. 


LYMAN  CAETRIDGE.— The  object  of  Mr.  Lyman 
is  to  suppl_v  a  cartridge  which  shall  liurn  with  a  con- 
stantly increasing  tire-surface  s(i  tliat  nearly  uniform 
pressure  shall  be  exerted  upcm  the  projectile  until  the 
powder  is  about  all  consumed.  When  the  cartridge 
is  suited  to  the  length  of  the  barrel,  the  strain  will 
be  distributed  equal!}-  throughout  the  principal 
part  of  the  barrel,  whatever  may  be  its  length.  It  con- 
sists in  forming  powder  into  a  solid  cake  within  the 
cartridge  shell,  which  cake.if  for  small-arms, is  pierced 
by  a  central  perforation  from  end  to  end,  and  is  pro- 
tected from  the  (ire  by  the  shell  on  its  outer  surface 
and  rear  end,  so  that  only  the  small  surface  of  the 
perforation  and  the  front  end  of  the  cake  can  be  ex- 
posed to  the  igniting  flame.  After  this  small  surface 
is  ignited  the  burning  proceeds  in  a  radial  direction 
toward  the  surface  of  the  cake,  thereby  continuous- 
ly enlarging  the  burning  surface  in  a  constantly 
increasing  ratio  and  increasing  the  development  and 
heat  of  the  gases,  and  exerting  a  nearly  uniform  pres- 
sure upon  the  projectile  throughout  the  principal 
part  of  the  length  of  the  barrel. 

The  character  of  this  powder  cake  is  very  impor- 
tant ;  it  should  be  solid  and  compact,  none  of  it  gran- 
ular ;  it  should  have-  a  uniform  density  so  that  it  will 
l)e  burned  evenly  on  all  sides.  To  make  it,  powder 
meal  which  is  reduced  very  fine  may  be  moistened 
until  it  becomes  somewhat  plastic  or  of  a  consistency 
adapting  it  to  to  be  molded  and  compressed  into  a 
solid  mass,  and  while  in  this  soft  or  plastic  condition 
it  is  properly  compressed  in  the  cartridge  shell. 
When  dried  the  rapidity  with  which  the  powder 
burns  depends  upon  the  porosity  of  the  cake, and  this 
depends  upon  the  amount  of  water  contained  in  it 
•when  being  compressed  as  well  as  upon  the  pressure. 


The  drawings  show  a  longitudinal  .section  of  the 
breech  (if  the  gun  containing  a  cartridge  in  position 
for  tiring,  also  cross  sections  of  modified  forms  of 
the  cartridgi'.  In  tlie  chamber  of  the  tmn  li  is  the 
breech-lilock  whicli  holds  the  cartridge  in  iilace,  (' 
is  a  wedge  for  securing  tlie  bree<-h-block.  wliich  part 
may  be  of  any  suitable  construction,  I)  is  ihe  car- 
tridge shell  or  case,  and  K  is  the  powder  cake  packed  I  der-cakc. 


In  the  shell  which  protects  its  outer  cylindrical  and 
rear  end  surfaces  from  the  action  of  the  fire,  G  re- 
presents holes  running  tlirough  the  powder  cake  and 
through  the  head  F  of  the  cartridge,  H  is  a  firing 
tube  passing  centrally  through  tlie  powder  cake,  and 
is  designed  to  direct  the  igniting  Hanie  to  tlie  front 
end  of  the  cake.  This  tube  projects  rearwardly  from 
the  cartridge  head,  and  bears  against  the  breech- 
block, leaving  a  space  I  between  them.  The  car- 
tridge head  is  alsolocatedsomewhat  within  Ihe  shell, 
so  that  the  shell  may  bear  upon  the  breech-block,  as 
shown.  To  fire  the  cartridge  a  flame  is  forced 
through  the  firing  tube  and  ignites  the  front  end  of 
the  powder  cake  and  flashes  back  down  the  perfora- 
tions in  the  powder  cake,  igniting  the  surfaces  of  all 
the  holes  at  the  same  instant. 

The  particular  object  of  the  chamber  I  behind  the 
cartridge  head  is  to  permit  the  perforations  through 
the  powder  cake  to  communicate  with  one  another 
to  insure  their  being  instantly  and  simultaneously 
ignited  throughout  tlieir  whole  extent.  If  these  holes 
were  closed  at  their  rear  ends  some  of  them  might 
possibly  become  more  or  le.ss  filled  with  air  and 
gases  upon  the  first  of  ignition  which  would  prevent 
their  entire  surfaces  from  being  instantly  ignited  and 
thereby  prevent  the  intended  uniformity  of  the  ra- 
dial burning  and  increase  of  the  burning  surface 
along  the  whole  length  of  the  hole  ;  but  when  these 
channels  open  into  a  common  space  as  shown  tliey 
cannot  become  so  filled  or  obstructed  and  their  en- 
tire surfaces  are  instantly  ignited  and  the  progress 
of  the  radial  burning  is  practically  the  same  in  all 
parts  of  the  powder  cake.  The  distance  of  the  per- 
forations in  the  pow-der  cake  from  each  other  de- 
termines the  time  of  the  burning  of  the  cartridge  and 
this  distance  should  be  proportionate  to  the  length 
of  the  gun.  The  holes  should  meet  some  time  be- 
fore the  projectile  reaches  the  end  of  the  bore.  When 
the  walls  of  the  powder  cake  are  burned  through, 
the  burning  and  caving  of  their  remaining  fragments 
may  raise  the  pressure  slightly ;  but  the  space  into 
which  the  burning  gases  expand  has  now  become  so 
large  and  the  rapid  onward  movement  of  the  shot 
increases  it  so  rapidly  that  such  increase  in  pressure 
is  not  material. 

Trials  of  the  cartridge  in  a  |  inch  rifle  .show  initial 
velocities  of  3080.2247,  and  2313,  f.  s.,  although  these 
experiments  are  the  first,  and  naturally  do  not  show 
its  capabilities  when  everything  is  perfect.  The  shot 
thrown  at  these  velocities  was  seef/i,  calibers  long, 
and  with  a  twist  of  4A  inches.  The  cartridge  as 
adapted  for  cannon  has  the  following  specifications: 
1.  A  cartridge  consisting  of  a  sliell  charged  with  a 
solid  cake  of  pow-der  or  other  material  having  longi- 
tudinal holes  running  through  from  end  to  end,  and 
protected  by  said  shell  from  the  action  of  the  fire 
upon  its  outer  surface.  2.  A  cartridge  consisting  of 
a  shell  charged  with  solid  cakes  of  powder  or  other 
explosive  material  packed  in  the  shell  and  extending 
from  end  to  end  of  the  shell,  and  each  provided  with 
one  or  more  holes  piercing  them  longitudinally,  and 
being  protected  from  the  action  of  the  fire  upon  their 
outer  surfaces.  3,  A  cartridge  consisting  of  a  shell 
charged  with  a  solid  cake' of  powder,  which  is  pro- 
tected from  the  action  of  the  fire  upon  its  outer  sur- 
face by  said  shell,  and  at  its  rear  end  by  the  head  of 
the  shell,  said  cake  and  the  head  of  the  shell  being 
liierced  by  longitudinal  holes.  4.  A  cartridge  con- 
sisting of  a  shell  charged  with  a  solid  cake  of  pow- 
der jiierced  from  end  to  cud  by  holes  extending  also 
through  the  head  of  Ihe  cartridge,  the  cartridge  being 
Iirovided  with  a  iirojection  extending  rearwardly 
and  adapted  to  bear  against  the  gun,  and  thereby 
form  an  open  space  back  of  the  head  of  the  car- 
tridge. 5.  A  cartridge  consisting  of  a  shell  charged 
with  a  solid  cake  of  jiowder  pierced  from  end  (o  end 
with  holes  extending  also  through  the  carlridge 
head,  and  provided  wilh  a  firing  tube  arranged  to 
direcl  the  iguiting-flame  to  tlie  front  end  of  the  pow- 


LYMAN  HASKELL  MULTl  CHARGE  CANNON. 


239 


UACCONNZLL  CABTBISOZ  BOX. 


LYMAN  HASKELL     MULTI  CHARGE    CANNON.— 

Tl.r  Ihcdry  i]f  lliis  ciiriiisilyiif  iirdn.'iiici-  is  llic  unidiial 
arcuiiiuliilion  iif  vrlncity  or  povvcr  liy  ii  succcHsion 
(if  cliiiriicM  of  powder  c.vijloilcil  licliiiid  tlir  projectile 
as  it.  passes  aloiii;  tlu^  Ijore  of  llie  niiii.  'I'lie  inertia 
of  the  sliol  is  lirsl  overeoiiie  liy  a  inodr-rale  eliariie 
of  eoarse-;;raiiied.  slow-lmriiiiii;  powiler.  and  I  lien 
repealed  cliarf^es  of  (iuiel<-l)urniMir  powder  are  ap- 
l)lied  in  sueees.sion  until  a  greally  iner<'ased  velocity 
is  attained.  <}eneral  Newton,  [niled  Stales  Army, 
says  the  penetrative  power  of  this  i;iin  is  not  inferior 
to  Ihal  of  the  Arnislroni;  Hl-I<in  and  lOO-ton  j^uns. 
lie  lliinks  Die  lO-iiieh  aeeeleralini;  nun  would  he  as 
etlicienl  as  the  Sl-ton  nun.  and  nearly  as  nuieh  so 
as  the  l(l(»-tun  n"".  !'>"'  "''''  ''"'  I'-i-ineh  aeeeleratin^ 
gun  would  be  more  powerful  than  tli<'  lOO-lon  gun. 
No  doubts  are  entertained  by  e.vperts  that  the  gas 
clie<'k  can  be  made  jicrfectly  ellicient,  and  it  is  be- 
lieveil  that  early  e.\perinients  will  show  that  these 
guns,  at  eoinparatively  moderate  cost  are  at  least  as 
cflieient  as  tlie  best  in  Europe.  See  lliixkell  Mutti- 
c/iif/y/t   ( 'tin  /i"it . 

LYMAN  SIGHT. —The  optical  principle  involved  in 
this  most  excellent  sii;ht  is  entirely  new  in  its  appli- 
cation. Wlien  aimini;  it  has  the  appearance  of  a 
rinn  or  hoop,  which  sliovvs  tlu'  frtmt  sif;ht  and  the 
object  aimed  at,  without  intercepting  any  part  of  the 
view.  The  drawing  shows  the  manner  of  its  con- 
struction. The  aperture  of  t lie  sinht.  beinij  v<'ry  near 
the  eyes,  is  greatly  mannitied  as  compared  with  the 
notch  in  the  conuMon  ojien  sinlil.  This  fealnre  fr'ivvs 
many  the  impression  that  an  aperture  which  looks 
so  lar^e  cannot  allow  of  accurate  aim  ;  whereas,  the 
larger  this  small  ai)orture  looks,  the  more  accurate 
the  aim.  Furthermore,  the  distance  from  the  Lyman 
sight  to  the  front  sight  is  nearly  twice  as  much  as 
from  the  ordinary  open  siucht  to  the  front  sight 
which,  in  itself,  ihnUiles  the  accuracy. 

The  rim  of  tlie  si^lit  can  be  instantly  changed  to 
give  it  a  large  aperture  with  a  narrow  rim,  or  a  small 
aperture  with  a  wider  rim.  For  all  quick  shooting 
the  large  aperture  should  lie  used.  The  sisht  can- 
not shut  out  the  view  of  the  front  sight,  nor  the  ob- 
ject to  be  aimed  at  :  while  with  any  other  rear  sight 
the  chief  dilliculty  in  aiming  is  to  bring  tlie  sights 
and  objects  (piickly  into  line  without  interfering 
with  the  view  of  tlie  front  siu;ht  or  the  object.  It 
possesses  the  following  additional  advantages,  viz., 
it  allows  an  instantaneous  aim  to  be  taken — tlie  ob- 
ject being  sighted  as  quickly  as  if  only  the  front 
sight   were  used:   it   readily   permits   one   to  shoot 


movinR  objects,  with  linth  the  eyes  in  use;  it  is  also 
verv  accurate,  simpli-.  and  strong.  Any  kjnd  of  front 
sinht  may  be  used  with  it.  anil  it  may  be  put  on  any 
rilli'  in  the  same  way  that  a  peep  si^lit  is  attaclii'd. 
and  adjusted  for  shooting  any  distance  up  to  1,(XX) 
yards. 

To  apply  the  sight  to  any  rifle,  screw  the  base  firm, 
ly  on  the  tang  of  the  piece.  See  that  the  tpring  notch 


in  the  sisrht-joint  is  file<i  so  that  the  sight  stands 
perpendicular  when  in  use.  Remove  the  miildle 
sight,  /.  e.,  the  rear  open  sight  from  the  gun.  A  blank 
piece  can  be  put  in  the  slot  on  the  liarrel,  if  desired. 
It  is  recommended  to  use  the  Beach  fn/nt  s'g/it.  in 
conjunction  with  the  sight,  and  for  most  shootinir, 
use  the  larife  aperture  of  the  rear  sight ;  and  for  verj- 
quick  shooting,  aim  with  both  eyes  open. 


M 


MACADAMIZED. — A  term  applied  to  roads  covered  ', 
with  lirokeii  stone.     The  principles  of  the  Macadam 
system  of  road-iiiakingare  as  follows;    For  the  foun- 
dation of  a  road,  it  is  not  necessary  to  lay  a  substra- 
tum of  large  stones,  pavement,  etc.,  as  it  is  a  matter  i 
of  ludifTerence  whether  the  substratum  be  hard  or 
soft ;  and  if  any  preference  is  due,  it  is  to  the  latter. 
The  metal  for  roads  must  consist  of  hrokiii  utorie-t 
(granite.  Hint, or  wliinstone  is  by  fartlie  best):  these  [ 
must  in   no   case  exceed  (i   oz.  each  in  weight,  and 
stones  of  from  1  to  3   oz.   are   to  be  preferred.     The  i 
large  stones  in  the  road  are  to  be  loosened,   and  re- 
moved to  the  side,  where  they  arc  to  be  broken  into 
pieces  of  the  regulation  weight ;  and  the  road  is  then  j 
to  be  smoothed  with  a  rake,  so  tli:it  the   earth  may 
settle  down  into  the  holes  from  which  thelarge  stones 
were  removed.      The   broken  metal  is  then  to  care- 
fully spread  over  it;  and  as  this  operation  is  of  great 
import;ince   to  the  future   quality  of  the  road,    the 
metal  is  not  to  be  lif'd  ou  in  shovelfuls  to  the  requis- 


ite deptlt,  but  to  be  scattered  in  shovelful  after  shovel- 
ful, till  a  depth  of  from  6  to  10  inches,  according  to 
the  quality  of  the  roiid,  has  been  obtained.  The  road 
is  to  have  a  fall  from  the  middle  to  the  sides  of  about 
1  in  GO,  and  ditches  are  to  be  dug  on  thetield  side  of 
the  fences  to  a  depth  of  a  few  inches  below  the 
level  of  the  road.  This  system,  which  at  one  time 
threatened  to  supercede  every  other,  is  calculated  to 
form  a  hard  and  impermeable  crust  on  the  surface, 
thus  protecting  the  soft  earth  below  from  the  action 
of  water,  and  so  preventing  it  from  working  up 
through  the  metal  in  the  form  of  mud.  Strange  to 
say,  it  has  succeeded  admirably  in  cases  where  a 
road  had  to  be  constructed  over  a  bog  or  morass,but 
in  some  other  circumstances,  it  has  been  found  de- 
ficient. 

MACANA.— The  war-club  of  the  South  American 
Indians. 

MACCONNELL   CARTRIDGE-BOX.     This   bo.x,   in- 
vented by  (.'aptain  C.  C.  .\[acConnell  of  the  U.S.  Army, 


MACDONALD'S  HALE  KOCKET. 


240 


UACHICOULTS  GALLEKY. 


is  square-shaped,  made  of  leather  lined  with  tin.  and 
has  compartments  to  hold  40  cartridses.  There  is 
au  openinc  at  the  bottom,  worliiug  by  means  of  a 
spring,  and  by  which  onecartridj^e  can  be  taken  out 
iit  a  time.  The  cartridges  are  placed  in  the  bo.\  on 
top  by  raising  the  flap.  The  box  is  worn  on  the 
waist-lielt. 

MACDONALD'S  HALE  ROCKET.-  Tlie  case  of  this 
improved  mcket  is  of  steel  of  great  strength,  at 
the  end  of  which  is  soldered  a  collar,  to  the  center  of 
which  is  screwed  a  wrought-iron  tube :  this  tube 
unites  the  head  to  the  body  of  the  rocket  and  allows 
the  gas  to  escape  through  the  upper  vents.  The 
head  has  a  cavitj',  communicating  with  the  e.xterior 
by  five  openings  directed  toward  the  rear.  These 
vents  or  openings,  as  in  the  Hale  rocket,  have  semi- 
cylindrical  flanges ;  tlie  gas   escaping   acts  against 


to  b:;  hurled  at  an  enemy  when  lie  approaches  near 
the  wall,  as  in  scaling,  undermining,  etc.  Such  de- 
fenses are  very  common  in  castellated  architecture, 
especially  over  gatcwaj's.  towers,  etc.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  attaining,  by  musketry,  the  foot  of  a  scarp 
wall  without  flank  defenses,  resort  must  be  had  to  a 
machicoulated  arrangement  at  the  top  of  the  scarp. 
The  usual  mode  adopted  for  this  purpose,  is  to 
form  a  parapet  wall  which  rests  upon  a  solid  hori- 
zontal band  of  stone,  near  the  top  of  the  scarp,  which 
is  supported  on  corbels  or  projecting  blocks,  lirndy 
built  into  the  wall.  The  back  of  the  pariipet  wall  13 
placed  a  few  inches  in  advance  of  the  scarp,  leaving 
room  for  the  slanting  loop-holes  pierced  in  the  hori- 
zontal band  through  which  the  fire  is  to  be  delivered 
on  the  foot  of  the  scarp.  The  top  of  the  parapet  wall 
is  also  arranged  to  admit   of   firing  on  more  distant 


the  concave  face  of  the  flanges  and  imparts  amotion 
of  rotation  to  the  rocket.  The  lower  end  of  the  case 
is  closed  by  a  disc,  also  pierced  witli  five  vents  cor- 
responding to  those  in  the  head,  and  furnished  with 
similar  flanges.  This  construction  applies  the  mo- 
tion of  rotation  to  the  head  as  well  as  to  the  rear 
part  of  the  rocket,  and  remedies  the  considerable  de- 
viation of  the  Hale  rocket  due  to  the  motion  of  ro- 
tation being  applied  to  the  base  only ;  as  its  center 
of  gravity  is  quite  considerably  in  front,  the  head 
describes  very  large  and  irregular  spirals.  The 
rocket  composition  consists  of  TO  parts  of  niter,  16 
parts  of  sulphur,  and  2.3  parts  of  charcoal.  It  is 
pressed  into  the  tulie  with  a  pressure  of  90  tons.  As 
it  is  bored  throughout  its  whole  length  by  the  chan- 
nel, the  surface  of  inflammation  is  much  more  con- 
siderable than  in  the  Hale  rocket,  and  its  velocity 
much  greater.  The  head  has  at  its  front  part,  in 
front  of  the  cavity,  a  shell  with  a  bursting  charge, 
which  is  ignited  by  means  of  a  fuse,  either  percus- 
sion or  time.  The  rocket  thus  perfected  has  given 
results  very  superior  to  those  obtained  by  war-rockets 
of  other  systems.  Five  12-pounder  rockets  thrown 
under  an  angle  of  8"  1.5'  had  a  mean  range  of  1.8T0 
meters,  with  a  lateral  deviation  of  2.74  meters  only, 
while  Hale  rockets  of  the  same  caliber,  under  the 
same  angle  of  elevation,  had  a  range  of  only  1,200 
meters  with  a  lateral  deviation  of  34  meters.  See 
RockeU. 

MACE.  —A  strong, short  wooden  staff,  with  a  spiked 
metal  ball  for  a  head.  It  was  a  favorite  weapon 
with  knights,  with  the  cavalry  immediately  succeed- 
ing them,  anil  at  all  times  with  fighting  priests, 
wiiom  a  canon  of  the  church  forbade  to  wield  the 
sword.  No  armor  could  resist  a  well-delivered  blow 
from  tlie  mace.  The  mace  is  now  borne  before 
magistrates  as  an  ensign  of  authority.  The  variety 
known  us  Margenfitern.av  Morning-xtarMnA  generally 
a  long  handle,  and  its  head  bristled  with  wooden  or 
iron  points  or  spikes. 

MACEDONIAN  PIKE.— A  spear  or  lance  of  great 
length  used  ill  warfare  by  the  Greeks.  It  is  common- 
ly ("illi  il  Siirissa. 

MACHETE.— A  large,  heavy  knife  resembling  a 
l)roa(ls\vc>ril,  often  2 or  three  feet  in  length,  used  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Spanish  America  as  a  hatchet,  to 
cut  their  way  tljrough  thickets,  and  for  various  other 
purposes. 

MACHICOLATION.  The  iicl  of  hurling  missiles,  or 
liouriii'i  variiius  Imrniiig  or  melted  substances  upon 
assiiiliiiits  llirciiLdi  Mdi'hifiilntinnx. 

MACHICOLATIONS.  The  apertures  between  the 
corbels  supporting  a  projecting  parajiet.  The  machi- 
colations are  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  projectiles 


points.  Where,  from  the  irregularity  of  the  site,  the 
ordinary  machicoulis  cannot  be  made  efficient,  re- 
sort may  be  had  to  small  polygonal  chambers  of 
stone,  open  at  top,  and  having  the  sides  and  bottom 
pierced  with  loop-holes  and  machicoulis.  These  con- 
structions may  be  made  just  of  sufficient  size  to  hold 
a  single  sentinel.  They  are  placed  at  the  angles  of 
the  works  where  they  will  not  be  exposed  to  artillery, 
and  are  supported  on  a  corbel  work  urojecting  from 
the  top  of  the  scarp  wall. 

MACHICOULIS  GALLERY.— To  place  a  house  in  a 
defensive  attitude,  the  doors  and  windows  of  the 
lowest  story  should  be  firmly  barricaded,  and  loop- 
holes be  made  as  in  the  case  of  a  wall.  A  tambour 
should  be  placed  before  the  doors,  both  for  their 
protection  and  to  procure  flanking  arrangements  if 
required.  The  windows  of  the  upper  stories  should 
be  partly  barricaded,  to  cover  the  troops  within, 
and  loop-holes  should  be  arranged  as  in  the  lower 
stories.  The  roof,  if  not  fire-proof,  should  be  torn 
down,  and  the  floor  of  the  upper  story  be  covered 


with  earth  or  dung,  moist  from  the  stable,  to  the 
depth  of  about  two  feel.  If  it  is  intended  to  de- 
fend the  upper  stories,  should  the  enemy  succeed 
in  forcing  the  lower,  the  stairs  should  be  torn  down, 
and  slight  ladders  be  used  in  their  stead;  holes 
should  be  made  through  the  floor  to  fire  on  the  en- 
emy in  the  lower  story,  or  to  throw  heavy  articles, 
or  boiling  water,  etc.,  on  him.  If  there  are  bal- 
conies to  the  windows  of  the  iqiper  stories,  or  an 
ujiper  gallery,  they  cun  readily  be  placed  in  a  de- 
fi'iisive  st!ite"by  pliuiiig  thick  boards  as  a  shelter  on 
the  outside,  tiiid  ciilling  suitable  holes  through  the 
floor  to  defeiiil  the  doors  and  windows  of  the 
lower  story.  If  liiere  should  be  no  conveniences 
of  this  nature,  a  temporary  structure,  termed  a  Ma- 


MACHINE  GUN. 


Z41 


UACUINE  GUN. 


Trial  No.  1.     For  Accuracy.    Range  500  meters;  2  targets,  20  meters  apart. 


Name  (if  C)i) 


1  Trial. 


Ilotclikiss 

Nonlcnfi-klt 

Gardner 

Pratt  it  Whitney 

Oanlner 

Norilenfelilt 

Monligney 

Gatlinic 

Oatlins 


M)2 


1.00 
M> 
.45 

.45 

.433 
.433 

.45! 
.42 


o    lis 


ci2 

c  ^ 

bl) 


lOi 

24 

80 

80' 

(20 

■(801 

lool 

lOOl. 
100; 
100 


REMAnES. 


10  Gun  sighted  after  each  shot. 
8!Firing  fast. 


17  (Jain  at  20  shots.     C'artridL'f  nipped  in  feed-slide. 

10  Firing  fast. 

901     "       very  .slow. 

I     •'       fast. 

141i     "       at  rate  of  800  jier  ininnte. 

61|     •'       fast. 


*  No.  hits  not  known. 
Trial  No.  2.     100  shots.     Range  l.OOO  meters ;  2  rows  of  targets,  20  meters  apart. 


Name  of  (inn  on  Triai. 


Ilotclikiss 

Nordenfeldt 

Gardner 

Pratt  &  Whitney 

Gardner 

Nordenfeldt 

Montigney 

Gatling 

Galling 


!« 

!^ 

1> 

o 

j3 

U 

Vj 

•a 

C     . 

iil) 

t 

XI  2 

1h 

C3 

o 

J3 

2 

M    « 

O 

6 

fcl) 

m 

£ 

5 

1.45 

2 

10 

7 

4 

1.00 

4 

24 

7 

1 

.45 

2 

100 

43 

2 

.45 

8 

100 

60 

2 

.45 

10 

100 

51 

10 

.4.33 

30 

100 

59 

30 

.433 

IG 

100 

40 

10 

.45 

15 

100 

106 

6 

.42 

15 

100 

48 

Remabks. 


Gun  sighted  after  each  shot. 

volley  (4  shots). 
Firing  at  rate  of  200  per  minute 


slow. 

fast. 

time  3i  seconds. 

fast. 


Trial  No.  3.  For  Accuracy.   Range  1,800  meters :  100  shots;  two  rows  of  targets. 


Name  of  Gun. 


Gardner,  .  .  . 
Pratt  &  Whitney, 
Gardner, 

Nordenfeldt. 
Galling,       .     .     , 
Gatlina;,     .     .     . 


o    . 

tr,  . 

c 

■=  i. 

fli 

c  ir. 

Remabks. 

s  s 

■a^ 

o 

OS 

.S2 

Iz; 

03 

K 

1 

12 

100 

1 

Firing 

Slow. 

2 

24 

100 

0 

•' 

2 

20 

100 

15 

10 

50 

100 

0 

.1 

10 

15 

100 

18 

time  3f  seconds. 

6 

21 

100 

20 

slow. 

Trial  No.  4,  one  mile.     Time  30  seconds.     Range,  800  meters;  two  rows  of  targets. 


Name  of  Gun. 


Hotchkiss.     .     . 
Nordenfeldt.    . 
(lardner.         .     . 
I'ratt  it  Wliitney, 
Gardner.    .     . 
Nordenfeldt,    . 
Gatling,      .     .     . 
Gatling.  .     .     . 


^ 

■o 

"S 

s 

to  . 

^ 

fc« 

'H  2 

o 

P 

02 

02 

^21 

30 

1 

485 

888 

30 

12 

52 

20 

30 

4 

84 

44 

1     30 

4 

170 

27 

30 

3 

160 

120 

30 

20 

251 

121 

30 

13 

413 

29 

30 

8 

195 

82 

Remakes. 


Most  of  shots  went  over.  It  being  late  this 
trial  was  made  in  a  hurri-.  It  was  the  first 
trial  made  with  the  Gatling.     ,V  large  party 

I  were  present,  who  wanted  to  see  the  gun, 

l_or  it  would  not  have  been  fired. 


Pratt  and  WHiitney  gun  fired  3.266  shots  in  9|  minuter,  with  four  changes  at  the  crank ;  two  barreled 
Gardner,  1,446  in  i\  minutes;   100  shots  fired  at  70"  elevation  in  'i\  seconds  by  the  Gatling. 


UACHIN£-OnN. 


242 


II[a.CKENZI£  CUPOLA  FUBNACE. 


chicoiilis  Gallery,  may  be  formed  by  placing  stout 
pieces  of  scantling  through  holes  made  in  the  wall, 
on  a  level  with  the  Hoor;  these  pieces  being  confined 
to  the  floor  on  the  inside,  either  by  nailing  them  to  it 
or  by  tying  them  with  rope  to  the  joists;  the)'  should 
project  from  three  to  four  feet  beyond  the  wall  on 
the  exterior,  and  vertical  pieces  of  smaller  scantling, 
about  four  feet  long,  should  be  nailed  to  them,  on 
which  boards  are  nailed  to  cover  the  troops  from  the 
enemy's  fire  ;  these  boards  should  be  at  least  three 
inches  thick.  The  tlooring  of  the  gallery  is  laid  on 
the  horizontal  pieces,  and  holes  are  made  through  it 
to  fire  on  the  enem}',  or  to  throw  grenades,  stones, 
etc.,  on  him.  Any  similar  arrangement  which  will 
shelter  a  man,  in  the  act  of  firing  from  a  win- 
dow on  the  foot  of  the  wall,  or  in  throwing  over 
stones,  etc.,  will  serve  the  same  purpose  as  a  Machi- 
coulis gallery.  A  table  might  easily  be  arranged  to 
answer  the  end  in  view.  The  drawing  shows  a  section 
of  a  Macliicoulis.  D  is  a  flooring  joist :  A  is  a  hori- 
zoutal  support ;  B  is  a  cross  timber ;  and  C  is  an  up- 
right in  frnnt.     See  Tamb(mr. 

MACHINE-GUN. — A  gun  designed  to  deliver  a- 
gaiust  animate  objects  a  strong,  rapid,  continuous 
and  accurate  fire  of  small  projectiles  at  all  ranges 
suited  to  infantry;  to  be  served  by  the  fewest  possible 
number  of  men,  .and  also  to  give  a  fire  that  may,  in 
many  cases,  be  as  effective  as  the  discharge  of  can- 
ister from  artillery.  The  conditions  to  be  fulfilled 
in  the  construction  of  such  guns  are:  simplicity  and 
strength  of  mechanism ;  lightness ;  freedom  from  sen- 
sible recoil ;  endurance ;  and  interchangeability  of 
ammunition  with  that  used  by  the  troops  generall_y. 
A  variety  of  machine  guns,  having  merits,  will  be 
found  noticed  under  Battery  Guns.  Prominent  a- 
mong  the  American  l)attery  or  machine  guns  are  the 
(rfMhig,  the  L'twell,  the  Oirdner,  and  the  Uotchkias 
J^rvoti'tng  Cannon. 


piiJll!!>::!>':!>;i!i:!|li<!iii'll#fe& 


Fij.  1. 
The  Gardner  machine-gun,  shown  in  Fig.  1.,  is  an 
exceedingly  simph-  machine,  with  a  capacity  for 
rapid  fire  |)rolialily  lis  great  as  is  consistent  with  the 
economical  exiienditure  of  ammunition,  and  its  ex- 
treme lightness  of  construction  niiikes  it  very  easy 
to  handle.  Several  forms  of  cartridge-holders  and 
feed-cases  to  feed  cartridges  to  the  (i;irdner  gun  have 
been  devised  by  Air.  P;irUliurst.  In  one  of  these  the 
cartridges  are  licld  by  the  bullet  end  in  ii  block,  leav- 
ing the  flanires  exjiosed.  The  feed  tube  or  guide  of 
the  gun  receives  all  the  flanges  in  a  block.  The 
block  is  then  pulled  off.  The  Ijowell  machine-gun, 
inanufa<;tured  at  Lowell,  Mass.,  fires  a  shigle  barrel. 


bu*  is  provided  with  two,  three,  or  more  barrels 
which  can  be  rapidly  turned  into  position  for  firing 
as  one  or  another  becomes  heated.  Tlie  cartridges 
are  held  in  feeding-tubes  above  the  gun,  and  pass 
down  the  tubes  into  the  carrier-rolls.  These  are 
two  cogged  wheels  placed  side  by  side  behind  the 
barrel  and  on  axes  parallel  with  the  barrel,  the  cogs 
abutting  instead  of  intcrmeshing,  and  the  space  be- 
tween the  cogs  being  just  large  enough  to  receive  a 
cartridge.  A  plunger  carries  the  cartridge  forward 
from  this  receptacle  while  the  wheels  are  at  rest,  fires, 
and  then  withdraws  the  shell,  when  a  further  rotation 
of  the  cog-wheels  ejects  the  spent  shell  and  brings 
another  into  line  with  the  barrel.  The  gun  is  made 
with  an  automatic  traversing  mechanism  which  nuiy 
be  thrown  into  or  out  of  gear,  so  that  the  direction 
of  fire  n\ay  change  slowly  or  rapidly  over  a  sector  of 
considerable  extent  in  front  of  the  gun,  or  the  fire 
may  be  confined  to  a  single  line  of  direction.  The 
rapidity  of  fire  for  the  45  caliber  is  about  300  shots 
per  minute. 

The  carriage,  nsnall}-  cmplo}-ed  in  the  United  States, 

for  the  machine-gun  is  at  wo-wheeled  vehicle,  drawn 

by  two  horses  placed  abreast ;  the  oJT  horse  works  in 

shafts  situated  so  as  to  occupy  the  proper   position  ; 

the  carriage  is  guided  by  this  horse,  and  he  supports 

the  portion  of  the  weight  that  is  not  liorne  by  the 

axletree.     The  near  horse  is  ridden  by  the  driver. 

When  firing,  the  horses  being  detached,  the   shafts 

serve  as  a  trail.     The  gun  is  mounted  over  the  center 

of  the  axletree  on  an  iron  bed  formed  of  two  plates, 

one  of  which  moves  over  the  other  about  a  vertical 

axis,  to  give  the  desired   horizontal  training  to  the 

gun.     On  each  side  of  the  gun  is  a  box  opening  to 

the  rear  ;  the  cuterior  is  divided  into  spaces,  each  of 

which  carries  a  feed-case.     These  boxes  serve  also 

as  seats  for  the  gunners.     Boxes  of  additional  am- 

munition  and  tools  and  spare  parts  are  carried  in   a 

compartment  beneath  the  gun  bed  in  rear  of 

the   axletree.    Fig.  2.  on  the  opposite  page, 

shows  the  form  of  light    gun-carriage  used 

with  the  Lowell    Battery-gun  when  making 

long  marches  over  very  rough  country.      It 

is  a  suitable  pattern   for   all    machine-guns, 

•  and  is,  of  very  simple  construction. 

The  trials  of  machine-guns  at  Turin,  Italy, 
commencing  October  10,  1883,  and  tabulated 
on  page  241,  will  serve  to  show  the  wonder- 
ful ]>nwers  of  these  weapons  . 

MACKAY  GUN.— A  wrought  iron  gun  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Whitworth  and  Lancaster 
guns  by  the  following  characteristics;  The 
Whitworth  has  a  hexagonal  bore  in  a  tube  of 
homogeneous  iron,  sireugthened  with  hoops 
forced  on  by  hydraulic  pressure  ;  the  Lancas- 
ter is  without  grooves,  but  the  Ijore  is  oval ; 
the  Mackay  has  numerous  grooves,  but  the 
projectile  does  not,  as  in  other  guns,  fit  into 
them,  its  rotation  being  imparted  by  the  rush 
of  gases  through  the  spiral  grooves  around  it. 
In  every  case  the  groove  or  oval  takes  one  turn, 
or  portion  of  a  tiirn.  within  the  cun. 

MACKAY  PROJECTILE.  —  The  distinguish- 
ing feature  of  this  ]irojectile  c(msists  in  the 
apiiliriition  !ind  use  of  several  diagonal 
grooves  formed  in  tlie  interior  surface  of  the 
gun  at  a  great  angle,  which  are  to  a<t  as  wind- 
age grooves  so  that  the  powder  and  gas  pass- 
ing down  such  grooves,  encircling  the  projectile, 
shall  have  a  longer  distance  to  travel  than  the  pro- 
jectile, and  also  cause  the  projectile  to  revolve  round 
its  longest  axis  at  a  high  rotation  as  it  passes  down 
the  gun.  The  ]irojecliies  are  not  allowed  to  enter 
or  fit  these  grooves  ;is  in  rifles,  but  simply  to  pass 
down  the  smooth  surface  in  which  the  grooves  arc 
formed. 

MACKENZIE  CUPOLA  FURNACE.— This  pattern  of 
furnace  is  extensively  \ised  in  working  camion  me- 
tals, and  in  the  fabrication  of  projectiles.  The  Iiody 
of  the  cupola,  which  is  oval  in  shape,  consists   of  a 


MACKENZIE  CUPOLA  FnKNACE. 


243 


MACKENZIE  CUPOLA    FURNACE 


lining  <if  lirc.I)ri(k  iiiclowd  in  a  wroiiKlit-iron  cais- 
son, conl rafted  at  IIk;  lop  to  form  the  slack,  and 
rcstini^  on  a  cast-iron  liotlotn  plate,  wlilcli  is  siip- 
[xirlcd  on  iron  ])illars.  The  pcciiiiaril y  of  lids  cupola, 
as  conipar<'d  willi  ollicrs  of  llic  many  varieties  in 
use,  exisis  only  in  llie  shape  of  llie  tnyerc,  or  ii]  llii' 
nielhod  employed  fcjr  inlrodueini;  llie  iilast,  a  <'onlin- 
iio\is  air-chand)er  inclosed  l)et\veeii  the  caisson  and 
a  wrouf;ht-iron  ajiron,  wliicli  jirojeels  inward,  and  is 
braced  by  a  (asl-iron  rini;,  widcli  can  easily  be  re- 
))laced  when  worn  ont.  The  tuyere  itself  is  the  slol 
iaiiealh,  tliroiii;h  which  Ihe  air,  aibnitted  to  the 
chand)erfrom  llielilasl-pipes,  passes  into  the  cnpola. 
Tlie  liolloni  is  a  cast-iron  droji-door  made  in  Uvo 
hin^^ed  [larts,  and  supiiorled.wlien  closeil.by  a  proi). 
Tills  bollom  is  covered  wilh  a  layer  of  sand,arrani:e(" 
with  a  ijenlle  slope  towards  the  spout;  the  laller, 
throuith  which  the  melted  iron  runs  to  the  hidle.  is 
of  iron  coated  wilh  loam,  and  painted  willi  coke- 
wash.  The  c?tar(/ing.(liinr  is  situated  at  tlie  rear  of 
the  furnace,  and  the  stock  is  {generally  lifted  lo  it 
on  an  I'levalor.  To  chari;e  the  furnace  most  expc- 
diliously  shavings  are  placed  in  the  boltom.  then 
liilht  "wood,  and  oonl-wood  sawed  into  lenplhs  of 
from  ten  to  eiihteen  inches,  a  part  of  it  lieinir  stood 
on  end  around  the  sides  to  protect  them,  and  the 
whole  bed  beinir  built  up  level.  In  this  last  respect 
care  is  used  lhroui;h  all  the  subsequent  .stajres  of 
the  charirins.  On  Ihe  top  of  the  wood  is  placed  tlie 
'stcK'k,"  which,  for  a  No.  H  furnace,  consisis  of  about 
2,100  pounds  of  (I,ehii;h)lump  coal.  The  lire  is  llieii 
liirhted,  and  when  the  llanies  are  seen  lo  lie  working 
Well  through  the  mass  about  five  tous  of  iron  are 


placed  evenly  on  top :  then  about  000  pounds  of  egg 
or  grate  coal,  followed  liy  live  tons  of  iron.  This 
'•  building  up  "  of  the  charge  can  be  continued  as 
long  as  the  malcrial  can  be  handled  through  the 
chargiug-door,  the  ordinary  capacity  of  such  a  fur- 
nace as  described  being  about  fifteen  tons.  In 
charging  the  iron,  it  is  usual  to  first  put  in  pieces 
of  plate  and  light  scrap  iron  to  iirolect  the  lump 
coal  from  being  broken  as  the  heavier  portions  of 
the  charge  are  added.     As   soon  as   the   cupola  is 


"charged  "  the  Wast  ig  put  on.  and  in  about  twenty 
minutes  Ihe  iron  is  ••  down."  and  ready  lo  lie  drawn 
olf.  Warned  of  this  by  the  melted  "metal  ■•  blow- 
ing" through  the  "  cap-hole."  the  melter  closes  it 
securely  with  a"fo/rf"  made  of  sand  mi.xed  willi 
clay-wash  ;  he  has  prepared  in  advance  also  a  num- 
ber of  other  "bods."  which  he  uses  for  the  same 
purpose  whcnevr  it  may  be  necessary  while  draw- 
ing Ihe  metal.  The  "bod "is  lightly  attached  to 
the  end  of  an  iron  or  wooden  rod, "and  beinir  shoved 


UACLED  ABMOS. 


244 


MADIGAN  AUSTDNITION-BOZ. 


into  the  tapping-hole,  sticks  to  it  and  closes  it  up. 
To  "  tap"  the  cupola,  the  melter  shoves  into  the 
'■  hod"  an  iron  bar  with  a  square  point,  and  enlarges 
the  hole  by  turning  the  bar  aroiuid.  The  ladles  in- 
to which  the  metal  is  run  are  lined  with  a  mi.xture 
of  molding  sand  and  clay-wash,  or  with  loam,  and 
thoroughly  dried  before  iieing  used.  When  all  the 
nietp.l  is  drawn  off,  the  cupola  is  "  dumped  "  liy  re- 
moving the  prop  and  allowing  the  doors  to  fall.  The 
'•  dump"  is  then  extinguished,  and  the  pieces  of  iron 
and  fuel  picked  and  sifted  out.  After  each  day's 
casting,  the  furnace   has  to  be  repaired  by   picking 


out  tlie  slag  which  has  formed  within,  and  by  daub- 
ing with  a  nd.xturc  of  clay  and  (ire-sand  the  parts  of 
the  lining  where  the  fire-brick  has  been  l)iirned  out. 
About  once  in  si.\  months  the  entire  tire-brick  lining 
has  t.f)  be  replaced.  Hee  Cupola  Furiiiife,  Foundry. 
and  Jrun. 


MACLED   ABMOR.— Armor   of  the    Middle  Ages, 
-  composed  of  small  lozenge-shaped   plates  of  metal, 
sewed  on  a  foundation  of  doth  orleatlier,  and  some- 
I  times  overlapping  each  other  half  way. 

MACOMBER  GUN.— A  gim,  the  pecufiarity  of  which 
consists  in  its  stated  extraordinary  strength.  The 
chamber  for  holding  the  powder  and  the  breech  of 
the  gun  are  formed  of  discs  of  wrought  iron,  com- 
posed of  three  different  qualities  of  tht'iron,  the  soft- 
est forming  the  center  and  the  hardest  the  outer 
circumference  of  the  disc,  which  are  thoroughly 
welded  together,  leaving  a  hole  in  the  center.  After 
a  sutficient  numV)er  of  these  are  prei)ared  to  form 
the  gun,  they  are  roughly  engine-turned  to  bring 
them  to  a  uniform  thickness.  These  discs  are  then 
submitted  to  a  process  of  "  setting  "  by  steel  punches 
(each  disc  separately),  by  powerful  blows  of  a  steam- 
hammer,  beginning  lightly,  and  increasing  gradu- 
ally until  the  soft  and  hard  metal  have  been  forced 
(in  a  cold  state)  from  center  to  circumference  to  the 
point  of  enlargement  of  the  latter  which  rommence- 
ment  of  the  enlargement  is  proof  that  every  portion 
of  the  disc  tuill  bear  its  equal  proportion  of  a  future 
strain  or  concussion  which  it  may  be  sulijected  to 
and  whicli,  in  the  use  of  gunpowder,  cannot  exceed 
the  test  thus  supplied.  After  the  discs  are  set,  they 
are  welded  one  at  a  time  upon  a  mandrel;  by  the 
proce-s  known  to  smiths  as  "jump  welding."  "Sub- 
sequently, the  mandrel  upon  which  the  discs  were 
forged  will  be  entirely  taken  out  by  the  process  of 
boring  the  gun.  leaving  only  the  metal  which  has 
been  subjected  to  the  steam-hammer  and  punch. 
The  breech  of  the  gun  is  surrounded  with  steel 
rings,  which  are  forced  over  it,  in  a  cold  state,  by  a 
powerful  hydraulic  press.  The  gas-check  is  Mr. 
Macomber's  own  invention.  He  uses  Dyer  and 
Sons'  friction-primers,  and  makes  use  of  the  strong- 
est powder  and  of  a  tine  grain ;  but  he  states  that  he 
would  have  no  objection  to  use  gun-cotton.  The 
weight  of  the  gtui  is  Vi  cwt.,  caliber  IJ  inch,  weight 
of  shot  3  lbs.,  initial  velocity  about  2000  feet  per 
second.  The  inventor  states  tliat  at  an  elevation  of 
38°  the  shot  attains  the  very  remarkable  range  of  9^ 
miles. 

MACROMETER.— An  instrument  by  means  of  which 
tlie  ranges  of  distant  objects  can  be  determined  with 
rapidity  and  accuracy.  It  consists  of  two  mir- 
rors, disposed  somewhat  similarly  to  the  mirrors 
of  a  marine  sextant,  the  observations  being  taken 
nnich  in  the  same  way.  One  of  the  mirrors  is  mova- 
ble, and  is  fixed  to  an  arm  on  which  the  several 
distances,  from  20  to  2.000  yards,  are  marked. 
The  arm  moves  over  a  peculiar  curve  placed  on  a 
part  of  the  instrument  called  the  "  fan."  and  indi- 
cating the  distances  answering  to  any  given  inclina- 
tion of  the  mirror.  The  arm.  moreover,  is  fitted 
with  a  slide  so  as  to  be  capable  of  being  set  to  any 
length  of  base,  and  this  liase  may  either  be  measured 
by  a  chain  or  may  be  paced,  the  slide  being  set  to 
the  line  marked  "yards"  or  "paces,"  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  result  is  always  given  in  yards.  -When 
it  is  required  to  make  an  observation,  two  men  take 
up  a  position  so  as  to  form  a  triangle  with  the  ob- 
ject, the  distance  of  which  it  is  desired  to  ascertain. 
One  of  the  two  observers,  by  means  of  an  optical 
square,  places  himself  so  as  to  be  at  right  angles 
with  the  distant  object  and  the  second  observer,  by 
whom  the  macrometer  is  used.  From  experiments 
made  with  this  instrument,  the  distance  of  moving 
objects  has  i)een  ascertained  with  very  great 
nc<uracy.  and  in  the  case  of  stationary  objects  the 
(TFiir  has  been  fo\Mid  to  lie  less  than  1  jier  cent.  The 
notation  of  the  instrument  admits  of  the  units  being 
taken  to  rei>resenl  chains  and  links;  thus 835  woulci 
be  8  chains  and  ;!5  links. 

MADIGAN  AMMUNITION  BOX.— These  boxes,  also 
ad.'ipled  for  use  as  a  nu'dicine  or  mess  chests,  are 
jiackcd  in  pairs  on  cither  an  aparejo  or  ordinary 
pack-saddle.  They  meet  all  the  re(|uircmenls  of  ac- 
tive service  and  by  means  of  them,  troops  in  line  of 


MADRIEBS. 


245 


MAOAZINE. 


battle  or  skirniisliiiii^  may  br  ijiiickly  siipplu'd,  and 
arc  not  (ihlificd  to  lost;  valiiahU;  inotiirnts  of  tinii;, 
while  iinpaekini;,  iinscrewin!;  eovers,  etc.  The 
drawiii);  shows  the  boxes  packed  on  an  aparejo,  aii'd 
the  manner  of  nsini;  Iheni.  Their  eonstrnction  is 
sueli  that  all  or  iiiiy  part  of  the  eonlenis  may  be  re- 
moved, whenever  desired  for  immi'diate  use,  wilh- 
oul  iiiiloadini;,  slaekini;  the  lash-rope,  or  even  halt- 
in^C  the  animal  earryini;  them.  These  are  eerlainly 
important  advantaiies  in  case  of  a  surprise  or  sudden 
attack  upon  tlu'  pack-train,  or  the  unexpected  dis- 
covery of  the  enemy;  or,  if  used  for  medieal  or  sub- 
sistenci;  stores,  and  in  case  of  sudden  illness,  or  the 


necessity  of  entinsc  a  meal  under  tlie  various  cir- 
cumstances forbiildini:  a  halt.  Many  instances  will 
doubtless  recur  to  every  officer  or  soldier  of  exper- 
ience in  field  service,  where  disasters  have  resulted 
from  not  liavinj;  l)een  able  to  quickly  replenisli  the 
supply  of  anuMiition. 

Tlu'  devices  l)y  which  this  box  is  made  available 
for  sudden  emerfjencies,  are  essentially  three  in  num- 
ber, viz:  FiitsT,  and  most  important  : — The  anille 
castings  or  corner-bands  in  the  center  of  each  side 
of  the  top  of  the  box,  each  of  whi('h  has  a  diagonal 
circular  opening,  or  socket,  for  the  lash  rope.  Sec- 
ond:— The  center  partition.  1 J  inches  thick,  on  the 
top  of  which  is  screwed  a  center  strii),  'i\  inches  in 
width,  with  two  lids  hinged  thereto,  oi)ening  from 
the  ends.  Third: — The  sul)-division  of  the  inferior 
of  the  box,  b)'  adjustable  partitions,  into  compart- 
ments, adapted  in  luimbcr  and  arrangement,  to  the 
nature  of  tile  contents,  and  shape  and  size  of  the 
packages.  These  compartments  prevent  the  shak- 
ing or  damaging  of  the  packages  by  the  motion  of 
the  animal,  which  would  occur  with  an  ordinary 
box  after  being  partially  emptied;  and  permit  the 
load  to  be  kept  practically  balanced  by  faking  out 
of  each  box,  alternately  all  or  part  of  "the  contents 
of  one  or  more  compartments-thus  obviating  any  ne- 


No  special  fittings  or  attachments  to  the  ordinary 
aparejo  or  pack-saddle,  an:  retpiired;  the  boxes  an; 
complefr-  in  Ihiinselves  and  in  case  of  emergency 
nniy  be  packed  with  very  little  in  the  way  of  outlit 

a  few  old  sacks  tilled  with  hay  or  straw,  a  couple 
of  cinches  ;ind  a  pii-ce  of  rope  will  answer.  The  am- 
munition hrixes  in  present  use  in  the  United  States 
are  very  unsuit;ihle  for  (lacking;  two  being  too  light 
for  a  i)roper  load, while  three  are  awkward  to  handle, 
very  difficult  to  lash  so  as  to  be  ke|)t  in  place  on  an 
aparejo  or  pack-sa<ldle,  and  are  liable  to  chafe  and 
strain  the  animal's  back. 

MADRIERS.  Long  plankg  of  broad  wood, used  for 
supporting  the  earth  in  mining,  carrying  on  a  sap, 
nnikuig  coffers,  caiioniers,  galleries,"  and  for  var- 
ious oilier  jiiirposes  at  a  siege ;  also  to  cover  the 
mouth  of  petardsafter  they  are  loaded,  and  are  fixed 
with  the  petards  to  thegatesor  other  places  designed 
to  be  forced  o|ien.  When  the  planks  are  not  strong 
enough  they  are  doubled  with  iilafes  of  iron. 

MADRINA.  — The  animal  preceding  a  trooii  of  mules, 
usu;illy  ;iii  old  mare,  in  South  America,  to  the  neck 
of  whi<h  a  little  bell  is  attach<<l.  the  sound  of  which 
the  mules  follow  with  the  greatest  docility. 

If  several  large  troops  are  turned  into  one  field  to 
graze,  in  the  morning  the  muleteer  has  only  to  lead 
the  madrinas  a  little  apart,  and  tinkle  their  bells,  and 
although  there  may  be  200  or  300  mules  together, 
each  immediately  knows  its  own  bell,  and  .separates 
itself  from  the  rest.  The  affection  of  these  animals 
fill  their  madrina  saves  infinite  trouble.  It  is  nearly 
impossible  to  lose  an  old  mule  ;  for.  if  detained  sev- 
eral hours  by  force,  she  will,  by  the  [lowerof  smell, 
like  a  dog.  track  out  her  companions,  or  rather  the 
nia<irina  ;  for.  according  to  the  muleteer,  she  is  the 
chief  object  of  affection.  The  feeling,  liowever,  is 
not  of  an  individu;d  nature  ;  for  any  animal  with  a 
licll  will  serve  ;is  a  ni;idrina. 

MAGAZINE. — In  a  literal  sense,  any  place  where 
stores  are  kept;  but  as  a  military  expression, a  maga- 
zine always  means  a  jviinhr-mnyiizinr,  although  arms 
may  at  times  be  kept  in  it.  A  magazine  may  be  a 
depot  where  vast  quantities  of  gunpowder  are  held 
in  reserve,  an  entrejiot  for  the  supply  of  several  ad- 
vanced works,  a  battery  magazine  for  the  wants  of 
a  fortress  during  a  siege,  or  merely  an  expense  mag- 
azine for  the  daily  requirements  of  the  special  bat- 
tery in  which  it  may  be  situated  The  last  is  usually 
temporary,  and  hollowed  out  in  the  back  of  the  ram- 
part ;  but  the  other  forms  require  most  careful  struc- 
ture. They  most  be  bomb-proof,  and  therefore  ne- 
cessitate very  thick  walls ;  they  must  be  quite  free 
from  damp  :  and  they  should  "admit  sufficient  day- 
light to  render  the  use  of  lanterns  within  generally 
I  unnecessary.  The  drawing  shows  cross  sections  of 
I  fascine,  copper,  and  gabion  magazines.     Magazines 


J-  8 


cessity  for  unloading,  or  touching  a  rope  during  the 
march  other  than  the  usual  adjustment  of  the  lash 
rope.  By  filling  only  a  portion  of  the  compartments, 
when  tlie  packages"  are  unusually  heavy,  or  when 
the  iinimal  is  not  in  good  condition, the  weight  of  tlie 
load  may  be  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
case. without  danger  of  rattling,  shaking,  or  breaking 
the  packages;  for  hard  bread  or  other  stores  of  light 
weight,  the  boxes  may  be  made  larger,  if  desired;  or 
if  necci<S(iry.  four  boxes  of  the  usual  size  oin  be  pack- 
ed on  one  animal . 


arc  commonly  built  of  brick,  the  solid  masonry  be- 
ing arched  over  within,  and  a  thickness  of  earth 
sometimes  added  above  the  brick-work  to  insure  im- 
permeability to  shells.  The  entrance  is  protected  by 
shot-proof  traverses,  lest  an  opening  sli<iuld  be  forc- 
ed by  ricochet  shots.  AVithin.  the  magazine  is  di- 
vided into  bins  or  compartments,  and  one  of  these 
should  always  be  kept  empty  in  order  that  the  bar- 
rels of  powder  may  frequently  be  moved  from  one 
place  to  another,  a  process  necessary  to  keep  it  in 
good  condition.     The  liatterv  magazine  commonl 


UA0AZINE-6UN. 


246 


UAGAZINE-OUN. 


contains  500  rounds  for  tlie  guns  dependent  on  it. 
Depot  magazines  should,  when  possible,  be  limited 
to  1000  barrels  of  powder. 

In  1870-71,  tbe  German  Army  Corps  had  supply 
trains  generally  attached  to  the  divisions  of  each 
corps;  these  distributed  food  to  the  troops— they 
carried  4  days'  rations  for  men.  Then  they  had  a 
certain  number  of  supply  wagons,  containing  food 
for  men  and  horses  for  six  days  ;  these  kept  in  rear 
of  the  corps,  and  could  communicate  with  the  mag- 
azines. When  traveling  by  rail,  tbe  troops  were 
fed  at  certain  stations,  or  took  in  their  food  at 
these  stations.  The  whole  management  of  supply 
appears  to  have  been  admirably  carried  out,  and, 
when  so  performed,  it  considerably  facilitates  oper- 
ations. The  subject  of  the  formation  and  position 
of  magazines  is  one  of  such  vast  importance  that 
military  men  will  do  well  to  study  the  history  of  past 
campaigns,  when  tliej'  will  ob.serve — to  take  only 
one  example — how  Napoleon,  in  the  Wars  of  the  Re- 
public, was  careful  to  accumulate  vast  magazines  and 
to  keep  his  communications  open,  notwithstanding 
that  his  troops  helped  themselves  pretty  freely  off  the 
country  they  invaded  ;  nevertheless,  no  General  ever 
realized  more  than  he  did  the  necessity  of  having  ac- 
cumulated supplies  ready  to  fall  back  upon,  aiicl  to 
keep  his  communication  to  the  rear  carefully  guard- 
ed. See  TJyhtning  Oo?iducU>rs,  Powder  Depots,  and 
Pmrilir  MafjazhieK. 

MAGAZINE-GUN.— A  breech-loading  small-arm, 
Ixaving  a  magazine  capable  of  holding  a  number  of 
cartridges  which  may  be  fired  in  quick  succession — 
the  empty  shell  being  ejected  and  another  cartridge 
conveyeif  to  the  chamber  from  the  magazine  by 
working  the  mechanism  of  the  piece.  There  are 
several  types.  1.  Those  in  which  the  magazine  is  a 
tube  below  the  barrel,  as  in  the  Winchester,  the 
Ward-Burton,  etc.  2.  Those  in  which  the  magazine 
is  in  the  stock,  as  in  the  Spencer,  Meigs,  and  others. 
3.  Those  in  which  tbe  magazine  is  a  separate  piece 
attachable  to  the  gun  when  required,  as  in  the  Lee, 
Elliot,  and  Gatling  gim.  The  following  is  a  general 
classification  of  magazine-arms,founded  on  the  meth- 
od by  which  cartridges  are  fed  from  the  magazine  : 

rist 


sity  of  providing  troops  with  arms  that  will  give 
every  possible  superiority  of  fire  in  battle.  Rapidity 
of  discharge  is  certainly  an  essential  element  under 
all  circumstances.  Should  equal  detachments  be 
opposed,  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  one 
able  to  fire  ten  effective  shots  per  minute,  each  man, 
more  than  the  other,  would  have  a  great  advantage. 
Rapidity  of  fire  alone  can  compensate  for  an  in- 
feriority in  number  of  men  engaged.  In  magazine 
or  repeating  arms,  the  cartridges  are  fed  automati- 
cally into  the  chamber  of  the  barrel,  by  the  manipu- 
lation of  the  breech  mechanism.  It  is  only  neces- 
sary to  close  the  breech  when  tlie  arm  is  ready  to 
fire.  This  obviates  the  necessity  of  handling  ami 
charging  each  cartridge,  besides  preventing  tlie  con- 
siderable loss  of  ammunition,  occasioned  by  soldiere 
dropping  cartridges  while  transferring  from  the  car- 
tridge-box to  the  arm,  which,  in  the  excitement  of 
battle  and  rapid  firing,  are  seldom  recovered  or 
saved.  Tbe  principal  objection  offered  to  magazine 
guns,  is  that  their  use  causes  a  wasteful  and  unnec- 
essary expenditure  of  ammunition.  The  same  argu- 
ment was  largely  used,  when  only  a  few  years  ago, 
the  merits  of  breech  versus  muzzle-loaders,  were 
being  discussed,  and  is  as  treat  noir  as  then.  With 
officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  thoroughly 
impressed  with  the  necessity  of  an  economical  and 
judicious  use  of  ammunition,  the  question  becomes 
one  only  of  discipline  and  drill. 

No  valid  reason  can  be  given  why,  other  essentials 
being  equal,  the  same  men  should  not  aim  as  well, 
firing  rapidly,  as  slowly  sighting  requires  the  same 
time  whatever  may  be  the  tmie  used  in  loading;  and 
if  increasing  the  time  expended  between  the  firing  of 
one  shot  and  sighting  for  the  next,  increases  the  effect- 
iveness of  the  man,  it  follows,  that  to  shoot  accur- 
ately, a  certain  amount  of  time  must  be  wasted  in 
operations  other  than  aiming  the  weapon — a  theory 
that  could  hardl}'  be  sustained. 

The  drawings  show  the  positions  at  "order  arms," 
of  cartridges  contained  in  tubular  magazine-guns, 
constructed  with  magazines  under  the  barrel  and  in 
the  butt-stock.  All  the  cartridges  are  forced  toward 
the  breech  mechanism  by  a  spiral  spring  (as  partly 

,  direct 


i                           fist,  by  rotating  barrel  aboiifl 
let,  by  a  spring. -|                          1     axie  parallel  to  it  into  liue>  . 
I  3d,  indirect. ..^     with  magazine.                     j 
I                            2d,  to  position  opposite  re- 
l_  1^    ceiver 


,  butt  .took.  2d    b^ a  ratcbet.  P^^;  -^^^0^'-, 
^^"'*^""'~         i    by  hand.        » 


3d,  by  a  epiral 
cam  (screw- 
motto  u). 


fist,  sliding,  at  riaht  angles  to  axis  of  boru. 


\.rnw        1   berwithcjirt-    ad,  tip  stock..  ^  by  a  spring-         >ierwhicb-; 
arms        ^  ridgcB  from  •  (  (is- 


let, to  position  oblique  to  axis  of  bore. 


2d,  rotating—  -' 


u. 


to  position  parallel  witb  axie. 


3d.  sliding  and) 

1^    rotating—    /  ' 


{to  position  parallel  to  axis  ] 
nf  bore  and  above  re  ^  and  by  gravity 
ceiver —  ) 


3d,    ningazinc"! 

on  tup  of  >  by  a  spring 
barrel       ) 

4th,  magazine)  by  a  spring  (ver-  (to  position  opposite  center) 
belowbolt    /     ticallyj—  (    of  chamber.  / 

5th.  revolving) 
chambers     /    


\  into  Jine  with  axis  of 
I      bore. 


The  quoRtirm  of  the  comparative  merits  nf  maira- '  shown  in  A),  -which  spring  must  ho  of  sufflcient 
zint*  ixuns  ami  Hiiiu;]**  hn'cch-Ina(k'rs,  for  military  j  strcnirtli  to  support  the  weiLrht  of  the  cnhimu  of  car- 
purposes,  lias  Ikm-m  so  exiiauslively  (iiscussed  l>y  tlie    tridi^es.  and  fttrec   thcni  into  the  receiver  of  the  arm 


military  autliorilies  of  the  worhl,  that  there  would 
seem  lo  be  uo  longer  any  duubl  regarding  the  neees- 


as  fast  as  re(piired.and  (tf  necessity  it  must  have  very 
considerable  stilluess  or  strength.     The  weiglit  of  a 


MAG\ZIHE  GUN. 


247 


HAOAZIHE  0U2f. 


cciluninof  live  ordinary  service  eiirlri<lKes  waulil  l]e 
iiljimt  seven  ounces,  al,  least  four-liftlis  of  wliicli 
weight  would  in  a  lul>ular  niafrazine,  rest  fairly 
upon  llie  point  of  llie  liiillet  of  the  last  carlridt'i! 
and  wliicli  liullel  cunes  directly  in  conlaci  vvilli 
till'  primer  itself  of  llie  earlriiii;c'  in  advane(-  of 
it.  All  ordnance  otlieers  and  anuMiuiiliori  manufac- 
turers reali/.e  tlic'  ditticully  experienced  in  prcparini,' 
fulminate  of  mercury  (used  for  primers),  thai  will, 
in  jiraclical  use.  alwiiys  liav(^  a  uniform  decree  of 
sensitiveness.      It  can  "be  made  so  sensitive  that  the 


into  the  receptacle  below.  It  is  readily  seen,  then, 
that  the  use  of  «ucli  a  spiral  spring  makes  premature 
explosion  not  onlv/""«'''>''',l>ut  riru  prohahle. nmKWMtK 
is  no  way  to  prevcMit  it,  except  by  discardinf;  it,  as 
in  the  Lee  or  Cliairie-Keece  guns.  During  the  War 
of  the  Keliellion,  guns  using  the  spiral  spring  liave 
heen  known  to  explode  when  the  cuvulrv  were  on  a 
march.  Of  course  suih  arms  were  discarded;  but  the 
same  thing  may  happen  to  any  arm  of  recent  inven- 
tion which  is  so  constructed  as  to  require  a  spiral 
sprin"  in  feeding  the  cartridge  into  the  chamber. 


slightest  scratch  will  ignite  it.  and  many  fulminate 
mixers  have  lost  their  lives  by  a  moment's  inatten- 
tion or  relaxation  of  caution  while  compounding  it. 
While  it  is  generally  [lossible  to  produce  fulminate 
of  nearly  e(iual  quality, still  difF<'rent  batclies  do  vary: 
and  whether  it  be  from  difference  in  this  (|iiality,  or 
from  tile  ditTerent  jiosition  or  placement  of  the  ful- 
minate in  the  primer  as  regards  the  cartridge-anvil, 
or  otherwise,  still  it  is  certainly  true  that  cartridges 
are  to  be  found  in  use  that  will  explode  with  one 
half  the  concussion  ordinarily  required.  It  is  a  fact 
that  cartridges  have  exploded  by  dropping  a  few 
inches  from  the  machine  in  which  thev  are  loaded 


li 

Where  the  cartridges  are  fed  from  the  butt-stock 
by  a  spiral  sprins  the  bullet  is  liable  to  strike  the 
counter-bore  of  the  barrel,  making  a  notch  in  the 
bullet  and  renderini  it  useless  for  accurate  work. 
When  the  cartridges  are  brought  up  by  a  carrier  oa 
an  anirle  the  same  thing  will  happen— the  counter- 
bore  of  the  barrel  either  stops  the  bullet  or  cuts  off 
a  piece  sufficiently  large  to  make  it  impossible  that 
its  flight  be  accurate  and  make  a  good  target,  be- 
cause of  its  irregular  shape  made  by  such  contact. 
It  is  well  understood  that  a  good  shot,  when  using 
anv  of  the  ma^azin  -luns  in  which  the  cartridges  are 
fei  up  by  a  spiral   spring.  use3  it  as  a  single-loader  ; 


MAGISTRAL  GALLERY. 


24« 


UAGNESIUM. 


and  the  reason  is,  that  tlic  bullet  is  generally  so  mu- 
tilated by  striking  the  counter-bore,  that  its  tlight 
is  not  to  be  depended  \i)iou  for  accuraey. 

MAGISTRAL  GALLERY.-  A  name  frequently  ap- 
plied to  tlie  gallery  iiuiuediately  behind  the  counter- 
scarj)  wall,  in  eoutradistinetiou  to  the  Eni-floping 
Gallfry,  which  is  parallel  to  the  counterscarp  gallery, 
and  at  some  thirty  or  forty  yards  in  advance  of  it. 
See  Gallfry. 

MAGISTRAL  LINE.— The  trace  or  outline  of  a  work 
as  the  jilnn  of  its  guiding  or  iifigixtral  line.  In  tield 
fortiticatious,  this  line  is  the  interior  crest  line.  In 
permanent  fortifications,  it  is  usuallj-  the  line  of  the 
top  of  the  escarp  of  each  work. 

MAGNA  CHARTA.— The  great  Charter  which  was 
granted  liy  King  John  of  England  to  the  Barons,  and 
has  been  viewed  by  after-ages  as  the  basis  of  English 
liberties.  The  oppressions  and  exactions  of  a  tjran- 
nical  and  dastardl}'  Sovereign  called  into  existence  a 
Confederacy  of  the  Barons  or  Tenants-in-Clnef  of  the 
Crown,  who  took  up  arms  for  the  redress  of  their 
grievances.  iTheir  demand  was  for  the  restoration 
of  the  laws  of  Henry  I.,  laws  which  might  probably 
be  cliaracterized  as  an  engrafting  of  Norman  Feud- 
alism on  the  "ancient  custom  of  England,"  or  pre- 
viously existing  Saxon  and  Danish  Free  Institutions, 
in  which  •'  ancient  custom  "  were  comprehended  the 
laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  A  conference  be- 
tween the  Sovereign  and  the  Barons  was  held  at 
Kuunymede,  near  Windsor,  a  place  where  treaties 
regarding  the  peace  of  the  kingdom  had  often  before 
been  made.  King  and  Barons  encamped  opposite 
each  other ;  and  after  several  days  of  debate,  John 
signed  and  sealed  the  Charter  with  great  solemuit}', 
on  June  15.  1215. 

MAGNESIUM.— Although  the  discovery  of  the  met- 
al magnesium  was  made  by  Sir  H.  Davy  in  1808. 
it  was  looked  upon  as  little  more  than  a  chemical 
curiosity  for  about  half  acenturj-.  In  1830  a  French 
chemist,  Bussy,  obtained  globules  of  the  metal  by 
fusing  globules  of  potassium,  in  a  glass  tube,  with 
anhydrous  chloride  of  magnesium.  Bussy's  labors 
were  followed  by  somewhat  improved  methods, 
adopted  by  Bunsen,  and  subsequently  by  Jlatthies- 
sen,  who  succeeded  in  pressing  some  grains  of  the 
metal  into  wire.  The  first  great  advance  was  in 
1856,  when  Deville  and  Caron  effected  the  reduction 
of  the  i)ure  chloride  of  magnesium  by  mixing  it 
with  fused  chloride  of  sodium  in  clay  crucibles,  us- 
ing fluoride  of  calcium  as  a  tlux.  and  throwing  in 
fragments  of  sodium  ;  they  thus  obtained  magne- 
sium on  a  larger  scale  than  any  of  their  predecessors. 
The  most  important  part  of  their  investigations 
was  the  discovery  of  the  volatility  of  the'metal. 
All  these  were,  however,  mere  laboratory  experi- 
ments. In  1859  Bunsen,  of  Heidelberg,  and  Ros- 
coe  (now  of  ^Manchester),  published  a  memoir  on 
the  great  importance  of  magnesium  for  photographic 
purposes,  owing  to  the  high  refrangibility  and  the 
great  actinic  power  of  the  lignt  emitted  by  burning 
magnesium-wire.  The  study  of  this  memoir  led  3Ir. 
Sonstadt  to  consider  whetlier,  the  magnesian  .salts 
being  so  abundant,  the  metal  might  not  be  obtained, 
on  a  comi)aratively  large  scale,  at  a  moderate  price. 
After  a  |)roloi!ged  scries  of  expensive  experiments 
lie  succeeded,  in  18(i2,  in  producing  very  satisfactory 
specimens  of  the  metal  varying  froin  about  the 
size  of  a  pin's  head  to  that  of  a  hen's  egg.  Al- 
though it  burned  freely  enough,  it  was  stillwanting 
in  ductility  ami  u\alleability.  ra  consequence  of  the 
presence  of  certain  impurities:  but  by  May,  18(53. 
these  diflicultii's  were  overcome  by  "a  process  of 
puriti(^ation  by  distillation;  and  by  the  close  of  that 
year  In-  considered  it  safe  to  liegin  manufacturini;. 
The  .Magnesium  .Metal  Company  was  consc(|urntiy 
organized,  and  soon  operations  conuncnced  at  ^laii- 
chesler,  where  magnesivnn  is  now  made  on  a 
very  considerable  scale,  as  well  as  by  an  American 
Magnesium  Company  at  Boston.  One  ijreat  ad- 
vantage of   Sonstadt's  method   is  its   simplicity  ;    it 


cin  be  accomplished  l)y  the  hands  of  ordinarj*  work- 
men ignorant  of  all  chcndcal  knowledge.  The  pro- 
cess of  manufacture  may  be  thus  described  :  1.  An 
anhydrous  chloride  of  magnesium  is  prepared  by 
saturating  lumps  of  rock-magnesia  (carbonate  of 
magnesia)  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  then  evapor- 
ating the  solution  to  dryness.  2.  One  part  of 
metallic  sodium  cut  in  small  pieces  is  placed  in  a 
iron  crucible,  and  covered  with  five  parts  of  the 
chloride.  The  crucible  is  covered,  and  heated  to 
redness,  when  the  chlorine  leaves  the  magnesium 
and  unites  with  the  sodium,  for  which  it  has  a 
stronger  affinity.  When  the  crucible  has  cooled, 
and  its  contents  are  removed  oi  masne,  and  broken, 
the  magnesium — in  that  state  known  as  crude 
magnesium — is  seen  in  nuggets  of  various  sizes, 
varying  from  granules  to  masses  as  large  as  a  hen's 
egg.  3.  The  distillation  of  the  crude  metal  is 
effected  in  a  crucible  throvigh  which  a  tulie  ascends 
to  within  an  inch  of  the  lid.  The  tube  opens  at  the 
bottom  into  an  iron  box,  placed  beneath  the  bars  of 
the  furnace,  wdiere,  on  the  completion  of  the  opera- 
tion, magnesium  is  found  in  the  form  of  a  heap  of 
drippings,  which  may  be  melted  and  cast  into  ingots 
or  any  desired  form.  The  difticultj'  of  ol)tainiug  a 
metal  with  so  little  ductility  in  the  form  of  wire — the 
only  form  that  was  originally  tised  for  yielding  light 
— had  still  to  be  overcome;  and  after  various  par- 
tia'.l}'  successful  attempts  to  press  small  quantities 
into  wire  by  Matthiessen  and  some  other  chemists, 
Mr.  ]\Iather,  of  Salford,  devised  apiece  of  machinery 
1)3'  which  the  metal  is  pressed  into  wire  of  various 
thickness.  Jlr.  ^Mather  also  was  the  first  who  ob- 
tained the  metal  in  ribbons,  in  which  form,  from  the 
larger  exposed  surface,  combustion  takes  place  more 
completely.  The  apparatus  for  making  the  wire  and 
ribbon  is  very  ingenious.  The  chief  feature  of  it  is 
a  small  hollow  cylinder,  adapted  to  receive  a  ram  at 
one  end,  and  covered  at  the  other  by  an  iron  screen 
perforated  with  two  or  more  holes  opposite  the  cham- 
ber. This  press,  as  the  cylinder  is  called,  is  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  gas  from  a  blow-pipe,  and  the 
heat  employed  is  only  sufficient  to  soften  the  metal 
in  the  press.  The  pieces  of  magnesium  are  thrust 
into  the  chamber,  the  ram  is  placed  in  the  mouth  of 
the  press,  and  a  pressure  of  between  two  and  three 
tons— obtained  by  hydraulic  apparatus  or  by  steam — 
forces  the  ram  against  the  softened  metal,  and  the 
latter  oozes  in  continuous  strings  of  wire  through  the 
perforations  already  named.  To  make  ribbon,  the 
wire  thus  obtained"  is  passed  between  two  hollow 
heated  rollers,  and  is  received  in  a  flattened  state  up- 
on a  reel.  To  Mr.  Mather  is  also  due  the  credit  of 
having  constructed  the  first  nuignesium  lamp,  in 
which  the  end  of  the  wire  or  ribbon  is  presented  to 
the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp.  A  concave  reflector  sent 
the  light  forward,  and  protected  the  eyes  of  the  op- 
erator. 

The  first  time  that  a  photograph  was  taken  by  this 
light  was_at  Manchester  in  the  spring  of  l.st!4,  liy  Mr. 
Brothers 'and  Dr.  Roscoe.  That  the  nuignesium 
light,  in  a  more  or  less  modified  form,  must  prove  of 
extreme  value  to  photography,  cannot  be  called  in 
question.  Besides  overcoming  the  ol)stacle  of  un- 
suita1)le  weather  for  the  I'mployment  of  sunlight,  it 
may  be  a]i])lied  both  for  the  cx])loratiou  and  the  pho- 
tography of  various  <lim  structures,  imdcrground 
regi<'us,"etc..  such  as  the  interior  of  the  pyramids,  of 
catacond)s,  natural  caverns,  etc.,  which  could  not 
otherwise  be  examined  or  photogra))hcd. 

Its!  color  appniaches  very  much  neiirer  daylight 
than  that  of  the  light  fr<im  oils,  candles,  or  coal-gas. 
As  conqiarcd  with  the  sun,  its  luminous  intensity  is 
^l-,.  but  its  cheiui<'al  intensity  is  ,,',.,  and  this  high 
aciiiuc  power  makes  it  specially  valuable  for  photo- 
graphic purposes.  Although  it  does  not  lu'arly 
eipial  the  electric  light  as  an  illuminating  agent,  like 
it  the  nuignesium  light  gives  off  no  luixious  vapors. 
Hut  while  it  burns,  white  clouds  of  the  vapor  of 
magnesium  are  formed  which  would  I)e  more  or  less 


CCC€CC€€COCC)M;C)€a;CCCC)Ce«)D 

©cc©c©€ej€c«cic)«)«:C)®©€CC'C'a:4j 


,1   b   c   d 


The  Compass,  Magnetism,  Polarity,  etc.  1.  Magnetic  poles.  2.  Magnetic  rod  (suspended).  3.  Mag? 
magnetic  polarity.  T.  MuKnetizing  iron.  8,9.  Natural  magnet,  with  annaturo.  10.  Horse-shoe 
tion.  I.'i.  Ai)paratus  for  iletfrmining  the  degree  of  declination.  16.  Magnetism  of  the  terrestrii 
variation  of  inclination.    ^J  to  !H.  Magnetometer.    25.  Magnetic  variations  or  disturbances. 

rv— SOS. 


^  > 


iflo       iiu        ut)        00      au         CO        <o       20  0         '-^u       -m         60     "  so.       i' 


160        no         120         100        80  fill  40  "0 


ion      leo      110       ICO       i&f> 


160        110         IJu 


80        100         1^0        I  lu 


-W'J* 


4.  Magnetic  needles  with  marked  poles.  Magnetic  staff,  broken  at  various  points.  6.  Illustration  of 
Magnet  armature.  12.  Action  of  a  magnet  at  a  distance.  13.  Magnetization  by  friction.  14.  Declina- 
Map  of  declination.     18.  Magnetic  inclination,     lit.  Inclinatorlum.    20.  Map  of  inclination.    21.  Diurnal 


KAONETISU. 


249 


MAGNETISM. 


troiiblcsomtr  in  private  rormis.  Tliis  olijcclioii  is 
saiil  to  be  to  sdiiic  cxtcnl.  removed,  witliout  diiiiiii- 
Isliiiii;  the  lirilliitney  of ;  the  liirht.  by  alloying  with 
zini: ;  iiml  at  any  rate  it  woiihl  xearcely  at  all  inter- 
fere witli  its  nse  in  hirjre  jmlilie  ImihliML's.  Still  less 
w<iiil(l  it  do  so  when  tlie  li'^'ht  i<  burned  in  IIk'  open 
air.  Tliere  is,  liowever,  not  niiiih  hojje  of  the 
niaunesiiini  li,!;ht  sueeessfnlly  eonipelirii;  witli  the 
electric  Hfjlit  for  the  illnininalion  of  larire  linildinirs, 
streets,  or  even  of  ocean  steamers.  liecent  trials 
with  the  electric  lii;ht  at  the  British  Musenm  and 
other  place's  have  now  proved  conclusively  that 
wUer<'ver  a  i;real  deal  of  li;;lit  is  reipiired,  "ras  is 
beaten  out  of  the  lield  on  the  score  of  economy.  As 
respects  the  niinntenance  of  an  e(|ual  amount  of 
li;;ht,  gas  is  twentv  limes  more  costly,  a  dilference 
which  will  speedily  cover  the  original  expense  of 
the  necessary  electrical  apparatus.  The  niagnesinm 
light,  on  the  other  hand,  is  nuich  more  costly  tlian 
gas ;  and  although  the  ores  which  could  be  used  as 
a  source  of  magnesium  are  very  abundant,  yet  any 
probable  cliea])eMing  of  the  process  of  extrai-iing  the 
metal  from  these  is  not  likely  to  make  the  light  a 
very  economical  one.  Still,  for  any  jiurpose  where, 
for  a  comparatively  brief  linu-,  a  very  inli'nse  light 
is  required,  magnesium  wire  or  ribbon  has  about  it 
almost  the  simplicity  of  a  wax  taper;  nor  are  the 
lamps  at  all  complex  l)v  which  tlie  metal  may  be 
burned  for  hours  continuously. 

Two  kinds  of  magnesium  lamps  are  made.  In  one 
of  these  kinds,  wire  or  tliin  ribbon  of  the  metal  is 
coiled  al)Out  a  reel  or  bobbin.  From  this  reel  the 
ribl)ou  is  drawn  by  means  of  two  small  rollers  and 
projected  through  a  tube  to  the  focus  of  a  metallic 
rellector,  wdiere  it  passes  througli  the  tiame  of  a 
spirit-lamp  to  insure  its  continuous  combustion. 
Tlu'se  rollers  are  kejit  in  motion  either  b\'  an  opera- 
tor turning  a  small  wlieel,  or  in  the  more  expensive  j 
forms  by  clock-work.  In  the  other  kind  of  lam))  the  i 
magnesium  is  used  in  the  form  of  dust,  which  is  j 
mixed  with  line  drj-  sand  in  the  proporlicui  of  one  of 
the  fornuT  to  two  of  the  latter.  Tills  mixture  is 
placed  in  a  funnel-shaped  reservoir,  and  conducted, 
by  means  of  a  narrow  tube  provided  with  a  stop- 
cock, to  the  llame  of  a  spirit-lam|)  which  serves  to 
ignite  and  maintain  tlu'  llame  of  the  jiowdered  mag- 
nesium. If  nitrule  of  siroutia  besubslituted  for.sand, 
a  splendid  red  light  is  produced,  and  in  Ibis  way,  by 
using  other  chemicals,  various  colors  can  be  obtain- 
ed. It  was  about  the  year  1804  that  magnesium  was 
first  made  on  a  commercial  scale,  and  it  is  foimd 
that  the  demand  for  it,  although  not  decreasing,  is 
scarcely  at  all  extending.  It  is  almost  wholly  used 
for  burning  in  photographic  lamps,  for  Hash  lights, 
and  for  fire-works.  It  has  l)een  attemjited  to  make 
magnesium  usefid  for  other  purjioses.  Various  al- 
loys have  been  made  with  it  and  other  metals  such 
as  lead,  tin,  zinc,  cadmium,  and  silver;  but  they  are 
all  brittle  ami  liable  to  change.  It  is  very  doui)tful, 
therefore,  if  any  of  these  alloys  will  beconu'  iiseful 
in  the  arts,  and  the  metal  itself  is  sc;ircely  likely  to 
be  available  in  the  constrviction  of  objects  of  orna- 
ment or  utility,  since,  wlien  exposed  toilamji,  it  soon 
becomes  coated  with  a  film  of  hydrateof  magncsiuiu. 

MAGNETISM.— The  power  whicli  the  magnet  has 
to  attract  iron.  JIagnets  are  of  two  kinds,  natural 
and  (iH'ficial.  Natural  magnets  consist  of  the  ore  of 
iron  called  magnetic,  familiarly  known  as  loadstone. 
Artificial  magnets  are.  for  the  most  part,  straight  or 
bent  bars  of  leni]HTed  steel. which  have  been  magnet 
ized  liy  the  action  of  other  magnets,  or  of  thegalvau- 
ic  current.  The  power  of  the  magnet  to  attract  iron 
is  by  no  means  eqiuil  throughout  its  length.  If  a  small 
iron  ball  be  suspended  by  a  thread,  and  a  magnet  he 
passed  along  in  front  of  it  from  one  enii  to  the  other, 
it  is  powerfully  attracted  at  the  ends,  but  not  at  all 
in  the  middle,  the  magnetic  force  increasing  with 
the  distance  from  the  middle  of  the  bar.  The  ends  of 
the  magnet  wherethe  attractive  power  is  greatest  are 
called  its  poles.     By  causing  a  magnetic  needle  mov- 


ing horizontally  to  vibrate  in  front  of  the  ilifTerent 
parts  of  a  magnet  placed  vertically,  and  counting  the 
nund)irof  vibrations,  t'aerateof  incrcuHe  of  the  mag- 
netic intensity  may  be  exactly  found. 

A  nnignel  has  two  poles  or  centers  of  magnetic 
force,  each    having    an    eipial    powi'r    of  attracting 
iron.     This   is  the  only   properly,   however,    whicli 
they  ])o.ssess  in  common,  for  when  the-  poll's  of  one 
magnet  are  nnidi'  to  act  on  thosi'of  another,  a  strik- 
ing dissinnlarity  is   brought  to  light.      It  might  be 
thought  that,  by  <lividing  a 
magnet  at  itsctntiT,  the  two 
poles  could  be  insulateil,  the 
one   half   containing   all    the 
north    jiolar  maiini'lism.  and 
the  other  the  south.      When 
this  is  done,  however,  both 
lialves  become  separate  mag- 
nets, with  two  poles  in  each 
— the  original  north  and  south 
poles  standing  in   the   same 
relation    to    the    other    two 
F'J-'-  I'  poles  called  into  existence  by 

the  separation.  We  run  therefwe  certainly  never 
have  line  kind  of  magnetixin  tvithfiit  having  it  am'icia- 
ted  ill  the  name  magnet  with  the  name  amount  of  the 
opposite  magiu'tlmn.  It  is  this  double  manifestation 
of  force  which  ccjustitules  the  polarity  of  the  mag- 
net. The  fact  of  a  freely  sus])endcd  m:ignet  taking 
I  up  a  fixed  position  h;is  le<l  to  the  theory  that  the 
earth  itself  is  a  huge  magnet,  haviiu;  its  north  and 
south  magnetic  poles  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
poles  of  tlie  axis  of  rotation,  and  that  the  magnetic 
needle  or  suspended  magnet  turns  to  them  as  it  does 
to  those  of  a  neighboring  magnet.  All  the  manifesta- 
tions of  terrestrial  magnet  ism  give  decided  conlirma- 
tion  of  this  theory.  It  is  on  this  view  that  the  French 
call  the  north  jiole  of  the  magnet  the  south  pole  (/>o/e 
austral),  and  the  soutli  the  north  pole  (pole  liortal)  ; 
for  if  th';  earth  be  taken  as  the  standard,  its  north 
magnetic  pole  must  attract  the  south  pole  of  oth- 
er magnets,  and  ricf  nrsa.  In  England  and  (jermany 
the  north  pole  of  a  magnet  is  the  one  which,  when 
freely  .sus|)eiided,  points  to  the  north,  and  no  refer- 
ence is  made  to  its  relation  to  the  mjignetism  of  the 
earth.  All  artificial  magnets  are  either  bar  mag- 
nets or  else  horse-shoe  magnets.  (See  Fig.  \.)  When 
powerful  magnets  are  to  be  made,  several  thin  bars 
are  placed  side  by  side,  with  their  poles  lying  in  the 
same  way.  They  end  in  a  piece  of  iron,  to  which 
they  arc  bound  by  a  brass  screw  or  frame.  Three  or 
four  of  these  may  be  put  into  the  bundle,  and  all 
these  again  into  bundles  of  three  and  four.  Such  a 
collection  of  magnets  is  called  a  magniticinitynzine  or 
h<ittery.  A  magnet  of  this  kind  is  more  powerful  than 
a  .solid  one  of  the  same  weight  and  size,  because  thin 
bars  can  be  more  strongly  and  regularly  magnetized 
thau  thick  ones.  A  good  form  of  magnet  is  a  paral- 
lelopipcd  of  magnetic  iron  ore.with  pieces  of  soft  iron, 
bound  to  its  poles  by  a  brass  frame  encircling  the 
whole.  The  lower  ends  of  the  §oft  iron  bars  act  as 
the  poles,  and  support  the  armature.  The  magnetic 
needle  is  a  small  magnet  nicely  balanced  on  a  fine 
point.  When  a  short  bar  of  soft  iron  is  suspended 
from  one  end  of  a  magnet  it  becomes  for  the  time 
powerfully  magnetic.  It  assumes  a  north  and  south 
pole,  like  a  regular  magnet,  as  may  be  seen  by  using 
a  small  magnetic  needle;  and  if  its  lower  end  be 
dipped  into  iron  filings,  it  attracts  them  as  a  magnet 
would  do.  When  it  is  taken  away  from  the  magnet 
the  filings  fall  off,  and  all  trace  of  magnetism  disap- 
])ears.  It  need  not  be  in  actual  contacf  to  show  mag- 
netic properties  ;  when  it  is  simply  brought  near,  the 
.same  tiling  is  seen,  though  to  a  less  extent.  If  the 
inducing  magnet  be  strong  enough,  the  induced  mag- 
net, when  in  contact,  can  induce  a  bar  like  itself, 
placed  at  its  extremity,  to  become  a  strong  magnet ; 
and  this  second  induced  magnet  may  also  irans- 
luil  the  magnetism  to  a  third,  and  so  on.  the  action 
being,  however,  weaker  each  time.     If  a  steel  bar 


MAGNETISM. 


250 


MAGNETISM. 


be  used  for  this  experiment,  a  singular  difference  is 
observed  in  its  action;  it  is  only  after  some  time 
that  it  begins  to  exhibit  magnetic  properties,  and, 
when  exhibited,  they  are  feebler  than  in  the  soft 
iron  bar.     When  the  steel  bar  is  removed,  it  does 
not  part  instantly  with  its  magnetism,  as  the  soft 
iron  bar,  but  retains  it  permanently.     Steel,  there- 
fore, has  a  force  which,  in  the  first  instance,  resists 
the  assumption  of  magnetism  :  and,  when  assumed, 
resists  its  withdrawal.     This  is  called  the  coercitire 
force.     The  harder  the  temper  of  the  steel,  the  more 
is  the  coercitive  force  developed  in  it.     It  is  this 
force,  also,  in  the  loadstone,  which  enables  it  to  re- 
tain its  magnetism.     The  inductive  action  of  terres- 
trial magnetism  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  truth  of 
the  theory  already  referred  to,  that  the  earth  itself  is 
a  very  large  magnet.     When  a  steel  rod  is  held  in 
a  positioiT  parallel  to  the  dipping-needle,  it»becomes 
in  the  course  of  some  time  permanently  magnet- 
ic.    The  result  is  reached  sooner  when  the  bar  is 
rubbed  with  a  piece  of  soft  iron.     A  bar  of  soft  iron 
held  in  the  same  position  is  more  powerfully  but  onlv 
temporarily  affected,  and  when  reversed,  the  poles 
are  not  reversed  with  the  bar,  but  remain  as  before. 
If  when  so  held  it  receive   at  its   end   a   few   sharp 
blows   of   a   hammer,    the   magneti-sm   is  rendered 
permanent,  and  now  the  poles  are  reversed  when  the 
bar  is  reversed.     The  tor.sion  caused  by  the  blows  of 
the  liammer  appears  to  communicate  to  the  bar  a 
coercitive  force.     We  may  understand  from  this  how 
the    tools    in  work-shops  are   generally   magnetic. 
W^henever  large  masses  of  iron  are  stationary  for  any 
length  of  time  they  are  sure   to   give  evidence   of 
magnetization,  and  it  is  to  the  inductive  action  of 
theearth's  poles  acting  through  ages  that  the  mag- 
netism of  tlie  loadstone  is  to  be  attributed.    Magnets, 
when  freshly  magnetized,  are  sometimes  more  pow- 
erful than  they  afterwards  become.     In  that  case 
they  gradually  fall  off  in   strength  till  they  reach  a  j 
point  at  whicii  their  strength  remains  constant.    This 
is  called  the  puint  of  snturatiun.     If  the  magxiet  lias 
not  been  raised  to  this  point,  it  will  lose  nothing  af- 
ter magnetization.      We   may  a.scertain   whether  a 
magnet  is   at  saturation   by   magnetizing   it  with   a 
more  powerful  magnet,  and  seeing  whether  it  retains 
more  magnetism  than  before.     The  saturation  point  i 
depends  on  the  coercitive  force  of  the  magnet,  and  ] 
not  on  the  power  of  the  magnet  with   which   it   is  1 
rul.ibed.     When  a  magnet  is  above  saturation,  it  is  ' 
soon  reduced  to  it  by  repeatedly  drawing  away  the 
armature  from  it.     After  reaching  this  point,  mag- 
nets will  keep  the  same  strengtli  tor  years  together  if  I 
not  subjected  to  rough  usage.      It  is  favorable  for 
the  preservation  of  magnets  that  they  be  provided  ' 
with  an  armature  or  keeper.     The  power  of  a  horse- 
shoe magnet  is  usually  tested  by  the  weight  its  arm- 
ature can  bear  without  breaking  away  from  the  mag- 1 
net.     Hacker  gives  the   following   formula   for  this  I 
weight :  W=^i  -^/m'  ;    W  is  the  charge  expressed  in  ' 
pounds ;  a,  a  constant  to  lie  ascertained  for  a  par- 
ticular   quality  of  steel ;  and   in  is   the   weight   in  j 
poiuids  of  the  magnet.     Small  magnets,  therefore, 
are  stronger  for  their  size  than  the  large  ones.     The 
reason  of  tliis  may  be  thus  explained  :  Two  magnets 
of  the  same  size  and  power,  acting  separately,  sup-  j 
port  twice  the  weight  that  one  of  tliem  does;  but  if  , 
the  two  be  joined,  so  as  to  form  one  magnet,  they 
do  not   sustain  the   double,  for   tlie   two   magnets  [ 
being  in  close  proximity,  act  inductively  on  each 
other,  and  so  lessen  the  c(mjoint  power.     Similarly, 
several  magnets  made  U]i  iiili)  a   battery  have  not  a 
force  proportionate  to  tlieir  number.      Coidomli  dis- 
covered, by  the  oscillation  of  the  magnetic  needle  in 
the  presence  of  magnets,  that  when  magnet:)  ore  so  i 
pltired  Vint  two  adjoining  poles  may  aet  on  carh  other 
■irithout  the  interfererire  of  the  opposite  polen,  lliat  is, 
when  the  magnets  are  large  compared  with  the  dis- 
tance   between  their  centers,  their   nftnirtire  or  re- 
pulsive force  taries  ini;ersely  im  the  square  if  the  dis- 
tance.   Gauss  proved  from  this  tlieoretically,  and 


exhibited  experimentally,  that  when   the   distance 

between  the  centers  of  two  magnets  is  large  com- 
pared with  the  size  of  the  magnets,  that  is,  irlien 
the  action  of  both  poles  comes  into  play,  their  action  on 
earh  olhtr  taries  inversely  as  the  cnhe  of  the  distance. 
When  a  magnet  is  heated  to  redness  it  loses  perma- 
nentl}-  every  trace  of  magnetism;  iron,  also,  at  a 
red  lieat,  ceases  to  be  attracted  by  the  magnet.  At 
temperatures  below  red  heat  the  magnet  parts  with 
some  of  its  power,  the  loss  increasing  with  the  tem- 
perature. The  temperatures  atwhich  other  substances 
affected  by  the  magnet  lose  their  magnetism  differ 
from  that  of  iron.  Cobalt  remains  magnetic  at  the 
liighest  temperatures,  and  nickel  loses  this  property 
at'C63^  F. 

Electru-mngnitism  includes  all  phenomena  in  which 
an  electric  current  produces  magnetism.  The  most 
important  result  of  this  power  of  the  current  is  the 
electro-magnet.  This  consists  (Fig.  1)  generally  of  a 
round  bar  of  soft  iron  bent  into  the  horse-shoe  form, 
with  an  insulated  wire  coiled  round  its  extremities. 
When  a  current  passes  througli  the  coil,  the  soft  iron 
bar  Incomes  instantly  magnetic,  and  attracts  the  ar- 
mature with  a  sharp  click.  When  the  current  is 
stopped,  this  power  disapears  as  suddenly  as  it 
came.  Electro-magnets  far  outrival  permanent  mag- 
nets in  strength.  Small  electro-magnets  have  been 
made  by  Joule  whicli  support  3,500  times  their  own 
weight,  a  feat  immeasurably  superior  to  anything 
performed  by  steel  magnets.  When  the  current  is  of 
moderate  strength,  and  the  iron  core  more  than  a 
third  of  an  inch  in  diameter.yx"  magmtism  indvced  is 
in  proportion  to  the  strength  of  the  current  and  of  the 
number  of  turns  in  the  coil.  When  the  bar  is  much 
thinner  than  one-third  of  an  inch,  a  maximum  is 
very  soon  reached  beyond  which  anj-  additional 
turns  of  the  wire  give  no  additional  magnetism;  and 
even  when  the  core  is  thick, these  turns  must  not  be 
heaped  on  each  other,  so  as  to  place  them  beyond  in- 
fluencing the  core.  It  follows  from  the  above  prin- 
ciple, tliat.  in  the  horse-shoe  magnet,  where  the  in- 
ductive action  in  the  armature  must  be  taken  into  ac- 
count, the  weight  which  the  magnet  sustains  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  sguai-es  of  the  strengths  of  the  currents 
and  to  the  squares  of  the  number  of  turns  of  theirire. 
This  maximum  is  in  different  magnets  proportional 
to  the  area  of  section  or  to  the  square  of  the  diameter 
of  the  core.  The  electro-magnet,  from  the  ease  witli 
which  it  is  made  to  assume  or  lay  aside  its  magnet- 
ism, or  to  reverse  its  poles,  is  of  the  utmost  value  in 
electrical  and  mechanical  contrivances.  The  action 
!  of  the  electro-magnet  is  quite  in  keeping  with  Am- 
pere's theory,  as  the  current  of  the  coil,  acting  on 
,  the  various  currents  of  tlie  individual  molecules, 
places  them  parallel  to  itself,  in  which  condition  the 
soft  iron  liar  acts  powerfully  as  a  magnet.  The  di- 
rection of  the  current  and  the  nature  of  the  coil  be- 
ing known,  the  poles  are  easily  determined  by  Am- 
pere's rule.  Builders  of  magnetic  engines  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  facility  with  which  the  poles  of  an 
electro-magnet  ma}'  be  reversed,  b.y  which  attrac- 
tions and  repulsions  may  be  so  arranged  with  another 
magnet  as  to  produce  a  constant  rotation.  The  forms 
in  which  they  occur  are  exceedingly  various.  Fig.  2, 
shows  a  simple  and  common  construction,  whereby 
a  double-beam  engine  of  much  power  is  obtained. 
Powerfid  machines  of  this  kind  have  been  made 
[  with  a  view  to  supplant  the  steam-engine  ;  but  such 
attempts,  both  in  respect  of  economy  and  constancy, 
have  proved  utter  failures. 

Mii(jntto.eUctririty  includes  all  phenomena  where 

magnetism  gives  rise  to  electricity.     I'nder    Induc- 

■tiini  if  Electric  CurnntsW.  was  stated  that  when  a 

I  coil,  in  which  a  current  circulates,  is  (piickly  placed 

within  another  coil  unconnected  with  it.  a  contrary 

induced  current  in  the  outer  coil  marks  its  entrnnce, 

and  when  it  is  willidrawn.  a  direct  induced  current 

attends  its  withdrawal.     While  the  ])rimary  coil   re- 

j  mains  stationary  in    the  secondary  coil,   though  the 

I  current  continues  to  flow  stcadilyin  the  primary,  no 


MAHRATTA  HELMET. 


251 


MAIL. 


current  is  iiiduccd  in  Ihi'  scrnndary  roll.     It   is  altio 
shown,  tluit  if,  wliile  the  priiimry  Cdil  is  Btiitionary, 


the  Btrcnjitli  of  its  cvirriMit  be  incrciiscd  or  (iiminisji- 
ed,  I'lU-li  inereiiae  and  djmiinitinn  induce  opposite 
currents  iu  the  secondary  coil.  C'liange,  in  fact, 
whether  in  the  position  or  current  strenjith  of  the 
primary  coil,  induces  currents  in  llie  second.'iry  coil, 
and  the  intensity  of  the  induced  current  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  iiinount  and  suddenness  of  the  change. 
In  sinirular  coulirmation  of  Anijiere's  theory,  a  per- 
manent har-inairnet  may  be  substituted  for  the  pri- 
mary coil  iu  these  experiments,  and  the  same  results 
obtained  with  f;reater  intensity.  Wluii  abar-mai^net 
is  introduced  into  the  secondary  coil,  a  current  is  in- 
dicated, and  wlien  it  is  withdrawn,  a  current  in  a 
coutrarj'  direction  is  observed,  and  these  currents 
take  place  in  the  directions  rccpured  by  Ampere's 
theory.  A  change  of  position  of  the  magnet  is  mark- 
ed by  a  current,  as  in  the  former  case.  If  we  had  the 
means  of  increasing  or  lessening  tlie  magnetism  of 
the  bar,  currents  would  be  induced  the  sameas  those 
obtained  by  strengthening  or  weakening  the  current 
in  the  primary  coil.  It  is  this  in<luclive  power  of 
iron  at  the  moment  that  a  change  takes  place  in  its 
magnetism,  that  forms  the  basis  of  niagnelo-electric 
machines.  Of  late  years  qinte  a  new  era  has  arisen 
in  the  construction  of  magneto-electric  machines. 
The  compactness,  simplicity  of  construction,  and 
marvelous  power  which  the  new  machines  possess, 
give  them  quite  a  novel  importance  in  practical 
elcctricitj'.  The  names  chiefly  associated  with  the 
new  improvements  are  Wilde  of  Manchester, Siemens 
and  Wlieatstone,  and  Gramme  of  Paris.  Mr.  II. 
Wilde,  in  1860,  patented  a  magneto-electric  machine, 
foimded  on  the  principle  that  a  current  or  a  magnet 
indefinitely  weak  can  be  made  to  indurea  current  (/r  a 
megnet  (if  indefinite  strength.  A  Wildi's  machine  H 
ton  in  weight,  measuring  about  5  feet  in  length  and 
height,  and  20  inches  in  width,  driven  by  a  steam- 
engine,  produces  a  most  lirilliant  electric  light,  and 
exhibits  the  most  astonishing  of  heating  powers. 
Wheats!  one  and  Siemens  gave  a  new  interpretation 
to  Wilde's  principle. 

The  great  drawback  of  all  the  forms  of  the  machine 
is  the  enormous  velocity  at  which  they  rotate  some 
2,000  or  more  revolutions  in  the  minute.  -Vt  tliis 
speed  a  machine  soon  wears  itself  out.  Another  dis- 
advantage is  the  heating  of  the  armatures  in  Wilde 
and  Ladd's  machine.  Ferguson's  has  never  been  tried 
on  a  large  scale.  It  is  found  necessary  to  keep  the 
armatures  cool  by  a  flow  of  cold  water.  This  heat. 
however  removed,  is  manifestly  a  mere  squandering 
of  the  energy  of  motion,  and  a  loss  to  the  current 
given  otT.  A  third  objection  is  the  loss  that  always 
takes  place  when  the  side-springs  change  from  the 
one  ring  to  the  other,  sparks  more  or  less  bright  ac- 
companying the  change.  For  the  electric  light. how- 
ever, the  alternate  currents  are  used,  and  this  source 
of  loss  isnot  experienced.  These  defects  are  removed 


m  the  latest  form  oi  thoelortro.mn!»nelic  machine  l)y 
Gramme, of  I'aris.  in  it,  instead  of  a  solid  armature 
of  iron,  a  ring  is  employed  on  which  a 
great  number  of  bojibins  of  wire  arc 
set.  Astonishing  as  were  the  elTecta 
produci'd  by  Wilde's  machine,  those  ob- 
tained from  (iramme's  seen  quite  to 
eclipse  Ihem.  In  (comparing  two  mag- 
neto-electric machines,  we  must  lake 
into  account  the  kind  of  wire  used 
for  the  revolving  armature.  For  ten- 
sion purposes,  a  thin  and  long  wire  gives 
Ihcliest  results:  for ipiantily  or  healing 
purposes,  a  short  and  thick  wire  does 
best.  To  compare  a  tension  with  a 
quantity  armature,  the  sam  ■  test  even 
in  the  same  machine  would  give  most 
contradictory  results.  Hut  comparing, 
so  far  as  [xisssible,  machines  intended 
for  the  same  purpose  Grammi;  seems 
to  have  the  advantage  of  all  others. 
In  the  first  place,  the  speed  of  revolu- 
tion seldom  exceeds  BOO  revolutions 
per  minute  :  yOO  is  sufticient  for  most  purjMises.  A 
Granune  machine  driven  by  the  hand  will  melt  10 
inches  of  an  iron  wire  j's  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  a 
feat  not  accomplished  by  any  other  arrangement. 
The  electric  light  got  by  a  3-liorse-power  engine 
working  a  machine  a  ton  in  weight  is  eipial  to  up- 
wards of  8,000  sperm  candles.  A  si":nal-light  of  this 
kind  has  been  constructed  for  the  House  of  Lords, 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  endnent  engineer 
Conrad  W.  Cooke,  who  has  rendered  no  small  ser- 
vice in  perfecting  the  machine.  The  carbons  con- 
sumed last  four  hours,  and  when  burned  out  are  in- 
stantaneously replaced.  A  Gramme  machine  adapt- 
ed for  electro-plating,  and  worked  by  a  1-horse- 
])ower  engine,  deposits  nearly  27  oz.  of  silver  per 
lionr.  an  achievement  far  transcending  the  similar 
performance  of  other  machines.  Among  the  heat- 
ing wonders  of  the  Granune  machine  we  are  told  of 
a  tile  half  an  inch  in  diameter  being  burned  up  in  .5 
minutes,  of  1.5  feet  of  No.  18  |)Iatiuum  wire  being 
broughl  to  a  glowing  heat,  and  of  8  feet  of  iron  wire 
.0.~)1.     See  /•'lectn'riti/  And  (Idlcdiilmii. 

MAHKATTA  HELMET.— An  Indian  casipie,  hav- 
ing a  long  movable  nfisc-iiiece  of  a  singular  shape;  a 
large  mail  hood  which  protects  all  the  head,  and  a 
neck-guard  which  descends  to  the  loins. 

MAIDEN. — A  name  given  to  a  machine  for  behead- 
ing criminals,  which  was  in  use  in  Scotland  from 
about  the  middle  of  the  10th  century  to  nearly  the 
end  of  the  17th  century.     It  is  said  to  have  been  in- 
troduced into  Scotland  by  the  Regent  Jlorton,  who 
had  seen  it  at  Halifax,  in  Yorkshire,  and  was  him- 
self the  first  to  suffer  by  it,  whence  the  proverb. 
"He  that  invented  the  maiden  first  handselled  it." 
Morton,  for  anything  that  is  known  to  the  contrary, 
may  have  introduce<l  the  maiden;  but  he  certainly 
was  not  its  first  victim.     Fifteen  years  before  he  was 
put  to  death  by  it  (l.")81  a.  d.)  it  was  employed  to 
behead  Thomas  Scott,  of  Cambusmichael.  one  of  the 
murderers  of  Rizzio  (l-'JOO  a.  d).     It  would  seem  at 
first  to  have  been  called  indifferently  "The  Maiden" 
and  "The  Widow" — both  names,  it  may  be  conjec- 
ttired,  having  their  origin  in  some  such  pleasantry 
I  as  was  glanced  at  by  one  of  the  maiden's  last  vic- 
tims, the  Earl  of  Argyle  (1681  a.  d.),  when  he  pro- 
i  tested  that  it  was  "  The  sweetest  maiden  he  had  ever 
!  kissed."     A  frightful  instrument  of  punishment  used 
'in  Germany  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  called  "The 
;  Virgin."     But  it  had  no  resemblance  to  the  maiden, 
which  was  exactly  like  the  French  guillotine,  except 
that  it  had  no  turning-plank  on  which  to  bind  the 
criminal.     The  maiden  which  was  used  in  the  Scot- 
tish capital  is  now  in  the  Museum  of  the  Antiquaries 
of  Scotland  at  Edinburgh.     The  term  nuiiden  t  also 
applied  to  a  fortress  which  has  never  been  taken. 
j      MAIL. — A  term  signifying  a  metal  net-work,  and 
I  ordinarily  applied  to  such  when  used  as  body  defen- 


UAILLET. 


252 


UAJOB-OEMEBAL. 


sive  armor.  Well-made  mail  formed  an  admirable 
defense  against  all  weapons  except  lire-arms,  and  its 
pliability  and  comparative  liglituoss  gave  it  favor  over 
the  more  cumbrous  plate-armor. 

MAILLET.— A  kind  of  mallet  formerly  tised  by  the 
French  in  their  engagements.  The  maillet  was  used 
attlie  famous  battle ""Dcs  Trente"  in  13.51.  Under 
the  reign  of  Charles  VI.  a  Parisian  mob  forced  the 
arsenal,  and  took  out  a  large  quantity  of  mallets, 
with  which  they  armed  themselves  for  the  purpose 
of  murdering  the  custom-house  officers.  The  per- 
sons wlio  assembled  on  this  occasion  were  afterwards 
called  Maillotinx.  In  the  days  of  Louis  XII.  the  Eng- 
lish archers  carried  mallets  as  offensive  weapons.^ 

MAILLOTIN. — An  old  French  term  which  signified 
an  ancient  weapon  that  was  used  to  attack  men  who 
wore  helmets  and  cuirasses.  A  faction  in  France 
was  also  distinguished  by  this  appellation.  See 
Ma'llet. 

MAIN. — A  term  signifying  first  in  size,  rank,  or 
importance.  It  has  "many  useful  compounds  at 
tached  to  it,  such  as  :  Ma'in  body  of  an  Army,  the 
body  of  troops,  other  than  those  forming  the  ad- 
vanced or  rear  guard.  Main  guard,  a  body  of  men 
generally  of  the  strength  sufficient  to  guard  a  person 
or  place  from  injury  or  attack.  It  remains  on  duty 
24  hours  before  being  relieved.  Large  forts  or 
fortresses  have  a  main  guard  chosen  from  the  troops 
garrisoning  them,  luider  which  guard  all  disturbers 
of  peace,  drunkards,  etc.,  are  placed,  as  well  as  all 
people  who  cannot  il)y  night  give  an  account  of  them- 
selves, or  who  do  not  know  Uie  parole.  Main  mag- 
m'ni-,  the  principal  magazine  in  a  work  or  battery, 
in  which  there  is  more  than  one  magazine.  Mw'/i 
irnrk.  in  fortification,  the  principal  work  as  distin- 
guished from  the  outworks. 

"  MAINADE.— Tlie  French  term  for  a  body  of  ma- 
r.'iuilers  commanded  "by  a  chief. 

MAIN-GATJCHE.— A  dagger  of  Spanish  origin  es- 
pecially used  in  duels  in  t'he  16th  century.  On  one 
side  of"  the  hilt  it  has  a  guard  .which  is  curved  and 
carried  up  to  the  pommel  in  the  form  of  a  half  shell; 
from  the  talon,  or  heel  of  the  blade,  on  the  opposite 
side,  is  a  hollow  indent,  intended  to  hold  the  thumb. 
The  weapon  v.'as  held  in  the  left  hand,  with  the 
thumb  al)Ove  and  the  gviard  below  ;  and  it  was  used, 
while  making  an  attack,  with  the  sword  held  in  the 
right  hand  to  ward  off  the  blows  or  thrusts  that  the 
adversary  might  make  with  his  sword.  SeePeiinated 
Dftqger. 

MAIN  PIN. — A  strong  cylindrical  bar  passing  ver- 
tically through  a  hole  inlhe  front  bolster  of  theVag- 
on  bc'idy.  and  through  one  in  a  corresponding  bolster 
in  the  fore  carriage?  The  pull  of  the  traces  is  con- 
veyed from  the  fore  carriage  to  the  body  solely 
through  the  ma'n-pin.  This  means  of  connection 
between  fore  carriage  and  body  allows  the  former 
to  turn  horizontallyindependently  of  the  latter. 

MAIN-SPRING.— The  spring  in  a  gunlock  which 
drives  thf  hammer.     See  Ijock. 

MAINTENANCE.— The  Cap  of  Maintenance,  some- 
times callc<l  Clip  of  Digii'ty.  a  cap  of  crimson  velvet 
lined  with  ermine,  with  two  points  ttirned  to  the 
back,  originally  only  worn  by  Dukes,  but  afterwards 
assigned  to  various  families  of  distinction.  Those 
families  who  are  entitled  to  a  cap  (.f  maintenance 
place  tlieir  crests  on  it  instead  of  on  a  wreath.  Ac- 
cording to  Sir  .loliTi  Feariic,  "the  wearing  of  the  cap 
liiid  a  iH-ginning  from  tlie  Duke  or  General  of  an 
army,  who, having  gotten  victory,  cau.sed  the  chiefest 
ofthesul)dued  enemies  whom  he  led  to  follow  him  in 
his  triumph,  bearing  his  hat  or  cap  after  him, in  token 
of  stibjection  and  C'aptivity."  Most  of  the  reigning 
Dukes  of  Germany,  and  various  families  belonging 
to  the  peerage  both  of  Kni;land  anil  of  Scotland,  bear 
their  crests  on  a  cap  of  mainli'Uunee. 

MAISON  DU  ROI.  The  King's  Household.  Cer- 
tain select  bodies  of  troops  were  so  called  duringthe 
Monarchj'  of  France,  and  consisted  of  the  (rordei- 
du-C(/rpa,   the    Uendarinoi,    the    C'/ievaux-legirs,   the 


Mim.w-nfta'ren.  the  (rendarinerie.  the  GrenndierK  t\ 
'V/^m^.the  regiments  belonging  to  the  Fn-uchand  the 
Swiss  Guards,  and  the  Cmt  Suisxes.  The  Maison- 
du-Koi  was  not  considered  a  separate  establishment 
from  the  rest  of  the  Army  until  the  reign  of  Louis 
IV.  This  establishment  was  successively  formed  by 
different  kings  out  of  militia  companies,  which  they 
took  into  their  bodv-guard. 

MAITHE  D'ARMES.— A  term  in  general  use  among 
the  French,  signifying  a  Fencing  Master.  Every 
regiment  has  a  Maitre  d'Armes  attached  to  it. 

MAJESTY.— A  title  of  honor  now  usually  bestow- 
ed on  Sovereigns.  Among  the  Romans,  Maje^titu  was 
used  to  signify  the  power  and  dignity  of  the  people; 
and  the  Senatorial,  Consular,  or  Dictatorial  Majesty 
was  spoken  of,  in  consequence  of  these  functionaries 
deriving  their  power  from  the  people.  After  the 
overthrow  of  the  Republic,  Majestas,  became  exclu- 
sively the  attribute  of  the  Emperors,  Bignitnx  being 
thenceforth  that  of  the  Majestrates.  The  MajeMm  of 
the  Emperors  of  Rome  was  supposed  to  descend  to 
those  of  Germany  as  their  successors;  but  the  adop- 
tion of  the  attribute  by  other  European  Sovereigns 
is  of  comparatively  late  date.  Its  use  began  in  Eng- 
land in  the  latter  part  of  tne  reign  of  Henry  VIIL, 
up  to  which  time,  "Your  Grace"  or  "Your  "High- 
ness" had  been  the  appropriate  mode  of  addressing 
the  Sovereign.  Henry  II.  was  the  first  King  of  France 
who  was  si^uilarly  styled,  and  Louis  XL  and  his  suc- 
cessors became  entitled,  in  virtue  of  a  papal  Indl,  to 
call  themselves  by  the  title  of  "Most  Christian  Maj- 
esty." Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain  similarly 
obtained  for  themselves  and  their  successors  the  title 
of  "Most  Catholic  Majesty;"  and  Stephen,  Duke  of 
Hungary,  and  Maria  Theresa,  of  "Apostolic  Majes- 
t}-."  The  Emperor  of  Austria  is  now  styled  His  Im- 
perial Royal  Majesty;  in  German.  "K.K.  (abbrevi- 
ated for  Kaiserliche"Konigliche)Majcstat  "  Emper- 
ors, Kings,  and  Queens  are  now  generallj"  addressed 
as"Y'our  Majesty,"  not  including  the  Sultan  of 
Turkey,  whose  proper  style  is  "Your  Highness." 
The  Sovereign  of  the  I'nited  Kingdom  is  personally 
addressed  as  "  Y'our  Majesty,"  and  letters  are  ad- 
dressed to  "The  King's"  or  "Queen's"  "Most  Ex- 
cellent Majesty."  In  Heraldry, an  eagle  crowned  and 
holding  a  scepter,  is  blazoned  as  an  "Eagle  in  his 
Majesty." 

MAJOR. — 1.  An  officer  next  in  rank  above  a  Cap- 
tain and  below  a  Lieutenant-colonel.  He  is  the 
lowest  Field  UfHcer.  Since  the  reorganization  of 
the  English  army,  the  Major  is  a  selected  man.  and 
his  term  of  service  in  this  rank  is  for  five  years, 
after  which,  if  not  re-employed,  he  is  put  on  half- 
'  pay.  This  does  not  relate  to  Majors  of  the  artillery 
!  anil  engineers.  The  duties  of  a  Major  depend  upon 
the  nature  of  the  service  on  which  he  is  employed, 
In  the  line,  whilst  with  his  regiment,  he  has  to  sec 
to  the  drill  and  equipment  of  the  men  in  conjunction 
with  the  Adjutant.  Being  a  Field  Officer,  he  is 
mounted  on  all  parades  and  in  action.  In  the  artil- 
lery and  engineers,  the  rank  of  Major  lias  been  re- 
cently reintroduced,  and  single  batteries  of  artillery 
are  now  commanded  by  otlicers  of  this  rank,  instead 
of  by  a  Captain,  as  hitherto.  It  was  in  the  year 
18'27"that  the  rank  of  Major  in  the  artillerj-  was  abol- 
ished, its  holders  being  made  Lieutenant-colonels. 
It  ap|)ears  that  this  class  (jf  Field  OlHcer  did  not  ex- 
ist in  the  army  imtil  the  seventeenth  century.  3. 
Used  adjcctively,  the  word  Major,  in  the  arm}-  sig- 
nifies a  superior  class  in  a  certain  rank,  as  Sergeants- 
Major,  who  are  superior  Sergeants  ;  except  in  the 
case  of  (iencral  Olticers.  in  which  its  signification 
is  arljilrarily  limited  to  ^Major-general,  the  third  of 
the  four  classes  of  Generals. 

MAJOR  GENERAL.— The  rank  next  below  tlial  of 
Lieutenant-general,  and  above  Brigadier-general. 
He  usually  Commands  a  Division.  A  Major's  com- 
mand in  peace  time  in  England  is  that  of  a  District  ; 
in  India,  a  Division  of  the  Army.  A  Brigade  of  the 
army  is  properly  a  Major-general's  conunaud,  Thus, 


MALABAR  GUNS. 


253 


HANBY  BHOT. 


on  Hcrvirc  with  a  larirr  armv.  a  ncncral  would  com- 
tnaiid  II  C'lr/iK  il' A  mil  i\  ii  l.iciMciiaiit-^^eiicral  a  Di- 
visicin,  mill  a  MMJor-i^cniTal  a   Hrifiadc. 

MALABAR  GUNS.  Heavy  pieces  of  oninaiK-e, 
wliieli  were  iiuide  in  llie  Maialiar  emiiilry,  and  were 
formed  liy means  of  iron  bars  joiniil  lofrellier  with 
hoops.  They  were  very  long  and  extremely  un- 
wieldy. 

MALCHU8. — A  short  sword  of  Italian  origin,  used 
in  I  lie  lifleenlli  oentury,  and  very  much  like  the  .'Ui«- 

lll  V  . 

MALINGERER.  -A  soldier  who  feigns  him.self  sick. 
Any  soldier  convicted  of  malingering,  feigning  or 
producing  disease,  or  of  intentionally  ]ir(iiraciing  his 
cure  or  aggravating  his  disease,  is  liable  to  be  tried 
by  a  C'ourt-Martial  for  "Conduct  prejudicial  to  good 
order  and  military  discipline,"  and  to  suffer  the  pun- 
ishment attached  to  that  offense.     See  Feigning  of 

Jtist'llAI'. 

MALKIN  ■   A  sponge  withajointedstaffforcaniions. 

MALLEABILITY.  The  property  which  certain  met- 
als possess  of  being  reducible  tothinleaves,  cither  by 
hammering  (hence  the  corresponding  German  word 
hiiinini rl)fir/,-eif)i>r  by  laniinaliim  between  rollers.  jThe 
order  in  which  the  nialleablemctalscxliibit  this  prop- 
erly is  as  follows:  gold,  silver,  copper,  platinum, 
palladium,  iron,  aluminium,  tin,  zinc,  lead,  cadmi- 
um, nickel,  cobalt,  (iold  far  surpasses  all  other  met- 
als in  malleability,  being  capable  of  reduction  into 
films  not  exceeding  the  200,0t)0th  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness; and  silver  and  coppcrmay  be  reduced  to  leaves 
f  f  great  tenuity.  Although  gold  and  silver  also  pre- 
sent the  pro])erty  i<f  (lit utility  in  tlu-  highest  degree, 
there  is  no  constant  relation  between  the  two  prop- 
erties ;  for  example,  iron,  although  it  may  be  reduc- 
ed to  extremely  thin  wire,  is  not  nearly  so  malleable 
as  gold,  silver,  or  copper. 

MALLET.— A  wooden  hammer.  it  is  used  for  a 
varii'ly  of  purposes  in  the  field,  such  as  driving  pic- 
kets, tent-pins,  etc.  The  head  is  made  of  elm,  and 
the  helve  of  asli.  JIallcts  vary  in  size  and  shapcaiid 
are  made  in  India  of  babool  or  soomlry  wood.  Jlal- 
letsare  also  very  generally  used  by  mechanics,  such 
as  joiners  and  carpenters,  coopers,  tinmen,  etc. 

MALLET'S  MORTAR.— A  monster  mortar  manufac- 
tured some  years  ago  by  .Mr.  ^Mallett.  It  consisted 
at  the  lower  end  of  a  solid  cast-inin  breech,  abutting 
on  which  were  a  series  of  wrought-irou  hoops,  fol- 
lowing each  other  in  succession  up  to  the  muzzle; 
these  were  inserted  into  each  other  by  rebates,  and 
■were  firmly  secured  by  six  iron  .staves,  at  equal  in- 
tervals, abovit  its  surface,  extending  longitudinally 
the  whole  length  of  the  mortar.  The  total  weight  of 
the  mortar  was  50  tons  13i  cwt. ;  the  diameter  of 
the  shell  3  feet,  and  its  weight,  when  unfilled,  26^ 
cwt.  From  the  experiments  made  with  this  mortar, 
it  appears  that  there  was  a  tendency  to  sepanition 
between  the  trunnions  and  the  cascable,  and  con- 
sequently- there  was  reason  to  think  that  it  never 
could  be  employed  on  service.  This  piece  of  ord- 
nance is  not  in  the  service,  but  a  model  of  it  may 
be  seen  in  the  Royal  United  Service  Institution, 
AVhitehall.   London. 

MALTA.— The  most  ancient  and  celebrated  of  Mil- 
itary Orders  is  that  of  Sriint  John  nfJerumlem.  which 
owes  its  origin  to  the  Hospital  of  St.  Jolin,  foundcil  in 
Jerusalem  in  the  year  1048.  It  became  in  1118  a 
Religious  Order  of  Knighthood,  and  from  1309  the 
Knights  were  called  Knightu  HosjiiUiUers  of  IVwde.t. 
and  from  IUSO  Knights  of  ifaltn.  The  representative 
of  this  Order  in  England  was  the  Prior  of  C'lerken- 
well,  who  had  a  seat  in  Parliament,  and  was  styled 
the  First  Baron  of  England.  This  Order  is  now  al- 
most extinct,  no  Grand  blaster  having  been  elected 
since  180,5.  The  badge  worn  bj-  all  the  Knights  is  a 
Maltese  cross,  enamelled  white  and  edged  with  gold, 
suspended  to  a  black  ribbon.  Some  members  of  this 
Order  did  duty  during  the  war  of  1870-71  with  the 
sick  and  wounded,  the  order  thus  appropriately  end- 
ing, as  it  had  begun,  in  hospitals. 


MALTESE  CART.     .V  (art  which  ran  be  used  vpith 

eithir  BiiiL'li'  or  dmibli' draught.  The  two  side  pieccB 
of  the  cart  form  the  shafts,  and  are  bolted  across  an 
axle-tree  bed,  and  connected  also  by  a  hind  ear-bed, 
splinter-liar,  and  axis  slats.  The  tart  is  formed  of 
wood,  and  is  adapted  for  man  draught.  Its  weight 
is  und<r  7  iwt. 

MALTESE  CROSS.  A  cross  of  eight  points,  of  the 
form  wiirn  as  a  decoration  b^'  tin;  Hospitallers  and 
other  Orders  of  Knighthood. 

MAHELIERE  Armor  for  the  breast,  from  which 
depended  two  chains,  one  attached  to  the  [lommel, 
and  llie  other  to  tin-  ^eaMiard  cf  the  ^word. 

MAMELUKES  MAMLOUKS  MEML00K8.— An  Ar- 
abic word  signifying  . »'"»''/(,  the  name  given  in  Egypt 
to  tlu;  slaves  of  the  Heys,  brought  from  the  Cauca- 
sus, and  who  formed  their  armed  force.  When 
Genghis  Kh;in  desolated  great  jiart  of  Asia  in  the 
13th  Century,  and  carried  away  a  multitude  of  the 
inhabitants  for  slaves,  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  bouglit 
12,000  of  them,  partly  Mingrelians  and  Tcherkesses, 
but  mostly  Turks,  and  formed  them  into  a  body  of 
troops.  i?ut  they  soon  found  their  own  power  so 
great  that,  in  12.')4.  they  made  one  of  their  own  num- 
ber Sultan  of  Egypt,  founding  the  Dynasty  of  the 
Baharites,  which  gave  place  to  another  Mameluke 
Dynasty,  that  of  the  Borjites,  in  1382.  The  Cauca- 
sian element  predominated  in  the  first  Dynasty,  the 
Tartar  element  in  the  second.  In  general,  they  form- 
ed able  anci  energetic  riders,  and  Egypt  under  their 
sway  arrived  at  a  degree  of  prosperity  and  pfiwerto 
which  she  hail  been  a  stranger  from  the  rlavs  of  Se- 
sostris.  Selim  I.,  who  overthrew  tlur  Afameluke 
Kingdom  in  \r>n.  was  compelled  to  permit  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  24  Mameluke  Beys  as  Governors  of 
the  I'rovinces.  This  arrangement  subsisted  till  the 
middle  of  the  IBtli  Century,  when  the  number  and 
wealth  of  the  Mamelukes  gave  them  such  a  iirejion- 
derance  of  power  in  Egypt  that  the  Paslia  named 
by  file  Porte  was  reduced  to  a  merely  nominal  ruler. 
The  number  of  them  scattered  tlirout;lioiit  all  Egypt 
was  between  lO.UOO  and  12,000  men."  Tlieir  number 
was  kept  up  chiefly  by  slaves  brought  from  the  Cau- 
casus, from  among  whom  the  Beys  and  other  Offi- 
cers of  State  were  exclusively  chosen.  Their  last 
brilliant  achievements  were  on  the  occasion  of  the 
French  Invasion  of  Egypt,  and  during  the  time  im- 
mediately followinjr  the  retirement  of  the  French. 
At  this  time  Murad  Bey  stood  at  their  head.  But 
in  1811  they  were  foully  massacred  by  Mohammed 
All.  afterwards  Viceroy  of  Egypt. 

MAMMOTH  POWDER.— A  variety  of  powder  form- 
ed by  breaking  up  mill  cake.  Exact  uniformity  of 
size  and  shape  of  grains  does  not  therefore  exist. 
The  average  granulation  is  85  to  the  pound.  The 
diameters  of  the  holes  in  the  testing  sieves  are  .75 
inches  and  .110  inches.     See  Gunpowder. 

MANACLES. — Handcuffs  or  nipperK  for  prisoners. 
The  two  pieces  of  metal  are  hinged  together,  the 
upper  portion  of  which  is  curved  so  as  to  fit  the 
wrist,  and  the  lower  portion  is  straight  except  at  a 
point  near  its  outer  end,  where  it  is  slightly  bent. 

MANBY  SHOT.— Without  entering  upon"  a  detailed 
description  of  the  difTercnt  plans  proposed,  from 
time  to  time,  for  establishing  communication  be- 
tween a  stranded  vessel  and  the  shore,  it  will,  per- 
haps, be  well  to  mention  that  Mauby's  apparatus  is 
not  the  only  one  which  has  been  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. Kites  have  also  been  suggested  as  a  simple 
means  of  carrying  a  line  from  a  wreck  to  the  shore, 
and  are  manufactured  fortius  pur|)ose  by  the  •'Ship- 
wrecked ^Mariners'  Society,  London  Bridge."  The 
board  of  trade  employed,  to  a  great  extent,  until 
1805,  Dennett's  rockets,  in  preference  to  Manby's 
shot  ;  and  there  can  be  no  question  that  the  balance 
of  advantages  inclines  strongly  to  the  side  of  the 
rockets. 

In  1865  a  rocket  proposed  by  Colonel  Boxer,R.  A., 
was  adopted  by  the  board  of  trade  to  supersede  Den- 
nett's rocket,  to  which  it  is  preferred  because- — 1st. 


UANCH. 


254 


MANDARIN. 


The  range  of  Colonel  Boxer's  rocket  is  little,  if  at  all, 
inferior,  and  in  every  other  respect  it  is  much  supe- 
rior; 2d.  The  combination  of  Mr.  Dennett's  two  rock- 
ets is  very  objectionable, and  from  their  velocity  they 
frequently  carry  away  the  line,  and  sometimes  both 
do  not  ignite.  They  are  also  double  the  expense. 
These  rockets  are  fast  superseding  Manby's  shot  at 
all  stations,  and  the  latter  may  shortly  be  expected 
to  become  entirelj'  obsolete. 

There  are  two  natures  of  Manby's  shot  in  the  serv- 
ice, the  24-pounder  oblong  or"  cylindrical,"  shown 
in  the  drawing,  and  the  G-pounder  spherical  shot. 
They  are  designated  24-pounder  and  6-pounder,  re- 


spectively .from  their  calibers, not  from  their  weights. 
The  24-pouiuler  oblong,  or  "  cylindrical "  Manby's 
shot,  is  a  cast-iron  c\"lindro-couoidal  projectile,  with 
a  slightl}'  rounded  base,  and  about  Ij  calibers  in 
length.  The  shot  is  drilled  down  its  longer  axis  for 
the  reception  of  a  wrought-iron  bolt,  which  passes 
completely  through  the  projectile  from  end  to  end, 
and  projects  about  five  inches  beyond  the  base,  ter- 
minating in  an  eye,  to  which  is  attached  a  plaited 
hide  thong  3  feet  in  length.  Four  holes,  for  the  re- 
ception of  "  fuses,"  are  drilled  into  the  shot  at  the 
base, equidistant  from  one  another  and  from  the  cen- 
ter of  the  base, anil  slightly  inclining  inwards.  These 
holes  are  conical  in  form,  and  are  about  the  same 
diameter  as  the  fuse-holes  of  the  13  and  10  inch  mor- 
tar shells.  They  are  about  .Si  inches  in  length  and 
are  roughed  in  the  interior  to  afford  a  better  hold  to 
the  fuses.  The  hi<le  thong,  or  "  strop,"  which  is  fast- 
ened to  tlip  eye-bolt,  is  made  of  four  strips  of  raw 
horse-hiile.doublecl  tbrougli  the  eye  and  tightly  plait- 
ed, the  plait  being  further  secured  by  being  stitched 
in  several  i)laces  with  hide.  The  end  of  the  thong  is 
formed  into  a  loo))  which  is  tightly  woolded  with  fine 
tarred  spun-yarn.  These  projectiles  weigh  (with 
thong;  aliout  80^  pounds. 

The  (J-pounder  spherical  Manb3-'s  shot  is  rarely  de- 
manilcil.  and  is  scarcely  to  be  considered  as  a  service 
projectile.  It  consists  of  a  diajihragm  sliell  tilled 
with  lead,  and  having  an  iron  loop  llxed  into  it,  to 
which  is  attached  a  thong  similar  to  that  of  the  ob- 


long j^rojectile.    This  shot  is  without  fuse-holes.    It 
weighs  about  8  poimds. 

The  action  of  a  oblong  .shot  is  as  follows:  The 
end  of  the  line  is  made  fast  to  the  loop-hole  of  the 
thong, the  rest  of  the  line  being  carefully  coiled  either 
in  a  basket  or  upon  the  ground  or  deck,  and  a  fuse  is 
placed  in  each  of  the  four  holes  made  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  fuses  being  uncapped,  the  projectile  is 
carefully  placed  in  the  piece  with  its  base  toward 
the  muzzle,  and  upon  the  discharge  of  the  piece 
carries  out  the  line,  one  end  of  which  being 
retained,  agood  communication  is  thus  established 
between  the  ves.sel  and  the  shore.  The  use  of  the 
hide  thong  is  to  remove  the  line  from  the  immediate 
flash  of  the  discharge,  and  so  prevent  it  from  being 
burned.  The  fuses  serve,  by  the  bright  light  which 
they  give  forth,  to  indicate  the  path  of  the  shot  and 
guide  the  tiring  party  in  laying  the  piece.  The 
strength  and  direction  of  the  wind  must  be  consi- 
dered in  determining  the  direction  to  be  given,  the 
trajectorj'  being  affected  by  them  to  a  very  great  ex- 
tent, owing  to  the  influence  which  the  wind  has 
upon  the  line.  With  deep-sea  line,  and  with  the  or- 
dinary charge  of  12  ounces,  the  range  varies  from 
400  yards  downward,  according  to  the  strength  and 
direction  of  the  wind.  The  6-pounder  is  used  in  the 
same  way,  with  the  exception  that,  having  no  fuses, 
the  operation  of  fixing  and  uncapping  them  is  dis- 
pensed with.  These  projectiles  are  maiidy  used  to 
est-Ablish  a  communication  between  the  shore  and  a 
stranded  vessel,  but  the  principle  is  applicable  to  a 
variety  of  other  purposes,  etc. 

The  maximum  charge  for  the  24-pounder  oblong 
Manby's  shot  is  only  12  ounces,  giving,  with  4.5'^  of 
elevation,  a  range  from  400  yards  downward,  ac- 
cording to  the  strength  and  direction  of  the  wind. 
If  a  higher  charge  is  used,  the  line  is  generally  broken. 
See  Life-mring  liockets. 

MANCH  MAUNCH.— A  frequent  charge  in  English 
Heraldry,  meant  to  represent  a  sleeve  with  long  pen- 
dant ends,  of  the  form  worn  by  ladies  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  I.  Or,  a  manch  gules,  has  been  for  a  long 
time  the  arms  of  the  Hastings  family,  one  of  whoiii 
was  steward  of  the  household  to  Henry  I. 

MANDARIN. — A  term  applied  to  Chinese  officers 
of  every  graile  by  foreigners.  It  is  derived  from 
the  Portuguese  mandnr,  to  command ;  the  Chinese 
equivalent  is  Kwan.  There  are  nine  ranks,  each 
distinguished  by  a  different-colored  ball  or  button 
placed  on  the  apex  of  the  cap,  by  a  peculiar  em- 
blazonrj'  on  the  breast,  and  a  different  clasp  of  the 
girdle.  The  balls  are  ruby,  coral,  sapphire,  a  blue 
opaque  stone,  crystal,  opaque  white  shell,  worked 
gold,  plain  gold,  and  silver.  Theoretically,  these 
grades  are  indicative  of  relative  merit,  but  as  office 
and  titles  are  sold  to  a  great  extent,  the  competitive 
examinations,  which  are  the  only  legitimate  road  to 
distinction,  have  lost  much  of  their  value.  A  Man- 
darin is  not  allowed  to  hold  office  in  his  Native  Prov- 
ince; the  intention  being  to  prevent  intrigue,  and  to 
draw  to  Pekin  the  ambition  and  talent  of  the  coun- 
try, where  temporary  employment  is  given  in  sub- 
ordinate offices,  prior  to  appointments  to  the  Prov- 
inces. He  is  not  allowed  to  marry  in  the  jurisdic- 
tion under  his  control,  nor  own  land  in  it,  nor  have 
'  a  near  relative  , holding  office  vmder  him  ;  and  he  is 
i  seldom  contintied  in  office  in  the  Station  or  Prov- 
ince for  more  than  three  years — a  system  of  espion- 
age which  serves  further  to  strengthen  the  Imperial 
Government.  It  is  incumbent  on  every  Provincial 
Officer  to  report  on  the  character  and  qualificationa 
of  all  under  him,  which  he  periodically  transmits  to 
1  the  Board  of  Civil  Service ;  the  points  of  character 
are  arranged  under  six  different  heads,  viz.,  to  those 
who  are  not  diligent,  the  incfticient,  tlie  superficial, 
the  \mtalented,  sii[)erannuated,  and  diseased.  Ac- 
cording to  the  opinions  given  in  this  report,  officers 
are  elevated  or  degraded  so  many  step  in  the  scale 
of  merit,  like  boys  in  a  class.  They  are  reqinred  to 
accuse  themselves  when  remiss  or  guilty  of  crime. 


MANDILION. 


255 


MANGANESE. 


MANDILION. — A   soldicr'.s   looHe  coat— viHiiiiUy  an 

oilier  .j;iriMiiil,  witlioiit,  slccvts. 

MANDREL.  An  arlior  or  axis  on  wliicli  work  is 
tcnipcinirily  iilaccil  lo  lie  liinicd.  Tlic  arlior  wliii  li 
revolves  ill  the  lieadstoek  of  a  lallie  and  carries  llie 
upper  pulley  anil  also  the  cliiick  or  faee.pliile,  if  one 
be  used.  'iVuversiiii;  mandrels  are  used  in  eonnc'e- 
lion  willi  1, lilies,  and  are  driven  by  ^eariiiL'  from  a 
eoimlersliafl  overhead.  The  term  i>  aNo  eiii|)loyed  in 
fiirL'inir.  to  iU'i:ole  a  rod  used  to  i)reserve  the  interior 
form  of  hollow-work. 

MANEGE.  -Till-  art  of  horsemanship  or  of  training; 
horses;  also,  a  school  for  tcachiiii;  horsemanship, 
and   for  traiiiiiii^    lior.scs.     See    JIiirM'iiiiin.i/iij),   and 

MANEUVER.-  A  term  from  the  French,  commnn- 

l}-  wrillen  iiiiiiii'iirri\  and  sijinifyini;  'handy-work,' 
is  somewhat  vajiuel}'  used  in  Kniilish  dimilitary  and 
naval  lanj;uai,'c  to  denote  collateral  movements,  not 
openly  apparent,  of  bodies  of  men  or  squadrons  of  t 
ships,  by  which  an  enc>my  is  coerced,  or  by  wddch  , 
it  issouuhl  lo  compel  him  to  take  some  course  ad- 
verse to  his  interests.  I 

MANEUVERING  WHEELS.— The  eccentric  truck-  j 
wheels  used   on  Sea-ioasI   Carriafjes  for  reiinlalinj^ 
the  motion  to  and  from   battery.     When  it    Ijccomes  ^ 
necessary  to  check  the  re<'oil  of  the  i^un-carriage,  the  j 
wheels  are  thrown  out  of  near  by  means  of  a  hand-  | 
spike  inserted   in  the  j<ocket  attached    to  the  end  of 
the  axle-tree,  and  the  carriaire  moved  on  slidinii'  fric- 
tion.    When  the  fjim  is  to  be  moved  into  baltery,  the 
wheels  are    thrown  into    ijear    in  a  similar   manner, 
and  the  front  ol  the   carriajie  moves  on  rollinir  fric- 
tion.    In  the  IS-inch  carriage  there   are  two  pairs  of  | 
maneuvcrini;  w  heels,  one  pair  beinu;  placed  in  front 
and  the  other  jiairnear  thcrcarend  of  the  carriasre. 
iSee  .Sr«-c"iM^  and  ddrrixiri   ('iirn'ii(/e«.  '' 

MANEUVER   MARCHES.     Man'jics   made  to    ifain  j 
a  posilion,  the  possession  of  whii'li  compels  the  ene- 
my to   leave  the  position  he  is   oceupyinir.     When 
such  marches  are  under  the  oliservation  of  the  ene-  ■ 
my,  lliey  ari'  termed   .}f<iii<iriirn'«.     An   example    of 
manoeuvre  marches  is  seen  inthi'  movements  of  the  i 
dill'erent  cor])S  of  the  French  Army  in    180.5,    from 
Ihe  time  they  crossed  the  Khine  initil   they  crossed 
the  Danuljc,  since  bj'  their  execution,    the   Austrian  I 
position  at  Ulm  was  lurneil  and  was  no   longer  ten-  I 
able  by  tlu'  Austrian  army.   See  ( 'onri ntratiun,   Mor- 
chin,    S[iin-hiH  and   'rurlicdl  Mn n-lifn. 

MANEUVER  OF  HEAVY  GUNS.  -The  introduction 
of  iron-clad  vessels  of  war,  and  of  larger  cannon  us- 
in;;  jirojectiles  of  greati)'  increased  power,  has  ren- 
dered it  necessary  that  more  complete  protection  for  J 
the  gun  and  for  the  cannoniers  should  be  provided 
than  that  furnished  in  the  batteries  of  the  present 
day.  This  want  has  lirought  fortli  a  system  of  De-  I 
])ressing  Carriages,  by  wliicli  Ihe  gun,  after  being 
tired,  is  drawn  below  the  jiarapet  and  there  loaded. 
Of  these  carriages  the  "  MoncrieiT"  in  Europe,  and  ' 
those  known  as  the  "  King"  and  "Bnffingtou,"  in-  } 
ven'ed  5n  the  United  States,  have  met  with  the 
most  favor,  but  the  general  adaptaliility  for  service 
of  no  one  of  them  has  yet  been  estal)lished.  The 
only  pl.'in  jiroposed,  with  Ihe  view  of  olTering increas- 
ed protectiini  in  maneuvering  lieavy  cannon  on  tlie 
carriages  now  in  our  service,  is  that  of  the  late  Col- 
onel Benton,  of  the  Ortlnance  Department.  In  this 
system  the  movements  are  effected  by  two  climns  or 
r<ipi»,  worked  by  a  winillnKK  placed  within  a  casemate 
in  the  |iarapet  or  in  a  traverse,  between  two  guns. 

The  i)ower  being  sitiiaU'd  to  the  right  of  the  gun. 
'•  rope  No.  1  "  jiasscs  from  the  windlass  to  a  pulley 
in  the  axis  of  Ihe  platform,  thence  lo  a  iiullcy  at  the 
left  of  the  platform,  back  over  a  pulley  attached  to 
the  fork  of  the  left  rear  traverse  wdieel,  up  over  a 
pulley  on  the  rear  transom  of  the  chassis,  thence  for- 
ward under  a  pulley  at  the  front  transom  of  the  top 
carriage,  and  Ihe  end  of  the  rope  is  attached  to  a  sta- 
ple on  the  under  side  of  the  gun  in  front  of  the  trun- 
nions.    "  Kope  No.  2  "  goes  from  the  windlass  over 


a  pulley  attarlied  to  the  fork  of  the  right  rear  trav- 
erse wheel,  thence  up  over  a  pulley  on  the;  rear  tran- 
som of  the  chassis,  then  to  a  ])ulley  at  the  rear  tran- 
som of  the  top  earriagi- ;  the  end  of  this  rope  is  fu»- 
teneil  to  a  ])in  in  the  base  of  the;  breech  of  the  (jun. 
'i'lie  ropes  passing  loo.sely  over  the  )>uneys,  the  ap- 
pliialion  of  forc('  to  "  No.  !"  will  depress  the  muz- 
zle and  to  "  No.  2"  v,\\\  depress  the  breech.  'I'hegiiii 
is  drawn  "from  hdWrn"  by  force  bing  applied  lobolli 
rojx's  at  once,  or  to  one  rope  alone,  the  traverse 
wheels  being  choked  A  rope  attached  to  a  hand- 
spike and  jiassing  over  a  pulley  at  the  upper  part  of 
the  check  enables  a  gunner  protected  by  the  |)arapel 
to  place  the  rear  truck  wlii'cls  '•  in  gear"  and  allows 
the  gun  to  run  "Into  hiittiry"  by  the  force  of  gravity, 
the  windlass  being  out  of  gear. 

'Yii  tnirfi-Ki'  thegun,  "  rojie  No.  1"  mustbelocked 
to  Ihe  pulley  at  the  front  of  the  top  carriage.  Move- 
ment to  the  l(fl,  will  then  be  ac<om|)lished  by  "No. 
1,"  the  force  being  exerted  at  the  jinlley  at  the  left 
fork,  and  to  the  right  by  "  No.  2,"  which  will  exert 
its  force  at  the  right  fork.  To  hutil  \\\f  gun.  the  muz- 
zle is  depressed  below  the  parapet:  tlie  Jirojectiles 
are  on  a  shelf  along  the  face  of  the  parajiet,  and  are  con- 
veniently transfiTred  to  the  piece  on  a  rarrinye, 
wliich  is  worked  by  a  rojte  and  put  let/  running  on  a 
movable  incdined  tramway.  A  secMonnl  or  ttdiumpin 
sponge  and  rammer  must  be  used,  and  the  carriage 
may  be  employed  to  force  the  projectile  home.  The 
gunners,  whilst  loading,  arc  protected  from  shot  and 
shell  by  a  piece  of  boiler  plate  set  in  the  face  of  the 
parapet.  Tlu;  sights  are  jilaei'd  on  the  underside 
of  the  gun  as  near  as  convenient  to  the  cheek.  The 
elevation  may  be  given  by  an  arc,  a  pointer  being 
on  the  trunnion.  The  gun  is  mounted  with  the  rriit 
doirii,  wliicli  enables  it  to  be  tired  with  the  least  ex- 
])osure  to  the  cannoniers.  Each  windlass  is  capable 
of  maneuvering  two  guns.  See  Mechanical  Mtai. 
I'liri'r.i. 

MANEUVERS.— In  all  changes  of  position  that  de- 
mand a  disturbance  of  the  fundamental  order  of 
battle  of  the  unit,  it  is  broken  into  its  sulidivisions, 
which  are  placed  in  certain  relative  positions  with 
respect  to  each  other,  according  to  the  object 
in  view.  These  conibinations  are  termed  man- 
eimers.  and  their  chief  object  usually  is  to  change 
the  direction  of  the  front  of  tlip  unit,  according  to 
the  particular  exigency.  ^Maneuvers,  like  all  the 
rest  of  the  mechanism  pertaining  to  the  unil,  should 
be  stamped  with  simplicity  and  uniformity.  The 
tactics  of  the  present  day  present,  in  this  respect,  a 
remarkable  contrast  to  those  of  Ihe  period  anterior 
to  it  ;  wdiich  is  owing,  in  no  small  measure,  to  the 
little  scope  left  for  individual  fancy  :  every  proposal 
being  submitted  to  the  formal  examination  of  an 
enlightened  board.  Stage  sjiectacles  alone  now 
occasionally  furnish  some  notions  of  those  wiiimsics 
of  olden  times  ;  so  happily  bit  oti  in  the  well-known 
article  of  Salmagundi,  where  the  street-pump  figures 
as  an  almost  impassable  obstacle  to  the  show  soldier 
of  that  day.     See  EuolutioHx. 

MANGAN. — An  ancient  war  machine  The  term 
Miiiiffriii  wasgenerally  adopted  to  signify  any  species 
of  warlike  machine  ;  but  it  more  particularly  meant 
the  largest  and  most  powerful  machine  that  could 
be  used  for  warlike  purposes — whether  it  was  prac- 
ticed to  throw  enormous  stones  against  besieged 
places,  or  to  cast  javelins,  etc.  This  machine  an- 
swered the  double  purpose  of  defending  or  attacking 
fortified  places,  and  it  was  sometimes  used  at  sea. 
Also  written  Mangon,  and  Mongoncl.  The  JIangonel 
jiroper  was  a  very  strong  and  powerful  <";v«.v.A(7;-.from 
1.5  to  20  feet  long,  used  for  throwing  arrows,  darts 
or  stones.  The  Trttiiicket.  liiliaiitlequin,  etc..  were 
only  a  variety  of  the  above. 

MANGANESE. — A  metal  resemblingiron  in  its  chem- 
ical properties,  ar.d  seldom  if  ever  alisent  from  cast- 
iron.  It  is  commonly  found  in  iron  ores,  and  the 
same  operatiim  which  reduces  the  iron  in  the  blast- 
furnace also  reduces  the  manganese,  and  this  metal 


IIAN6E. 


256 


ILANN  GUH. 


becomes  alln^-ed  or  clnsel_y  mixed  with  the  melted 
iron.  Tlie  influence  exerted  by  the  manganese  upon 
tlie  character  of  the  cast-iron  is  very  (lecide<l,  tend- 
ing to  the  production  of  the  white  variety,  tlie  man- 
ganese diminishing  tlie  tendency  of  the  carbon  to  sep- 
arate in  the  form  of  graphite.  White  cast-iron, there- 
fore, is  found  to  contain  the  largest  proportion  of 
manganese.  The  spathic  iron  ores  yield  a  cast-iron 
containing  a  particularlj'  large  quantity  of  mangan- 
ese, sometimes  exceeding  one-tenth  of  the  weight  of 
the  cast-iron.  Such  an  iron  is  capable  of  containing 
upwards  of  one  twenty-tifth  of  its  weight  of  carlion 
in  combination  with  it,  and  the  compound  thus  form- 
ed clirj-stallizes  in  large  and  shining  plates,  whence  it 
is  named  by  the  Germans  Spiegekisen,  or  mirror-irun . 
It  is  largely  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  Besse- 
mer steel.  The  presence  of  manganese  in  iron  in- 
creases the  fiuiditj-  of  the  slag,  and  encourages  the 
passage  of  phosphorus,  sulphur  and  silicon  into  the 
slag,  tlius  reducing  the  proportion  of  tliose  injurious 
impurities  in  the  metal.  Its  most  important  proper- 
ty, however,  consists  in  its  affinity  for  oxygen,  pre. 
venting  the  formation  of  oxides  of  iron.  See  Vtmt-iron^ 
MANGE.  —  An  infectious  disease  which  attacks 
horses  when  neglected.  It  results  from  the  attacks 
of  minute  mites,  or  aeari.  which  burrow  in  the  skin, 
especially  if  it  be  dirty  or  scurfy,  cause  much  irrita- 
tion, heat,  and  itching,  and  the  eruption  of  minute 
pimples,  with  dryness,  sciirfiness,  baldness,  and  even 
bieaching  of  the  skin.  The  treatment  consists  in 
destroying  the  wyiri  and  insuring  the  cleanliness  and 
health  of  the  skin,  both  of  which  objects  are  eflFect- 
ed  by  washing  the  parts  thoroughly  every  second 
day  with  soft  soap  and  water,  and  dressing  daily 


ten  persons,  each  termed  a  Manipulus.  The  velites 
were  attached  to  these  by  equal  portions.  The  cavalry 
were  divided  into  ten  troops,  termed  Turma.  To 
each  mani]iulus  there  were  assigned  two  centurions, 
and  two  tile-closers  ;  and  to  each  turma  two  decur- 
ions.  The  velites,  although  forming  a  part  of  the 
manipuli,  had  centurions  assigned  to  them,  to  lead 
tJiem  in  battle.  The  normal  order  of  battle  of  the 
liomans,  prior  to  the  time  of  Marius,  was  in  three 
lines;  the  hastati  in  the  tirst ;  the  principes  in  the 
second;  the  triarii  in  the  third  ;  and  the  cavalry  on 
the  wings.  The  manipulus.  which  was  the  unit  of 
force,  was  drawn  up  ui  12  tiles,  with  a  deptli  of  10 
ranks,  in  the  line  of  hastati  and  principes ;  in  the 
line  of  triarii  there  were  onl_y  6  tiles.  The  right  and 
left  tiles  of  the  manipulus  were  led  by  a  centurion, 
and  closed  by  an  officer  file-closer.  The  manipuli 
of  the  three  lines  were  disposed  in  quincunx  order; 
the  manipulus  of  one  line  opposite  to  the  interval  be- 
tween the  manipuli  in  the  one  in  front,  this  being  the 
same  as  the  manipulus  front.  The  intervals  between 
the  lines  were  the  same  as  the  depth  of  each  line. 
An  interval  of  about  3  feet  was  left  between  the 
ranks  and  the  files  of  the  manipulus.  The  same  or- 
der of  battle  was  followed  for  the  social  troops  on 
the  wings.  The  two  legions  occupied  the  center ; 
but  what  interval  was  left  between  them,  or  between 
the  center  and  wings,  or  how  far  the  cavalry  was 
posted  from  I  he  infantry,  is  not  well  ascertained. 

UANN  GUN.-  The  breech  mechanism  of  this  gun 
belongs  to  that  system  in  which  the  breech-block  re- 
maining stationary,  the  body  of  the  gun  is  made  to 
revolve  upon  its  trunnions  the  necessary  degree  (o 
open  and  close  the  breech.     It  may  be  generally  des- 


with  sulphur  or  mild  mercurial  ointments,  or  with  a 
solution  containing  four  grains  either  of  corrosive 
sublimate  or  arsenic  to  the  ounce  of  water.  Castor- 
oil  seeds,  bruised  and  steeped  for  twelve  hours  in 
buttermilk,  are  very  successfully  used  by  the  native 
Indian  farriers.  Where  the  heat  and  itching  are 
great,  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of  belladonna  maybe 
added  to  the  usual  dressing,  or  applied  along  with  a 
little  glycerine.  Where  the  general  health  is  indif- 
ferent, as  in  chronic  cases,  the  patient  should  be  lib- 
erally fed,  kept  clean  and  comfortable,  have  an  oc- 
casional alterative  dose  of  any  simple  saline  medi- 
cine, such  as  niter  or  common  salt,  and  a  course  of 
such  tonics  as  iron  or  arsenic.  Cleanliness  and  oc- 
casional washing  and  brushing  maintain  the  skin  in 
a  healthy  state,  and  thus  prevent  its  becoming  a 
suitable  nidus  for  the  wuri. 

MAMIFAIBE. — Armor  covering  the  mane  and  neck 
of  a  horse. 

MANIFESTO.— A  public  declaration  issfled  by  a 
Soveriign  I'rince,  or  by  a  (Government  on  some  state 
emergency,  expressive  of  intentions,  opinions,  or  of 
motives.  Immediately  before  entering  on  a  war.  a 
Manifesto  is  issued  containing  a  statement  of  the 
reasons  which  liave  been  held  to  justify  the  Sover- 
eign or  Government  in  taking  up  arms.  In  case  of 
a  revolt,  a  .Manifesto  is  sometimes  issued  to  recall 
sulijeets  to  their  alleffiance. 

MANIGLIONS.— The  two  handles  on  the  back  of 
a  pieri-  iif  (inhiiuice. 

MANIPHLARIS.— The  chief  office  in  a  ManipiihiK 
of  the  Roman  infantry.  This  office  was  likewise 
ordinary. 

MANIPULUS.-  In  the  tactics  of  tiie  Romans,  each 
class  <jf  the  infantry  of  the  line  was  subdivided   into 


cribed  as  consisting  of  a  breech-lilock  attached  by 
straps  to  the  trunnions,  with  suitable  devices  for  se- 
curing, first,  the  requisite  closeness  of  contact  with 
the  breech  of  the  gun  to  produce  the  necessary  re- 
volution about  the  trunnions.  To  describe  more 
particularlj' :  In  the  drawing.  A  represents  the  cast- 
iron  body  of  the  gun,  rc-inforced  about  the  breech 
with  forged-rings,  B,  of  wrought  iron,  shrunk  on. 
The  mass  of  metal  C  D,  closing  the  bottom  of  the 
bore,  consists  of  two  pieces.  Tlie  piece  C,  in  front, 
constituting  the  breech-block  proper,  is  loosely'  re- 
cessed upon  the  piece  D  in  rear,  and  has  a  slight 
pla_y  back  and  forth,  so  as  to  admit  of  being  pushed 
up  in  close  contact  with  the  breech  when  tlie  gnu  is 
prepared  for  firing.  Tlie  means  of  producing  this 
movement  in  the  block  is  furnished  by  tlie  screw  N, 
which,  passing  centrally  through  the  fixed  breech- 
piece  D — the  latter  being  bored  and  threaded  to  re- 
ceive it — abuts  against  the  rear  face  of  the  movable 
blocjv.  The  outer  extremity  of  the  screw  is  fitted 
with  a  weighted  lever  or  handle,  having  "lost  mo- 
tion" checked  by  a  lug,  ^I,  attached  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  screw  shoulder.  A  point  of  support 
for  the  breech-apiiaratns  is  siqiplied  by  the  elevating 
device.  This  consists  of  two  screws  of  the  same 
pitch,  one  on  either  side  on  the  breech,  connected  bj- 
a  worm-gearing  and  operated  by  cranks  which  ex- 
tend beyond  tlie  carriage.  The  rimbases  are  con- 
centric with  the  trunnions,  but  jiroject  sulficiently 
beyond  the  surface  of  the  gun  to  accomodate  the 
loops  of  the  breecli-slra|)s.  In  order  toopeii  or  close 
the  breech,  the  raising  or  lowering  of  the  breech  of 
the  gun  is  elTected  by  means  of  a  crank  and  jiinion, 
centered  U])on  the  side  of  each  breech-strap  and 
working  in  a  large-toothed  segment,  E,  the  crank- 


UANOMETEB. 


257 


MANOMETEB. 


shaped  axle  G  nf  wliich  passis  iinilcr  flic  pun  ami 
tlir()U(j;li  a  slutted  lui;,  F,  and  lliiis  ediniininiiales 
tile  iiKilioii  jiroduced  hy  tlii' crank  lo  the  lireeeli  of 
(he  nun.  'I'he  fixed  l)iceeh-plcee  I)  and  the  straps 
are  of  wrought  iron;  the  movabh,'  lihiek  ('  is  of  cast- 
iron. 

The  gun  is  rilled  willi  ileven  lands  ami  grooves, 
eaeli  of  ei|iial  width,  and  of  a  uiiiforin  pilch  of  one 
turn  in  (iO  feel. 

Width  of  lands  and  grooves, 1".1H.'(24 

Di'l)Ih  of  i;rooves, 0".ia.") 

Tile  <-hainl)er  is  eonoentrie  willi  I  he  liore,  and  of  a 
diameter  slightly  grealer  than  thai  of  the  bore  l)e- 
tweeii  grooves;  its  eapacily  is  sullicieni  lo  conlain  a 
charge  of  HO  i)ounds  of  powder  and  a  shot  of  170 
pounds,  the  laller  being  inserled  in  the  bore  as  far  as 
its  front  band.  The  top  of  each  land  is  <-onnecleil 
with  the  cylindrical  surface  of  the  cliainber  by  a 
•  Huilal)le  r.-uiip  or  bevel.  The  gun  is  center-lire 
through  a  vent  in  the  breech-block.  This  veni  makes 
a  turn  at  nearly  right  angli-s,  .so  as  lo  make  ils  exit 
on  top  of  the  gim.  Its  interior  opening  is  through  a 
steel  disc.  The  gas-check  (designed  by  the  invent- 
or) used  in  this  gun  is  cu])-shaped,  and  is  pierced 
with  a  hole  to|admit  the  llame  from  the  vent.  It  is 
necessary  to  remove  this  check  before  ami  rei)laee  it 
lifter  loading.  (Jas-checks  of  this  |)allcrn,  but  of  dif- 
ferent alloj's  of  copper,  I  in,  ziiir,  and  lead,  were  pre- 
pared with  the  view  of  determining  the  most  suitable 
material.  The  projectile  for  this  gun  consists  of  a 
cast-iron  body,  having  a  front  and  rear  baud  of  soft 
metal — lead  and  antimony — encircling  it.  The  iron 
body  of  the  projectile  allows  the  usual  windage,  but 
the  lead  bands  exceed  slightly  the  diameler  of  the 
bore,  including  grooves.  The  weight  is  from  150  lo 
170  iiounds. 

The  gun  is  loaded  as  follows:  The  breech-screw 
is  loosened,  and  the  crank-bandlcs  turned  until  the 
gtm,  revolving  on  its  trunnions,  assumes  a  position 
in  which  the  chamber  is  sulliciently  exposed  above 
the  breech-block  for  the  insertion  of  the  charge. 
The  gas-elicck  is  then  removed,  and  llie  projectile 
inserted  by  sliding  it  along  the  trough  T  in  the  top 
of  the  breech-block,  and  pushing  it  forward  until 
the  front  liand  stops  against  the  rifling.  The  charge 
llien  follows,  the  gas-check  isreplacecl,  and  lliecrank 
reversed  until  the  gun  is  restored  in  line  with  the 
breech-block;  finally,  the  breech-screw  is  tightened 
by  means  of  a  two-handled  lever.  The  gun  is  mount- 
ed on  a  10-incli  carriage,  widened  to  accommodale 
the  increased  length  of  ilie  rimbases,  with  suchother 
alterations  as  are  required  by  the  nature  of  the  ele- 
vating-devices. The  recoil. check  is  of  the  Parrotl 
friction  clamp-pattern.  The  following  are  the  prin- 
cipal dimensions  :  — 
Exterior  diameter  of  gun  at  muzzle,     1.5.00  inches. 

Maximum  diameter 28. .50 

Diameter  of  trunnions, 10.00 

Diameter  of  rimbases,       ....       17.00 
Diameter  of  breech-screw,  including 

threads ^     8.50 

Diameter  of  bore. 8.40       " 

Diameter  of  chamber 8.60       " 

Radius  of  breech, (trunnions  to  breech)  .51.35       '" 
Distance  from  trunnions  to  muzzle,      92.75       " 

Total  length  of  gun 144.00       " 

Length  of  breech-screw,   including 

'nut, "    28.00 

Thickness  of  breech-straps,     .     .     .      4.50       •' 
Dept!;  of  breech-straps  at  trunnions,    25.00       '" 
Depth   of   breech-straps   at   breech- 
block  16.00 

Depth   of  breech-straps    at    middle 

point 11.00 

Length  of  chamber,  including  ramp,    24.00       " 
Total  length  of  bore.      .     .   ^     .     .  144.00 

Number  of  grooves, 11 

Depth  of  grooves, 0.125  inch. 


Tolallengtb  of  pun  over  all,     .     .      178.50   inches. 
Total  weight  of  gun, 20,0(Xi pounds. 

See  (h'iht<iiire. 

MANOMETER.— Properly  an  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  rarity  of  th(^  air  or  (jf  other  gases  ;  but  the 
name  is  most  fre(|iiently  a|)plied  to  inslruincnts  for 
indicating  the  clastic  force  of  gases  which  is  always 
inversely  proportional  lo  their  rarity.  The  several 
kinds  of  barometers  are  really  manometers,  and  so  is 
the  sleam-gauge  of  a  sleam-eiigine. 


F 


Fk'.  3. 


Width  of  grooves  and  lands, 
Pitch  uniform ;  one  turn  in, 


1.18524inclies 
60  feet. 


The  various  forms  of  manometer  maybe  classified 
under  three  heads  :  1,  the  open-air  manometer,  on 
the  principal  of  the  baromel<-r:  2,  the  conlined-air 
manometer, on  the  principle  of  .Mariotte's  instrument; 
ami  :>.lhe  mclallic-spring  manometer.  A  simple  open- 
air  m;uiometer  consists  of  a  glass  tube,  open  at  both 
ends,  placed  upright  in  a  strong  bottle  of  glass  or  iron 
the  bottom  of  which  contains  mercury.  The  tube 
piisses  through  ;i  tight  packing  box  in  the  neck.  In 
the  upper  part  of  tiie  bottle  there  is  an  orifice  which 
admits  compressed  air,  acted  upon  by  steam  or  va- 
por, whos(?  tension  it  is  desired  to  measure.  But  this 
form  cannot  be  used  for  high  jiressurcs.  Th"  mid- 
ti])le-braneh  manometer  is  a  modilicatiou  of  the  sim- 
ple open  instrument,  and  is  constructed  by  bending 
a  long  tube,  open  at  both  ends,  in  a  series  of  V-shaped 
flexures  of  from  20  to  40  inches  in  height,  the  num- 
ber of  flexures  depending  upon  the  pressure  the  in- 
strument is  liable  to  be  subjected  to.  Columns  of  mer- 
cury, of  equal  height,  being  jilaced  in  the  lower 
halves  of  the  V-shaped  legs,  will  indicate  the  pres- 
sure excited  at  one  end  of  the  tube,  by  the  sum  of 
the  excess  of  height  of  the  mercurial  columns  in  al- 
ternate legs,  or  by  multiplying  the  excess  of  height 
in  one  leg  by  the  number  of  legs  containing  such  ex- 
cess. Tiie  system  is  fastened  to  a  board  or  metallic 
plate,  which  at  one  side,  near  the  last  branch,  is  fur- 
iMslied  with  a  graduated  scale.  The  compressed-air 
manometer  is  simply  a  strong  V-shaped  tube  closed 
at  one  end,  while  at  the  other  is  attached  the  pipe 
Cdinmuuicating  with  the  gas  or  vapor  whose  tension 
it  is  desired  to  measure  or  ascertain.  A  portion  of 
the  flexure  of  the  V  contains  mercury,  and  the  space 
between  it  and  the  closed  end  is  tilled  with  common 
air.  Now,  according  to  Boyle  s  or  Mariotte's  law,  a. 
pressure  exerted  on  the  colinnn  of  mercury  suffi- 
cient to  force  th<'  air  into  li;df  the  space  it  occupies 
at  the  normal  atmospheric  pressure,  must  become 
doubled,  or  15  lbs.  to  the  square  inch  must  beadded. 
.Vgaiu,  to  compress  the  air  into  half  the  remaining 
space,  30  lbs.,  or  dovible  the  iiressure  required  for 
the  reduction  to  the  lirst  half,  must  be  added,  mak- 


MANOMETEE  A  POUDRE. 


258 


MANOMETRE  A  POUDRE. 


ing  in  all  a  pressure  of  four  atmospheres  for  the  re- 
duction to  orie-fourth  the  original  vohime.  It  is  evi- 
dent, therefore,  that  a  graduated  scale,  to  exhibit  the 
degrees  of  pressure,  must  have  its  spaces  decrease 
from  below  upwards.  The  graduation  is  accom- 
plished b_y  means  of  an  open-air  midtiple  manome- 
ter. The  metallic-spring  manometer  consists  of  an 
inde.x  traversing  a  graduated  arc,  and  having  ajiplied 
to  a  spriag  connected  with  it — which  may  be  in  the 
form  of  a  spiral— a  piston  actuated  by  the  force  of 
the  gas  or  vapor  in  the  boiler  or  steam-chamber. 
Fig.  1  represents  the  common  open  manometer ; 
Fig.  2  is  a  compoimd  open  manometer :  and  Fig.  3 
the  differential  manometer.  The  latter  is  used  to 
register  very  small  differences  in  pressure.  It  con- 
sists of  a  bent  glass  tube,  placed  upright  and  having 
a  cylindrical  bulb  and  a  stop-cock  on  each  arm.  One 
bulb  and  both  tidies,  as  far  as  zero  of  the  scale,  are 
filled  with  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  water.  The 
other  bidb  and  the  remaining  part  of  the  correspond- 
ing tube  are  filled  with  a  colored  oil,  of  exactly  the 
same  specific  gravity  as  the  former  mixture.  A  verj- 
slitjht  difference  in  pressure  is  thusstrikinsrly  shown. 
MANOMETRE  A  POUDRE.— An  apparatus",  design- 
ed by  JI.  X.  Korslunioff,  of  Paris,  and  embodying 
an  application  of  the  reversed  hydraidic  press  to  the 
measurement  of  powder  pressures  in  gimnery.  For 
the  conversion  of  unwieldy  weights  and  strains  into 
amounts  conveniently  measurable,  the  inversion  of 
the  iDrineii^lo  of  the   hj'draulic   press  possesses   the 


but  a.graphic  record  of  the  pressures,  during  the 
passage  of  the  projectile  through  the  bore,  is  traced 
in  a  moving  baud  of  paper.  The  syiparatus  is  suit- 
able for  resolving  the  following  problems:  1.  To 
determine  the  force  of  ex])ansioii  of  powder,  thus 
permitting  the  comparision  of    powders  dilferiuij;  in 

[  their  chemical   composition  and  form.       2.  To  de- 
termine what  is  the  best  charge  for  a  given  caliber, 

)  according  to  the  natui;e  and  quality   of  the  powder. 

i  3.  To  determine  the  different  pressures  of  the  gases 
in  the  bore  during  the  departure   of   the  projectile, 

i  and  tluis  to  decide  upon   the  best  dimensions  for  a 

i  cannon  according  to  its  charge  and   the   nature  and 
weight  of  its  projectiles. 

Referring  to  tiie  drawing,  we  may  make  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  parfs ;  a — A  cj'Under  carry- 
ing a  screw  plug,  which  serves  to  attach  the  appara- 
tus to  the  breech  of  the  gun.  * — Cover  of  the"  eyl- 
inder.  c — Sheet  of  platinum  forming  thecylinderat 
its  upper  portion,  d — Nuts  securing  thecover  of 
the  cylinder,  e — Tubes  for  the  escape  of  the  gases 
which  may  be  above  the  fitting  S.  /—Very  thin  cap- 
sule of  platinum,  inserted  in  a  central  aperture  of 
the  cylinder,  fitting  into  the  annular  cannelures 
with  which  the  wall  of  the  aperture  is  furnished, 
and  clinched  upon  the  lower  face  of  the  cover,  g — 
A  small  button  resting  on  the  capsule,  actuating  the 
spring  I,  and  having  a  fork  for  the  support  of  the 
lever  /(.  h — Steel  lever  hinged  at  the  point  t.  and 
carrying  at  its  extremity  y,  a  pin  for  raising  another 


same  advantages  of  compactness  and  simplicity  that 
cliaracleri/.e  that  press  in  its  normal  ajiplications  It 
meets  with  elegant  illustrations  in  some  forms  of 
heavy  weighing  maciiines,  in  the  Edward's  instru- 
men{  for  registering  "  proof  strains,"  etc.,  but  cer- 
tain practical  dilliculties  have  heretofore  precluded 
its  use  in  registering  powder  jiressures.  In  the 
"manometre"  under  consideration,  however,  not 
only  is  this  object  claimed   to  have   been  attained. 


lever  ^T.  /(—Steel  lever  lunged  at  the  point /',  and 
carrying  at  its  farther  end  a  style  or  pencil  z,  limited 
in  its  movements  by  a  curved  guide;).  /—Steel  sjiring 
fixed  to  the  plate  /•,  perforated  by  a  slot  for  the  ad- 
mission of  tlie  lever  /(,  and  tiy  a  second  slot  synuuiil- 
rical  therewilh.  'I'his  spring  is  traversed  by  Ihestitm 
of  the  button  ,'/,  and  presses  vertically  upon  the  head 
of  this  same  button.  ;»  -Brass  rollers  fixed  in  the 
plate  r.  and  guiding  the  baud  of  paper,     n — Clock- 


MANIA. 


259 


MANTLET. 


work  k''^''"S  iiiolioiilo  Ihclarjifloollicil-wliccl  wliicli 
tnuiHiiiils  it  to  ll.c  nillcr  o.aj^aiiisl  wliicliiHarnmij^cd  a 
comi)rcssing  cylinilor,  which  circcts  the  iinrdlliiij;  of 
the  papor  carnCMl  by  the  reel  o.  />-  Circular  i^uide 
for  Htyie  or  pencil.  ;■-  lir.nss  jilatc  lixeil  In  the  cover 
of  the  C3'liii(ler.  t-  Screw  closinix  the  orilici'  which 
serves  to  iiitroducc-thc  mercury,  oil,  or  al<!ohol  into 
the  capHule/,  as  well  as  between  the  cover  and  the 
sheet  of  iilatiinim  c. 

C'allin;;  Pthe  pressure  upon  n  unit  of  surface  exer- 
cised by  the  gases  of  the  i)ovvder  ;  .1  the  surface  of 
the  piston  receiving  direct,  pressure  of  tlic  gases;  S 
the  surface  transiuilling  the  pressure  to  tlie  liijuid  ; 
p  the  resulting  pressure  upon  a  unit  of  surface  of  the 
liquid,  we  shall  have  : 

l'.v 

~   S 
It  is  evident  from  this  formula  that  the  value  of  7) 
can  lie  reduced  to  any  desirable  amount  by  varying 
the  ratio  of  tlie  su"faces  ;  that  is  tosay.  by  increasing 
S  or  diminishing  .v. 

Jjct   us  assume  x  equal   to   a  circle  of  Om.OO.'i  dia- 
meter  =  0     cm.l!)G3.').     S  equal  to  a  circle  of  0"i.l()l) 
diameter  =  78"  '^■"..'54.     P  equal  to  (iiJUO  kilogrammes 
to  the  square  centimetre. 
0500k  X  o.l<J(i:35 

p^ -,   or   10k. 35  per  square  ccnti- 

78..54 
metre.  It  becomes  evident  that  the  immense  pres- 
sure of  the  gases  of  the  jiowder  thus  manifests  itself 
by  a  greatlj-  reduced  and  perfectly  measurable  pres- 
aiu'e  ;  moreover,  the  spa(U!  traversed  by  the  piston 
is,  in  elTcct,  almost  nothing ;  the  volume  of  liquid 
which  penetrates  into  the  capsule,  supposing  that 
tlw  ])oint  in  contact  with  the  buttoi\  rises  one  milli- 
nw-lrc,  will  be  equivalent  in  volume  to  a  cone  having 
for  liase  a  circle  of  about  30""»  diameter  and  1'"™  in 
lieight ;  so  that 

m'D»        h        3.1416  X  30»        1 

X  — = X  —  =  104  J  mi".7,'i. 

4  3  4  3 

The  surface  S  of  the  piston  under  the  sheet  of  plat- 
inum beiug   7854  n  mm  t!ie  elevation  of  this  piston 

104.72 

for  the  above  displacement  of  volume  will  be 

78.54 
or  0. mm  013;  that  is  to  say,  a  trifle  over  onehundreth 
of  a  millimetre. 

The  apparatus  is  fixed  upon  the  breech  of  the  can-  i 
uon,  in  a  hole  tapped  for  the  purpose,  communicat- 
ing  with  the  interior  of  the  piece  by  an  aperture  of  { 
the  same  diameter  as  the  piston  .v.     The  pressure  of 
the  powder  gases  acts   iq)on  the  piston   .v,  and  dis- j 
Iriliutes  itself  by  the  siu'face  S  upon  the  sheet  of 
platinum,  which  transmits  it  to  tlie  liciuid  contained 
in  th(>  capsule  /'.     This  pressure  causes  the  upper 
portion  of  the  cajisnle  to  rise  in  a  spherical  form,  [ 
raises,  by  this  movement,  the  button  .9,  which  raises  i 
in  its  turn  the  lever  //,  thus  making  it  describe  an 
are  of  ii  circle  aliout  the  point  r.     In  order  to  verify 
the  pressures  of  the  curve,  it  is  necessary  that,  for 


it  IS  necessary,  at  a  previous  experiment,  to  arrange 
a  recurved  tube  fixed  bv  one  of  its  arms  to  tlie  screw 
plug  of  the  cylinder.  This  tube,  filled  with  liquid, 
should  terminate  at  its  other  extremity  in  a  stufling 
I  box,  traversed  by  a  stem,  upon  which  graduated 
pressuri'S  can  be  nuiintauied  by  means  of  a  lever, 
I  which  should  be  liing(^d  by  one  end  to  some  (ixed 
point,  should  pn^ss  upon  I'lie  stem,  and  should  be 
capable  oi  being  loaded  at  its  other  end  with  succes- 
sive weights  corres|)onding  to  the  pressures  which 
it  is  desired  to  exercise  upon  the  piston. 

Each  pressure  being  maintained  for  an  instant,  the 
pencil  traces  during  that  time  a  horizontal  line  indi- 
cating thir  height  which  corn'sponds  to  that  pres- 
sure. These  different  heights,  when  compared,  with 
the  curve,  indicate  exactly  the  pressures  existing 
during  the  departure  of  the  pro.jectile.lt  is  conleni- 
pl.itcd  that  in  all  the  above  mentioned  experiments 
the  cannon  be  mounted  on  some  mechanical  ilevice 
which  shall  neutralize  the  effect  of  recoil;  such,  for 
instance,  as  that  of  M.  I'Admiral  Labrouse.  This  ap- 
paratus may,  however,  beemployerl  for  the  following 
uses;  1.  To  measure  hydraulic  pressures. 2.  To  meas- 
ure the  pressures  required  to  liquefy  gases. In  these  ap- 
plications it  will  be  desirable  to  increase  the  diam- 
eter of  the  piston  h,  and  to  diminish  that  of  the  pis- 
ton S.  The  sheet  of  platinum  may  be  replaced  by 
a  dia]iliraginof  gutta-percha,  thus  "reducing  the  cost 
of  the  machine,  and,  in  fact,  the  clockwork.  The 
paper  and  the  pencil  may  be  omitted,  their  jilacclje- 
ing  supplied  by  an  index  moving  upon  a  dial-plate, 
as  is  represented  in  the  drawing  of  the  hydraulic 
manom^tre. 

MANTA. — A  water-proof  canvas,  five  feet  square 
use<l  as  a  [lack-cover.  It  serves  to  protect  the  loads 
in  Inmsit,  during  damp  and  rainj-  weather;  and  is 
used  for  tlie  shelter  of  the  stores  and  the  packers, 
when  in  camp. 

MANTEAH.— A  term,  literally  signifying  a  cloak, 
but  freipiently  used  among  the  French  "to  e.xpressthe 
covering  thai.  Hussars  or  Light  Infantry  carry  for 
the  double  purpose  of  shielding  their  bodies  from  the 
inclemencies  of  the  weather  in  outposts,  etc.,  and  for 
spreading  over  their  heads,  by  means  of  poles,  when 
tliey  occasionally  halt,  and  take  a  jiosition.  The 
iliintrnv.  irArtHis  was  a  round  shield  much  used 
during  the  tifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 

MANTILLIS.-  A  kind  of  shielil,  anciently  fixed  up- 
on tJie  tops  of  sliijis  as  a  cover  for  archers. 

MANTLE.— A  long  flowing  robe,  worn  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  over  the  armor,  and  fastened  by  a  fibula  in 
front,  or  at  the  right  shoulder.  The  mantle  is  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  oflicial  insignia  of  the  various  or- 
ders of  knighthood.  Ladies  of  rank  wore  similar 
mantles,  in  many  instances  decorated  with  heraldic 
charges,  in  which  case  the  mantle  bore  either  the  im- 
paled arms  of  the  lady  and  her  husband  or  her  hus- 
band's arms  only.  A  number  of  examples  may  be 
seen  in  monumental  effigies. 

MANTLET.— A  shield  placed  over  the  mouth  of  an 
emhrasurc  to  prevent  musketry  bullets"  and  frag- 
nunls  of  shells  from  Uying  throigh   and  injuring 


J^«. 


Fig.  1. 


FIs.  i 


reference,  horizont.il  lines  be  previously  traced  bv  [  those  serving  the  piece.  A  hole  in  the  lower  part 
the  pencil  under  .'•fTerent  pressures,  eaclunaintained  allows  the  muzzle  of  the  piece  to  pass  through  into 
constant  for  a  tletermmate  lime.     For  this  purpose  \  the  embrasure  when  it  is  to  be  fired.    The  size  of 


MAHTLIKG. 


260 


MANnAL  OF  ASMS. 


these  openings  will  depend  upon  the  dimensions  of 
the  piece.  Rope  is  the  best  material  for  constructing 
mantlets.  The  usual  size  of  a  mantlet  is  5  feet  high, 
4.5  feet  across,  and  4  inches  thick.  For  siege  guns 
the  opening  is  l.G  feet  high  by  1.3  feet  across.  Three- 
inch  rope  is  a  suitable  size,  it  is  laid  in  three  or  five 
'  thicknesses,  each  of  the  two  outer  laj'ers  being  in  one 
piece  bent  vertically. 

The  inner  layers"  are  bent  and  laid  horizontally, 
and  the  whole  well  tied  together.  The  mantlet  is 
bu-ng  on  a  horizontal  pole  supported  by  forked  up- 
rights set  in  the  ground,  on  each  side  of  the  em- 
brasure, at  the  foot  of  the  interior  slope,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1. 

The  elasticity  thvis  afforded  by  the  supports  greatly 
increases  the  resistance  of  the  mantlet.  A  small 
hole  or  slit  is  pierced  in  the  mantlet  to  allow  the 
piece  to  be  aimed. 

Mantlets  of  this  size  weigh  about  400  pounds. 

A  small  ring  mantlet  of  rope,  shown  in  Fig.  2, 
placed  upon  the  chase  of  the  gun  is  sometimes  used. 

When  rope  cannot  be  obtained,  one  of  similar  shape 
mav  be  made  of  wood. 

Mantlets  may  be  made  of  wood  or  of  iron,  or  of 
wood  and  iron  combined.  Those  of  the  latter  kind 
furnished  for  the  siege  of  Yorktown  were  made  of 
two  thicknesses  of  ^^^inch  wrought-iron  spiked  to  3- 
inch  oak  plank.  On  the  head  was  a  2-ineh  square 
iron  bar  riveted  to  the  edge  of  the  iron  plates,  against 
which  the  oak  planks  abutted.  The  ends  of  this  bar 
projected  0  inches,  and  were  rounded,  serving  as 
supports  to  rest  upon  upright  stakes  or  timbers 
standing  against  the  interior  slope  of  the  parapet. 
See  Gun-itheltrrs. 

MANTLING.  —A  heraldic  ornament  depicted  as  , 
hanging  tlown  from  the  helmet,  and  behind  the 
escutcheon.  It  is  considered  to  represent  either 
the  cointise,  an  ornamental  scarf  which  jwssed 
round  the  body,  and  over  the  shoulder ;  or  the 
military  mantle,  or  robe  of  estate.  When  intend- 
ed for'the  cointise,  it  is  cut  into  irregular  strips 
and  curls  of  the  most  capricious  forms,  whose 
contortions  are  supposed  to  indicate  that  it  has 
been  torn  into  that  ragged  condition   in   the    field 


of  battle.  When  the  mantling  is  treated  as  a  robe 
of  estate,  the  bearings  of  the  shield  are  sometimes 
embroidered  on  it.  A  mantling  adjusted  so  as  to 
form  a  background  for  the  shield  and  its  accesso- 
ries, constitutes  an  Adiierement  of  Arms.  It  is  not 
till  the  latter  end  of  \\\f  14th  century  that  the 
mantling  appears  as  a  heraldic  ornament  on  seals. 
In  British  Heraldry,  the  mantling  of  the  Sovereign 
is  of  gold  lined  with  ermine  :  that  of  Peers,  of  crim- 
son velvet  lined  with  ermine.  Knights  and  gen- 
tlemen have  generally  crimson  velvet  lined  with 
white  satin ;  hut  sometimes  the  livery  colors  are 
adopted  instead,  as  is  generallj'  the  practice  in  Con- 
tinental Heraldrv.     See  Lambrequin. 

MANSLAUGHTER.— The  unlawful  killing  of  an- 
other without  malice,  express  or  implied.  Man- 
slaughter is  either  voluntary,  i.  e.,  where  there  was 
an  intent  to  commit  the  injury ;  or  involuntary, 
where  there  was  no  such  intent.  It  differs  from  nmr- 
der  in  its  absence  of  malice,  and,  as  it  is  supposed  to 
be  committed  in  hot  blood,  no  person  can  be  an  ac- 
cessory before  the  fact.  Among  cases  of  homicide 
which  constitute  a  manslaughter  maj'  be  mentioned 
killing  a  person  b}'  gross  negligence,  though  in  the 
discharge  of  a  lawful  act ;  killing  a  person'who  has 
given  great  provocation  ;  .and  killing  an  officer  act- 
ing without  or  beyond  his  authority,  though  this 
may  also  be  excusable  homicide.  The  killing  of  an 
officer  acting  within  his  legal  authority  is  murder. 
The  provocation  above-mentioned  must  be  imme- 
diate, not  remote  ;  and  though  proof  of  provocation 
sufficiently  repels  the  presumption  of  malice  which 
the  law  attaches  to  everv  case  of  homicide,  it  is  not 
sufficient  to  lower  an  offense  from  murder  to  man- 
slaughter, if  express  malice  be  made  out.  In  most 
of  the  United  States  manslaughter  is  divided  into 
different  degrees,  punished  with  longer  or  shorter 
terms  of  imprisonment. 

MANUAL. — A  prescribed  exercise  by  means  of 
which  soldiers  are  taught  to  handle  and  use  their 
weapons.  The  Mftnual  of  Arms,  the  Manual  of  the 
Pieiv,  the  Manual  of  the  Sword,  etc.,  are  explained 
in  detail  in  the  Tactics  and  Regulations  of  an  army. 

MANUAL  OF  ARMS.— An  exercise  with  the  musket 


MANUAL  or  THE  PIECE. 


2G1 


MANUAL  OF  THE  PIECE. 


orridr',  llirnuiih  wliirli  rfoniits  arf  drilled,  to  pivt; 
tliciM  a  free  use  cjf  llicir  liiiibH,  iiiiil  nf  the  weapon  re- 
giirilcd  merely  a«  ii  pike.  It  eompriscH  the  lir«t 
coiiTMe  of  inslnielioii  after  the  ritlc  has  been  placed 
in  the  learner's  hands. 

In  the  I'nited  Slates  service,  the  piece  is  in  the 
rifjht  hand:  the  barrel  nearly  vertical,  and  restinf;  in 
the  hoUuvv  of  the  shoulder,  the  f^nard  to  the  fnml; 
the  arm  lianiiini.;  nearly  at  its  full  len};th,  near  the 
body,  thethundj  aiul  forelini;ereiubraciiiL'  the  fruard, 
the  remainiui;  Mni^'iTs  closed  (iii^ellier  anil  }rraspiu;r 
tin  stock  just  und<T  the  liamnuT,  which  rests  on  the 
little  linger.  This  is  the  \)ii^\\\on  of  carry  anna,  the 
position  is  represented  in  Kii;.  1. 

Ueeruits  often  have  defects  in  the  conformation  of 
the  shovdders,  breast,  anil  hips.  On  first  bearint; 
arms  they  are  li.able  lo  deranije  their  ]iosilions,  by 
loweriii};  Ihe  rinht  shoulder  and  the  riixlil  hand,  or 
by  sinkiim;  the  hip  and  sprcadin<r  the  ell)ows.  The 
Inslruelor  endeavors  Ici  correct  thes<'  fanlls,  so  that 
the  i)osition  of  Ihe  jiii'ces  in  the  same  line  may  be 
uniform,  without  constraint  to  the  men. 

The  Instructor  .sees  that  the  piece  at  a  carry  is 
neilher  too  hi£;h  nor  too  low;  if.too  hi!rh,  the  rij;ht 
elbow  will  spread  out,  the  soldier  will  occu|)y  too 
much  space  in  his  rank  and  tlie  [(iece  be  uiisleady; 
if  loo  low,  Ihe  tiles  will  be  too  much  closed,  (he sol- 
dier will  not  have  room  cnouiih  to  handle  his  piece 
with  ease,  Ihe  rii;hl  arm  will  become  fatigued,  and 
■will  draw   down  the  shoulder. 


emits  proifTfssively,  after  becoming  familiar  with 
handling  Ihe  piece.  As  the  motions  relative  to  the 
cartridge,  the  li.vingand  unfixing  of  Ihe  bayonet,  can- 
not be  executed  at  Ihe  rale  prescribed,  nor  even  willi 
a  uniform  swiflness,  they  are  not  subjected  to  the  ca- 
dence. The  Instructor,  however,  caiiHcs  llieKC  mo- 
tions to  be  executed  with  promplnesH  and  with  re- 
gularily.  As  soon  as  the  recruits  thoroughly  under- 
stand the  several  motions,  they  execute  them  alter- 
nately with  and  wilhfiut  thi'  nundiers,  in  oriler  to 
atlain  Ihe  proper  cadeMce,  and  lo  beconn'  jierfect  in 
the  mechanism.  The  piece  is  habitually  carried  at 
lialf-cock. 

To  avoid  repetition  the  following  niles  in  tlic  Man- 
ual of  Arms  are  r/nwml: 

1.  In  resuming  Ihe  "carry"  from  any  position  in  the 
manual.  Ihe  nioiion  next  lo  the  last  concludes  witli 
the  l<-fl  hand  at  Ihe  height  of  the  shoulder,  (intrersex- 
tendeil  and  joined,  the  thundi  close  to  the  forelinger, 
back  of  the  h;ind  lo  Ihe  front,  Ihe  elbow  close  lo  the 
body,  the  right  hand  embracing  the  guard  with  the 
thumb  and  jforelinger. 

2.  In  all  ])ositions  of  the  left  hand  at  the  lower 
band,  except  rhnryc  hriyinut  and  rtrm>i;)'>ri,  the  thumb 
is  extended  along  the  barrel,  the  end  of  it  touching 
the  lower  band.  In  rh/irf/r  baynnit  and  nrmn  pr/rt  tlie 
thumb  clasps  the  piece  immediately  below  the  lower 
band. 

3.  In  all  iiositions  of  Ihe  piece  in  front  of  the  cen 
ter  of  the  body,  the  barrel  is  to  the  rear,  and  vertical. 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


IT) 


The  Manual  of  Arms  is  taught  to  four  men,  placed 
at  lirst  in  one  rank,  elbow  to  elbow,  and  afterwards 
in  two  ranks.  To  make  the  niechauism  better 
known,  the  execution  of  each  command  is  divided 
into  motions.  The  rate  or  swiftness  of  each  motion 
in  the  manual  of  arms,  with  the  escepti(ms  herein  in- 
dicated, is  fixed  at  the  ninetieth  part  of  a  minute. 
The  same  interval  of  time  should  separate  the  com- 
mand of  execution  from  the  preparatory  conuuand. 
The  Instructor  at  tirst  looks  more  particularly  to  the 
execution  of  the  motions  without  requiring  a  nice  ob- 
servance of  the  cadence,  to  which  lie  brings  the  re- 


The  drawings  show  the  various  positions  of  the  sol- 
dier and  piece  in  executing  the  Manual  of  .\rms,  au- 
thorized for  the  United  States  Army.  See  Aim.Anm 
Port,  Carry  Amis,  Charge  Baynnet.  Fix  Bayonet^ 
Load.  Order  Arnifi,  Parade  Rent. Present  Arms.  Jtest 
on  Arms,  Jierer.ie  Arms.  Itight  Shoulder  Arms.  Se- 
cure Arms,  Support  Arms,  Trail  Arms,  and  Cnjix 
BayiiDft. 

MANUAL  OF  THE  PIECE.— The  term  piece,  as  here 
used,  applies  lo  cannon,  whether  gun.  howitzer,  or 
mortar.  -\s  a  matter  of  convenience,  it  is  also  used 
to  designate  both  camion  and  carriase  when  the  can- 


MANUAL  OF  THE  PISTOL. 


262 


MANUAL  OF  THE  PISTOL. 


non  is  mounted.  The  men  employed  in  the  service 
of  artillery  are  called  artillerymen.  Those  for  a  sin- 
gle piece  constitute  a  gun-detachment,  and  vary  in 
number  with  tlie  size  and  kind  of  piece.  The  detach- 
ment is  composed  of  two  nou-commissioned  officers, 
and  from  two  to  ten  privates.  The  senior  non-com- 
missioned officer  is  called  chief-uf-dHacJiineiit  ;  the 
other  gunner.  The  privates  are  called  canncnfern. 
The  detachment  is  formed  in  double  rank,  and  told 
off  from  the  right  as  follows  :  No.  1  is  on  the  right 
of  tlie  rear  rank  ;  No.  2  in  front  of  No.  1  ;  No.  Son 
the  left  of  No.  1;  No.  4  on  the  left  of  No.  2;  the  oth- 
er numbers  follow  in  the  same  order,  even  numbers 
in  the  front,  odd  iu  tlie  rear  rank.  When,  by  facing 
about,  the  front  becomes  the  rear  rank,  the  numbers 
of  the  cannoneers  do  not  change. 

The  service  of  the  piece  consists  of  all  the  opera- 
tions required  iu  loadiug,  pointing,  and  discharging 
it. 

To  avoid  repetitions,  the  following  general  rules 
are  noted  collectively : 

1.  The  implements  and  equipments  required  for  a 
piece  are  taken  to  it  by  the  detachment  when  going 
to  the  exercises,  or  the}-  may  be  placed  there  pre- 
vious to  that  time.  Thej'  are  removed,  at  the  con- 
elusion  of  the  exercises,  by  the  same  means,  and  re- 
turned to  their  proper  places  in  the  store-house.  It  is 
the  especial  duty  of  the  chief-of-detachment  to  see  that 
all  that  appertains  to  his  piece  is  complete  and  in 
good  order. 

2.  AVheu  the  equipments  are  distributed,  the  gun- 
ner buckles  the  strap  of  his  pouch  around  his  waist, 
wearing  the  pouch  iu  such  position  as  to  interfere  as 
little  as  po.ssible  with  his  movements.  The  cannoneer 
who  wears  it.  buckles  on  the  primer-pouch  in  like 
manner.  The  gunner  removes  the  vent-cover,  and 
clears  the  vent  with  the  priming-wire.  Cartridge- 
pouches  are  carried  suspended  from  the  left  shoulder 
to  the  right  side. 

3  In  sponging  or  in  ramming,  the  knee  on  the 
side  toward  which  the  effort  is  made  is  always  bent, 
the  other  straightened.  The  weight  of  the  body  is 
added,  as  nmch  as  possible,  to  the  effort  exerted  by 
the  arms.  When  the  sponge  tits  so  tightly  as  to  be 
difficult  to  move  in  the  bore,  Nos.  1  and  2  may  use 
both  hands  in  inserting  and  withdrawing  it.  Cart- 
ridges are  inserted  into  the  bore,  bottom  foremost 
and  seams  to  the  sides.  All  projectiles  having  fuses 
are  inserted  into  the  bore  so  that  the  fuse  .shall  be 
towards  the  muzzle. 

4.  A  primer  is  prepared  for  insertion  in  the  vent 
by  holding  it  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the 
left  hand;  the  lanyard,   wound  upon  its  handle,  is 


charges  the  piece  turns  his  face  from  it,  pulls  the  lan- 
yard quickly,  but  steadily,  and  fires.  Inmiediately 
after  the  discharge  he  resumes  the  erect  position,  re- 
winds the  lanyard  upon  its  handle,  returns  it  to  his 
pouch,  and  resumes  his  post.  The  guuuer,  after 
pointing,  goes  where  he  can  observe  the  effect  of  the 
shot ;  when  he  resumes  his  post.  At  the  command, 
cfone  firing,  pieces  that  are  loaded  remain  so  until 
further  orders  ;  those  that  are  partly  loaded— if  with 
the  cartridge  only— the  cartridge  is  rammed  home  ; 
if  the  projectile  has  been  inserted,  it  likewise  is 
rammed  home.  In  both  cases  the  priming-wire  is 
left  in  the  vent,  as  an  indication  that  the  piece  is 
loaded.  If  the  piece  is  not  loaded  it  is  sponged  out. 
j\Jl  the  cannoneers  resume  their  posts. 

7.  The  habitual  post  of  the  chief-of-detachment  is 
facing  the  piece  and  two  yards  in  rear  of  the  platform 
or  rearmost  part  of  the  carriage.  He  has,  under  the 
instructor,  or  officer  immediately  over  him,  general 
supervision  of  all  duties  performed  by  his  detachment. 
During  firings  he  looks  after  the  supply  of  ammu- 
nition, and  sees  that  those  engaged  in  preparing  and 
serving  it  to  the  piece  perform  their  duties  properly. 
All  ammunition  must  be  prepared  for  firing  at  the 
service  magazine.  Projectiles  should  be  carefully 
cleaned  of  all  rust,  dirt,  or  protuberances  liable  to 
cause  them  to  stick,  or  injure  the  bore. 

8.  In  the  service  of  a  battery  of  several  pieces,  the 
pieces  are  designated  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  from  right  to 
left :  these  numbers  are  independent  of  \\\e permanent 
numbers  assigned  to  pieces  in  a  work.  Iu  directing 
the  pieces  to  be  fired,  they  are  always  designated  by 
their  lattery  numbers ;  as,  2fumb(rone — Fike  ;  Xinii- 
ber  two — Fike,  etc.  When  the  wind  comes  from  the 
right,  the  firing  should  commence  on  the  left,  and 
reciprocally.  Under  the  fire  of  the  enemy,  the  men 
are  directed  to  cover  themselves  by  the  "parapet  or 
traverses  as  much  as  may  be  consistent  with  the  ex- 
ecution of  their  duties. 

9.  Previous  to  proceeding  with  any  exercise  with 
the  pieces,  and  frequently  at  other  times  during  the 
exercises, the  instructor,assisted  by  the  other  officers, 
will  explain  to  the  men  the  nomenclature  of  every- 
thing appertaiuiug  tliereto  ;  the  application  and  use 
of  the  various  parts,  machines  and  implements  used; 
the  names  and  use  of  the  diff'erent  parts  of  the  work 
adjacent  to  the  piece  :  the  kinds  of  ammunition  used; 
charges  of  powder  ;  kinds  of  fire  ;  antl,  generally, all 
matters  that  assist  iu  making  the  men  efficient  artil- 
lerists. 

10.  In  aiming,  first  get  a  clear  view  of  the  object, 
and  see  that  the  piece  is  approximately  in  the  line  of 
fire  before  looking  through  the  sights,  and  if  the  ob- 


held  in  the  right  hand,  the  hook  by  the  thumb  and  '  ject  be  not  in  tlie  line,  instantly  give  the  command  to 


forefinger  :  the  hook  is  attached  by  passing  it  ujnvard 
through  the  eye  of  the  primer;  the  hook  and  primer, 
thus  attached,  are  held  by  the  thumb  and  forefinger 
of  the  right  hand  ;the  primer  is  pushed  into  the  vent 
by  the  thumb.  After  the  primer  has  been  inserted 
in  the  vent,  the  cannoneer  who  fires  the  piece  drops 
the  handle,  allowing  the  lanyard  to  uncoil  as  he  steps 
back  to  the  position  from  which  he  is  to  fire;  holdsthe 
handle,  willi  tlie  cord  slightly  strctclied,  passing  be- 
tween the  middle  fingers"of  his  right  hand,  back  up, 
and  breaks  to  his  left  and  rear  a  full  pace  with  the 
left  foot, the  left  hand  hanging  nat\irally  by  his  side. 

5.  In  aiming  guns  and  howitzers,  the  guiiner  places 
the  breech  sight  hi  its  seat  or  socket,  and  aims  through 
it ;  gives  Hie  proper  direction  by  causing  the  trail  to 
be  moved,  commanding  left  or  r/g/it,  tapping,  at  the 
same  time,  on  the  right  side  of  the  brci  cli  for  tlie 
trail  to  be  moved  to  tlie  left,  and  on  the  left  side  for 
it  to  be  moved  to  the  right.  The  cannoneers  at  the 
trail  will  closely  observe  the  motions  of  the  gunner. 
With  mortars,  the  gunner  signals,  with  his  hands, 
the  direction  in  whicli  he  wishes  the  carriage  moved. 
When  the  piece  is  pointed,  the  gunner  raises  both 
hands  as  a  signal ;  the  (vinnoneers  moving  the  piece  ,' 
then  unbar  and  resume  their  jiosts. 

().  At  the  command  fire,  the  cannoneer  who  dis- ! 


move  the  trail  tothe  right  or  left.  Always  aimquick- 
1}-,  as  the  eye  will  not  then  become  wearied.  The 
prop  upon  which  the  sponge  and  rammer  are  sup- 
ported is  a  low  trestle,  or  simply  a  block  of  wood 
sufficiently  high  to  prevent  the  sponge  taking  up 
dirt  from  the  ground.  The  rammer  is  always  laid 
on  the  side  nearest  the  piece.  To  prevent  the  pro- 
jectile from  starting  forward,  guns  should  be  given 
at  least  five  degrees  elevation  previous  to  being  run 
into  battery,  and  running  into  battery  should  be  done 
so  as  to  prevent  sudden  jar  against  the  hurters. 

11.  In  all  exeueises  for  instruction,  duties  .should  be 
performed  as  nearly  as  possible  as  in  actual  service, 
and  not  by  pretense  only.  To  do  this,  in  the  service 
of  the  jiiece  a  dummy  cartridge  should  be  used,  to- 
gether with  actual  projectiles.  Tlie  cartridge  may 
be  iiiailc  of  canvas  or  stout  gumiy-sacking,  filled  to 
the  projier  weight  with  coal  broken  to  the  size  of 
the  powder  used  for  the  piece.  A  worm  serves  for 
withdrawing  the  cartridge.  A  strong  lanyard  at- 
tached lo  the  fuse-plug  will  serve  to  withdraw  the 
projectile.  The  free  end  of  the  lanyard  remains  out 
of  the  muzzle  as  the  projectile  is  pushed  home.  (See 
Art'lhn/. 

MANUAL  OF  THE  PISTOL.— To  draw  the  pistol  the 
Instructor  (■(immands  :      1.    Dhaw  ;    2.  Pistol.      At 


KANUAL  OF  XH£  SABER. 


2(i; 


MANUAL  OF  THE  BWOED. 


tlif  commnnd  (Iretw,  iiiilmtldii  llic  Hap  nf  ilic  liolster 
wilh  llic  rijilil  hand,  iind  gnis[)  the  slock,  the  hack 
(if  llic  liaiiil  li>  the  body.  At  tlic  (•(iiiiiiiand  ;i/«M, 
draw  and  raisi'  llic  |)isli)l.  tlic  hand  lioldiiif;  llw  stock 
willi  llic  lliiiiiil)  mill  last  three  tiiiircrs,  llic  forcliiis^cr 
over  tlic  uiiard.  j^uiird  to  llic  front,  barrel  vertical. 
(■Ibow  near  llic  body,  tlii'  wrist  as  liit;li  as  tlic  rij^lit 
slioulilcr  and  six  inches  in  front  of  il. 
To  Ijoai)  llic  jiislol. lower  inloiliclcft  hand, the  barrel 
|)oinlin<:j  to  the  left  and  front,  and  downward al  an  an- 
gle of  forty-live  deforces,  half-cock  llif  pistol  (cock  it  if 
necessary);  j;ras])  the  stock  with  the  right  hand. 
(Two)  Open  the  chanibcr.if  necessiiry  eject  the 
cartridge-cases,  take  a  cartridge  from  the  cartridge- 
box  wilh  the  right  hand,  and  hold  it  near  the  cham- 
ber between  IIk'  lliiimb  and  ''rst  two  fingers. 
(TiiiiEE.)  Place  the  cartridge  in  the  chandler,  jjress- 
ing  it  home  wilh  the  Ihiinil);  conliniie  to  insert  car- 
l"idgcs  until  the  chamlicrs  are  loaileil ;  close  the 
chamber,  carry  the  right  liund  to  the  stock,  and  re- 
sume the  position  oi  mine pintul. 

Al  llie  command  Uk.^dy,  cock  the  pistol  with 
the  thumb  of  the  right  hand.  To  Aim,  lower  the 
pistol  to  the  front,  the  arm  about  three-fourths 
c.xlendcd.  forclingcr  iqion  tlie  trigger;  close  the 
left  eye  an<l  sight  with  the  right.  To  Fire. 
press  the  forelinger  against  the  trigger,  tire,  and 
take  the  position  of  rai.v  pistol-  To  return  pistol, 
the  instructor  commands:  1.  Hrturii,  2.  Pistol. 
Droi)  the  uui/./.le.  insert  the  pistol  in  the  holster. 
b;ick  of  the  lumd  to  the  body,  button  the  flap,  and 
drop  the  liiind  by  tlie  side. 

The  squiid  liciiig  in  the  position  of  rai'ne  pi'nUil, 
the  instructor  comimmds  :  1.  Iit.iprftinn,  2.  pistol, 
jiasscs  aUuig  the  rank,  iind  examines  the  pistols.  To 
inspect  the  pistol  minutely,  h.e  takes  it  in  his  hands, 
iind  llien  returns  it  to  the  recruit,  who  grasps  it  at 
the  slock  anil  takes  tlie  position  o{  7-iiise ]i/.it<'l. 

MANUAL  OF  THE  SABER.  The  manual  of  the 
Sillier  is  buiglit  in  the  following  order,  and  by  the 
following  ciiiumands  ;  1.  Drum,  2.  Saber.  At  the 
command  dniw,  unhook  the  siibcr  with  tlie  thumb 
and  first  two  lingers  of  the  left  lumd,  thumb  on  the 
end  of  the  hook,  lingers  lifting  the  upper  ring ;  pass 
the  right  band  through  the  saber-knot,  and  push  the 
sliding  loop  ujWo  the  wrist  witli  the  left  band  ;  grasp 
the  scabb;ird  wilh  the  left  hand  al  the  upper  l)and. 
bring  the  hill  a  little  forward,  seize  the  gripe  with 
the  right  hand.  ;iiid  draw  the  lilade  six  inches  cut  of 
the  Si;d)liard,  pressing  the  scabbard  against  the  thigh 
with  the  left  li;iiid.  Fig.  1.  At  the  command  f^ahcr, 
draw  the  saber  quickly,  raising  the  arm  to  its  full  ex- 
tent, at  an  angle  of  aliinit  forty-live  degrees,  thesalier 
in  a  straight  line  with  the  arm,  and  make  a  slight 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2.  Y\s.  3. 

pause:  hookup  the  scabbard  with  the  thuml)  and 
first  two  lingers  of  the  left  hand,  thumb  through  the 
ui>per  ring,  lingers  supporting  it ;  and  drop  the 
left  hand  by  the  side;  at  the  same  tyne,  bring  the 
back  of  tliclilade  against  the  hollow  of  the  shoulder, 


tlip  blaflo  vprtiral,  the  arm  nearly  extendrd,  thfi  left 
side  of  the  gripe  wilh  the  thumb  against  llie  tliigli, 
th('  little  linger  on  tin;  back  of  tlie  grijic.  'J'/iU  in  the 
poHition  of  citrrji  Kahtr  dimiuninted,  and  is  represented 
in  Fig.  2.     1.  I'riHint,  2.   Haheb.      Carry  llie  saber 

vertically  to  the  front,  raising  tb^  hand  as  liigh  an 
the  neck,  and  si.x  inches  in  front  of  it,  edge  lo  tlie 
left,  the  thumb  extended  on  the  back  of  the  gripe, 
little  finger  by  the  side  of  the  others,  Fi^.  ;*.  1.  In. 
nppftiim,  2.  Saheic.  Take  the  position  lApnxint  xolrr. 
(Two.)  Turn  the  wrist  outward  to  show  Die  other 
side  of  the  blade,  the  edge  to  the  right;  make  a 
slightpaiise,  and  then  turn  the  wrist  back.  (Three.) 
Uesume  the  carry.  1.  Hi  turn.  2.  Saiiek.  At  the 
command  ritum.  lake  the  jiosilion  oi pre-ftit  nalitr ; 
at  thesamelime  unhook  and  lower  the  scabbard  with 
tint  left  band,  and  grasp  it  at  the  iijjper  band.  At, 
the  oommanil  Milin-,  carry  the  right  hand  opposite 
and  six  inches  from  the  left  shoulder;  lower  the 
blade  and  pass  it  across  and  along  the  left  arm,  the 
point  to  the  rear;  turn  the  hand  slightly  to  llie  left, 
tixing  the  eyes  on  the  opening  of  tlie  scabbard,  and 
insert  the  blade  six  inches  in  llie  scabbard.  (Two.) 
Return  the  blade,  and  free  the  wrist  from  the  .saber- 
knot  ;  turn  llie  head  to  the  front  and  drop  the  riilit 
hand  by  the  side;  al  the  same  time  hook  up  the 
saber  with  the  left  hand,  turning  the  saber  toward 
the  body,  guard  to  the  rear,  and  drop  the  left  liand 
by  the  side. 

"manual  OF  THE  SWORD.- The  Manual  of  the 
Sword  in  the  I'nited  Sbiles  Army,  is  as  follows:  1. 
Draw,  2.  Swoitus.  Al  the  command  ilriiir,  unhook 
llie  sword  with  the  thuml)  and  lirst  twolinirers  of  the 
left  hand,  thumb  on  the  end  of  the  book,  finsers  lift- 
ing the  upper  ring  ;  grasp  the  scabbard  withlhe  left 
hand  at  the  upper  band,  bring  the  hilt  a  little  for- 
ward, seize  the  gripi-  with  the  right  hand,  and  draw 
the  blade  six  inches  out  of  the  scabbard,  prcssin"- 
the  scabbard  against  the  thigh  with  the  left  han<i! 
At  the  conunand  sirnrd,  draw  the  sword  f|uicklv, 
raising  the  arm  to  its  full  extent,  at  an  angle  of  aboiit 
forty-live  degrees,  the  sword  in  a  straight  line  with 
the  arm,  and  make  a  slight  pause  ;"liook  up  the 
scabbard  quickly  wilh  the  thumb  and  lirst  two 
fingers  of  the  left  hand,  thumb  through  the  upper 
ring,  fingcra  supporting  it.  and  drop  the  left  hand  by 
the  side;  at  the  same  time  bring  the  back  of  the 
blade  against  the  shoulder,  the  bhide  vertical,  back 
of  the  gripe  to  the  re;ir,  the  arm  nearly  extended,  the 
I liumb  and  forelinger  embracing  the" gripe,  the  left 
side  of  the  gripe  with  the  thumb  against  the  thigh, 
the  other  fingers  extended  and  joined  in  rear  of  Fhe 
gripe.  Thixistheponitioiiofairry  sw&rd.  Oflicers 
mounted  unhook  the  sword  before  mounting,  and, 
in  the  first  motion  of  draw-sw&rd,  reach  with  the 
right  liand  over  the  bridle-hand,  and  without  the  aid 
of  the  bridle-hand  draw  the  sword  as  before;  the 
right  hand  in  the  i-arry  rests  on  the  right  thijh. 
When  the  swoni-knot  is  worn,  the  right  Wrist  may 
be  placed  in  it  in  the  first  motion,  before  grasping 
the  gripe.  1. /";•(»«(=««.  2.  Sword.  At  the  command 
piVM'/it,  carry  the  sword  vertically,  and  promptly 
to  the  front,  raising  the  band  as  high  as  the  neck 
and  six  inches  in  front  of  it,  the  thumb  on  the  back 
of  the  gripe,  back  of  the  gripe  to  the  right,  elbow 
close  to  the  bod}'.  At  the  command  s^rw-rf,  drop  the 
point  of  the  sword  by  extending  the  arm,  so  that 
the  right  hand  may  be  brought  to  the  side  of  the 
light  thigh,  the  back  of  the  hand  down,  the  blade 
inclining  downward  and  to  the  front. 

In  rendering  honors  with  troops,  officers  execute 
the  lirst  motion  of  the  salute  at  the  command  pre- 
sntt.  the  second  motion  al  the  conunand  <frm.i.  The 
sword  is  returned  to  the  curri/  at  the  command.  1. 
('(irri/,  2.  Arms.  When  arms  are  ordend,  the  offi- 
cers and  non-commissioned  staff  drop  the  point  of 
their  swords,  the  back  of  the  hand  invariably  up. 
At  pnra'fe  rest,  they  clasp  the  hands  directly 
in  front  of  the  centre  of  the  body,  the  left  hand  up- 
permost,  the  point   of  the  sword  between  the   feet. 


MANUBALLISIE. 


264 


MAP. 


In  marching  in  double  time,  tlie  sword  is  carried  dia- 
gonally across  flie  breast,  edge  to  the  front,  the 
jDoint  in  front  of  and  at  the  height  of  tlie  left  slioul- 
der ;  the  left  hand  steadies  the  scabbard.  At  funer- 
al ceremonies,  the  sword  is  reversed  under  the  right 
arm,  the  left  hand  clasping  the  blade  behind  tlie 
back.  When  the  escort  reds  on  arms,  tlie  otiicers 
stand  at  parade  rest,  iuclining  the  head.  OHicers  on 
all  duties  under  arms,  draw  and  return  sword  with- 
out waiting  for  any  command.  All  commands  to 
soldiers  under  arms  are  given  with  the  sword  drawn. 
In  route  marches  the  sword  is  carried  in  the  scab- 
bard. The  non-commissioned  staff  and  sergeants 
■with  swords  drawn  salute  by  the  first  motion  of  pre- 
sent sirord,  as  explained  for  officers.  This  position 
is  taken  at  inspection,  and  the  wrist  turned  out- 
ward to  show  the  flat  of  the  sword  toward  the 
face.  1.  Return.  3-  Sword.  At  the  command 
return,  take  the  position  of  the  first  motion  of  pre- 
sent sicord  ;  at  the  same  time  unhook  and  lower  the 
scabbard  with  the  left  hand,  and  grasp  it  at  the 
upper  Iiaud.  At  the  command  sinrrd.  carry  the  right 
hand  opposite  and  six  inches  from  the  left  shoul- 
der ;  lower  the  blade  and  pass  it  across  and  along 
the  left  arm.  the  point  to  the  rear  ;  turn  the  liead 
slightly  to  the  left,  fixing  the  cyts  on  the  opening 
of  "the"  scabbard,  and  insert  the  blade  six  inches  in 
the  scabbard,  (Two.)  Return  the  blade, free  the  wrist 
from  the  saber-knot  (if  inserted  in  it  ,i,turn  the  head  to 
the  front,  and  drop  the  right  hand  by  the  side:  at  the 
same  time  hook  up  the  sword  with  the  left  liand, 
turning  the  sword  toward  the  l)ody,  the  guard  to 
the  rear,  and  drop  the  left  hand  hy  the  .side.  Offi- 
cers mounted  return  swords  without  using  the  left 
hand :  the  sword  is  hooked  Tip  on  dismounting 

MANUBALLISTE. — A  cross-bow.     There  were  two 
kinds    used  in    the  reign  of  Henry  VIII-  viz.,    the 
latch  which  was  used  for  quarrels  and  the  prodd  for  ' 
bullets.  I 

MAP. — A  map  is  a  delineation,  on  a  plane,  of  some 
portion  of  the  surface  of  a  sphere,  celestial  or  terres- 
trial, on  which  the  objects  intended  to  be  shown  are 
traced,  whether  stars  or  towns,  mountains,  etc.  Ter- 
restrial maps  are  termed  qeographkal.  when  they  re- 
fer to  the  land  :  and  liydrograpldeal  maps,  or  charts. 
when  tiiey  delineate  the  shores  of  the  sea.  A  per- 
fect representation  of  a  country,  with  all  its  parts  in 
true  proportions  and  relative  positions,  may  be  made 
on  a  globe ;  but  since  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
spherical,  it  is  not  possible  so  to  delineate  any  large 
portion  of  it  on  a  plane  as  to  retain  these  properties. 
Hence  geographers  resort  to  different  methods  of 
representation  called  projections,  which  are  of  two 
kinds — either  real  perspectives  from  different  points 
of  view,  or  approximate  developments.  The  five 
principal  projections  are — the  orthographic,  the 
stereographic,  tlie  gloliular,  the  conical,  and  the  cyl- 
indrical, or  Mcrcator's  In  the  first  of  these,  the  flat 
surface  on  which  the  map  is  drawn  is  supposed  to 
pass  through  the  center  of  the  earth,  and  according 
to  the  distance  of  the  eye,  the  projectiim  is  either  of 
the  first,  second,  or  third  kind.  In  the  lyrthoqraphic. 
the  ej'e  is  assumed  to  be  at  an  infinite  distance  from  the 
center  of  the  earth,  so  that  all  rays  of  light  proceed- 
ing from  every  point  in  its  surface  are  parallel  and 
perpendicular.  From  the  nature  of  tliis  projection, 
it  is  evident  that  while  the  cenlral  parts  of  tlie  hem- 
isphere are  almost  accurately  represented,  towards 
the  circumference  the  countries  are  crowded  togeth- 
er and  diminished  in  size.  On  this  account  it  is  of 
little  use  for  geographical,  though  of  considerable 
value  for  astronomical  ])urposes.  In  tlic  stereoyrapliic, 
tlie  eyeor  point  of  projection  is  assumcdto  be  placed 
on  the  surface  of  the  sphere  opposite  the  one  lo  be 
delinejited.  If  the  globe  were  traiisiiareut,  the  eye 
would  then  see  the  opjiosite  concave  surface.  Con- 
trarj'  to  tlie  orthogra|)hic,  this  metliod  contracts  the 
center  of  the  map,  and  enlarges  it  towards  the  cir- 
cumference. Owing  to  the  une(iual  area  of  the  di- 
visions,  and  the  dilliculty  of  finding  the  true  latitude 


and  longitude  of  places,  this  projection  is  not  much 
employed.  In  oriler  to  rectify  the  opposite  effects 
of  the  two  preceding,  the  globular  projection,  a 
modification  of  the  two,  is  generally  adopted.  If  we 
suppose  the  ej'e  to  be  removed  from  the  surface  to  a 
distance  equal  to  the  sine  of  4-5*  of  the  circumscrib- 
ing circle,  the  projection  is  called  globular.  In  oth- 
er words,  if  the  diameter  of  the  sphere  be  200  parts, 
it  must  be  produced  TO  of  these  parts  in  order  to 
give  the  point  of  projection.  All  meridians  and  par- 
allels in  this  projection  are  in  reality  elliptical  curves, 
but  as  they  approach  so  nearly  to  being  circular  arcs 
they  are  very  rarel}'  shown  otherwise. 


Fig.  1. — Globular,  or  Equidistant  Projection  of  a  Hemisphere. 

The  construction  of  the  globular  or  equidistant 
projection  is  as  follows  (Fig.  1).  Describe  a  circle 
NESW,  to  represent  a  meridian.  a_.d  draw  two  dia- 
meters, NCS  and  WCE,  perpendicular  to  each  other, 
the  one  for  a  central  meridian, the  other  for  the  equa- 
tor. Then  K  and  S  will  represent  the  north  and  south 
poles.  Divide  each  of  the  quadrants  into  9  equal 
parts,  and  each  of  the  radii  CN,  CE,  and  C  also  in  9 
equal  parts.  Produce  NS  both  ways,  and  find  on  it 
the  centers  of  circles  which  will  pass  through  the 
three  points  80  x  80.  70  y  70,  etc.,  and  these  arcs  de- 
scribed on  both  sides  of  the  equator  will  1)e  the  paral- 
lels of  latitude.  In  like  manner, find  on  WE  produced, 
the  centers  of  circles  which  must  passtlirough  a.  h.  c, 
and  the  poles.  Having  selected  the  first  meridian, 
number  the  others  successfully  to  the  east  and  west 
of  it.  A  map  in  this  way  may  be  constructed  on  the 
rational  horizon  of  any  place.  The  ini])ossibility  of 
getting  a  perfect  representation  of  special  parts  of 
the  sphere  by  any  of  the  previous  methods,  led  to 
the  desire  for  others  less  defective.  Of  all  solid  bo- 
dies whose  surfaces  can  be  accurately  developed  or 
rolled  out  upon  a  plane  witliout  alteration,  the  cone 
and  cj'linder  approach  nearest  to  the  character  of  the 
sphere.  A  portion  of  the  sphere  between  two  paral- 
lels not  far  distant  from  each  other,  corresponds  very 
exactly  with  a  like  conical  zone;  whence  it  is  that 
conical  developments  make  tlie  best  projections  for 
special  geographical  maps, and  even  with  some  mod- 
ification^ for  large  portions  of  the  globe. 

Since  all  meridians  on  the  globe  are  great  circles 
passing  through  the  poles,  the  north  and  south 
points  at  any  places  correspond  with  tlie  poles  of  the 
earth.  The  east  and  west  points,  however,  are 
indicated  by  a  line  at  right  angles  to  the  meridian, 
and  do  not,  except  at  the  equator,  correspond  with 
those  of  the  earth.  In  all  the  projections  hitherto 
described,  the  direction  eithcrof  the  north  and  south, 
or  of  I  he  east  and  west  jioints,  is  reiires.-nled  by  a 
curved  line,  so  Ihat  on  such  a  map  the  course  of  a 
vessel  would  almost  always  be  laid  down  in  a  curve, 
which  could  only  be  described  by  continually  laying 
off  from  the  meridian  a  lineal  an  angle  ecjual  to  that 
made  with  the  meridian  by  the  jioint  of  the  compass 
at  which  the  shiji  was  sailing.  If  the  vessel  were  to 
steer  iu  a  direct  N.  E.  course  by  one  of  the  previous 


MARAUDING. 


265 


MARCEL  DEPBEZ  REGISTEB. 


projections  she  would,  if  land  did  not  intervene,  |  ordnance  survey  of  Great  Britain  is  on  the  scale  of 
dcscribi'  a  spiral  rrmml.  and  iilliiimtclv  arrive  at  the  ^,,,',,,5  of  naturc.or  1  inch  of  paper  to  om-  nuh-  of  siir- 
— -.1 1.. .  ti,..r..r,,r..   ti„.   iiiMriiwT  rciMiircM  a  oliart  I  face.      A  recent  iinprovcnjiiit  inlrodiiced   into  our 


north  pole-  Ihcrcforc.  the  mariner  rccpiircs  a  diart  i  face.  A  recent  iinprovcnjiiit  introdnced  into  our 
wliii  h  wiiri-niihle  him  to  steer  his  course  liy  com-  best  ma|)S  is;that  of  print im.M lie  waler-coursi-s^iii  hhie 
pass  in  Btraii;ht  lincsonly-  This  valuahle  instrument 


is  supplied  hy  Mcrcator's  chart,  in  which  all  the 
meridians  an"  striUL'lit  lines  jii rprmlii-iihir  to  the 
eijuator,  and  all  the  uarallels  straight  ^hwn  immllH 


■p! 

C 

a 

n 

o- 

=r 

a 

EE 

n 

in 

n 

0 

TTT 

u 

D 

D 

Dj 

Lif 

,- 

'■ 

1 

1      1 

„ 

It  — 

— 

- 

- 

- 

- 

— 

- 

■' 

1 

1 

'■ 

»i    ,i    ..     11-.11J    (1     £5  r.3  150  1 

» m : 

JLL 

jl± 

rtfi:  ii  it  Ml 

ink,  niakinir  the  oroi;raphy  and  skeleton  of  I'very 
country  sliinil  out  in  clear  relief,  thus  avoiding  the 
confusCri  ri^ultinir  from  all  the  lines  heing  black. 

MARAUDING.  -This  word  common,  under  ortlio- 
Rraphic  variations,  to  most  of  the  Eiiropi-an  lan- 
guapes,  and,  probably,  of  identical  root  with  the 
virb  "to  mar"  means  irre^rular  jiliindcr  or  violence 
olVercd  to  the  inhabitants  of  a  country  by  the  indi- 
viduals of  an  army.  In  all  armies  where  discipline 
is  maintained.  marau<ling  is,  at  least  professedly, 
punished  by  ilcalh  ;  the  Provost  Marshal  having 
power  to  iiitlicl  that  penalty  summarily  on  all  of- 
fenders taken  in  in  the  act. 

MARCASITE.— Sulphurous  pyrites,  which  super- 
seded till-  iiKif'-h.  in  ilischar^ini;  lire-arms.  The  py- 
rites when  struck,  iL'iiiled.  ;i\v\  llri'd  the  charire. 

MARCEL. DEPREZ  REGISTER.-  In  order  to  replace 
the  induction-spark  as  means  of  rejristration,  Mr. 
Marccl-Dejircz  had  recourse  to  electro-magnets 
whose  armature,  retracledby  a  counteracting  spring, 
was  furnished  with  a  pen  which  rested  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  cylinder  of  the  chronograph,  this  pen  be- 
ing so  arranged  as  to  be  disjjlaced  in  the  dircctiim  of 
ageneratri.x  duringtlie  niovenient  of  the  armature.  As 
a  result  of  this   arrangement,  the  pen  traced  on  the 


Fig.  2. — Mcrcntor's  PrdjcctifHi. 

to  the  equator.  It  is  constructed  as  follows  ("Fig.  2): 
A  line  AB  is  drawn  of  tlu'  reijuired  length  for  the 
equator.  This  line  is  divided  into  3(),  24.  or  18 
equal  parts,  for  meridians  at  10",  1.5*^,  or  30"  apart, 
anil  the  meridians  are  then  successively  drawn 
through  these  points  ])erpendicular  to  Ali.  From  a 
talile  of  meridional  parts  (a  table  of  the  number  of 
minutes  of  a  degree  of  longitude  at  the  eipiator  com- 
prised lietweeu  that  and  every  jiarallel  of  latitude  up 
to  Hi)"),  take  the  distances  of  the  parallels  and  of  the 
tropics  and  arctic  circles  from  the  equator.and  mark 
them  olT  to  the  nortli  and  south  of  it.  .loin  these 
points,  and  the  projection  is  made.  This  projection, 
of  course,  does  not  aud  is  not  intended  to  give  a  na- 
tural representation  of  the  earth,  its  effect  l>eing  to 
exaggerate  the  polar  regions  immensely.  Tlie  dis- 
tortion in  the  form  of  countries  and  relative  direction 
of  places,  is  rectitied  Ijy  the  degrees  of  latitude  be- 
ing made  to  increase  proportionalily  to  those  of 
longitude.  This  is  the  only  maj)  which  gives  an  un- 
briiken  view  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth.  The 
term  wf/'is  specially  ap])licd  to  reiireseiitalions  of 
land,  or  lauii  and  water  together;  while  that  of  I'hirt 
is  limited  to  the  coast  and  water  surface  only,  show- 
ing currents,  rocks,  anchorage,  light-liouses,  har- 
bors, soundings,  aud  other  objects  of  importance. 

A  geographical  map  proper  is  a  general  iiuip  of 
the  world,  or  of  a  large  extent  of  country.  .*V  topo- 
graphical map  dilTers  from  it  in  being  limited  in  area, 
and  much  more  detailed.  The  ordnance  survey  of 
Britain  is  a  good  example  of  a  topographical  map. 
Besiiles  purely  geographical  and  topographical  maps. 


Fig.  1. 
cylinder  in  motion  a  given  circumference  so  long  as 
the  current  jiassing  in  the  eleetro-magnet  of  the  reg- 
ister kept  the  armature  attracted  :  when  the  current 
was  broken,  the  pen.  drawn  laterally  by  the  arma- 
ture, traced  a  hook,  and  connected"  with  the  prece- 
ding circumference  by  a  curve,  the  form  of  which 
depended  on  the  relative  velocities  of  the  cylinder  and 
the  pen, and  finally,  the  armature  being  arrested  by  a 
catch  which  limit"s  its  course,  the  pen  traced  a  new 
circumference  a  little  distant  from  the  preceding. 
Fig.  1.  If  the  current  was  re-estal)lished  at  the  end 
of  a  certain  time,  the  armature  was  attracted  anew. 
the  pen  traced  a  second  hook,  and  was  replaced  on 
the  original  circumference  of  which  it  continued  the 
others  are  constructed  for  special  purposes,  which  j  trace.  'The  two  hooks  obtained  indicate  the  instants 
may  be  physical,  political  or  civil,  military,  statistic- !  when  the  breaking  and  the  closing  were  produced. 
al,  "historical,  etc.  In  order  to  construct  "a  map, and  The  employment  of  electro-magnets  as  registers  was 
to  determine  accurately  the  positions  of  places  on  it,  not  new ;  these  devices  had  Ijeen  applied  since  1844 
a  knowledge  of  two  elements  is  essential— viz..  lati- '  to  the  Wheatstone  and  Breguet  chronographs,  and 
tude  or  disUince  from  the  equator,  aud  longitude  or  Regnault  employed  them  also  with  the  chronograph 
distance  east  or  west  of  the  meridian  adopted.  Every  that  he  used  in"  his  celebrated  experiments  on  the 
map,  whatever  its  dimensions,  is  in  some  definite  re-  measure  of  the  velocity  of  sound.  If  we  were  lim- 
latiou  to  the  actual  size  of  the  globe.  This  relation  ited  to  the  reproduction  of  the  arrangements  adopted 
is  indicated  by  a  scale— a  graduated  line  showing, by  by  these  different  experiments,  it  would  be  impossi- 
its  divisions,  the  number  of  miles  corresponding  to  ble  to  obtain  a  precision  susceptible  of  competing 
any  space  measured  on  the  map.  The  .scales  of  geo-  with  the  employment  of  the  iniluction-spark.  The 
graphical  maps  range  from  about  800  m.  to  an  inch  usual  electro-magnets,  similar  to  those  used  in  tele- 
"(for  maps  of  quarters  of  the  globe)  to  10  miles  to  an  graphy,  have,  in'fact.a  functional  retardation  which 
incli:  those  of  topographical  inaps  range  from  1  inch  is  far  from  unimportant.  If  we  seek  for  these  appara- 
to  25  inches  to  a  mile, the  largest  topographical  maps  tus,  employing,  for  example,  the  lime  that  elaps^ 
■we  have,  admitting  of  the  most  minufe  details.   The   between  the  moment  when  the  current  which  ani- 


MABCEL-DEPEEZ  REGISTER. 


266 


MAKCEL  DEPEEZ  EEGISTEE. 


mates  an  electro-magnet  is  broken  and  that  when  its 
armature  is  set  in  motion  under  the  action  of  tlie 
counteracting  spring  wliich  retracts  it,  we  find  tliat 
tliis  time,  which  niay  be  called  retardation  of  dis- 
connection, attains  aad  often  exceeds  a  luindredth 
of  a  second.  The  time  that  elapses  between  the  mo- 
meat  when  the  current  is  re-established,  and  the  ar- 
mature returned  to  its  original  place  is  greater  still ; 
it  may  be  called  retardation  of  connection.  The  sum 
of  these  two  retardations  forms  the  time  lost  between 
two  successive  signals,  and  limits  the  number  of  sig- 
nals to  be  required  in  a  second  by  a  given  electro- 
magnetic register.  Hence,  we  see  that  an  ordinary 
electro-magnet  could  scarcely  give  more  than  40  sig- 
nals in  a  second. 

In  order  that  we  might  count  on  the  precision  of 
these  signals,  it  wouUrbe  necessary,  besides,  that  the 
functional  retardations,  or  at  least'the  retardations  of 
discouuectiou,  should  be  absolutely  constant  for  the 
same  register.  If  this  condition  was  fulfilled,  we 
could,  in  fact,  notwithstanding  their  slow  action, 
obtain  a  great  precision  of  measure  in  the  vahuition 
of  a  difference  of  durations ;  we  could  also  measure, 
with  equal  precision,  portions  of  time  smaller  tlian 
the  time  lost  by  the  apparatus,  by  using  two  electro- 
magnets for  registering  the  two  signals  whicli  de- 
termine the  time  to  be  measured,  provided  that  we 
had  the  means  of  determining  exactly  the  supposed 
constant  retardation  of  each  apparatus.  Thisiueans 
exists,  as  we  shall  see  further  on ;  but  the  retarda- 
tion of  disconnection  is  unfortunately  not  constant  in 
the  ordinary  electro-magnets.  This  retardation,  is 
composed  of  two  parts:  a  retardation  in  the  cessation  of 
the  magnetic  attraction,  which  retardation  is  owing 
to  the  phenomenon  usuallj'  designated  by  tlie  name 
of  remaining  magnetism,  and  a  retardation  owing  to 
the  setting  in  operation  the  mechanical  organs  of 
registration;  this  latter  retardation  can  be  made  con- 
stant, but  it  is  not  the  same  witli  the  retardation  of 
demagnetization,  whicli  depends  on  several  various 
circumstances,  and  especially  on  the  intensity  of  the 
current,  which  may  varj'  with  the  resistance  of  the 


circuit  or  the  activity  of  the  battery;  the  retardation 
depends  also  on  tlie  manner  in  which  the  current  is 
broken.  The  variations  of  tlie  retardation  or  demag- 
netization, although  very  trifling  in  themselves, 
would,  by  using  the  usual  electro-magnets,  have  at- 
tained limits  greater  than  the  degree  of  precision 
sought  would  allow:  it  was  necessary,  then,  to  find 
the  means  of  regulating  the  working  of  the  devices. 
The  course  to  pursue  naturally  presented  itself:  it 
was  necessarj-  first  of  all  to  seek  to  reduce,  in  abso- 
lute value,  the  retardation  of  demagnetization,  be- 
cause thus  the  variations  of  this  retardation  must  be 
reduced  in  the  s;une  ))roportion.  while  at  the  same 
time  the  apparatus  could  be  made  sulticiently  rapid 
in  its  operation  to  follow,  in  most  eases,  tlie  succes- 
sion of  the  ))heni)inena  to  be  observed.  The  empliu'- 
nient  of  these  small  registers,  formed  of  diminutive 
electro-magnets,  like  those  which  arc  now  used  in 
bomc  special  apparatus,  such  as  the  electric  toys  of 
Mr.  Trouve,  must,  after  wliat  is  known  of  the  work- 
ing; of  these  toys,  secure  the  first  improvement.    An- 


other motive  led  to  the  employment  of  very  small 
apparatus,  or  at  least  of  very  small  movable  pieces  ; 
it  was  the  necessity  for  accelerating  as  much  as  pos- 
sible the  movements  of  the  tracing-pen. 

In  ordinary  electro-magnets,  where  the  counter- 
acting force  applied  to  the  armature,  as  well  as  the 
attractive  force  which  is  opposed  to  it,  are  com- 
parable to  the  weight  of  this  armature,  the  latter 
moves  with  only  a  very  feeble  acceleration,  at  the 
disconnection  as  well  as  the  connection.  The  result 
is  that  if  the  rotatory  movement  of  the  cylinder  on 
which  the  pen,  guided  by  this  armature,  makes  its 
trace  is  a  little  fast,  the  traces  obtained  unite  tangent- 
iall)'  by  a  lengthened  curve  with  the  circumferences 
described  by  tlie  pen  in  its  two  extreme  positions,  so 
that  it  is  very  ditiicult  to  catch  the  line  at  the  pre- 
cise moment  when  the  pen  is  set  in  motion.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  the  pen  is  animated  by  a  rapid  move- 
ment, so  that  its  velocity  ;s  promptly  comparable  to 
that  of  the  cylinder,  the  lines  that  it  leaves  are  cleanly 
detached  from  the  extreme  circumferences  and  give 
signals  easy  to  distinguish  with  precision.  Kow, 
this  result  can  be  obtained  by  emploj'ing  very  small 
armatures,  so  constructed  that  the  inertia  of  the 
movable  pieces  develops  only  a  very  feeble  resistance 
to  the  movement,  and  so  arranged  that  the  energy 
exerted  on  them  by  the  counteracting  spring  that  im- 
pels them  may  be  considerable  in  proportion  to  the 
masses  set  in  motion.  These  considerations  induced 
Mr.  Marcel-Deprez  to  establish  very  small  electro- 
magnetic registers,  furnished  with  still  smaller  arma- 
tures, that  the  magnetic  attraction  might  be  rela- 
tively great  in  proportion  to  the  mass  of  these  arma- 
tures, and  to  employ  long  and  light  pens,  placed,  as 
well  as  the  movable  masses,  as  near  as  possible,  or 
practicable,  to  the  axis  of  rotation,  in  order  to  re- 
duce to  a  very  minimum  the  moment  of  inertia  of 
the  system.  Moreover,  in  order  to  diminish  the  re- 
tardation of  disconnection,  Jlr.  Marcel-Peprez  pro- 
vided his  registers  with  a  means  of  regulating  the 
counteracting  force  applied  to  the  armature  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  cause  this  force  to  form  nearly  an 
equilibrium  with  the  magnetic  attraction,  so  that 
disconnection  takes  place  as  soon  as  the  attraction 
becomes  slighth'  reduced  and  instantly  after  the 
rupture  of  the  electric  current.  The  forms  given  to 
the  Marcel-Deprez  registers,  in  departing  from  these 
principles,  were  very  variable,  and  we  will  content 
ourselves  with  describing  some  especially  ainilicable 
to  the  chronograph  and  other  ballistic  apparatus. 


Fig-  3. 

Fig.  l.represents  one  of  the  registers  phiced  against 
(he  cylinder  of  a  modified  Sclniltz  clironogra])!!,  and 
Fig.  '.i.  represents  the  registers  arrangeil  side  liy  side 
10  in  numbi'r,  on  a  horizontal  form  lixed  in  front  of 
the  revolving  <'ylinder  :  they  are  iiKumted  each  on  a 
little  screw-slide  on  which  ii  eounleracting  spring 
acts,  and  which  allows  each  pen  to  come  into  con- 
tact with  the  cylinder  or  to  withdraw  from  it  at  will. 
A  general  lever  movement  of  the  form  removes  at 
will  all  the  pens  at  the  same  time, or,  on  thecontrarj^ 


MARCEL  DEPREZ  REGISTER. 


207 


MARCEL  DEPREZ  REGISTER. 


briii);8  them  together  in  contact  witli  the  cylinder. 

KiK'h("lrctro-m!if;n<'t,Fif;.1,is('onipoiJ<'(lof  two  helices 

ofnljiiul    \'i 1  (().47i!4  inch)   (liani<-(cr,  |iliici-il  vcrli- 

cally  in  a  |)lune  nurnial  to  the  cylinilcr,  anil  Inrnishcil 
wilii  pillar  masses,  rclalivcly  stron;;  ;  between  theni 
is  lixed  a  small  armature  (if  prismatic  form,  which 
vveii;ha  only  a  few  milli^ramnK'S,  and  which,  heini; 
thus  itnnuTseil  in  tin'  maiinetit-  lield,  is  snlijected  to 
an  atlraclivi^  forci^  which  can  b(^  raised  In  10  1)00  anil 
20,000  times  its  weii;ht.  The  siippnrtini;-  jiiiwer  iif 
the  electro-mairnetH  may  amiiimt  tii  200  j;rammes 
((>.4;)0:!  iiz.  tniyj.  This  armalnre  is  secured  to  a  very 
liv,ht  hiirizimtal  axis  iif  steel,  placed  as  near  as  ])os- 
sihle,  and  which  has  at  one  extremity  a  small,  very 
slender  steel  pen,  and  at  the  other  a  small  lever,  di- 
rected from  the  side  oppiisite  to  the  armature,  and 
whoso  extremity,  bent  into  a  hook,  hooks  into  the 
rini;  of  a  dnnhlc  thread  of  extended  caniitchiinc.  The 
lensiiin  (if  this  caniitclmuc  thread  can  lie  rci^ulated 
with  precisiiiu  tii  any  deiircc  desired;  the  lower  part 
of  the  double  thread  passes  throuirli  a  small  clasp, 
where  it  is  held  by  a  tensifm-serew ;  by  looseninj; 
this  screw  a  determined  vveii;ht  can  be  suspended  at 
the  extremity  of  the  thread;  the  tension  is  allowed  to 
be  ])ro(luced,  and  when  cipiilhrium  is  established  the 
clasp  is  tight.eued  and  the  wcinlit  (become  useless)  is 
removed.  Thus  the  thrc:iil  is  a  repository  of  a  ten- 
sion rxiu-tly  nu';isurcd  by  tlu'  w<'i!iht,  and  which  ac- 
ciirdinji;ly  can  be  reproduced  at  any  instant. 

In  order  to  establish  an  equilibrium  between  the 
tension  thus  produced  and  tlie  iittractivc  force  of 
the  electro-magnet,  a  small  additional  piece  of  soft 
iron  is  employed,  i)laccd  on  the  electro-magnet  in 
contact  with  the  polar  mass,  in  proximity  to  the  ar- 
nKiliire,  ;iud  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  axis  of  rota- 
tion. Fin'.  1.  This  mass  can  be  displaced  gradually 
by  means  of  !m  adjusting  screw;  by  setting  it  nearer 
to  or  farther  from  the  arniiiture  the  attractive  force 
is  diminished  or  augmented,  and  this  force  may  thus 
be  sulliciently  reduced  to  ciiuse  the  spontaneous  dis- 
coimectionof  the  cli'ctro-magnet;  if  the  mass  is  then 
removed  a  little  farther  oir  by  a  very  slight  move- 
ment of  the  screw,  the  atlniction  is  augmented  in  a 
meiisure  just  sullicicnt  to  maintain  the  arm;iture,  so 
that  tlie  least  reduction  in  intensity  of  the  current 
sullices  to  liberate  it,  and  conse{iuently  it  is  set  in 
motion  as  soon  as  the  ciu'rent  is  liroken,  or  at  lea.st 
with  a  retardation  exceedingly  sm;dl  and  very  con- 
stant. The  arrangement  represented  by  Fig.  2,  and 
which  shows  the  working  of  10  registers  placed  side 
by  side  ag;iinst  the  chronograph  cylinder,  is  espe- 
cially applied  to  the  mc;isuring  of  the  dur:itions  of 
lilicnomena  following  eacli  other  in  toompid  succes- 
sion to  pernnl  the  connccliim  of  ii  register  between 
each  signal.  In  this  case,  in  fact,  it  is  necessary  to 
employ  as  many  registers  and  distinct  circuits  as 
there  are  signals  to  observe,  requiring  for  each  reg- 
istOT  only  one  signal,  for  the  necessity  is  thus  dis- 
pi'nsed  with  of  m:iking  th<'  registers  connectors,  that 
is  to  say,  of  regulating  the  course  of  the  ;innatures 
in  such  a  manner  tliat  they  might  be  recalled  by  the 
magnetic  attraction  at  the  time  of  the  re-establish- 
nient  of  , tin.' current.  This  latitude  facilitates  in  a 
singular  manner  the  employment  of  the  apparatus, 
because  it  allows  of  giving  to  the  pens  a  course  large 
enough  to  nndic  the  traces  easy  to  read,  and  of  reg- 
ulating the  position  of  the  additional  mass  so  as  to 
renih'r  the  electro-magnets  very  sensitive,  which 
could  not  be  done  to  the  same  degree  if  an  excess  of 
force  must  lie  left  to  the  attractive  force,  in  order 
to  restore  the  arnuiture  from  a  distance.  This  is  the 
arrangement  whicli  it  would  be  most  proper  to  adopt 
for  the  electro-magnet  almost  exclusively,  if  the  fact 
of  employing  ditl'erent  electric  circuits  did  not,  on 
the  other  h:uul.  introduce  c;u[ses  of  uncertainty  and 
dillicidties  in  their  use  often  very  great. 

Tlie  emiiloyeini'Ut  of  electro-magnets,  also,  simply 
as  discomiectcrs,  has  been  reserved  in  practice  for 
the  case  where  the  intervids  of  the  successive  sig- 
nals are  so  short  that  it  is  not  possible  to  tind  re- 


gisters sufflcicntly  rapid  In  their  course  to  follow  the 
production  of  these  signals.  The  limit  is  now  very 
much  extended  by  the  re<enl  improv<'tnentH  which 
.Mr.  .Marci-l-IJcprez  has  made  in  his  registers,  wlilcli 
can  execute  as  many  as  2.000  movements  per  second. 
I  At  the  tiimr  when  his  first  investigations  were  exe- 
futcd,  in  concert  with  the  marine  artillery  service, 
he  had  already  jiroduced  registers  whose  ri-lardation 
iif  disconnection  w;is  reduceil  to  less  llian  one  Iwo- 
thoiisandtli  of  asi'cond,  and  which,  placed  in  the  cir- 
<uil  of  a  fork  sust;uncd  by  eh'ctricity  and  giving  1,. 
000  simple  vibrations  per  second  ("."iOO  periods;,  <;ould 
follow  the  movement  of  this  fork,  and  thus  ])roduce 
•WO  rupture  signals  and  . 100  closing  signals  per  s^c- 
j  ond,  by  leavingon  the  revolving  cjOinder  of  a  chrono- 
graph traces  which  indicated  that  the  register  re- 
I  m.-iini'd  still  at  rest  for  an  a|>precial)le  timet  in  the  in- 
terval between  the  two  signals. 
j  Hut  however  rapid  ?he  registers  might  be,  they 
would  not  have  given  the  10  signals  which  it  was  the 
1  objc(-t  to  obtain  in  case  of  need  during  the  develop- 
ment of  the  pressures  in  the  bore  of  a  gnn  from  the 
moment  of  thcinllanunation  of  the  charge  to  the  mo- 
ment of  the  mjiximum  jiressure  wliich,  it  is  known, 
can  scarcely  be  two  or  three  thousandths  of  a  second 
in  dunition.  so  th;it  the  successive  signals  could  only 
betwoten  thousandths  of  a  second  apart,and  eventless. 
It  would  also  be  necess;iry  to  adopt  for  these  special 
researches  the  employment  of  many  independent  reg- 
isters, each  giving  Init  a  single  signal, as  Fig.2  shows. 

For  other  researches,  such  as  the  studies  of  exter- 
ior b;dli3tics,  or  even  that  of  the  law  of  the  move- 
ment of  the  projectile  in  the  bore,  reconnecting  reg- 
isters could  tie  employed. 

Fig.  3  shows  a  register  with  large,  wide  helices 
arranged  w-ith  regard  to  each  other  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  cause  the  oscillation  of  a  small  armature 
mounted  .synnnetrically  on  a  horizontal  axis,  which 
is  terminated  at  one  end  by  a  small  lever,  to  the  ex- 
tremities of  which  can  be  lixed  the  threads  of  ex- 
tended caoutchouc,  two  in  number.  The  armature 
can  only  receive  a  very  slight  oscillatory  movement, 
which  is  regulated  in  case  of  need  by  displacing  the 
cori'S  of  the  helices,  and  a  great  force  of  attraction  is 
thus  olitained  to  induce  the  recomn-ction.  The 
movement  of  the  armature  is  commiuiicated  to  the 
pen  whigh  is  on  the  extremity  of  a  small  parallel  axis, 
placed  on  the  upper  part,  by  means  of  a  very  light 
lever,  secured  in  a  small  fork,  and  which  produces 
a  notable  amplification.  In  another  mode  of  con- 
struction much  useil,  two  registers  nuiuuted  side  by 
side  so  as  to  be  sinudlaneimslv  utilized,  are  arranged 


Fi-.  1. 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  two  traces  very  near 
each  other,  so  as  the  Iietter  to  utilize  the  available 
space  on  the  cylinder.  In  each  of  these  registers  the 
helices  are  placed  end  to  enii.  lengthwise  to  one  an- 
other, and  tlieir  poles  placed  in  juxtajiosition  are  cut 
so  as  to  serve  as  a  lodgment  for  a  small  prismatic 
armature  which  is  thus  innnerscd  in  the  magnetic 
tield.  The  axes  on  which  the  two  armanires  are 
fixed  are  placed  between  the  electromagnets,  one  on 
the  left  and  the  other  on  the  right,  in  such  a  manner 


MARCEL-DEPEEZ  KEGISTEK. 


268 


MAECEL-DEPBEZ  SEGISTEE. 


as  to  bring  tlie  pens  near  to  each  otlier ;  these  axes 
have  each  a  pen  at  one  of  the  extremtiies  and  sup- 
port, in  tlieir  middle,  a  small  plate  of  spring-steel 
placed  verticall_v,  against  the  extremity  of  wliicli 
rests  a  horizontal  screw,  that  can  be  worked  with  a 
key,  so  as  to  produce  a  counteracting  effort  adjust- 
able at  will.  A  vertical  supporting  screw,  whose  po- 
sition can  be  regulated  with  the  same  key,  serves  to 
limit  the  course  of  the  armature,  so  as  to  make  the 
connection  possible,  allowing  at  the  same  time  a  suf- 
ficient course  for  the  pens.  In  order  to  obtain  the 
connection  in  these  registers,  it  is  necessary  always 
to  give  to  the  magnetic  attraction  an  excess  of  force 
over  the  tension  of  the  counteracting  spring,  which 
does  not  permit  the  retardation  of  demagnetization 
to  be  reduced  to  the  minimum  which  it  would  be 
possible  to  attain  without  this  necessity ;  but  the  ex- 
cessive reduction  of  llie  dimensions  of  the  helices, 
which  in  the  last  apjiaratus  figured  did  not  exceed  5 
millimetres  (0.19(58  inch)  each  in  diameter  and  T  mil- 
limetres 0.2756  inch)  in  length,  permits  the  reduction 
of  the  retardation  to  a  value  extremely  small  and 
makes  the  variations  in  it  altogether  insignificant. 
We  are  assured,  in  fact,  by  the  arrangement  which 
will  be  described  farther  on,  that  the  retardation  of 
disconnection  of  these  registers  can  be  reduced  to 
cme  three-tliousandths  of  a  second,  and  that  the  va- 
riations of  this  retardation,  from  one  disconnection 
to  another  do  not  attain  to  one  fifty-thousandtii  of  a 
second. 

In  the  apparatus  sketched,  which  was  arranged 
for  mounting  by  means  of  a  collar  with  a  clamp 
screw,  on  a  cylindrical  shaft  placed  before  the  cliro- 
nograph  cylinder,  one  of  the  registers  was  moimteil 
stationarj'  on  the  common  support,  the  other  was 
sustained  by  a  small  movable  slide  wliieh  a  square- 
headed  screw  permitted  to  move  backwards  or  for- 
wards, by  means  of  the  key  already  used  for  the  otlier 
adjusting  screws ;  this  regulated  the  two  pens  so 
that  they  might  rest  equally  on  the  surface  of  the 
cylinder  of  the  chronograph.  Fig.  4  represents  an- 
other type  of  register,  frequently  employed.  It  is 
adapted  to  a  number  of  mechanical  arrangements, 
especialh'  when  it  is  desiered  to  combine  si>!e  by  side, 
as  we  siiall  see  upon  investigation,  several  inde- 
dependent  registers.  The  helices,  which  in  this  case 
measure  7  millimetres  (0.27.'5()  inch)  in  diameter  and 
9  millimetres  (0.3543  inch)  in  length,  are  placed  ver- 
ticall)'  as  in  the  apparatus,  Fig.  1.  The  employment 
of  a  prismatic  armature  lodged  between  two  polar 
masses  is  abandoned  on  account  of  the  difficulties  in 
construction  and  adjusting  which  it  involved,  and  a 
flat  armature  is  substituted  which  acts  directly  on 
the  poles  and  approximates  the  arrangement  of  the 
ordinary  electro-magnets  ;  this  armature  is  hollowed 
out,  however,  outside  of  the  poles,  in  order,  there- 
by, to  diminish  the  mass,  and  it  is  made  movable 
around  an  axis  parallel  to  its  length,  and  as  near  as 
possible  to  diminish  the  movement  of  inertia.  The 
resistance  due  to  the  inertia  of  the  lever  on  which 
the  counteracting  spring  in  the  register  (Fig.  1.)  is 
applied  is  also  avoided  by  applying  directly  on  the 
armature  the  effort  which  is  here  produced  by  a 
small  spiral  spring.  This  .spring  can  be  extended  at 
will  by  a  mill-headed  button,  fitted  very  tightly,  and 
which  acts  upon  a  crank  to  the  extremity  of  which 
it  is  fastened.  An  adjusting  screw,  whose  point 
touches  against  the  arniiiture,  limits  at  will  the  course 
of  the  pen  which  is  soldered  on  a  small  pi])e  fitted 
on  the  extremity  of  the  shaft.  By  loosening  this 
screw  the  course  can  l)e  made  so  great  that  the  re- 
gister cannot  naturally  connect ;  in  this  case,  a  ten- 
sion maybegiven  to  the  counteracting  spring  slight- 
ly inferior  1o  the  attractive  force  so  as  lo  reduce  as 
much  as  jiossible  the  retardation  of  disconncclion. 
On  the  contrary,  by  revolving  and  tightening  the 
screw  so  as  to  diminish  the  course,  and  liy  reducing 
also  the  tension  of  the  counteracting  spring,  a  pre- 
ponderance may  be  restored  to  the  attractive  force, 
great  enough  to  produce  the  connection  of  the  aiipa- 


ratrs  which  is  then  in  a  condition  to  give  numerous 
successive  signals,  but  the  retardation  of  disconnec- 
tion is,  in  this  case,  slightly  augmented,  according  to 
the  intensity  of  the  current. 

These  registers  are  each  secured  to  a  ring-shaped 
mounting  with  its  under  part  open.  By  tliese  rings 
they  are  fitted  side  by  side  on  a  cylindrical  shaft ; 
they  constitute  so  many  clasps  susceptible  of  being 
each  tightened  on  tliis  shaft,  in  any  position  what- 
ever, by  means  of  a  mill-headed  screw.  To  each  of 
these  registers  may  thus  be  given  an  indiviilual  move- 
ment of  rotation  around  this  shaft,  by  whicli  move- 
ment the  pens  are  brought  on  the  same  line,  and  a 
general  rotary  movement  of  the  shaft  afterwards  re- 
moves them  altogether,  or  makes  them  bear  equally 
and  at  the  same  time  on  the  surface  designed  to  re- 
ceive the  registry.  By  what  precedes,  we  see  that 
the  property  of  connecting  automatically  can  be  giv- 
en to  a  register  only  on  the  important  condition 
of  limiting  tlie  course  of  the  pen  and  in  also 
reducing  the  counteracting  force  which  determines 
the  rapidity  of  its  movement  of  disconnection ;  the 
magnetic  attraction,  exerted  on  the  armature,  dimin- 
ishing according  to  the  square  of  the  distance,  we 
imagine  that,  in  practice,  in  order  to  preserve  a  course 
sufficiently  rapid,  we  may  be  led  to  reduce,  to  a  very 
small  quantity,  the  amplitude  of  the  displacement  of 
the  pen,  which  renders  the  readings  difficult.  A  rem- 
edy was  sought  for  tliis  defect  by  the  employment 
of  organs  for  multiplying  the  movement  like  those 
represented  by  Fig.  3.  Mr.  Napoli  also  constructed 
registerssuch  as  that  represented  by  Fig.  5.  in  which 
the  amplification  of  the  movement  was  produced  by 


the  medium  of  two  cams  resting  one  on  tlie  other, 
with  surfaces  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  vary, 
at  each  instant,  according  to  a  proper  law,  the  rela- 
tion of  the  arms  of  the  lever  and  consequently  the 
action  of  the  counteracting  spring  acting  then  direct- 
ly on  the  shaft  which  contains  the  pen;  this  is  the, 
arrangement  known  by  the  name  of  "distributer  of 
Uobert  Iloudin."  Mr.  Marcel-Deprez  also  sought 
to  overcome  this  difiiculty  by  using  electro-magnets, 
comliiued  in  i)airs  and  of  dilTerent  forces,  working 
successively  liy  the  .same  action  of  the  disconnection; 
the  attraction  of  the  armature,  in  ordinary  circum- 
stances, was  produced  by  a  very  small  ••ind  very  sen- 
sitive electro-magnet,  whose  retardation  of  disconnec- 
tion could  be  made  small,  and,  at  this  lime  of  the  dis- 
coniieilion.  the  armature  established  contact  which 
introduced  in  the  circuit  a  larger  electro-magnet  sus- 
ceptible of  acting  with  force  on  the  armature  in  or- 
der to  return  it  lo  its  place.  When  the  current  was 
reestalilislied,  it  was  this  second  electro-magnet 
which  caused  the  connection,  and  wlien  tlie  armature 


HABCH. 


2G9( 


MA£CH£B. 


was  thus  bronj;lit  into  contact  all  lljiiiiis  were  rc- 
slorcil  aiildinalically  I"  llicir  place :  llic  current 
was  llicM  sent  a^'ain  into  llie  . small  elec-lnj-niiignct. 
See  S'/jirt  iiiiil  Murrii-Ih /ire!  ('hrimnijriipji, 

MARCH,  —  A  terniapjilied  to  a  piece  of  niusic  com- 
poHcil  cliiedy  for  niilllary  hands,  to  accompany  the 
marchini;'  of  troops,  to  help  them  to  preserve  time 
and  to  act  as  a  prevenlive  ai;ainst  fatijrnc.  Marches 
are  pliiyed  on  wind  inslrnnients  or  liv  the  (ifes  and 
drnms,  and  are  generally  some  simple  popniar  air. 
Each  re'4irnenl  in  Ihe  lirilish  service  has  its  special 
march  for  marching  past;  the  Fusiliers  are  allowed 
to  |ila\'  cm  that  occasion  the  "  British  (Jrenadier." 

MAJRCHANDS.-  Petty  sutlers  who  follow  an  army 
on  its  inarch.  As  they  trenerally  deal  in  articles  whicli 
are  re(|nired  hy  the  ollicers  and  soldiers, it  is  thehusi- 
ness  of  every  (!eneral  to  see  them  ])ro|)erly  treated, 
to  insure  their  safely,  and  to  jicrinit  them,  under  cer- 
tain rcL^iilalions,  to  have  access  to  the  camp. 

MARCHES.  -  1.  The  l)ounilarics  Ijclwcen  Kngland 
and  Scot  l.md,  also  between  England  and  Wales.  The 
term  siij;nitied  primarily  tin'  murk  of  a  country's 
limits  (the  ?;(«.)■<•/() ;  and  hence  was  apjtiied  as  a  desig- 
nation of  thel)ordcr  countries  ordislricis  of  the  Ger- 
man Kmpirc,  com|uered  from  neighbouriuLr  nations. 
Thus,  we  read  of  the  marlxni  Austria,  of  Northern 
Saxony  or  lirandenburi;,  Lausalia.  Jloravia,  Steier- 
mark,  etc.  Tlie  Lcovernors  intrusted  with  the  charge 
ofthe.se  border  districts,  or  mai-k.i,  were  called  mark- 
grnfn,  corresponding  to  the  English  and  Scottish 
WiinlenK  of  Uie  Morrhen.  '2.  The  movements  hy 
which  a  body  of  troops  is  conducted  from  oti<'  place 
to  another.  They  shoidd  be  well  directed  and  should 
be  ordered  so  as  to  conduct  the  troojis  to  their  des- 
tination with  the  least  amount  of  privation  and  fa- 
tigue compatible  with  the  object  to  be  attained.  The 
art  of  directing  properly  i>  march  belongs  to  "Strat- 
egy", while  the  art  of  arranging  the  details  of  its  exe- 
cution is  a  part  of  "Logistics."  As  the  success  of 
many  military  operations  depends  almost  entirely 
upon  their  execution  marches  form  a  most  im. 
portant  element  in  the  Art  of  War.  Marches  when 
made  at  a  distance  fnnn  the  enemy  and  where  it  is 
not  necessary  to  take  precautions  to  guard  against  an 
attack  are  known  as  rmiUt  marches  :  those  made  in 
the  theater  of  operations  and  where  the  enemy  may 
at  any  moment  make  his  sudden  a|)pcarauce,  are 
called  striitffjiatl  marches;  those  maclc  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  enemy  and  so  near,  tliat  they 
may  be  observed  by  him,  are  c;\\\i.-dtiii-ti'-iil  marches. 
Besides  these  three  classes  of  marches  which  arc 
based  upon  Iheposition  of  Ihe  enemy, writers  use  var- 
ious other  classitications,  based  nijonthe  objec^  to  be 
attained,  or  upon  some  other  characteristic  feature. 
These  are  known  as  marchiH  .ifajncsntration.umiieiiver 
indirlies.retreatK,  finnk-mnrches,  etc. 

Although  the  object  of  the  movement  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  ground  determine  the  order  of  march, 
the  kind  of  troops  in  e;ich  column,  and  the  number 
of  columns,  tlie  t'ommander  must  so  act  as  to  pre- 
sent his  men  in  rtghtmg  order  at  any  moment.  With 
this  in  view,  it  will  be  necessary  to  observe  the  fol- 
lowing points  :  1.  All  things  to  be  arranged  in  the 
same  order  in  which  they  are  likely  to  be  required. 
3.  The  cheerfulness  and  efficiency  of  the  men  to 
be  secured,  carefully  considering  the  proper  indul- 
gences, the  weather,  the  physical  features  of  the 
country,  and  iiuporlant  hygienic  principles.  3.  Tlie 
animals  to  be  herded,  loaded,  driven  and  guarded 
with  the  greatest  care.  When  distant  from  the  ene- 
my, or  when  in  broken  or  dusty  country,  certain 
considerations  of  the  first  order  may  very  properly 
give  way  to  case  and  comfort,  but.  as  a  general  rule, 
tile  transportation  (kept  well  closed  up)  should  fol- 
low closely  in  the  rear  of  the  main  command. 

The  simple  movements  of  the  troops,  like  that  of 
forming  into  line  of  battle  from  a  colunmformaiiou, 
or  the  converse,  or  a  change  of  position  in  the  actual 
presence  of  the  enemy,  form  apart  of  tactics:  but  the 
following  general  rules  arc  applicable  at  most  limes  i 


and  places  :  IJatteries  of  artillery  and  tlieir  caiHHOiw 
move  Willi  the  corps  to  which  they  are  attached; 
the  licld  train  ami  ambulances  march  at  the  rear  of 
the  column,  anil  the  baggage  with  the  rear  guard. 
(,'avalry  and  infantry  do  not  march  together,  unless 
the  ijroximity  of  the  enemy  makes  it  necessary.  In 
cavalry  marches,  when  distant  from  the  enemy,  each 
regiment,  and,  if  possilile,  ea<:h  squadron,  lorms  a 
separate  cohinin,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  same  gait 
from  front  to  rear,  and  to  trot,  when  desirable,  on 
I  good  ground.  In  such  cases,  the  cavalry  may  leave 
camj)  later,  and  can  give  more  rest  to  the  horses,  and 
more  attention  to  tlie  shoeing  and  harness.  Horses 
are  not  bridled  until  the  time  to  start.  The  ofTlcers 
and  non-commissioned  oHicers  of  cavalry  companies 
attend  ixrsonally  to  the  packs  and  girths.  When 
necessary,  the  orders  siiecify  the  rations  the  men  are 
to  carry  in  their  haversacks.  The  Field  Ollicers  and 
Captains  make  freipienl  inspeclions  during  the 
march;  at  lialts  they  examine  the  knapsacks,  valises, 
and  haversacks,  and  tlirow  away  all  articles  not 
authorized.  When  it  can  be  avoided,  troops  should 
not  be  assembled  on  high-roads  or  other  places 
where  they  interrupt  the  communication.  Generals 
of  divisions  and  Commanders  of  detached  corps  send 
a  Staff  Officer  to  the  rendezvous,  in  advance,  to 
receive  the  troops,  who.  upon  arriving,  take  their 
[ilace  in  the  order  of  battle,  and  then  form  in  close 
column,  unless  otherwise  ordered.  Artillery,  or 
;  trains  halted  on  the  roads,  form  in  file  on  oneside. 
The  execution  of  marching  orders  must  not  be  de- 
layed. If  the  Commander  is  not  at  tlie  head  of  his 
troops  when  they  are  to  march,  the  next  in  rank  puts 
the  column  in  motion.  If  possilile,  each  column  i^ 
preceded  by  a  ditachment  of  pioneers  to  remove 
obstacles  to  the  march,  aided,  when  necessary,  by 
infantry.  The  detachment  is  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions ;  one  stops  to  remove  the  tirst  obstacle,  the 
other  moves  on  to  the  next. 

In  night  marches,  and  at  bad  places  on  the  line  pf 
march,  when  iiracticable,  and  at  cross-roads,  if  neces- 
sary, intelligent  non-commissioned  officers  will  be 
posted  to  show  the  way,  and  iire  relieved  by  succes- 
sive details  from  the  regiments  asthey  comeup.  The 
Sergeant-major  of  each  regiment  remains  at  the  rear 
with  a  trumpeter  or  a  drummer,  to  give  notice  when 
darkness  or  dilficully  stops  the  march.  In  cavalry,  a 
trumpeter  is  placed  in  rear  of  each  squadron,  and  the 
signal  is  repeated  to  tlie  head  of  the  regiment.  The 
General  and  Field  Officers  frequently  stop. or  send  offi- 
cers to  the  rear,  to  see  that  the  troops  march  in  the 
prescribed  order.and  keep  their  distances.  To  (juick- 
eu  the  niarcli,  the  General  warns  the  Colonels,  and 
may  order  a  signal  to  be  sounded,  which  is  repeated 
in  all  the  regiments.  In  approaching  a  defile,  the 
Colonels  are  warned;  each  regiment  passes  separate- 
ly in  column  of  fours  in  the  order  designated  by  the 
Commanding  Officer,  two  battalions,  \vlien  possible, 
marching  abreast;  on  emerging  from  the  defile,  the 
battalions  form  line  under  the  immediate  direction 
of  the  General,  the  flank  battalions  being  so  posted 
as  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  passing  between  them 
and  Llie  entrance  to  the  defile.  Halts  to  rest  and  re- 
form the  troops  are  frequent  during  the  day, depend- 
ing on  the  object  and  length  of  the  march.  They 
are  made  in  preference  after  the  passage  of  defiles. 
Led  horses  of  officers,  and  the  horses  of  dismounted 
men,  follow  their  regiments.  The  baggage  wagons 
never  march  in  the  column.  When  the  General  or- 
ders the  field  train  and  amliulances  to  take  place  in 
the  column,  he  designates  the  position  they  shall 
take.  If  two  corps  meet  on  the  same  road,  they  pass 
to  the  right,  and  both  continue  their  march,  if  the 
road  is  wide  enough;  if  it  is  not.  the  first  in  the  order 
of  battle  takes  the  road,  the  other  halts.  A  corps  in 
niiirch  must  not  be  cut  by  another.  If  two  corps 
meet  at  cross-roads,  that  which  arrives  last  halts  if 
the  other  is  in  motion.  A  corps  in  march  passes  a 
corps  at  a  halt. if  it  has  precedence  in  the  order  of  bat- 
tle,orif  the  hailed  corps  is  not  ready  to  move  atonce. 


MARCHES. 


270 


MABCHES. 


A  column  that  lialts  to  let  another  column  pass  re- 
sumes the  march  in  advance  of  tlie  train  of  this  col- 
umn. If  a  column  has  to  pass  a  train.the  train  must 
halt,  if  necessary,  till  the  column  passes.  The  col- 
umn which  has  "precedence  must  yield  it  if  the  Com- 
mander, on  seeing  the  orders  of  the  other,  finds  it 
for  the  interest  oflhe  service. 

The  rate  of  march  ordinarily  for  different  troops  is 
a<  follows ;— Infantry,  2f  miles  an  hour:  tiekl-artil- 
lery  3^  miles  an  hour  :  horse-artillery  or  cavalry,  4  ^ 
to  5  miles  an  hour.  These  rates  only  apply  to  small 
bodies  marchins;  independently.  Practically,  in- 
fantry in  larse  bodies  can  only  march  at  the  rate  of 
2  miles  an  hour.  Infantry,  being  the  slowest  march- 
ers, necessarily  rea;ulate  the  pace  of  mi.xed  columns. 
It  is  computed  that  a  division  of  infantry  of  12  bat- 
tiilions.  of  800  men,  marching  in  fours,  will  occupy 
about  7,()80  yards.  Its  artillery  (two  batteries), 
without  wagons,  and  marching  by  divisions,  occu- 
pies about  400  yards.  A  divisiouemnplete.  including 
the  advanced  and  rear  guard,  will  cover  about  7 
miles.  To  determine  tlie  time  of  march  (T)  of  a 
column;  Let  D  =  the  distance  (in  feet)  to  be  passed 
over ;  L  =  the  length  of  the  column  in  feet ;  D'  = 
the  distance  (in  feet)  passed  over  in  one  minute  by 
the  column.incUidins;  halts;  and  T'  =the  time  of  de- 
lay (in  minutes)  duelo  the  elongation  of  the  column 
in  passing  defiles,  the  physical  cTondition  of  the  com- 
mand and  all  the  irregularities  of  the  route  ;  then, 
L 
=  the  time  (in  minutes)  for  the  column  to   pass 

D' 

over  a  distance  equal  to  its  length,  and  T  (in  min- 
utes) =  „ 
L        D  D-  T-  +  L  +  D 

T'  +  -  +  -  = ;; 

D'       D'  D' 

Thus,  for  a  column  of  troops  860  feet  in  depth, 
moving  at  the  rate  of  100  yards  per  minute  (includ- 
ing halts)  and  delayed  eleven  minutes,  to  pass  over 
six  miles, 

300  X  11  +  860  +  31680 

•J  = =  119^  minutes. 

300 


haiist  the  troops  immediately  before  engaging  the 
enemy.  Whenever  delay's  occur  in  front,  the  brigades 
may  form  in  column  of  battalions,  and  stack  arms. 
It  is  the  duty  of  all  Commanders,  within  their  com- 
mands,to  investigate,  personallj'  or  by  means  of  staiT- 
olHcers,  every  cause  of  dcla_y,ai)d  staif-ofiicers  should 
be  frequently  sent  ahead  for  the  purpose  of  gaining 
any  information  that  might  shorten  the  march,  and 
lessen  the  fatigue  of  the  troops. 

AVhen  cavalry  and  artillery  form  part  of  the  col- 
umn. Commanding  Officers  must  bear  in  mind  that 
their  efficiency  depends  almost  entirely  upon  the 
cunditiun.  of  the  horaen,  which  alone  make's  them  able 
to  get  over  long  distances  in  short  spaces  of  time. 
The  horses  must,  therefore,  be  nursed  with  great 
care,  in  order  that  they  may  endure  the  utmost  fa- 
tigue when  emergencies  demand  it.  When  near  the 
enemy,  the  artillery  always  marches  with  the  bulk 
of  the  troops,  its  place  being  near  the  center  or  rear 
of  the  infantry  or  cavalry,  never  at  the  head  of  the 
column.  In  campaign,  if  a  battery  does  not  march 
with  troops  of  the  other  arms,  a  sufficient  escort 
must  alwaj-s  be  provided. 

When  an  accident  happens  to  a  carriage,  it  is 
pulled  out  of  the  column,  if  possible,  so  as  not  to 
interrupt  the  march  ;  otherwise,  the  carriages  in  rear 
pass  it  by  the  most  convenient  flank  and  close  to 
proper  distance.  The  disabled  carriage  resumes  its 
place  as  soon  as  the  damage  is  repaireil ;  if  the  road 
be  narrow,  it  must  fall  into  the  lirst  interval  it  finds, 
and  regain  its  proper  place  as  soon  as  the  ground 
permit^.  The  caisson  of  a  disabled  piece  remains 
with  it;  a  piece,  however,  does  not  remain  with  its 
disabled  caisson,  the  caisson  corporal,  and  men  to 
assist  him,  if  necessary,  being  left  behind. 

When  a  piece  and  its  carriage  are  overturned,  it  is 
better  to  disengage  the  piece  by  letting  the  breech 
rest  on  the  ground,  or  on  a  block  of  ^\■ood,  and  by 
then  raising  the  muzzle  with  a  handspike,  while  the 
cap-squares  are  taken  off;  the  carriage  is  then  right- 
ed and  the  piece  mounted.  To  right  the  carriage 
without  disengaging  the  piece,  detach  the  limber, 
secure  the  cap-squares,  and  lash  the  knob  of  the 
cascabel  to  the  stock ;  place  tlie  middle  of  a  rope 
over  the  nave  of  one  wheel,  pass  the  ends  of  it  down- 
ward between  the  lower  spokes  of  that  wheel,  then 
under  the  carriage,  through  the  corresponding  spokes 
of  the  other  wheel,  and  then  upward  over  the  wheel 
and  across  the  top  of  the  carriage  to  the  side  where 
it  was  first  attached ;  the  ends  of  the  rope  and  the 
wheel  to  be  raised  are  then  manned,  and  the  carriage 


The  average  march  for  infantry  is  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  miles  per  day.  When  troops  move  in  large 
bodies,  and  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  enemy, 
the  march  should  be  conducted  in  several  columns, 
in  order  to  diminish  the  depth  of  the  columns, and  to 
expedite  the  deployment  into  line  of  battle.  The 
order  of  march  should  state  the  time  for  each  divis- 
ion to  commence  its  movement,  so  as  not  to  interfere  j  pulled  over,  two  men  being  required  to  steady  the 
with  the  march  of  the  division  preceding  or  follow-  |  trail.  If  necessary,  the  ends  of  the  rope  may  be  fas- 
ing.  and  to  prevent  fatigue  from  keeping^'meu  longer  tened  to  the  limber,  and  horses  used  to  assist  in  right- 
under  arms  than  is  necessary.  In  route  marches,  feg.    '—-  "  '-'—       *  '"■  — '  ■*"  '      =  '-' 


iments  usually  alternate  in  leading  the  brigade  ;  in 
like  manner  brigades  alternate  in  divisions,  and  div- 
isions in  corps.'  In  large  commands,  the  roads,  if 
possiVile,  are  left  to  the  artillery  and  trains.  The  ord- 
er of  march  should  state  whether  the  troops  or  trains 
should  have  the  right  of  way.  Each  brigade  is  pro- 
vided with  a  corps  of  ])ioneers  under  charge  of  a 
commissioned  officer.  The  pioneers  precede  the  col- 
umn for  the  purpose  of  removing  obstacles  and  pre- 
paring the  way  for  the  troops.  AVhenever  fences, 
hedges,  walls^  ditches,  or  small  streams,  arecncoun- 
tere'd,  a  passage-way  is  made  wide  enough  for  four 
men,  or  eiglit  men  if  in  double  column  of  fours, 
to  march  abreast  without  obstruction.  This  will 
prevent  the  column  from  lengtliening  out,  and 
also  prevent  the  fatigue  and  delay  of  regaining 
distances.  On  long  marches,  a  halt  of  half  or 
three-quarters  of  an  liour  should  be  made  for  the 
regular  meals.  The  halt,  if  practicable,  should  be 
made  in  the  vicinity  of  wood  and  water.  When  long 
distances  have  to  be  overcome  rapidly,  it  is  done  l)y 
changing  tlie  gaits;  the  double  tiniiMs  used  for  ten 
or  fiffeen  minutes,  and  the  quick  time  for  live  minu- 
tes; the  most  favf)riible  ground  is  selected  for  the 
double  time  ;  special  care  should  be  taken  not  to  ex- 


ing  the  carriage.  A  piece  and  its  carriage  may  also 
be  righted  without  disengaging  the  pieccTas  follows: 
detach  the  limber;  fasten  two  prolonges,  or  the 
middle  part  of  a  picket-rope,  to  the  trail;  chock  the 
wheels;  and  dig  an  oblong  hole  under  the  muzzle 
about  two  and  a  half  feet  ileep:  pass  one  of  the  pro- 
longes, or  one  end  of  the  ])icket-rope,  over  the  car- 
riage to  the  front:  man  the  ends  of  the  prolonges,  or 
picket-rope;  then  raise  the  trail  and  pass  it  over  the 
axle  to  the  opposite  side.  Other  methods  may  be  re- 
sorted to,  depending  upon  the  circumstances"  of  the 
case,  and  the  appliances  at  hand.  Light  carriages 
may  be  righted  by  hand  without  using  a  rope. 

After  pulling  up  a  short,  steep  hill,  the  horses 
should  lie  halted  to  recover  their  wind;  when  this 
cannot  lie  done,  they  will  move  very  slowly.  In  go- 
ing up  a  difficult  hill,  ttie  carriiiges  may  be  haltedto 
rest  tlie  horses,  by  bringing  them  across  the  declivi- 
ty and  locking  the  limbers  or  diocking  the  wheels; 
for  this  purpose,  it  may  be  expedient  to  start  the 
sections,  or  platoons,  from  the  bottom  in  succession, 
leaving  a  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  yards  between 
the  dilTerent  portions  of  the  cohiinu."  'if  the  draught 
be  so  difficult  that  the  teams  are  li;ible  to  sl:dl,  some 
of  the  carriiiges  in  the  rear  are  halted  and  tlieir  lead- 
ers hitched  to  the  teams  in  front ;  on  completing  the 


UABCHING. 


271 


HABCHINO. 


asopnt.  thosp  loaders  arc  sent  hnrk  to  tlio  oarriages 

•wliii-li  hnvr  liiillcd,  with  us  iiiiiiiy  aililitiniiiil  \y,tirn  as 
may  br  r(((uin'(l.  As  i!  is  very  lianl  to  make  llic> 
liorscs  pull  li)i;cllii-'r,  ikH  more  tiiaii  live  pairs  can  be 
liilclicil  wilb  cfTcc^l  to  a  single  carria^re.  The  drivers 
never  disinniiiil.  in  goiiij;  down  hill ;  the  wheel-driver 
holds  his  near  horse  well  in  band,  and  his  oil"  horse 
very  short;  the  other  drivers  barely  streleh  their 
traces.  If  the  hill  be  st(^"i).the  wheels  may  be  locked  ; 
if  vi'ry  sleep,  the  proloni^e  may  be  used  by  the  can- 
noneers to  lioKI  back  ;  in  this  case  the  wheel-horses 
only  remain  hitched  to  the  carriage,  the  others  being 
leit  in  rear.  In  moimted  batteries,  the  cannoneers 
nsnally  attend  to  the  loeUing;  in  horse  batteries,  the 
swinii-driver,  or  with  a  team  of  but  two  pairs,  tlie 
lead-driver,  dismonnls  for  this  jjurpose ;  slioidd 
there  be  a  ditch  or  other  ilaut;erons  i)lace  on  the 
rnail-siile,  the  wheel  toward  th.-it  side  is  locked  jn 
preference  to  the  other.  If  a  carriage  have  to  move 
alonj;  a  declivity  so  steep  that  a  sliijlit  jolt  nniy  ovu- 
turn  it,  a  prolonire  is  fastened  to  the  lower  side  ol 
the  carriage,  and  held  by  two  or  three  cannoneers 
who  march  on  the  upper  side  of  the  slope;  the  rope 
passes  over  the  carriage.  When  crossing  a  ditch, 
if  it  be  wide  and  dee]),  the  prolonge  is  H.xed  and  the 
handspike  taken  out ;  the  team  is  halted  on  the  <^dgc, 
;ind  I  he  piece  run  by  hand  close  to  the  limber,  which 
then  moves  slowly  until  the  piece  reaches  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ditch,  when  it  moves  qvucklj-  until  the 
piece  is  out.  If  the  ditch  be  deep  and  narrow,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  cut  down  the  edges,  and  hold 
back  with  prolonges;  shoidd  the  trail  sink  into  the 
ground  in  passing  over,  it  is  disengaged  with  a  hand- 
spike, or  by  fastening  a  i)rolonge  to  it.  In  passing 
shallow  ditches,  drains,  or  deep  furrows,  the  car- 
riage must  cross  them  obliquely.  When  moving 
over  marshy  ground,  each  ciirriage  moves  at  a  dis- 
tance of  ten  or  twelve  yards  from  the  <me  preceding 
it,  to  avoid  having  to  halt  ;  ollicers,  or  uon-commi.s- 
sioned  officers,  are  posted  at  the  worst  places  to  in- 
struct the  drivers  how  to  conduct  their  teams.  The 
horses  must  pull  freely  and  quicken  the  gait ;  if  the 
ground  be  ver}'  miry,  it  ma_v  be  neces.sary  to  assist 
with  prolonges,  or  even  to  use  them  alone,  the  teams 
crossing  separately. 

When  about  to  cross  a  ford. if  it  be  not  well  known, 
it  must  be  examined,  and  the  dangerous  places 
marked,  before  the  c;irriages  attempt  to  cross.  If 
the  water  be  deep  and  the  current  strong,  great  care 
is  necessary.  The  men  ;ire  instructed  to  keep  their 
eyes  fixed  on  some  object  on  tlie  opposite  bank  which 
marks  the  place  of  exit ;  they  must  not  look  at  the 
stream,  and  move  rather  against  the  current,  so  as  to 
better  resist  its  power.  If  the  ford  have  al)ad  bottom, 
and  the  banks  be  difficult,  the  teams  arestcengthened 
by  adding  pairs ;  an  officer  or  ncm-commissioned  offl- 
eei;,  is  posted  at  the  entrance  to  regulate  the  distance 
between  carriages,  and  to  instruct  the  drivers  how  to 
proceed  ;  a  second  officer,  or  non-commissioned  offi- 
cer is  posted  at  the  exit  to  direct  the  drivers  how  to 
leave  the  ford.  The  management  of  the  teiim  is  the 
same  as  in  crossing  marsh}-  ground  ;  the  horses  must 
not  be  allowed  to  halt,  or  trot,  either  in  passing  the 
ford  or  in  leaving  it,  imless  the  stream  be  neither 
deep  nor  very  rapid;  in  this  case,  the  carriages  may 
be  lialted  to  let  tlie  horses  drink,  or  at  least  to  give 
them  a  mouthful  of  water.  Upon  reaching  the  op- 
posite b;ud<,  the  leading  carriages  are  halted  after 
they  have  moved  far  enough  forward  to  leave  room 
for  the  carriages  in  rear.  If  the  chests  be  not  water- 
tight, and  are  at  the  usual  height  of  two  feet  ten  in- 
ches above  tlie  ground,  a  ford  deeper  than  two  feet 
four  inches  cannot  be  crossed  without  danger  of  wet- 
ting the  ammunition.  If  the  chests  be  w;iter-tight, 
or  means  have  been  t;dcen  to  raise  them  higli  enough, 
a  depth  of  three  ;md  one-third  feet  ni;iy  be  s;ifely  at- 
tempted. When  the  ford  is  deeper  than  this,  the 
cannoneers  must  carryover  the  cartridges,  fuses, and 
primers,  in  pouches  which  they  hold  above  the  water. 
The  chests  are  sometimes  removed  and  taken  over  in 


boats.  In  crossing  rivers  wliioh  cannot  bo  forded, 
when  there  are  no  bridges,  the  horses  are  swum,and 
the  carriages  and  harness  crossed  on  rafts,  etc.,  if 
tl«;  rivers  be  liroad  and  swift,  it  is  loo  hazardous  for 
horses  to  be  ridden;  in[t his  ease  a  horse,  known  to 
b(;  a  good  swiinnier,  is  riilden  without  a  saddle,  as  a 
leader,  the  other  horses  following  without  riders; 
the  horses  are  led  or  driven  to  the  bank,  anri  can  gen- 
erally   be    made   to    take  the  water    wi'.hout   much 

I  trouble.   The  bridle-reins  must  be  secured  tojirevenl 

i  the  horses  from  getting  their  legs  entangled.  A  horse 
swims  easily  and  safely  with  a  man  lloating  and 
holding  lotlK^  mane  or  tail.  In  the  pas.sagc  of  a 
military  bridge,  when  at  the  entrance  of  the  bridge, 
the  lead  and  swing  drivers  disuKnint  and  lead  their 
pairs.  A  distance  of  twelve  yards  is  taken  between 
the  carriages,  and  the  gait  is  free  and  decided  ;  the 
drivers  keep  the  carriages  as  near  the  middle  of  the 
flooring  as  possible,  and  must  not  halt;  if  tlie  bridge 
crack  under  a  carriage,  it,  must  increase  its  gait  and 
get  over  as  fast  as  possible.  If  the  flooring  be  wet, 
battens  should  be  nailed  across  it  to  keep  the  horses 
from  falling.  If  the  bridge  begins  to  rock,  the  pass. 
age  of  the  column  is  suspended.  In  passing  over  a 
Hying  bridge,  all  the  drivers  dismount  and  hold  their 
hlirses  ;  it  may  be  occasionally  advisable  to  take  the 
horses  out ;  aiid  in  boisterous  weather,  or  at  night, 
the  wdieels  may  be  locked. 

The  disposal  of  the  troops  for  a  march  and  the 
manner  of  executing  it  and  overcoming  the  difficulties 
attending  the  same  lielong,  as  we  have  already 
observed,  to  the  practical  details  of  the  profession,  for 
which  speeilic  rules  are  laid  down  in  every  service  ; 
and  with  which  it  is  presumed  that  every  man  who 
accepts  the  resposibility  of  a  General's  position  has 
made  himself  acquainted.  All  of  this  may  be  sum- 
med up  in  a  few  words.  First,  the  trains  of  every 
description  must  be  covered  by  the  troops,  for  which 
inirpose  they  must,  in  an  advance  movement,  be 
either  in  the  rear,  or  on  that  flank  where  they  will 
be  least  exposed  to  the  enemy.  In  a  retreat  they 
nnisl  be  in  advance  .  When  an  army  moves  in  sev- 
eral nearly  parallel  columns,  the  combination  must  be 
such  that' an  imposing  force  can  soon  be  concentrat- 
ed on  anv  point  thre:itened.  The  divisions  of  each 
column  must,  in  like  manner,  be  in  supporting  dis- 
tance of  each  other,  but,  for  convenience,  not  crowd- 
ed on  the  march.  As  to  advanced  guards,  flankers, 
and  rear  guards,  both  their  strength  and  composi- 
tion must  depend  on  the  General's  judgment,  found- 
ed on  the  force,  characterand  position  of  the  enemy, 
and  of  the  nature  of  the  country  through  which  the 
march  is  made.  Just  in  proportion  as  he  has  read, 
has  refiectcd,  has  had  oiiportunities  for  action,  will 
his  judgment  lead  him  to  take  right  measures; 
whilst  still  more  certainly,  if  he  has  wanted  these 
aids  to  forming  an  enliiihtened  judgement,  will  he 
take  wrong  one.  See  ('(inceiitvatwu  Marches,  Flank 
Marches.  Maneuver  Marches.  Route  Marches,  Strat- 
egical Mnrchci.  and  Tactical  Marches. 

MAECHING.— One  of  the  first  necessities  to  dis- 
tinguish ;i  body  of  disciplined  troops  from  a  mere 
crciwd  of  men.  "is  a  regular  cadenced  stej).  taken  by 
every  individual  at  the  same  time  and  with  the  same 
foot."  The  necessitv  of  this  for  harmonious  action 
is  obvious.  The  a'ncient  Roman  legions  had  mili- 
tary music  to  beat  the  time  for  their  march.  In  the 
feu'dal  ages,  when  infantry  fell  into  disrepute,  ca- 
denced marching  Wiis  unattended  to,  and  seems  only 

I  to  have  been  thoroughlv  revived  by  Marshal  Saxe. 

I  The  best  music  for  a  march  is  found  to  be  some  sim- 
ple tune,  such  as  can  readilv  be  performed  by  drums 
and  fifes.  The  music,  besides  preserving  the  time, 
acts  as  a  preventative  of  fatigue. 

In  the  British  service  there  are  the  slow  march  of 
Tf)  paces,  each  of  30  inches,  in  a  minute— only  used 
on  parade:  the  quick  imircli.  of  110  paces,  in  winch 
all  evolutions  are  performed  :  anil  the  double-quick. 
of  1/50  running  paces,  with  the  knees  raised  high. 
This  last  cannot  be  sustained  for  any  great  ilistance. 


MAECHING  MONET. 


272 


MABECHAl. 


and  is  employed  in  a  charge,  or  in  suddenly  occup_v- 
ing  a  hill  or  some  commanding  position,  and  in  a  few 
short  iuterral  movements  of  regiments. 

In  the  United  States  service,  the  length  of  the 
step  in  common  and  quick  time  is  28  inches,  and  the 
cadence  is  at  the  rate  of  90  steps  per  minute  for  com- 
mon time  and  110  for  quick  time;  in  double  time, 
the  length  of  the  step  is  33  inches,  and  the  cadence 
at  the  fate  of  165  steps  per  )minute,  but  it  may  be 
increased  to  180.  When  troops  are  to  march  a  long 
distance,  the  route  step  is  employed,  the  men  keep- 
ing tlieir  proper  places  in  the  ranks.     See  Mnrrhes. 

MABCHING  MONEY.— The  adtlitional  pay  which 
officers  and  si  ■Idiers  receive  for  the  purpose  of  cover- 
ing the  expense  necessarily  incurred  when  marching 
from  one  place  to  another. 

MAECHING  OKDEK.— A  soldier  is  said  to  be  in 
marching  <inli  r  wlien  he  is  fully  equipped  with  arms, 
ammunition,  and  a  portion  of  his  kit.  In  the  Eng- 
lish service  this  equipment  weighs  from  30  to  35 
pounds.  In  service  marching  order,  hy  the  addition 
of  provisions  and  some  campaigning  necessaries,  be 
carrys  nearly  50  pounds.  The  heavy  marching  o-rder, 
whicli  was  yet  heavier,  is  now  happily  abolished, 

MARCHING  ORDERS. — The  orders  issued  prepara- 
tory  to  troops  marching.  In  these  orders,  the  routes, 
theorders  of  march. and  detailed  instructions  for  the 
different  arms  of  the  service  are  clearlj'  set  forth  ; 
and  in  the  British  service  the  marching  orders  are 
intended  to  cover  at  Itast  si.\  days. 

MARCHING  REGIMENTS.—A  "term  given  in  Eng- 
land to  those  regiments  having  no  permanent  quar- 
ters, but  liable  to  be  sent  to  any  part  of  Great  Britain 
or  to  any  part  of  her  possessions  abroad.  Although 
the  word  ni'irching  is  insensibly  confounded  with 
those  of  line  and  regulars,  it  was  originally  meant  to 
convey  something  more  than  a  mere  liability  to  be 
ordered  upon  any  service ;  for  by  marching  the  reg- 
ular troops  from  one  town  to  another,  the  inhabi- 
tants, who  from  time  immemorial  have  been  jealous 
of  a  standing  army,  lost  their  antipathy  to  real  sol- 
diers, by  the  occasional  absence  of  regidar  troops. 
At  present  the  English  guards,  infantry,  etc.,  may 
be  considered  more  or  less  as  Mnrcliing  liegimetits. 
The  marines  and  volunteers  have  stationary  quar- 
ters. J 

MARCH  PAST.  — An  expression  made  use  of  when 
a  regiment  or  any  larger  body  of  men  pass  in  review 
order  before  the  Sovereign  or  Reviewing  Officer.  It 
is  usuall}'  performed  in  column  or  quartei'-columu 
at  quick  march  or  at  the  double,  and  with  the  moun- 
ted branch,  when  so  ordered,  at  a  quick  trot,  canter, 
or  gallop.  In  England,  the  "  march  past"  of  large 
bodies  of  troops  is  carried  out  after  the  completion 
of  the  autumn  maneuvers  or  summer  drills. 

MARCOMANNI. — .\n  ancient  German  people  who, 
in  the  time  of  (';esar,  lived  along  the  banks  of  the 
Uhine.  but  afterwards,  as  appears  from  Tacitus  and 
Strabo,  settled  in  Bohemia,  from  Avhich  the)'  expell- 
ed tlie  Boil.  Their  King,  ^laroljoiluus,  entered  into 
an  alliance  with  tlie  tribes  living  around  them  to  de- 
fend Germany  against  the  Romans.  The  combined 
forces  of  tlie  alliance  numbered  70.000  men,  and  the 
Emperor  Tiljerius  signed  a  treaty  with  them  6  a.  d.  ; 
but  tlie  Marcomannic  Alliance  was  bealen  11  years 
later  by  the  Clierusci  and  their  allies,  and  in  19  the 
Gotliic  Catualda  drove  ilaroboduus  from  the  throne, 
and  himself  usurped  the  sovereignty.  But  he  was 
soon  overtlirown,  and  the  native  dynasty  establish- 
ed, under  wliose  rule  the  ilarcomanni  extended  their 
territory  up  to  the  Danulie,  till  their  encroachments 
alarmed  the  Romans,  whoattacked  Ihem  in  the  tiTiie 
of  l)oinilian.  This  war.  which  subsided  for  a  time 
in  till'  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian. broke  out  again 
under  JIarcus  Aurelius,  anil  was  carried  on  with 
bitterness  from  l(iU  to  180.  when  it  was  ended  by 
the  peace  of  ('ommodus.  The  iMarcomanni  contin- 
ued to  make  raids  into  the  Provinces  of  Noricum 
and  Hhtctia,  and  in  270  invadeil  Ilaly  as  far  as  An- 
cona.     From  this  time  thty  are  little  heard  of  ;  and 


their  identitv  finally  disappears  among  the  followers 
of  Attila. 

MAEDI  GEAS.— The  French  designation  for  what 
is  known  as  Shrove  Tuesday  in  the  calendar  of  the 
English  Church,  the  Festival  held  upon  the  Tuesday 
preceding  Ash  Wednesday,  the  first  day  of  Lent ; 
with  the  exception  of  Mi-Careme  or  Mid-Lent  Thurs- 
day, the  last  of  the  prolonged  festivities  known  as 
the  Carnival.  It  is  most  extensively  celebrated  in 
Rome  and  Paris.  In  the  latter  it  has  been  the  cus- 
tom for  many  centuries  to  lead  in  procession  a  fat  or 
prize  ox  (JJeeuf  Crr<is  whence  Mardi  Gras),  followed 
in  a  triumphal  car  by  a  child  called  the  Butchers' 
King.  The  entire  day  and  night  is  spent  in  the 
wildest  revelry,  sometimes  degenerating  into  unre- 
strained license.  In  the  L'nited  States  the  only  cele- 
bration of  Mardi  Gras  worthy  of  note  is  that  of  New 
Orleans,  where  the  first  display  was  given  in  1857, 
and  since  the  end  of  the  war  the  observance  has 
been  carried  out  with  great  pomp  and  splendor. 
For  the  preceding  week  tlie  gayetj'  has  been  univer- 
sal, and  on  3Iardi  Gras  the  wliole  city  is  turned  over 
to  the  rule  of  King  Rex,  v/ho  enters  "the  gates  on  the 
previous  day.  On  Tuesda)'  the  mimic  monarch, 
passes  through  the  streets,  escorted  by  his  body- 
guard, the  "  Mystic  Krewe  of  Comus,"  Knights  of 
Momus,  and  various  military  and  visiting  organiza- 
tions. To  him  are  confided  the  gates  of  the  city  ; 
minor  police  regulations  are  suspended,  and  until 
the  dawn  of  Ash  Wednesday  the  air  is  filled  with 
music  ;  in  every  street  are  dense  throngs  of  merry- 
makers, and  the  glare  of  illuminations.  In  the 
evening  occurs  the  great  street  pageant  of  the  Mystic 
Krewe  of  Comus,  in  which  are  displayed  elaborate 
tableaux,  placed  on  moving  platforms  and  brilliantly 
illuminated.  These  represent  noted  scenes  of  history, 
poetry  .or  fiction, and  are  constructed  at  great  expense 
and  with  artistic  elegance.  All  the  arrangements  of 
the  parades  and  accompanying  balls  are  under  the 
control  of  societies  composed  of  the  most  noted 
professional  and  business  men  of  the  city.  The 
observance  is  gaining  ground  also  in  Memphis. 

MARECHAL.— A  Major  General.  This  word  is 
variousl}'  compounded  in  forming  military  terms. 
Marechal  de  Bataille  is  a  military  rank  which  once 
existed  in  France,  but  was  suppressed  before  the 
Revolution,  or  rather  confined  to  the  Body-Guards. 
An  otficer  belonging  to  that  corps  received  it  as  an 
honorary  title.  Its  original  functions,  etc.,  with  re- 
spect togeneral  service,  sank  in  the  appointment  cf 
Mar&'halde  Camp  unci  Major  General.  It  was  first 
created  by  Louis  XIII.  Marechal-deneral  des  Lagis 
df  la  Cavalerie  took  place  under  Charles  IX.  in  1594. 
He  had  the  chief  direction  of  everything  which  re- 
lated to  the  French  cavalry.  Marechal  des  Logispmir 
les  Vivres  was  a  person  belonging  to  the  Quarter- 
master General's  Department  in  the  old  PYench  ser- 
vice. The  person  invested  with  the  rank  of  Marechal 
de  Camp  was  a  General  Officer  and  ranked  next  to  a 
Lieutenant  General.  It  was  his  duty  to  see  the  army 
properl}-  disposed  of  in  camp  or  quarters,  to  be 
present  at  all  the  movements,  to  be  the  first.to  mount 
hischarger  and  the  last  to  quit  him.  He  commanded 
the  left  in  all  attacks.  The  appointment  under  this 
distinction  was  first  created  by  Henry  IV.  in  1598. 
Marechal-Ceni'ral  des  Camps  et  Armeis  du  Ri'i  was  a 
post  of  high  dignity  and  trust,  which  during  the 
French  Monarchy  was  annexed  to  the  rank  of  Mare- 
chal de  France.  Military  writers  dilfer  with  respect 
to  the  privileges,  etc.,  which  belonged  to  this  ap- 
pointment ;  itis,  however,  generally  acknowledged 
that  the  General  Gfflcer  wiio  held  it  was  intrusted 
with  the  whole  management  of  a  siege,  being  sub- 
ordinale  only  to  the  Constable,  or  to  any  ci\]tcT  Mare 
chal  tie  France,  who  was  his  senior  in  ajipointment. 
Mari'chal-Oeneral  des  l.ogis  de  I'Armec  was  an  ap- 
pointment which  existed  during  the  old  French  gov- 
ernment, and  has  since  been  replaced  by  the  Oh'fde 
e  Ktat-Majiir,  which  corresponds  with  that  of  Quar- 
termastcr-Geueral  in  the  British  service. 


MARECHAUS8EES  DE  FRANCE. 


273 


MARIOTTE'8  LAW. 


MARECHAUS8EE8  DE  FRANCE.— A B|?ecics 
itary  poli'-t^  wIi'k'Ii  furincrly  c.vistcil  in  I'nincc. 
ing  thy  Krciich  Monarchy  tlicrc  were  :JI  (■(impiinics 
of  MarechivuHsi'es  k  (,'hi'v'al,  ur  iimiinlcil  pnlic-cmi'H. 
Thc'secompunies  wcn^fm-riicilfor  IhrlpiirpuM'  ofprc- 
BCrviiit;  piililic  IraiKiuility,  and  witc  dislrilHilcd  in 
the  iliii'iTrTil  I'rnvinccs  nf  the  Kinu'iloni.  Th'iH  ii^'cful 
body  ijf  ni<-n  wa-*  tirst  foriniil  under  I'hili])!.  in  1000; 
they  wore  aflcrvvards  »upprc«xfd.and  afjain  rocstal)- 
lishcd  in  17:30, as  const itulinir  a  part  of  Uic  (Jcndarni- 
erie   of    France.      There   were   oilier   eompanies    of 


of  mil-  no  uliip  can  ever  pSsBCBB  any  comparable  resinting 
Dur-  i)()W(rr  ;  and,  as  they  are  armed  with  nuns  the  smallest 
of  which  will  iirohahlv  !)'■  :iOO-poiiM<l<:rs.  itis  expect- 
ed that  they  will  be  able  to  destroy  any  fleet  that 
could  be  sent  afainsl  them.  At  the  present  day  the 
value  of  sea-fort ilications  is  disputed,  as  iron-plated 
vessels  may  pass  them  with  impunity  unless  tliear- 
tillerv  in  the  fort  be  ho  heavy  as  to  destroy  the  ar- 
mor iif  till-  shiiis.  In  the  Ion;;;  run,  however,  it  is 
appari'iil  that  th(^  fort  can  command  the  (greater 
power,  for  its  armor  mav  be  of  any   thickness,  while 


from  the  :!1   above  mentioned:  such,  lor  iiislaiice,  as 
thai  of  till-  Cniistablcs,  called  the  ( iciidarmcrie. 

MARGRAVE.  A  German  Nobleman  correspond- 
in..;  in  rank  to  the  English  Marquis.  Margravine  is 
the  wife  of  a  Afdrf/mrr.  See  MarqueHS. 
MARINE  FORTIFICATION.  Marine  fortification  dif- 
fers from  l.-ind  rorlilieati.pu  in  that  till'  approaches 
of  till'  encmv  wliicli  are  to  be  resisted  lake  place 
on  the  level  of  the  sea,  so  that  he  can  coiiu^  near 
wilhout  havim;  to  overcome  the  danjjjerous  slope  of 
the  glacis.  The  combat  is  simply  one  between  two 
powerful  batteries,  and  the  iiuestion  to  be  decided 
is  whether  the  ship  or  the  fort  will  first  be  placed 
A»;-.v  de  cumhat ;  the  ship  bavins;;  ordinarily  the  lari;- 
esl  number  of  guns,  while  the  fort  has  more  sf)lid 
batllementa,  and  its  fewer  guns  of  gn-at  calil)er  can 
be  lircil  with  a  steadiness  unallainable  on  so  shifting 
a  base  as  the  ocean.  Vnder  I  hese  circumstances,  the 
less  relief  a  sea-fortress  has  the  heller,  as  by  so  much 
the  less  is  it  likelv  to  be  hit  from  the  shipping.  Its 
walls  arc  usually  "built  perpendicular,  or  nearly  so. 
The  magazines  "and  quarters  for  the  men  are  bomb- 
proof, as  also  are  the  casemates,  from  which  the 
guns  are  usually  fired,  although  sometimes,  as  in  llie 
'martello-tower,"thc  gun  is  worked  on  the  top  of  the 
siruelure.  Sea-fortifieations  may  be  of  various  im- 
portance, the  simplest  being  the"  battery  consisting 


Marechau;;;^;;;;  who  wM-e  panicuiany  disiinguished  that  of  ihe  ship "'-' ';;:';;;!'i;;;i  'g!;:\!l";^:"%!;::'::i 

■         •  ....  »rs.  and.  on  the  oilier  hand,  the  iimii  lo  tin.    si/.e  oi 

arlillery  must  !)<•  sooner  reached  in  a  ship  than   in    a 
solid  and  slationary  fortress. 

MARINES.— Troops  who  serve  at  naval  statifms, 
and  on  board  ships  of  war.  The  men  are  drilled  in 
all  respects  as  soldiersfli'.rlit  infantryj.  and  therefore 
on  shore  arc  simply  ordinary  land-forces.  On  board 
ship  they  are  train'eil  to  seaman's  dulics.  but  still  pre- 
serving "their  mililary  organization.  Their  ordinary 
functions  an;  as  sharpshooters  in  time  of  action  and 
at  other  times  to  furnish  sentries  for  guarding  the 
stores,  gauL'ways,  etc.  They  are  useful  as  exercis- 
ing a  good'eontrol  over  the  "less  rigidly  disciplined 
sariors\  and  having  always  fire-arms  and  bayonet.* 
ready,  tliey  have  often  been  instrumental  in  sup- 
pressing tlu'  first  outbn-aks  of  mutiny.  The  intro- 
duefioir  of  -Marines  into  the  American  Army  took 
place  by  Act  of  Congress,  passed  Nov.  10.  ITT.'i,  by 
which  two  battalions  of  this  arm  were  directed  to  be 
organized.  Again,  by  Act  of  .July  11. 1798,  "estab- 
lishing and  organizing  a  .Marine  Corps,"  this  body 
became  an  established  element  in  the  naval  force  of 
the  L'nited  States,  liable  to  do  duty  either  on  board 
vessels  of  war  at  sea,  in  fortsor  otherwise  upon  shore 
as  might  be  directed  by  the  President.  The  Coni- 
mandant  of  the  Corps  has  the  rank  and  pay  of  Col- 
onel. It  has  no  regimental  organization,  however, 
but  may  be  formed  into  as  many  companies  or  de- 
tachments as  the  President  may  direct.  V,htn  em- 
ployed on  naval  service  the  .Marines  are  subject  to  the 
law"s  and  regulations  which  govern  the  Navy;  but  if 
eno-a"-ed  on  "shore  duty,  they  are  aiiunalile  to  the  au- 
thority of  the  Articles  of  W'ar.  The  United  States 
Marine  Corps  consisted  in  1880  of  8(i  ofhcers  and  1,- 
.500  enlisted  men.  Marines  were  first  established  in 
En.'land,  as  a  nursery  from  whence  to  obtain  sea- 
men to  man  the  fleet,  "by  Order  in  Council  of  Oct.  16, 
1604.  Their  utility  becoming  conspicuous,  other 
of  a  mere  parapet  formed  in  a  cliff  or  on  a  hill,  and  regiments  of  Marine  Forces  were  raised,  so  that  by 
mounted  with  u'uns  to  command  the  sea :  these  are  1741  there  were  10,000  men,  anil  in  17.'59  as  many  as 
generally  builtln  such  conceaied  situations  that  it  18,000.  During  the  great  French  war  the  number 
"is  hoped"  the  hostile  ships  will  not  perceive  them  un-  rose  above  30,000,  but  a  great  reduction  took  place 
til  they  actually  open  fire.  They  are  numerous  all  after  peace  was  concluded.  By  recent  ^a^  .?' 
around  the  Bri"tish  coast.  Next"  greater  in  import- 1  mates,  14,000  Marines  were  provided,  including -,- 
anee  is  the  martello-tower.  More^iiowerful  still  are  |  900  artillery,at  a  yearly  cost  of  £940,417.  Their  goyem- 
the  beach-forts,  such  as  those  which  cm  either  shore  ment  rests  solely  with  the  Admir;ilty.  1  he  Koval 
defend  the  entrance  to  Portsmouth  harbor;  these  !  Marines  are  divided  into  three  divisions  of  light  m- 
are  constructed  of  the  most  solid  masonry,  faced  |  fantry  and  one  of  artillery.  P>""m'.'",'''"  g"*^^  ">!  *_':'?3°^' 
with  massive  iron  plates,  and  armed  with  guns  of 
the  heaviest  caliber,  sweeping  the  very  surface  of  the 
sea,  so  as  to  strike  an  approaching  ship  between 
wind  and  water.  The  guns  are  usually  in  bomb- 
proof casemates,  and  the  fort  is  often  defended  on 
the  land  side  if  the  coast  be  level ;  if,  however,  high- 
er ground  be  behind,  this  would  be  useless,  and  then 
the  sea-front  alone  is  defensible.  Most  terrible  of 
all  sea-forts,  however,    are    the 

forts,  with  perpendicular  faces  and  two  or  three  tiers 
of  heavy  guns.  Such  are  the  tremenilous  batteries 
which  render  Cronstadt  almost  inapproachable,  and 
by  which  Spithead  and  Plymouth  Sound  are  now 
fortified.  These  forts  are  generally  liirge,  with  all 
the  requisites  for  a  garrison  to  maintain  itself ; 
against  them  wooden  ships  stand  no  cliance,  and  in 
tiie  American  Civil  War  fort  Sumter,  at  Ch.arlestcm, 
showed  itself  no  mean  antagonist  for  ironsides.  In 
such  forts  iron  is  employed  as  the  facing,  in  plates 
of  such  vast  thickness  and  weight  that  it  is  supposed 


ity  throughout  the  artillery  and  infantry  respective- 
ly. In  rank,  ilarine  Otiicers  correspond  with  .\rmy 
Officers  of  similar  grades  according  to  seniority:  as  a 
corps  the  Marines  "take  place  between  the  49th  and 
.50th  rciriments  of  Infantry  of  the  Line.  Every  ship, 
on  iKMiig  commissioned,  has  her  complement  of  Ma- 
rines drafted  into  her.  The  uniform  is  red,  with 
blue  facinss  and  white  belts.  On  their  colors  the 
completely  isolated  I  men  proudly  bear  the  word  ■■  Gibraltar,"  in  the  fa- 
nious  defense  of  which  fortress  they  bore  an  heroic 

MARIOTTES  LAW.— An  empirical  law  deduced  by 
Bovle  and  Mariotte  from  two  independent  series  of 
experiments,  thomrh.  stransrely  enough,  reached  by 
both  at  about  the  same  time.  It  is  generally  ex- 
pressed as  follows:  T/ie  Umperature  remaining  tlie 
mine,  the  volume  of  a  given  ma.^.i  of  gaaigin  inverse 
ratio  t^i  the  presKure  which  it  xustei'nji.  This  law  may 
be  held  to  besubstantially  correct  within  a  consider- 
able rano-e  of  pressure,    iut  the  labors  of  Regnault 


MAKK. 


274 


MAB.KSMANSHIP. 


have  made  it  evident  that  atmospheric  air  and  most 
other  gases,  especially  under  very  high  pressures. 
are  rcallvmore  compressed tlian  if  theyfollowed  Ihe 
law.  Tliis  deviation  is  most  marked  in  tlie  case  of 
gases  capable  of  being  liquefied,  as  they  approach 
the  point  of  liquefaction. 

MARE  1. — A  German  geographical  term,  which 
signified  primarily  the  ninrk  of  a  country's  limits 
{X\\e  march)-,  and  hence  was  applied  as  a  designa- 
tion of  the  border  countries  or  districts  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  con(|uered  from  neighboring  nations. 
Thus,  we  read  of  the  marks  of  Austria,  of  Northern 
Sa.xony  or  Brandenburg,  Lausatia,  Moravia,  Steier- 
mark,  etc.  The  Governors  intrusted  with  thecliarge 
of  these  border  districts,  or  the  maH's,  were  called 
Mnrh-graf.i.  corresponding  to  the  English  and  Scot- 
tish Wnr()fnx  of  tlw  marches.  See  Marquess.  2.  That 
toward  which  a  missile  is  sent ;  the  part  of  a  target 
aimed  ;it. 

MARKER.— 1.  The  soldier  who  forms  the  pivot  of 
a  wheeling  colunui.  3.  A  person,  whose  duty  it  is 
to  record  the  number  of  hits  and  misses  made  by 
soldiers  at  target-practice.  3.  In  maneuvers,  for  the 
purpose  of  indicating  the  direction  of  lines  of  battle, 
tlie  battalion  is  provided  with  four  markers,  who  are 
habitually  posted  in  the  line  of  file-closers,  one  near 
each  Hank  of  the  right  and  left  companies  when  in 
line,  and  the  leading  and  rear  subdivisions  when  in 
column.  At  parades  and  inspections,  two  markers 
are  required,  who  retire,  after  the  line  is  formed, 
behind  the  flanks  of  the  color-company.  At  inspec- 
tion they  accompaii}'  the  color-guard  to  the  front 
and  are  inspected  with  it,  taking  post  two  yards  from 
the  rear  rank,  in  rear  of  the  ni;ht  and  left'files. 

MARKING  MACHINE.— A  tool  for  impressing  text- 
ual or  emblematic  designs  into  finished  work  at  the 
armory  or  foundry.  The  drawing  shows  a  handy 
machine  of  this  class,  which  is  much  used.     The  de- 


sign is  formed  on  the  face  of  a  circular  die,  which 
revolves  witli  an  arljor  that  is  held  in  a  carriage  slid- 
ing in  uprights,  and  is  brought  to  its  work  by  a  foot- 
lever  (not  shown  in  the  drawing),  tlie  device  being 
impressed  on  the  piece  to  be  marked,  as  it  is  moved, 
with  the  table  to  which  it  is  secured,  by  hand-lever 
under  the  die.  Pieces  of  varying  diameti'rs  may  be 
marked  in  the  same  machine.  Tlic  machine  is 
mounted  on  legs  of  convenient  heiglit.  and  weighs 
about  ;!()()  pounds  All  caimcm  are  re(juired  to  be 
marked  with  the  weiglit  in  poimils.  Ihe  mnnber  of 
the  ])iece,  the  initials  of  the  Inspector's  name  tlie  in- 
itials or  nuiuc  of  f'Mindrvand  vcar  of  f.-iliricalioii.     All 


'  pieces  manufactured  in  the  United  States,  since  1861 
have  these  marks  on  the  face ;  those  of  previous  date 
have  them  distributed  on  the  ends  of  tlie  trunnions, 
the  face,  the  breech,  and  the  top.  The  numbers  tor 
each  kind  and  caliber  at  each  foundry  are  in  separ- 
ate series.  Cannon  that  have  been  "inspected  and 
condemned  are  marked  on  the  face  X  C.  See  In- 
upectiiin  of  Ordnrince. 

MAEKSMANSHIP.—To  become  skilled  in  marks- 
mcnisliip,  one  must  possess  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  rifie.  the  principles  of  its  construction,  its  capa- 
bilities, and  the  care  required  to  preserve  it  always 
in  a  condition  of  greatest  eliiciency,  ttie  laws  govern- 
ing the  flight  of  the  bullet,  and  the  causes  which 
tend  to  impress  upon  its  motion  certain  irregulari- 
ties ;  an  understanding  of  the  best  positions  for  fir- 
ing ;  a  readiness  for  estimating  distances ;  and  the 
experience  required  to  make  allowance  for  the  force 
of  the  wind,  or  the  motion  of  the  object  aimed  at. 
The  acquirement  of  the  requisite  skill  to  Are  accu- 
rately is  one  of  the  most  important  duties  of  the 
soldier:  not  only  his  own  safety  but  that  of  his 
companions  may  often  depend  upon  his  ability  to 
deliver  his  fire  with  elfect,  and  the  greatest  profici- 
ency in  the  manual  of  arms  cannot  atone  for  a  want 
of  dexterity  in  this  particular.  Any  man  having  per- 
fect vision  can,  through  perseverance,  become  a  fair 
marksman.  Long  practice  with  cartridges  is  not 
necessary;  but  a  strict  compliance  with  the  rules  for 
pointing  and  aiming,  and  a  careful  study  of  the  caus- 
es modifying  tlie  accuracy  of  fire,  will  be  sure  to 
lead  to  more  than  average  skill  in  firing. 

When  firing  in  vacuo,  the  trajectory  is  easily  trac- 
ed and  its  properties  simply  discussed.  Considering 
its  position  with  reference  to  the  line  of  sight  it  wiU 
be  seen  that  near  the  muzzle  it  is  below  the  line  of 
sight  for  some  distance,  then  it  cuts  it ;  beyond  this 
point  it  riscsabove  the  line  of  sight  for  some'dislance, 
then  falls  and  cuts  it  again.  This  second  point  of  in- 
tersection is  the  point-blank  and  deteriuines  the  point- 
lilank-range.  With  a  rifle,  up  to  175  or  200  yards, 
the  line  offirewillnot  cut  the  line  of  sight;  "or.  in 
other  words,  will  not  shoot  high.  Now.as  it  is  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  hit  an  object  witliin  or  bejond  the 
point-blank,  to  aim  below  or  above  it  certain  dis- 
tances, it  is  readily  seen  how  indispensable  are  the 
coutrivances  (sights)  which  will  so  alter  the  point- 
blank  as  to  make  it  coincide  with  any  object  direct- 

2ry 
ly  aimed  at.  The  range  in  vacuo  equals in  which 

9 

X  and  .y  are  the  horizontal  and  vertical  components 
of  the  impulsive  force,  and  g  the  acceleration  due  to 
the  force  of  gravity.  From  this  we  see  that  (veloc- 
ity being  constant)  the  range  will  be  the  same  when 
the  angles  of  fire  are  equally  distant  from  45"  ;  thus, 
angles  of  fire  36'^  and  .54'-^  will  give  the  same  range. 
It  is  also  seen  that  the  range  will  be  a  maximum 
when  ly  is  a  maximum,  or  when  :r=^,  or  wnen  the 
angle  of  fire  is  4.5'-^ 

The  motion  of  a  bullet  is  grcatlj'  modified  when 
the  movement  is  through  the  air.  The  progressive 
velocity  of  fail  of  the  bullet  being  so  much  less  than 
its  initial  velocity,  the  air  resistance  opposed  to  its 
descent  will  be  inap]ireciably  small  in  comparison 
with  that  in  the  direction  of  its  motion  of  translation 
(the  resistances  being  proportional  to  tlie  squares  of 
the  velocities).  Hence,  when  the  bullet  would  have 
been  at  certain  points,  in  vacuo,  it  will  in  reality  be 
at  points  below  and  in  rear  of  them,  by  distances  in- 
creasing from  the  point  of  departure(since  the  resist- 
ance of  air  causes  the  sp;ices  passed  over  in  equal 
times  to  become  ))rogrcssively  smaller  and  smaller), 
tiius  causing  the  trajectory  in  air  to  be  constantly 
below  and  in  rear  of  its  placi'  in  vacuo  and  changing 
its  curviture,  so  that  the  left  branch  jireseiits  a  flat- 
tened form  while  the  right  liraiich  ajiproaehes  the 
vertical.  From  thus  destroying  the  symmetrj'  of 
this  curve, there  results  that  tlie  angle  of  fall  is  great- 
er than  llu' angle   of  ascent,  and   more  eonsiderablv 


MARKSMANSHIP. 


275 


MARKSMANSHIP. 


80  as  ii  is  clisiiuil  frniii  the  origin,  tlmt  the  poiiil  (if 
ciiliriiiialion  is  lowiTcd,  iiiiil  lliiil  the  nuif^c  is  i^rci-tly 
(liiMinisiicd.  To  iimkc  proper  iillowanccs,  tli<;  siulils 
iiiiisl  be  carefully  iiiaiiipiilaleil,  ami  ulicn  lirini;  at 
loili;  rilllge  a  ilelic'ale  esliiiialioii  of  (listimee  is  iieees 
.Mjiry  1o  (ihlain  ueeiiriiey  of  lire,  even  when  using  llie 
l)esl.  and  niosl,  aeeiiralely  irradiialeil  siglils.  Any  or- 
<lliiary  man  ean  l;e  drilii'd  to  esliniale  dislanees  up 
to  (iOl)  yanls  wifli  great  aeeuraey  and  dispaleli,  liy 
tile  eye  alone.  Instriinients  may  be  iiseil  for  greater 
dislanees,  but  their  use  is  of  no  practical  value  in 
the  field  before  an  enemy,  and  can  only  be  resorted 
to  on  the  drill  ground  as  an  aid  where  lime  isuu  im- 
portant eleniei*. 

Having  Ihorouglily  mastered  the  principles  of 
uiniing,  experienee  only  ean  teach  the  l)est  positions 
under  various  conditions  and  circumstances.     Tlie 


wlion  the  fire  is  in  two  ranks,  tlie  front  rank  kneel, 
not  only  to  obtain  a  sli'adier  position,  but  to  got 
them  out  of  tiic  way  of  the  rear  rank,  and  thus  se- 
cure a  more  rapid  ai]d  accurate  lire. 

Till'  favorite  posit  irin  for  long-range  firing,  particu- 
larly with  a  military  ritle,  is  that  of  tlie  Skirmikhr  ////- 
huj.  In  taking  Ibis  position.  Ihi'  legssliould  be  well 
separated,  tile  toes  lieing  turned  outward,  so  as  to 
cause  the  body  to  hug  tlic  ground  as  clo.sely  as  pos- 
silde.  Till-  left  elbow  sboiibj  be  kept  almost  straiglil 
luider  lh('  rille  Cif  placed  too  far  lollie  left,  it  straiiM 
tlie  wrist),  luid  Ihe  barrel  grasped  firmly  with  tlic 
left  haiKi.  The  right  elbow  should  be  placed  a  little 
to  the  right.  To  jirevent  the  elbows  Heparating,  08 
tlwy  are  naturally  inclined  to  do  on  ban!  ground,  a 
depression  m;iy  lie  made  m  Ihe  ground  with  the  heel 
of  the  boot,  or  something  soft   placed  under  tliem. 


regulation  position.  "  firing  slaniling,"  is  generally 
preferred.  .Many  lind  an  easier  and  tirmer  position 
by  bringing  the  left  .shoulder  well  to  the  front,  and 
r("stiiig  the  rille  over  tlic  lower  part  of  tlie  left 
thuniij.  The  advantage  of  this  position  is  that  it 
brings  tlie  left  elbow  directly  under  the  barrel  with- 
out any  strain  on  the  muscles.  Its  disadvantage  is 
tliat,  in  a  side  wind,  the  body  is  too  apt  to  sway 
ffldeways,  ■which  must  be  avoided  by  placing  the 
feet  fui-ther  apart.  The  llythe  Sclioo'l  direi'ts  that 
the  rille  be  pressed  against  the  shoulder  with  the 
?r/Y  hand,  the  right  holiling  tlie  stock  lightly;  Inil, 
most  marksmen  prefer,  while  grasping  the  barrel 
firmly  with  the  left  hand,  so  as  to  keep  it  steady,  to 
hold  it  well  against  the  shoulder  with  the  right.    .In 


The  liips  sliould  be  twisted  to  tlie  reft,  and  the  riirht 
shoulder  well  raised,  to  keep  the  collar-bone  out  <if 
file  way  and  alTord  a  firm  scat  for  the  rille-butt, 
which  must  be  held  closely  against  it.  Many  of  ilie 
best  shots  at  t'reeilmoor  and  Wimbledon  shoot,  lying 
on  tlieir  backs.  Some  lie  slightly  on  the  riirht  "sidij 
resting  the  rille-barrel  over  the  left  leg,  the  left  hand 
grasping  tlie  piece  at  tlie  small  of  the  stock,  and 
pressing  it  against  the  shoulder.  In  this  position, 
tlie  distance  of  the  rear  sight  from  the  eye  requires 
a  liirger  aperture  than  usual.  The  following  is  a 
fcivorite  back  position:  — 

The  marksman  lies  on  liis  Iiack,  liis  legs  crossed, 
the  left  leg  under  the  right  knee,  and  firmly  held  liy 
the  right  calf,  the  muzzle  of  the  riUe  resting  in  the 


all  cases,  it  will  he  found  that  the  puU-off  of  the 
trigger  will  be  lightened  by  a  firm  grip  with  the 
right  thumb.  The  standiiig  position  depends  so 
much  on  the  personal  equation  of  the  marksman  as 
to  prevent  that  extreme  nicety  of  aim  re(|uired  in 
long-range  firing.  It  also  renders  the  rifleman  liable 
to  bs-  swerved  by  the  wind,  and  ofTers  the  enemy  a 
Tjetter  target.  It  is  seldom  used  before  the  enemy 
or  at  long-range.  Kneeling  is  Open  to  the  same  ob- 
jections, but  to  a  less  extent.     In  the  English  army. 


j  crotch  between  the  knees.  The  left  arm  is  placed 
behind  the  head,  the  hand  firmlv  grasping  the  bull 

^  of  the  rifle,  the  back  of  Ihe  head  resting  on  the  left 
forearm,  and  the  right  cheek  touching  the  side  ofthe 
butt.  The  right  hand  holds  the  small  of  the  stock 
with  a  firm  grasp,  the  elbow  resting  on  the  ground. 
In  this  position,  not  only  the  piece,  but  the  entire 

'■  person  of  the  shooter  is  perfectly  supported,  and  ali- 
solute  steadiness  is  secured.  Giklersleeve.  Coleman, 
and  other  Americans  have  adopted  this  position,  and 


MABKSIIANSHIF. 


276 


MABKSHCANSHIF. 


Sir  Ilenrj'  Ilalford  and  others  at  Wimbledon  concede 
its  advantages.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  advan- 
tage is  gained  by  h'ing  on  the  l)acii,  in  shooting  with 
military  rifles.  The  position,  Face  I>tiicninard<, 
is  certainly  preferable  for  militarjf  reasons,  enabling 
the  soldier  to  rapidly  advance  or  retreat,  to  shelter 
himself  behind  cover  or  to  entrench  himself.  Wiieth- 
er  the-rirteman  shoots  standing,  kneeling,  sitting,  or 
lying,  after  having  once  tested  and  become  satisfied 
as  to  the  positicm  oest  suited  to  himself,  he  should 
practice  it  until  it  becomes  perfectly  natural  and 
easy. 

With  a  steady  aim  and  position,  the  circumstances 
which  cause  the  bullet  to  deviate  from  the  spot  at 
which  it  is  aimed  are  so  numerous,  that  it  is  rather 
the  exception  than  the  rule  when  a  man  can  aim 
directl}'  at  the  object  to  be  struck.  It  is,  therefore, 
necessary  that  the  soldier  should  know  how  to  make 
allowances  for  these  causes  of  deviation;  to  know 
where  he  should  aim  in  order  to  strike  the  object. 
A  frequent  cause  of  deviation  of  the  bullet  is  a  false 
or  defective  barrel,  short  swells  and  long  depressions 
being  often  found  on  its  interior.  These  swells  or 
ridges,  by  increasing  the  friction,  may  so  affect  the 
recoil  as  to  have  an  injurious  effect  on  the  fire,  or  so 
affect  the  exterior  form  of  the  bullet  as  to  produce 
an  irregularity  in  its  motion.  The  swells  and  de- 
pressions, moreover,  change  the  interior  lines  of  the 
piece  and  give  the  bullet  a  false  direction.  Another 
cause  of  deviation  of  the  bullet  is  the  vibration  of  the 
barrel  when  tiring  caused  by  the  want  of  a  homo- 
geneous distribution,  of  metal  about  its  axis,  and 
often  to  binding  liands.  These  vibrations  tend  to  alter 
the  direction  of  tiie  bullet  as  it  leaves  the  muzzle. 
Recoil  causes  the  lirer  to  turn  to  the  side  from  which 
he  fires,  and  produces  deviation  in  that  direction.  It 
is  supported  by  pressing  the  butt  firmly  against  the 
shoulder,  and  is  differently  felt  according  as  the 
position  of  the  rifle,  relatively  to  the  horizontal, 
changes.  The  shock  of  the  recoil  against  the 
shoulder  is  diminished  by  the  bend  in  the  stock, 
serving  to  decompose  the  force  into  two  com- 
ponents, one  acting  through  the  stock  against  the 
shoulder,  the  other  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of 
the  barrel,  ten  ling  to  raise  it.  Whatever  lessens 
the  recoil,  theoretically,  increases  the  range.  The 
recoil  is  only  9.5  lbs.  for  the  Kemington  rifle  (70 
grains  powder  and  bullet  of  450  grains),  while  in  our 
service  rifle,  caliber  45,  it  is  175  lbs. 

When  the  bullet  reaches  the  muzzle  of  the  rifle, 
it  will  revolve  about  its  axis  nearly  800  times  in  a 
second,  and  a  point  on  its  exterior  side  siirface  will 
have  an  axial  velocity  of  about  ninety  feet  per  sec- 
ond. This,  in  connection  with  the  resistance  of  the 
air  produces  a  lateral  drifting  of  the  bullet  in  the  di- 
rection in  which  the  grooves  have  a  turn.  This  is 
known  as  drift,  anil  is  greater  in  the  descending  than 
in  the  ascending  branch  of  the  trajectory.  It  in- 
creases as  the  diameter  of  the  bullet,  the  angle  of  fire, 
the  velocity  of  rotation  and  the  range  inn-easi'.  and 
as  the  velocity  of  trauslatiou  decreases.  The  drift  in 
our  service  rifle,  at  5U0  3-ards,  is  two  feet.  The  pull 
of  the  trigger  should  not  be  too  great,  a  three-poiiiid 
pull  being  the  minimum.  It  shovdd  be  pressed  by  a 
steadily  increasing  pressure  of  the  finger  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  axis  of  the  barrel,  without  cnmmunicating 
motion  to  the  rifle,  the  breath  being  lielil  until  the 
hanuner  falls.  If  the  trigger  is  too  liard  and  is  |)ul!ed 
convulsively,  the  muzzle  will  lie  turned  to  the  right. 
There  should  be  a  i|uick  and  decided  connection  be- 
tween the  mind  and  finger.  Fevv  men  can  pull  off 
the  trigger  of  the  service  rifle  with  the  first  joint 
of  a  single  finger.  A  defective  position  of  the  line  of 
sight  or  incorrect  graduation  of  the  rear  siglit  will 
cause  a  deviation  of  the  bullet.  If  the  front  sight  lie 
to  the  right  of  its  proper  place,  the  bullet  will  go  to 
the  left,  i\m\  i:iceveriiii.  The  liullet  will  alsob<^  raised 
(range  increased;,  since  the  top  of  the  sight  is  lower 
than  it  is  when  in  its  proper  position.  If  the  rear 
sight  be  to  the  right  or  left  of  its  true  place,  the  bu'... 


let  wi'l  go  to  the  right  or  left,  and  will  be  lowered 
(range  diminished),  since  the  top  of  the  sight  will  be 
lower  than  when  in  its  true  position. 

A  serious  cause  of  inaccuracy,  originating  with 
the  firer.  is  the  faulty  position  that  he  gives  to  the 
musket  in  firing,  by  inclining  to  the  right  or  left, 
which  tends  to  carry  tlie  liullef  to  the  side  to  which 
the  rifle  is  inclined,  and  to  diminisli  the  ange. 
When  firing  at  long  ranges  a  trifling  inclination  to 
the  right  or  left  will  throw  the  bullet  very  wide  of 
the  target.  The  condition  of  the  atmosphere  no- 
ticeably affects  the  course  of  the  bullet.  The  more 
moisture  there  is  in  the  air,  the  greater  Ihi?  elevation 
required;  hence  it  is  that  the  bullet  is  frequently 
noticed  to  fall  immediately  after  a  rain.  Warm  air 
offers  much  less  resistance  to  the  motion  of  the  bul- 
let than  cold  air  does,  even  a  fall  of  20'^  in  tempera- 
ture causing  the  bullet,  ordinarily,  to  lower  ten  or 
eleven  inches  at  300  j'ards  range.  In  firing  over 
water,  the  elevation  must  be  increased,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  lower  temperature  of  the  air  over 
the  water.  In  ascending  a  mountain,  the  air  be- 
comes more  and  more  rare,  and  consequently  the  re- 
sistance to  the  bullet  is  less  on  the  mountain  than  at 
its  base.  Mirage,  an  optical  illusion,  occurrina:  in 
level  districts  on  very  warm  days,  causes  the  target 
to  apparently  raise  in  the  air  and  become  distorFed 
in  sliape.  This  materially  affects  such  objects  as 
are  near  the  ground,  and  engenders  a  tendency  to 
shoot  too  higii. 

The  influence  of  light  and  shade  on  the  effect  of 
firing  is  remarkable.  On  a  bright  day  the  target  is 
refracted  so  as  to  apparentlj'  stand  higher,  and  will, 
theoretically,  require  a  lower  elevation  than  on  a  very 
dull  day.  When  the  light  shines  directly  on  the  tar- 
get, when  the  target  is  against  a  light  background 
(so  that  the  details  are  better  brought  out);  wiienthe 
sun  shines  on  the  firer's  back,  when  the  atmosphere 
is  clear,  when  the  ground  is  level  and  uniform  in  ap- 
pearance or  when  it  gradually  rises  toward  flie  tar- 
get, the  same  will  appear  much  nearer,  and  will  the- 
oretically require  a  higher  elevation.  The  best 
shooting  is  invariabl_v  done  on  cloudy  days  when  the 
sun's  light  is  evenly  diffused.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
shoot  well  when  passing  clouds  intercept  portions  of 
the  sun's  light  and  heat.  It  is  readily  seen  how  this 
disturbance  might  set  up  currents  in  the  air  which 
would  tend  to  carry  the  bullet  from  its  course,  and 
how  the  rays  of  light  deflected  from  their  course  be 
fore  reaching  the  eye  would  cause  the  target  to  ap- 
parently occupy  a  false  position.  It  will  lie  well  to 
diminish  the  elevation  should  the  sun  suddenly  ap- 
pear and  light  up  the  target  while  the  firer  still  re- 
mains in  the  shade,  and  to  increase  it  should  the  tar- 
get remain  in  the  shade  while  the  sun  shines  on  the 
firer.  Bright  sights  and  barrels  are  obviously  ob- 
jectionable. The  reflection  of  the  sun's  light  (in  the 
sights  causes  them  to  appear  as  brilliant  points  and 
precludes  the  possibility  of  an  accurate  aim.  If  the 
sun's  rays  come  laterally,  the  trouble  will  be  still 
greater  inasmuch  as  they  will  brighten  the  rear  side 
of  the  fnmt-sight  and  the  opposite  side  of  the  notch 
of  the  rear-sight,  and  cause  a  tcndeucy  to  shoot 
away  from  the  sim.  The  refraction  of  the  sun's 
rays  from  a  polished  barrel  causes  the  target  to  be- 
come indistinct  and  to  assume  the  appearance  of 
motion.  The  sights  and  barrel  about  the  muzzle 
should  be  blackened  with  smoke  if  nothing  better  is 
at  hand. 

The  effect  of  wind  on  the  trajectory  and  the  al- 
lowance to  hi'  made  for  it  are  most  troublesome 
questions  for  the  marksman.  His  best  skill  and 
judgment  must  be  faxed  when  firing  in  windy 
weather,  or  in  mountainous  districts  where  there  are 
many  (;ross-(urrenls  with  which  to  contend.  All 
winds,  except  toward  tile  target,  retard  the  bullet  and 
render  a  liiiihcr  elev:ition  necessary.  A  wind  from 
the  rear  helps  the  bullet  and  lendsto  high  shooting. 
Experience  has  sliown  it  necessary  to  alter  the  wind- 
gauge  twelve  or  more  feet  between  two  consecutive 


K&BK  TIME. 


277 


HASOB. 


sliots  over  ii  ninf;c  of  1 ,000  yiirds,  in  order  to  make  a 
bull'scye  eiicli  lime,  wlicn  llic  wind  was  very  liiijii  or 
variiililc.  In  BuhI<'m 'lIiind-lioi)l<  fdr  Ilytlic'it  in  stilt- 
ed Hint  "One  liour  u  d:iy  of  jirivuic  praclice  in  uini- 
inn-drill  will,  in  a  few  weeks,  niakcii  niun.-i  lirsl-cliiss 
sliot."  Tliis  is  trne,  for  tlie  ]iosilion  anil  inniini; 
drills  eonstimtc  the  very  foiimlalion  of  any  system 
of  practice.  It  is  an  alisnrd  inistak(r  in  any  service 
to  have  n'cruils  fire  olf-haiid  at  a  lari;et  on('  hundred 
yards  distant,  when  tliey  scarcely  know  the  diireri'nce 
between  a  rille  and  a  sholf,nni,  .and  cannot  hit  a  barn- 
door when  lliirty  oacesdislanl  with  either,  fiva  Jiijk 
I'm  In. 

MARK  TIME.— A  (•onimand  in  the  School  of  the 
Soldier.  It  is  execnied  by  niovinijeaeh  lej;  alternate- 
ly in  iiuiek  or  ordinary  lime,  without  j;aininn  i^roniid. 
I'his  movement  is  frequently  i)racli(U'd  when  a  front 
line  or  column  has  opened  t(jo  much,  in  order  to  af- 
ford lh(^  rear  an  ojiiiorlunity  of  irettin^  up  ;  and 
Bometimes  to  let  the  liead  of  a  colunm  disenj^age  it- 
self, or  a  body  <if  troops  (ilc   by, etc. 

MARLINE  SPIKE.  A  ponderous  iron  pin.  with  a 
lar;;e  head  and  a  taper  jHiint,  used  for  separatinj;  the 
strands  of  ro|)e  prejiaratory  to  splicini;  or  knotting; 
also  employed  as  a  lever  in  tigntenini;  rigijing,  etc. 

MARLINREPEATING  RIFLE. —An  American  ritle 
having'  iinialile  ad\'.-inlai:i's  over  most  repealing  arms. 
It  belongs  to  the  liult  class,  so  long  used  I))'  nuuiy  of 


tion,  in  a  simple  manner,  brings  the  cartridge  with 
it,  and  places  the  same  in  line  with  tha  chamber  of 
Ihe  barrel,  while  the  spring  F  tirndy  holds  cartridge 
in  place.  The  hammer,  (i,  is  brought  to  full-cock  by 
the  same  motion,  and  held  there  by  the  action  of  the 
trigger.  ll,enlering  its  full-cock  iiotcli.  Hringing 
the  lever  back  lo  its  natural  jiosilion  causes  tlie  l)olt 
to  move  forward,  pushes  the  cartridge  into  the 
chamber,  lowers  the  carrier-block  to  receive  a  fresh 
cartridge,  securely  locks  the  breech  mechaniHni,  and 
leaves  the  arm  ready  to  fire. 

The  magazine  is  loaded  through  an  opening  in  the 
side  (jf  the  receiver,  which  opening  is  closed  by  a 
cover.  It  holds  nine  carlri<lges  and  one  can'  be 
])laced  in  the  barrel.  The  cartridges  can  be  inserted 
in  the  magazine  either  wilh  the  block  open  or  closed. 
When  th('  bolt  is  withdrawn  the  cartridge  at  the 
bottom  of  the  magazine  enters  the  carrier-block y/v/rf- 
iialli/.  avoiding  Hie  concussion  produced  in  many 
guns  by  the  sudden  .jump  of  the  whole  column  of 
cartridges  with  a  momentum,  in  some  cases,  suffi- 
cient to  explode  a  sensitive  ]irinier.  All  the  advan- 
tages of  a  single  breech-loader  are  also  contained  in 
this  rifle  ;  it  can  be  used  with  great  rapidity,  the  car- 
tridge being  inserted  in  the  barrel  instead  (pf  in  the 
magazine,  and  cartridges  specially  loaded  with  patch- 
ed bullets  for  target  shooting  can  be  used  in  thU 
way.     The  ritle  is  made  for  two  sizes  of  cartridges  : 


the  European  Governments ;  but  instead  of  opera- 
ting the  bolt  by  a  cumbersome  and  ungainly  handle 
projecting  from  the  side,  it  is  operated  by  a  stnmg 
ami  powerful  lever,  on  the  under  side  of  tlie  arm. 
thus  making  a  handsome  model,  easy  of  manipula- 
tion. The  bolt  comes  solidly  up  to  the  base  of  the 
cartridge,  covering  it  entirely:  in  this  way  all  danger 
is  avoided,  even  though  a  defective  cartridge  should 
happen  to  lie  used.  A  premature  explosion  cannot 
occur,  and  the  greater  the  recoil,  the  more  firmly  the 
bolt  is  held  in  its  place.  The  operation  of  the  gun 
is  of  the  simplest  kind,  and  yet  the  action  is  the 
strongest  that  can  be  made.  The  drawing  shows 
the  ritle  with  all  the  operative  parts  in  open  position. 
Throwing  forward  the  lever.  A,  withdraws  the  firing- 
pin,  I.  ludoeks  the  bolt,  H,  and  causes  it  to  reoede, 
carrying  with  it  the  extractor,  (',  which  extracts  the 
shell  of  the  cartridge  just  tired,  while  the  ejector 
E,  attached  to  the  lower  .section  of  the  bolt,  ejects 
the  same  from  the  receiver.  By  the  same  motion. 
the  carrier-block,  D,  is  raised  from  its  natural  posi- 


[  40  cal.,  GO  grains  powder,  260  grains  lead,  straisrht 
shell ;  and  4.5  cal.,  70  grains  powder,  420  grains  lead, 
being  the  regulation  Government  cartridge.  In  the 
40  caliber  we  find  a  heavy  charge  of  i)owder  behind 
a  comparatively  light  bullet,  thus  attaining  a  high 
initial  velocity  and  very  flat  trajectory  :  with  excel- 
lent results  up  to  800  yards.  The  barrel  is  octagonal 
in  cross  section,  is  28  inches  long,  and  the  weight  of 
the  arm  is  9^  pounds.    See  Rifle. 

UARLIAS. — Tarred  white  skeins  or  long  wreaths 
or  lines  of  untwisted  hemp  dipped  in  pitch  or  tar. 
with  which  cables  and  other  rojies  are  wrapped 
round,  to  prevent  their  fretting  and  rubbing  in  the 
blocks  or  pulleys  through  which  they  pass.  The 
same  serves  in  artillery  upon  ropes  used  for  rigging 
gins,  usuallv  put  up  in  small  parcels  called  skeins. 

MAROLAIS  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— This 
system  adopts  the  fausse-braye.  and  the  flanks  are 
retired  anil  casemated.  It  is  a  very  fair  sample  of  the 
Dutch  Sclio'l.     See  Forffi-^ition.  ' 

MABON. — A  piece  of  brass  or  copper,  about  the 


UAROONS. 


278 


MA£S. 


size  of  a  crown,  on  wliieh  all  the  hours  for  going 
the  rounds  were  marked  in  the  old  French  service. 
Several  of  these  were  put  into  a  small  bag,  and  de- 
posited in  the  hands  of  the  JIajor  of  the  regiment, 
out  of  which  they  were  regularly  drawn  by  iThe  Ser- 
geants of  Companies,  for  the  officers  belonging  to 
them.  The  hours  and  half  hours  were  engraved  on 
each  Marun.  These  pieces  were  numbered  one. 
two,  etc.,  to  correspond  with  the  several  periods  of 
the  night;  so  that  the  officer,  for  instance,  who  was 
to  go  to  the  10  o'clock  rounds,  had  as  many  Marons 
marked  ten  as  there  were  posts  gr  guard-houses 
which  he  was  directed  to  visit.  Thus  on  reaching 
the  first,  after  having  given  the  mot  or  watch-word, 
to  the  Corporal,  he  delivers  into  his  hands^the^l/aroon. 
marked  one.  These  Maroim  being  pierced  in  the 
middle  are  successively  strung  by  the  different  Cor- 
porals upon  a  piece  of  wire,  from  which  they  slide 
into  a  box  called  Boite  nnx  Ronden.  This  "box  is 
carried  next  morning  to  the  Major,  who  keeps  the 
ke}' ;  and  who  on  opening  it  can  easily  ascertain 
whether  the  ri>unds  have  been  regularly  gone  by 
counting  the  different  Marons,  and  seeing  them  suc- 
cessively strung. 

MAROONS.. — A  name  given  in  Jamaica  and  Dutch 
Guiana  to  runaway  negro  slaves.  The  term  was 
first  applied  to  those  slaves  who  were  deserted  by 
their  Masters,  the  Spaniards,  when  the  British  con- 
quered Jamaica  (1655),  and  who  took  refuge  in  the 
Uplands,  where  for  140  years  they  maintained  a  con- 
stant warfare  with  the  British  Colonists;  but  in 
1795  they  were  subdued,  and  a  portion  of  them  re- 
moved to  Nova  Scotia,  and  afterwards  to  Sierra 
Leone.  The  remnant  fraternized  with  their  manu- 
mitted brethren  in  1834-35.  The  Maroons  of  Dutch 
Guiana  form  a  number  of  small  independent  com- 
munilies. 

MARQUEE.— An  awning  or  cover  of  canvas  form- 
ing an  officer's  tent ;  a  tent  complete.  JIarquees 
are  of  two  kinds,  viz..  Dining  and  Sleeping  Mar- 
queen -.  the  former  being  used  as  officers' mess  tents. 
Also  written  Markit. 

MARQUESS— MARQUIS.— The  degree  of  nobility 
which  in  the  peerage  of  England  ranks  next  to  Duke. 
Marquises  were  originally  Commanders  on  the  bor- 
ders or  frontiers  of  countries,  or  on  the  sea-coast, 
which  they  were  bound  to  protect.  In  England,  the 
title  of  Marquis  was  used  in  this  sense  as  early  as 
the  reign  of  Henry  the  III.,  when  there  were  Mar- 
quises or  Lords-marchers  of  the  borders  of  Scotland 
and  Wales:  and  the  foreign  equivalent  of  Markgraf 
was  common  on  the  Continent.  The  first  English 
Marquis  in  the  modern  sense  was  Robert  de  Vere, 
Earl  of  Oxford,  who  was  created  Marquis  of  Dublin 
by  Richard  II.,  to  the  no  small  offense  of  the  Earls 
who  had  to  yield  him  precedence.  The  oldest  exist- 
ing Marquisate  is  that  of  Winchester,  created  by  Ed- 
ward VI.  in  1551.  The  title  was  first  introduced  in- 
to Scotland  inl599,when  the  Marquises  of  Huntlyand 
Hamilton  were  created. 

The  Coronet  of  a  Marquis,  as  worn  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  is  a  circle  of  gold,  with  four  strawberry 
leaves  (or  oak  leaves),  and  as  man}'  pearls  alternat- 
ing with  them,  and  placed  on  pyramidal  jioints  of 
the  same  height  with  the  leaves.  The  mantle  is 
scarlet,  with  three  and  a  half  doublings  of  ermine. 
A  Marquis  is  styled  "The  Most  Honorable;"  his  wife 
is  a  Marchioness;  his  eldest  son  takes  by  courtesy 
the  next  lower  title  in  the  peerage,  except  where 
that  is  identical  with  the  title  of  the  Marquisate,  in 
which  case  he  must  take  the  next  lower  still,  as  in 
thecaseof  the  Marcpiis  and  Earl  of  Salisliury,  whose 
eldest  son  bears  the  courtesj'-title  of  Viscount  Cran- 
borne.  The  younger  sons  of  a  Manpiis  are  styled 
'Lord.'  and  daughters  '  Lady,' with  tlie  addition  of 
Christian  n:niie  ;itul  surname. 

MARRIED  ROLL.— A  register   kept   in  each  regi- 
ment, troop,  battery,  or   establishment,  in  the  Eng- 
lish Army,  and  in  which  are  inserted  the  names  of! 
all  non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers  who  are 


married  with  permission.  All  non-commissioned 
officers  holding  the  rank  of  Staff  Sergeants  of  cer- 
tain grades  are  permitted  to  marry,  and  also  Ser- 
geants of  troops,  batteries,  or  companies,  &c.,  in  a 
certain  proportion,  as  laid  down  in  the  Regulations. 
Of  the  rank  and  file,  7  per  cent,  in  England  and  10 
per  cent,  in  India  are  allowed  to  marry,  and  are  en- 
tered on  the  married  roll ;  these  numbers  are  calcu- 
I  lated  upon  the  establishment  of  the  corps,  except  in 
the  royal  artillery,  in  which  the  calculation  is  made 
upon  the  establishment  of  each  battery.  No  non- 
commissioned officer  or  soldier  is  entitled  to  have 
his  name  placed  on  the  married  roll  without  having 
obtained  the  consent  of  his  Commanding  Officer  be- 
fore marriage.  In  the  case  of  a  soldier  below  the 
rank  of  Sergeant  wishing  to  marry,  he  must  have 
completed  7  years'  service  and  be  in  possession  of  at 
least  one  G.  C.  badge.  If  he  has  a  balance  in  the 
savings-bank  of  £5  or  upwards,  it  will  be  considered 
a  desirable  qualification.  The  fact  of  the  name  of  a 
non-commissioned  officer  or  soldier  appearing  on  the 
married  roll  ensures  him  and  his  family  certain 
privileges  which  are  not  accorded  to  men  marrying 
without  the  consent  of  their  Commanding  Officer. 

MARRONS.— Small  cubic  boxes,  made  of  paste- 
board, filled  with  powder,  and  wrapped  with  strong 
twine.  They  are  used  to  give  a  loud  report,  or  the 
effect  of  cannonading.  To  make  a  marron,  cut  the 
pasteboard  into  rectangles,  whose  sides  shall  be  3  and 
and  5  times,  respectively,  the  length  of  the  side  of  the 
marron  required.  Divide  the  rectangle  Into  15  equal 
squares  ;  cut  out  the  squares  forming  the  four  cor- 
ners of  the  rectangle,  and  divide  the  three  remaining 
squares  on  the  long  side  from  each  other  bj'  a  cut 
the  length  of  their  side  and  perpendicular  to  the  long 
side  of  the  rectangle.  Form  a  small  cubic  box  with 
the  pasteboard  thus  cut  out ;  paste  the  squares  to- 
gether which  cover  each  other,  and  paste  a  band  of 
paper  around  the  box,  leaving  the  cover  open.  When 
dry,  fill  the  box  with  powder,  paste  down  the  cover, 
and  envelop  It  with  two  or  three  layers  of  strong 
twine.  Cover  the  marron  with  glue  or  kit,  and  prime 
it  with  quick-match  inserted  in  a  hole  punched  into  the 
powder  at  the  middle  of  one  of  the  taces.  See  Com- 
poaithins  and  Fireicorks. 

MARRUCINI. — An  ancient  people  in  central  Italy, 
on  a  narrow  tract  of  land  along  the  right  bank  of  the 
river  Aternus.  Their  territory  extended  from  the 
Apennines  to  the  Adriatic:  between  the  Vestini  on 
the  north-  and  the  Frentani  on  the  south ;  and  be- 
tween the  Pellgnl  and  the  Adriatic  on  the  east  and 
west.  They  were  an  independent  nation,  said  to  be 
descended  from  the  Sabines,  and  generally  were  in 
alliance  with  their  neighbors,  the  Marsl  and  Pelignl. 
They  entered  into  alliance  with  the  Romans  in  304 
B.  c  ,  but  rebelled  at  the  beginning  of  the  Social 
War.  Their  onlj'  place  of  Importance  was  Teste, now 
Chieti,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aternus, now  the  Pes- 
cara. 

MARS. — The  Roman  Mars,  who  as  a  war-god  is 
surnamed  Oradhux  (=grandiji divnx,  the  great  god), 
also  bore  the  surname  of  Silranus,  and  appears  to 
have  been  originally  an  agricultural  deltj-;  the  pro- 
pitiatory offerings  were  presented  to  him  as  the  guar- 
dian of  fields  and  flocks;  but  as  the  fierce  shejiherds 
who  founded  the  city  of  Rome  were  even  more  ad- 
dicted to  martial  than  to  pastoral  pursuits,  one  can 
easilj-  understand  how  Afars  Silvantm  should  have, 
in  the  course  of  time,  become  the  "  God  of  War." 
Mars,  who  was  a  perfect  personification  of  the  stern, 
relentless,  and  even  cruel  valor  of  the  old  Romans, 
was  held  in  tlie  highest  lionor.  He  ranked  next  to 
.Jupiter;  like  him  lie  bore  the  venerable  epillut  of 
?\it/ier  li^hiTA-pitir)  ■,  he  was  one  of  the  three  Tute- 
lary Divinities  of  the  City,  to  each  of  whom  Numa 
appointed  a  flamen  ;  nay,  he  was  said  to  be  the  father 
of  Honudus  himself  (by  Khea  Silvia,  the  Priestess  of 
Vestil),  and  was  thus  believed  to. be  the  real  progen- 
itor of  the  lioman  ()eo]ilc.  He  had  a  sanct\iary  on 
the  (Juirinal  ;   -.uul  the  liill  received  its  name  from  hia 


HARSKILLAISE. 


279 


nABSUALLIMG  OF  ASUS. 


suriinnic,  Qt/'n'niis,  llie  most  proljaMi'  iiicunin;; 
of  wliifli  is  tfie  H-prar-arm  d.  It,  was  iiiiilcr  this 
(losiunation  that  he  was  invdUcd  as  tlic  pnilcclor  <if 
tlic  Qit'rites  (fitizensj-  in  (illicr  Wdnls,  of  tlir  Slate. 
Tlic  priiici))al  aiiinials  sacrcil  to  liiiii  wire  tlii'  wolf 
mill  till'  liorsi'.  Ill-  liail  many  Tciiiplis  at  IJoinr,  the 
most  cclclirati'il  of  wliirli  was  that  oiilsiilo  llic  I'urld 
(Uipena,  on  the  Apiiiaii  Hoail.  The  Civnptu  MarthiH, 
whiTc  the  Uoiiians  ]iractici'il  athlitic  anil  Miililary 
exercises,  was  named  after  him  ;  so  was  the  month 
of  March  {MarVnn),  tlu'  lirst  month  of  the  Human 
year.  The  LmV  MartiaU^  (ijames  helil  in  his  honor; 
were  celebrateil  every  year  in  the  einiis. 

Auks,  the  (Ireek  l;i)i1  of  war,  was  tlie  son  of  Zeus 
anil  Hera,  anil  the  favorite  of  Aphrodite,  who  liore 
him  several  ehililren.  He  is  represented  in  (ireek 
poetry  as  a  most  sanguinary  divinity.  delii;htini;  in 
war  for  its  own  sake,  and  in  the  destruelion  of  men. 
Hefore  hijn  into  battle  i^oes  his  sister  Krin  (iStrifcj  ; 
aloni;  with  him  are  his  sons  and  eompanions,  DrimuH 
(Horror)  and  I'ImIuih  (Fearj.  He  does  not  always 
adherit  to  the  same  side,  like  the  iireat  Atltriia.  hut 
inspires  now  tiie  one.  now  the  other.  He  is  not  al- 
ways victorious.  Diomede  wounded  him.  and  in  his 
fall,  says  Homer,  "  he  roared  like  nine  or  ten  thous- 
and warriors  toi^ether."  Sueh  a  representation  would 
have  been  deemed  blasphemous  by  the  ancient 
Roman  mini,  imbued  as  it  was  with  a  solemn 
Hebrew-like  reverence  for  its  gods.  The  worship  of 
Ares  was  never  very  prevalent  in  Greece;  it  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  imported  from  Thrace.  There, 
and  in  Hcythia,  were  its  great  .seats,  and  there  Ares 
was  believed  tohave  his  chief  home.  He  had,  how- 
ever. Temples  or  Shrines  at  Athens,  Sparta,  Olym- 
pia,  and  other  places.  On  statues  and  reliefs,  he  is 
reiiresented  as  a  person  of  great  muscular  power, 
and  eilhi  r  naked  or  clothed  witli  the  chlamys. 

MARSEILLAISE.  The  name  by  which  the  grand 
song  iif  the  lirst  French  Kevolutidu  is  known.  The 
circumstances  which  led  to  its  composition  are  as 
follows:  In  the  beginning  of  1793,  when  a  column 
of  volunteers  was  abinit  to  leave  Strasbourg,  the 
Mayor  of  the  city,  who  gave  a  banquet  on  the  occa- 
sion, asked  an  officer  of  artillery  named  Houget  de 
Lisle,  to  compose  a  song  in  their  honor.  His  request 
was  comiilied  with,  and  the  result  was  the  Afdiwi'l- 
Itr'.ir — both  verse  and  nuisic  being  the  work  of  a 
single  night.  De  Lisle  entitled  the  piece  ('/inntde 
Guerre  d'  I'Ariin'e  dii  li/iin.  Next  day  it  was  svmg 
with  rapturous  enthusiasm  that  only  Frenchmen  can 
exhibit,  and  instead  of  (iOO  volunteers,  1000  marched 
out  of  Strasbourg.  Soon  from  the  whole  army  of 
the  north  resounded  the  thrilling  and  fiery  words 
(iiixarmes  mix iinms ;  nevertheless  the  song  was  still 
luiknown  at  Paris,  and  was  first  introduced  there  by 
Barbaroux  when  he  smnmoned  the  youth  of  Marseilles 
to  the  Capital  in  July,  17!(3.  It  was  received  with 
transports  by  the  Parisians,  who — ignorant  of  its 
real  authorship — uanied  it  Hymne  des  MarseiUaine, 
which  name  it  has  ever  since  borne. 

MARSHAL — Aterm  which  originally  meant  a  groom 
or  manager  of  the  horse, though  eventually  the  King's 
Marshal  became  one  of  the  principal  OtticiTsof  Stale 
in  England.  The  Hoyal  Farrier  rose  in  dignity  with 
the  increasing  importance  of  the  C/nralerie,  \\\l  he 
became,  conjointly  with  the  Constalile,  the  judge  in 
the  Curia'  ^/artiales.  or  Courts  of  Chivalry.  An  Flarl- 
dom  is  attached  to  the  dignity,  and  the  otiiceof  Earl- 
Marshal  is  now  licreditary  in  the  family  of  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk.  When  the  King  headed  his  army  in 
feudel  tiires,  the  assembled  troops  were  inspected  by 
the  Constable  and  ilarshal,  who  lixcd  the  spot  for 
the  encamtiment  of  each  noble,  and  examined  the 
number,  arms,  and  condilion  of  his  retainers.  With 
these  duties  was  naturally  combined  the  regulation  of 
<'ill  matters  connected  with  armorial  bearings,  stand- 
ards, and  ensigns.  The  Constable's  functions  were 
virtually  abolished  in  tlie  time  of  Henry  YIIL.  and 
the  JIarshal  became  thenceforth  the  sole  judge  in 
questions  of  honor  and  arms.     The  Earl-Marshal  is 


president  of  the  English  college  of  arms,  and  ap- 
points the  Kings.at-Arms,  IleraldH,  and  PursuivanlK. 
The  Marshal's  functions  wen;  formerly  exercised  in 
time  ol  jxrace  in  the  Aula  Iteyiii  or  King's  (Ireat 
Court,  and  on  the  division  of  the  Aula  Riijin.  lie  ap- 
pointed deputies  in  the  new  courts;  hence  arose  the 
otlicesof  .Marshal  of  the  King's  CQueen's^Bench,  and 
of  Exche(|uer,  whose  iirincipal  (hity  is  to  lake  charge 
of  larsons  conmiilted  to  their  custody  by  the  court. 
Besides  the  Earl-.Marslial  thent  is  a  lvnii;hl-.Marshal, 
or  .Marshal  of  thi'  King's  ftiueen's;  household.  The 
Marshal  of  the  King's  Bench  held  two  dilT(;rent 
I  courts,  which  haver  been  altogr'ther  discontinued 
since  IHIO.  Tlie  .Marshal,  or  Provost-Marshal,  of  the 
admiralty  is  an  otlicer  whose  duty  it  is  to  act  minis- 
terially iinder  the  orders  of  the  court  of  admiralty  in 
securing  prizes,  executing  w;irrants,  arresting  crimi- 
j  nals,  and  attcnilini:  their  execution. 
I  The  dignity  of  ^Marshal  existed  formerly  in  Scot- 
land, where  a  different  nrlhography  was  adopted, 
and  the  office  of  .Marischal  was  hcredit:iry  in  the 
family  of  Keith.  Sir  Kobert  Keith,  the  Marischal, 
was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  warriors  in  the 
army  of  Kobert  the  Bruce  ;  and  his  descendant,  the 
Marischal  in  14.")0.  had  the  dignity  of  Karl  conferred 
on  him  with  no  other  title  but  that  of  Earl-.Marischai 
There  is  little  doulit  that  the  Lyon  King-al-Arms 
was,  like  the  English  Kings-at-Arms,  originally  sub- 
ject to  the  Marischal,  but  his  dependence  ceased  at 
a  very  early  period,  and  the  heraldic  functions  dis- 
chariied  by  Hie  Earl-.Marsluil  in  England  devolved 
in  Scotland  on  the  Lord  Lyon,  who  held  office  di- 
rectly from  the  crown.  Scotland  had  no  Knight- 
Marischal  till  1()33.  when  Charles  I.,  at  his  corona- 
tion, created  the  office.  In  ITUideorge.  tenth  Earl- 
Marischal.  was  atlainted  inconsequence  of  his  share 
in  Ihe  rebellion  of  the  jirevious  year,  and  the  office 
has  since  been  in  abey;nicc.  In  France  the  highest 
military  officer  is  called  a  Marshal,  a  dignity  which 
originated  early  in  the  18th  century.  There  was  at 
lirst  only  one  Mareehal  de  Frame,  and  there  were 
but  two  till  Ihe  time  of  Francis  I.  Their  number 
afterwards  became  unlimited.  Originally  the  Mar- 
slial  was  the  Ksquire  of  the  King,  and  commanded 
Ihe  vanguard  in  war  :  in  later  times  the  command 
became'supreme,  and  the  rank  of  the  highest  mili- 
tary impi>rt:ince.  From  the  title  of  this  class  of 
geiienil  ollicers  the  Germans  have  borrowed  their 
Feld-Marschall,  and  we  our  Field-Marshal,  a  dig- 
nity bestowed  on  commanders  distinguished  either 
by  elevated  rank  or  superior  talents.  In  the  United 
States  the  word  is  used  in  three  signiticat ions  :  1. 
To  denote  the  Ministerial  Officer  of  Ihe  United  States 
Courts,  there  being  one  appointed  to  each  judicial 
district.  The  duties  of  this  officer  resemble  those 
of  a  Sheriff  in  the  State  Courts;  he  opens  and 
closes  the  sessions  of  the  District  and  Circuit  Courts, 
serves  warrants,  and  with  his  deputies  enforces  the 
execution  of  the  internal  revenue  and  other  U.S. 
Statutes.  3.  To  denote  a  leader  or  director  of  cer- 
emonies, festivities,  or  processions.  3.  In  many 
states  of  the  south  and  west  the  Marshal  is  the 
head  of  the  mnniciiial  police  force,  and  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished  from  Ihe  officers  of  the  county  called 
Sheriffs,  and  from  the  officers  of  the  juslice  courts 
called  Constables.  lu  a  few  northern  cities,  form- 
erly the  name  was  applied  with  doubtful  propriety 
to  special  police  officers. 

MARSHALLING  OF  ARMS.-  -The  combining  of  differ- 
ent coats-of-arms  in  one  escutcluHm.for  the  purpose  of 
indicating  family  alliance  or  office.  In  the  earlier  her- 
aldry.it  was  not  "the  practice  to  exhibit  more  than  one 
coat  in  a  shield,  but  the  arras  of  husband  and  wife 
were  sometimes  placed  acfallee,  or  side  by  side,  in 
separate  escutcheons ;  or  the  principal  shield  was 
surrounded  bv  smaller  ones,  containing  the  arms  of 
maternal  ancestors  :  and  we  not  uufrequently  find 
maternal  descent  or  marriage  indicated  by  the  addi- 
tion of  some  bearing  from  the  wife's  or  mother's 
shield.     Then  followed  d'md'ation,w)ieTC  theshield 


UASSl. 


280 


MAETIAL  LAW. 


was  parted  per  pale,  and  Uic  two  coats  placed  side 
by  side,  half  of  each  beins  shown.  By  the  more 
niodern  custom  of  impaling  (Fig.  1),  the  whole  of 
eac'.i  coat  is  exhibited,  a  reminiscence  of  the  older 
practice  being  retained  in  the  omission  of  bordiires, 
orels,  and  treasures  on  the  side  bo'mded  by  llie  line 
of  impalement.    The  most  common  case   of  impale- 


^arshaJling  of  Arms. 

mcnt  is  where  the  coats  of  husband  and  wife  are  con- 
joined, the  husliand's  arms  occupying  the  dexter 
side  of  the  sliield,  or  place  of  honor,  and  the  wife's 
the  sinister  side.  Bishops.  Deans,  Heads  of  Colleges, 
and  Kings-of-Arms,  impale  their  arms  of  office  with 
their  family  coat,  giving  the  dexter  side  to  the  for- 
mer. A  man  who  marries  an  heiress  (in  heraldic  sense) 
is  entitled  to  place  her  arms  on  a  small  shield  called 
aneKuU/ieon.  of  pretence,  in  the  centerof  his  achieve- 
ment, instead  of  impaling  (Fig.  2.).  QuaHer;ng(F\g. 
3), or  the  exhibiting  different  cvits  on  a  siield  divid- 
ed at  once  perpendicularly  and  horizontally,  is  tlie 
most  common  mode  of  marshalling  arms,  a  practice 
wdiich,  however,  was  unknown  till  the  middle  of  the 
14th  century.  The  divisions  of  the  shield  are  called 
quarters,  and  are  numbered  horizontally,  beginning 
at  the  dexter  chief.  The  most  common  object  of 
quartering  is  to  indicate  descent.  The  coats  quar- 
tered in  aia  escutcheon  must  all  have  been  brought  in 
by  successive  heiresses,  who  have  intermarried  into 
the  familv.  In  the  case  of  a  single  quartering  tlie 
paternal  .arms  are  placed  in  the  first  and  fourth  quar- 
ters, and  tlie  maternal  in  the  second  and  third.  The 
third  and  fourth  quarters  may,  in  after  generations, 
be  occupied  by  the  arms  of  a  second  and  third  heir- 
ess. Sometimes  an  already  quartered  coat  is  placed 
in  one  of  the  four  quarters  of  the  escutcheon,  then 
termed  a  grand  quarter.  We  occasionally  find  the 
shield  divided  by  perpendicular  and  horizontal  lines 
into^ix,  nine,  or  even  more  parts,  each  occupied  by 
a  coat  brought  in  by  an  heiress :  ana  in  case  of  an 
odd  number  of  coats,  the  last  division  is  filled  by  a 
repetition  of  the  first.  In  the  course  of  generations, 
a  sliield  may  tlius  be  inconveniently  crowded  by  the 
accumulation  of  coats,  including  the  several  coats  to 
wliich  eacli  heiress  may,  in  a  similar  way,  have  be- 
come entitled,  and  in  Germany,  sometimes  twenty 
or  thirty  coats  are  found  marshalled  in  one  escutch- 
eon ;  but  in  British  Heraldry,  families  entitled  to  a 
number  of  quarterings,  generally  select  some  of  the 
most  important.  Quarterings,  at  least  in  Scotland, 
are  not  allowed  to  be  added  to  the  paternal  coat  with- 
out the  sanction  of  the  heraldic  authorities.  Sov- 
erc-igns  quarter  the  ensigns  of  their  several  States, 
giving  precedence  to  the  most  ancient,  unless  it  be  in- 
ferior to  the  others  in  importance.  In  tlie  royal  es- 
cutcheon of  the  United  Kingdom,  England  is  placed 
in  the  first  and  fourth  quarters,  Scotland  in  tlie  sec- 
ond, and  Ireland  in  tlie  third;  the  relative  positions 
of  Scotland  and  Kngland  being,  however,  reversed 
on  tlie  official  seals  of  .Scotland.  Spain  bears  the 
arms  of  Leon  in  tlie  first  and  fourth  quarters,  and 
Castile  in  the  second  and  tliird.  An  elected  King 
generally  places  his  arms  surtout  on  an  escutcheon 
of  pretence. 

MARSI.  -An  ancient  tribe  of  central  Italy,  inliabit- 
ing  the  district  around  the  lake  Fucinus  ( /xir/o  lU 
(.'eUi/w).  Their  origin,  like  that  of  otiier  Italian 
tribes,  is  involved  in  olicurity  and  fiction.  Tliey 
were  probably  of  Sabine  origin.  They  an;  worlliy 
of  notice  chiefly  on  account  of  th<-ir  warlike  spirit. 
The  Marsians  were  at  one  lime  allies  of  tlie  Itomans, 
but.  in  308  b.  c,  they  revolted  and  joined  the  Sani- 


nites.  After  being  subdued  they  again,  301  b.c, 
sh^iok  off  the  alliance  of  Home,  but  were  beaten  in 
the  field,  anii  lost  several  of  tlieir  fortresses.  From 
this  time  they  continued  tlie  firm  allies  of  Rome, 
contributing  by  tlieir  valor  to  her  triumphs  until  the 
Italians  were  aroused  in  91  b.c.,  to  demand  a  -'dress 
of  tlieir  v.Tougs  and  a  share  in  tlie  privileges  of 
Roman  citizens.  A  war  ensued,  generall}'  knov  u  as 
the  Social  War,  but  frequently  call  d  the  Marsic 
War,  because  the  !Marsi  were  prominent  among  the 
malcontents.  Their  leader  was  Silus  Ponip«dius. 
Though  often  defeated,  their  perseverance  lained 
the  object  for  which  they  had  taken  up  arms  in  87 
B.C.  Tlie  JIarsians,  inhabiting  a  mountainous  dij- 
trict  were  simple  and  temperate  in  tlieir  habits,  but 
hardy,  brave,  and  unyielding.  So  marked  was  their 
valor  that  there  was  a  proverbial  saying  recorded  by 
App^an,  "That  Rome  had  achieved"  no  triumph  Mtr 
the  Marsi,  or  ir.'t/iniit  theMarsi."  The  an:ient  JIarsi 
were  represented  as  enchanters,  able  to  tame  ser- 
pents and  to  heal  their  bites;  and  it  is  worthy  of  note 
that  the  jugglers  who  now  amuse  the  people  bj- 
handling  serpents  are  natives  of  the  region  in  the 
vicinity  of  Lago  di  Celano.  Their  only  important 
town  was  Marruv'um  (Qan  Benedetto). the  ruins  of 
which  are  visible  on  the  east  shore  of  the  lake. 

MAETEAU  D'ARMES.— An  offensive  weapon,  so- 
called  from  its  resemblance  to  a  hammer. 

MAETEL  DE  FEE.— An  offensive  weapon  in  use 
at  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century.  It  was  in  the 
shape  of  a  pointed  hammer  or  small  pickaxe.  It  is 
stated  to  have  made  sad  havoc  in  mailorarmor,  and 
left  fatal  openings  for  the  passage  of  the  sword  or 
lance. 

MAETELLO  TOWERS— are  round  towers  for  coast 
defense,  aliout  40  feet  high,  built  most  solidly,  and 
situated  on  tlic  beach.  They  occur  in  several  places 
round  the  coast  of  the  Uniteil  Kingdom;  but  princi- 
pally opposite  to  the  French  coast,  along  the  south- 
ern shore  of  Kent  and  Sussex,  where,  for  many  mil  s, 
they  are  witliiu  easy  range  of  each  other.  They 
were  mostly  ei'ected  during  the  French  war  as  a  de- 
fense against  invasion.  Each  had  walls  of  5h  feet 
thickness,  and  was  supposed  to  be  bomb-proof.  The 
base  formed  the  magazine  ;  above  were  two  rooms 
for  the  garrison,  and  over  the  upper  of  these  the  flat 
roof,  with  a  4i  feet  brick  parapet  all  round.  On  this 
roof  a  swivel  heavy  gun  was  to  be  placed  to  com- 
mand sliipping,  while  howitzers  on  each  side  were 
to  form  a  flanking  defense  in  connection  with  the 
neighboring  towers.  Although  the  cost  of  these 
littfe  forts  was  very  great,  they  are  generally  consid- 
ered to  have  lieen  a  failure ;  their  armaments  have 
mostly  been  removed.  The  name  is  said  to  betaken 
from  Italian  towers  built  near  the  sea,  during  the 
period  when  piracy  was  common  in  the  Medit  - 
erranean,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  watch  and  giv- 
ing warning  if  a  pirate-ship  was  seen  approaching. 
This  warning  was  given  liy  striking  on  a  hell  with  a 
hammer  (Italian  ilurtelli)),  and  hence  these  towers 
were  called  t'-rri  da  miirh'ilo. 

MAETIAL  LAW. — An  arbitrary  law,  proceeding 
directly  from  the  military  power,and  having  no  imme- 
diate constitutional  or  legislative  sanction.  A  place, 
district,  or  country  occupied  by  anenemy  st:inds,  in 
consequence  of  tlie  occupation,  under  tlie  iMartial 
Law  of  the  invading  or  occu])ying  Army,  whether 
any  proclam;ition  declaring  Martial  Law,  orjany  pub- 
lic warning  to  the  inhabitants,  has  been  issued  t  r 
not.  Martial  Law  is  the  immediate  and  direct  effect 
and  consequence  of  occupation  or  conquest.  The 
presence  of  a  hostile  army  proclaims  its  Martial 
Law.  Martial  Law  does  not  cease  during  the  lios- 
tiie  occupation,  excejit  by  special  proclamation,  or- 
dered by  thccomiiuinder-iii-cliief ;  or  by  s])ieial  men- 
tion in  the  treaty  of  peace  coucluding  tlie  war,  wlien 
the  oceujiation  of  a  iilace  or  territory  continues  be- 
yond  the  conclusion  of  peace  as  one  of  the  condi- 
tions of  the  same.  Martial  Law  in  a  hostile  country 
consists  iu  the  suspension,  by  the  occupying  military 


UASTINET. 


281 


UAAIINI  U£I<£Y  SlfLE. 


antliorily,  of  the  friminiil  and  rivil  liiw,  and  of  the 
iloiiicslic  iulii]inislratioii  ami  L'oviTnincnt  ill  the  oc- 
(Mipii'il  place  or  Irrrilory.  and  in  llic  siihslitiilioii  of 
military  rule  and  force  for  the  same,  as  widl  as  in 
llie  dictation  of  general  laws,  as  far  as  inililary  ne- 
cessity reiinires  this  suspension,  sidistilulion,  or  dic- 
tation. The  commander  of  the  forces  nniy  proclaim 
that,  the  administration  of  all  civil  and  penal  law 
shall  continue,  either  wholly  or  in  pari,  as  in  limes 
of  peace,  unless  othiTwisc  ordered  hy  the  iidlitary 
authority.  .Martial  Law  issirnply  military  authority 
exercised  In  accordance  with  the  l.'iws  and  usaijes  of 
war.  ^lilitary  oppression  is  not  .Martial  I^aw;  it  is 
the  abuse  of  the  power  whii'li  that  law  confiTs.  As 
jNIartial  Law  is  executed  by  nulitiiry  force,  it  is  in- 
cumbent upon  those  who  administer  it  to  be  strictly 
guided  by  the  iirincljilcs  of  justice,  honor,  and  hu 
inanity-  virtues  adornimr  a  soldier  even  more  than 
other  men,  forthe  very  reason  that  he  jiossesses  the 
power  of  his  arms  aiiainst  tlie  uuaruied.  Martial 
Jjaw  should  be  less  stringent  in  places  and  countries 
fully  occupied  and  fairly  con(niered.  Much  greater 
severity  may  be  exercised  in  places  or  regions  where 
actual  hostilities  exist,  or  are  exjiected  and  must  be 
prepared  for.  Its  most  complete  sway  is  allowed — 
even  in  the  commander's  own  country — when  face  to 
face  with  the  enemy,  because  of  the  absolute  necessi- 
ties of  the  case,  and  of  the  |iaramount  dutytodef  nd 
the  country  against  invasion.  To  save  the  country 
is  ])aramount  to  all  other  considerations.  All  civil 
and  penal  laws  continue  to  tal<j'  their  usual  course 
in  the  enemy's  territory  under  Martial  Law.uidess  in- 
terru]ited  or  stopjicd  l)y  order  of  the  occupying  mili- 
tary power;  but  all  the  functions  of  the  hostile  gov 
ernmcnt  — legislative,  executive,  or  administrative — 
whether  of  a  general,  provincial,  or  local  character, 
ci'asi'  under  Martial  I-aw,  or  contimie  only  with  the 
sanction,  or,  if  deemed  necessary,  the  participation 
of  the  occupier  or  invader.  Martial  Law  extends  to 
pro])erty,  and  to  jiersous.  whether  they  are  subjects 
of  the  enemy  or  aliens  to  that  government.  C'oiistds, 
among  American  and  Euroi)eau  nations,  are  not  dip- 
lomatic agents.  Xevertheless,  their  otliccs  and  per- 
sons will  be  subjected  to  ^lartial    Law  in  cases  of 


I  mainly  to  the  support  and  etllclency  of  the  Army,  its 
safely,  and  lhi>  safety  of  its  operations.  The  law  of 
war  docs  not  only  dtsclaim  all  crni-llyand  bad  faith 
concernin'.;  iiigageinents  concluded  with  Ihi'  enemy 
during  the  war.  but  also  the  bri-aking  of  stipulations 
solemnly  contracted  by  the  belligerents  in  time  of 
l)eace,  and  av(jwedly  inlendeil  to  remain  in  force  in 
I  case  of  war  between  the  contracting  powers.  It  dis- 
•  claims  all  extortions  and  oilier  transactions  for  in- 
dividual  gain ;  till  acts  of  private  revenge,  or  conni- 
vance at  such  acts.  Offenses  to  the  contrary  shall 
be  severely  punished,  and  especially  so  if  committed 
by  oMlcers.  Whenever  feasible,  .Marlial  Law  is  car- 
ried out  in  cases  of  individual  offenders  by  Military 
t'ourts  ;  but  sentences  of  dtrath  shall  be  executed  only 
with  the  approval  of  the  chief  executive,  provided 
the  urgency  of  the  case  does  not  reijiiire  a  speedier 
execution,  and  then  only  with  the  ajjproval  of  the 
chief  commander,     fsce  Militari/  Ijiir. 

MARTINET  A  term  applieil  to  a  strict  disciplina- 
rian. It  is  suiijiosed  to  have  taken  its  origin  from 
an  .\djutant  of  that  name,  who  was  in  high  rei)Ute  in 
the  French  iirmv  as  a  tlrill  otiicer  during  the  reign  of 
Louis  .\1V. 

MARTINGALE.-  A  thong  of  Icalher.fastened  at  the 
end  of  the  ■jirth  under  the  belly  of  a  horse,  and  at 
tin'  oilier  end  totliemusral:  lo  keep  him  from  rearing. 

MARTINI  HENRY  RIFLE.-  This  rille.  adopted  as 
the  new  small-arm  of  'lie  linlish  service, has  a  lireech- 
loacling  aijparatus  on  the  iMartini  system  united  to  a 
barrel  ritied  on  the  system  of  Henry,  a  guu-maker  of 
Scotland.  Martini,  a  Swi.ss.  derived  liis  system  of 
breech-loading  from  the  Peabody  system  of  this 
country,  liy  dispensing  with  ilie  independent  out- 
side lock  and  substituting  therefor  a  spiral-spring 
tiring-bolt  or  striker,  inclosed  in  the  breech-block. 
The  breech-loading  ajiparalus,  the  formof  the  ri- 
tling.and  the  cartri<lge,are  shown  in  detail  in  the  ac- 
companying section  taken  through  the  axis  of  the 
barrel,  with  the  breech  closed.  The  receiver  is  a 
solid  frame  of  iron,  uniting  the  barrel  and  the  front 
and  rear  portions  of  the  stock.  The  barrel  is  shown 
at  L,  the  tiii-stock  at  V  S,  and  the  butt-stock  at  K, 
The  point  of  the  butt-stock  is  shaped  to  tit  into  the 


urgent  necessity  only ;  their  property  and  business 
are  not  exempted.  Aiiv  deliniiueiicv  they  commit 
against  the  established  military  rule  may  be  punish- 
ed as  in  the  case  of  any  other  inhabitant,  and  such 
punishment  furnishes  no  reasonable  ground  for  in- 
ternational complaint.  The  functions  of  Ambassa- 
dors. Ministers,  or  other  diplomatic  agents,  accredit- 
ed by  neutral  powers  lo  the  hostile  government, 
cea.se,  so  far  as  regards  the  displaced  government; 
but  the  conquering  or  occupying  power  usually  rec- 
ognizes them  as  temporarily  iiccreditcd  to  itself. 
!Martial  Law  affects  chiefly  the  police  and  collection 
of  public  revenue  ami  taxes,  whether  imposed  by  the 
expelled  government  or  by  tlie  invader,    and  refers 


rear  end  of  the  receiver,  which  is  cupped  to  receive 
it;  it  is  fastened  to  the  re<-eiver  by  the  longitudinal 
screw-bolt,  K  tS,iu  the  manner  shown  in  thedrawing. 
The  several  parts  of  the  breech  system  may  be  divid- 
ed into  two  groups,  viz  ;  1.  The  falling  breech-block 
and  Uie  firing  apparatus  contained  in  it:  2.  The 
trigger  and  other  parts  attached  to  the  trigger-plate, 
and  the  extractor. .  The  breech-block  is  pivoted  at 
its  rear  and  upper  portion,  and  in  uncovering  the 
clKimber  of  the  barrel  for  Ihe  purpose  of  loading,  its 
front  portion  f;dls.  The  axis-pin,  ;) .«,  around  which 
the  block  turns  is  made  of  hard  bronze.  The  por- 
tion of  the  collar  surrounding  this  pin  is  embedded 
in  the  receiver  and  constitutes  the  principal  recoil- 


MARTINI-HENRY  RIFLE. 


282 


MARTINI-HENRY  RIFLE. 


bearing  surface  of  the  block.  As  this  surface  is  a- 
bove  the  axis  of  the  bore,  prolouged  to  the  rear, there 
is  a  downward  pressure  of  the  block  at  the  moment 
of  explosion.  This  pressure  is  resisted  by  the  short 
arm  of  the  lever,  b  h.  and  the  block  thereby  secured 
in  its  place.  Tliis  lever,  called  the  block-lever,  is 
composed  of  two  arms,  and  turnsround  the  pin,ii  vr. 
The  short  arm  of  the  block-lever  is  divided  info  two 
branches.  The  long  arm  serves  as  a  handle  bj' which 
the  block  is  worked,  and  when  closed  its  point  en- 
ters a  countersink,  and  is  held  in  place  by  a  small 
catch-pin.  The  short  arm  of  the  block-lever  works 
in  a  cut  on  the  lower  side  of  the  breech-block.  This 
cut  is  so  shaped  that  the  points  of  the  branches  of  tlie 
short  arm  working  against  its  sides  raise  and  lower 
the  block  and  lock  it.  The  drawing  shows  the  block 
in  the  locked  position.  The  lever-pin  passes  through 
both  cheeks  of  the  receiver,  and  is  secured  to  the 
left  cheek  by  a  small  screw,  the  head  of  which  en- 
ters a  groove  in  the  point  of  the  pin. 

The  firing-bolt,  or  striker,  lies  in  a  hole  extending 
nearly  through  the  center  of  the  breech-block.  It  is 
composed  of  its  point,  which  projects  througli  a  cor- 
responding opening  in  the  head  of  the  block ;  a  col- 
lar, which  serves  as  a  shoulder  for  the  spiral  main- 
spring to  press  against,  and  the  body  enveloped  by 
this  spii  al  spring.  The  rear  portion  of  the  striker  has  a 
vertical  slot,  in  which  works  .the  point  of  a  lever  to 
draw  back  the  striker  to  the  position  of  full  cock. 
This  lever  is  called  the  tumbler.  The  rear  end  of 
the  striker  has  a  slot  in  it,  that  it  may  be  adjusted  by 
a  screw-driver  to  receive  tue  point  of  the  tumbler. 
The  striker  is  kept  in  place  by  a  nut  screwed  into  the 
rear  end  of  the  breecli-block."  The  tumbler  is  pivoted 
on  the  same  axis-pin  as  the  locking-lever,  n  ir,  and  is 
placed  between  its  two  branches.  To  show  when 
the  striker  is  at  full  cock,  the  end  of  the  lever-pin.  n 
ir,  has  an  index-arm,  which  lies  on  the  right  side  of 
the  receiver  and  turns  with  the  tumbler.  It  is  for 
this  purpose  that  the  portion  of  the  pin  on  which  the 
tumbler  tits  is  made  square.  The  tumbler,  when  at 
full  cock,  is  supported  on  a  rocker,  called  the  tum- 
bler-rest. The  nose  of  the  trigger,in  turn  supports  the 
tumbler-rest  at  r.  Tlie  tail-piece  of  the  tumbler-rest 
bears  against  the  back  of  the  trigger  when  the  latter 
is  pulled.  The  trigger-spring  is  shown  in,rf/.  To 
prevent  accidents  when  the  piece  is  carried  loaded, 
the  trigger  is  secured  in  place  by  the  trigger-bolt, 
which  Is  slid  back  and  forth  by  pressing  on  the  fin- 
ger-piece. When  locked,  the  bolt  fits  into  a  notch, 
and  is  kept  in  place  by  a  spring. 

The  extractor,  c ,  is  a  bent  lever  pivoted  at  e  n.  Its 
vertical  arm  is  composed  of  two  branches  with  points 
which  hook  under  the  rim  of  the  cartridge  to  extract 
the  shell.  The  horizontal  arm  is  shaped  to  receive 
the  downward  pressure  of  the  breech-Wock  on  its 
point  and  start  the  shell  from  the  chamber.  As  soon 
as  the  shell  has  moved  slightly  the  point  of  the 
breech-block  strikes  the  arm  near  tlie  fulcrum,  and 
ejects  the  shell  with  force  from  the  piece.  The  form 
of  the  rifling  is  shown  in  the  drawing.  Tiu'  number 
of  grooves  is  seven:  in  sliaiu-  they  are  tUit  at  the 
bottom;  the  lands  are  narrow,  liaving  the  appear- 
ance of  sharp  ribs,  wliich  arc  designed  lo  take  a  firm 
hold  of  the  bullet.  It  is  understood  that  these  grooves 
iiTr.  made  somewhat  deeper  at  the  breech  than  at  the 
muzzle.  Twist  is  one  turn  in  33  inches.  There  is 
a  brass  collar  around  the  head  of  the  ran\rod  to  pre- 
vent injury  lo  tlie  bore  in  wiping  out.  The  triangu- 
lar bayonet  is  issued  wiih  all  arms  to  private  soldiers. 
The  sword-bayonet  is  issued  to  non-comnussioned 
officers. 

Tlie  weight  of  the  Martini-Henry  rifle  is  8i  pounds; 
of  the  present  bayonet  13A  ounces  ;  of  the  new 
bayonet,  14  ounces";  of  the  old  scabbard,  0  ounces  ; 
of  the  new  scabbard,  4t  ounces.  The  weight  of 
the  rifle  with  a  new  bayonet  attached  is!)  jiounds 
11  ounces;  with  tin-  ol'd  biiyoiict,  '.)  iiouiids  1 1  _i 
ounces. 

The  cartridge  iidopted  for  the  .Martini-lleiiry  rille 


is  made  of  wrapped  metal,  after  what  is  known  in 
England  as  the  Boxer  system.  Each  cartridge  is 
composed  of  some  fourteen  distinct  pieces, as  sliown 
in  section.  The  body  of  the  shell  is  made  by  wrap- 
ping a  trapezoidal  piece  of  thin  sheet-brass  around  a 
cylindrical  former,  making  a  tube.  One  end  of  this 
tube  is  turned  inward  to  form  an  interior  flange  for 
securing  the  sliell  to  its  head,  the  other  end  is  re- 
duced in  diameter  to  fit  the  cylindrical  portion  of  the 
bullet.  A  piece  of  thin  paper  's  rolled  up  witli  the 
brass  sheet  for  a  lining  to  the  shell  to  protect  it 
against  the  action  of  the  powder.  The  head  of  the 
shell  is  made  of  a  perforated  sheet-iron  disk,  (,  two 
re-enforcing  cups  of  thin  sheet-brass,  k.  tlie  anvil- 
pocket,  g,  made  of  copper,  and  apsper  wad,  c.  The 
relative  positions  of  these  pieces  are  shown  in  the 
sectional  figure,  and  they  are  held  together  by  the 
anvil-pocket  and  the  paper  wad,  which  is  pressed  in- 
to its  place  with  great  force  under  the  head  of  the 
anvil-pocket,  while  the  open  end  of  the  pocket  is  riv- 
eted to  the  disk. 

The  shell  is  primed  by  inserting  into  the  anvil- 
pocket  from  the  outside  a  primer  composed  of  a  per- 
cussion-cap of  copper,  ?,  and  containing  an  anvil,  a, 
also  of  copper.  The  bottom  of  the  anvil-pccket  has 
a  small  hole  for  the  passage  of  the  flame  from  the 
fulminate  of  the  primer  when  it  is  exploded. 

The  bullet,  c,  is  of  cylindro-conoidalform.  made  of 
lead  hardened  by  an  admixture  of  one-thirteenth  part 
of  tin.  The  bullet  is  slightlj'  cupped  at  the  base, 
and  has  around  it  a  slight  groove,  r,  7-,  or  canne- 
lure, into  which  the  cartridge-shell  is  choked  to 
hold  the  bullet  in  place.  The  bullet  is  enveloped 
in  a  patch  of  thin  paper,  similar  to  that  u.sed  for 
bank-notes.  The  lubricating  material  is  a  bee's-wax 
wad,  10  d,  lying  between  the  powder  and  bullet.  This 
wad  is  separated  from  the  powder  by  a  stout  paper 
disk  (jute),  and  from  tlie  bullet  by  two  disks  of  the 
same  material.  The  weight  of  the  bullet  is  480  grains, 
and  the  powder  is  similar  in  quantity  to  that  known 
as  No.  6,  Curtis  and  Harvey's  make,  and  weighs  85 
grains.  These  cartridges  can  be  reorimed  and  re- 
loaded. 

Since  the  Martini-Henry  rifles  have  been  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  troops  certain  defects  have  been  de- 
veloped, and  the,  uecessar}'  alterations  have  been 
made  to  correct  them.  The  most  serious  defect  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  recoil,  or  "  kick,"  of  the  arm, 
extending,  according  to  the  newspaper  accounts,  so 
far  as  to  disable  soldiers  after  firing  a  series  of  not 
more  than  one  hundred  shots.  The  cause  of  this 
severe  recoil  is  attributed  to  the  great  weight  of  the 
charge  (powder  and  bullet)  in  proportion  to  the 
weight  of  the  arm.  The  prominence  of  the  stock  in 
rear  of  the  breech-frame  contriliutes  to  the  incon- 
venience of  the  recoil  by  striking  against  the  face  of 
the  firer.  if  care  be  not  taken  to  hold  the  piece  prop- 
erlj'.  The  injurious  effect  of  the  recoil  is  found  to 
be  the  greatest  with  soldiers  not  accustomed  to  the 
use  of  the  new  arm,  and  diminishes  as  tliey  become 
more  accustomed  to  it.  To  remedy  the  evil  as  far 
as  practicable,  it  has  been  decided  to  lengthen  the 
butt  of  the  stock.  Originally  the  distance  from  the 
trigger  to  the  middle  point  <if  the  butt-plate  was  13 
and  14  inches,  and  the  two  kinds  of  rifles  were  issu- 
ed to  the  troops  in  the  proportion  of  two  of  the  for- 
mer to  one  of  tlie  latter  lengtli.  The  corresponding 
distances  now  are  about  14  inches  and  14iinches, 
andtlie  cliangeis  said  to  have  gone  quite  tar  toward 
remedying  tiie  evil.  To  protect  the  left  hand  from 
the  hciit  of  the  barrel  in  rapid  firing  the  porlion  of 
the  barrel  embraced  by  the  hand  is  covered  with  a 
leather  shield  strapped  and  buckled  on.  The  butt- 
plates  were  fornwrly  roughed  by  cross-hatching  witli 
a  file  to  give  a  firmer  liold  against  tlie  shoulder. 
This  has  be<'n  dispensed  with  as  unnecessary,  and 
the  surface  is  now  left  smiiotii.  The  locking-liolt 
has  also  been  dispensed  with  as  unnecessary,  and 
the  block  axis-piii  is  countersunk  and  made  of  steel 
instead  of  hard  bronze.     The  strikers  having  been 


MARTIN  SHELL. 


283 


MASON  AND  DIXON'S  LINE. 


foiinil  Id  lircak,  Imvi-  bffii  nintfrinlly  slrcni?lli'Tic(l. 
Till'  plan  (if  scrcwinj;  in  tlic  point  nf  llic  niiiirod  to 
liold  it  in  its  place  has  been  (■lianjr''il  to  a  shoulder 
reMlin/i  aijainst  a  slop,  vvliieli  is  strongly  secured  to 
tliesloek  below  llie  lip,  somcwhul  after  the  Amer- 
ican plan. 

The  carbines  of  Ihe  cavalry  and  artillery  ])atternM 
have  Ihe  same  caliber  asthe  Nrarlini-llenry  rille,  ami 
have  also  the  same  twist  and  form  of  rillinj,',  but  Ihe 
barrels  are  only  111  inches  in  Ien{;th.  The  weii;ht  of 
the  cavalry  carbine  is  7  pounds,  H  ounces,  ami  that 
of  the  artillery  cariiine  is  7  [loniids,  lOi  ounces.  To- 
tal length,  ;i  feet,  1},^  inches,  ^vv  Hiixr  Cartridge, 
I'eiilHiiii/.Miirthii  Itijtc,  and   Itui/iil  S/iiiill  <irtiis, 

MARTIN  SHELL.— A  very  ingenious  substitute  for 
a  red-hot  shot,  to  wliic-h,  as  far  as  experience  has 
eont",  it  is  much  superior.  It  is  an  ordinary  shell 
lurnished  with  an  iron  screw  stopper.  Molten  iron 
is  poured  into  the  Hhell,  the  stopper  screwed  in,  and 
tile  missile  discharL'ed  for  iiiccndiarv  iiurposes. 

MARTLET.  -In  Iferaldry.a  birilre- 
semblinu'a  swallow, with  lontrwintrs, 
very  short  beak  and  tliii;hs.  and  no 
visible  Iciis,  given  as  a  mark  of  cad- 
ency to  tlie  fourth  son.  It  is  also 
otherwise  used  as  a  charge.  The 
martlet  was  originally  meant  for  the 
marl  in. and  in  the  earliest  Heraldry, 
it  is  not  deprived  of  its  feet. 
MASCLE.  — In  Heraldry,  a  lozenge- 
shaped  figure  ])erforated  and  showing  a  very  narrow 
border.  The  term  mar-fu'li/  is  as  a  general,  thing 
applied  to  any  tield  that  is  divided  by  diagonal 
lines  into  lozenge-shaped  compart- 
ments of  alternate  tinctures,  each 
having  its  center  voided  of  tlic  op- 
posite tincture.  L"z,  nr/n-miixcally  \s 
a  field  comjiosed  of  lozenges  and 
mascles  alternately.  In  the  earlier 
Heraldry, mascally  was  used  for  what 
was  after  wards  callen  lozengy .  Cros- 
ses and  other  ordinaries  may  be  form- 
in  which  case  they  should  begin  with 
See  Itiriilriry. 

-A  kind  of  armor  sometimes 


Martlet. 


]5£aacIo« 


cd  of  mascles, 
half  a  mascle. 

MASCLED  ARMOR 
worn  by  the  Xorman  soldiers,  composed  of  small 
lozenge-shaped  plates  of  metal  fastened  on  a  leathern 
or  ijuilted  uniler-coat. 

MASK.  —  1.  In  a  permanent  fortification, a  casema- 
ted  redoubt, one  or  two  stories  high  and  13  yards  in 


width  at  the  capital,  which  is  sometimes  added  in 
from  of  the  caponier;  a  ditch  10  yards  wide   may  be 


formed  in  front  and  rear  of  it.  Its  salients  being 
made  circidar  and  loop  holed,  a  close  and  powerful 
tire  can  be  brought  to  bear  uprmllie  enemy  if  he  suc- 
ceeds in  establishing  himself  in  the  ravelin.  The 
name  miiHlc  is  given  to  this  reiloubt,  as  it  ads  us  an 
eHicicMt  mask  or  counter-guard  to  the  caponier.  2. 
A  wire  cage  to  protect  the,  facer  in  fencing.  Fig.  1 
represents  the  ordinary  frnrin;/  iniiKk,  furnislied  w  illi 
ears  and  fronts.  Fig.  2,  represents  the  hiiu  rapier 
manic  padded.  'A.  As  a  military  expression,  mniik, 
Is  used  in  several  senses.  A  mnsked  lattery  is  one 
so  constructed,  with  a  grassy  glacis,  etc.,  as  to  be 
hidden  from  the  view  of  Ihe  enemy  until,  tr)  his  sur- 
prise, it  suddenly  opens  tire  upon  him — on  his  flank, 
perhaps.    The  lire  of  a  battery  is  OTOs/c^rf  when  some 


other  work,  or  a  body  of  friendly  troops,  intervenes 
in  the  line  of  tire,  and  jirecludes  the  use  of  the  guns. 
A  fortress  or  an  army  is  maxkrd  when  a  superior  force 
of  the  enemy  holds  it  in  check,  while  some  hostile 
evolution  is  beins  carried  out 

MASON  AND  .^IXONS  LINE.-Tliis  line  f  riginated 
in  t  lie  (lifiiculf  ies  which  occurred  in  tracing  the  bound- 
ary line  of  a  tract  of  land  granted  to  William  Penn 
in  1081.  This  land  lay  west  of  the  Delaware  and 
north  of  Jlaryland.  and  a  part  of  its  southern  bound- 
ary was  defined  to  be  "a  circle  drawn  at  12  miles 
distant  from  Newcastle  northwards  and  westwards 
into  the  beginning  of  the  40"  of  northern  laHtnde." 
Later,  Penn  received  another  grant,  and,  his  agent 
being  unable  to  agree  with  the  authorities  in  Ameri- 
ca as  to  the  just  boundary,  he  came  to  this  country 
himself  in  1682  to  establish  his  claim  and  take  pos- 
session of  his  land.  He  was  opposed  by  Lord  Bal- 
timore, the  matter  was  referred  to  the  Committee  of 
Trade  and  Plantations,  a  change  in  the  reigning  mon- 
arch of  England  took  place,  and  it  was  not  until 
1760  that  the  final  deed  was  issued  to  the  heirs  of 
Penn,  closing  the  controversy.  But  even  then  the 
question  of  surveying  the  disputed  territory  with  a 
view  of  defining  the  boundary-line  opened  new  disa- 
greement :  and  it  was  to  arrange  this  that  Charles 
.Mason  and  James  Dixon,  "Mathematicians  and  Sur- 
veyors," were  mutually  agreed  upon  by  the  contes- 
tants. Thomas  and  Richard  Penn,  on  the  one  part, 
and  Lord  Baltimore,  the  great  grand-son  of  Cecilius, 
the  first  patentee,  on  Ihe  other.  "To  mark,  run  out, 
settle,  ti.v  and  determine  all  such  parts  of  the  circle, 
marks,  lines,  and  boundaries  as  were  mentioned  in 
the  several  articles  or  commissions,  and  were  not 
completed."  The  two  surveyors  commenced  their 
work  in  1704,  and  did  not  finish  it  until  1707:  the 
delay  being  partlj-  owing  to  Indian  troubles,  involv- 


UASOKED. 


284 


MASTEE  OF  THE  HOESE. 


in"  negotiations  with  the  SixKatious  in  their  settle- 
ment. The  line  as  tinally  drawn,  has  l)een  popular- 
ly supposed  to  have  been  the  dividing  line  between 
the  Free  and  the  Slave  States  ;  but  tiiis  is  an  error, 
as  slavery  existed  throughout  Delaware,  which  is 
both  east  and  north  of  the  line,  until  abolished  by 
the  14th  Amendment  to  the  Constitution.  To  this 
line  is  owing  the  peculiar  tract  of  land  known  as  the 
Pan-handle,"  where  a  part  of  Virginia  runs  up  be- 
tween Pennsylvania  and  the  Ohio  River.  Very  little 
is  known  of  "the  two  "Surveyors  of  London,"  as  they 
were  styled.  JIason  was  an  assistant  of  Dr.  Brad- 
ley at  the  Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich;  Ixith 
-were  members  of  the  American  Philosophical  Soci- 
ety :  both  were  sent  by  the  Royal  Society  to  the  Cape 
of"  Good  Hope  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  in 
1769.  Dixon  died  in  Durham,  England, in  1777:  and 
Mason  died  in  Pennsylvania  in  1787. 

MASONED. — In  Heraldry,  a  term  used  to  describe 
the  lines  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  stones  in 
buildin;:. 

MASS. — 1.  In  Statics,  the  amount  of  matter  con- 
tained in  a  bod}'.  In  Dynamics,  that  measure  of  the 
matter  in  a  body  which  determines  its  relation  to 
force.  The  accepted  measure  is  the  weight  divided 
by  the  force  of  gravity.  2  The  formation  of  troops 
in  column  at  less  than  half  distance.  To  ?)iass 
troops,  is  to  concentrate  them  by  this  arrangement 
on  a  certain  point.  A  column  is  cpised  in  mass 
when  the  sul)-divisions  have  less  than  half  distance. 
MASSACRE. — The  killing  of  human  beings  by  in- 
discriminate slaughter,  murder  of  numliers  with 
cruelty  or  atrocity,  or  contrary  to  the  usages  of 
civilized  people.  As  an  example,  we  may  cite  the 
Mountain  Meadows  Massacre,  an  atrocity  committed 
by  the  Indians  in  1857, in  Mountain  Meadows.  Santa 
Clara  Co..  Utah :  as  is  supposed, under  the  instigation 
and  direction  of  the  Mormon  leaders.  A  party  of 
130  emigrant  settlers,  on  their  way  throiigh  Utah  to 
California,  had  in  some  way  aroused  the  suspicions 
of  the  Mormons,  and  at  the  place  named  were  sur- 
rounded by  Indians  under  ilormon  control,  and  bru- 
tally massacred :  onl)'  a  few  children  of  the  party 
survived.  In  1874  an  investigation  into  the  affair  was 
ordered  by  the  U.  S.  Government,  and  John  D.  Lee, 
a  Mormon  Bishop,  and  others,  were  indicted,  tried, 
and  condemned.  Lee  was  executed  on  March  23, 
1877,  by  being  shot  on  the  very  spot  where  tlie  mas- 
sacre look  place. 

MASSAGETAE. — A.  nomadic  people  who  inhabited 
the  broad  steppes  on  the  northeast  of  the  Caspian 
sea.  to  the  northward  of  the  river  Araxes  or  Jaxartes. 
Herodotus  says  that  they  had  a  community  of 
wives;  that  the}-  sacrificed  and  devoured  their  aged 
people  ;  that  they  worshipped  the  sun,  and  offered 
horses  to  him  ;  lliat  they  lived  on  the  milk  and  flesh 
of  their  herds,  and  on  lisli ;  and  fought  on  horseback 
and  on  foot  with  tlie  lance, bow, and  double-edged  axe. 
Cyrus  is  said  to  liave  lost  his  life  in  fighting  against 
tliem,  .530  e.g.  Niebuhr  and  Boockh  are  of  opinion 
that  they  belcmged  to  the  Mongolian,  but  Humboldt 
and  others  to  the  Indo-Germanic  orAryan  family. 

MASSE. — A  species  of  stock-purse,  which,  during 
the  French  monarchy,  was  lodged  in  the  hands  of 
the  Regimental  Treasurer  or  Paymaster,  for  every 
Sergeant,  Corporal,  Drummer,  and  Soldier.  The 
amount  retained  for  each  Sergeant  was  vmgt  deniers 
per  day,  anil  dix  denier^  for  each  of  the  other  ranks, 
according  to  the  establishment,  not  the  effective 
number,  of  each  battalion.  Out  of  tliese  stopi)ages  a 
settled  and  regular  mns^e,  or  stock-purse,  was  made 
up,  and  at  the  en<l  of  every  month  it  was  ])aid  into 
the  hands  of  the  Major  or  Ofliccr  intrusted  with  the 
interior  management  of  the  corps,  and  was  then 
appropriated  to  defray  the  expense  of  clothing  the 
difTerent  regiments,  and  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the 
Directors  or  Inspector-General  of  Clothing. 

MASSE  D'ARMES.  -A  warlike  weapon,  which  was 
formerly  usc^d  in  France.  It  consisted  of  a  long  pole 
•with  a  large  inm  head. 


MASSELOTTE. — A  French  term  used  in  the  foundry 
tosi'j;nify  tliat  superfluous  metal  which  remains  after 
a  cannon  or  mortar  has  been  cast,  and  which  is  saw- 
ed or  tiled  off  to  give  the  piece  its  proper  form. 

MASSIE. — A  short  stick  or  rod,  used  by  artificers 
in  making  cartridges. 

MASSING  GUNS.— The  best  mode  of  successfully 
silencing  the  enemy's  artiller_y,or  of  destroying  some 
special  position  of  his,  is  by  means  of  a  number  of 
guns  brought  to  bear  on  that  point.  This  system 
was  first  introduced  by  Napoleon  at  the  battles  of 
Wagram,  the  Moskwa,  and  Llitzen,  and  subsequent- 
ly was  emploj-ed  with  great  effect  b.v  the  Germans 
during  the  war  of  1870-71. 

In  the  concentration  of  artillery  in  action  it  is  not 
necessary  that  all  the  guns  should  be  formed  up  into 
one  gigantic  battery.  With  pieces  commanding  a 
range  of  3, 000  yards,  a  hundred  guns  might  generally 
direct  their  fire  on  to  one  spot, without  being  crowded 
together,  and  it  is  hardly  likely  so  many  guns  would 
be  required  to  concentrate  their  fire.  It  is  further 
shown  that  it  is  important  in  massing  guns,  es- 
pecially under  the  fire  of  an  enemy,  that  the  guns 
should" come  into  action  as  nearly  simultaneously  as 
possible;  otherwise  each  battery  m.ay  be  crushed  in 
its  turn  as  it  comes  up,  from  the  enemy  having  got 
the  exact  ranse  of  the  battery  which  first  got  into 
position. 

MASTER -GENERAL  OF  THE  ORDNANCE.— An  offi- 
cer formerly  at  the  head  of  the  Board  of  Ordnance. 
Before  the  present  regimental  organization  of  the  ar- 
tillery, all  details  of  the  regiment  came  under  the 
care  and  superintendence  of  the  Master-General. 
The  position  of  Master-General  was  introduced  into 
the  English  Army  as  early  as  1483:  at  all  events,  that 
seems  to  be  the  earliest  date  that  the  name  of  such  a 
functionary  can  be  traced.  This  officer  was  at  the 
head  of  the  Board  of  Ordnance,  to  which  most  im- 
portant duties  were  assigned  ;  and  if  any  one  would 
wish  to  learn  what  the  Master-General  had  to  do  in 
the  17th  century,  let  him  go  to  the  Tower  and  exam- 
ine the  correspondence  of  Lord  Dartmouth,  the 
faithful  friend  and  servant  of  Charles  11.,  a  profes- 
sional artilleryman,  and  James  II.,  a  skilled  Master- 
General  to  the"  last.  The  last  JVIaster-General  of  the 
Ordnance  was  Lord  Raglan,  who  died  while  in  com- 
mand of  the  British  Arm}-  in  the  Crimea. 

MASTER-GUNNER.— Formerly  iin  ancient  office  un- 
der the  crown,  as  far  back  as  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  The  appointment  is  now  filled  by  pensioned 
sergeants  of  artillery.  A  Master-Gunner,  as  under- 
stood nowadays,  is  a  warrant  officer  selected  from 
the  Non-commissioned  officers  of  artillery,  whose 
duty  is  to  take  charge  of  guns,  ammunition,  stores 
etc.,  in  a  fortress.  The  Coast  Brigade  is  com- 
posed of  Master  Gvmners  (pensioners),  and  there 
are  3  classes,  1st,  2d,  and  3d.  containing  16,  26,  and  83 
respectively- 

master"  of  THE  BUCKHOUNDS— An  officer  in  the 
Master  of  the  Horse  Department  of  the  Royiil  House- 
hold, who  has  the  control  of  all  matters  relating  to 
the  royal  hunts.  A  salary  of  £1,. 500  is  attached  to  the 
oflice,"  which  is  regarded  as  one  of  considerable  po- 
litical importance."  The  JInstcr  of  the  Buckhonnds 
goes  out  of  oflice  on  a  ehanije  of  ministry. 

MASTER  OF  THE  CEREMONIES.— An  office  insti- 
tu'ed  at  the  Court  of  England  in  1003,  for  the  more 
honorable  reception  of  Ambassadors  and  persons  of 
distin<-tion.  The  same  term  was  afterwards  extend- 
ed beyond  die  Court,  by  beintr  applied  first  to  Beau 
Naslu  the  famous  '■^Miislerof  the  Ceremonies,"  or 
President  of  the  amusements  at  Bath,  and  then  to 
other  persons  exercising  the  same  function  in  ordin- 
arv  ;isscnd)ru'S. 

MASTER  OF  THE  HORSE.- The  lliird  great  officer 
of  the  Court,  who  lias  the  suiierintendence  of  the 
Royal  Stables,  and  of  all  horses  iinil  breeds  of  horses 
befongiiig  to  the  (^ueen.  He  exercises  authority 
over  iill  the  Equerries  ami  Pages,  (Jrooms,  Coach- 
men, Saddlers,  and  Farriers, and  has  tlie  appointment 


MASTER  OF  THE  SWORD. 


285 


MATHEMATICS. 


and  conlriil  of  all  arliticirs  workinp;  for  the  Qufcn'H 
slahlcs.  Ill'  is  answcnihlc  for  the  (lislmrwiiicnt  of 
all  revenues  appropriated  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
Ids  Deparlriieiil ;  hid  his  aeeoiiiits  arei^iidiled  and  ex- 
andned  liy  the  iJoard  of  Green  Cloth,  lie  lias  the 
privilei;e  of  niakini;  iis<!  of  the  royal  horses,  jiaftes, 
and  servants,  and  rides  next  to  her  Majesty  on  all 
stale  occasions.  The  olllce  is  one  of  ijreal  antiipiity, 
and  is  considered  to  hi'  a  ])osition  of  <;reat  honor. 
The  Master  of  the  llorse  is  appointed  dnrinf;  pleas- 
ure, hy  letter-patent;  but  his  teiuire  of  olllce  depends 
on  the  existence  of  the  political  parly  in  power.  Tlie 
salary  is  t'3..')(IO  a  vear. 

MASTER  OF  THE  SWORD.— A  citizen  employed  to 
iiistnicl  in  the  use  of  llie  sMiall-swnrd,  liroad-swnrd, 
and  liayon<'t,  at  the  U.  S.  .Mililary  Academy.  He  is 
willioul  rank,  but  wears  a  luiiforni  of  the  fijllowing 
pattern : 

C(Mit — Double-breasted  frock,  two  rows  of  but- 
tons of  the  General  Staff  of  tlie  Army,  seven  in  each 
row.  Ovireoitt. — Same  as  prescribed  for  a  Second 
Lieutenant,  dismounted.  /'iiiitiil'">iin  Dark  lilue, 
plain,  (.'fill — Chasseur  ])atlern,  with  Icllers  .M.  A. 
in  silver,  encircled  hy  a  wreath  in  i;old  on  the  front. 
Sword  iiiul  Sir'inl.hdt — Same  as  jjrescribed  for  Lieu- 
tenants of  Infantry.  He  is  permitted  to  wear  the 
dark-blue  sack-coat  prescribed  for  Army  officers, 
Willi  the  Inittons  of  the  General  StafT. 

MASTER  TAILOR.— A  compelent  tailor,  attached 
to  each  regiment,  who  has  been,  if  a  soldier,  pro- 
nounced by  a  Board  of  Seri;eant  Master  Tailors  lo 
be  eflicieul  and  well  up  to  his  work,  or  who  has 
been  instructed  in  the  art  of  tailorini;  at  the  Gov- 
ernment Clothing  Establishment,  Pindico.  A  civil- 
ian tailor  may  volunteer  for  the  situation;  and  if  so,  he 
will  have  to  pass  an  examination  at  the  Royal.  Army 
C^lothini;  Depot,  ami  be  enlisted  as  a  Sergeant  Mas- 
ter Tailor 

MASTIC. — A  species  of  gum-resin  yielded  by  the 
mastic  or  lentisk  tree  {pi'ntaefa  lentisciir>,  natural  or- 
der tfrebinthacfjx).     It  oozes  from  cuts  made  in  the 
bark,  and  hardens  on  the  stem  in  small  round  tear- 
like lumps  of  a  straw-color,  or  if  not  collected  in 
time,  it  falls  on  the  ground ;  in  the  latter  state  it  ) 
acquires  some  impurities,  and  is  consequently  less  i 
valuable.       The  chief  use  of  this  gum-resin  is  in  j 
making  the  almost  colorless  varnish  for  varnishing 
prints,    maps,    drawings,    etc.       It   is   also  used  by 
dentists  for  stoiipiug  hollow  teeth,  and  was  formerly  j 
used  in  medicine.    It  is  imported  in  small  quanti-  i 
ties,  chiefly  from  the  Morocco  coast,   but  some  is 
occasionally  brought  from   the   south   of  Europe. 
The  name  of  mastic  is  also  given  to  oleaginous  ce- 
ments, composed  of  about  7  parts  of  litharge  and 
93  of  burned  clay,  reduced  to  fine  powder,   made 
into  a  paste  with  linseed  oil. 

MATADOR. — A  long,  narrow  sword  with  a  cross- 
bar. The  toreador,  on  foot,  tights  with  this  sword 
anil  kills  the  bull. 

MATAFUNDA. — An  ancient  machine  of  war,  which 
was  used  for  throwing  stones,  probably  by  means  of 
a  sling. 

MATCH. — The  name  given  to  a  material,  such  as 
cotton,  hemp,  tow,  etc.,  which  is  rendered  combus- 
tible by  being  dipped  or  soaked  in  some  ignitible  so- 
lution-. There  are  two  kinds  of  match  familiar  to 
the  artiller3'man.  quick-match  and  shnc-match.  Quick- 
match  is  made  of  different-si/,ed  threads-  vis:  four-, 
si.x- and  ten-thread — soaked  in  a  solution  of  gunpow- 
der, mixed  with  gum  arable  and  water  in  a  l)oiling 
state,  and  of  such  consistency  that  the  thread  shall 
be  thoroughly  coated  with  it;  it  is  then  wound  on 
reels,  and  gunpowder  sifted  on  it.  If  it  be  stifT,  and 
has  the  coating  of  powder  perfect  over  the  surface, 
it  is  serviceable.  If  it  has  been  bruised  or  twisted 
and  the  coating  of  powder  removed,  it  is  unservieea- 
able.  It  is  largely  used  for  priming  fuses,  etc.  Slow- 
match  is  made  of  slightly  twisted  hempen  rope,  soak- 
ed in  lime-water  and  saltpeter,  and  then  dried,  or  it 
can  be  prepared  by  washing  the  hemp  in  a  lye  of 


water  and  wood  ashes.  It  burns  at  the  rate  of  one 
yard  in  eight  hours,  and  is  used  for  lighting  port- 
fires, etc. 

MATCHLOCK.  The  name  formerly  given  to  a 
siriall-.-iiiM  or  musket.  The  earlii'st  muskets  were 
llri'd  hy  irieans  of  a  piece  of  slow-match  applied  by 
Hie  hand  lo  Ihe  touch-hole.  An  imiiroveriient  on 
this  mode  of  ignition  was  made  at  the  end  of  tlic 
fourleenlh  century  by  a  lock  being  attached  to  the 
musket  which  held  the  match,  and  by  firessure  ap- 
jilied  to  the  trigger  of  Ihe  lock,  it"  brought  the 
lighted  match  down  on  the  powder-pan  and  thus 
ignited  tin;  priming  powder.  This  mode  of  ignition 
cause<l  the  musket  to  be  called  the  iniitcldrjck.  See 
Lock. 

MATE  GRIFFON.— An  ancient  machine,  the  de- 
stroyer and  terror  of  the  Greeks,  which  projected 
both  stones  and  darts. 

MATERIEL.— The  expression,  "materiel  of  artil- 
lery," embraces  all  cannon,  carriages,  implements, 
ammunition,  etc.,  necessary  for  artillery  purposes, 
and  is  used  in  conlradistinclion  to  "  fersunntl  of  ar- 
lillrri/,"  which  refers  to  the  othcers  and  men.  The 
expression,  "  xi/sliiii  af  firtilliry,"  tvU-th  to  the  char- 
acter and  arrangement  of  the  materiel  of  artillery,  as 
adopted  b)'  a  nation  at  any  particular  epoch.  In  the 
Lnited  States'  service,  the  term  "  ordnance  and  ord- 
nance stores,"  embraces  not  only  all  the  muteriel  of 
arlillery,  but  the  swords,  small-arms,  and  accoutre- 
ments used  by  inf;;ntrv  and  mounted  troops. 

MATHEMATICAL  INSTRDMEMTS.— Those  instru- 
ments employed  in  the  determination  of  the  length 
of  lines  or  the  size  of  angles.  Pairs  of  compasses, 
surveying-chains,  etc.,  are  examples  of  the  former 
class;  while  the  compass,  sextant,  theodolite,  and 
the  numerous  list  of  astronomical  instruments  gener- 
ally denominated  telescopes,  including  the  equatorial 
transit  instrument,  mural  circle,  etc.,  form  the  latter 
class.  The  more  important  of  these  instruments 
will  be  treated  of  under  separate  heads. 

MATHEMATICS.— The  science  which  has  for  its 
subject-matter  the  properties  of  magnitude  and  num- 
ber. It  is  usually  divided  into  Pure  and  Mixed;  the 
first  including  alljdeductions  from  the  abstract,  self- 
evident  relations  of  magnitude  and  number;  the 
second,  the  results  arrived  at  by  applying  the  prin- 
ciple so  established  to  certain  relations  found  by  ob- 
servation to  e.tist  among  the  phenomena  of  nature. 
The  branches  of  Pure  >fathematics  which  were  first; 
developed  were,  naturally.  Arithmetic,  or  the  science 
of  number,  and  Geometry,  or  the  science  of  quantity 
(in  extension).  The  latter  of  these  was  the  only 
branch  of  mathematics  cultivated  by  the  Greeks, 
their  cumbrous  notation  opposing  a  barrier  to  any 
effective  progress  in  the  former  science.  Algebra, 
or  the  science  of  numbers  in  its  most  general  form, 
is  of  much  later  growth,  and  was  at  first  merelv  a 
kind  of  universal  arithmetic,  general  sjTiibols  taking 
the  place  of  numbers;  but  its  extraordinary  develop- 
ment within  the  last  two  centuries  has  established 
for  it  a  right  to  be  considered  as  a  distinct  science, 
the  Science  of  Operations.  Combinations  of  these 
three  have  given  rise  to  Trigonometry  and  Analytical 
Oeoniftry.  The  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus 
makes  use  of  the  operations  or  processes  of  geometr}-, 
algebra,  and  analysis  indifferentlj' ;  the  Calculus  of 
Finite  Differences  is  in  part  included  under  algebra, 
and  may  be  considered  as  an  extension  of  that 
science  :  and  the  Calculus  of  Variations  is  based 
upon  the  Differential  Calculus.  The  term  "  Mi.xed 
Mathematics"  is  calculated  to  lead  to  error;  "Applied 
Mathematics"  is  a  more  appropriate  name.  This 
portion  of  mathematics  iacludes  all  those  sciences  in 
which  a  few  simple  axioms  are  mathematically  shown 
to  be  sufficient  for  the  deduction  of  the  most  import- 
ant natural  phenomena.  This  definition  includes 
those  sciences  which  treat  of  pressure,  motion,  light 
heat,  sound,  electricity  and  magnetism — usually 
called  Physics  —  and  excludes  chemistry,  geology 
political  economy,  and  the  other  branches  of  science' 


MATRAS. 


286 


UAUSER  BIFLE. 


which,  however,  receive  more  or  less  aid  from  ma- 
thematics. 

MATRAS. — An  ancient  bolt  or  arrow  with  a  round 
disk  or  head,  which  killed  witliout  piercing.  It  was 
ofteuer  used  for  the  chase  than  in  war,  and  was  es- 
pecially useful  in  bringing  down  such  beasts  as  the 
iumter  might  wish  to  preserve  with  the  skin  uniu- 
jureil. 

MATRON. — A  woman,  generally  the  wife  of  some 
well-behaved  soldier,  who  is  employed  to  assist  in 
the  hospital,  do  the  washing,  etc.  The  matrons  are 
under  the  direction  of  the  Surgeon  and  are  originally 
ajijiointed  bj'  this  officer. 

MATROSS. — A  name  formerly  given  to  an  artillery- 
man. In  the  early  organization  of  the  British  ar- 
tillery, there  were  only  two-lraiued  artillerymen  per 
gun  ;  they  consisted  of  a  gunner  and  his  mntr  or 
matrass.  It  was  in  the  year  1T83  that  the  term  gun- 
ner was  substituted  for  that  of  matross.  It  would 
appear  from  this  that  the  mate,  or  matross,  was  in 
fact  a  gimuer.  Another  explanation  of  the  word  is 
as  follows :  A  man  whose  business  it  is  to  be  in  the 
train  of  artillery,  next  the  gunners,  to  assist  them  in 
loading,  tirius.  and  sponging  the  guns. 

MATTER.— From  a  pliysical  point  of  view,  mat- 
ter is  anything  tliat  can  affect  the  senses,  or  that 
can  exert,  or  be  acted  on  hy  force.  The  existence  of 
matter,  in  the  sense  of  substaace,  has  been  doubted 
by  many  Philosophers,  including  some  of  the  great- 
est of  Experimenters.  Indeed,  as  we  can  know 
matter  only  by  the  forces  it  exerts,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  supposition  of  mere  geometric  points,  capable  of 
exerting  force  (technically  called  centirsvffvn-f),  will 
as  satisfactorily  account  for  all  observed  phenomena 
as  any  other  idea  of  the  ultimate  nature  of  matter. 
Here,  however,  we  are  dealing  with  a  question  con- 
fessedly beyond  the  reach  of  experiment,  and  be- 
longing to  the  domain  with  which  metaphysics  pro- 
fesses to  deal.  Although  experiment  cannot  lead  to 
a  knowledge  of  the  ultimate  nature  of  matter,  it 
,  may  lead  to  important  discoveries  as  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  molecules  of  different  bodies,  and  their 
similarity  or  dissimilarity.  Some  of  the  questions 
to  which  we  may  expect  an  answer,  though  not  a 
speedy  one,  have  already  been  mentioned  in  the 
article  Fokce  ;  but  in  order  to  render  intelligible 
the  short  account  which  we  intend  to  give  of  some 
very  interesting  ideas  recently  propounded  by  Gra- 
ham, it  will  be  necessarj-  to  repeat  some  of  them. 
The  old  idea  of  the  transmutation  of  metals  impli- 
citly contains  the  assumptinn  that  all  kinds  of  matter 
are.  ultimately  one.  Far  from  being  a  startling  as- 
sumption, this  is  the  simplest  and  most  easily  con- 
ceived notion  we  can  entertain  on  the  subject;  and 
it  offers  a  remarkably  simple  explanation  of  that 
extraordinary  property  of  matter  which  Newton 
proved  by  careful  experiments,  that  the  weight  of  a 
body  depends  only  on  the  quantit\-.  not  on  the  qualit_y 
of  the  matter  that  composes  it.  One  idea,  then,  of 
matter  is,  that  the  atoms  (or  smallest  parts,  what- 
ever these  may  be)  of  all  bodies  are  identical,  but 
that  the  molecules  (each  of  which  is  a  single  atom, 
or  a  definitely  arranged  group  of  atoms)  differ  from 
one  body  to  another.  Thus  (to  take  an  instance 
merely  for  explanatiim,  not  as  at  all  likely  to  be  cor- 
rect), if  hydrogen  be  supposed  to  consist  of  the 
simple  atoms  of  matter;  o.xygen,  each  mohcide  of 
which  is  8  times  as  heavy  as  one  of  hydrogen, 
may  have  each  molecule  formed  of  8  elementary 
atoms,  arranged  in  a  group  such  as  the  corners  of  a 
die;  carbon,  ()  times  as  heavy  per  molecule,  might 
be  coniijosed  of  fl  sim|)le  atoms  grouped  as  at  the 
corners  of  an  octoliedron;  and  so  on.  It  is  obvious 
that  here  each  atom  must  be  supi)Osed  capable  of 
exerting  force  on  every  other.  This  leads  us  natur- 
ally to  speculations  as  to  the  medium  through  which 
this  force,  if  it  be  exerted  at  a  distance,  is  projja- 
gated ;  and  then  we  have  introduced  matter  of  a 
more  refined  character  than  oursujiposed  elementary 
atoms.      This   ditlicullv  has   suggested   to   various 


Pliilosophers  the  idea  that  there  is  no  actio  in  distans, 
that  all  pressure,  for  instance,  in  a  gas  is  due  to  in- 
cessant impacts  of  its  particles  upon  each  other  and 
upon  the  containing  vessel.  But  from  various  ex- 
perimental results,  we  know  that  this  species  of  mo- 
tion is  capable  of  being  transferred  from  one  body 
to  another,  of  being  increased  or  diminished  by 
change  of  temperature,  and  is,  in  fact,  Iicdt  itself,  one 
form  of  kinetic  energy.  This,  if  there  be  no  ultimate 
difference  between  kinds  of  matter,  could  never  be 
the  cause  of  their  apparent  difference.  Hence,  in 
Graham's  view,  though  all  ultimate  atoms  are 
identical  in  substance,  Ihey  have  special  motions  of 
their  own,  by  which  one  is  distinguished  from  an- 
other, these  motions  not  being  capable  of  transfer 
from  one  atom  or  group  of  atoms  to  another.  It  is 
difficult  to  conceive  energy  in  such  a  form  as  not  to 
be  transferable,  so  that  we  refer  the  reader  to  Gra- 
ham's own  papers  for  the  further  development  of 
his  theory-  remarking,  in  conclusion,  that  no  theory 
of  the  nature  of  matter  can  be  considered  as  at  all 
complete  till  it  account  for  the  mutual  action  of 
separate  atoms ;  for  this  the  existence  of  a  continuous 
material  medium  in  space  would  seem  to  be  neces- 
sary;  and  this,  in  its  turn,  would,  if  accepted,  enable 
us  to  dispense  with  the  idea  of  atoms.  In  con- 
nection with  this,  we  may  mention  that  Sir  William 
Thomson  has  shown  that  mere  heterogeneity  (wliich 
we  know  exists  in  matter)-  together  with  gravitation, 
is  sufficient  to  explain  all  the  apparently  discordant 
laws  of  molecular  action ;  matter  being  supposed, 
in  this  theor}',  to  be  continuous  but  of  varying  den- 
sity from  point  to  point. 

MATTOCK.  A  pioneer  tool,  resembling  a  pick-axe, 
but  ha  vim;  two  broad,  sharp  edges  instead  of  points. 

MATTUCASHLASH— An  ancient  Scotch  weapon, 
sometimes  called  Armpit  Dagger,  which  was  worn 
under  the  armpit,  ready  to  be  used  on  coming  to  close 
quarters.  This,  with  a  broad-sword  and  shield,  com- 
pletely armed  the  Highlanders. 

MAUL. — A  heavy  beater,  or  hammer,  usually  shod 
with  iron,  u.sed  in  driving  stakes,  etc.  That  fur- 
nished from  arsenals  has  a  cylindrical  head  of  wood, 
6  inches  in  diameter  and  8  inches  long,  with  an  iron 
band  around  each  end.  The  handle  is  24  inches  long 
and  1.. 5  inch  in  diameter.  Weight  10  lbs.  Thismaul, 
as  issued,  owing  to  poor  material  and  favdty  con- 
struction, is  of  but  little  value.  AVliere  much  ser- 
vice is  required,  it  is  better  to  make  the  head  of 
tough,  hard  wood,  with  a  handle  considerably  larger 
tlian  the  one  of  regulation  pattern. 

MAUSER  RIFLE.— The  Mauser  is  a  modification  of 
the  C'hassepiM  system,  by  which  it  is  adapted  to  the 
use  of  the  metallic  gas-check  cartridge,  and  has  been 
adopted  by  the  Prussian  Government  as  a  substitute 
for  the  needle-gun.  In  the  drawing,  II  represents 
the  housing  or  receiver  attached  to  the  barrel  bj-  the 
usual  form  of  screw  at  its  forward  end,  and  to  the 
stock  at  its  rear  end  by  a  tang-serew,  which  pene- 
trates through  the  stock  to  the  trigger-guard.  The 
general  form  of  the  receiver  is  a  tube  cut  away  at 
different  points  for  the  reception  of  the  parts  that 
work  in  and  are  attached  to  it.  The  breech  is  closed 
by  a  bolt  called  the  breech-bolt,  which  contains  the 
firing-pin,  and  other  parts  necessary  to  the  operation 
of  locking  and  cocking.  The  principal  part  of  the 
breech-bolt  is  the  tube,  K.  The  rib,  w,  on  the  exte- 
rior of  this  tube,  known  as  the  locking-tube,  is  for 
the  purpose  of  locking  into  the  space  cut  away  in 
the  receiver  between/and/,  to  enable  the  breech- 
bolt  to  sustain  the  force  of  the  discharge.  The  ends 
of  this  ril)  licing  made  quite  oblique  to  the  axis 
of  tlie  bore,  or  rallier  of  s])iral  form,  and  the  ends 
of  the  cut  being  moreover  made  to  correspond,  the 
breech-liolt  is  screwed  forward  against  the  cartridge 
when  it  is  locked  in  loading.  By  this  arrangement 
the  cartridge  is  not  onl}'  forced  into  its  place  in  the 
chaml)er,  should  there  be  imdue  resistan(%',  but  ac 
ciilental  explosions  which  might  arise  from  striking 
the  head  of  the  cartridge  directly  when  the  bolt  is 


MAXIMILIAN  TOWERS. 


287 


HAXIHILIENNE. 


Hlinviil  f(.ru:iri|,  :in-  avoided.  Tlifi  tliumb-picce,  hg, 
is  lUhn'lii'il  to  lliis  rill  for  tlii' jiiirpoHcof  workin;; 
the  l)rrccli-l)olt.  The  lircccli-boll  is  li'riniii:ili'(l  in 
tlic  si'piinilc  picci-, /■  ft /■.  ]{y  vviiy  of  (li'siiriiiition, 
lliis  pic<'c  is  ("illc<l  the  holl-licail.  Thi'  forwarri  por- 
tion liiis  11  sinnll  rounil  lioli- for  llic  point  of  the  firing- 
pin;  the  tcnnon  wliicli  cnli-rs  tlic  locI<ini;-tiil)e,  1ms 
nil  ovul  liolit,  llml  l)('ing  the  sliiipc  of  tlic  cross-sce- 
tioii  of  tlic  firinn-pin  vvliicli  passes  tlirougli  it..  Tin; 
cxiractor-liook  is  ultaclicil  to  tlic  side  of  the  bolt- 
head  Ijy  means  of  a  dovelail-teniion  and  works   in  a 


over  the  flange  of  llie  cartridge  into  its  rcccBB  in  the 
tiarrel.  The  screw  motion  of  the  lockinK-lidJe  ^\vi-n 
[lower  to  start  the  earlridt;e  ease  sliould  it  !'dhere  to 
the  chandjer.  When  withdrawn,  the  ease  falls  out  by 
slif^hlly  tijipintr  over  the  Ijarrel  to  tlie  rifil't.  Tlie  fol- 
lowinfi  arc  some  of  the  princijial  weights, dimensions, 
etc.,  of  the  .Manser  rifh?  and  cartridge  as  adopted  for 
the  I'riissian  military  service  :  The  iiorc  is  A'A'A  inch 
(\  1  millimeters  j'diameter, and  rifh'd  witli  4  flat  grooves 
eiinal  lo  the  lands  in  width  ;  the  depth  of  the  grooves 
is  .01  inch  and  the  twist  is  from  right  to  left  and  one 


" 7}    K,  <3 


corresponding  groove  cut  in  the  left  side  of  the  well  j 
of  the  receiver.     The  stud,  A.  lits  into  the  notch  of 
the  rib,  and  is  the  means  of  uniting  these  two  parts 
longitudinally,  at  the  same  time  their  motions aromid  \ 
their  common  a.xis  are   inilependent  of  each  other. 

The  lower  front  corner  of  the  coeking-piece,  s  p  ».  ' 
catches  against  the  nose  of  the   sear,  ii  s,  and   Jiolds 
the  tiring-pin  at  full-cock  when  the  holt  isshovcd  for- 
ward and  the  breech  is  closed.     It  has  also  a  groove,  I 
into  which  the  nose  of  the  sear  projects  when  the  I 
tiring-pin  is  pushed  forward.      The  projection,   d,  [ 
works  in  a  cut  in  the  receiver.   II,  and  thereby   pre- 
vents the  firing-pin  from  turning.     A  projection   fits 
into  a  correspon<iingly  shaped  cut,  in  the  locking- 
tube,  K,  and  by  the  pressure  produced  by  the  firing- 
pin  spring  keeps  the  breech-bolt  in  the  locked  posi- 
tion. 

The  firing-pin  nut,  A  .i,  secures  the  cocking-piece  to 
the  tiring-jiin.  The  projection,  g.  fits  into  a  groove, 
and  is  thereby  prevented  from  unscrewing.  The 
parts  marked,  n  f.  and  a  .<,  are  the  sear-spriug  and 
sear  combined  in  one  piece.  This  piece  is  attached 
to  the  lower  side  of  the  receiver  by  ascrew  :  the  |ior- 
tion  through  wliicli  the  screw  passes  serves  as  the 
ramrod-stop.  The  trigger,  a  z,  is  pivoted  to  the  sear, 
and  is  composed  of  an  arm  and  tinger-piece.  Fig.  b, 
shows  the  Hring-pin,  and  its  spiral  spring,  made  <if 
squnrc  instead  of  round  wire.  The  port  ions  in  front 
and  rear  of  the  siiriui;  are  made  oval  in  cross-section  . 
to  prevent  the  pin  from  turning  in  locking.  The  re- 1 
enforce,  t.  forms  a  shoulder  for  the  spring  to  press 
against.  The  main  drawing  represents  the  firing- 
pin  in  the  position  of  resting  on  the  head  <if  the  cart- 
ridge after  firing.  As  the  piece  is  brought  to  the 
position  of  full-cock  in  loading,  an  improvement  has 
lately  been  introduced  into  this  arm  for  locking  the 
firing-pin  in  case  it  is  not  to  be  tired  immediate- 
ly, and  thereby  preventing  accidental  explosions. 
The  motion  of  the  breech-bolt  to  the  rear  is  limited  by 
the  sear,  a  -i,  which  works  in  a  groove  on  flic  under 
side  of  the  locking-tube,  K.  To  remove  the  bolt  en- 
tirely from  the  receiver  it  is  only  necessary  to  press 
on  the  trigger  at  the  same  time  that  the  breech-bolt 
is  pressed  back.  A  recess  serves  to  relieve  the  strain 
ou  the  sear-spring  by  allowing  the  nose  of  the  scar  to 
penetrate  it.  The  firing-pin  screw,  b  s,  is  removed 
with  the  fingers  (having  a  milled  head)  by  pushing 
back  the  firing-pin  and  slipping  forward  the  cocking- 
piece  so  as  to  free  the  projection,  g.  from  its  recess. 
The  spring  of  flic  extractor  allows  the  hook  to  pass 


turn  in  33  inches.  The  length  of  the  barrel  is  SS.fl."! 
inches ;  the  total  length  of  the  rifle  without  bayonet 
is  .'iS.l.')  inches  :  with  l)ayonet,  71.0.5  inches  ;  weight, 
without  bayonet,  10  pounds;  with  bayonet,  11. (J 
pounds.  The  sight  is  arranged  for  a  natural  point- 
blank  of  300  meters.  Tlie  movable  part  is  graduateil 
up  to  l.OOO  meters,  some  500  yards  fart  her  tli:in  most 
military  rilles.  The  initial  velocity  is  about  1.400 
feet.  The  cartridge-shell  is  drawn  out  in  the  usual 
way  from  a  disk  of  sheet-brass,  and  is  .shown  natur- 
al size.  The  head  is  solid, and  has  an  exterior  prim- 
er of  the  Berdau  p;itteru.  This  distrilmtion  of  the 
metal  in  the  lu'ad  is  somewhat  different  from  that  in 
ordinary  solid-head  shells,  and  is  such  as  to  give  it 
great  strength  to  resist  rujitiire  under  the  pressure 
of  the  powder.  The  interior  of  the  cartridge-shell 
is  covered  with  a  coaling  of  varnish  to  prevent  the 
metal  from  in  ting  injuriously  on  the  powder-charge. 
This  varnish  is  applied  by  means  of  very  ingenious 
ma(>hines  devised  and  nuide  by  the  I'ratt  and  Whit- 
ney Company,  of  Hartford,  Conn.  The  bullet  is 
patched  with  bank-note  paper,  thin  and  stning,  and 
there  is  a  luliricating-wad  between  the  powder  and 
bullet.  The  powder-charge  is  77  gr:iins-  The  pow- 
der for  the  Mauser  rifle  differs  from  all  other  Prus- 
sian pow'der.  inasmuch  as  red  charcoal  instead  of 
black  is  employed  in  its  manufacture,  which  is 
thought  to  give  it  greater  strength.  The  s*e  and 
shape  of  the  grain  ;ire  similar  to  that  of  the  English 
musket-powder,  known  as  Curtis  and  Harvey's  No. 
(i.  The  bullet  weighs  3S()  grains.  See  ''hnimepitt 
Jit'll' .  and  Smif/'.  ir/it.-*. 

MAXIMILIAN  TOWERS.— Circular  buildings  33 
feet  high,  with  a  mean  thickness  of  wall  of  (i^  feet : 
the  diameter  of  the  base  is  118  feet,  and  that  of  the 
top  110  feet.  They  are  surrounded  by  a  ditch  8 
yards  wide  towards  the  exterior,  and  gradually  be- 
coming narrower  towards  the  interior,  where  it  is 
only  four  yards  wide  at  the  entrance  gate.  The  de- 
bhiis  of  the  ditches  have  been  employed  to  construct 
a  glacis,  that  covers  the  masonry  on  the  exterior, 
and  gradually  falls  to  the  level  of  the  ground  in 
rear.  32  of  these  towers,  from  ."iOO  to  GOO  yards 
apart,  have  been  placed  ar<iund  Liutz.  They  are 
to  be  connected  at  the  moment  of  need  by  a  curtain, 
a  ditch, and  ;i  palisaded  covered-way  the  whole  being 
flanked  bv  the  towers. 

MAXIMILIENNE.— .\  German  fluted  armor  of  the 
Sixteenth  century.  Often  written  Maximilifin.  See 
MHana'se. 


MAXIM  MACHINE-GUN. 


288 


MAXIMUM  CHARGE. 


MAXIM  MACHINE-GUN.— In  otlier  machine-guns, 

the  feeding  and  firiu'j:  and  tlie  traversinjj;  have  to  be 
performed  b}'  manual  power,  and,  however  beauti- 
fully carried  out,  the  operator  in  any  competition  ff)r 
speed  is  pretty  severly  tried;  and  one  operator  alone 
can  hardly  manipulate  the  machine  at  high  speed, 
and  in  his  breathless  condition  alter  its  direction  to 
any  purpose.  Of  course,  the  assistance  of  another 
man  must  be  had  when  the  particular  magazine  from 
which  the  rounds  are  entering  the  gun  is  exhausted. 
The  inventor  of  this  gun  claims  to  have  achieved  a 
remarkable  advance  in  making  the  recoil  of  his  bar- 
rels work  the  feeding  and  firing-gear;  the  operator 
kneels  down  quietly  behind  the  breech  and  directs 
the  barrel  at  his  leisure  exactly  as  he  likes.  There 
are  clearly  more  advantages  in  this  than  appear  at 
once.  First,  as  noticed  above,  the  heavy  work  of 
manipulation  is  saved ;  secondly,  the  danger  of  a 
jamb  from  a  delay  or  hang  lire  is  obviated,  for  the 
obvious  reason  that  as  it  is  the  shock  of  discharge  of 
each  round  that  loads  and  fires  the  succeeding  oue, 
when  a  cartridge  hangs  fire  the  gun  miist  wait  for 
it,  as  without  it  there  is  no  motive  power  to  load  the 
next  round.  This  is  clearly  a  very  different  condi- 
tion of  things  from  that  in  other  machine -guns, when 
a  man  is  driving  the  loading  and  firing-gear  as  liard 
as  his  strength  permits,  and  when  a  jamb  may  be 
produced  by"  delay;  thirdly,  a  much  greater  rate  of 
firing  may  be  attained  than  by  hand-driving  gear, 
viz.,  600  rounds  per  minute,  instead  of  about  200; 
fourthl}-,the  machine  may  be  much  lighter,  and  need 
not  be  clamped  rigidly,  as  must  be  the  case  when  a 
level  handle  has  to  be  viotcntly  worked  on  one  side 
of  it. 

The  gun  may  be  described  as  follows :  It  has  a 
single  barrel,  arranged  in  such  a  way  as  to  recoil 
slightly  in  its  bearings,  the  force  of  recoil  of  each 
round  acting  on  the  feeding  and  firing-gear,  so  as  to 
load  and  discharge  the  next  round,  and  so  on,  round 
after  round, in  succession.  That  is,  the  force  of  re- 
coil extracts  and  ejects  the  empty  case,  brings  the 
next  round  into  position,  pushes  it  home,  and  cocks 
and  liberates  the  striker.  The  barrel  recoils  9-16 
inch,  with  its  breech  held  firmly  closed.  This  gives 
the  bullet  time  to  escape  and  fly  about  a  hundred 
feet,  so  that  the  gases  have  also  abundant  time  to 
escape  after  it  has  left  the  muzzle.  Then  a  locking- 
hook,  which  has  held  it  close,  is  opened,  and  the 
barrel  is  stopped,  while  the  breech  and  extractor 
run  on,  carrying  the  empty  case  with  them.  This 
is  ejected,  and  the  succeeding  round  brought  into 
position  by  a  feed-wheel,  when  the  return  stroke, 
given  by  a  connecting  rod,  sends  the  charge  home, 
closing  the  breech,  pushing  the  barrel  forward  into 
a  firiiig  position,  and  finally  releasing  the  striker 
which  tires  the  round.  The  recoil  of  this  round  re- 
peats tbe  above  movements,  and  so  on,  as  long  as 
filled  cartridges  are  supplied  and  fired.  The  inventor 
has  made  his  gun  with  a  0.4.5  inch  bore  to  fire  the 
service  cartridges.  He  has  a  pattern  of  cartridge 
case  which  enables  him  to  have  a  much  simpler 
gun,  because  he  is  able  to  dispense  with  the  recoil  of 
the  barrel  proper,  and  work  with  the  breech  recoil 
alone  ;  but  he  thinks  it  wiser  to  sacrifice  what  is 
necessary  to  enable  him  to  meet  all  existing  con- 
ditions. "  The  gun  without  stand  weighs  about  60 
pounds,  a  tripod  for  a  man-of-war  about  130  pounds, 
and  a  C'arriage  for  field  service  from  about  60  pounds 
to  200  poimds,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
case.  This  tripii<l  is  about  three  feet  high,  and  the 
piece  from  niu/.zleto  rear  of  firing  mech;inism  meas- 
ures about  4  feet  1)  inches.  The  gun  can  be  left  to 
move  freely  by  hand  for  rapid  change  of  position,  as 
in  the  case  of  "tor|)edo  boats  or  cavalry  at  short  dis- 
tances; or  it  may  be  clamped  and  traversed  or  ele- 
vated by  slow  or  ()uick  n\ovement  screws.  The  car- 
tridges are  fed  either  from  a  belt  or  a  drum.  The 
beltls  preferred  by  many.  Each  band  or  belt  is  about 
7  feel  long,  and  carries  ;3;i3  cartridges,  and  one  belt 
can  be  joined  on  to  another,  so  that  a  stream  of  in- 


definite length  can  be  used  with  care  and  attention  in 
placing  the  boxes  containing  each  belt  in  position. 
The  drum  fits  on  to  the  top,  and  is,  we  think,  a  more 
ordinary  and  less  complete  arrangement  ;  it  only 
holds  96  cartridges,  also,  and  a  man  would  be  much 
more  likely  to  be  exposed  in  changing  drums  than  in 
arranging  the  belts,  and  he  would  be  kept  constantly 
employed  ;  in  fact,  one  man  does  not  appear  to  be  at 
all  sufficient  for  the  work  in  rapid  firing.  When  at 
full  speed— 600  per  minute— allowing  the  bullets  a 
velocity  of  1,200  feet  per  second,  it  will  be  seen  that 
a  stream  of  bullets  is  formed,  l.'iO  feet  from  bullet  to 
bullet.  Should  all  the  men  near  the  piece  be  killed, 
the  gun  will  go  on  firing  as  long  as  the  supply  of  am- 
munition lasts.  Under  these  conditions,  the  barrel 
must  become  very  violently  heated.  Some  of  our 
readers  are  perhaps  familiar  with  the  spectacle  of 
machine-gun  barrels  firing  at  a  much  lower  rate  of 
speed  passing  through  the  different  tempering  colors 
of  steel.  Mr.  JIaxim  endeavors  to  provide  for  this 
by  enclosing  the  barrel  in  an  outer  gun-metal  case, 
which  allows  a  large  space  between  barrel  and  case 
to  be  filled  with  wafer.  Finally  he  has  devised  a  plan 
for  carrying  the  smoke  of  from  the  muzzle. 

The  natural  objections  that  appear  to  suggest  them- 
selves are — (1)  That  the  opening  of  the  breech  by  re- 
coil is  difficult  to  manage  safely  at  so  great  a  rate. 
It  is  thought,  however,  if  it  is  clearly  understood 
that  the  breech  must  remain  completeiy  closed — in- 
deed no  more  opening  than  any  breech-loading  can- 
non during  recoil — until  it  has  "reached  a  point  when 
the  bullet  is  100  feet  awaj-,  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
is  no  danger  of  escape  of  gas.  It  would  be  interest- 
ing to  see  what  would  happen  if  a  bullet  lodged  in 
the  bore ;  but  this  is  an  awkward  contingency  for 
any  machine-gun.  (3)  It  may  be  objected  that  a 
miss-fire  stops  the  firing  for  the  moment,  while  in 
many  machine-guns  it  merely  involves  the  failure  of 
one  bullet,  the  cartridge  being  ejected  and  the  fir- 
ing going  on  without  interruption.  Perhaps  the  ma- 
chine can  be  sent  on bj' hand  instantly;  but  we  think 
cartridges  for  this  gun  ought  to  be  as  free  from  miss- 
fires  as  possible,  as  the  loss  of  a  number  of  rounds 
delivered  in  quick  firing  must  be  serious.  Alto- 
gether, the  gun  is  a  wonderful  design,  and  one  which 
natiirally  attracts  much  greater  interest  than  almost 
any  piece  in  tlie  same  stage  of  development.  The 
speed  of  firing,  the  ease  of  working,  and  saving  of 
exposure  of  men  promise  great  practical  advantages, 
and  the  extreme  neatness  of  the  idea  of  the  automa- 
tic system,  by  which  each  round  fires  itself  and  works 
the  gear  at  exactly  the  speed  that  suits  its  own 
behavior,  is  very  attractive.     See  Machine-gun. 

MAXIMUM. — A  term  variously  employed  in  Ord- 
nance and  Gunnerj".  In  ilathematics.  maxhninn  is 
the  greatest  value  of  a  variable  quantity  or  nia2;ni- 
tude,  in  opposition  to  minimnm,  the  least.  More 
strictly,  a  maximum  issuch  a  value  as  isgreaterthan 
those  immediately  preceding  and  following  it  in  a 
series  ;  and  a  minimum  is  a  value  which  is  less  than 
those  immediately  preceding  and  following  it,  so 
that  a  function  may  have  many  maxima  and  minima 
unequal  among  themselves,  as  in  the  case  of  a  curve 
alternately  approacliing  and  receding  from  an  axis. 
Traces  of  the  doctrine  of  maxima  and  minima  are  to 
be  found  in  the  works  of  Apollonius  on  conic  sections. 
Tbe  thorough  investigation  of  them  requires  the  aid 
of  the  differential  calculus,  and  even  of  the  calculus  of 
variations.  The  brothers  Bernouilli,  Newton,  Mac. 
laurin,  Euler,  and  Lagrange,  have  greatly  distin- 
guislied  themselves  in  tiiis  depiirtment  of  Mathemat 
ics.  The  Hindus  have  displayed  great  ingenuitj-  in 
solving,  by  ordinary  algebra,  problems  of  maxima 
and  minima,  for  which,  in  Europe,  the  caloilus  was 
considered  lo   be  necessary. 

MAXIMUM  CHARGE.— By  increasing  the  charge  of 
powder  of  aliri'-arm,  tbegrcaterand  (in  couscquence 
of  tbe  wedging  of  the  unburned  grains  among  each 
other)  the  more  ililhcult  will  be  the  mass  to  be  set  in 
motion ;  the  space  between  the  front  of   the  charge 


MAXIMUM  KANGZ. 


2H0 


MAYNAfiD  HIFLE. 


iiiid  llie  muzzle  will  %o  (liininisliKiI ;  iiiuj  ii  ]itrK<"r 
nuiiihiT  of  sriiiiiH  will  be  thrown  out  iiiiciiiiHiiiiKrd. 
It  is  cviilciit,  therefore,  timt  the  elTect  of  ii  eharne  of 
powder  oil  a  projectile  should  not  inerense  with  the 
size  of  the  clmr^ic;  and  experiment  bIkiws  that  be- 
yond aeertaiii  point,  an  increase  of  <-hari;e  is  actu- 
ally accuiupaiiied  wilhaloss  of  velocity.  The  cliar;;e 
corresponding  to  this  jjoinl  is  called  the  inaxiniuni 
charj^e.  All  experience  proves  that  the  loii(;er  a 
piece  is,  in  Icrnis  of  itscaliber,  the  greater  will  he  the 
niaximuin  charges  in  jiroportion  to  the  weight  of  tlu^ 
l)rojectile.  For  heavy  cannon,  lU  to  20  calibers 
long,  the  inaxiniuni  charge  may  be  stateil  to  be  J  the 
weight  of  the  projectile  ;  and  lor  light  cannon  of  the 
same  lenglh,  i  to  ij  of  this  weight';  the  increase  of 
range  for  charges  above  the  weight  of  (he  ])ro 
jectilc,  being  very  Hinall.  A  charge  of  .|  the  weight 
of  the  projectile,  and  a  bore  of  IH  calibers,  is  the 
most  favorable  combination  that  can  be  made  in 
smooth-bored  cannon,  to  obtain  the  greatest  range 
with  the  least  strain  to  th('  carriage.  In  lh<?  early 
days  of  artillery,  when  di'H  instead  of  grained  ]iow- 
der  was  used  in  cannon,  the  weight  of  the  charge 
was  ('(pial  to  that  of  the  projectile;  after  the  iulro- 
duclion  of  grained  powder,  it  was  reduced  to  ij,  and 
in  1740  to  \,  this  weight. 

MAXIMUM  range!— In  gunnery,  the  very  extreme 
range  of  a  |)rojectile  either  I'rt  vacuo  or  in  the  air. 
In  the  former  (were  it  possible),  with  a  given  velo- 
city, the  extreme  range  of  a  spherical  projectile 
would  be  obtained  at  an  angle  of  45'';  in  the  latter, 
with  a  velocity  of  1000  feet  per  second,  the  maxi- 
mum range  would  be  obtained  at  an  angle  of  about 
32";  a  56-lb  shot  would,  under  these  circumstances, 
at  32''  elevation,  range  5720  yards  in  the  air,  and 
23,940  yards  in  tmuo,  and  at  45°,  20,666  yards  in 
racuo.  The  maximum  range  of  rifled  ordnance  is 
much  in  excess  of  that  of  smooth-bore  guns,  the  9- 
inch  gun  having  ranged  over  11,000  yaids. 

MAYHEM. — Wounding  is    the    name   sometimes 


the  loss  of  one  of  the  jaw-tceth.thc  ear,  or  the  nose, 
'  was  no  Mayhem  in  common  law,  becaugc  these  mcn- 

bers  can  be  of  no  use  in  (igliting. 

MA YNARD  PRIMER.  A  i>rimr-r  made  by  indenting 
a  sliei-t  of  pMpir  ill  ri'gular  intervals,  tiHiiig  each  in- 
denlation  with  a  small  f:hargff)f  Jiercussion  powder, 
and  covering  the  whole-  with  another  sheet  of  paper 
lirnily  pasted  on.  The  sheet  is  then  cut  into  strips, 
each  strip  containing  00  primers  in  a  single  row, 
'and,  to  protect  it  from  llie  moisture,  it  is  covered 
I  with  a  thick  coat  of  shellac  varnish. — See  Friction 
I'rimfrH. 

MAYNARD  RIFLE.-  While  special  attention  has 
bi'eii  ji;iid  lo  llii'  m;inufaclure  of  superior  sporting 
rifles,  the  interest  in  rifle  shooting  at  long  range,  has 
led  lo  the  invention  anil  inlroiluclion  of  what  is 
known  as  the  "  New  Creedmoor  Kifle."  in  which 
the  acknowledged  and  superior  merits  of  the  May- 
nard  system  are  introduced,  securing  convenience, 
safety,  accuracy,  and  efticiency,  all  made  apjilicable 
to  meet  the  present  demanil  for  long  range  practice. 
The  Creedmoor  rille  is  a  32-incli,  44  caliber,  special- 
ly adajited  to  llic  reiiuirenients  of  the  Creedmoor 
range,  and  lo  which  has  been  ajiplied  every  facility 
and  appendage  which  has  been  found  by  trial  and 
experience  best  adapted  to  secure  the  most  satis- 
factory results,  including  ammunition,  vernier,  and 
wind-gauge  sights,  spirit  level,  and  all  of  superior 
models  and  workmanship.  All  the  advantages  com- 
prised in  the  Creedmoor  rifle,  have  also  been  applied 
to  a  new  model  mid-range  target  rifle,  32-incli,  40 
caliber,  designed  and  esiiecially  adapted  for  target 
practice  and  ordinary  ticld-service. 

This  rifle  is  represented  in  the  drawing,  together 
with  two  models  of  targets  selected  from  the  large 
number  in  possession  of  the  Massachusetts  Arms 
Company,  and  representing  a  fair  average  result  for 
the  distance  named.  The  rifle  has  an  elevating  peep, 
adjustable  rear-leaf,  and  Black's  combination-sights, 
and  weighs  about  nine  pounds. 


found  in  law  books  for  the  offense  of  inflicting  on  an- 
other some  dangerous  hurt  or  wound;  and  it  has  been 
otherwise  described  as  an  aggravated  species  of  bat- 
tery. A  still  more  aggravated  and  ;itrocious  offense  of 
this  kind  used  to  appear  in  the  list  of  offenses  against 
the  criminal  law  of  England  under  the  term  of  M.w- 
HEM,  which  was  a  violently  depriving  another  of  the 
use  of  a  member  proper  for  his  defense,  such  as  an 
arm,  a  leg.  a  linger,  an  eye,  a  fore-tooth,  and  some 
others;   but  it  was  laid  down  quaintly  enough,  that 


One  valuable  and  special  feature  of  the  Maynard 
system  is,  that  it  admits  of  an  interchange  of  barrels 
of  any  length  or  caliber.  The  manner  of  attaching 
the  barrel  to  the  stock  is  very  simple  and  as  follows: 
Push  the  arm  of  the  lever  axis-pin  down  and  for- 
ward until  it  stops  against  the  screw  which  holds  it 
in  place,  then  withdraw  it  as  far  as  possible;  hold 
the  barrel  in  the  left  hand,  pass  the  lever  down 
throuiih  the  breech-piece,  hook  the  barrel  on  to  the 
axis-screw  at  the  front  end,  insert  the  lever  axis-pin 


UcCLELLAN  SADDLE. 


290 


McLean  foktkess. 


through  the  lever,  then  turn  its  arm  back  to  its  fas- 
tening position.  No  screw-driver  rcquiretl.  To  de- 
tach the  barrel,  place  the  barrel  in  position  as  for  in- 
serting the  cartridge,  then  reverse  the  motions  for  at- 
taching. 

This  is  a  capital  gun  in  the  field,  and  especially  on 
marches  through  a  game  countrj-,  when  it  may  be 
desirable  to  use  the  weapon  either  as  a  rifle  or  sliot 
gim.  Either  barrel  can  be  slipped  into  the  same 
stock  in  a  moment.  The  ammunition  is  peculiar. 
The  strong  brass  cartridges  are  loaded  at  leisure, 
costing  nothing  but  for  the  powder  and  lead,  and 
may  be  used  over  and  over  again  for  any  number  of 
times.  One  can  carry  cartridges  in  his  pocket, 
loaded  with  different  sizes  of  shot,  and  slip  in  and  fire 
any  size  wanted,  for  large  or  small  game.  The  ritie  in 
itself  is  confined  to  the  central-fire  ammunition  in 
each  and  all  of  the  calibers,  excepting  the  .22,  in 
which  the  rim-fire  ammunition  is  used ;  but,  by  the 
application  of  a  simple  device  rim-fire  cartridges 
may  also  lie  used.     See  Ilaiky  Firing-phi. 

McCLELLAN  saddle.— a  saddle  used  by  the  Uni- 
ted States  cavalry  prior  to  the  advent  of  the  Whit- 
inaii  saddle.  This  saddle  was  a  great  step  in  advance 
in  its  time,  and  was  received  with  much  favor.  Its 
greatest  faults  were  bad  bearing  surface,  too  wide  in 
front,  like  the  Mexican,  allowing  it  to  slip  forward 
and  embrace  the  tender  points  of  the  shoulder-blades; 
too  short  in  the  seat  and  too  wide  in  front  of  seat, 
forcing  the  rider  to  an  upright  position,  or  the  ex- 
treme "forked  seat,"  throwing  the  weight  of  the  rider 
too  much  over  the  fore-legs  of  the  horse;  a  high, 
sliarp.  dangerous  pommel,  and  heavy.     See  Saddle. 

McELDERRY  MULE-LITTER.— In  the  operations 
against  the  Modoc  Indians,  in  the  lava-beds  of  Ore- 
gon, the  ordinary  methods  of  transport  were  found 
unsuitable,  and  a  form  of  mule-litter,  devised  by  As- 


ceed  the  outer  limits  of  the  flanks  of  the  pack-ani- 
mal; a  condition  adapting  it  to  the  passage  of  nar- 
row defiles  or  canyons,  or  of  roads  encumbered  by 
vehicles.     See  Litter. 

McINTYEE-FUSES.— The  time-fuse,  shown  in  Fig. 
1,  and  inserted  in  the  rear  of  the  shell,  consists  of 
the  brass  stock,  A;  time-fuse  B:  a  brass  screw  plug, 
C;  and  a  lead  igniting  cap,  D.  Tlie  fust  composi- 
tion  driven  in  a  paper  case  is  first  mscrted  m  the 


®  ^  hill ' 


sistant  Surgeon  II.  ^IcElderry,  U.  S.  Army,  proved 
serviceable  and  well  adapted  to  the  exigencies  encoun- 
tered. The  drawing  shows  the  construction  of  the 
litter  and  the  manner  of  using  it.  When  not  in  use 
it  can  bo  folded  compactly  togetlier,  so  as  to  permit 
a  load  of  grain,  provisions,  etc.,  to  be  packed  iipon 
it.  When  the  animal  arrives  at  its  destination,  the 
load  may  be  removeil,  the  litter  unfolded,  and  made 
availal)l('  for  tl\e  transportation  of  the  wounded  back 
to  the  base  of  supplies.  By  the  use  of  the  adjustable 
iron  support,  which  raises  up  over  the  lower  end  of 
the  litter,  a  wounded  lower  extremity  can  be  sus- 
pended in  the  anterior  or  other  splint,  and  the  pa- 
tient tluis  carried  witli  much  greater  ease  and  com- 
fort than  when  tlie  wounded  meinber  is  simjily  laid 
upon  or  fixed  to  the  litter.  It  is  used  upon  tlie 
aparejo,  is  well-balanced,  and  has  no  tendency  to 
make  the  animal's  liack  sore.  It  is  firmly  fixed  in 
position  by  means  of  an  extra-broad  horse-luiir  girth, 
as  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  litter  weighs,  with- 
out a  mattress.  r)4  pounds,  and  like  tlie  77/  Htle  litter, 
has  the  advantage  that  its  width  does  not  much  ex- 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 

stock,  the  screw-plug  with  a  vertical  hole,  to  one 
side  of  its  center  is  screwed  to  touch  the  top  of  the 
fuse.  The  igniting  cap  with  its  channel  of  pressed 
powder  composition  is  then  inserted  so  that  the 
under  opening  of  the  channel  shall  commu'iicate 
directly  with  the  bole  through  the  screw-cap,  which 
is  also  filled  with  the  composition.  Directly  under 
the  projection  which  rises  above  the  top  of  the 
igniting  cap  is  the  upper  opening  to  the  channel. 
Before  firing,  this  projection  is  removed  with  a 
sharp  knife  and  the  composition  thus  exposed.  The 
combination-fuse,  shown  in  Fig.  3,  is  identical  with 
the  time-fuse,  except  that  there  is  inserted  in  the  fuse 
composition  a  plunger,  whose  head  is  of  lead,  and 
whose  tapering  stem  is  of  brass  ;  immediately  sur- 
rounding the  stem  of  the  plunger  is  a  column  of 
plaster  of  Paris,  between  which  and  the  composi- 
tion is  a  tube  of  fusible  metal.  Should  the  pro- 
jectile in  which  the  fuse  is  inserted  strike  a  resisting 
object  before  the  fuse  composition  has  burned  out, 
the  plunger  is  thrown  forward  into  the  shell,  giving 
the  Hame  from  the  burning  composition  direct  ac- 
cess to  powder  in  shell.     See  Fuse. 

McKEEVER  CARTRIDGE-BOX.— This  box,  inven- 
ted by  Captain  Samuel  McKeever,  of  the  U.S.  Army 
possesses  all  the  requirements  and  advantages  ne- 
cessary for  the  military  service,  and  is  at  present 
used  b}'  the  United  States  troops.  It  is  made  of 
leather,  is  6 J  inches  long,  3|  inches  wide,  and  H  in- 
ches thick.  It  is  carried  on  the  waist-belt  by  two 
loops,  opens  from  the  top.  the  outside  half  working 
on  a  hinge  formed  by  a  brass  rod  running  under  the 
box  and  holding  it  together.  The  cartridges  are 
held  in  webbing  loops,  ten  in  each  .section  of  the 
box,  and  are  readily  extracted  from  the  box,  a  bel- 
lows arrangement  allowing  the  tops  of  the  cartridges 
to  incline  forward  when  the  box  is  open.  It  has 
been  improved  by  the  addition  of  a  brass  escutche- 
on, and  by  making  the  bellows  of  russet  leather, 
which  is  not  so  liable  to  corrode  the  cartridge.  This 
box  possesses  all  the  merits  of  the  thimble,  or  ser- 
vice belt,  which  has  been  highly  recommended  by 
many  offlcers  of  the  Army,  with  the  additional  ad- 
vantages of  protecting  the  cartridges  from  the  dan- 
ger of  lo.ss,  or  exposure  to  dust  or  moisture.  No 
provision  has  been  made  in  this  box  for  a  screw- 
driver, but,  whenever  necessary  to  carry  one,  a  car- 
tridge may  lie  taken  out  and  the  screw-driver  in- 
serte  d  in  its  place. 

McLEAN  FORTRESS.— This  fortress,  a  section  of 
which  is  shown  in  the  drawing,  is  designed  to  be  a 
permanent  structure,  or  it  may  be  a  huge  raft,  with 
interior  couipartuieuts  forsujiplies  of  all  kinds  found 


IIcL£A»  MACHINE  QUR. 


291 


V£&S  D£VIATIOV. 


necessary.  The  raft  is  to  be  towcil  from  plarc  to 
place-,  ami  when  in  position  in  simllow  water  will 
rest  on  the  bottom,  bein)^  liehl  by  Imllast  or  piles,  or 
by  auuliors.    The  fort  or  raft  is  to  bear  two  turrets. 


one  within  the  other,  the  outside  one  bein;;  station- 
ary, the  inner  one  rotalinc.  the  sruns  lirinu;  through 
port-holes  in  the  outer  turret.  The  surface  of  the 
fort  is  to  be  heavily  armored,  and  have  quarters  and 
storerooms  lic-low  tlie  armor. 

McLEAN  MACHINE  GUN.— This  gun,  illustrated 
in  lUe  (Irawini;,  is  one  in  which  every  detail  is  made 
sulionlinate  to  the  one  of  extreme  rapidity  of  lire. 
The  cartridi^es  are  in  mnsazines  at  each  side  of  the 
barrel,  and  are  forced  liack  l)y  their  spring  followers 
into  asidewise  reciprocatins  breech  slide  containing 
chambers  for  two  cartridges.  When  one  of  the  cham- 
bers is  in  line  with  the  barrel  the  other  is  inline  with 


the  magazine,  and  the  loaded  cartridge  pushes  out 
the  old  shell,  the  bullet  being  too  large  to  pass  into 
the  slide  further  than  its  seat.  The  cartridge  is  fired 
in  the  slide,  the  force  of  the  recoil  serving  to  cock 
the  firing-pin  so  that  it  is  in  position  for  the  next 


shot.  The  same  system  is  intended  to  be  used  with 
a  maga/.ine  stnall  arm.  ])r.  McLean  has  made  more 
varieties  of  machine-guns  than  any  oilier  maker,  Imt, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  writi-r,  lie  has  sacrificed  too 
much  in  other  directions  in  order 
to  secure  rapidity  of  fire,  and  up 
to  this  time  none  of  liis  working 
guns  have  met  with  more  than  u 
moderate  degree  of  success.  lie 
has  a  number  of  improvements 
now  in  progress  which  are  I'.x- 
])i<led  to  overcome  tlie  dilficul- 
ties  hitherto  experienced.  See 
MtifJilni  -(j'lnn. 

MEALED  POWDER. -Gunpow- 
diT  piilviriz<-d  by  treating  with 
alcohol.  It  causes  compositions 
to  burn  readily  and  quickly.  See 
(liiiij"'irf1f'r. 

MEAN.  As  a  general  term,  the 
medium  between  two  extremes, 
and  is  ordinarily  understood  to 
be  what  is  known  in  matliematics 
as  an  arithmetic  mean.  An  iirllh- 
metlr  miim  l)ctween  two  numliers 
is  found  by  adding  tlieni  togetlier 
and  dividing  by  two.  A  iirnmet- 
rir  iiirrni  is  found  by  dividing  the 
larger  number  by  the  smaller, 
and  taking  the  sfpiare  root,  which 
gives  the  common  ratio;  the  smaller  number  multi- 
[ilied  by  this  ratio,  or  thegrealer  number  divided  by 
it,  gives  the  mean.  A  liitrmunic  mcnn  is  found  by 
achling  the  reeijirocals  of  the  numbers  and  dividing 
by  two  ;  the  rcci))r(ica!  of  the  result  is  the  mean. 

MEAN  DEVIATION.— For  the  same  trajectory,  the 
mi'iin  defiatidii  of  a  projectile,  at  a  given  distance, 
may  be  taken  as  an  indirect  measure  of  its  accuracy 
at  that  distance.  To  obtain  the  mean  deviatfon;  let 
the  piece  be  pointed  at  the  center  of  a  target  sta- 
tioned at  the  required  distance,  and  fire  a  certain 
number  of  shots,  say  ten :  and  let  the  position  of 
each  shot-hole  be  measured  in  a  horizontal  and  ver- 
tical direction  from  tlic  oriirin  of  co-ordinates.  tak(  n 
at  the  lower  left  hand  corner  of  the  target.  The  sum 
of  the  distances  in  each  direction  diiided  liy  the 
number  of  shots,  gives  the  corresponding  co-ordi- 
nate of  the  renter  nf  impact,  or  the  center  of  the 
cluster  of  shots  fired.  Multiply  the  horizontal  co- 
ordinate thus  obtained  by  the  number  of  shots  wliose 
ciirres|)onding  co-ordinates  exceed  that  of  the  center 
of  impact  ;  take  the  ditferenee  between  this  product 
anil  the  sum  of  the  horizontal  co-ordinates  that  ex- 
ceed that  of  the  center  of  impact:  this  difference 
divided  b}-  one-half  the  number  of  shots  fired,  will 
give  the  7Hf«rt  hi>riziintal  detidtian.  The  mean  rerti- 
C'7i(fcD/at;V/;i  is  determined  in  a  similar  manner.  Each 
of  these  results  may  be  verified  by  making  the  same 
calculations  upon  the  shots  whose  co-ordinates  are 
less  than  the  corresponding  one  of  the  center  of  im- 
pact. The  mean  absolute  drriatimi.  which  is  the 
average  distance  of  the  shots  from  the  center  of  im- 
pact, will  be  the  hypothenuse  of  a  triangle  whose 
sides  are  the  mean  horizontal  and  mean  vertical 
tleviations.  The  successive  steps  are  explained  by 
the  following  tabulated  example: 

The  -|-  signs  are  prefixed  after  the  determination 
of  the  center  of  impact.  The  foregoing  furnishes  a 
measure  for  the  accuracy  of  fire  of  the  piece  and  pro- 
jectile, but  it  does  not  afford  a  measure  for  marks- 
manship, the  object  of  which  is  to  direct  a  projectile 
so  as  to  strike  a  given  point  or  surface.  In  the  U. 
S.  Military  Service  ordinarj'  target  practice  is  re- 
corded by  the  number  of  projectiles  striking  a  tar- 
get of  a  given  size  :  and  when  firing  for  prizes,  by 
the  '"string"  or  sum  of  the  distances  of  the  shots 
from  the  point  aimed  at.  each  miss  counting  twenty 
inches  on  the  string.  The  shortest  string  is  the  one 
selected.  The  measure  of  "marksmanship"  now 
most  generally  adopted  is  the  "  score,"  or  sum  of 


UEAir  IMPACT. 


292 


MEASURING  MACHINE. 


the  numbers  representing  the  value  of  shots  plaeed  screw  having  been  made  witli  great  care  by  \Vm. 
within  certain  circles  described  abuut  the  center  of  a  Sellers  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  it  was  put  into  the 
given  target.     The  size  of  the  target  and  the  radii  |  engine  and  was  found  to  give,  for  a  certain  number 


SHOTS, 


9. 
10., 


Co-ordinates. 

Horizontal. 

Vertical. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

4-5.60 

-1-5.80 

-1-5.40 

4.95 

5.05 

4.45 

4.85 

-1-5.25 

-1-5.20 
4.75 

--6. 00 
--5.45 

-1-5.35 

4..'-0 

4.65 

+5. 2  J 

-1-5.18 

4.30 

-1-5.50 

4.00 

Sum. 


Sum  divided  by  10  gives  center  of  impact 

Preceding,  multiplied:  horizontal  by  6;  vertical  by 5.. 

Sum  of  the  greater  co-ordinates 

Ditference  of  two  preceding  lines 

Divide  by  5  for  mean  deviations 


Center  of  imp.act  ;  horizontal  multiplied  by  4  ; 

Sum  of  lesser  co-ordinates 

Difference  of  two  preceding  lines 

Divide  bv  5  for  mean  deviations 


vertical  by  5. 


51.53 


49.90 


5.158 

4.99 

30.918 

34.95 

32.23 

27.70 

1.312 

2.75 

.262 

.55 

20.613 

24.95 

19.30 

23.20 

1.312 

2.75 

.262 

.55 

Mean  absolute  deviation., 


.609  feet. 


of  the  circles  depend  upon  the  distance,  the  number 
assigned  to  corresponding  circles  being  the  same  for 
all  distances. 

MEAN  IMPACT — The  point  of  mean  impact  on  a 
horizontal  target  is  the  intersection  of  the  lines  of 
mean  range  and  mean  lateral  deviation;  and  on  a 
vertical  target,  it  is  the  intersection  of  the  lines  of 
mean  vertical  and  lateral  deviation. 

MEAN  RADIAL  DISTANCE.— The  relative  precision 
of  small  arms  is  decided  by  what  is  termed  the  irwan 
radial  distance  of  the  shots  from  the  center  of  the 
group  on  the  target.  To  determine  it,  find  the  point 
«/ mmre  mpac«,and  measure  the  absolute  distance  of 
each  sliot  from  it.  Divide  the  sum  of  these  distances 
by  the  number  of  shots  on  the  target. 

MEASURE  OF  UNIFORMITY.— In'gunnery,  the  reg- 
cu.arity  in  the  velocity  given  by  a  numberof  consec- 
utive rounds.  It  is  calculated  as  follows:  Take 
the  mean  observed  velocity,  and  from  this  deduct 
the  difference  of  each  round,  and  divide  the  sum  of 
thedilTerences  bv  tlie  number  of  rounds  tired. 

MEASURING  MACHINE.— The  need  of  an  instru- 
ment for  I  he  purpose  of  determining  dimensions  by 
difference  from  verified  standards  has  Ijeen  felt  in 
all  well-regulated  engineering,  tool,  and  machine 
shops.  The  screw  operated  by  awheel  with  gradu- 
ated periphery,  has  been  in  use  for  many  years,  and 
was  broughtto  ahigh  degree  of  jKTfection  by  White- 
worth  in  Kngland,  ami  otiiers.  It  may  be  siud  that, 
with  ])roper  safeguards  in  its  use,  it  "is  sufHciently 
accurate  for  all  practical  purposes.  It  is  doubtful  if 
a  screw  of  [jerfeetly  uniform  pitch  tliroughout  any 
considerable  length  can  be  made.  The  attimipt  to 
compensate  for  this  variability  of  pitch  is  frequent- 
ly made  by  various  devices. 

An  interesting  means  of  doing  so  is  shown  in  tho 
dividing   engine  al  the  Frankford  Arsenal.     A  new 


of  turns,  a  greater  length  than  the  nominal  pitch  of 
its  thread  indicated.  To  counteract  this  an  inclined 
plane  was  attached  to  the  engine,  upon  which  a 
weighted  lever  secured  to  the  nut  runs  up  or  down 
as  the  nut  traverses  the  screw  in  opposite  directions. 
The  effect,  as  it  runs  up  the  plane,  is  to  back  the  nut 
a  small  fraction  of  the  distance  it  would  otherwise 
travel,  and  thereby  compensate  for  the  error  of  the 
pitch,  and  rire  fersa.  If  the  pitch  were  absolutely 
uniform  throughout  the  length  of  the  screw  this 
would  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  from  a  mech<anical 
point  of  view,  but  when  the  pitch  varies  from  inch 
to  inch,  as  is  nearly  always  the  case,  instead  of  an  in- 
clined plane,  the  corrective  element  of  the  engine 
would  have  to  be  a  surface  having  a  series  of  eleva- 
tions and  depressions  to  correspond  to  the  varia- 
tions of  the  pitch,  a  result  only  to  be  attained  by  a 
"cut  and  try"  process,  alike  tedious  and  expensive, 
and  of  only  approximate  accuracy.  It  coukl  not  be 
depended  upon  for  small  fractional  parts  of  the 
inch,  .say  0.0003  inch,  or  more  or  less,  such  as  are 
daily  brought  into  use.  Short  screws,  or  portions 
thereof,  may  be  quite  uniform,  or  so  nearly  so  that 
the  error  can  be  safely  disr2garded,  or  an  allowance 
made  for  it. 

These  considerations  have  led  to  the  adoption  at 
arsenals  of  the  plan  of  obtaining  certified  stamlards 
of  length,  diameter,  etc.,  in  suitable  forms  and  meas- 
uringiby  difference  from  them,  tlie  <ibjeet  under 
exaiiiinatidu  as  jiroposed  by  Mr.  llichards.  These 
st:ui(lar(ls  differ  liy  convenient  fractions  of  an  inch 
from  one  another,  and  by  using  the  nearest  one  to 
the  object  whose;  dimensions  are  required,  only  a 
very  short  screw  is  necessary.  The  drawing  sliows 
the  form  of  a  Measuring  Maeliine  much  used  in  ar- 
senals. Tlu-se  machines  are  niad<'  <if  various  si/.es. 
are  adjusted  for  absolute  measurement  of  dimeu- 


MEASURING-STAFF. 


29;- 


HECHANICAL  MANEUV££S. 


sions  within  their  rangf,  and  htp  rorrort  within  a 

limit  (if  (IMC  tcn-th()HSiiM(lth  of  iin  iriili.  Tliis  \n  the 
usual  limit  of  iiceunicy  f'lr  cyliiKlriciil  j^uagcH,  and 
sufficiently  precise  for  all  practical  i)iirp(jse8.    Tliese 


biscuits  were  first  introduced  into  Britain  from  Amcr- 
irii  l)y  Mr.  IJordrn.in  tlie  yeurlH/jl.  Tlicy  havi- been 
spoken  highly  of  by  medical  men  as  food,  and  arc 
still  made  to  "a  limited  extent;  but  one  purpose  they 


miuliincs  will  imlicate,  by  means  of  vernier  attach- 
ment, variation.^  to  one  twenty-tivc-tlioiisandtli  of  iin 
incli,  or  even  less  ;  but  mrmciring  and  iiidiiyiting  are 
very  (lilTcrcMt  tliimjs.  although  generally  confounded. 
Sec    h' iiitf/i . 

MEASURING  STAFF.— An  instrument  employed  in 
tlie  inspccliim  (if  cannon.  It  consists  of  a  stuff  of 
steel  or  inm,  in  jointsof  suitable  lengths,  connected 
together  by  screws.  Each  joint  is  provided  with  a 
light  brass'disk.  D,  the  diameter  of  which  is  .O.'i  in- 
ches less  than  that  of  the  bore.  Through  tlie  center  of 
the  disk  there  is  a  liole  which  tits  upon  the  shoulder  at 
the  joint;  the  whole  is  so  arranged  that  wlien  the 
joints  are  screwed  together  the  disks  between  them 
are  held  firmly  in  place,  while  the  length  of  the  staff 
is  not  affecte(l  by  them.  A  steel  point  is  screwed  on 
to  the  end.  When  pushed  to  the  bottom  of  the  bore, 
the  staff  coincides  very  nearly  with  its  axis.      The 


outer  joint  is  graduated  to  inches  and  tenths.  A 
slide,  S,  is  made  to  play  upon  it  with  a  vernier  scale, 
graduated  to  hundredths  of  an  inch.  On  the  inner  end 
of  the  slide,  a  branch,  B,  projects  at  a  right  angle, 
sutHciently  long  to  reach  across  the  muzzle-face,  and, 
when  in  contact  with  it,  to  indicate  the  precise 
length  obtained  from  that  point  to  the  end  of  the 
measuring-point  on  the  other  end  of  the  staff.  The 
instrument  is  introduced  until  the  point  reaches  the 
bottom  of  the  bore,  and  the  branch  placed  so  that  it 
takes  across  the  mazzle-face,  and  the  reading  shows 
the  length  of  the  bore  of  the  gun.  See  Inspection  of 
Ordruince. 

MEAT  BISCUIT. — A  preparation  of  the  substance  ol 
meat  combined  with  a  certain  quantity  of  flour,  and 
made  into  the  form  of  biscuits,  by  which  process  the 
nutritive  qualities  of  the  meat  are  preserved  for  any 
length  of  time.  One  way  of  preparing  these  biscuits 
is  as  follows:  Large  pieces  of  beef  are  placed  in  a  quan- 
tity of  water  sufficient  to  cover  them,  and  are  sub- 
jected to  slow  ebullition.  The  fat  being  skimmed  off, 
evaporation  is  allowed  to  take  place,  until  the  liquid 
is  about  the  consistency  of  syrup,  when  it  is  mixed 
with  fine  wheaten  flour,  rolled  out  to  the  thickness 
of  ordinary  ship-biscuit,  cut  into  any  shape  required, 
baked, and  dried  in  the  ordinary  manner.  Onepound 
of  biscuit  usually  contains  the  soluble  parts  of  h  lbs. 
of  meat  and  half  pound  of  flour.  The  meat  biscuits 
can  be  eaten  like  ordinary  biscuits:but  boiled  in  about 
twenty  times  their  own  weight  of  water  for  half  an 
hour.with  the  usual  condiments,  they  make  an  excel- 
lent soup, and  for  this  they  are  chiefly  intended.  Meat 


were  first  intended  to  serve — that  of  preserving  the 
animal  food  of  South  America  fand  Australia— has 
since  been  more  effectually  done  by  other  and  simple 
means. 

MECHANICAL  GUN  CARRIAGES.— The  first  of  all 
considerations  as  to  the  muunliiig  of  a  battery  is, 
that  it  should  admit  of  the  utmost  possible  rapidity 
of  fire,  united  with  accuracy  of  aim.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  secure  the  greatest  possible  ethciency  of  the 
weapon  under  the  conditions  in  which  it  is  required 
to  be  em])Ioycd.  The  duty  of  iiroviding  the  most 
perfect  means  of  working  guns  seems  to  be  second 
only  in  importance  to  that  of  adopting  the  best  ma- 
terial, form,  and  construction  for  the  gun  itself.  Of 
two  similar  guns,  that  which  can  fire  the  greatest 
number  of  rounds  in  a  given  time  is  certainly  more 
effective,  and  rapidity  of  fire  depends  more  on  the 
gun-carriage  and  convr?niences  for  loading,  than  upon 
any  peculiiirity  attaching  only  to  the  gun.  Owing 
to  the  increase  in  the  size  and  power  of  ordnance 
since  the  introduction  of  armor,  gun-carriages  have 
gradually  become  elaborate  machines;  and  mechani- 
cal science,  in  the  hands  of  experts,  has  produced 
carriages  and  slides  which  enable  the  heaviest  guns 
to  be  easily,  accurately,  and  safely  worked  in 
cramped  positions.  Thegreat  superiority  of  wrought- 
iron  to  timber  as  a  material  for  gun-carriages  is 
now  universally  acknowledged.  The  principal  re- 
quirements of  mechanical  carriages  are  powerful 
moving-machinery  so  contrived  as  to  be  unaffected 
by  the  concussion  of  firing;  self-acting  controlling 
gear,  almost  independent  of  human  carelessness;  the 
gradual  absorption  of,  rather  than  rigid  resistance  to 
shocks;  the  dispersion  of  concussions  over  large  sur- 
faces;  and  smoothness  and  ease  of  motion  in  every 
direction,  and  safety  under  all  conditions.  Guns 
mounted  on  the  di.sappearing  principle,  are  arranged 
to  drop  when  fired  into  a  position  in  which  they  can 
be  loaded  under  cover,  and  from  which  they  are  only 
raised  when  required  again  to  deliver  their  fire. 
In  this  system  the  gun  must  not  only  be  loaded 
while  lowered  and  under  cover,  but  it  is  usually 
fitted  to  be  trained  and  aimed  while  there,  by  in- 
direct methods,  such  as  by  telescopic  apparatus 
adapted  to  the  gim's  axis,  and  so  arranged  that  it 
can  enable  an  observer  to  look  over  and  above  the 
cover. 

MECHANICAL  MANEUVERS.— The  mechanical  ma- 
neuvers iire  the  applitation  of  machines  and  of 
mechanical  powers  for  mounting,  dismounting,  mov- 
ing, and  transporting  artillery.  The  implements  and 
machines  required  for  the  various  operations  depend 
upon  the  kind  and  weight  of  the  piece  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  maneuver  to  be  performed.  In  every 
case  the  minimum  numljer  of  each  is  used.  When 
much  work  is  to  be  done,  due  allowance  must  be 
made  for  wear  and  tear,  which,  with  heavy  material, 
is  verv  considerable.     Sound  discretion  should   be 


MECHANICAL  MANEUVERS. 


294 


MECHANICAL  MANEUVEBS. 


exercised  not  to  allow  the  wearing  to  go  beyond  the 

limit  of  safety.  Those  now  used'for  siege-pieces  are 
such  as  can  be  found  in  most  localities :  the  rollers, 
chocks,  and,  if  necessary,  the  hand-spikes  being 
readily  shaped  from  sections  of  trees.  The  follow, 
ing  is  a  list  of  the  implements  generally  used  when 
maneuvering  siege-pieces : 


Implements. 

g 

£ 

5 

5 

i 

is 

1 

Remarks. 

Handspike...   . 

Loni:  roller 

Short  roller. 

Gun-chock 

Wheel-chock... 
Roller-chock... 

Shifting-plank. 
Trace-rope. 

Inch. 
84 

42 

18 

3.6 

7 

67 
360 

;inch. 

Inch. 

Lb.  Oz. 
12        0 

25       0 
12       0 

0  6 
a      4 

1  0 

48        0 
8        8 

2  4 

.55        0 

6 

7 

2.75 

6 
5 

12 
r'nd 

r'nd 

r'nd 

3.5 

3 

2.25 
1.25 

(■Grooved  V  inch 
<     de^p    iu     the 
(    middle. 
Wedj^e-shape. 
fSectlon     a    tri- 
1       angle.      Top 
''       rounded  ?4  of 
i       an  inch. 
/Ends  beveled  on 
\   opposite  sides. 

I  Sometimes  call- 
-j       ed     monkey 

156 

(       wrench. 

"Made  of  round 
iron  0.75  in.  in 
diameter,  with 

at    each  end ; 
length  of  links 
5  inches. 

In  every  case  the  wooden  handspike  is  required, 
and  the  following  general  directions  for  its  use  are 
given.  Six  are  the  number  generally  used.  When 
men  on  opposite  sides  of  a  piece  apply  themselves  to 
a  handspike, the  handspike  used  is  tliat  of  one  of  the 


where  square  handspikes  could  not  be  used.  When 
a  handspike  rests  on  a  fulcrum,  and  tlie  weight  on 
one  end  is  to  be  raised  by  bearing  down  on  the  other, 
the  weight  should  never  rest  on  the  beveled  side,  as 
the  handspike  would  not  then  give  a  good  hold,  and 
would  be  liable  to  split.  In  this  case  the  beveled 
side  should  be  down.  But  if  used  for  lifting,  as 
when  two  handspikes  are  crossed  under  tlie  breech  or 
chase  of  a  gun  to  heave  it  upward,  their  ends  resting 
on  the  ground  or  platform, the  beveled  side  should  be 
up.  Two  or  more  men,  lifting  or  hauling  together, 
must  wait  for  the  command  before  exerting  their 
strength.  The  gunner  sees  that  all  are  ready  before 
giving  the  command  heave.  Then  all  move  with  a 
prompt  but  steady  effort,  and  apply  their  jiower  in- 
creasingly until  the  weight  responds  to  their  effort. 
The  gunner  will  repeat  the  command  heave  as  often 
as  it  may  be  necessary.  When  the  movement  has 
been  sufficiently  made,  the  gunner  commands :  Ease 
Away.  Those  making  the  effort  will  then  desist  ; 
but  in  doing  so  will  be  careful  to  avoid  all  sudden 
shocks  or  strains.  Every  operation  should  be  done 
with  spirit  and  animation,  but  without  bustle  or  con- 
fusion. Vigilance  should  be  constantly  exercised  to 
have  the  piece  or  rollers  securely  chocked.  The 
limber  of  a  siege-piece  makes  a  powerful  lever,  and 
may  be  advantageously  used  in  manj'  cases.  The 
pole  is  raised  and  the  pintle  engaged  in  a  sling  around 
the  weight  to  be  raised.  The  pole  is  hauled  down  by 
a  trace-rope  attached  to  the  eye. 

The  machines  and  appliances  usually  employed  for 
moving  heavy  artillery :  Ropes,  blocks  and  tackle, 
gins,  hydrauiic-jacks,  sling-carts,  casemate  truck, 
truck-wagon,  railway  truck, cradle,  gun-lift,  capstan, 
derrick,  shears,  blocks  and  skids,  hand-cart,  blocks 
Cwhole,  half,  and  quarter),  way-planks,  pinch-bars, 
mortar-wagon,  collar.     These,  with  the  implements 


even  numbers  ;  the  man  to  whom  it  belongs  is  at  the 
smaller  end,  the  corresponding  odd  number  at  the 
I)uttend;  those  who  assist  place  tliem.selves  inside 
of  these  two  numbers  ;  the  lowest  numbers  nearest 
the  ends.  When  two  or  more  men  wcjrk  at  the  same 
eiiil  of  a  haiulspike,  the  man  to  wliom  it  belongs  is 
at  tlie  end,  and  theotlicr  men  in  the  ascending  order 
of  their  numliers  from  liiin.  When  several  hand- 
spikes are  crossed  at  the  muzzle  in  order  to  raise  or 
lower  it,  they  are  applied  in  theorderof  thenumliers 
of  the  men  to  whom  tliey  belong. tliose  of  the  liighest 
numbers  nearest  to  the  trunnions.  The  handspikes 
used  in  the  mechanical  maneuvers  are  beveled  on  one 
side,  as  these  will  enter  into  places  or  under  bodies 


used  in  the  mechanical  maneuvers  with  .siege  pieces 
are  sutlicient  to  manage  the  heaviest  pieces  of  ar- 
tillery in  all  cases  which  ordinarily  present  them- 
selves in  service.  All  implements  and  machines,  be- 
fore being  used,  should  be  most  carefully  examined 
in  every  detail,  to  see  that  they  are  serviceable  and 
suitable  for  the  operation  to  be  performed.  None 
should  be  put  to  uses  for  which  they  are  not  intended, 
nor  subjected  to  strains  tliey  are  not  constructed  to 
bear.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  giving  way 
of  one  part  breaks  and  destroysothcrjiarts. frequent- 
ly to  an  extent  not  readily  repaired,  and, furthermore, 
endangers  tho.se  working  at  the  maneuver.  Heavy 
weights  must  never  be  allowed  to  drop,  even  for  the 


MECHANICAL  MANEUVERS. 


295 


MECHANICAL  HANEUVE&8. 


Bhortcxt   dintnncPH  ;  tlicy   must  he  loworefl    to  rest 

Willi  11  uriillr  inotioii.  mill  ill  llii'  Hiiiiic  time  clidckitil 
t(i  prcvcnl  nilliiii,'  nr  siidiiif;.  In  lioisliiiir.  tlicy  iiiiist, 
wlicii  |)riicli<"il)lr,  be  closely  follciHcd  up  with  Mocks 
mill  chocks  111  fiiinnl  ii;;iiiiist  any  ])ossililc);ivin;;  way. 
All  motions  willi  licavy  lioilics  iiiiisl  lie  slow,  sous 
not  lo  (jcncralc  inoiiiciiluiii.  Suiiiiorls  miist  liiivc  a 
firm  base,  luiil  s<iitrolilin;;  a  level  foundation.'and  be 
liiiill  up  verlicully.  All  holdfasts  inubt  be  secure  be- 
yiinil  possibility  of  fiiviiij;  way. 

'I'hc  iiiancwver  of  the  various  service  pieces  are  de- 
tailed in  the  Tactics.  Within  th(^  limits  of  tliis  ar- 
licli'  we  will  ('Online  our  dcHcriplions  to  some  f;ene- 
rid  maneuver.s  and  appliances,  the  details  of  which 
will  cover  the  uriiund  of  the  whole  subject.  1.  To 
mmr  it  i/iin  hi/  ndtiiiii  it  I'liice  a  skid  under  the  rear 
of  the  trunnions,  and  aniillKT  under  the  middle  of 
the  chase,  and  mil  the  i;iiii  over.  By  inclinint;  the 
skids  and  cultinj;  the  muzzle  it  may  lie  moved  in  dif- 
ferent directious.     lu  rolling  heavy  guns  it  is  most 


convenient  to  use  two  collars  of  wood  or  cast-iron 
of  equal  diameters  (one  on  the  breech,  the  other  on 
the  muzzle),  larj;e  enough  to  allow  the  trunnions  to 
turn  without  striking  the  ground.  A  rope  used  as  a 
jiarlmckle  is  the  best  metiiod  of  rolling  a  gun.  To 
do  this,  place  the  gun  on  skids,  and  attach  the  rope 
by  a  bowline  to  one  of  the  trunninus.  passing  it  un- 
der and  around  up  over  the  gun,  and  hauling  on  the 
end.  If  the  gun  is  to  be  rolled  up  aslope,  two  ropes, 
of  size  suitable  to  the  weight  of  the  gun,  are  used. 
An  end  of  each  rope  is  made  fast  to  some  fixed  object 
at  the  upper  part  of  the  slope:  the  other  ends  are 
carried  under  the  chase  and  body  respectively,  and 
up  over  the  gun:  tliese  ends  are  hauled  iipnn  by 
iMcans  of  a  capstan,  or  by  attaching  to  them  a  fall 
and  tackle.  The  muzzle  is  slued  forward  by  pinch- 
ing with  bars,  or  by  means  of  a  rope  and  tackle  at- 
tached to  a  roller  or  skid  thrust  into  the  muzzle. 
The  iiiece  is  lowered  b\'  inverse  means. 

'i.  T'l  xh  ft,  II  gunfrDin  the  truniiion-holeK  to iti  travel, 
ing-hi'il. — Limber  up ;  remove  the  cap-squares  and 
chock  the  wheels  front  and  rear:  place  the  short  roll- 
er under  the  reinforce:  allacb  the  trace-rope  at  its  j 
middle  to  the  cascabel  by  two  half-hitcbes;  cross  two 
handspikes  under  the  one  in  the  bore;  lift  and  push 
at  the  muzzle,  and  haul  on  the  rope  until  the  trun- 
nions are  over  their  travelling  position:  raise  the 
cha.se.bring  forward  the  roller  to  the  head  of  the  stock 
and  lower  the  chase  upon  it;  raise  the  chase  again; 
remove   the  roller,  and  lower  the   chase  upon   the 


I  stock;  take  off  the  rope;  replace  the  cap-Bquarcs;  in- 
sert the  elevating  scri'W  from  below,  and  laKJi  it.  If 
I  a  lifting-jack  can  be  used,  place  it  under  tlie  swell  of 
'  the  muzzle  ;  raise  the  chase  ;  place  a  half-block  on 
the  head  of  the  slock;  take  a  second  lift,  and  place 
two  rollers  on  the  slock,  on(^  just  in  rear  of  tin-  trun- 
nion, the  olher  under  the  reinforce;  chock  the  lattc-r 
toward  the  muzzle,  and  remove  the  half-block:  haul 
on  the  ro]ic  atlaclicd  to  the  cascabcl,  and  bring  the 
breech  over  the  bolsl<T;  chock  the  rear  roller;  place 
the  jack  under  the  muzzle,  and  remove  the  rollers. 
To  shift  the  'gun  from  its  Iravelling-bed  to  the  trun- 
nion-holes, chock  the  wheels  front  and  rear;  remove 
the  caii-squares;  raise  the  chase  and  insert  the  short 
roller  under  the  trunnions;  attach  the  rope  by  its 
midille  to  the  cascabcl;  bear  down  the  muzzle,  and, 
as  the  piece:  rolls  forward,  guide  the  trunnions  into 
llieir  holes  by  means  of  the  ro|ie;  remove  tlie  short 
roller.  A  hfiwitzer  is  shifted  to  and  from  its  Iravel- 
ing-bed  by  the  same  means,  except  that  the  liand- 
."pike  in  the  bore  is  chocked  above  and  below  for  rais- 
ing the  chase,  the  low<'r  chock  being  placed  about 
IH  inches  in  the  bore.  The  vertical  diameter  of  the 
short  roller  should  be  just  forward  of  the  rinibases. 
'.i.  'I'll  inure  mil! liiinilU-  liriity  (/iihh  irith  ii  triirk  iiiul 
traiairiiy.  The  ease  with  which  heavv  loads  are 
moved  when  loaded  on  an  firdinary  railway-car,  on 
a  smooth,  rigid,  unyielding  track,  ascompare<l  with 
other  means  of  conveyance,  has  led  to  the  adoption 
of  this  mode  of  transportation  whenever  the  work  to 
be  done  will  justify  the  e.xiiense  of  preparing  the 
roadway  iind  laying  down  the  track.  It  is  thought 
that  this  means  of  tninsportation  might  be  madea- 
vailable  for  the  transportation  of  LO-incli  guns  and 
other  heavy  loads  in  and  about  our  ]iermanent  works; 
that  a  temporary  portable  track  might  be  provided 
capable  of  supporting  as  great  a  weight  as  that  of  a 
l.'i-inch  gun.  and  could  be  laid  down  readily  without 
much  preparation  of  the  road-bed,  in  nianj-  [jlaces 
none  at  all,!ind  furnished  at  a  small  expense!  A  four- 
wheeled  truck  of  simple  construction,  strong  enough 
to  sustain  a  weight  of  tweuty-tive  Ions, could  be  con- 
structed at  a  cost  not  much  greater  than  that  of  a 
cradle,  but  could  be  moved  with  far  greater  ease  and 
much  greater  celerity.  This  idea  elaborated,  and 
proposed  as  the  best,  for  transporting  l.'i-inch  guns 
over  moderately  even  ground.  For  this  purpose, 
under  the  above  mentioned  conditions,  it  will  com- 
mend itself  for  its  simplicity, efficiency, and  economy. 
In  foundries,  an<l  special  locations  in  permanent 
works,  there  are  positive  advantages  attending  the 
lise  of  iir&r/iead  tramways,  within'ccrtain  limits  of 
weight  and  strain.  The  excellent  machinery  in  this 
line  made  by  Edwin  Harrington  <fc  Son.  and  adopt- 
ed by  the  United  States  Government,  has  demon- 
strated that  there  is  an  actual  saving  of  50  per  cent, 
in  the  cost  of  labor,  and  little  liability  to  accident, 
by  the  use  of  such  a  system.  Two  men  can  handle 
a  large  casting  of  2, .WO  lbs.  with  great  ease,  and  rais- 
ing it  clear  of  other  heavier  articles  in  the  path  or  on 
t  he  floor, avoid  the  necessity  of  moving  or  handlincr  the 
latter.  Fig.  1  shows  a  simple  form  of  turn-fable 
for  an  overhead  track.  The  load  is  revolved  by 
means  of  a  hand-gear  and  pinion  ojierated  by  a  wheel 
and  chain:  the  table  can  be  adjusted  to  anyre(|uired 
numlier  of  tracks  that  will  allow  the  load,  when  once 
raised,  to  be  transported  to  any  desired  point  with 
safety  and  dispatch.  The  carrier  truck  c;innot  be 
run  off  from  any  track,  except  on  to  the  turn-table, 
and  when  on  the  turn-table  it  cannot  be  run  off  ex- 
cept on  to  some  one  of  the  tracks.  When  connec- 
tion is  made  with  any  track,  the  table  is  securely 
locked  in  position,  thcreliy  preventing  all  pessibility 
of  accident.  Fig.  '2  shows  the  construction  of  the 
most  approved  geared  truck.  The  ordinarj-  truck, 
when  constructed  of  one  or  more  wheels,  and  run  by 
pushing  or  pulling  the  load  at  the  lowerend  of  the 
cage  or  sling,  is  very  liable  to  lurch  or  jump,  espe- 
cially if  running  around  a  curve,  often  causing  lireak- 
agc  of  the  chain  or  rope,  as  may  be  in  nse,"besides 


HECHANICAL  UAN£UT£RS. 


296 


HECHANICAL  UANEUVEHS. 


being  a  source  of  great  annoyance  to  persona  that 
may  be  on  the  floor  over  the  truck.  The  geared  truck 
obviates  all  this,  and  one  man  can  run  the  heaviest 
load  required  with  case  on  a  straight  rail  or  round  a 
curve,  stopping  and  starting  at  any  desired  point, 
the  truck  running  with  perfect  smoothness  and  dis- 
turbing no  one. 

To  mount  a  gun  on  the  surface  car,  raise  it  by  hj'd- 
raulic  jacks  high  enough  to  get  the  track  and  car 
under  it :  support  it  by  blocks  built  up  imdcr  the 
muzzle  and  breech ;  lay  the  track  between  tlie  blocks, 
and  place  the  truck  on  the  track  under  the  gun,  tlie 
trunnions  midway  between  the  wheels;  lower  tlae 
gun  on  the  truck;  or  place  skidding,  one  end  on 
blocks  built  up  to  the  required  height  to  reach  the 
boLster,  the  other  on  the  ground,  and  roll  the  gim  up 
the  inclined  plane  thus  formed  to  its  place  on  the 
truck.  The  bolsters  are  just  high  enough  to  permit 
the  gun  to  be  rolled  into  its  place.  Four  men  can 
laj'  down  the  track  a  distance  of  eighty  yards  in 
thirty  minutes  where  no  grading  is  required.  Four 
men  can  transport  a  15"  gun  over  level  ground,  us- 
ing a  capstan,  twenty  3'ards  in  live  minutes  after  it 
has  been  mounted,  the  track  has  been  laid  down,  and 
the  capstan  in  position,  or  tliey  can  lay  down  the 
track  and  transport  the  gun  twenty  yards  in  fifteen 
minutes,  all  of  the  preparations  having  been  first 
made.  A  horse  with  one  double  and  one  single 
block  will  move  a  1.5"  gun  as  fast  as  the  track  can 
be  laid  and  the  tackle  shifted,  or  a  pair  of  o.xen  will 
pull  a  15"  gun.  a  dead  pull,  without  the  interven- 
tion of  pulley-blocks,  the  road  Iieing  level.  An  in- 
creased force  will  be  required  if  the  track,  instead  of 
being  in  a  level,  is  on  an  ascending  grade,  and  pro- 


Fig.  3. 

portionately  irreater  as  the  angle  of  the  slope  increases. 
Horse-power  is  the  only  one  recommended,  except 
in  very  extraordinary  cases,  where  there  is  a  great 
amount  of  work  to  be  done  and  done  quickly. 

4.  'I'o  moKe  and  nuiunt  heatygunn,  etc.,  with  blocks, 
hydraitltc,  jwh^,  enpntiin,  or  crab,  crndleK,  etc. — To 
move  a  heavy  gun  a  short  distance,  raise  it  on  skids, 
so  ihat  the  trunnions  will  not  touch  the  ground, 
roll  it  over  by  the  pinch-lmrs.  chocking  the  breech 
and  cultinj;  the  muzzle  when  necessary.    For  longer 


distances,  and  through  narrow  entrances,  mount  it 
on  the  cradle,  with  rollers  and  shifting-plank  under- 
neath, and  if  on  level  ground  move  it  along  with 
pinch-bars  or  handspikes;  if  up  a  ramp,  rig  the  fall 
and  blocks  to  cradle,  crab,  and  some  fixed  or  well- 
secured  object  on  top  of  ramp,  and  then  work  it  up 
with  the  crab,  changing  the  shifting-plank  and  roll- 
ers as  required.  Weston's  hoisting  crab,  with  auto- 
matic safety  brake,  should  be  used  on  every  pos- 
sible occasion.  This  excellent  machine  is  shown  in 
Fig.  3,  and  consists  of  the  usual  winding  barrel, 
for  common  rope  or  chain,  driven  by  manual  power, 
applied  to  cranks,  through  two  or  more  spur  wheels, 
the  ratio  of  the  gearing  being  varied  in  the  several 
sizes  of  machines,  according  to  the  load  to  be  lifted. 
The  lifting  is  accomplished  in  the  usual  manner. 
The  lowering  is  done  with  the  least  possible  exer- 
tion, by  winding  the  handles  backwards,  and  as 
long  as  this  motion  is  continued  the  load  will  de- 
scend. The  construction  of  the  safety  ratchet  or 
brake  is  such  that  the  load  is  always  self-sustained 
and  cannot  run  down.  The  handles  cannot  recoil 
on  the  operator,  and  if  suddenly  "let  go"  at  any 
time,  either  in  hoisting  or  lowering,  the  load  will 
quietly  come  to  rest  and  remain  suspended.  The 
smaller  size  has  onl}-  a  single  speed  or  power  ;  the 
larger  size,  two  changes  of  speed.  The  capacitj'  of 
either  may  be  increased  by  the  use  of  a  running 
block  in  the  usual  manner. 

For  the  purpose  of  thorough  illustration,  we  will 
notice  the  process  of  mounting  a  fifteen-inch  gtui. 
The  gun  is  supposed  to  be  in  its  cradle,  the  cradle  > 
being  blocked  up  to  a  level  with  the  skidding  that 
rests  one  end  on  the  chassis-rail.  Each  skid  is  sup- 
ported near  the  rail  by  a  crib  of  heavy 
blocks  piled  one  on  top  of  the  other,  three 
in  a  crib,  and  brought  to  a  level  with  the 
rail.  The  cribs,  if  placed  obliquely  to  the 
iskidding,will  still  be  stable  and  support  the 
skidding  more  in  the  direction  of  itslength. 
lThe  ends  of  the  skidding  remote  from  the 
chassis-rail  are  supported  bj'  two  double 
cribs.  Each  crib  is  built  of  three  tiers  of 
blocks,  alternate  ends  resting  on  the  lower 
tier,each  pair  of  blocks  parallel  to  each  other 
and  r  6"  apart.  The  cribs  are  brought 
to  a  level  with  a  chassis-rail.  To  move  the 
gim  from  the  cradle  on  the  skidding,  a  man 
with  a  chock  stands  by  muzzle  andbreech, 
the  rest  of  the  men  work  at  the  bars.  The 
muzzle  is  first  cut  and  chocked  from  the 
cradle  to  the  skidding;  after  the  muzzle 
rests  on  the  skidding  the  breech  is  cut  on 
the  skidding  the  same  way  as  the  muzzle. 
This  operation  is  continued  alternately  with 
breech  and  muzzle  as  before,  except  the 
men  with  the  chocks  now  chock  on  the 
side  toward  the  chassis-rail  until  the  gun 
rests  on  the  skidding  on  the  chassis-rail, 
under  its  position  when  mounted  on  the 
carriage.  The  gin  or  pumps  are  now  set 
over  the  muzzle^and  breech  or  under  them, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  cribs  to  support 
the  muzzle  and  breech  are  now  respectively 
placed  3'from  the  muzzle,  and  at  the  great- 
er swell  of  the  breech.  In  raising  the  gun, 
the  breech  is  raised  first  bj'  pump  or  gin  6" 
full,  a  man  standing  on  each  side  with 
chock,  in  case  of  slip,  to  prevent  rolling. 
Care  is  taken  to  set  the  gin  or  pump  vertical 
over  or  under  the  breech, and  when  lowering  to  case 
up,  without  jerking. gradually.  The  muzzle  can  now 
be  raised  13''  full.  Iifocked  and  chocked  in  that  posi- 
tion. The  skidding  is  now  removed.  The  breech 
6"  additional,  always  having  the  men  with  chocks 
on  either  siiie  readv,  and  following  up  the  gun  with 
the  blocks,  so  that"  it  cannot  have  a  tall  in  case  of 
accident.  The  blocks  used  <'iime  from  the  cribs  for 
the  skiilding  that  are  no  longer  rcMiuired.  The  oper. 
ation  of  alternate  blocking  at  breech  and  muzzle  is 


MECHANICAL  MOTION. 


297 


MECHANICAL  MOTION. 


continued  until  tlie  gun  stands  above  the  licight  of 
the  tniiinion-l)P(lswitli  the  axis  tliroufrli  the  trunnion 
liori/iiiiliil.  Tlic  top-cnrriai;i'  is  now  put  on  the 
chassis  and  assciiihlcd  with  Ihc  Irunuion-licils  undrr 
till'  Iruuiiions.  Tlir  i;un  is  tlicri  hiwcrcil  in  Ihr  trun- 
nions, an  I  till-  l)h)ci<s  and  };in  or  piinips  removed. 

Anotlier  plan,  whi'ii  the  to|)-carriaL':i'  lias  not  been 
taUen  apart,  is  as  folhjws:  Mount  tlie  chassis  on 
philfcirni  and  toii-carriaijc^  on  tlie  chassis  witli  f;in, 
anil  tlien  run  tlie  top-carriaf^e  into  haltery.  Hring 
tlic  gun  upon  cradles  or  siiiddini;  until  it  is  parallel 
to  a  convenient  position  of  chassis.  Uoll  the  fiun 
over  the  chassis.'^havin^;  the  breech  ]irojeclini;  be- 
yond the  rear  end  of  Ihc  chassis,  raise  it  by  blockini; 
iniihT  the  breech  beyond  the  rails,  and  under  the 
muzzle  by  lihx'ks  outside  rails,  with  .'i  sUiddinit  'aid 
across  thcni,  until  the  nnizzle  is  hiirli  ciioiii.di  for  llnr 
foi).carriage  to  be  moved  back  under  the  trunnions; 
the  muzzle  is  raised  by  [;in  and  the  breech  by  hy- 
dr.iiilic  pump.  Hun  thetnp-carriaiie  back  under  the 
trunnions,  lower  the  nun  into  the  trunninns,  remove 
scatlcildinsj;.  In  buildini;  scalToldimr  of  blocks,  [lut 
tlic  thickest  at  bottom,  an<l  as  you  L;ain  in  hei!.dit  in 
raising;  a  gun,  replace  thin  blocks  by  thicker  ones. 
Derricks  for  raising  and  mounting  ordnance  as  heavy 
as  1.^"  are  to  he  avoided,  if  possible,  as  tlicy  are 
heavy  and  troublesome  to  move  and  set  up — more 
ditlicidt  to  handle  than  guns,  and  can  only  be  used 
under  favorable  conditions  of  space;  in  other  words, 
they  cniisunie  labor  :ind  tiuw  thiit  ought  to  be  ex- 
pended only  on  the  guns.  These  objections  apply 
to  any  machine  of  much  weight  and  size  beyondtwo 
or  three  cubic  feet.  Forts  arc  often  at  comparative- 
ly inaccessilile  places,  and  are  often  in  themselves 
very  limited,  and  possess  platforms  for  guns  in  an- 
gles and  conrtned  places  hard  toiipj)roach  with  guns 
as  large  as  1.5",  and,  conseiim-ntly,  the  minnn  of 
handling— moving  and  mounting — must  be  small  and 
powerful. 

We  will  close  this  article  with  a  description  of  the 
unloading  and  mounting  of  the  2()-inch  gun  at  the 
United  States  t'eulennial  E.vhibition.  This  gun.  with 
a  13-inch  sea-coast  mortar  of  about  IS.OOIJ  jiounds,  a 
cradle  of  about  4.000,  with  heavy  ycllow-])ine  skid- 
ding and  a  deck-loiid  of  binilier,  in  all  about  HO  tons, 
were  shipped  from  Fort  .Monroe  on  a  vessel  rated  at 
94  tons.  She  nearly  foundered  in  a  gale  ou  Chesa- 
peake Bay  on  her  way  to  the  canal  at  Baltimore,  but 
arrived  at  Philadelphia  atloat  but  leaking  badly, 
with  her  deck  only  about  eiglit  inches  above  the 
water-line  and  about  four  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
wharf  at  high  tide.  The  steam-crane  on  the  wharf 
had  Ijeen  found  by  analysis  to  be  insufficiently  strong 
to  lift  the  gun  entire  ;  it  was  conscquenth'  simply 
used  as  an  auxiliary.  A  14-iuch  spar  was  wedged 
very  tightly  into  the  m\izzle  of  the  gun,  and  served 
also  as  a  fastening-point  for  the  11-ineh  hawser  by 
which  the  gun  vfas  raised.  The  gun  having  been 
blocked  up  about  3  feet  from  the  cascabel,  the 
crane  began  to  lift.  It  lifted  the  muzzle  about  15 
inches,  besides  stretching  the  hawser  about  8  feet. 
Blocking  was  then  placed  just  back  of  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  gun.  and  the  muzzle  lowered  on  this 
pile  as  a  fulcrum  luitil  the  breech  was  high  enough 
to  take  a  fresh  pile  of  blocking  beneath  it.  By  tliis 
lift  the  gun  was  raised  about  3  inches.  The  position 
of  the  three  supports  was  as  follows  :  1st,  5  feet 
from  the  muzzle ;  2d,  immediately  back  of  the 
trunuious ;  3d,  2  feet  from  the  breech.  Owing  to 
the  position  of  the  third  point  the  crane  was  strained 
about  18  tons  by  this  lift.  Doidjle  piles  of  blocking 
were  used  at  each  bearing-point  for  safety,  so  as  to 
limit  any  accidental  fall  in  raising  or  lowering  the 
gun  to  an  inch  or  two  at  the  utmost.  Chocking- 
quoins  were  also  used  to  follow  up  the  gun  closely 
in  its  movements.  About  1.5  men  were  used  through- 
out the  maneuvers.  One  of  these  men,  as  ship- 
carpenter,  with  his  adze  and  crosscut-saw,  was  par- 
ticularly valuable,  and  also  a  rigger  from  the  United 
States  Navy-yard.     Heavy  18-iuch  yellow-pine  skid- 


dinfj  was  placed  from  under  the  gun  to  the  wharf,  in- 
dining  slightly  upwards,  and  tlii' hawser  parbuckled 
around  the  gun  and  fastened  to  the  crane.  A  pur- 
chase was  takiii  from  the  muzzle  by  a  locomotive 
slandiugoii  a  neJLdilioring  track.  The  crane  began 
to  hoist  at  f).44,  the  gun  immediiitely  rolling  toward 
the  wharf  as  the  hawser  uneoileil.  The  muzzle  was 
cut  meanwhile  bv  tlii'  locomotive.  At  7.04  p.m.  the 
gun  was  landed,  in  1 1  hours  (J  minutes  working- 
time. 

As  the  vessel  was  relieved  of  the  weight  of  the  gun 
it  rose,  converting  the  inclined  way  of  skidding  into 
a  declivity  leading  to  the  wharf.  This  feature  per- 
mitteil  the  pile  of  blocking  on  deck  to  be  much  low- 
er than  would  otherwise  have  been  necessary.  On  the 
second  ilay  the  gun  was  rolled  by  the  craneand  loco- 
motive together  to  a  [losition  jiarallel  with  the  rail- 
road track  a<Toss  which  it  had  lic'cu  necessarily  land- 
ed. Toward  the  latter  |iart  of  this  operation  the  loco- 
motive was  disjiensed  with,  it  being  found  that  bv 
phicingthe  crane  in  a  favorable  position,  taking  hold 
of  tlu;  muzzle, and  then  tojiping  l\\v  boom,  the  muz- 
zle could  be  cut  almost  as  well  as  with  tin-  locomo- 
tive. After  about  4  hours  of  effective  hoistiUL',  the 
gun  was  placed  on  the  car,  on  which  it  was  trans- 
l)orted  safely  the  ne.xt  morning  to  the  exhibition 
grounds,  and  unloaded  the  same  day.  The  advan- 
tages in  this  operiition  were  as  follows:  I.  The  Jjro.x- 
imity  of  William  C.  Allison  it  .Son's  wharf  and  their 
large  car-works,  from  which  were  olilained.  readily, 
sujiplics  of  blocking.  Hat  iron  bars,  heavy  tools. men, 
and  notably  the  use  of  their  steam-crane  and  railroad- 
plant,  and  the  6-inch  oak  car-bolsters,  especially  val- 
uable for  blocking.  II.  The  use  of  an  extra  heavy 
flat  car  procured  from  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
Compan)'.  The  disadvantages  were:  I.  The  small 
size  of  the  vessel,  its  breadth  of  23  feet  giving  only 
8  or  9  feet  on  each  side  of  the  bare  gun  to  work  in. 
The  gun  also  occupied  all  the  space  between  the 
masts.  With  the  additional  weight  of  the  blocking 
upoj  her  decks,  used  in  raising  the  gun,  the  danger 
of  breaking  them  in  or  of  starting  fresh  leaks  was 
greatly  increased.  II.  The  Captain  of  the  schooner 
refused  to  permit  hydraulic  jacks  to  be  used,  for  fear 
of  breaking  in  his  deck.  III.  The  gun  had  to  be  rais- 
ed so  high,  in  order  to  roll  it  otT  upon  the  dock,  that 
the  stability  of  the  vessel  was  considerablj' endanger- 
ed. IV.  The  Captain  of  the  schooner  refused  to  lie 
alonjrside  of  the  wharf,  fearing,  as  he  represented, 
shoal  water  ;  consequently  the  gun  had  to  be  rolled 
off  from  end  of  the  wharf  in  a  direction  at  right 
angles  to  the  railroad  track.  V.  Much  of  the  work 
was  done  after  dark,  in  the  hope  of  getting  the  gun 
on  the  car  by  Sunday,  the  Pennsylvania  Kailroad 
wishing  to  move  it  to  the  grounds  on  that  day,  for 
fear  of  obstruction  to  the  track  and  to  avoid  car- 
demurrage.  VI.  The  men  were  unaccustomed  to 
moving  heavy  weights,  and  shirked  all  they  could, 
especially  at  night.  In  mounting  the  20-inch  gun, 
the  LaiiUey  gun-lift  was  used,  assisted  by  blocking. 
The  other  guns  were  mounted  with  blocking  only. 
The  light  auxiliary  shears,  provided  with  the  gun- 
lift,  proved  of  considerable  value  in  placing  in  position 
heavy  articles,  such  as  the  lield-cannon,  raising  the 
ways  of  the  drop-hammer,  etc.  A  casemate-gin, 
mounted  on  three  rollers,  was  also  used.  This  was 
very  useful  in  picking  up  heavy  pieces,  such  as 
lumps  of  ore,  drop-anvds.  etc.,  and  moving  them  to 
the  pedestal  or  the  foimdation  ou  which  thej'  were 
to  be  placed.  Two  of  the  rollers  on  the  windlass- 
legs  were  joined  together  by  a  sleeve  of  heavy  steam- 
pipe,  fitting  over  the  projecting  limbs  of  the  axles, 
to  prevent  the  rollers  from  assuming  their  natural 
position  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  leg.  See 
Blocks,  Captian,  dtemate-gin,  Oa*emaU-truck,  Cord, 
age.  Crab,  Cradle,  Derrick,  Gin,  Giii^derrick,  Knots, 
Lever-jark,  Lifting-ja(k.  Mounting  Cannon,  Piper 
Oin.  Mope,  /Sfiears,  Sling^cart,  Sling.wagon,  and 
TackleK. 

MECHANICAL   MOTION.— Colonel  A.  H.   Buffing 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS. 


298 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS. 


ton,  United  States  Army,  has  recently  de.signed  an 
interesting  macliiue,  which  is  serviceable  as  a  prac- 
tical illustration  of  the  resolution  of  forces  into  com- 
ponents, and  of  the  principle  of  mechanics  that  ac- 
tion and  reaction  are  equal,  simultaneous,  and  con- 
trary. For  a  full  description  of  this  machine,  refer- 
ence is  made  to  the  Report  of  the  Chief  of  Ordnance 
for  1882.  In  this  connection  we  will  be  confined  to 
an  investigation  of  the  theory  of  the  contrivance. 
Suppose,  in  Fig.  1,  the  two  circles  A  and  B  repre- 
sent the  pitch-lines  of  two  gear-wheels,  one.  the  lar- 
ger, geared  inside— a  ring-gear —  and  twice  the  dia- 
meter of  the  other,  each  ti.xed  at,  but  free  to  revolve 
on,  its  center.  Any  point,  (7,  of  the  smaller  will  mark 
on  the  face  and  through  the  center  of  the  other  a 
right  line,  a  b.  Suppose  a  point  arer  the  point  d  be 
fi.xed  to  a  slide  on  the  face  of  smaller  A  [which 
slide  can  move  onlj'  in  the  line  rfc],  and  compelled  to 
move  in  a  groove,  a  h,  across  the  face  and  center  of 
larger  B.    If  a  force  whose  direction  is  the  same  as 


in  the  direction  of  e  d  (Fig.  1).  As  it  was  shown 
above  how  the  perpendicular  component  of  the  ap- 
plied force  is  destroyed,  it  remains  to  show  in  wliat 
manner  the  parallel  one  is  neutralized. 

In  Fig.  3  let  a  b  represent  the  groove  across  the 
face  and  center  of  B.  d  the  point  of  a  slide  on  the 
face  of -1,  and  also  of  a  block  free  to  move  in  the 
groove  a  b,  and  the  arrow  e  d  represent  the  applied 
force  and  direction  of  it.  It  has  been  seen  that  under 
the  action  of  this  force  the  gear  A  would  start  to  roll 
around  inside  of  B,  as  indicated  by  the  arrow,  carry- 
ing the  arm  h  i  as  indicated,  which  in  its  turn  would 
carrj-  the  gear  C  and  give  it  by  means  of  fi.xed  gear 
D  the  nifition  indicated  by  the  arrow.  But  the  two 
small  gears  engage  at  c,  and  examining  them  at  this 
point  it  is  seen  that  they  have  motion  or,  strictly, 
tendencies  to  motion,  in  opposite  directions,  conse- 
quently no  motion  can  take  place,  although  the  sys- 
tem is  free  to  move  either  by  application  of  force  to 
the  arm  or  the//'«e  ring-gear.     Thus  the  teeth  of  a 


the  line  dehe  applied  to  this  point  no  motion  of  the 
system  can  take  place;  for  the  action  against  the 
larger  would  be  in  the  Vmvfdg.  perpendicular  to  a 
i  at  rf,  and  passing  through/,  the  point  of  engage- 
ment of  the  two  gears,  and  X\k  renctioii  on  smaller 
would  be  in  the  same  line  ;  tliese,  acticm  and  reaction, 
being  equal,  no  motion  could  take  place.  But  sup- 
pose the  center  of  smaller  gear  be  free  to  move,  mo- 
tion would  then  take  place — the  smaller  would  roll 
arotmd  inside  the  other,  the  point  referred  to  mov- 
ing in  the  groove  a  h,  the  larger  gear,  although  free 
to"  move  around  its  center,  "remaining  stationary — 
that  is,  the  force  applied  would  be  resolved  into  two 
components,  one  perpendicular  to  and  the  other  par- 
allel with  line  a  h,  the  former  destroyed  by  action 
and  reaction,  the  latter  passing  through  the  center 
of  larger,  producing  motion  only  of  smaller  gear. 

Suppose,  now,  two  more  gears  precisely  the  same 
in  size  and  gearing  and  having  the  same  relation  to 
each  other  be  placed  so  tliat  the  small  ones  shall  en- 
gage over  the  centers  of  large  ones — these  latter  hav- 
ing no  direct  connection  with  each  other — and  that 
the  centers  of  small  ones  be  connected  by  an  arm 
fixed  so  as  to  revolve  at  e,  (Fig.  2) ;  the  two  systems 
differing  only  in  that  the  ring-gear  (D,  Fig.  2)  shall  be 
fixed — unable  to  move  in  any  way.  ^1  and  B  of 
Fig.  2  being  the  two  gear.s  explained  in  Fig.  1,  en- 
gaging at/;  0  and  Z>  (/^and  7^  coincident,  showing 
but  one  circle),  engaging  at  J,  being  the  equal  pair 
of  last  supposition";  the' smaller  gears  engaging  at  c 
and  luiited  by  the  arm  h  i,  each  free  to  revolve  on 
journals  of  arm  at  h  and  /.  If  motion  be  given  to 
the  arm  the  small  gear  C  will  roll  around  inside 
the  fixed  ring-gear  l>,  and  revolve  Hie  other  .1  about 
its  center  /i,  as  it  is  carried  around  by  the  arm,  and 
A  will  carry  with  it  the  movalile  ring-gear  /A  or  if 
motion  be  "given  t"  this  latter  (/I)  it  will  carry  vl 
with  it.  wliich  in  turn  will  roll  6' around  inside  the 
fixed  gear  B.  During  this  motion  any  point  of  A 
will  describe  a  riglit  line  across  the  face  and  center 
of  /i  as  previously  noted.  But  if  A  and  Ji  be  ar- 
ranged witli  slide  and  groove  and  a  force  applied,  as 
above  sujjposed,  the  system  cannot  be  moved  as  long 
as  the  direction  of  this  force  crosses  the  center  of  -1 


2.  Fig.  3. 

fixed  ring-gear  are  interposed  at  every  point  of  revo- 
lution to  neutralize  the  parallel  component.  To  al- 
waj's  practically  have  the  force  applied, as  described, 
to  a  crank  arm  whose  center  is  at  c,  a  link  is  attached 
and  connects  with  tlie  slide  and  block.  To  carry 
over  the  centers,  the  system  of  four  gears  above  ex- 
plained is  doubled,  the  crank-arms  being  placed  at 
right  angles  on  the  shaft  to  which  they  are  attached. 
The  point  d  describes  during  a  revolution  a  double 
cusp. 

MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS.— In  the  constniction 
of  models  or  machinery,  tlie  skillfid  inventor  and 
mechanic  will  stud.v  to  avoid  clumsiness  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  parts,  and  will  naturally  select  the 
simplest  and  best  forms  of  mechanical  movements. 
By  the  kind  assistance  of  the  proprietors  of  the  fSci- 
entifie  Atruricnnwe&Te  enabled  to  present  a. series  of 
such  movements,  from  among  wliich  the  inventor 
may  select  at  once  that  movement  best  suited  for  his 
purpose,  and  see  at  a  glance  the  separate  parts  best 
adapted  to  any  special  combination  of  mechanism. 
The  following  is  a  brief  description  of  the  various 
movements  as  numbered:  1.  Shaft  coupling.  2. 
Claw  coupling.  3.  4.  Lever  couplings.  On  the  driv- 
ing sliaft,  a  disk  with  spurs  is  mounted,  and  to  the 
shaft  to  be  driven  a  lever  is  securely  hinged.  By 
causing  this  lever  to  catch  in  the  spurs  of  the  disk 
the  coupling  is  readily  effected,  as  in  the  figure 
5.  Knee  or  rose  coupling,  of  which  26  gives  a  side 
view.  6.  Universal  joint.  7,8.  Disk  and  spur  coupling. 
9.  Prong  and  spur  lever  coupling.  10.  Fast  and 
loose  pulley.  11.  Sliding  gear,  the  journal-boxes 
of  one  of  the  wheels  being  movable.  12.  Friction 
clutch.  By  tightening  or  releasing  a  steel  band,  en- 
circling a  pulley  on  the  shaft,  the  machinery  is 
'thrown  in  or  out  of  gear.  13,  14.  Shoe  and  lever 
brakes.  l.T,  10.  Change  of  motion  by  sheaves.  IT. 
Spiral  Hanged  shaft.  18.  Cimnecteil  with  the  rod 
are  pawl  links,  catcliing  into  ratchet  teeth  in  the 
wheel  to  which  rotary  motion  is  to  be  imparted. 
When  the  rod  moves  in  one  direction,  one  of  the 
pawls  acts;  and  when  the  rod  moves  in  the  opposit<! 
direction,  the  other  pawl  acts  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  first.     19.  The  reciprocating  motion  of  a  rod 


MECHANICAL  MOTION. 


■2U'.) 


MECHANICAL  MOTION. 


Is  converted  into  rotary  motion  of  tlie  fly-wheel  by  a 
wciijlil  suspinik'd  frdin  a  ronl,  which  piisnis  over  u 
siimll  |)iillcy  that  coiiiicctH  witli  a  trcaillc,  from  whifh 
thr>  iikiI'kjm  is  Iransiiiillcd  to  the  lly-wliccl.  20. 
"  P'lj'iiii;  horse."  My  piilliii};  tlic  cords  radialinj; 
from  the  craMl<,  the  persons  occiipyiiij;  (lie  scats  or 
liorscs  oil  the  ends  of  the  arms  arc  emdilcd  to  keep 
tlie  apparatus  in  motion.  2\,  22.  IJow-strinn  ar- 
rangements to  convert  rccii)rocatinn  into  rotary  mo- 
tion. 2;).  Same  jMirpose  liy  dilTerential  screw.  24. 
Tlie  .same  Iiy  donble  raclv  and  wheels.  2!).  Coiiplinj^ 
for  square  sliafts.  2(i.  Side  view  of  Fig.  5.  27, 
Sliding-spnr  pulley  coupliuf;.  28.  Lever  witli  bear- 
ing rcjller  to  lij^liten  pulley  bands.  2!).  Chain  wheel, 
lit).  Reciprocating  rectilinear  into  reciprocating  rot- 
ary motion  by  two  racks  and  cog-wheel,  as  shown. 
31.  ()bli(jue-tootlied  wheels.  82.  Worm  and  worm- 
wheel.     33,  34.     Claw  coupling  with  liiugcd  lever. 


and  lifting  cam.  55.  For  giving  reciprocating  mo. 
tion  to  ruck  50.  Hame  motion  to  a  bar,  with  hIoI, 
by  means  of  an  eccentric  jiin  projecting  from  a  re- 
volving disk  and  catching  in  the  slot.  57.  Walking- 
beam  anil  llj-whee!.  .'JK.  Ueciprocating  motion  to 
pump  or  other  rod  by  means  of  eccentric  disk  and 
friction  rollers.  (See  HI  and  104;.  VJ.  Hoisting 
crane.  (iO.  Kriction  gears.  (See  43;.  01.  Kolary 
into  reciprocating  by  rising  and  falling  ftinion  acting 
on  endless  rack.  02.  Hy  the  revolving  .iim  a  rising 
and  falling  or  a  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  in 
readily  imjiarted  to  a  drum.     03.  lU'ciprocating  mo. 


35,  86.  Disk  couplings  with  lugs  and  cavities.  37. 
Disk  coupling  with  screw  bolts.  38,  39,  40.  Shaft 
couplings.  41.  Face  view  of  Fig.  12.  43.  Friction 
cones.  43  Friction  pulleys.  44.  Self-releasing  coup- 
ling. Disks  with  oblique  teeth.  If  the  resistance 
to  the  driven  shaft  increases  beyond  a  certain  point, 
the  disks  separate.  45.  Hoisting  bloeks.  40.  El- 
bow crank,  for  changing  motion.  47.  Reciprocating 
into  rotary  motion  by  zigzag  groove  on  cylinder.  48 
Another  form  of  Fig.  29.  ^9.  Reciprocating  into 
rotarv  motion.  50.  Same  purpose.  51.  Same  pur- 
pose,l\y  double  rack  and  two  ratchet  pinions.  When 
the  double  rack  moves  in  one  direction,  one  pinion  I 
is  rigid  with  the  shaft :  when  the  rack  moves  in  the 
opposite  direction,  the  other  pinion  is  rigid,  and  a 
continuous  rotary  motion  is  imparted  to  the  fly-wheel 
shaft.  52.  Reciprocating  into  oscillating.  53.  Ro-  ; 
tary  into  reciprocating.  Ijy  the  action  of  the  wheel- 
pins  the  carriage  is  moved  in  one  direction,  and  by 
the  action  of  the  same  pins  on  an  elbow-lever  it  is 
moved  in  the  opposite   direction.     54.  Stamp  rod 


tion  is  communicated  to  a  frame  by  means  of  the 
endless  rack  and  pinion.  04.  Reciprocating  recti- 
linear motion  to  a  toothed  rack  by  a  toothed  seg- 
ment on  a  lever-arm,  which  is  subjected  to  the  action 
of  a  weight,  and  of  an  eccentric  wrist-pin.  projecting 
from  a  revolving  disk.  Go.  Reciprocating  motion  to 
a  rod.  The  wheels  are  of  different  diameters,  and 
consequently  the  rod  has  to  rise  and  fall  as  the 
wheels  revolve.  (See  110).  60.  Cam  and  elbow-lever. 
07.  Rod  reciprocates  by  means  of  cam.  68.  Revol- 
ving into  reciprocating  motion,  by  an  endless  seg- 
mental rack  and  pinion,  the  a.xle  of  which  revolves 
and  slides  in  a  slot  toward  and  from  the  rack.  This 
rack  is  secured  to  a  disk,  and  a  rope  round  the  disk 
extends  to  the  body  to  which  a  reciprocating  motion 
is  to  be  imparted.  69.  Elliptic  gears.  70.  Bevel 
gear.  71.  AVomi  and  worm-wheel.  72.  Transmit- 
ting motion  from  one  axle  to  another,  with  three 
ditlerent  velocities,  by  means  of  toothed  segments  of 
unequal  diameters.  73.  Continuous  revolving  into 
reciprocating,  by  a  cam-disc  acting  on  an  oscillating 
lever.  74.  Intermittent  revolving  motion  to  a  slialt 
with  two  pinions,  and  segment  gear-wheel  on  end  of 
shaft.  75.  Oscillating  lever,  carrying  pawls  which 
engage  teeth  in  the  edges  of  a  bar  to  which  recti- 
linear motion  is  imparted.  76.  Oscillating  lever, 
connecting  bj-  a  link  with  a  rod  to  which  a  recti- 
linear motion  is  imparted.     77.  Oscillating  lever  and 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS. 


300 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS. 


pawls,  which  gear  in  the  ratchet-wheel.  78.  Com- 
mon treadle.  79.  Describing  on  a  revolving  cylin- 
der a  spiral  line  of  a  certain  given  pitch  which  de- 
pends upon  the  comparative  sizes  of  the  pinion  and 
bevel-wheels.  80.  Marking  a  spiral  line,  the  graver 
moved  by  a  screw.  81.  (See  Fig.  58).  82.  Plunger 
and  rods.  83.  Cross-head  and  rods.  84.  Recipro- 
cating rod  guided  b}-  friction  rollers.  85.  Revolving 
into  reciprocating  motion,  b}'  means  of  roller-arms 
extending  from  a  revolving  shaft  and  acting  on  lugs 
projecting  from  a  reciprocating  frame.  86.  Crank 
motion.  87  Reciprocating  motion  communicated  by 
toothed  wheel  and  spring-bar.  88.  The  shaft  car- 
ries a  taper,  which  readily  catches  against  a  hook 
securely  hinged  to  the  drum, so  as  to  carry  the  drum 
along  and  raise  the  weight  on  the  rope.  When  the 
tappet  has  reached  its  highest  position,  the  hook 
strikes  a  pin,  the  hook  disengages  from  the  tappet, 
and  the  weight  drops.  89.  Reciprocating  motion 
to  a  rod  by  means  of  a  groove  in  an  oblique  ring  se- 
cured to  a  revolving  shaft.  90.  Double  crank.  91. 
Cam  groove  in  a  drum,  to  nroduce  reciprocating  mo- 


tion. 92.  Belts  and  pulleys.  93.  Pulleys,  belts  and 
internal  gear.  94.  As  the  rod  moves  U]i  and  down, 
the  teeth  of  the  cog-wheels  come  in  contact  with 
a  i)awl.  and  an  intermittent  rotary  motion  is  imjjart- 
ed  to  said  wheel.  O.'i.  Ry  turning  the  horizontal  ax- 
les with  different  velocities,  the  middle  wheel  is 
caused  to  revolve  with  the  mean  velocilj-.  96.  Os- 
cillating lever  and  cam  groove  in  a  disk.  97.  Lazy 
tongs.  981.  Oscillating  segment  and  belt  over  jjul- 
leys.  99.  Converting  oscillating  into  a  reciprocating 
motion  by  a  Cam-slot  in  the  end  of  the  oscillating 
lever  which  catches  over  a  pin  projecting  from  one 
of  the  sides  of  a  parallelogram  wliieli  is  connected  to 
the  rod  to  which  re<iprocaling  motion  is  imparled. 
100.  Oscillating  motion  of  a  Ijeam  into  rotary  mo- 
tion.    101.  Motion  of  a  treadle  into  rotary  motion. 


103.  Double-acting  beam.     103.  Single-acting  beam. 

104.  (See  Figures  58  and  81).  105.  Device  to  steady 
a  piston  by  a  slotted  guide-piece,  operated  by  an  ec- 
centric on  the  driving  shaft.  106.  Rod  operated  by 
two  toothed  segments.  107.  Two  cog-wliee!s  of 
equal  diameter,  provided  with  a  crank  of  the  same 
length,  and  connected  b)'  links  with  a  cross-bar  to 
which  the  piston-rod  is  secured.  108.  Device  for  a 
rectilinear  motion  of  a  piston-rod  based  on  the  hy- 
pocycloidal  motion  of  a  pinion  in  a  stationary  wheel 
with  internal  gear.  If  the  diameter  of  the  pinion  is 
exactly  equal  to  one  half  the  diameter  of  the  internal 
gear,  the  hypocycloid  becomes  a  sight  line.  109. 
Same  purpose  as  56.  110.  Action  similar  to  65.  111. 
Revolving  motion  by  a  circular  sliding  pinion  gear- 
ing in  an  elliptical  cog-wheel.  112.  Similar  to  96. 
113.  Carpenter's   clamp.     The  jaws  turn  on  the  piv- 


ot-screws, and  clamp  the  board.  114.  An  irregular 
vibratory  motion  is  given  to  the  arm  carrying  the 
wheel  A  ly  the  rotation  of  the  pinion  B.  as  shown. 
115.  Intermittent  rotary  motion  of  the  pinion-shaft, 
by  the  continuous  rotary  motion  of  the  large  wheel. 
The  part  of  the  pinion  shown  next  the  wheel  is  cut 
on  the  same  turve  as  the  plain  portion  of  the  cir- 
cumference, and  therefore  serves  as  a  lock  whilst 
the  wheel  makes  part  of  a  revolution,  and  until  the 
pin  upim  the  wheel  strikes  the  guide-piece  upon  the 
pinion,  when  the  pinion-shaft  commences  another 
revolution.  116.  Stop-motion  used  in  watches  to 
limit  the  number  of  revolutions  in  winding  up.  The 
convex  curved  part,  a  h,  of  the  wheel  B  serving  as 
the  stop.  117.  Several  wheels,  by  connecting-rods, 
driven  from  one  pulley.  118.  Intermittent  circvdar 
motion  is  inipart<'(l  to  "the  tootlied  wheel  b_v  vibrating 
the  arm  H.  When  the  arm  H  is  lifted,  tlie  pawl  is 
raised  from  between  the  teeth  of  tlie  wheel,  and  tra- 
veling backward  over  the  cireiunference  again,  drops 
between  two  teeth  on  lowering  the  arm,  and  draws 


MECHANICAL  POWERS. 


301 


MECHANICAL  P0WEE8, 


Willi  it  llic  vvliccl.  1  r.l.  Kcfiproraling  rcrtilincar 
motion  is  |j;ivcii  lo  tlic-  liar  liy  tlic  loiiliiiiioiiH  iiiolion 
of  tli(^  cam.  'I'll!'  ciim  is  of  ccjiial  diaiiii'lcr  in  I'vcry 
ciircttion  mcaHurcil  across  Ilic  ccnlfr.  120.  Moclian- 
isni  for  rcvolviin;  the  cylinder  in  Coil's  lirearnis. 
Wlicn  tlic  lianiincr  isj  drawn  back,  the  doj;,  «,  at- 
tiiclicd  to  the  tumbler  acts  on  the  ratchet,  l>,  on  the 
bark  of  llurcylinder,  and  is  held  ii|)  lo  Ihe  ratchet  by 
a  sprinj;,  c.  \'i\ .  Allernnte  increasin;,'  ami  dirninisli- 
ini^  motion,  by  means  of  eccentric  loolheil  wheel 
and  toothed  cylinder.  122.  Oscillating  or  pendiilnm 
engine.  'V\\v  cylinder  swings  between  truimions  like 
a  pendulum.  The  piston-rod  coimects  directly  with 
crank.  12!i.  Intermittent  rotary  motion.  The  small 
wheel  is  driven,  and  tln^  friction  rollers  on  its  studs 
move  the  larger  wheel  by  working  against  the  faces 
of  obliiiue  grooves  or  projections  across  the  face 
thereof.  124.  Longitudinal  and  rotary  motion  of 
the  rod  is  produced  by  its  arrangement  between  two 
rotating  rollers,  the  axles  of  which  are  oblique  to 
each  other.  ISR.  Friction  indicator  of  Roberts. 
Upon  the  jieriphery  of  the  belt-puUey  a  loaded  car- 
riage is  placed,  its  tongue  connected  with  an  indica- 


tor. With  a  given  load  the  indicating  pointer  re- 
mains in  a  given  iiositiou,  no  matter  what  velocity  is 
imparted  to  the  pulley.  Wlien  the  load  is  changed 
the  indicator  changes,  thus  proving  that  the  friction 
of  wheels  is  in  proportion  to  load,  not  velocity.  126. 
Circular  intermittent  rectilinear  reciprocating  mo- 
tion. U.scd  on  sewing-machines  for  driving  the  shut- 
tle; also  on  three-revolution  cylinderprinting-press- 
es.  127.  Continuous  circular  into  intermittent  cir- 
cular motion.  The  cam  is  the  driver.  128.  Sewing- 
machine,  four-motion  feed.  The  bar,  B,  carries 
the  feeiling-jioints  or  spurs,  and  is  pivoted  to  slide, 
A.  B  is  lifted  by  a  radial  projection  on  cam,  C, 
which  at  the  same  time  also  carries  A  and  B  forward. 
A  si>ring  produces  the  return  stroke,  and  the  bar,  B, 
drops  by  gravity.     129.  Patent  crank  motion  to  ob- 


viate (lend  centers.  Pressure  on  the  ireailh-  moves 
the  slotted  slide.  A,  forward  until  the  wrist  passcfi 
the  center,  when  lliir  spring,  B,  forc-es  the  slide  againot 
the  slops  until  ne.vt  forward  movement.  130.  Four- 
way  cock.  Kil.  One  stroke  of  the  piston  gives  a 
complete  revolution  lo  the  crank.  VA2.  l{cclilinear 
motion  of  variable  velocity  i.s  given  to  the  vertical 
bar  by  rotation  of  Ihe  shaft  of  the  curved  arm.  IIW. 
I'anlagraph  for  copying,  enlarging  and  reducing 
)ilans,  etc.  C,  lixed  point.  B.  ivory  tracing  point.  A, 
pencil.  Trace  the  lines  lo  be  copied  with  B,  and  the 
I)eneil  will  reproduce  them  double  size.  Shift  the 
slide  to  which  C  is  attached,  also  tlie  pencil  slide, 
and  size  of  the  eo|iy  will  be  varied.  1S4.  Ball-and- 
socket  joint  for  tubing.  KW.  Numerical  registering 
device.  The  teeth  of  the  worm-shaft  gear  with  a 
pair  of  worm-whei'ls  of  equal  diameter,  one  having 
one  tooth  more  than  Ihe  other.  If  Ihe  tirst  wheel  has 
100  teeth  and  the  second  101,  the  [jointers  will  indi- 
cate respectively  101  and  10,100  revolutions.  \W. 
Moutgollier's  hydraulic  ram.  The  right-hand  valve 
being  kept  open  by  a  weight  fir  spring,  the  current 
flowing  tlirougli  the  pi|ie  in  the  direction  of  the  ar- 
r<iw  escapes  thereby.  When  the  pressure  of  the  wa- 
ter current  overcomes  tlu'  weight  of  the  right  valve, 
Ihe  momentum  of  the  water  opens  the  oilier  valve, 
and  the  water  passes  into  the  air-chamber.  One  equi- 
librium taking  place,  the  left  valve  shuts  and  the 
right  valve  opens.  By  this  alternate  action  of  the 
valves,  %\ater  is  raised  into  the  air-chamber  at  every 
stroke,  187.  Rotary  engine.  Shaft  Band  hub,  C! 
are  arranged  eccentric  to  the  case.  Sliding  radial 
pistons,  a,  a,  move  in  and  out  of  hub  C.  The  pis- 
Ions  slide  through  rolling  packings  in  the  hub  C.  i;J8. 
Quadrant  engine.  Two  single-acting  pistons,  B,  B, 
connect  with  crank  D.  Steam  is  admitted  to  act  on 
the  outer  sides  of  the  pistons  alternately  through  valve 
fi.  and  the  exhaust  is  between  the  pistons.  13!).  Cir- 
cular into  rectilinear  motion.  The  scalloped  wheel 
communicates  motion  to  the  horizontal  oscillating 
rod,  and  imparts  rectilinear  movement  to  the  up- 
right bar.  140.  Rotary  motion  transmitted  by  roll- 
ing contact  between  two  obliquely  arranged  shafts. 
MECHANICAL  POWERS.  —  Machines  are  instru- 
ments interposed  between  the  moving  power  and  the 
resistance,  with  a  view  of  changing  the  direction  of 
the  force,  or  otherwise  modifying  it.  Machines  are 
of  various  degrees  of  complexity ;  but  the  simple 
parts,  or  elements  of  which  they  are  all  composed, 
are  reducible  to  a  very  few.  These  elementary  ma- 
chines are  called  the  Mechanical  Powers,  and  are 
usually  reckoned  as  six  in  number,  three  being  pri- 
mary— viz.,  the  kter,  inclined plan(,anA  pulley;  and 
three  secondary,  or  derived  from  the  others — viz., 
the  w/(f^i-aftrf-(U^«  (derived  from  the  lever).  t\uttredge, 
and  the  screw  (both  derived  from  the  inclined  plane). 
To  these  .some  add  toothed  wheels.  What  is  special 
to  each  machine  will  be  found  under  its  name ;  a  few 
observations  applicable  to  all  may  approjirialely  be 
made  here.  1.  In  treating  of  the  "theory  of  the  lever 
and  other  mechanical  powers,  the  question  really 
examined  is,  not  what  power  is  necessary  to  move  a 
certain  weight,  but  what  power  is  necessary  to  bal- 
ance it.  This  once  done,  it  is  obvious  that  the  least 
additional  force  to  P  will  suftice  to  begin  motion. 
2.  In  pure  theoretical  mechanics,  it  is  assumed  that 
the  machines  are  without  weight,  A  lever,  for  in- 
stance, is  supposed  to  be  a  mere  rigid  line ;  it  is  also 
supposed  to  be  perfectly  rigid,  not  bending  or  alter- 
ing its  form  under  any  pressure.  The  motion  of  the 
machine  is  also  supposed  to  be  without  friction.  In 
practical  mechanics,  the  weight  of  the  machine,  the 
yielding  of  its  parts,  and  the  resistance  of  friction, 
have  to  be  taken  into  account.  3.  When  the  effect  of 
a  machine  is  to  make  a  force  overcome  a  resistance 
greater  than  itself,  it  is  said  to  give  a  meclianicnl  ad- 
tnntnge.  A  machine,  however,  never  actually  in- 
creases power — for  that  would  be  to  create  work  or 
energy,  a  thing  now  known  to  be  as  impossible  as  to 
create  matter.    What  is  gained  in  one  way  by  a  ma- 


MECHANICAL  POWEBS. 


302 


MECHANICAL  POWEBS 


chine  is  ahvaj-s  lost  in  another.  One  pound  at  tlic 
long  end  of  a"  lever  will  lift  10  pounds  at  the  short 
end^  if  the  arras  are  rightly  proportioned :  but  to  lift 
the  10  pounds  through  one  foot,  it  must  descend  10 
feet.  The  two  weiglits,  when  thus  in  motion,  have 
equal  momenta  :  the  moving  mass  multiplied  into  its 
velocity,  is  equal  to  the  resisting  mass  multiplied  into 
its  velocity,  \yhen  the  lever  seems  to  multiply  force, 
it  only  concentrates  or  accumulates  the  exertions  of 
the  force.  The  descending  one  pound  weight,  in  the 
case  above  supposed,  may  be  conceived  as  making 
10  distinct  exertions  of  its  force,  each  through  a  space 
of  a  foot:  and  all  these  are  concentrated  in  the  rais- 
ing of  the  10  pound  weight  through  one  foot.  The 
principle  thus  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  lever  holds 
good  of  all  the  mechanical  powers.  4.  The  object  of 
a  machine  is  not  always  to  increase  force  or  pressure; 
it  is  as  often  to  gain  velocity  at  the  expense  of  force. 
In  a  spinning  factory,  e.  g.,  the  object  of  the  train  of 
machinery  is  to  distribute  the  slowly  working  force 
of  a  powerful  water-wheel  or  other  prime  mover, 
among  a  multitude  of  terminal  parts  moving  rapidlj', 
but  having  little  resistance  to  overcome.  5.  The 
mechanical  advantage  of  a  compound  machine  is 
theoretically  equal  to  the  product  of  the  separate 
mechanical  advantages  of  the  simple  macliines  com- 
posing it ;  but  in  applying  machines  to  do  work,  al- 
lowance must  be  made  for  the  inertia  of  the  materi- 
als composing  them,  the  flexure  of  parts  subjected 
to  strains,  and  the  friction,  which  increases  rapidly 
with  the  complexity  of  the  parts ;  and  these  consid- 
erations make  it  desirable  that  a  machine  should  con- 
sist of  as  few  parts  as  are  consistent  witli  the  work 
it  has  to  do.  6.  The  forces,  or  "moving  powers," 
by  which  machines  are  driven  are  the  muscular 
strength  of  men  and  animals,  wind,  water,  electrical 
and  magnetic  attractions,  steam,  etc.;  and  the  grand 
object  in  the  construction  of  machines  is,  how,  with 
a  given  iunount  of  impelling  power,  to  get  the  great- 
est amount  of  work  of  the  kmd  required.  This  gives 
rise  to  a  multitude  of  problems,  some  more  or  less 
general,  others  relating  more  especially  to  particular 
cases — problems,  the  investigation  of  which  consti- 
tutes the  science  of  applied  mechanics.  Oue  of  the 
questions  of  most  general  application  is  the  follow- 
ing :  If  the  resistance  to  a  machine  were  graduiilly 
reduced  to  zero,  its  velocity  would  be  constantly 
accelerated  until  it  attained  a  maximum,  which 
would  be  when  the  point  to  which  the  impelling 
force  is  applied  was  moving  at  the  same  rate  as  the 
impelling  force  itself  would  move  if  unresisted.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  resistance  were  increased  to 
a  certain  point,  the  machine  would  come  to  a  stand. 
Now.  the  problem  is.  between  these  two  extremes  to 
find  the  rate  at  which  the  greatest  effect  or  amount 
of  work  is  got  from  the  same  amount  of  driving 
power.  The  investigation  would  be  out  of  place 
here,  but  the  result  is  that  the  greatest  effect  is  pro- 
duced when  the  velocity  of  the  point  of  application 
is  one-third  of  the  maximum  velocity  above  spoken 
of.  The  moving  force  and  the  resistance  should 
therefore  be  so  adjusted  as  to  produce  this  velocity. 
It  will  be  our  endeavor  in  this  article  to  find  the 
relation  between  the  power  and  the  weight  when 
they  lialance  each  other  in  each  of  the  simple  ma- 
chines ;  friction  and  the  weight  of  the  machine  not 
being  taken  into  account.  For  the  sake  of  conven- 
ience, the  power  will  be  denoted  by  P,  and  the 
weight  by  W.  A  lever  is  an  inflexible  rod,  straight 
or  lient,  turning  on  a  point  calleil  Ihi-  fii/rrii in.  It 
is  mucli  used  in  the  form  of  an  iron  bar  for  moving 
heavy  bodies,  through  small  distances.  Fig.  1 
tl.ows  a  lever  used  for  that  purpose,  in  which  F  is 
tlie  fulcrum,  P  is  the  power  exerted  by  the  hand, 
and  W  is  the  weiglit  to  be  moved.  Take  a  straight 
inflexible  bar,  .\  B,  Fig.  2, and  place  it  on  a  prop.  F. 
On  the  end,  li,  hang  a  weight,  W,  and  balance  it 
with  the  power.  P.  tiimg  on  the  end,  A;  FA  is  the 
power-arm,  and  F  15  the  weight-arm.  Now  if  F  \ 
is  equal  to  F  B,  then  W  is  equal  to  P ;  if  F  A  is  I 


three  times  the  length  of  the  arm.  F  B.  then  W  is 
double  the  length  of  F  B, then  W  is  double  of  P;  if  FA 
is  three  times  P;and  so  on.  The  ireight  always  bears 


the  same  proportion  to  the  pmmr  as  the  pmrier-nrm 
bears  to  the  iceig/it-ami.  The  same  thing  may  be 
expressed  by  saying  that  the  power  mukiplied 
by  the  length  of  the  power-arm  is  always  equal  to  the 


W 


Fig  2. 


weight  multiplied  by  the  length  of  the  weight-arm. 
This  rule  holds  for  all  levers;  but  if  the  lever  be  bent 
as  in  Fig.  3  we  must  not  take  the  bent  arms  of  the 
lever,  E  JI  aud  F  N,  for  the  power  and  weight  arms; 
but  for  the  power-arm  we  must  take,  FA  the  per- 
pendicular drawn  from  the  fulcrum  to  the  direction 


Fi?.  3. 

in  which  the  power  acts,  and  for  the  weight-arm  we 
must  take  FB,  the  perpendicular  drawn  from  the 
fulcrum  to  the  direction  in  which  the  weight  acts. 
The  same  precaution  must  be  observed  if  the  power 
and  weight  do  not  act  in  directions  parallel  to  each 
other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 
In  Figs.  3,  3,  4,  the  power  multiplied  by  the  length 


Fig.  4. 

of  F  A  is  called  the  mrnnent  of  the  power  about  the 
fulcrum,  and  expresses  the  tendency  that  the  power 
has  to  produce  motion  about  thc^  fulcnnu  ;  in  the 
same  figures,  the  weight  multiplied  by  the  length  of 
F  B  is  called  the  moment  of  the  weight  about  the  ful- 
crum, and  exi^rcsses  the  tendency  that  the  weight 
lias  to  produce  motion  about  the  fulcrum  in  tlie  op. 
posite  direction.  We  see  that  wIk'U  a  lever  is  at  rest 
the  moments  of  the  power  aud  weight  about  the  ful- 


MECHANICAL  POWERS. 


MECHANICAL  POWERS. 


cruin  are  cqnnl.    Lrvorfi  nro  pcnfrally  dividpd  into  '  power  is  wantpd  ;  the  human  arm,  Fig.  B,  is  an  ex- 

tliriM-  kinds,  mcdnliiii;  In  tin-  posilicjii  of  the  power  ;  iiiiiplc.  'I'lic  fulrruin  is  at  llii-  elbow,  the  w<-i(rhl  IH 
luid  vviij,'hl  Willi  riL'iiril  lo  llic  liilcniin.  In  levers  of  tlic  li'uly  resting  on  the  hand,  and  llie  coutraclilc 
the  lirsl  kind  the  power  and  wi'iirlit  act  on  ditTerent 


sides  of  the  fulcrum,  as  shown  in  Fiir.  .■).     It  is  cvi- 


Flg.  5. 

dent  that  with  levers  of  tliis  kind  wemayeitber  linve 
a  mer/ui n irat  ndrnnUigi'  or  a  nu'c/ianieal  (Umidriintage, 
accordingas  the  fulcrum  is  placed  nearer  the  weisjlit 
or  the  power.  Kxamples  of  this  kind  of  lever  are 
numerous;  the  cro\vl)nr.  u.sed  as  seen  in  Fii;.  1;  the 
poker  used  in  stirring;  the  fire;  and  the  <law-h;im- 
mer  used  in  dniwimr  a  nidi,  are  faniili;ir  illustra- 
tions. In  these,  as  well  as  in  the  examples  to  l)e 
piven  of  the  otiier  two  kinds  of  levers,  the  reader 
shoidd  satisfy  himsi'lf  as  to  what  constitutes  llie 
fiih-rinn.  yioirer.awA  weight  in  each  case.  In  levers  of 
the  second  kmd,  the  power  and  weight  act  ou  the 


Fig.  6. 

same  side  of  the  fulcrum,  the  -weiffht  being  nearer 
the  fulcrum,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  llere.  it  is  evident, 
that  we  have  alwaj-s  a  niii-luinicnl  iuhaiitnge,\\\w{\\ex 
great  or  small,  for  the  power-arm  must  be  alwavs 
somewhat  longer  than  the  weight-arm.  Nut-crackers, 
a  chii)ping-knife.an  o;ir  used  in  propelling  a  boat. and 
a  door  taken  by  the  handle  and  opened  on  its  hinges, 
are  levers  of  the  second  kind.  In  levers  of  the  third 
kinii,  the  power  and  weight  also  act  upon  the  same 
side  of  the  fulcrum,  the  power  being  nearer  the  ful- 


A. 


force  of  the  muscle  furnishes  the  power  which  acts 
at  P.  When  the  nmscle  contracts,  the  hand  de- 
scribes a  much  longer  curve  than  P  does,  and  this 


ctah- 


w 


FiL'.  'J. 

is  convenient.  The  Wlieel-nn<J-Axle.  as  represented 
in  PMg.  !).  consists  of  two  cylinders  of  different  si/.es, 
having  a  common  axis  to  which  they  are  rig-irlly 
attaclied :  the  larger  cylinder  is  called  the  wheel, 
because  a  wheel  having  a  groove  in  its  circumfer- 
ence for  carrying  a  rope  is  sometimes  used  instead 
of  it ;  the  smaller  cylinder  is  called  the  axle;  their 
common  axis  is  firmly  supported  on  a  strong  frame. 
The  weight  is  attached  to  the  end  of  a  long  rope 
which  is  coiled  round  the  axle,  and  the  power 
acts  at  the  end  of  another  rope  which  is  coiled  rf)und 
the  wheel  in  an  opposite  direction,  so  that  when  the 


W 


Fig.  r. 

crum,  as  in  Fig.  7.  In  this  kinn  of  lever  there  is  al 
waj's  a  mtrhanirnl  dhndrant/ige^  for  in  it  the  power- 
arm  is  always  shorter  than  the  weight-arm,  so  that 
to  support  a  weight  with  it  a  greater  power  is  re- 
quired than  if  the  power  were  applied  direct!}-  and 
without  the  intervention  of  a  machine  at  all.  "  Thii  '  rope  is  pulled  down  the  weight  is  raised.  Fig.  10 
kind  of  lever  is  only  used  when  velocity  rather  than  I  represents  a  vertical  section  of  the  wheel-and-axle, 


MECHANICAL    POWERS. 


304 


MECHAIflCAL  P0WEE8. 


from  which  it  is  manifest  that  it  is  merely  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  lever,  in  which  C,  the  center  nf  the  axle, 
is  the  fulcrum.  C  A,  the  radius  of  the  wheel,  is  the 
power-arm.  and  C  B,  the  radius  of  the  axle  is  the 
weight-arm. 

It  clearly  follows,  from  the  law  of  the  lever,  that 
the  wheel-and-axle  is  in  equilibrium  when  the  power 
multiplied  by  the  radius  of  the  wheel  equals  the 
weight  multiplied  by  the  radius  of  the  axle  ;  so  that 
if  the  radius  of  the  wheel  were  eighteen  inches  and 
tlie  radius  of  the  axle  two  inches,  then  a  power  of 


Fig.   II. 

one  pound  would  balance  a  weight  of  nine  poundB. 
In  the  windlass, shown  in  Fig.  ll,thearm,AC,is  used 
instead  of  a  wheel.  Examples  of  the  practical  ap- 
plication of  tlie  wheel-and-axle  are  seen  in  the  caps- 
tan, crane,  water-wheel,  and  toothed  wheels. 

Fig  12  shows  a  Pulley  in  use.  It  is  a  small  disk 
or  wheel,  of  wood  or  metal,  having  a  groove  in  its 
circumference  for  carrying  a  string,  and  turns  on  an 
axis  passing  through  the  center  of  its  faces,  the  axis 
being  supported  by  a  frame  called  a  l)lock.  Pulleys 
are  designated  as  either  fixed  or  movable;  a  pulley 
is  said  to  be^Jvrf  whenit  does  not  ascend  or  descend 
according  as  the  weight  is  raised  or  lowered.  It  is 
manifest  from  Fig.  12  that  a  fixed  pulley  has  no 
mechanical  advantage,  for  the  power,  P,  must  be 
equal  to  the  weiglit,  W,  in  order  to  support  it.  This 
machine  is  only  used  to  change  the  direction  in  wliich 
a  force  acts.  Wlien  force  is  transmitted  througli  a 
string,  as  it  is  in  the  case  of  pulleys,  it  gets  the  name 
of  te/Miiui,  and  a  string  possesses  the  property  of 
transmitting  a  force  without  changing  its  amount ; 
thus  the  tension  at  every  point  of  the  string  in  Fig. 


Fig.  12.  Fig  13. 

12  is  the  weight,  W.  Pulleys  are  called  movable 
when  they  ascend  or  descend  according  as  the  weight 
is  raised  or  lowered.  We  have  a  movable  pulley  in 
Fig.  13.  When  ()nemoval)le  i)ulley  is  used,  Uic  strings 
being  parallel.  th(^  weight  is  ('(jual  to  twice  tlie 
power.  For  W  is  supported  by  th<^  tension  in  B  H 
and  the  tension  in  A  P;  and  since  the  tension  in  each 
of  these  is  the  power,  P,  acting  upward,  these  two 
tensions  would  support  a  weight  of  2  I';  therefore 
W  must  be  equal  to  2  P.  It  is  generally  found  to  be 
convenient  to  vise  a  fixed  [lulley  along  witli  a  mov- 
able one  when  we  wish  to  change  the  direction  of 
the  force,  as  in  Fig.  14.     There  are  three  systems  of 


arranging  pulleys — or  reeving  them,  as  it  is  called.  In 
the  first  system,  wliich  is  shown  in  Fig.  15,  each 
pulley  hangs  by  a  separate  string,  and  all  Uie  strings 
are  parallel.    When  three  movable  pulleys  are  ar- 


Fig.  14. 

ranged  thus,  the  weight  is  equal  to  eight  times  the 
power  ;  for  the  tension  in  the  string  passing  under 
the  first  movable  pulley  at  the  top  is  the  power,  P ; 


Fig,  15. 

the  tension  in  the  string  passing  under  the  second 
movable  pulley  is  2P:  the  tension  in  the  string  pass- 
ing under  the  third  movable  pulley  is  4  P  ;  and  the 
tension  in  the  string  hanging  from  this  pulley  is  8  P. 
But  this  last  tension  supports  the  weight,  W^,  there- 
fore W  ^  8  P.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  this  sys- 
tem each  movable  pulley  that  is  added  doubles  the 
mechanical  advantage.  In  the  second  system  the 
string  passes  round  all  the  pullejs,  and  the  folds  of 
this  string  are  parallel,  as  represented  in  Fig.  16. 
Here  the  weight,  W,  is  supported  by  the  tensions  in 
the  folds  of  the  string ;  and  as  there  are  four  fohls, 
each  having  the  tension  of  the  power,  P.  the  weight 
must  be  four  times  the  power.  In  this  system  the 
weight  is  alwaj'S.as  many  times  the  power  as  there 
are  folds  in  the  string,  the  folds  being  counted  be- 
tween the  two  blocks.  In  tlie  third  system  Fig.  17, 
each  pulley  hangs  by  a  separate  string,  and  the  end 
of  each  string  is  attached  to  the  weight,  the  whole 
being  suspended  from  a  fixed  support.  The  tension 
m  the  string  passing  over  the  first  pulley  at  the  bot- 
tom is  the  power,  P  ;  the  tension  in  the  string  pass- 
ing over  the  next  pulley  is  2  P:  the  tension  in 
the  string  passing  over  the  third  pulley  from  the 
bottom  is  4  P  ;  and  so  on.  Thus  it  is  when  three 
pulleys  are  arranged  in  this  manner,  W  is  sup- 
porte'd  by  P  -f  2  P  -f-  4   P,  that  is,  by  7  P,  and 


MECHANICAL  POWERS. 


305 


MECHANICAL  P0WEH8. 


therefore  tlio  wLi>,'lit  in  exactly  cqnnl  to  seven 
times  tlie  power.  The  I'lTect  of  iiny  <iIIiit  nimilMT 
iniiy  he  eiilculaled  Himilurly.  The  tirst  ihiiit;  tliat 
strikes  (iiif  (in  (xiiiriiiienling  with  tlie  piiMeys  is  tlie 


principle  of  virtual  velocities.     Let  us  mal^e  an  ex- 

IHTimcnt  with  tlie  first  system,  shown  in  Fii;.  LI. 
Here  we  liavB  three  movable  puhcys,  luiil  we  tinil 
that  a  ]iower  of  1  oz.  halanees  a  weight  of  H  oz.  Triif: 
hut  cm  imtting  the  machine  in  action,  we  also  liiHJ 
that  wlien  the  weight  is  raised  1  ft.  the  power  has  to 
move  through  8  ft.,  so  that  what  is  gained  in  power 
is  lost  in  speod.  and,  as  we  said  before,  this  is  true 
of  every  machine. 

We  now  come  to  consider  the  inclined  |)lauc.  Here 


Fig.  18. 

is  one  in  Fig.  18.  We  shall  perform  an  experiment 
on  it,  and  then  draw  a  conclusion.  Let  the  weight, 
W,  be  drawn  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  in- 
clined plane  by  the  power,   P,  which   acts   on  the 


Ftg.  m. 

weight  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  length  of  the  plane 
AB;  W  will  be  thus  raised  through  a  vertical  dis- 
tance equal  to  B  C.  the  height  of  the  plane  :  but  dur- 
ing this  time  P  will  have  descended  through  a  ver- 
tical distance  equal  to  A  B.  the  length  of  the  plane. 
Kow,  from  the  principle  of  virtual  velocities  it  fol- 
lows at  once  that  there  is  equilibrium  here,  wlien  P 
multiplied  by  A  B  is  equal  to  W  multiplied  b)'  B  C; 
that  is,  on  the  inclined  plane,  when  the  power  acts 
parallel  to  the  length  of  the  plane,  there  is  eqiiilibri- 
um  when  the'power  multiplied  by  tlie  length  is  equal 
to  the  weight  multiplied  b}'  the  height.     In  Fig.  19, 


an  experiment  m  shown  vfhich  verificB  the  rule  we 
have  just  drawn  from  the  prineiph:  of  virtual  veloc- 
ities. A  \i  and  A  (;  are  two  boards,  hinged  together 
at  A.  A  C  rests  for  convenience  on  a  table, and  A  B 
can  be  made  to  rise  from  it  at  any  angle  by  insirrt- 
ing  a  wedge,  iiro|MTly  i]re|mreil  as  seen  in  tlie  (Igure. 
Froni  I!  Jiangs  a  bar  gradiialiMl  in  inches,  by  which 
the  height  of  I  lie  plane  can  be  at  once  nieasuri'd. 
Tlie  carriage,  W,  (-onstitntes  the  weight,  and  the 
power,  1',  acts  on  it  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the 
longlh  of  the  |ilane.  Xow  make  P  balance;  W,  and 
then  measure  the  height  anil  length  of  the  plane; 
it  will  be  fiiiiiid  that  P  is  to  W  as  the  height,  of  the 
pliine  is  to  its  len'.rlli  ;  that  is,  the  power  multiplied 
iiy  the  number  of  iiulies  in  the  length  will  be  equal 
1(1  the  weight  iiiiilliplied  by  the  niuiilier  of  inches  in 
the  height.  By  varying  the  experiment,  so  that  llic 
power  might  act  in  a  (lirection  jiarallel  to  the  base, 
we  would  lind  (hat  there  would  he  equilibriuin  when 
the  jiower  multiiilied  liy  the  base  equals  the  weight 
niiiltiplicd  by  tlie  height.  Two  inclined  planes 
]ilaced  base  to  base  form  a  Wedr/e.  It  is  much  used 
ill  splitting  wood,  as  in  Fig.  20;  it  is  also  used  for 
raising  great 


Fii;.  20. 


weights  through  small  distances.  In  dockyards, 
ships  are  raised  on  the  stocks  by  wedges  driven  un- 
der their  keels.  Theoretically  considered,  the  me- 
chanical advantage  of  the  isosceles  wedge  is  the  side 
of  the  wedge  divided  by  half  the  back.  But  this 
gives  us  no  idea  of  the  real  advantage  of  the  ma- 
chine :  this  arises  from  its  enormous  friction,  and 
also  because  the  force  wliicli  urges  it  is  derived  from 
the  blow  of  a  hammer  or  a  mallet, 
etc.;  a  force  so  very  different  in  its 
nature  from  the  resistance  that  it  has 
to  overcome,  which  is  the  pressnrc  of 
some  weight  or  the  cohesion  of  the 
particles  of  a  body,  that  it  admits  of 
no  numerical  comparison.  One  part 
of  the  theory  is  true:  that  the  small- 
er the  back  the  greater  is  the  advan- 
tage of  the  wedge.  If  a  flexible  in- 
clined plane,  A — one  made  of  paper, 
for  example — be  wrapped  round  a 
cylinder,  B,  as  in  Fig.  2i,  a  screw  is 
formed.  By  means  of  the  apparatus 
in  Fig.  23  we  can  determine  the  me- 
chanical advantage  of  the  screw. 
The  resistance  here  is  the  bar,  AV, 
which  is  to  be  moved  forward :  the 
power  acts  at  the  handle,  A  P.  When 
the  machine  is  put  in  action  by  turning  the  handle, 
the  power  moves  through  the  circumference  of  the 
circle  described  by  the  handle,  while  the  weight  is 
only  moved  from"  a  to  i,  the  distance  between  two 
threads;  so  that  in  the  screw  the  power  is  to  the 
weight  as  the  distance  between  two  threads  is  to  the 
circumference  of  the  circle  described  by  the  power. 
Thus,  suppose  A  P  sweeps  a  circle  of  30  in.,  and 
that  the  distance  between  two  threads  is  i  in.:  then 
the  mechanical  advantage  of  the  machine  is  30  di- 
vided by  A,  that  is  60;  so  that  if  a  power  of  50  lbs.  i» 


Fig.  21. 


MEJHAHICS.7 


306 


MEDAL. 


exerted  on  the  handle,  A  P.  the  bar,  W,  is  urged 
forward  with  a  force  of  GO  times  50  lbs.,  that  is  3,000 
lbs. 

The  screw  is  much  used  to  exert  a  great  pressure 
tlirougli  sniiill  distances.  Fig.  23  shows  a  common 
screw-press.  To  apply  the  screw  here,  in  an  expe- 
ditious way,  a  hollow  screw  is  cut  in  the  nut,  N, 


Ffe.  33. 
iuto  the  groves  of  which  the  threads  of  the  solid 
screw  tit  exactly.  The  solid  screw,  S,  is  fixed  to 
the  press-board,  B  B,  so  that  it  cannot  turn  round, 
but  can  be  made  to  move  up  and  down;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  nut,  N,  is  fixed,  so  that  it  cannot 
be  moved  up  and  down,  but  can  be  made  to  turn 
round  by  means  of  the  bar,  P,  which  is  inserted 
in  a  hole"  in  its  side.  When  the  power  makes  one 
revolution,  the  solid  screw,  with  the  press-board 
attached  to  it,  is  raised  through  the  distance 
between  two  tlireads;  so  that  if  the  power,  P, 
sweeps  a  circle  of  20  ft.,  that  is,  240  in.,  and  the 


distance  between  two  threads  is  1  in.,  then  the 
mechanical  advantage  of  the  machine  is  240;  so 
that  if  a  force  of  100  lbs.  be  exerted  on  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  lever,  anything  placed  between  B  and  D 
will  be  pressed  with  a  force  equal  to  240  times 
100  lbs.,  that  is.  24,000  lbs.,  or  W';  tons.  In  the 
compomid  machines,  the  mechanical  advantage  is 
the  |)r()diut  of  the  mechanical  advantages  of  the 
simple  machines  which  compose  them.  Thus,  in 
Fitf.  24  we  have  a  compound  machine  consisting  of 

C    T7  B 


Fig.  at 
three  levers  combined  together;  its  mech.anical  ad- 
vantage is  3  times  2  tinu-s  2,  or  12:  3  beim;  tlu' 
mechanical  advantage  of  the  first  lever,  2  that  of  the 
second,  and  2  that  of  the  third.  A  jiower  of  1  lb. 
applied  at  A.  would  balance  a  vveiirlit  of  12  lbs. 
:it  I). 

MECHANICS.  Tlie  seiciicc  wliich  trials  of  llie 
nature  of  forces  and  of  their  acliui  on  liodics,  eitlier 
tlirectlyorby  the  agency  of  machinery.  The  nature  of 


force  will  be  found  treated  of  under  Fokce.  The 
action  of  forces  on  liodies  may  be  in  the  form  of 
pressure  or  of  impulse,  and  may  or  may  not  produce 
motion.  When  the  forces  are  so  balanced  as  to 
preserve  the  body  affected  by  them  in  a  state  of 
equilibrium,  their  actions  are  investigated  in  that 
branch  of  mechanics  called  Statics  ;  when  motion 
is  produced,  they  are  considered  under  the  head  of 
Dynamics,  or  Kyyietics.  The  equilibrium  and  motion 
of  fluids  (including  liquids  and  gases)  is  treated  in 
the  subordinate  branches  of  Hydrostatics  and  Hy- 
drodynamics; though  the  special  terms  Aerostatics 
and  Aerodynamics  (for  which  the  comprehensive 
term  Pneumatics  is  often  used)  are  sometimes  em- 
ployed to  designate  those  portions  of  the  science  of 
mechanics  in  which  the  action  of  gaseous  bodies  is 
treated  of.  The  science  of  mechanics  owes  very 
little  to  the  ancient  philosophers.  They  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  conditions  of  equilibrium  on  the 
lever — discovered  by  Archimedes — and  had  reduced 
the  theory  of  all  the  mechanical  powers,  except  the 
pulley  and  the  inclined  plane  and  its  derivatives,  to 
that  of  the  lever,  but  this  was  nearly  all.  Archi- 
medes, starting  from  the  principle  of  equilibrium  on 
the  lever,  struck  out  the  idea  of  a  center  of  gravity 
for  every  body,  and  investigated  the  position  of  that 
point  for  the  triangle,  parabola,  and  paraboloid.  Till 
the  16th  century,  the  science  remained  stationary. 
Cardan,  the  Marquis  Ubaldi,  and  Stevinus — tlie 
first  to  give  the  correct  theory  of  equilibrium  on  the 
inclined  plane — then  gave  it  a  slight  impetus,  and 
the  labors  of  Galileo,  who  introduced  the  expression 
of  mechanical  propositions  in  mathematical  formu- 
las, discovered  the  laws  regulating  the  motion  of 
falling  bodies,  and  originat.ed  investigations  con- 
cerning the  strength  of  materials,  placed  the  science 
on  a  bl-oad  and  substantial  basis.  Torricelli,  Des- 
cartes, Pascal,  Fermat,  Roberval.  and  Huyghens,  on 
the  continent,  and  Wallis  and  Wren  in  England — 
the  last  three  of  whom  simultaneously  discovered 
the  laws  which  regulate  the  collision  of  bodies — 
added  each  his  quota  to  the  New  Science,  as  Me- 
chanics was  then  called.  In  1687,  appeared  New- 
ton's Principia,  in  which  the  complete  experimental 
basis  of  the  subject  was  first  laid  down  in  a  satis- 
factory maimer,  and  the  mechanical  principles  which 
had  before  been  considered  to  act  only  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  were  shown  to  rule  and  direct  the 
motions  of  the  planets.  Contemporary  with  Newton 
were  Leibnitz,  and  the  two  elder  Bernouillis,  James 
and  John,  who,  besides  contributing  greatly  to  the 
advancement  of  the  science,  applied  to  it  the  newly- 
invented  differential  calculus,  which  was  found  to 
be  a  weapon  of  immense  power.  From  this  time,  a 
constant  succession  of  illustrious  men  have  prose- 
cuted the  study  of  theoretical  mechanics,  or  of 
subjects  connected  with  it.  The  chief  names  are 
Daniel  Bcrnouilli,  Euler,  D'Alembert,  Clairaut,  La- 
grange, Laplace.  Lagrange's  Mecanique  A7ialyUque 
not  only  systematised  the  subject,  but  enormousls' 
increased  its  power  and  the  range  of  its  applica- 
tions. The  last  great  additions  to  the  science  are 
those  made  by  Sir  W.  R.  Hamilton,  under  the  name 
of  the  principle  of  Varying  Action.  The  develop- 
ments which  this  h,as  received  from  Jacobi,  Boole, 
Cayley,  Liouville,  Donkin,  Bour.  etc..  form  an  ex- 
tensive and  ditficull  branch  of  applied  mathematics, 
chiefly  of  the  theory  of  simultaneous  <lifferential 
equations. 

MEDAL  -  A  piece  of  metal  in  the  form  of  a  coin, 
not  issued  or  circulated  as  money,  but  stamped  with 
a  figure  or  device  to  preserve  tlic  ]>ortrait  of  some 
eminent  person,  or  I  he  memory  of  some  illustrious  ac- 
tion or  event.  Tile  study  of  medals,  interesting  in 
an  historical  and  anti(|uarian  point  of  view,  is  also 
important  as  illustrating  the  contemporary  state  of 
art.  Like  coins,  medals  belong  to  two  periods,  an- 
cient and  modern,  separated  by  a  wide  interval.  To 
the  former  liehmg  those  pieces  issuing  from  the  mint 
of  ancient   Rome,  known  as  M-dn't'iimi,  of  the  size 


H£SAILL£  MILITAISS. 


MEDICAL  SCHOOL. 


of  the  aureus  in  );(ilil,  of  tlic  ilcnarius  in  Bilvcr,  iind 
of  the  tirst  <jr  larjjc  Ijrans  in  copper.  'I'licyare  ^fncr- 
crally  .Hupposcil  to  liavi;  bern  sirui'k  on  occasions 
Niniilar  to  tlKis<'  on  wliicli  medals  arc  coined  in  mod- 
ern times,  on  tlie  accession  of  an  Emperor,  on  the 
ucliievement  of  an  imp<irtant  vi(^lory,  or  us  specimens 
of  \vorl<mansliip;  hut  tlicr<'  are  circumstances  wliich 
countenance  the  helief  tliat  they  were  circulated  as 
money.  Medallions  prior  to  the  time  of  Hadrian  arc 
rare  and  of  ^jrcat  value;  one  of  the  most  lieautifid 
and  most  famous  hcinnai^'old  medallion  of  AultusIus 
C'a'sar;  from  Hadrian  to  the  close  of  the  Kmpire  they 
are  comi)aratively  conuuon.  Of  the  Roman  medal- 
lions, somct  wen'  struck  l)y  order  of  the  Emperors, 
some  by  the  Senate;  the  latter  nniv  be  known  by  being 
inscribed  with  the  letters  S.  ('.  'I'lie  lar!j;er  bronze  me- 
dallions are  of  adinirabU^  workmanship.  In  some  of 
them  a  riny'  of  bronze  surrounds  a  center  of  (ropper, 
and  tlie  inscription  extends  over  both  metals.  No  por- 
trail  of  a  person  not  princely  o<-curs  on  any  ancient 
medal,  a  rem;irkable  circumstance,  coiisidcrinu;  the 
numerous  conlemporary  statues  of  poets,  historians, 
and  philosopliers.  The  CuntorniiiU  are  bronze  med- 
als marked  with  furrows  (funtorni).  distributed  at 
the  public  names  and  apparently  also  in  use  as  money, 
Numerous  medals  and  medallions  were  stru<'kin  the 
(Jrci'k  provinces  of  the  Uoman  Kmpire,  of  less  sub- 
stance and  thickness,  for  the  most  part,  than  those 
of  Rome.  The  Sicilian  medals  are  of  very  tine  work- 
manship, particularly  one  with  a  head  of  Ceres,  and 
on  the  reverse  a  Victory  crowning  a  figure  in  a  ear. 

Medals  in  the  present  day  are  conferred  by  the  Sov- 
ereign as  marks  of  distinction  for  eminent  worth  or 
noble  conduct,  more  particularly  for  naval  and  mili- 
tary services.  Such  med:ils  of  honor  are  seldom  of 
gTe;it  intrinsic  value,  their  wortli  de|iending  merely 
on  lheassociationsconiiectc<l  with  tlicm.  They  have 
ribbons  attached,  with  clasps  or  small  bars,  each  of 
wliich  bears  the  name  of  a  particular  action.  The 
Waterloo  medal  is  of  silver,  with  the  head  of  (Jeorge 
IV  (Prince  Regent),  a  winged  Victory,  andthe  wonis 
"  Waterloo,"  "  Wellington;"  it  hangs  from  a  crimson 
ribbon,  with  a  narrow  stripe  of  blue  near  ciich  edge. 
The  ('rinu';ui  nu'dal,  also  of  silver,  is  attached  to  a 
blue  ribbon  with  yellow  edges  when  worn  for  .service 
in  the  Crimea,  and  to  a  yellow  ribb(m  with  blue  edges 
when  for  service  in  tlie  Hallie.  Good-service  medals 
of  silver  were  institutedMu  1830  and  1831,  and  rules 
formed  fortheir  distribution  among  meritorious  sail- 
ors, soldiers, and  marines.  The  Naval  medal  is  worn 
suspended  from  a  blue,  and  the  Jlilitary  from  a  crim- 
son ribbon.  There  are  also  various  British  medals 
which  have  been  conferred  for  services  in  the  Penin- 
sula, India,  etc.  On  every  medal  is  engraved  the 
name,  rank,  etc.,  regiment  or  ship  of  the  recipient  of 
it.  Medals  and  decorations  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
evpr  conferred  as  rewarils  in  the  Army  or  Navy  prior 
to  the  Commonwealth.  The  French  military  medal 
and  the  Sardinian  War  Jledal  were  some  time  ago  be- 
stowetl  to  a  large  e.xtent  on  British  officers,  soldiers, 
seamen,  and  marines.  The  former  exhibits  the  effigy 
of  Napoleon  III. ,  surmounted  by  an  eagle,  and  is  worn 
from  a  yellow  ribbon  with  green  borders;  the  latter  is 
charged  with  the  Cross  of  Savoy,  and  suspended  from 
a  skv-blue  ribbon. 

MEDAILLE  MIHTAIEE.— A  French  military  medal 
inslituled  by  Napoleon  III.  It  is  conferred  princi- 
pally (m  privates  and  nou-commissioned  officers  for 
galhiutry  in  the  field,  and  carries  with  it  a  pension 
of  i'5  a  year.  Tlie  medaille  miUtaire  is,  however, 
also  conferred  on  Field  Marshals  and  Generals  when 
they  have  attained  to  the  highest  rank  of  military 
honors,  that  of  Grand-Croix  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
It  exhibits  the  effigy  of  the  founder,  surmounted  by 
an  eagle,  and  is  attached  to  a  yellow  ribbon  with  a 
green  border.  It  was,  after  the  Crimean  War,  be- 
stowed, to  a  large  extent,  on  British  soldiers. 

MEDICAL  BOARD.— A  Board  consisting  of  three  or 
more  officers  of  the  Medical  Department,  convened 
by  an  order  through  the  Secretary  of  War,  for  the 


inspectiim  of  woiindcrd  ofllcerH  in  order  to  He<:iirc 
them  a  provision  for  jifi',  in  uc<-ordance  with  the 
rcirulations  rr-LMrrliriL'  jjcnsions,  etf:. 

MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,-  'Ibis  Departriient  of  an 
army,  next  lo  Ihi-  (  umiiiissariat,  is  thir  most  impor- 
tant of  all  the  non-combatant  sections.  The  surgical 
trealm<'nt  of  the  woimdeii  in  actual  lighting,  and  still 
more  the  combat  with  di.sease  engendered  by  crowd- 
ing, unhealthy  stations,  and  the  reckless  habits  of 
the  soldiery,  necessitate  a  large  Medical]  SlafT;  for,oii 
an  average  of  the  wholi'  army,  it  is  found  that  Ibi; 
rate  of  sickness  is  at  least  triple  that  for  the  civil  pop- 
ulation. 

In  the  British  army  every  liattalion,  when  at  home 
or  in  the  temperate  zone,  has  a  Surgeon  and  an  As- 
sistant Surgeon;  when  in  India  or  the  tropics, anolbcr 
Assistant  Surgeon  is  added.  In  addition  lo  these  of- 
ficers, there  are  numerous  Staff  .Medical  Ollicers  at 
all  stations,  who  have  charge  of  detachnienis,  hos- 
pitals, etc.  The  active  list  of  the  Medical  Officers 
comprised,  in  1879-80,  H'.Hi  Surgeons-General,  IJep- 
utyjSurgeons  General. Surgeons  Major,and  Surgeon.s. 
Besides  these,  there  are  Ix^lween  400  and  .000  Medi- 
cal OHicers  em])lo)ed  with  the  army  in  India.  The 
total  estimate  for  medical  establishments  and  ser- 
vices in  187i)-80  was  XSOIi.SOO.  The  Medical  Depart- 
ment is  governed  by  a  Director-General,  who  is  a 
member  of  the  War  Office,  and  has  charge  of  the  sur- 
gical, medical,  and  sanitary  arrangements  of  the 
army. 

In  the  United  States,  the  Surgeon  General  is  charg- 
ed, under  the  Secretary  of  Wiir,  with  the  adminis- 
trative duties  of  the  Medical  Dcpiirtment.  The  Chief 
Medical  Purveyor  is  the  chief  purchasing  and  dis- 
bursing olHccrof  the  Medical  Department.  He  has, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Surgeon  General,  tin;  su- 
Iiervision  o!  the  purchase  and  distribution  of  all  med- 
ical and  hospital  supplies.  Every  military  post  has 
at  least  one  medical  officer  and  sometimes  two,  as 
the  nature  of  the  climate  or  the  strength  of  the  gar- 
rison demands;  all  of  whom  are  under  the  command 
of  the  Surgeon  Genera'.. 

The  Medical  Department  is,  at  present,  organized 
as  follows: — One  Surgeon  Genera!,  with  the  rank  of 
Brigadier  General;  one  Assistant  Surgeon  General, 
with  the  rank  of  Colonel;  one  Chief  Medical  Purvey- 
or, with  the  rank  of  Colonel;  four  Surgeons,  with  the 
rank  of  Colonel;  eight  Surgeons,  with  the  rank  of 
Lieutenant-colonel;  two  Assistant  5Iedical  Purvey- 
ors, with  the  rank  of  Lieutenant-colonel;  fifty  Sur- 
geons, with  the  rank  of  Major;  eighty-eight  Assis- 
tant Surgeons,  with  the  rank  of  Captain;  and  thirl}-- 
seven  Assistant  Surgeons,  with  the  rank  of  First 
Lieutenant.  There  are  also  in  the  Medical  Deiiart- 
ment,  four  Medical  Storekeepers,  and  one  hundred 
and  tifty  Hospital  Stewards.  Assistant  Surgeons 
have  the  rank,  pay,  and  emoluments  of  First  Lieu- 
tenant of  Cavalry  for  the  first  five  years'  service,  and 
the  rank,  pay,  and  emoluments  of  the  grade  of  Cap- 
tain after  fire  vears  'service. 

MEDICAL'  DIRECTOR.— In  tlie  United  States  ser- 
vice, an  officer  who  is  assigned  to  duty  at  the  Head- 
quarters of  a  Military  Geographical  Division  or 
Department,  and  who,  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Surgeon  General,  has  control  of  the  Medical  De- 
partment within  the  limits  of  the  command  in 
which  he  is  serving.  Medical  Directors  are  as- 
signed by  order  of  the  Secretary  of  A^'ar,  and  are 
required  to  make  such  special  reports  to  the  Sur- 
geon General  as  shall  at  all  times  keep  him  fully  in- 
formed as  ito  the  sanitary  condition  of  his  Depart- 
ment. 

MEDICAL  SCHOOL.— An  establishment  for  the  tech- 
nical education  of  medical  officers  forthe  British  and 
Indian  military  service.  Candidates  are  examined 
competitively  in  the  ordinary  subjects  of  professional 
knowledge;  and.  passing  satisfactorily  tbrougli  that 
ordeal,  are  then  required  to  attend,  for  six  months, 
at  the  Military  Medical  School,  where  they  go  through 
jiractical  courses  of  military  hygiene,  military  and 


MEDICAL  STAFF. 


308 


MEDICAL  SUPPLIES. 


clinical-military  surgery  and  medicine,  and  patholo- 
gy with  morbid  anatomy.  As  tlie  School  is  attached 
to  the  Koyal  Victoria  Hnspital,  which  is  the  great  in- 
valid depot  for  the  whole  army,  the  students  have 
ample  opportunity  of  seeing  theory  exemplified  in 
practice.  The  School  comprises  4  Professors  with 
£850  a  year  each,  4  Assistant  Professors  having  £450 
each,  and  usually  about  40  medical  candidates,  who 
receive  each  5  shillings  a  day  and  lodging-money. 
The  annual  cost  of  the  whole  establishment  is  about 
£7,fl00. 

MEDICAL  STAFF.— A  branch  of  the  British  Army, 
under  the  control  of  some  experienced  officer,  sta- 
tioned at  headquarters  and  denominated  Director 
General.  Immediately  under  his  command  are  a 
number  of  Inspectors  General,  Deputy  Inspectors 
General,  and  a  Corps  of  Staff  Surgeons.  The  locality 
of  all  the  ofticers  subordinate  to  the  Director  Gen- 
eral is  determined  by  the  force  to  which  they  may 
be  attached.  All  the  Keginient.al  Surgeons  and  As- 
sistant Surgeons  make  their  reports  to  and  consult 
the  Staff  Officer  who  is  placed  in  their  district.  The 
Director  General  is  paid  from  the  civil  department 
of  the  Government.  A  Deputy  Inspector  General 
of  Hospitals  must  have  served  five  years  at  home, 
or  three  years  abroad  in  this  rank,  before  he  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  hisrhest  rank  of  Inspector  General. 

MEDICAL  STOREKEEPEES.— Medical  Storekeepers 
are  charged,  tmderthe  direction  of  the  Surgeon  Gen- 
eral and  the  Chief  and  Assistant  Medical  Purveyors, 
with  the  storing  and  safe-keeping  of  Medical  supplies, 
and  with  the  duties  of  receiving,  issuing.and  account- 
ing for  the  same,  according  to  regulations.  If  a  Med- 
ical Storekeeper  be  assigned  to  the  same  depot  with 
an  Assistant  Medical  Purveyor,  he  prepares  all  re- 
quisitions under  his  direction  and  subject  to  his  ap- 
proval. Medical  supplies  transferred  to  Medical  Store- 
keepers by  the  Chief  or  Assistant  Medical  Purveyors 
are  receipted  for  as  invoiced,  without  breaking  pack- 
ages, provided  that  the  number  of  packages  corres- 
ponds with  the  invoice,  that  thej-  be  in  good  ship- 
ping condition,  and  that  there  be  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose the  contents  broken  or  defective.  Medical 
Storekeepers  cause  the  Medical  supplies  issued  or 
transferred  by  them  to  be  well  packed,  each  article 
designated  by  the  name  of  the  maker  or  vender,  and 
each  package  legibly  and  correctly  marked  with  the 
address  of  the  oflicer  for  whom  it  may  be  intended, 
and  with  its  weight  and  contents,  whether  medicines, 
hospital  stores,  instruments,  dressings,  books  and 
stationer}',  bedding,  clothing,  or  furniture  and  ap- 
pliances. There  are  four  Medical  Storekeepers  iu 
the  United  States  army,  with  the  rank,  pay  and 
emohuuenis  of  a  Captain  of  Cavalry. 

MEDICAL  SUPPLIES.— The  Medical  supplies  for  an 
army  are  prescribed  in  the  Standard  Supply  Tables 


furrished  by  the  Surgeons  General,  and  issues  are 
governed  by  it,  except  as  to  the  size  of  packages, 
which'may  be  regulated  by  circumstances  and  quan- 
tities re(juired.  \Vhen  any  requisition  is  not  accord- 
ing to  the  Supply  Table,  the  reason  therefore  is  ex- 
plained, as  in  the  prevalence  of  epidemics,  unhealthy 
location  of  troops,  or  other  cause  making  a  deviation 
desirable.  In  the  United  States  service.  Acting 
Assistant  Medical  Purveyors  at  field  depots,  and  the 
senior  Medical  Officer  of  every  hospital,  regiment, 
post,  or  detached  command,  forward  their  requisi- 
tions for  Medical  supplies  to  the  Medical  Director 
under  whom  they  may  be  serving.  The  Medical 
Director  approves  or  modifies  the  requisition  at  his 
discretion  and  transmits  them  to  the  nearest  purvey- 
ing depot  for  issue.  If  the  Assistant  Medical  Pur- 
veyor or  officer  in  charge  of  the  depot  deems 
necessary,  on  account  of  the  character  of  the  sup- 
plies, he  forwards  the  requisition  through  the  Chief 
Medical  Purveyor  to  the  Surgeon  General  for  instruc- 
tions. If  the  quantity  required  be  large,  and  there 
is  time,  the  Medical  Director  transmits  the  requisi- 
tions, with  his  recommendations  indorsed  thereon, 
to  the  Surgeon  General. 

Requisitions  to  replenish  Medical  supplies  are  madft 
in  detail,  in  duplicate,  and  transmitted  by  different 
mails,  on  the  30th  June  and  31st  December  They 
are  made  only  for  articles  that  are,  or  probably  will 
be,  deficient.  They  exhibit  the  quantit}-  of  every 
article  on  hand,  whether  more  be  wanted  or  not.  At. 
remote  posts,  requisitions  are  made  at  such  times 
and  for  such  periods  as  may  be  specially  authorized 
by  the  Surgeon  General.  Special  requisitions  are 
only  permissible  in  cases  of  emergency.  A  duplicate 
of  every  special  requisition,  giving  the  name  of  the 
officer  upon  whom  it  is  made,  is  immediately  for- 
warded to  the  Surgeon  General  for  his  inforniatirn. 
Requisitions  for  articles  not  on  the  Standard  Supply 
Table  is,  iu  all  cases,  forwarded  to  the  Surgeon 
General  for  his  action.  When  it  is  necessary  to  ob- 
tain Medical  supplies,  and  recourse  cannot  lie  had  to  a 
purvej-ing  depot.they  may  be  purchased  by  the  Medi- 
cal Officer, and  bills  in  duplicate  therefor  sent  through 
the  Medical  Director  to  the  Surgeon  General  for  ex- 
amination a,nd  payment.  The  purchasing  officer  shall 
prepare,  in  triplicate,  an  invoice  of  all  the  articles 
bought — one  copy  to  be  forwarded  to  the  Surgeon 
General,  with  the  bill  i  one,  as  a  voucher,  to  accom- 
pany his  next  property  return,  on  which  he  accounts 
for  the  articles  purchased;  and  one  to  be  filed  with 
his  retained  set  of  vouchers.  In  all  official  lists  of 
Medical  supplies  the  nomenclature,  order,  and  classi- 
fication of  the  Standard  Supply  Table  is  strictly 
followed.  The  whole  table  is  not  transcribed  in  all 
instances,  but  the  names  of  the  articles  mentioned 
follow  the  official  arrangement. 


I.— REGULAR  LIST 

MEDICINES. 

Acid,  acetic. 

Acid,  carbolic,  for  disinfection. 

Acid,  carbolic,  pure,  crystallized. 

Acid,  citric. 

Acid,  muriatic. 

Acid,  nitric. 

Acid,  sulpliuric. 

Acid,  suliiliuric,  aromatic. 

Acid,  tannic. 

Acid,  tartaric,  powdered. 

Alcohol. 

Aloes,  powdered. 

Alumina  and  potassa,  sulpliate  of. 

Ammonia,  aromatic  spirits  of. 

Ammonia,  carbonate  of. 

Ammonia,  muriate  of. 

Ammonia,  solution  of. 

Antimony  and  potassa,  tartrate  of. 

Arsenic,  pills  of. 

Arseuite  of  potassa,  solution  of. 


Belladonna,  alcoholic  extract  of. 

Bismuth,  subnitrate  of. 

Borax,  powdered. 

Camphor. 

Castor  oil. 

Cerate,  blistering. 

Cerate,  resin. 

Cerate,  simple. 

CluiJk,  prepared. 

Chlcral,  hydrate  of. 

Chlorofcjnn,  purified. 

CinclKHKi,  II 11  id  extract  of. 

Ciunaninii,  oil  of. 

("od  liver  oil. 

Colehicum  seed,  Muid  extract  of. 

Coloeynth.  eoni])ound  extract  of. 

Copper,  sulphate  of. 

Crotou   oil. 

Digitalis,  tincture  of. 

Lrgot,  lluid  extract  of. 

Ether,  compound  spirits  of. 

Ether,  stronger,  for  anaisthcsia. 


Ether,  spirits  of  nitrous. 

Flaxseed. 

Flaxseed  meal. 

Ginger,  fluid  extract  of. 

Glycerine,  pure. 

Gum  arable,  powdered. 

Hyoscyamus,  alcoholic  extract  of. 

Iodine. 

rpecacuanha,  powdered. 

Iron,  solution  of  the  sulphate  of. 

Iron,  sulpliate  of. 

Iron,  tincture  of  the  chloride  of. 

Iron  and  qiiinia,  citrate  of. 

.lalap,  powdered. 

Lavender,  compound  spirits  of. 

Lead,  acetate  of. 

Liquorice,  extract  of. 

Licpiorice  root,  powdered. 

Magnesia,  heavy  calcined. 

Magnesia,  sulpliate  of. 

Mercurial  ointmeut. 

Mercury,  corrosive  chloride  of. 


JIEDICAI,  SUPPLIES. 


309 


UEBICAL  SUPFLIEB. 


Mprrury  witli  chalk. 

C'antharides,  cerate  of  the  extract 

Flannel,  red,  all   wool. 

Mercury,  inilil  chloride  of. 

of. 

(;utta-])(rcha  cloth. 

Mercury,  ointiiRiit  of  the  nitrate 

(Jatecliu. 

liinl,    patint. 

of. 

Chamomile  flowers. 

Lint,  pickid. 

Mercury,  ])ill  of. 

Cinchona  bark,  powdered, 

.Muslin. 

Mercury,  rc<l  oxide  of. 

Cloves,  oil   of. 

Needles,  cotton,  Ihindjle    in  case. 

Morphiii,  sulphiite  of. 

Collodion. 

Needles,  assorted. 

Mustard  Hccd,  black,  ground. 

Copabia. 

Needles,  uphol.sterer'g. 

Ku.x  vomica,  alcoholic  extract  of. 

Creosote. 

Oakum. 

Olive  oil. 

Cubeb,  oleo-resin  of. 

Oile<l  muslin. 

Opium,  camphorated  tincture  of. 

(ientian,  fluid  extract  of. 

Oile<!  silk. 

Opium,  compouinl  powder  of. 

(Jum  araliic. 

Plaster  of  Paris. 

Opium,  <lciH|ori/,cil  tincture  of. 

(iuaiac,  resin  of. 

Pencils,  hair. 

Opium,  powdered. 

Indian  bcmj),  jiuritieil  extract  of. 

Pins. 

Opium,  tincture  of. 

Ijx'cacuaidia,  fluid  extract  of. 

Plaster,  adhesive. 

Peppiir,  Cayeime,  uTound. 

Iron,  dried  sulphate  of. 

Plaster,  isinglass. 

Pei)pernunt,  spirits  of. 

Iron,  by  by<lrogen. 

Silk,  gray. 

Pills,  cam|)hor  and  opium,  in  bot- 

Iron, hyijopliosphate  of. 

Silk,  ligature. 

tles. 

Iron,  syrup  of  tlic  iodide  of. 

Splints. 

Pills,  compound  cathartic,  in  bot- 

Iron, oxalate  of. 

Splints,  Smith's  anterior. 

tles. 

Iron  and  potassa,  tartrate  of. 

Splints,  material  for  making,  felt. 

Pills,  (ipinin,  in  bottles. 

Iron,  pyrophosphale  of. 

Sponge. 

Podophyllum,  resin  of. 

Mercury,  green  iodide  of. 

Tapi-,  cotton. 

Potassa,  caustic. 

Mercury,  yellow  .subsulphate  of. 

Thread,  linen. 

Potassa,  acetate  of. 

Mor|)hia,  acetate  of. 

Thread,  cotton,  spools. 

Potassa,  biearl)onate  of. 

Myrrh. 

Tow. 

Potassa,  bitartrate  of. 

Origanum,  oil  of. 

Towels. 

Potassa,  chlorate  of. 

Potassium,  cyanide  of . 

Towels,  roller. 

Potassa,  nitrate  of. 

Sarsaparilla,  fluid  extract  of. 

Twine. 

Potassa,  permanffanate  of. 

Senna,  confection  of. 

Potassium,  bronude  of. 

Sinapism  paper. 

IV.- ARTICLES     NOT     EX- 

Potassium, iodide  of. 

Soda,  phosphate  of,  exsiccated. 

PENDABLE. 

Qiiiuia,  s\di)hate  of. 
Khuharb,  ])o\vdered. 

Soda,  suljjhite  of,  exsiccated. 
Sulphur,  in  roll. 

IN8TBUMENTS. 

Roclielle  salt. 

Tar,  wood. 

Atomizers,  steam. 

iSantonin. 

Taraxacum,  fluid  extract  of. 

('upi)ing  glasses. 

Seneka,  lluid  extract  of. 

Tolu,  balsam  of. 

Cupiiing  tins. 

Silver,  nitrate  of,  in  crystals. 

Valerian,  fluid  extract  of. 

Kleetric  apparatus. 

Silver,  nitrate  of,  fused. 

Veratruin  viriile,  fluid  extract  of . 

Field  case. 

Soap,  eastile. 

Veratrum  viride,  tincture  of. 

Irrigators. 

Soap,  common. 

Wax,  yellow. 

Lancet,  thumb. 

Soda,  bicarbonate  of. 

Wild-t'herry  bark,  fluid  extract  of. 

Leech,  artiflcial. 

Soda,  chlorinated  solution  of. 

HOSPITAL    STORES. 

Obstetrical  case. 

Sqidll,  powdered. 

Arrow-root. 

Pocket   case. 

Squill,  syrup  of. 

BarU-y. 

Post-mortem  case. 

Strychnia. 

Beef,  extractor,  Liebigs. 

Scarificators, 

Sulphur,  washed. 

Brandy. 

Scissors. 

Turpentine,  oil  of. 

Candles. 

Speculum  for  the  rectum. 

Vaccine  virus. 

Candles.  wa.\. 

Speculum  for  the  vagina. 

Wax,  white. 

Cinnamon, 

Spongeholders. 

Zinc,  acetate  of. 

Cocoa  or  chocolate. 

Spray  apparatus. 

Zinc,  oxide  of. 

Corn  starch. 

Stethoscope. 

Zinc,  solution  of  chloride  of. 

Farina. 

Stomach-pump  and  tube,  in  case. 

Zinc,  sulphate  of. 

Gelatin,  shred. 

Syr'nges,  bard  rubber,  8-ounce. 

Ginger. 

Syringes,  hypodermic. 

II.-SUPPLEMENT.\UY    LIST. 

Milk,  concentrated. 

Syringes,  rubber,  self-injecting. 

MEDICINES. 

Nutmegs. 

Syringes,    rubber,    self-injecting. 

Acid,  arsenious. 

PepperT  black. 

with  colpeurynter  in  each  case. 

Acid,  benzoic. 

Sugar,  white. 

Syringes,  universal,  hard  rubber. 

Acid,  chronuc. 

Tapioca. 

Syringes,  vagina,  glass. 

Acid,  gallic. 

Tea,  black. 

Syringes,  vagina,  hard  rubber. 

Acid  phosphoric,  diluted. 

Whiskey. 

T'ooth-extracling  case.  Army  pat- 

Acid, hydrocyanic,  diluted. 

Wine. 

tern. 

Aconite  root,  fluid  extract  of. 

Thermometer,  clinicaL 

Aconite  root,  tincture  of. 

III.-AKTICLES  EXPENDA- 

Tonirue depressors. 

Ammonia,  phosphate  of 

BLE. 

Tourniquets,  field. 

Anise,  oil  of. 

INSTRUMENTS. 

Tourniquets,  screw,  with  pad. 

Arnica,  fluid  extract  of 

Nipple  shields. 

Urinometers. 

Arsenic  and  mercury,  solution  of 

Probangs. 

Amputating  case. 

iodide  of. 

Syringes,  glass. 

Trephining  case. 

Assafetida. 

Syringes,  rubber. 

General  operating  case. 

Atropia,  sulphate  of. 

Trusses,  single. 

Exsecling  case. 

Bismuth,  subcarbonate  of. 

Trusses,  double. 

Capital  operation  case. 

Bismuth,  tannate  of. 

DBESSmOS. 

Jlinor  operation  case. 

Blistering,  liquid. 

Bandages. 

Trunks,  leather. 

Bromine. 

Bandages,  suspensory. 

Barometer,  aneroid. 

Buchu,  fluid  extract  of. 

Binder's  boards,  small. 

Barometer,  mercurial. 

Cacao,  butter  of. 

Binder's  boards,  large. 

Hygrometer. 

Calabar  bean,  extract  of. 

Cotton  bats. 

Rain-gauge.                              ■ 

Cantharides,  tincture  of. 

Cotton  wadding. 

Rain-gauge  glasses. 

ICESICINE  CHEST. 


310 


MELDER  SYSTEM  OF  FOETIFICATIOK 


Thermometer,  maximum. 
Thermometer,  minimum. 
Thermometer,  standard. , 


Anatomy,  Grays. 
Bumstead  on  Venereal. 
Chemistry,  Fowne's. 
Children, Diseases  of,Meigs  Treat- 
ise. 
Children,  Diseases  of,  Vogel. 
Craig  on  the  Decimal  System. 
Diagnosis,  Da  Costa's. 
Dictionary,  English,  Worcester's. 
Dictionary  Medical,  Dimglison's. 
Diseases  of  Women,  Thomas.    ^_, 
Dispensatory. 
Ear,  Troltsch  on. 
Eye,  Stellwag  on. 
Histology,  Strieker's. 
Hygiene,  Parke's. 
Jurisprudence,  Taylor's. 
Jurisprudence,  Stille'  &  Wharton's. 
Meteorology,  Loomis'. 


Midwifery,  Hodges. 
Midwifery,  Cazeau.x'. 
Ophthalmoscope,  Zander. 
Pathology,  Surgical,  Billroth's, 
Physics,  Ganot's. 
Physiology,  Flint's. 
Practice  of  Medicine,  Flint's. 
Practice  of  Medicine,  Wood's. 
Practice  of  Medicine,  Reynolds'. 
Practice  of  Medicine,  Aitken's. 
Practice  of  Medicine,  Niemeyer's. 
Recruits,  Examination    of,  'Trip- 

ler's. 
Skin,  Diseases  of,  Tilbury  Fox's. 
Surgery,  Erichsen's. 
Surgery,  Gross'. 
Surgery,  Holmes". 
Surgery,  Guthrie's  Commentaries. 
Therapeutics,  Stillc's. 
Therapeutics,  Waring's. 
Therapeutics,  Mechanical, Wales'. 
Woodward  on  "  Camp  Diseases." 
Woodward's   Hospital   Steward's 

Manual. 
Case,Diet  and  Prescription  Book. 


Morning  Report  Book. 
Order  and  Letter  Book. 
Record  of  Deaths. 
Register,  Meterological. 
Register  of  Patients. 
Register,  Surgical  Operations. 


Bed  sacks. 
Beds,  water. 
Blankets. 
Blanket  cases. 
Counterpanes. 
Cushions,  rubber,  small. 
Cushions,  rubber,  with  open  cen- 
ter. 
Gutta-percha  bed  covers. 
Mattresses,  hair. 
Mosquito  bars. 
Pillows,  hair. 
Pillows,  feathers. 
Pillow  cases,  white. 
Pillow  ticks. 
Sheets. 


The  above  Table  is  ample  and  sufficiently  varied  for  ordinary  practice,  but  in  order  to  provide  for  the 
necessities  of  unusual  emergencies,  and  to  indulge,  as  far  as  practicable,  individual  preference  and  treat- 
ment, special  requisitions  for  numerous  miscellaneous  articles,  not  on  the  Table. may  be  made  to  the 
Surgeon  General  at  any  time.  ^^^__^^ 


UEDICINE  CHEST.— A  pannier  filled  with  a  varie- 
ty of  medicines  necessary  for  a  campaign,  together 
with   such   chirurgical  instruments   as   are   useful. 
These  chests  are  usually  provided  by  the  Govern- 
ment, and  are  fitted  up  with  a  view  to  being  trans- 
ported on  pack  animals.     Before  taking  the  field  for 
a  long  or  indefinite  period.  Commanding  Officers,  or 
Surgeons-in-Charge,  should  provide  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  Medicine  Cheats,  each  supplied  with  the  follow- 
ing articles  :  A  case  of  pocket  surgical  instruments, 
consisting   of,  at  least,  a  lancet,  sclilpel,  small  knife, 
forceps,  and  scissors;  a  few  rolls  of  sticking  and  ad- 
hesive plaster;  some  silk,  needles  and  waxed  thread; 
an  assortment  of  bandages,    splints,    sponges   and 
some  red  flannel ;  some  lint,  oil-silk  and  tow ;  a  flask 
of  wine  or  brandy ;  a  hypodermic  injection  syringe ; 
a  tourniquet  and  small   cup ;    blue  mass,  quinine , 
opium  and  cathartic,  put  up  in  usual  doses ;  a  little 
chloroform,   laudanum,    hartshorn,  camphor,   solu- 
tion of  morphia,  iodine,  tincture  of  chloride  of  iron, 
chloride  of  hme,  tincture  of  m3Trh  and  aloes,  tinct- 
ure of  arnica  (excellent  for  strains  and  contusions), 
spirits  of  nitre,  ammonia  and  turpentine  ;  sulphates 
of  iron,  zinc  and  copper ;  pulverized  indigo,  carron 
oil,  saltpeter,  tartar  emetic,  nitrate  of  potash,  pre- 
pared chalk,  tincture  of  opium  and  catechu,  cantha- 
rides  (in  powder),  sugar  of  lead,  acetic  acid,  and 
powdered  mustard ;  emetics  and  aperients  (mild  and 
powerful);  nitrate  of  silver,  in  a  holder ;  cold  cream 
or  glycerine  (cooling  for  irritated  surfaces) ;  a  cor- 
dial for  diarrhoea,  a  sudorific  (Dover's  powders  ex- 
cellent), and  some  simple  cerate  or  a  mixture  of  wax 
and  lard ;  some  alum,  Jamaica  ginger,  castor  oil, 
linseed  oil  and  meal,  flaxseed,  and  an  assortment  of 
cathartic,  diuretic,  sedative,  febrifuge  and  alterative 
"l)alls";  also  some  astringent  ointment  (one  part  ace- 
tate of  lead  and  three  parts  of  lard),  hoof  ointment 
(equal  parts  of  tar  and  lard),  and  a  strong  liniment. 
See    Field  Jiemedien,  Medical   /Supplies   and  Military 
Surgery. 

MEDJIDIE.— A  Turkish  Order,  instituted  in  18r)2, 
and  conferred  after  tiicCrinican  Campaign,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  on  Britisli  officers.  It  has  five 
classes;  and  tlie  decoration,  which  dilTcrs  in  size  for 
the  dilTerent  classes,  is  a  silver  sun  of  seven  triple 
rays,  with  the  device  of  the  crescent  and  star  alter- 
nating with  the  rays.  On  a  circle  of  red  enamel,  in 
the  center  of  the  decoration,  is  the  Icgeiul  in  Turkish, 
whose  signification  is  "Zeal,  llonur,  aiiil  Loyally," 
and  the   date  1208,  the  Mohammedau  year  corre- 


sponding to  1852;  the  Sultan's  name  is  inscribed  on 
a  gold  field  within  this  circle.  The  first  three  classes 
suspend  the  badge  around  the  neck  from  a  red  rib- 
bon having  green  borders,  and  the  fourth  and  fifth 
classes  wear  it  attached  to  a  similar  ribbon  on  the 
left  breast.  A  star,  in  design  closely  resembling  the 
badge,  is  worn  on  the  left  breast  by  the  first  class, 
and  on  the  right  breast  by  the  second  class. 

MEDIUM  CAVALRY.— An  appellation  given  to 
some  of  the  regiments  of  the  British  army  which  are 
neither /(fai'^  nor  light.  There  are  11  regiments  of 
medium  cavalry,  5  of  which  are  Lancers  (5th,  9th, 
12th,  16th,  and  17th),  five  Dragoon  Guards  (1st,  2d, 
3d,  6th,  7th),  and  one  (6th)  Dragoons.  The  latter  6 
regiments  wear  brass  helmets.  The  average  weight 
carried  bv  the  horses  of  the  medium  cavalry  is  about 
18  stone  10  lbs. 

MEER  BDKSHY.— A  Chief  Paymaster  in  the  East 
Indies. 

MEER  TOZUK.— In  the  East  Indies,  a  Marshal 
whose  business  is  to  preserve  order  in  a  procession 
or  line  of  march,  and  to  report  absentees. 

MEGGHETERIARQUE.— The  Commanding  Officer 
of  a  body  of  men  called  Meteriennes,  who  formerly 
did  duty  at  Constantinople.  They  were  composed  of 
soldiers  who  were  enlisted  in  the  Allied  Nations. 

MEGRIMS, — Megrims  and  vertigo  are  the  terms 
usually  applied  when  a  horse  at  work  reels,  and  then 
either  stands  for  a  minute  dull  and  stupid,  or  falls  to 
the  ground,  lying  for  a  time  partially  insensible. 
These  attacks  come  on  suddenly,  are  often  periodi- 
cal, are  most  frequent  during  hot  weather,  and  when 
the  animal  is  drawing  up  a  hill,  or  exposeil  iluring 
heavy  work  to  the  full  raj's  of  a  hot  sun.  Liability 
to  megrims  constitutes  unsoundness,  and  usually  de- 
pends upon  the  circulation  through  the  brain  being 
•temporarily  disturbed  by  the  presence  of  tumors. 
Horses  subject  to  megrims  are  alwaj-s  dangerous;  if 
driven  at  all,  they  should  be  used  with  a  lirciistplate 
or  pipe-collar,  so  as  to  prevent,  as  much  as  possible, 
pressure  on  the  veins  carrying  the  blood  from  the 
head.  Uiey  should  lie  moderately  and  carefully  fed, 
and  during  hot  weather  liave  an  occasional  la.xative. 
MEIGS  GDN. — An  early  |magazine-gun  carrying  a 
great  mimber  of  cartridges.  Some  patterns  carried 
as  many  as  forty  or  fifty  rounds.  This  system, like 
many  of  its  contemporaries, did  not  meet  with  any 
considerable  success.     See  M'lqiuine-qnn. 

MELDER  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIJFICATiON.— This  sys- 
tem very  much  resembles  that  of  Freytag,  but  there 


]££L££. 


311 


UENAGE. 


in  an  iiliHciK-o  of  ravelins  on  tiio.  salirntB  of  bastions. 
MELEE.  A  Miililary  t<-riii  wliicli  in  uMcd  anioiif; 
llic  KrciK-li  to  c.vprrssllic  hurry  anil  coiifiiHion  of  a 
battle.  Mi'lc'c  corrcspdiids  with  the  Knglish  expres- 
sion    "  Tliicli  of  tlic  tit;lit." 

MEMBEKED.— A  term  in  llcralilry;  vvliin  a  l)ir(l 
lias  its  lc,i;s  of  a  ditTcri-nt  color  from  its  liody,  it  ia 
saiil  li>  he  iiicinlpcri'd  of  that  color. 

MEMBERS.  Officers  are  so  called  who  are  detailed 
bv  orders  to  sit  on  (ieiieral  or  ( Jarrison  Coiirts-.VIar- 
tial.  In  case  su]ierniituerary  niendiers  are  detailed 
for  a  court-martial, lliey  are  sworn, and  it  is  rii;hl  that 
they  should  sit  and  be  present  at  all  deliherati<ins 
even  when  the  court  is  i;)eared,'.in  order  to  be  [in-par- 
ed to  take  the  place  of  any  absent  member.  Until 
thentheyhave  no  voice. 

MEMOIR. -The  title  ijiven  by  military  officers  to 
those  pl.ins  which  they  olTer  1o  their  urovcruMient  or 
eonunanders  on  subjects  relalint;  to  war  or  .Military 
economy.  Metniiim  is  a  species  of  history,  written 
by  persons  who  had  some  share  in  the  transactions 
tliey  relate,  answerint;  in  some  measun;  to  wliat  the 
Komans  call  (!ommentarii.  (.'lesar's  Commentaries 
are  the  Memoirs  of  his  ('amiiai<;ns. 

MEMORIAL. — Au  address  in  the  form  of  a  petition 
to  a  iSoverei.<;n  or  other  authority,  able  to  redress  the 
grievance  of  the  memorialist.  Aleinorials  or  peti- 
tions of  the  nature  above  adverted  to  may  he  ad- 
dressed by  officers  to  government;  they  must  be 
•written,   not  printed,  and  signed  Dy  the  writer. 

MENACE.— A  hostile  threat.  A  Court-Martial 
may  punish,  at  discretion,  any  person  who  uses  any 
nienaciui;  words,  siiins  or  gestures  in  its  presence, 
or  who  disturbs  its  proceedings  by  any  riot  or  dis- 
order. 

MENAGE.— All  military  men  should  have  a  tlior-  I 
ough   knowledge  of  the   structure   and   ])ower.s  of 
endurance  of  horses;   slioidd   be  familiar   with  the 
rules  for  their  management  under  all  circumstances;  j 
should  understand  in  detail  the  method  of  shoeing  ' 
them,  and  be  able  to  treat  all  ordinary  cases  of  in- 
iury  or  disease.     In  the  field,  or  on  tiie  march,  an 
Ignorant  or  careless  commander  will  always  have 
many  broken  down  and  unserviceable  animals,  while 
the   animals   of   other   commands,   performing    the 
same  duties,  but  judiciously  handled,  remain  in  good 
condition. 

To  make  the  horse  tractable  and  stea^Jy  in  jn/nmt- 
ing.  -  Go  up  to  the  horse,  and  pat  him  on  the  neck, 
and  speak  to  him  ;  then  take  the  reins  from  the 
horse's  neck,  and  bold  them  at  a  few  inches  from  the  ' 
rings  of  the  bit  with  the  left  hand;  take  such  posi- 
tion as  to  offer  as  much  resistance  as  possible  to  the 
horse,  should  he  attempt  to  break  away;  hold  the 
whip  in  the  right  hand,  with  the  point  down;  raise 
the  whip  quietly  and  tap  the  horse  on  the  breast;  the 
horse  natural/y  tries  to  move  back  to  avoid  the  whip, 
follow  the  horse,  pulling  at  the  .same  time  against 
him,  and  continuing  the  use  of  the  whip;  be  c;ireful 
to  show  no  sign  of  anger  nor  any  sym|)toin  of  yield- 
ing. The  horse,  tired  of  trying  ineifcctuiilly  to  avoid 
the  whip,  soon  ceases  to  pull,  and  moves  forward; 
then  drop  the  point  of  the  whip  and  make  much  of 
him.  This  repeated  once  or  twice,  usually  proves 
sufficient;  the  horse  having  found  how  to  avoid  the 
punislnnent,  no  longer  waits  for  flu-  application  of 
the  whip,  but  anticipates  it,  by  moving  up  at  the 
sliglitest  gesture;  this  is  of  great  assist;uic-<'  in  tlie 
beudiug-lessons,  as  also  in  mounting  and  dismount- 
ing, and  accelerates  the  training  of  the  horse. 

To  bend  the  horse's  neckand  to  rein  in.dixnyiunted. — 
The  balance  of  the  horse's  body,  and  his  lightness 
in  hand,  depend  on  the  proper  carriage  of  his  heatl 
and  neck.  A  young  horse  usually  tries  to  resist  the 
bit,  either  by  bending  his  neck  to  one  side,  bj"  set- 
ting his  jaw  against  the  bit,  or  by  carrying  bis  nose 
too  high  or  too  low.  The  bending-lessons  serve  to 
make  a  horse  manageable  by  teaching  him  to  con- 
form to  the  movements  of  the  reins  and  to  yield  to 
the  pressure  of  the  bit.    During  the  lessons  the  horse 


must  never  be  hurried.  To  liend  the  nrrk  to  the  right 
for  inslaiice,  lake  a  posiliun  on  the  near  side  of  the 
horse,  in  front  of  his  slioulderand  facing  toward  his 
neck  ;  take  the  off  rein  close  up  to  the  bit  with  tho 
right  hand,  the  near  rein  in  the  same  way  with  the 
left  band,  the  thumbs  toward  each  other,  the  little 
lingers  outward,  bring  the  right  hand  toward  the 
body,  and  at  tiie  same  time  extend  the  left  arm  bo  as 
to  turn  the  horse's  head  to  the  right.  The  force  cm- 
|)loyed  must  be  gradual,  and  jiroixirtioned  to  the  re- 
sistance met  Willi,  ami  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
bring  the  horse's  nose  too  close  to  bis  chest.  If  the 
horse  back,  continue  the  pressure  until,  finding  it 
impossible  to  avoid  the  restraint  inijiosed  by  the  bit, 
he  stands  still  and  yiehls  to  it.  \V  li<-n  the  bend  is 
complete,  the  horse  holds  his  head  there  without  any 
restraint,  and  chiimps  the  bit  ;  then  make  much  of 
him,  and  let  him  resume  his  naluriil  jiosilion  by  de- 
grees, without  throwing  his  head  round  hurriedly. 
A  horse,  as  a  rule,  chani|)s  the  bit  when  he  ceases  to 
resist.  The  horse's  neck  is  bent  to  the  lift  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner,  the  man  standing  on  the  off  side.  To 
rein  in,  cross  the  reins  liehind  the  horse's  jaw,  tak- 
ing the  near  rein  in  the  right  hand,  and  the  off  rein 
in  the  left,  at  about  si.x  inches  from  the  rings  ;  draw 
them  across  each  other  till  the  horse  gives  way  to 
the  pressure  and  iirings  his  nose  in.  Prevent  the 
horse  from  raising  his  head  by  lowering  the  hands. 
When  the  horse  gives  way  to  the  cross-pressure  of 
the  reins,  ease  the  hand,  and  make  much  of  him. 

To  bend  the  horse's  neck  and  to  rein  in,  mounted. — 
The  horse  should  be  equipped  with  the  curb-bridle. 
To  bend  the  neck  to  the  right,  for  instance,  adjust  the 
reins  in  the  left  hand;  seize  the  right  rein  with  the 
right  hand  well  down;  draw  it  quietly  toward  you 
vmtil  the  horse's  head  is  brought  completely  around 
to  the  right,  in  the  same  jiosition  as  in  the  bend  dis- 
mounted. When  the  horse  champs  the  bit,  make 
much  of  him,  and  allow  him  to  resume  his  natural 
position.  I'o  rein  in.  lower  the  bridle-hand  as  much 
as  possible,  turning  the  back  uppermost;  with  the 
right  hand,  nails  down,  take  hold  of  the  curb-reins 
above  and  close  to  the  left  hand  and  shorten  them 
by  degrees,  drawing  them  through  the  left  hand, 
which  closes  on  the'reins  each  time  they  are  shor- 
tened. When  the  horse  resists  much,  and  holds  his 
nose  up,  keep  the  reins  steady;  do  not  shorten  or 
lengthen  them;  close  the  legs  to  prevent  the  horse 
from  backing;  after  remaining  perhaps  a  minute  or 
more  with  his  nose  up,  and  his  jaw  set  against  the 
bit,  he  will  yeld,  bring  his  nose  in,  and  champ  the 
bit;  make  much  of  him,  loosen  the  reins,  and,  after 
a  few  seconds,  rein  in  again.  This  exercise  gives  the 
horse  confidence,  and  teaches  him  to  arch  his  neck, 
and  bring  his  head  in  proper  position  whenever  he 
feels  the  bit.  Most  young  horses  are  afraid  of  the 
bit,  and  they  must  never  be  frightened  by  sudden 
jerks  on  the  reins,  lest  they  should  afterward  refuse 
to  stand  the  requisite  pressure  of  the  bit.  A  certain 
amount  of  bearing  is  necessary  to  induce  the  horse 
to  work  boldly  and  well,  as  well  as  to  apprise  the 
rider  of  what  the  horse  is  going  to  do.  In  reining  in, 
some  horses  rest  the  lower  jaw  against  the  breast;  to 
counteract  this  press  both  legs  equally  and  force  the 
horse  forward  to  the  bit.  Some  liorses  will  not  work 
up  to  the  hand,  that  is,  will  not  bear  on  the  bit  at 
all.  Such  horses  are  unfit  for  the  service. 

To  teach  the  horse  to  oliei/  the  pressure  of  the  leg.— If 
it  is  desired  to  turn  to  the  right  on  the  fore-feet,  for 
instance,  applv  the  right  leg  well  behind  the  girth, 
very  quietly,  anil  without  t'oucliing  the  horse's  side 
with  the  spur;  press  airainst  him  till  he  makes  a 
step  to  the  left  with  his  hind-legs;  then  cease  the 
pressure  of  the  leg  and  make  much  of  him;  then  re- 
peat the  same  until  the  horse  takes  another  step,  and 
so  on  until  he  has  turned  about,  always  pausing 
when  he  takes  a  step  in  turning.  The  horse  should 
not  be  reined  back ;  his  fore-legs  remain  in  place, 
and  his  hind-quarters  move  around  in  a  circle. 
Both  legs  are  kept  close  to  the  horse,  the  pressure  of 


UEN'S  HAKN£SS. 


312 


MEECUEY. 


either  leg  being  increased  as  the  occasion  requires. 
Turning  tn  tlie  left  on  the  fore-feet  is  executed  in  a 
similar  manner. 

To  break  the  horse  of  had  habits. — Should  the  horse 
rear,  the  rider  must  j-ield  the  hand  when  the  horse 
is  up,  and  urge  liim  vigorously  forward  when  he  is 
coming  down ;  if  the  iiorse  be  punished  while  up, 
he  may  spring  and  fall  backward.  Kicking  can  be 
prevented  by  liohling  the  horse's  head  well  up,  and 
closing  the  legs;  if  necessary,  they  are  closed  so 
much  as  to  force  the  horse  forward.  Shying  some- 
times results  from  defect  of  sight,  and  sometimes 
from  fear.  If  from  fear,  the  horse  must  be  taken  up 
to  the  object  with  great  patience  and  gentleness, 
and  be  allowed  to  touch  the  object  with  his  nose. 
In  no  case  shmild  a  horse  be  punishrd  for  t'midity. 
The  dread  of  chastisement  will  increase  his  restive- 
ness. 

To  acpu-stotn  horses  to  firing.  Station  a  few  men  at 
a  little  distance  from. ami  on  both  sides  of  .the  stable- 
door,  and  cause  them  to  fire  pistols  as  the  horses  are 
led  into  the  stable  to  be  fed  ;  for  the  same  object,  a 
gun  mav  be  fired  during  the  hour  of  feeding. 

To  teach  horses  to  jump — Horses  should  be  first  taught 
to  leap  the  ditch  and  then  the  bar.  They  are  equipped 
with  the  watering-bridle,  and  follow  a  steadv  horse 
who  is  accustomed  to  jumping.  The  horses  are  taken 
in  the  open  field  and  practiced  at  jumping  shallow 
ditches,  fallen  logs,  very  low  fences,  etc.  Great  dis- 
cretion must  be  used  in  applying  the  whip,  and  the 
horses  will  not  be  required  to  leap  repeatedly  over 
the  same  thing  or  at  the  same  place.  See  Iiorse  and 
Horsemanship. 

MEN'S  HARNESS.— An  arrangement  by  which  men 
are  attached  to  a  gun-carriage  which  is  to  be  moved 
but  a  short  distance,  or  where  animid  power  cannot 
be  employed.  It  consists  of  a  rope  18  feet  long  and 
4  inches  in  circumference,  having  a  thimble  at  one 
end  and  a  thimble  and  hook  at  the  other.  Ten  leather 
loops  are  fixed  in  pairs  to  the  rope,  .5  on  each  side. 
These  are  of  sufficient  size  to  allow  a  man  to  pass 
Ills  body  through  them,  the  strain  of  the  draft  com- 
ing on  the  chest. 

MENSUEATION.— That  braach  of  the  application 
of  arithmetic  to  geometry  which  teaches,  from  tlie 
actual  measurement  of  certain  lines  of  a  figure,  how 
to  find,  by  calculation,  the  length  of  otherlines,  the 
area  of  surfaces,  and  the  volume  of  solids.  The  de- 
termination of  lines  is,  however,  generally  treated  of 
under  trigonometrv,  and  surfaces  and  solids  are  now 
understood  to  form  the  sole  subjects  of  mensuration. 
As  the  length  of  a  line  is  expressed  by  comparing  it 
with  some  well-known  unit  of  length,  such  as  a  j'ard, 
a  foot,  an  inch,  and  saying  how  manj^  such  units  it 
contains,  so  the  extent  of  a  surface  is  expressed  by 
saying  how  often  it  contains  a  corresponding  super- 
ficial unit,  that  is,  a  square  whose  side  is  a  yard,  a 
foot,  an  inch;  and  the  contents  of  solid  bodies  are 
similarly  expressed  in  cubes  or  rectangular  solids 
having  their  length,  breadth  and  deptii  a  yard,  a 
foot,  an  inch.  To  find  the  length  of  a  line  (except 
in  cases  where  the  length  maj'  be  calculated  from 
other  known  lines,  as  in  trigonometry)  we  have  to 
apply  the  unit  (in  the  shape  of  a  foot-rule,  a  yard 
measure,  a  chain),  and  discover  by  actual  trial  "how 
man)-  imits  it  contains.  But  in  measuring  a  surface 
or  a  solid  we  do  not  require  to  apply  an  actual  square 
lioard,  or  a  cubic  block,  or  even  to  divide  it  into  such 
squares  or  blocks;  we  have  only  to  measure  certain 
of  its  boundarj'-lines  or  dimensions;  and  from  them 
we  can  cak-idate  or  infer  the  contents.  To  illustrate 
how  this  is  done,  suppose  that  it  is  required  to  de- 
termine the  area  of  a  rectangular  figure  AIK'I),  of 
which  the  side  AH  is  7  inches,  and  the  side  AC  3 
inches.  If  .W  be  divided  at  the  ])oints  F  and  K  into 
',i  jiortions,  <'ach  1  inch  long,  and  parallels  l)e  drawn 
from  F  and  K  to  AB  or  CI);  and  if  ,\I{  be  simil;irly 
divided  into  7  parts,  of  1  in<-li  ea<h,  and  jiiindlels  be 
drawn  to  AC  or  151)  through  the  points  of  section, 
then  the  figure  will  be  divided  into  a  number  of 


equ"l  squares  or  rectangular  figures,  whose  length 
and  breadth  are  each  1  inch;  and  as  there  are  3  rows 
of  squares,  and  7  squares  in  each  row,  there  must  be 
in  all  7x3,  or  21  squares.  In  general  terms,  if  a  and 
li  be  the  lengths  of  two  adjacent  sides,  there  are  a 
rows  of  little  squares,  and  h  squares  in  each  row. 
Hence  the  area  of  a  rectangle  =  tlie  product  of  two 
adjacent  s'des. 

The  areas  of  other  figures  are  foimd  from  this,  by 
the  aid  of  certain  relations  or  properties  of  those 
figures  demonstrated  b}'  pure  geometry;  for  instance, 
the  area  of  a  parallelogram  is  the  same  as  the  area 
of  a  rectangle  liaving  the  same  base  and  altitude, 
and  is  therefore  equal  to  the  base  multiplied  by  the 
height.  As  a  triangle  is  half  of  a  parallelogram,  the 
rule  for  its  area  can  be  at  once  deduced.  Irregular 
quadrilaterals  and  polygons  are  measured  by  dividing 
them  into  triangles,  tlie  area  of  each  of  which  is 
separately  calculated.  By  reasoning  similar  to  what 
has  been  employed  in  the  case  of  areas,  it  is  shown 
that  the  volume  of  a  rectangular  parallelopiped  or 
prism  is  found  in  cubic  inches  by  multiplying 
together  the  length,  breadth,  and  depth  in  inches; 
an<l  the  ol)Uque  paralellopiped,  prism,  or  cylinder, 
bv  multiplvins;  the  area  of  the  base  bv  the  height. 

"MENTONIERE.— The  bearer   of  a"  helmet,   some- 
times c;illed  liariere.     Also  written  ilentonniere. 

MERCENARIES.— Soldieis  strving  for  pay  in  any 
foreiirn  service. 

MERCURY.— One  of  the  so-called  noble  metals,  re- 
markable as  being  the  only  metal  that  is  fluid  at  or- 
dinary temperatures.  It  is  of  a  silvery  white  color, 
with  a  striking  metallic  luster.  When  pure,  it  runs 
in  small  spherical  drops  over  smooth  surfaces  ;  but 
when  not  perfectly  pure,  the  drops  assume  an  elon- 
gated oxtail'd  form,  and  often  leave  a  gray  stain  on 
the  surface  of  glass  or  porcelain.  Moreover,  the  pure 
metal,  when  shaken  with  air,  presents  no  change 
upon  its  surface;  while,  if  impure,  it  becomes  cov- 
ered with  a  gray  film.  It  is  slightly  volatile  at  or- 
dinary temperatures,  and  at  662°  it  boils,  and  forms 
a  colorless  vapor  of  specific  gravity  6.976.  Hence  it 
is  capable  of  being  distilled;  and  the  fact  of  its  being 
somewhat  volatile  at  ordinary  temperatures,  helps  to 
explain  its  pernicious  effects  upon  those  whose  trades 
require  them  to  come  much  in  contact  with  it— as, 
for  example,  the  makers  of  barometers,  looking- 
glasses,  etc.  At  a  temperature  of  — 39°,  it  freezes, 
when  it  contracts  considerably,  and  becomes  mallea- 
ble. In  consequence  of  the  uniform  rate  at  which  it 
expands  when  heated,  from  considerably  below  0* 
to  above  300'' ,  it  is  employed  in  the  construction  of 
the  mercurial  thermometer.  All  mercurial  com- 
pounds are  either  volatilized  or  decomposed  by  heat; 
and  when  heated  with  carbonate  of  soda,  they  yield 
metallic  mercury.  Native  or  virgin  quicksilver  only 
occurs  in  small  quantity,  usuallj-  in  cavities  of  mer- 
curial ores.  Of  these  ores,  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant is  cinnabar.  There  are  two  means  of  obtain- 
ing the  metal  from  the  cinnabar :  the  ore  may  be 
burned  in  a  furnace,  in  whicli  case  the  sulphur  is 
given  off  a;  sulphurous  acid,  and  the  mercury  is  col- 
lected in  a  condensing  chamber  ;  or  the  ore  may  be 
distilled  with  some  substance  capable  of  com- 
bining with  the  sulphur — as,  for  example,  with 
slaked  lime  or  iron  filings.  The  mercury  im- 
ported into  this  country  is  usually  almost  chemically 
pure.  If  the  presence  of  other  metals  is  suspected, 
it  may  be  pres.sed  through  leather,  re-distilled,  and 
then  digested  for  a  few  days  in  dilute  cold  nitric  acid, 
which  exerts  little  action  on  the  mercury,  if  more 
oxidiziiblc  metals  are  present.  The  mercurj-,  after 
being  freed  from  the  nitric  acid  by  washing  with 
water,  is  cliemicivlly  pure. 

There  are  two  oxides  of  mercury,  the  black  sub- 
oxide (Hg„0)  and  the  red  oxide  (IlgO).  Both  of 
these  lose  all  their  oxygen  when  lic;itcd,  and  form 
salts  with  acids.  Tlie  Hack  sii/inride,  allhougli  a  pow- 
<rfiil  base,  is  very  unstalile  when  isolated,  being 
readily  converted  by  gentle  warmth,   or  even  by 


UGSCUBY  SENSIMETEB. 


313 


IiLEEIDIAN. 


mfirc  exposure  to  lii;lit,  into  red  oxu'.c  iinil  tlic  mcliil 
(Hf;a()»=llg()-flli;).  The  most  iiiii)orliiiit  of  its 
siilTs  is  the  iiilnit('  (nir.,(»,N(),.+2Ac| ),  from  wliosc 
watery  solution  iimmoniu  tlirowsdovvn  ii  liluek  preci- 
pitiite  known  in  jiliiirniiiey  "s  iittrrnriiia  xiiiiihiUn 
Iliilinitii'diii-'.  from  Its  ilisein-erer,  an<l  consist Iiil; 
cssentiiilly  of  tlie  bliu-ii  sul)oxiile  with  some  amnio- 
iiia  and  nitric  acid,  wliicli  an- apparently  imiiinbin- 
ation.  Of  the  ird  oiMle.  the  most  important  salts 
are  the  nitrate  (lIf;().N()r,+HA(|);  the  sulphate 
(IlsrO.SO.iJ,  whieli  is  employed  in  the  nmnufnelure 
of  Corrosive  sublimate:  and  the  l)asi<'  sulphate 
(;ilIi;(),.S().,)  which  is  of  aycllow  color.and  is  known 
as  tiirjiiih  ininernl.  Sulphur  forms  two  compounils 
with  mercury  -viz.,  a  sulphide  fllL'.^i-  »  blai'k 
p  iwder  of  little  im])ortance  and  a  suli)hide  f IIi;S}, 
which  occurs  naturally  as  cinnabar.  Siil/i/n'il'-  "f 
meir'iry  is  thrown  ih/wn  as  a  black  preiipilate  by 
passins  sulphureted  hydroi;en  throuirh  a  solution  of 
a  persall  of  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate,  for  exam- 
ple). When  drieci  atul  sublimed  in  vessels  from 
which  air  is  exeludeil,  it  assumes  its  ordimiry  red 
color.  The  well-known  iiij^ment  virniiUinn  is  sul- 
phide of  mercury,  and  is  soin<'limes  obtained  from 
pure  cinnabar,  but  is  more  fre(|uently  an  artificial 
product.  Mercury  unites  with  most  metals  to  form 
amalgams,  several  of  which  are  employed  in  the  lab- 
oratory. 

Of  the  numerous  organic  compounds  of  mercury, 
it  is  unnecessary  to  mention  more  than  the  fulminate 
and  the  cyanide  (HgC'y).  which  may  be  jirejiared  by 
dissolving  the  red  oxide  of  mercury  in  hydrocyanic 
acid,  and  is  the  best  source  from  which  to  obtain 
cyanogen.  The  uses  of  mercury  are  so  mimerous 
that  a  very  brief  allusion  to  the  most  important  of 
these  must  .sutticc.  It  is  employed  extensively  in 
the  extraction  of  gold  and  silver  from  their  ores  by 
the  process  of  amalgamation.  Its  amalgams  are 
hirgely  employed  in  the  processes  of  silvering  and 
gilding,  and  some  (as  those  of  copper  and  cadnnum) 
are  employed  by  the  dentist  for  stopping  teeth.  It 
is  indispensable  in  the  construction  of  pliilosophical 
instruments,  and  in  the  laboratory  in  the  form  of 
tlie  mercurial  bath,  etc.  It  is  the  source  of  the  val- 
uable pigment  Vermillion.  It  is  eonslantiv  used  for 
percussion  caps,  and  in  takiag  the  density  of  gun- 
powder. Spherical  projectiles  are  floated  in  mer- 
cury to  ascertain  whether  thev  are  homogeneous. 

MERCUHY  DENSIMETER.— "In  order  to  secure  a 
first-class  gunpowder,  which  is  so  essential  for  mili- 
tary purposes,  it  is  of  tlie  utmost  importance  that  the 
several  ingredients  should  be  as  pure  as  possible;  this 


being  secured, it  thenbecomes  very  necessary  that  the 
density  or  specific  gravity  of  the  powdershouldat  all 
times  be  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same, as  any  variation 
however  slight,  affects  its  quality  and  force  to  an  im- 
mense extent.  To  ascertain  its  density, therefore,  is  a 
matter  of  considerable  importance  anil  for  this  delicate 
operation  a  very  ingenious  instrument  has  been  devis- 
ed called  a  "  densimeter  ";  it  may  be  described  as  fol- 
lows :  On  a  small  table  a  kind  of  barometer  is  fitted, 
but  instead  of  the  glass  tube  being  closed  at  the  up- 
per end  and  all  in  one  piece,  as  is  usual,  it  is  in  this 
case  made  in  two  pieces  and  open  at  the  top.  The 
upper  part  is  about  34  inches  in  lenirth,  and  is  con- 


nected to  the  lower,  which  is  10  inclicH  in  length,  by- 
means  of  a  closely  litting  and  pc-rfectly  air-tight 
screw(-d  metal  joint;  the  low-er  part,  inst(-ad  of  bi-in^ 
a  plain  parallel  lub(-of  the  same  diameter  Ihroiigli- 
oiit  as  tlie  ujiper,  is  made  in  the  form  of  a  glolje  or 
bulb,  and  on  the  neck  at  each  end  of  it  a  metal  union 
and  stop-cock  are  sectured,  both  of  whi(-li  are  made 
p(-rf(-ctly  air-tight.  I5y  means  of  one  of  these  unions 
this  glass  globe  or  lower  half  of  the  instrumi-iil  is  al- 
lai-lied  to  the  uppi-r,  while  the  other  union,  into 
whi(-h  is  screw-(-d  an  open  iioz/.li-  or  metal  lubi-.  ilips 
into  a  cup  fast(-n(-il  to  tbi-  tabli-  tilleil  with  mi-rcury. 
On  another  tabh-  staiiiling  by  lh(-side  of  the-  tirst  one 
an  orilinarv  air-iiump  is  lixed.  with  vai-uum  gauge, 
etc.  It  will  n-adily  be  seen  that  if  the  upper  part  of 
the  glass  tube  of  liie  densimeter  be  connected  with 
the  iiir-i)umi).  and  the  air  be  extracterl  from  the  glass 
tube  w-hilsl  the  lower  tap  is(-los(-d,  a  vacuum  will  be 
f<irm(-d,  and  that  ujioii  opc-ning  the  lower  tap  soas  to 
afford  a  fr(-e  passaL;<- for  the  mercury  in  the  cup,  it 
will  rise  and  fill  the  glass  glolii-  and  n|)p(-r  jxirliou  of 
the  tube  to  su(-h  a  height  as  will  balance  th<- pressure 
of  the  atnios])liere,  thus  giving  a  column  of  mercury 
of  pre<-isely  the  same  total  height  as  that  in  an  ordin- 
ary baromet(-r. 

"To  use  the  instrument,  two  tables  are  placed  side 
by  side,  the  open  uppc-r  (-nd  of  th(-  glass  tube  of  the 
densimet(-r  is  (-onnecli-d  with  the  air-i)Ump  by  means 
of  a  flexible  tube,  the  taji  on  the  upper  union  of  the 
densimeter  is  op(-n(-d,  the  lower  one  is  closed.  The 
air-pump  is  worked;  as  soon  as  all  the  air  is  exhaust- 
cil,  shown  by  a  vacuum  gauge  attached  to  the  air- 
pump,  the  lower  tap  on  the  glass  tube  immediately 
below  the  globe  is  opened,  and  the  mercury  rushes 
into  the  tube:  when  it  ceases  to  rise,  the  two  metal 
l;ips  arc  closed,  anil  the  globe  part, with  the  mer<-ury 
contained  therein. is  n-moved  and  carefully  weighed. 
All  the  mercury  is  now  emptied  back  again  info  the 
cup, and  the  globe,  nearly  filled  with  a  known  weight 
of  gunpowder,  say  lOU  grammes,  is  then  reconnected 
to  Uie  densimeter  under  the  same  conditions  as  be- 
fore, and  the  air  again  exhausted  until  a  vacuum  is 
formed.  The  lower  tap  is  now  opened,  ;uiil  the  mer- 
cury allowed  to  linil  its  way  in  and  rise  in  the  tube; 
the"mercury  rises  to  precisely  the  same  height  in  the 
tube  as  before;  but  the  globe  having  been  nearly  fill- 
ed with  gunpowder  will  contain  less  mercury.  The 
taps  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  instrument  are  clos- 
ed, the  globe  part  removed  and  again  weighed.  This 
weight,  as  well  as  that  previously  ascertained  when 
the  globe  was  entirely  filled  with  mercury, is  record- 
ed, and  from  these  two  ascertained  weights  the  den- 
sity of  the  powder  can  readily  be  obtained  liy  the 
following  rule:  Tofirtd  the  deuMy  of  the  gunpuirder, 
we  hare  only  U>  multiply  the  specific  gravity  "f  the  mer- 
cury by  the  weight  of  the  gunpowder  plarid  in  the  globe 
of  the  densimeter,  and  divide  by  the  difference  in  iceight 
of  th- globe  ichen  filled  with  mercury  only  and  whenfill- 
ed  with  guupowdir  and  mercury,  plus  the  weight  of  the 
powder  placed  in  the  globe  ;  the  result  will  show  the 
densitv  of  the  gunpowder  under  test.  See  Deiui- 
meter.'Dupont  de  Nemour's  Jhnsimeter,  Inspection  oj 
Powdr.  anil  Mercury  Densimeter, 

MERIDIAN.— The  name  given  to  the  great  circle 
of  the  celestial  sphere  which  passes  through  both 
poles  of  the  heavens,  and  also  through  the  zenith 
and  nadir  of  any  place  on  the  earth's  surface.  Every- 
place on  the  earth's  surface  has  conseijuently  its  own 
meridian.  The  meridian  is  divided  by  the  polar  axis 
into  two  equal  portions,  which  stretch  from  pole  to 
pole,  one  on  each  side  of  the  earth.  It  is  midday  at 
any  place  on  the  earth's  surface,  when  the  centre  of 
the  sun  comes  upon  the  meridian  of  that  place:  at 
the  same  instant  it  is  midday  at  all  jilaces  under  the 
same  half  of  that  meridia"n,  and  midnight  at  all 
places  under  the  oppo.site  half.  All  places  under  the 
same  meridian  have,  therefore,  the  same  longitude. 
Stars  attain  their  greatest  altitude  when  they  come 
upon  the  meridian:  the  same  thin":  is  true  approxi- 
i  matelv  of  the  sun  and  planets;  and,  as  at  this  point 


MEBISIAN  UEASUBEUENI. 


314 


UEBBILL  OUN. 


the  effect  of  refraction  upon  these  bodies  is  at  a 
minimum,  and  their  apparent  motion  is  also  more 
uniform,  astronomers  prefer  to  malve  their  observa- 
tions wlien  the  body  is  on  the  meridian.  The  instru- 
ments used  for  tliis  purpose  are  called  meridian 
circles. 

The  meridian  may  be  determined  at  night  by  pass- 
ing a  plane  through  a  plumb-line  and  the  north  star. 
The  trace  of  this  plane  on  a  horizontal  plane  will  be 
the  projection  of  the  meridian  sought,  the  north  star 


\  s    s      /■ 
«■ — * — ,,-• 

ijrande   Oitrse 


'^.i^^ 

/»<> 


/  vole  antimr/ 

poUum 


n  \ 


\ 


X. 


of  ic^rease  holds  good  to  the  poles,  the  length  of 
every  tenth  degree  of  latitude  in  English  feet  is  as- 
in  the  following  table : 


being  only  yV°  from  the  true  pole.  It  is  easy  to  re- 
cognize the  north  star— it  is  the  seventh  star  of  the 
little  bear  and  is  found  precisely  in  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  two  first  stars  of  the  great  bear  {grande 
otirse),  a  constellation  disposed  in  symmetrical  order 
as  in  the  drawing. 

To  practically  determine  the  variation  of  the  com- 
pass, erect  a  pole,  and  at  a  distance  of  200  yards  set 
up  another,  so  that  the  two  are  in  a  line  with  the 
true  north  ;  the  variation  of  the  compass  may  be  as- 
certained the  next  morning  by  taking  tlie  bearing  of 
one  pole  from  the  other. 

UERIDIAN  MEASUKEMENT.— The  determination 
of  the  form  and  size  of  the  earth  from  the  measure- 
ment of  an  arc  of  a  meridian  has  been  a  favorite 
problem  with  mathematicians  from  the  earliest 
times,  but  up  to  the  middle  of  last  century  'heir  op- 
erations were  not  carried  on  with  exactness  suffi- 
cient to  render  their  conclusions  of  much  value.  Since 
that  time,  however,  geodesy  has  so  rapidly  progress- 
ed, owing  to  the  invention  of  more  accurate  instru- 
ments and  the  discovery  of  new  methods,  that  the 
measurement  of  the  meridian  can  now  be  performed 
with  the  utmost  accuracy  imaginable.  The  modux 
operandi  is  as  follows  :  Two  ctations,  having  nearly 
the  same  longitude,  are  chosen;  their  lutitude  and 
longitude  arc  accurately  determined  (the  error  of  a 
second  in  latitude  introduces  a  considerable  error  into 
the  result),  and  the  direction  of  the  meridian  to  be 
measured  ascertained ;  then  a  base  line  is  measured 
with  the  greatest  accuracy,  as  an  error  here  general- 
ly becoincs  increased  at  every  subsequent  step  ;  and 
then,  by  the  method  known  as  triangulation,  the 
length  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian  contained  between 
the  jiarallcls  of  latitude  of  the  two  stations  is  ascer- 
tained. As  the  previously  found  latitudes  of  its  two 
extremities  give  the  number  of  degrees  it  contains, 
the  average  length  of  a  degree  of  this  arc  can  be  iit 
once  determined:  and  also — on  the  supposition  that 
the  lengtli  of  a  degree  is  uniform— the  length  of  the 
wliole  meridional  circumferencr  of  liie  carlli.  This 
oiieraticm  of  incridiaii  nicasurenu'ut  has  liccn  per- 
formed at  different  times  on  a  great  many  arcs  lying 
between  ()8"  north  latitude  and  :W  soull'i  lalilude., 
and  the  results  show  a  stc-idy  tliou^li  irregular  in- 
<:rease  in  the  length  of  the  degree  of  laljlude  iis  the 
latitude  increases.     On  the  supposition  that  this  law 


cj 

t3 

<a 

•C 

S 

3 

S-: 

Sr 

S 

-, 

Deg 

11  fee 

s 

•*^ 

•^  .2 

t=! 

c:S 

'£. 

_  to 

hfj 

tfj 

OJ 

E  a 

a 

^J" 

Q 

\-i'~ 

0" 

362,732 

50° 

364,862 

10° 

362.843 

60° 

365,454 

20° 

363,158 

70° 

365,937 

30° 

303.641 

80° 

366,252 

40« 

364,333 

90° 

?66,361 

This  result  shows  that  the  earth  is  not  spherical, 
as  in  that  case  the  length  of  all  degrees  of  latitude 
would  be  alike,  but  of  a  more  or  less  spheroidal 
form — that  is  having  its  curvature  becoming  less  and 
less  as  we  go  from  the  extremity  of  its  greater  or 
equatorial  diameter  to  the  lesser  or  polar  axis.  It 
was  by  the  measurement  of  a  meridional  arc  that,  in 
1792-99,  the  length  of  a  quadrant  of  the  earth's  cir- 
cumference was  determined,  in  order  to  [form  the 
basis  of  the  French  metrical  system.  See  Metrii-al 
Mewoirex. 

MERIT  ROLLS.— Rolls  prepared  by  the  Academic 
Board,  at  each  examination,  in  which  the  merit  of 
each  Cadet  (at  the  United  States  Military  Academy) 
in  each  branch  of  study  upon  which  he  has  been  ex- 
amined, is  denoted  by  a  number  proportional  to  his 
proticiency  and  to  the  importance  of  the  subject ; 
and  in  wliich  the  names  of  the  Cadets  are  arranged, 
in  their  respective  classes,  in  the  order  of  aggregate 
merit,  as  determined  for  each,  by  the  addition  of  the 
numbers  expressing  his  merit  in  each  particular 
branch, and  in  discipline.  The  table  on  page  315  show& 
the  manner  of  forming  the  general  Merit  Roll. 

MERKIN.— A  mop  used  for  cleaning  caimon.  Also 
written  Malkin. 

MERLON  — In  fortification,  the  position  of  the  par- 
apet between  two  embrasures.  Its  length  is  usually 
from  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet.  The  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  projection  on  the  top  of  a  crenellated 
wall. 

MERRILL  BAYONET  HANDLE— The  essential  feature 
of  this  device  is  a  slide  in  tlie  side  of  the  handle,  which 
being  withdrawn,  allows  the  bayonet-stud  to  pass  a- 
side  into  the  square  notch  prepared  for  it  at  the  far- 
ther extremity  of  its  L-shaped  groove.  It  is  securely 
kept  there  by  pushing  back  the  slide  into  its  former 
position.  In  a  modrtication  of  this  invention,  the 
bayonet  is  held  on  the  gun  by  the  engaging  of  tiie  bay- 
onet-stud with  a  corresponding  notch  in  the  spring- 
catch  swinging  in  a  slot  in  the  end  of  the  handle. 
By  pressing  down  the  outer  end  of  the  spring-catch 
the  shoulder  on  its  forward  extremity  is  passed  above 
the  bayonet-stud,  and  the  bayonet  is  still  further  se- 
cured'on  the  gun  by  the  muzzle  passing  througii  a 
corrfspiindin'j;  liole  f()riiie<l  in  the  guard. 

MERRILL  GUN.— A  breech-loading  rifle  having  a 
fixed  chamber  closed  by  a  movable  breech-block, 
which  slides  in  the  line  of  the  barrel  by  direct  action. 
It  is  opened  by  raising  the  liandle  of  the  breech-bolt 
to  a  vertical  position  and  drawing  it  back  to  its  full 
extent.  In  raising  the  handle,  the  firing-pin  is  re- 
tracted by  a  lug  near  its  head  engaging  with  a  spiral 
caiu-recess  in  the  receiver;  it  is  held  back  by  tlie  lug 
entering  a  circumferential  groove  in  the  liolt.  In 
withdrawing  the  bolt,  it  passes  over  the  hammer 
and  presses  it  back  to  the  full-cock  The  piece  is 
closed  by  reversing  the  movement  of  the  bolt.  At 
the  end  of  the  forward  stroke,  the  point  of  the  ex- 
tractor engages  with  a  recess  in  a  ring  which  sur- 


M£BBILL  LOCK, 


315 


HEBWIN  HULBEST  BEVOLVZB. 


roundH  tlio  moull:  of  the  fliambor,  and  acninst  I  in  the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard,  was  forged  like  tho 
which  the  l)olt  is  prcHscil,  and  turns  tlw  riiit,'  witli  it  ;  :  IIiiri~f(iH  (inn.  hy  llic  MirHey  Iron  WorkH,  in  184/1. 
so  that  I  lie  rotation  <if  the  holt  in  lockin;^  will  not  I  Its  iliinensions  ari' :  total  leii;;th.  Ifi!)  iiiehi-s  ;  diuni- 
cauwMt  to  ^rind  ai^'ainst  the  head  of  the  eartridi^e.  I  I'tiT  over  tlie  eliamlier,  28  inches  ;  lenj;lli  of  hore,  144 
In  turning   down  the  handle,  the  piece  is  locked  by  '  inches;  diameter  of  bore,  la  inclies ;  weight,  10, 7W 


a 

a 

i' 

S 

1 

3.      . 

b 

3 

O 

H  A 

«   . 

C5 

•^ 

H   O. 

.■s  tn 

Q 

■ 

Si 

Class  Rank. 

CO 
« 

s 

A 

A 

T3   SS 
oja 

■go: 

s 

i 

o 

c 

OS 

i 

"a. 

A 

a 

a 

n^ 

'f 

•=  o 

a 

ij 

V 

Jz; 

OS 

I 

t 

CO 

^a" 

OS 

s 

5" 

03 

o 

c 

1 

1 

Maximum  in) 
each  branch,  j' 

300.0 

100.0 

75.0 

300.0 

150.0 

100.0 

100.0 

300.0 

150.0 

100.0 

75.0 

200.0 

1950 

1 

A.B 

293., 5 

82.8 

66.9 

292*8 

146.6 

95.4 

81.9 

300.0 

144.6 

-    98.8 

75.0 

170.01848.3 

2C.  D 

3i)fi.7 

98.9 

74.3 

285.7 

144.9 

89.6 

95.4 

289.3 

135.7 

100.0 

73  3 

150.01838.6 

8E.  F 

300.0 

95.9 

67.6 

289.2 

139.8 

85.0 

87.5 

293.8 

146.4 

96.4 

68.7 

138.6  1807.9 

4G.H 

200.3 

75.7 

59  5 

282.1 

136.4 

87.3 

85.3 

285.7 

133.9 

89.2 

66  0 

173.3  1783.7 

51. J 

287.0 

80.8 

70,6 

296.4 

143.2 

73.5 

84.1 

390.4 

139.3 

97.6 

09  6 

103.3  1T47.8 

6K.L 

283.8 

94.9 

71,3 

257.1 

133.0 

91.9 

79.6 

260.7 

141.1 

92.8 

6<;  9 

172.0  1745.1 

TiM.IN 

277.4 

96.9 

69.8 

300.0 

148.3 

100.0 

92.0 

374.9 

138.6 

90.4 

73.3 

183.3  I7;i4.8 

80.  P 

270.9 

92.9 

73  5 

264.2 

138.1 

79.3 

100.0 

253  5 

130  4 

91  6 

74  1 

163  31 7X0  8 

9Q.R 

274.1 

90.9 

63.9 

278.5 

134.7 

64.3 

93.2 

257.1 

142.9 

88.0 

63  5 

107.0ll717.1 

lOS.  T 

258.0 

70.7 

58.1 

207.8 

141.5 

97.7 

59.3 

264.2 

133.1 

95.3 

67.8 

191.6J1710.0 

IIU.V 

2(il.2 

64.0 

43.4 

274.9 

1.50.0 

96.5 

96.6 

278.5 

148.2 

94.0 

71  4 

100.6  16.39.9 

12W.A 

264.5 

88.8 

73.3 

242.8 

139.6 

67.8 

88.7 

221.4 

126.8 

86.9 

64  3 

149.0  1603.8 

13B.C 

238.7 

77.7 

58  8 

271.4 

131  3 

68  9 

94  3 

282  1 

117  9 

85  7 

70  5 

102.3  1.599.6 
148  ;^  1581   9 

14D.E 

225.8 

89.8 

69  1 

224.9 

127.9 

88.5 

49.1 

271  4 

137  5 

84  5 

65.1 

15|F.G 

251.6 

83.8 

72.0 

185.7 

121.1 

94.2 

77.4 

196.4 

114.6 

70.2 

60.7 

166.31494.0 

See  United  States  Military  Academy. 

the  engaging  of  a  sectional  collar  on  the  bolt  with  a 
corresponding  groove  in  the  receiver.  When  this  is 
accomplished,  the  lug  on  the  tiring-pin  is  oppo- 
site the  deepest  part  of  the  spiral  recess  and  is 
free  to  move  forward  when  the  piece  is  fired  (by 
means  of  a  center-lock  moved  by  a  double  main- 
spring. )  Extraction  is  accomplished  by  a  spring- 
hook  lying  on  top  of  the  breech-bolt :  and  in  draw- 
ing back  the  bolt,  the  natural  spring  of  the  extractor 
presses  down  the  rim  of  the  cartridge  upon  the  bot- 
tom of  the  receiver,  mitil  it  is  checked  by  striking 
against  a  notch  left  there  for  that  i)iirpose,  and  is 
thereby  thrown  upward  around  the  hook  of  the  ex- 
tractor and  clear  of  the  gim. 

MERRILL  LOCK.— A  lock  intended  to  dispense 
with  the  tumbler  and  adjacent  parts,  and  to  be  her- 
metically imbedded  in  the  stock.  In  a  modification 
of  the  lock  the  motion  of  the  mainspring  is  arrested 
by  a  stop-pin  after  the  hammer,  in  falling,  has  passed 
the  half-cock  notch.  When  applied  to  the  Spring- 
field  system  the  act  of  raising  tlie  tiring-pin  guard  in 
turning  the  cam-latch  to  open  the  block  would  be 
sufficient  to  easily  overcome  the  friction  and  weight 
of  the  hammer  and  to  bring  it  to  the  half-cock.  In 
this  lock  there  is  no  swivel,  the  mainspring  pressing 
directlv  on  the  hammer. 

BIERRILL  MAGAZINE.— In  this  device,  the  comb 
of  the  butt-stock  is  cut  out  in  a  groove  deep  enough 
to  receive  one  cartridge,  on  end,  and  long  enough  to 
accomodate  four  or  five  of  them  side  by  side.  A 
movable  back  for  this  groove  is  formed  by  a  follower- 
block,  which  is  pressed  forward  by  a  spiral-sjiring, 
carrying  the  cartridges  ahead  of  it  to  the  mouth  of 
the  magazine,  from  which  they  are  to  be  picked  out ! 
one  by  one.  The  magazine  has  a  sliding  cover  by 
whicli,  in  traveling,  the  cartridges  are  to  be  kept 
from  falling  out. 

MERSEY"  GUN.— The  13-inch  wrought-iron  gun, 


pounds.  It  was,  received  after  the  bursting  of  the 
Stockton  Gun,  of  which  it  is  a  copy.  The  Mersey 
Works  have  also  constructed  satisfactory  wrought- 
iron  guns  by  the  rolling  process. 
MERWIN  HULBURT  REVOLVER.— The  new  Army 
Revolver,  patented  and  manufactured  by  the  Messrs. 


Merwin,  Hulbert  and  Company,  is  rapidly  becoming 


UESAIL. 


316 


MESS  KIT. 


a  favorite  with  tlie  military  organizations  throuili- 
outtiie  Uniteii  States.  Tlie  details  of  its  construction 
may  l)e  readily  understood  by  a  reference  to  the  il- 
lustration which  we  present  herewith.  This  revol- 
ver makes  the  following  claims  for  superiority:  — 
Compactness,  symmetrical,  easy  outline,  and  general 
neat  appearance  ;  no  salient  points  to  prevent  its 
ready  and  easy  insertion  into  or  withdrawal  from  the 
holster.  In  handling,  not  liable  to  injure  the  hand  : 
all  the  projecting  parts  being  rounded  and  smooth: 
cleaning  being  ttierebj'  facilitated.  Tlie  circular  form 
of  cylinder  front  gives  a  continuous  cover  to  breech 
of  barrel  ;  prevents  sand  or  dirt  entering  therein. 
Accidental  unlocking  of  the  parts  prevented,  as  ham- 
mer must  first  be  set  at  half-cock.  The  front  sight 
forged  solid  with  the  barrel;  not  liable  to  be  separ- 
ated therefrom  or  injured.  The  extractor  ring  pre- 
vents the  interior  of  the  lock  and  ratchet  from  foul- 
ing by  escape  of  gas  about  the  primer  when  using 
outside  primed  ammunition.  The  hood  and  collar 
at  front  of  cylinder  covering  base-pin  and  base-pin 
hole  prevents  fouling.  The  tlanged  recoil  plate  here 
covers  and  protects  the  heads  of  the  cartridges  ;  pre- 
vents sand  or  dirt  entering  between  face  of  recoil 
plate  and  cylinder,  which  miglit  clog  it  and  prevent 
rotation.  The  cylinder  and  barrel  can  be  dismount- 
ed from  the  frame  and  re.assembled  thereto  without 
the  use  of  screw-driver  or  any  tool.  The  construc- 
tion is  not  intricate  nor  fragile,  and  the  extractor  is 
a  solid  part  of  the  base  pin.  Strength,  durability  and 
endurance.  Simultaneous,  positive,  and  easy  extrac- 
tion of  shells  :  great  power  obtained  for  starting  the 
shells  before  final  extraction  by  the  incline  screw  ac- 
tion on  the  base-pin.  Less  lateral  escape  gas  is  de- 
flected downward  into  the  works,  as  no  top  strap 
is  used.  The  face  of  the  collar  on  cylinder  takes 
against  the  bracket,  prevents  forward  movement  of 
cylinder  when  pressed  by  the  ball  in  rotating ;  gives 
a  central  bearing ;  prevents  abrasion  of  cj'linder  face 
against  rear  of  barrel :  gives  easy  rotation  ;  permits 
a  close  joint  without  friction,  reducing  the  escape 
of  gas ;  the  cylinder  is  not  forced  backward  on  firing, 
but  is  held  forward  by  the  hood-clutch  taking  into 
the  recess  of  the  cylinder  collars.  The  lines  of  re- 
coil and  resistance  are  close  together,  lessening  up- 
ward inclination  of  barrel  when  fired. 

The  following  are  the  directions  for  manipulating 
the  arm : 

To  load. — Place  the  hammer  at  half-cock,  press 
the  gate  downward  and  insert  the  cartridges. 

7«  eject,  the  s/ielLi — Push  back  the  thumb-bolt 
under  the  frame,  turn  the  barrel  outward,  and  draw- 
forward,  when  the  shells  will  fall  out. 

To  take  the  arm  apart — When  the  barrel  and 
cylinder  are  drawn  forward,  press  the  small  pin  in 
the  barrel-catch  even  with  the  frame,  then  press  the 
catch  down  and  draw  forward. 

Complimentary  letters  have  been  received  as  re- 
gards these  arms  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Col. 
George  T.  Denison,  author  of  the  Russian  Imperial 
Report  on  Arms  and  Cavalry  Tactics,  for  which  he 
received  the  government  reward  of  five  thousand 
dollars  and  gold  medals,  as  well  as  medals  from 
other  governments,  says:  "This  army  revolver  is, 
in  mv  opinion,  the  most  perfect  cavalry  pistol  in  the 
world." 

MESAIL. — That  portion  of  a  helmet  which  closes 
on  the  open  front,  more  generally  known  in  England 
as  the  VentniU.     Also  written  Mezail. 

MESNE  PROCESS.— Any  writ  issued  in  the  course 
of  ;i  suit  between  the  original  process  and  execution. 
By  tills  term  is  also  meant  the  writ  of  proceedings 
in  an  action  to  summon  or  bring  the  Defendant  into 
coirt.or  compel  him  to  appear  or  put  in  bail,  and 
then  to  hear  and  answer  tlie  plaintitT's  claim. 

MESS.  "A  term  at  present  used  in  the  sense  of  a 
number  or  association  of  otticers  or  of  men  taking 
their  meals  togi'tlier.  In  societies  consisting  entire- 
ly of  the  male  se.x.  and  of  one  set  of  men  contiimally 
thrown  together,  it  is  a  very  important  social  point 


that  the  Mess  should  be  well  regulated.  There  are 
consequently  stringent  rules — both  of  the  service  and 
of  mutual  etiquette — laid  down  for  its  government. 
One  officer  acts  as  caterer,  receives  subscriptions 
from  the  several  members,  charges  the  wine  to  those 
who  drink  it,  etc.  ;  a  steward  has  charge  of  the  more 
menial  department,  arranging  for  the  cooking,  pur- 
chase of  viands,  servants,  rations,  etc.  In  the  Brit- 
ish army,  the  Mess  is  a  regimental  institution  for 
the  maintenance  of  a  common  table  for  all  the  offi- 
cers in  a  regiment,  who  are  bound  to  subscribe  an 
annual  subscription,  whether  present  or  absent. 
Married  men  pay  one  half  if  they  do  not  regularly 
attend  the  mess,  but  they  pay  all  contributions  to 
the  mess  fund.  The  introduction  of  messes  into 
the  British  Army  has  been  attended  with  the  happi- 
est results.  Officers  of  all  ranks  meet  together  on 
an  equal  social  footing,  and  the  youngest  officer  in 
the  regiment  is  able  to  enjoy  the  society  of  his  senior 
and  brother  officers  without  reserve.  The  advan- 
tages of  a  mess  are  manifold,  and  are  seen  not  only 
in  its  social  value,  but  also  in  the  means  it  offers  to 
all  ranks  of  living  well  and  comfortabl}'.  A  small 
government  allowance  is  granted  in  aid  of  the  ex- 
penses of  the  officer's  mess.  Messes  are  extended 
also  to  the  non-commissioned  officers  and  men  of  a 
regiment,  who  have  their  several  messes  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  officer  commanding  the  regi- 
ment and  the  captains  of  companies.  In  France, 
the  several  grades  mess  separately  ;  lieutenants  and 
sub-lieutenants  forming  two  tables ;  captains  an- 
other, and  field  officers  of  different  grades  generally 
eating  separately  also. 

MESSAGES.  —  C'ommtmications  passing  between 
officials  whether  in  peace  or  war  time.  In  the  for- 
mer, mes.sages  are  generally  sent  by  dismounted 
orderlies,  except  the  communication  is  urgent,  when 
it  is  sent  by  a  mounted  orderly.  In  the  latter,mount- 
ed  orderlies  are  sent  between  the  general  and  his 
staff,  on  subjects  relating  to  the  army  and  requiring 
expedition.  Important  messages  forwarded  to  a 
distance,  and  where  the  bearers  may  fall  into  the 
enemy's  hands,  should  be  sent  in  duplicate, one  real, 
the  other  false ;  the  former  to  be  concealed  in  a  quill 
about  his  person,  in  such  a  way  as  is  not  likely  to  be 
discoveretl,  and  which  way  will  in  peril  suggest  it- 
self ;  the  latter  in  the  form  of  a  letter.  One  orderly 
is  not  considered  safe  ;  one  or  two  more  should  be 
sent  at  certain  intervals  of  time,  say  two  or  three 
hours  between  each.  Emissaries  sent  from  besieged 
cities  with  messages  to  relieving  forces  or  to  friends 
should  use  great  wariness  to  avoid  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy;  but  if  they  do,  they  should  be 
able  to  conceal  the  message,  which  in  all  probability 
woidd  be  in  cipher  and  in  only  a  few  words,  about 
their  person.  The  modes  resorted  to  in  warfare,  to 
avoid  written  communications  being  seized,  are 
numerous.  During  the  siege  of  Metz,  Marshal 
Bazaine,  desirous  of  communicating  with  the  go- 
vernment at  Tours,  sent  two  emissaries  disguised  as 
Ijeasants,  who  both  managed  to  pass  through  the 
lierman  lines ;  one  carried  liis  despatch  in  cipher 
inside  a  hollow  tooth,  and  the  other  had  his  message 
woven  in  one  of  his  socks.  Carrier  pigeons  very 
often  play  an  important  part  in  the  transmission  of 
messages  during  hostilities,  as  they  did  during  the 
siege  of  Paris  in  1870-71. 

MESSENGERS.— Officers  employed  by  Secretaries 
of  State  to  convey  dispatches  at  home  and  abroad. 
In  former  (la3-s  their  occupation  consisted,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  in  serving  the  Secretaries'  warrants 
for  the  appn'hension  of  persons  accused  of  high 
treason  and  other  grave  offenses  against  the  State, 
nor  was  it  unusual  for  them  to  keep  the  ))risoners 
whom  they  a])])rehended  at  their  own  houses.  They 
are  now  principally  emjiloyed  in  foreign  service. 

MESS-KIT. — That  portion  of  camp  equipage  con- 
sisting of  cooking  utensils.  The  cooking  imple- 
ments and  table  necessaries  should  be  so  selected  as 
to  nest  compactly.     The  camp  kettles  may  enclose 


uejIbe  se  camp  general. 


317 


METALLIC  AMMUNITION  FOE  SMALL  AEM8. 


the  (iishpnns,  and  tlipsp  tlic  skillrts  nntl  smiillfr  ar- 

liclcH.      It  is  licsl  willi  ;i  view  In  paiUiiiL''  In  liiivc  llic 
Kkillt'ls,  fryini;i)uiiH,  I'tc,  so  coiirtiructid  lliut  u  spoou 


may  be  applied  as  a  liandle,  and  rciiiDvcd  wlion  not 
in  use  or  when  packed.  The  drawing  hIiows  the 
idea. 

MESTEE  DE  CAMP  GENERAL.— The  next  otlicer 
in  rank,  in  the  did  Fniirh  cavalry  service,  to  the 
CJoloni'l-Gencral.  This  appointment  was  created 
under  Henry  II.  in  1552.  Mentre  de  Camp  General 
rff.v  DriKj'iiinx,  was  an  appointment  which  first  took 
place  imder  Louis  XIV.,  in  l(iH4. 

METAL.-  1.  A  term  in  Heraldry.  The  field  of  the 
cicuteheon  and  the  ehart'es  wliieh  it  bears  may  lie 
of  metal  as  well  as  of  color;  and  the  two  metals  in 
use  auKini;  lieralds  are  gold  and  silver,  known  as  or 
aud  argent.  It  is  a  rule  of  blazon  that  metal  should 
not  be  placed  on  metal,  or  color  on  color.  3.  Broken 
stone,  etc.,  used  as  a  road  cover. 

METAL  CASTING.  The  art  of  obtaining  casts  of 
any  desired  object  liy  means  of  ])oiiring  nu-lted  metal 
into  molds  prepared  for  the  purjiose.  It  has  risen  to 
great  importance  in  recent  limes,  on  account  of  the 
many  new  applicalionsot  iron.  Iron-founding, brass- 
founding,  type-foimding,  as  well  as  casting  in  bronze 
and  zinc,  are  the  principal  divisions  of  the  art.  The 
casting  of  the  finer  metal  and  alloys,  as  gold,  silver, 
anil  German  silver,  is  necessarily  conducted  on  a 
smaller  scale.  Wheu  the  casting  of  an  object  is  re- 
quired, it  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  make  a 
pattern.  Suppose  it  to  be  a  plain  round  iron  pillar, 
such  as  is  used  for  hanging  a  gate  upon.  A  patlern 
of  this  is  turned  in  some  wood  which  can  be  readily 
made  smooth  on  the  surface,  such  as  pine,  and  then 
varnished  or  painted  so  as  to  come  freely  out  of  the 
mold.  This  wooden  pillar,  or  any  similar  pattern,  is 
always  made  in  at  least  two  pieces, the  division  being 
lengthwise,  for  a  reason  which  we  shall  presently 
see.  The  next  step  is  to  prepare  the  mold.  The 
molds  used  by  the  iron-Jouiuler  are  either  of  sand  or 
loam,  but  more  generally  of  fine  sand.  Proceeding 
with  the  preparation  of  the  mold,  the  founder  takes 
a  molding-box,  which  is  composed  of  two  open  iron 
frames  with  cross  bars, ..the  one  fitting  exactly  on  the 
other,  by  means  of  pins  in  the  upper  dropping  into 
holes  in  the  lower  frame.  One  half  of  the  box  is  first 
filled  with  damp  sand,  and  the  pattern  laid  upon  it  a 
little  t'.ry  pivrli  ag  sand\Mi\\\%  sprinkled  on  the  surface. 
The  upper  half  of  the  box  is  then  put  on  and  sand  firm- 
ly rammed  all  around  the  pattern.  The  box  is  then 
carefidly  opened,  aud  when  tlie  pattern  is  removed, 
its  impression  is  left  in  the  sand.  The  mold  at  this 
stage,  however,  is  generall}-  rough  and  broken.  It  is 
necessar)-,  therefore,  to  give  it  a  better  finish,  which 
is  done  by  taking  each  half  of  the  mold  separately, 
repairing  it  with  a  small  trowel,  andreiutroduciug  the 
corresponding  half  of  the  pattern  till  the  impression 
is  firm  ami  perfect.  Finally,  the  surface  of  the  mold 
is  coated  with  charcoal-dust,  which  gives  a  smooth 
surface  to  the  future  casting.  These  columns  being 
made  hollow,  there  is  yet  another  matter  to  arrange 
before  the  casting  can  be  made — namely,  the  cvre. 
In  the  instance  before  us,  it  would  simply  be  a  rod  of 
iron,  covered  with  straw  and  loam  to  whatever  thick- 
ness the  internal  diameter  of  the  column  happened  to 
require.  The  core  of  course  occupies  the  center  of 
the  mold. 

The  cast  iron  is  melted  with  coke  in  a  round  fire- 
brick furnace,  called  a  cupola,  the  heat  being  urged 


'  by  means  of  a  powerful  blast,  created  by  fanners  re- 
volving at   liiL'li   speerl.       The  molten   melal   is  run 
from  a  tap  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace   Into  a  mal- 
lealile  iron  ladle,  lined  with  clay,   from  which  it  is 
poured  into  the  mold  through  holes  viiWcd  runnert 
OTgatm.     When  the  mold  is  newly  filled,  nutnerouB 
jets  of  blue  fiaiiie  issue  from  as  many  small   holes 
pierced  in  the  sand.     Tliesr- perforations   are  necf-s- 
sary  for  the  escajie  of  air  and  other  gases  [irodiiced 
by  the  action  of   the  hot  metal  on  tlu' mold.      Care 
must  also  be  taken  not  to  have  the  moM  too  damp, 
otherwise    steam   is   generated,    which   may  cause 
holes  in  the  casting,  and  even  force  part  of  the  me- 
tal out  of  the  mohl.     The  casting  remains  covered 
up  for  a  tinu',  in  order  to  cool  slowly,  and  is  then 
removed  by  breaking  away  the  sand,  and  drawing 
out  the  core.     In  the  cas<^  of  a  fluted  or  otherwise 
ornamented  ])illar,  the  pattern  w<juld  rcfjuire  to  be 
in  at  least  four   pieces  instead  of   two,  because  It  is 
only  a  plain  pattern  that  will  come  out  of  the  mold 
in  halves  without  tearing  away  the  sand.     When  a 
pattern  is  necessarily   made  in  several   pieces,  it  is 
drawn  out  of  the  mold  bit  by  bit,  to  the  right  or 
left,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  so  parts  from  the  sand 
without  breaking  it.  Suppose  that  a  snuil'.  ornament- 
al  vase  was   to   surmount   the  jiillar,  the   founder 
would  pre])are  the  pattern  of  tliis  in  a  more  elabor- 
ate manner.     He  would  first  nu)ld  it  in  wax  or  clay, 
from  which  a  cast  in  plaster  of  Paris  is  made  ;  from 
that,  again,  a  cast  is  taken'in  an  alloy  of  tin  and  lead, 
which,  after  being  sharply  chased,  and  divided  into 
the  required  number  of  pieces,  is  used  as  a  pattern 
to   cast   from.     All    ornamental   patterns,  such   as 
figures,  scrolls,  leaves,  enriched  moldings,   and  the 
like,  are  made  in  this  way,  whatever  metal  the  ulti- 
mate casting  is  to  be  produced  in.     Very  large  en- 
gine cylinders,  pans,  and   such  vessels,  are  cast  in 
loam-molds,  which  are  built  of  brick, plastered  with 
loam, then  coated  with  coal-dust, and  finally  dried  by 
means  of  a  fire.     This  method  is  adopted  with  large 
plain  objects,  where  a  pattern  would   be  expensive, 
and  when  very  few  castings  of  ime  kind  are  required. 
Iron  molds,  coated  with  black   lead   or   plumbago, 
have  recently  been  introduced  for  casting  pipes  into; 
they  are  greatly  more  expensive  than  any  other  kind, 
but  they  enable  a  founder  to  dispense  with  a  pat- 
tern,as, when  once  made  into  the  required  form. they 
are  not  destroyed  like  molds  of  sand  or  loam  at  each 
casting.     Bronze  and  brass  are  cast  in  molds   pre- 
pared with  finer  sand  than  that  used  for  iron.     Pew- 
ter and  similar  soft  metallic  alloys  are  cast  in  brass 
molds.     The  tj-pe-founder,  on  the  other  hand,  uses 
molds  of  steel,  which  are  now  worked  to  a  great  ex- 
tent by  a  machine.  The  variety  of  articles  produced 
by  casting  are  very  numerous, among  others  we  may 
mention  cylinders,   cisterns,  paper-engines,   beams, 
boilers,  pumps,  and  the  heavy  parts  of  machinery 
generally,   gates,    railings,   lamps,   grates,    feiulers, 
cooking-vessk-ls,  and  the  like,  in  iron  ;  cannon, many 
portions  of  machinery,  and  numerous  ornamental 
oijjects,  in  brass  ;  sculpture  and  other  works  of  art 
in  bronze  and  the  more  costly  metals.      One  of  the 
m ost  remarkable  cast ings yet  execut ed  f or t he  require- 
ments  of  modern  engineering, was  thecylinder  of  the 
hydraulic  press  used   for  raising  the  tubes   of  the 
Britannia  bridge.     It  measured  9  ft.x  3  ft.  6  in.,  the 
metal  being  10  in.  thick, and  weighed  upwards  of  20 
tons.   It  remained  red  hot  for  three  days,  and  it  was 
seven  days  more  before  men  could  approach  it  to  re- 
move the  sand.     Sole  plates  of  steam-hammers,  and 
for  other  jnirposes,  have  been  cast  more  than  double 
this  weight,  but  the  same  care  was  not  required  in 
their  execution.   In  regard  to  sculpture, perhaps.the 
most  wonderftd  casting  known  is  the  colossal  statute 
of  Bavaria  at  Munich. 'finisiied  in  1850. which  stands 
54  ft.  high,  the  face  being  equal   to  the  height  of  a 
man.   It  took  eight  years  to  cast, and  the  cost  of  the 
bronze  used  was  about  £10.0no.     See  Fimndri/. 

METALLIC  AMMUNITION  FOR  SMALI^AEMs'— For 
the  manufacture  of  metallic  ammunition  for  small- 


METALLIC  AMMUNITION  FOR  SMALL- ASMS. 


318 


METALLIC  AMMUNITION  FOE  SMALL  ARMS. 


arms  and  friction  and  electric  primers  for  cannon  on 
a  large  scale,  the  following  buildings  are  required : 
No.  1.  Fi re-proof  factory -with  L;  basement  being 
provided  with  machinery  adapted  to  tl.e  manufacture 
of  primers,  etc.,  with  a  separate)  rooui  containing: 
grindstones,  emerj'-wheels,  etc.,  and  tumbling  bar- 1 
rels.  The  first  story  being  fitted  up  with  all  the 
machines,  tools,  and  benches  of  a  first-class  machine- 
shop,  for  manufacture  and  repair  of  the  machines 
and  tools  employed  in  the  works,  with  necessary  of- 
fice and  engine  rooms,  and  well  furnished  with  presses 
and  cabinets  for  surplus  tools,  standard  gauges,  spe- 
cimens, etc.  A  room  in  L,  with  all  appliances  for 
-washing  cases.and  a  large  and  conveniently  arrang- 
ed drying-room  over  the  engine  boiler.  The  second 
story  "contains  all  the  machinery  necessary  for  draw- 
ing, trimming,  heading,  and  forming  cartridge-cases, 
wtth  a  separate  room  in  L  provided  with  machines 
and  tables  for  making  paper  packing  bo.\es  ;  print- 
ing-presses, type-fonts,  etc., for  printing.  No.  2.  Fire- 
proof factory  for  manufacture  of  bullets,  with  separ- 
ate rooms  for  charging  eases  and  inspecting  and 
packing  finished  ammunition.  No.  3  Blaeksinithx'' 
xhop  and  stacks  for  forcings  and  small  castings,  and 
annealing  furnaces  for  tools,  etc.,  with  a  separate 
room  for  annealing  and  pickling  cases.  No.  4.  Car- 
penter-shop,  for  making  boxes,tools,implenunts.  etc. 


drawing  or  reducing.  The  cylindrical  shell  is  trim 
med  to  a  standard  length  in  a  machine  called  the 
case-trimmer.  After  washing,  the  shells  or  cases 
have  a  fiange  formed  at  the  closed  end  by  pressure  in 
a  special  machine  called  the  header.  The  headed 
case  is  tapered  to  a  standard  size.  The  open  end  is 
made  cylmdrical  for  the  length  the  bullet  enters  it, 
so  as  to  inclose  the  latter  snugly;  and  if  it  be  inside- 
primed,  like  the  present  service  cup-anvil  cartridge, 
the  anvil  is  inserted  and  fastened  at  the  same  time 
by  crimping  the  case  around  its  edge. 

Priming  is  done  in  a  machine  called  the  primer. 
For  outside  priming  a  percussion-cap  is  vi.sed,  made 
in  the  ordinary  way.  Priming  of  fulminate  of  mer- 
cury should  not  under  any  circumstances,  be  de- 
posited on  brass,  as  it  forms  an  amalgam,  and  rapidlj- 
deteriorates  the  metal  and  priming.  Shellac  varnish 
is  used  to  protect  the  surface  of  brass.  No  injurious 
deterioration  from  this  cause  has  been  noticed  in  the 
use  of  copper.  Bullets  are  made  in  a  bullet-machine 
from  a  cast  slug  or  rolled  bar ;  the  last  is  considered 
the  best ;  they  are  trimmed  by  a  machine  called  the 
bullet-trimmer.  The  diameter  is  required  to  be  up 
to  standard  with  no  minimum  allowance,  and  they 
are  sized  at  the  lubricating  machine  by  passing 
through  a  die.  The  form^  width,  and  depth  of 
grooves  must  conform  to  the  standard  with  very  little 


No.  %  I'oint-sh'-p.  No.  6.  Rit'irt-h'Of,  .  fur  manu- 
facture of  fulminate  of  mercury.  No.  T.  Magazine. 
for  powder.  No.  8.  Small  Magazine,  for  fulminate  of 
mercury  and  friction-powder.  No.  9.  Store/muse,  for 
storing  cartridges,  primers,  etc. 

The  modern  center-fire  metallic  cartridges  maybe 
divided  into  three  classes:  the  solid  attached  head, 
the  solid  head,  and  the  folded  head.  There  are  two 
varieties  of  folded-head  cartridges  the  reinforced  and 
non-reinforced.  As  regartls  priming,  the  above- 
named  classes  are  divided  into  outside  and  inside 
primed  cartridges,  and  may  be  designated  respect- 
ively as  re-loading  and  non-reloading  cartridges. 
They  are  generally  made  from  sheet-co])per  or  brass, 
the  latter  material  having  more  elasticity, and  the  for- 
mer more  uniformity  and  durability. 

Mannfa-tnre — Sheet  metal  of  the  required  thick- 
ness, from  .025"  to  .09",  is  used  for  the  various  kinds 
of  cartridges.  This  is  fed  to  a  double-acting  die  and 
punch,  which  cuts  out  a  disk  and  forms  it  into  a  cyl- 
indrical cup  at  one  operation.  The  cup  is  reduced 
to  a  cylinder  of  the  requin^d  length  in  from  four  to 
>ix  operations  by   dies  and   punches,    and  is  called 


variation.  The  weights  should  not  vary  more  than 
two  grains  from  the  standard  of  405,  grains.  The 
lubricant  should  be  free  from  acid  reaction,  and  of 
vegetable  origin  as  bayberryor  Japan  wa.x,  and  filled 
into  the  grooves  by  a  machine.  Loading,  or  assem- 
bling thecase,  powder,  and  bullet,  is  done  in  a  ma- 
chine called  the  loader,  by  one  operation  (as  in  the 
Frankford  arsenal  loader),  or  by  several  operations 
known  as  plate-charging.  The  bullet  should  be 
perfectly  concentric  with  the  case  at  the  time  of  in- 
sertion. The  charge  of  powder  should  be  asimiform 
as  possible,  with  not  more  than  two  grains  variation 
from  the  standard  weight  of  70  grains.  All  cart- 
ridges should  be  wiped  clean  and  gauged  as  to  dia- 
meter, length,  and  diameter  and  thickness  of  head. 
Those  should  be  rejected  showing  any  defects  in 
material,  or  bad  workmanship.  Each  cartridge 
should  be  weighed  to  detect  loss  of  parts  or  defi- 
ciency in  weight  of  powder.  A  special  automatic 
weighing  machine  is  used  at  Frankford  arsenal. 

That  the  present  degree  of  perfection  in  tlie  manu- 
facture of  these  several  classes  of  metal  cartridges 
has  been  the  result  of  gradual  and  careful  develop- 


METALLIC  AMMUNITION  FOR  SMALL  ARMS. 


;;  1 '.) 


METALLIC  AMMUNITION  FOE  SMALL  ARMS. 


mpnt,  is  evident  from  a  cursory  examination  and 
<'imiimrison  of  tli(^  earlier,  intermediate,  and  more 

reeeiil  licst  forms. 

Anions  tlu^  tirwt  of  metal  (■iirtri<lf;cn  of  Ameriean 
invention  is  tlie  McjrHc,  wliieli  waH  brouf^lit  out  a 
short  lime  before  tlie  war  of  the  rebellion,  bill  not 
thoroiifrhly  experimented  with  at  the  tiiiic'  or  intro- 
duced into  serviee.  lis  objeetionubli;  feiitiires  are 
apparent  in  tlie  li^^lit  of  proi^rehs  made.  IN  merits 
over  paper  or  similar  ammunition  are  apparent,  the 
chief,  p<'rliapa,  beinj;  that  it  was  desi;:iied  as  a  self- 
primed  carlridi^e,  had  a  tlani^ed-head  for  e.vtraetin;; 
the  case,  and  that  it  reduced  the  operations  of  load- 
ing. 

About  the  same  time  the  nurnside.  Maynard,  an<i  a 
few  others,  were  produced,  some  of  whieli  \v<-re  i;ood 
in  their  day,  an<i  for  the  arms  for  which  Ihey  were 
desifjned,  but  were  tired  by  means  of  a  cap,  throiii;li 
a  vent,  at  some  distance  from  the  carlrid;;!',  and  w<-re 
extracted  by  the  lingers.  With  them  there  was  not 
that  necessary  nicety  of  fit  to  the  chamber  of  the  crun, 
the  joint  was  not  absolutely  closed,  and  the  failures 
to  explode  were  as  frequent  as  with  theold-fashiouctl 
paper  eartridgi^  and  perciission-cap.  Such  failures 
would, now-a-days, be  considered  a  most  unwarranted 
percentage  in  any  metallie  ammunition  laying  claim 
to  excellence,  and,  in  the  best  known  varieties,  do 
not  occur  to  the  extent  of  one  in  one  thousaixl  rounds; 
in  fact,  many  attain  a  much  liigher  standard  of  sure- 
ty than  indicated  l)y  this  figure.  The  records  of  the 
testing-rounds  show  long-<ontinued  firing  and  con- 
sumption of  thousands  of  rounds  without  failure  at 
all  from  any  cause,  and  tlie  summation  of  a  yi'ar's 
practice  and  test,  in  proof  of  manufacture,  exhibit.s 
but  an  exceedingly  small  percentage  of  such  failures. 

For  some  time  the  idea  of  combining  the  primer 
and  cartridge  did  not  assert  itself, but  some  in  vent  itmK 
were  pushed  in  this  direction,  and  the  rim-]irimed 
cartridge  was  produced.  In  this  the  fulminate  com- 
position was  placed  in  tlie  folded  head  of  the  case. 


its  advantages  being  Burc  exploBion  when  Htnick  by 
the  point  of  the  liring-pin;  less  of  fulminate  and  less 
Hlrain  on  the  head  of  the  cartridg(';  greater  seiMirity 
in  handling  and  using  under  all  exigencies  of  Bervice. 
These  cartridges  have  been  subjected  to  llic  Beverest 
tests  to  demonstrate  their  capability  to  resist  all  ac- 
cidents, such  as  masliing  up  boxes  of  ammunition, 
and  even  firing  into  them  with  bullets.  Only  the 
cartridges  actually  impiuL'ed  iijion  ex|)loded  under 
such  t<'Sts,  their  neighbors  being  only  lilackened  and 
not  otherwisi'  damaged.  TIk^  safety  of  handling 
and  transporting  this  ammunition  in  comparison 
witli  that  of  tlie  old-fasliione<l  kind  is  vastly  in  its 
favor,  and  the  risk  attending  Us  carriage  is  almost 
nothing.  Its  grea'.ly  superior  quality  to  resist  expo- 
sure of  climate,  moisture,  c.U-.,  has  also  been  proven 
by  such  exceedingly  severe  tests  that  it  may  be 
asserteii  to  be  practically  water-proof.  A  central 
and  direct  blow  on  the  point  primed  is  an  essential 
and  highly  important  feature  of  the  center-primed 
cartridge;  its  general  ado|)lion,  and  adaptation  of 
all  breech-loading  service  sinall-arms  to  its  use,  is 
the  best  proof  of  its  acknowledged  superiority.  Sim- 
ple modifications  of  the  form  of  the  head  adapt  it  to 
safe  us(t  in  magazine  arms,  even  though  the  front  of 
one  bullet  rests  on  the  head  of  the  preceding  cart- 
ridge, while  with  all  varieties  of  repriming  ammu- 
nition the  central  fire  is  a  nine  gun  nim.  Otiier  rea- 
Bons  in  its  favor  might  be  given,  but  it  is  believed 
sufficient  have  already  been  adduced  to  warrant  the 
statement  that  whatever  may  be  claimed  as  the  par- 
ticular merit  of  a;iy  one  variety  of  metalic  ajnmuni- 
tion,  by  ardent  inventors  and  admirers  of  special 
forms,  all  are  agreed  that,  for  military  purposes  at 
lejiBt,  the  palm  to  center-priming  must  be  yielded. 
Theservice-cartridgc',  made  of  a  copper  case  with  a 
folded-head  and  copper  fulminate  primed  cup-anvil, 
crimped  in  position,  has  been  so  long  used  and  test- 
ed on  the  experimental  ground  and  in  the  field,  and 
1)V  various  boards  of  experts  on  smali-arms,  and  its 


This  mode  of  priming  requires  a  large  charge  of  the 
priming  composition,  which,  being  thrown  into  the 
fold  by  swiveling,  the  entire  circumference  of  the 
head  was  not  always  primed  thoroughly,  and  as  the 
cartridge  is  exploded  by  striking  the  rim  at  a  part  of 
the  head  under  the  hammer,  it  not  infrequently  hap- 
pened that  it  failed  from  the  point  struck  not  having 
any  priming.  The  large  charge  required,  also  (a- 
bout  5  grains  against  A  grain  for  the  center-fire), 
was  a  furtlier  objection  "to  rim-priming;  the  explod- 
ing of  so  large  a  quantity  of  cpiick-powder  in  the 
folded  head,  the  weak  part  of  the  cartridge,  tending 
to  strain  and  open  the  fold  to  bursting,  as  it  frequent- 
ly did.  Another  objection  to  rim  primed  cartridges 
is  that  they  are  more  liable  to  accident  in  handling, 
and  in  shock  of  transportation,  and  in  those  incident 
to  service;  in  fact,  a  number  of  instances  of  explosion 
in  the  magazine  of  repeating-arms,  and  in  patent 
cartridge-boxes  for  service  of  such,  have  been  report- 
ed, by  which  serious  injury  resulted  to  the  soldier. 

Hence,  efforts  to  produce  a  still  more  reliable  and 
satisfactory  cartridge,  and  the  development,  produc- 
tion, and  general  adoption  for  service  of  what  is  now 
so  well  known  as  cenUr.primed  metallic  ammunitim, 


excellence  in  all  these  fields  of  trial  so  well  demon- 
strated, that  no  particular  description  of  its  construc- 
tion and  performance  is  here  necessary.  Some  of 
the  varying  modifications  of  the  folded-flange  car- 
tridge are  noted  in  the  drawings.  It  is  of  rare  oc- 
currence that  the  fold  is  sometimes  slighth*  opened 
or  burst  in  firing,  probably  from  a  defect  or  thinness 
of  tlie  metal,  but  this  is  not  attended  with  the  least 
inconvenience  or  risk  to  the  person  or  arm,  and,  in 
most  cases,  would  escape  notice  altogether  outside 
the  carefully  scrutinized  cases  at  the  experimental 
and  testing  grounds. 

So  far  this  has  not  been  deemed  of  any  consequence 
in  the  service,  and  none  of  the  best  model  breech-load- 
ing arms  take  the  least  notice  of  it.  If  necessarj-, 
however,  the  folded-head  cartridge  is  abundantly 
susceptible  of  improvement,  in  an  easy  and  practic- 
able  manner,  as  is  evident  from  an  examination  of 
the  various  forms  of  re-enforcement  of  cartridges  of 
this  construction,  experimentally  tested  and  herein 
described. 

The  Berdan,  made  in  large  numbers  for  the  Rus- 
sian government,  for  use  in  the  Berdan  breech-load- 
ing rifle,  has  been  most  strictly  and  severly  tested 


METALLIC  AMJIUNITION  FORSMILL-AEMS. 


320 


UEXALLIC  AMMUNITION  FOK  8MALL-ASMS. 


during  manufacture,  and  has  proved  of  great  excel- 
lence. It  is  exceedingly  ingenious;  its  re-enforce- 
ment simple  and  effective;  its  capacity  as  a  reloader 
fully  tested  and  demonstrated  b_v  prolonged  and  re- 
peated trial,  daily,  during  production  of  millions  of 
rounds;  a  number  of  the  shells  being  reloaded, 
primed,  and  flred  ten  times,  and  much  more  extend- 
ed trials  have  been  had  for  special  test  of  the  endur- 
ance of  the  cases  in  this  particular.  Its  chief  distin- 
guishing feature  is  that  its  anvil  is  of  the  same  con- 
tinuous piece  of  metal  as  that  of  which  the  case  is 
made.  Herein  there  is  no  possible  displacement  or 
misplacement  of  the  anvil,  and  it  has  a  fixed  position 
with  respect  to  the  primer.  The  cartridge  is  singu- 
lar in  this  respect,  and  superior  to  its  rivals  that  re- 
quire a  separate  anvil.  In  it  was  a  happy  idea  hit 
upon  by  the  inventor  of  making  his  anvil  by  a  simple 
return  of  the  met;il  of  the  pocket  for  the  primer. 
All  other  anvils  are  its  inferiors  in  that  they  have  to 
be  handled  in  assembling  the  parts  of  the  shell.  An- 
other advantage  is,  it  presents  a  point  to  the  primer 
inside,  rendering  it  sensitive  to  the  blow  of  the  ham- 
mer. The  use  of  the  special  Hobbs'  primer  is  most 
excellent  in  this  combination.  Other  varieties  of  an 
excellent  re-enforcement  may  be  referred  to,  as  ex- 
hiliited  in  the  drawings  and  notes  under  this  class. 

These  re-enforcements  may  be  accomplished  in  var- 
ious ways, as  by  a  ring  of  expanding  metal,  a  ring 
of  solder,  felt  or  7)a;»«7'-»ia<;/(C  wads,  etc.  When  the 
ring  of  this  metal  is  used  as  a  re-enforcement  it  is 
best  applied,  and  perhaps  only  effectually,  in  those 
cartridges  having  a  pocket  or  return  of  the  head  for 
the  priming.  In  these  cases  it  should  be  so  formed 
as  to  act  by  expansion  against  the  walls  of  the  case 
and  of  the  pocket,  to  cut  off  the  escape  of  gas  to 
the  folded  head  in  both  directions.  The  solder  ring 
has  been  found  to  be  a  good  re -enforce  also,  and  in 
the  wrapped-metal  and  some  other  varities  of  car- 
tridges it  serves  also  to  attach  the  flanged-head  to 
the  body  of  the  case.  It  was  tirst  used  here  for  this 
purpose,  and  that  it  acted  also  as  a  re-enforce  was  a 
resulting  discover}'.  The  felt  or  papier-mache  wad  is 
not  believed  to  be  as  good  or  to  hold  the  head  as  se- 
curely, although  it  is  extensively  used  in  the  various 
forms  of  Boxer  ammunition.  It  is  not  believed  that 
a  simple  ring  of  any  soft  metal  of  any  shape,  as  lead 
or  its  alloys,  forced  into  the  case  at  the  head,  will  act 
as  a  re-enforce,  as  has  been  claimed.  No  matter  how 
closely  the  metallic  surfaces  are  in  contact,  if  the  re- 
enforcement  does  not  expand  more  promptly  and  as 
fully  as  the  case  itself  under  all  the  pressure  of  the 
gas,  it  does  not  strengthen  or  re-enforce  the  point  to 
which  it  is  applied.  A  re-enforcing  ring  works  well, 
applied  to  a  Martin  cartridge,  as  well.Jinfact,  as  to  a 
Berdan.  and  in  the  same  manner.  An  objection  to 
the  Martin  is  its  small  anvil  for  small-headed  car- 
tridges, and  their  liability  to  burn  the  priming  com- 
position inclosing  the  pocket  on  the  anvil,  a  difficul- 
ty met  with  in  their  manufacture,  with  the  bar-an- 
vil, and  which  can  onlv  be  wholly  eliminated  by 
careful  inspection  of  primed  cases. 

A  very  notable  cartridge  is  the  Boxer,  as  made  at 
the  Royal  Arsenal,  Woolwich,  for  the  Snider  and 
Martini-Henry  rifles.  A  perusal  of  the  English  re- 
ports of  their  small-arm  ordnance  board  will  show 
the  most  casual  reader  that  the  failures  of  these  car- 
tridges, from  all  causes,  have  been  what  would  be 
considered  in  our  trials  of  the  best  American  car- 
tridges as  a  very  large  percentage,  suthcient  to  war- 
rant the  abandonment  of  a  cartridge  that  failed  so 
often.  Unlike  its  American  prototype,  frtim  which 
it  was  originally  taken,  its  ]iarts  are  more  lunnerous, 
and  the  steits  of  operalicms  in  its  produclidu  more 
than  double  those  in  tlial  siinjjle  cartridge.  Its  cost, 
hence,  is  also  large,  considering  the  low  prices  of  la- 
bor and  materials,  and  the  very  large  numbers  fab- 
ricated in  the  country  of  its  adoption;  a  cost  very 
much  \n  excess,  it  is  believed,  of  that  of  any  other 
of  the  most  approved  American  varieties  of  metal 
cartridges  fabricated  under   similar  advantages   of 


cheap  labor,  low-priced  materials,  and  large  produc- 
tion It  does  not  appear  to  be  well  adapted  to  stand 
the  shocks  of  transportatin  or  exigencies  of  service, 
is  easily  indented  and  disfigured,  so  much  so  as  se- 
riously to  interfere,  with  ease  of  loading.  Per  contra, 
it  is  beautifull)'  expanded  and  brought  into  shape  of 
the  exact  walls  of  the  chamber  in  firing,  and  extracts 
readily  if  the  head  holds,  which,  from  the  reports, 
seems  not  always  to  be  the  case.  It  is  not  suitable 
in  its  present  state  and  form  for  vise  as  a  reloader, 
whatever  may  be  claimed  for  it  in  this  respect,  and 
it  is  doubtful  if  it  could  be  made  so.  The  idea  of 
such  a  use  does  not  seem  to  receive  encouragement 
from  recent  reports.  Its  attachable  heads,  from  the 
peculiar  and  awkward  mode  of  fixing  them,  are  not 
exact  or  even,  and  may  not  always  lie  firmly  put  on. 
Made  of  iron,  it  is  believetl  they  never  should  be  for 
cartridges  subjected  to  all  varieties  of  climate.  The 
use  of  this  metal  for  a  cartridge,  otherwise  so  cost- 
ly, is  the  poorest  kind  of  economy. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  solid  heads,  as  the 
Hotchkiss,  the  Dutch,  the  United  States  Cartridge 
Company's  &c.  The  head,  here,  is  re-enforced  by 
using  a  thick  sheet-metal  strip  to  form  the  case,  and 
leaving  sufficient  stock  in  the  head,  in  drawing  the 
case,  to  flow  out  and'form  the  flange  solidly.  That 
this  is  effective  in  making  a  very  strong  case  is  un- 
questionable; its  manufacture  requires  some  heavier 
plant  for  special  operations;  its  cost  in  metal  and 
production  is  somewhat  greater;  and  it  is  believed 
that  the  head  is  unnecessarily  strong  for  the  present 
work  required  by  well-constructed  breech-loading 
small-arms. 

Experience,  it  is  believed,  has  fully  demonstrated 
that,  in  order  to  insure  the  best  results  in  service, 
our  small  Army  should  be  furnished  with  the  most 
approved  arms  and  material  practicable.  To  effect 
this,  the  careful  selection  of  an  excellent  (the  best 
if  it  can  be  determined  upon,  for  the  chief  trouble  of 
such  a  selection  seems  to  be  from  embarroji  de  richesse 
in  this  branch  of  invention)  system  of  breech-loading 
rifle  small-arm,  and  suitably  working  efficient  am- 
munition for  the  service  of  the  same,  is  preeminently 
desirable.  Supposing  the  first  part  of  the  proposition 
accomplished,  and  such  a  breech-loading  system  selec- 
ted, approved  and  adopted,  their  production  in  such 
numbers  as  may  be  required  by  the  Government  for 
the  Army,  the  uniform  equipment  of  the  militia,  and 
the  necessary  reserve-stores  for  future  emergencies, 
can  unquestionably  be  accomplished  at  the  National 
Armory,  and  no  danger  need  be  apprehended  of  any 
serious  difficulty  in  the  way  of  adaptation  of  its 
present  machinery  and  plant,  to  the  manufacture  of 
any  breech-loading  system  of  small-arms,  perfectly 
interchangeable,  in  these  days  of  advanced  scientific 
manufacture,  when  the  production  of  the  most  com- 
plete and  intricate  machinery,  interchanging  in  all 
their  parts,  is  a  problem  of  an  easy,  sure,  and  daily 
accomplishment. 

If,  from  the  abundance  of  good  things  to  be 
chosen  from,  the  difficulty  of  selection  can  be  over- 
come, the  rest,  with  adequate  appropriations,  is 
comparatively  easy.  A  prime  essential  of  such  ma- 
nufacture should  be  the  institution  of  a  rigorous 
standard  from  which  there  should  not  be  the  slightest 
departure,  except  by  competent  authority.  Expe- 
cially  .should  this  apply  to  the  chamber  of  the  gun  or 
neat  of  the  cartridge,  the  dimensions  of  which  should 
be  invariably  fixed,  s'.nd  the  greatest  nicety  of  finish 
and  adjustment  of  breech-mechanism  insisted  upon. 
In  other  words,  the  chambers  should,  within  the 
limits  of  meehiuiical  construction,  be  of  the  same 
dimensions,  to  the  tlicuisandlh  <if  an  incli,  both  for 
the  body  of  the  cartridge  and  its  llange  or  head,  ihe 
neat  (ftfie  extractor  should  not  occupy  any  part  whatever 
of  tlie  body  of  the  chamber,  and  its  surface 
should  be  as  smooth  as  it  is  possible  to  make  it. 
The  depth  of  the  flange  recess  of  the  chamber  should 
only  be  sufBciently  deeper  than  the  thickness  of 
the  head  of  the  airtridge  to  be  employed  in  it  to 


METAL  LINED  CASES. 


321 


METALLURGY. 


allow  fur  the  easy  cloning  of  the  brcedi-block,  the 
Hiimll  viiriiilioiis  of  thickness  of  iiicliil  fruiii  wliifh 
tlic  cusf  is  iiiailc,  1111(1  of  ncccssiiry  iiiiiiiiifiiclurc. 
A  (lilVcrciicc  lit  O'.OI  is  lii'lirvcd  to  lie  iuii|iU'  fur  all 
|mr|)os(/s  ;  ils  diaiiu'liT  may  lii'  at  least  O'.fKi  larj^er 
than  that  of  the  carlrid^^e-head,  which  should  itself 
be  great  enough  to  allow  a  secure  hold  to  the  ex- 
tractor. Ail  the  nngli'H  of  the  chamhir  x/ioi/ltl  he. 
dUjlMy  rovnihd.  Tlie  leMt;tli  of  the  eliauiber  should 
be  but  a  few  hundredths  iif  un  inch  lciii;.;cr  than  that 
of  the  case  of  the  eartridije,  anil  its  throal.  or  seat 
of  the  jirojeclinu;  ])art  of  the  bullet,  shniild  lie  ac- 
curately alteuded  to,  so  that,  with  the  cartridge  in 
Hi'tu,  the  breech-blocU  being  dosed,  it  should  always 
occupy  the  same  relative  position  with  respect  to  its 
bearings  in  the  chamlier,  and  the  bullet  have  the  i 
smallest  necessary  distance  to  move  before  engaging  | 
the  grooves  of  the  barrel,  wliicli  engagement  should 
be  well  advanced  before  the  bullet  is  free  from  the 
case,  to  insuri!  that  it  will  start  with  its  axis  in  the 
direction  of  the  axis  of  the  barrel.  The  expansion 
of  the  case  in  tiring  should  immediately  shut  iifV 
escape  of  gas  arounil  its  body  to  the  rear-  the  only 
limits  in  diilerence  of  diameter  of  chamber  and  case 
allowable  being  those  necessary  to  insure 
the  required  ease  in  loading,  and  there 
shinild  lie  no  fiiuling  of  the  chamber  in 
firing'  liall-carlridges. 

A  little  retlectiun  will  convince  all  that 
an  invariable  chamber  ('.t  the  prime  enmntidl 
to  the projwr  pirformanre'of  the  cartridge, 
assuming,  of  course,  that  the  latter  is  also 
as  carefully  made.  This  once  obtained, 
let  us  insist  on  the  case  of  the  cartridge 
fitting  as  closely  as  practicable-  the  limit 
of  variation  allowalile  being  only  the  very 
small  unavoidable  range  of  thickness  in 
metal  strips,  and  a  reasonable  life  or 
wear  of  dies  and  punches  necessary  to  the 
production  of  ammunition  by  the  quanti- 
tj-.  These  degrees  of  perfection  can  be 
obtained  only  by  the  adoption  and  j.reser- 
ration  of  exact  standard  gauges,  by  fre- 
quent and  every-day  careful  inspectim: 
of  material  and  work,  and  keeping  the 
attention  of  mechanics  directed  to  the 
necessity  of  constant  watchfulness  over 
and  frequent  verilicaiion  of  their  tools  dies,  and  puu- 
dies,  in  current  use  to  insure  the  desired  nicety 
Without  this  constant  care  in  keeping  up  to  the 
standard,  work,  however  satisfactorily  and  success- 
fully ■inaugurated,  will  soon  become  indifferent. 

All  experience  shows  that  the  fulminate  composi- 
tion for  priming  should  not  be  in  contact  witli  any 
easily  corroding  metal,  or  so  deposited  in  the  primer  ' 
or  in  assembling  the  parts  as  to  rentier  any  galvanic 
action  possible  for  its  deterioration  and  eventual  de- 
struction. It  is  not  believed  that  the  service  ful- 
minate composition  for  ijriming  in  contact  with  pure 
copper  undergoes  any  such  deleterious  change,  as 
our  percussion-caps  of  twenty  years  ago  are  now 
prompt  and  perfectly  reliable.  It  should  not  be  in 
immediate  contact  with  brass,  however,  where  bra.ss 
is  used  in  construction.  This  is  not  necessary,  as 
in  the  Ilobbs'  primer,  for  instance,  it  is  efficiently 
protected  by  being  between  two  coats  of  varnish,  one 
applied  to  the  botom  of  the  cap  before  the  priming 
is  dropped  in,  the  other  to  one  side  of  a  tin-foil  var- 
nislied  disk  pressed  over  the  priming,  which  also 
hohls  it  securely  in  place.  Similar  means  of  pro- 
tection are  used  in  other  primers,  or  an  equivalent. 
The  United  States  Cartridge  Company's  primers,  the 
Millbank,  etc.,  are  well  protected  from  moisture,  de- 
lexioratiiin.  and  injury.     See  Ammunition. 

METAL  LINED  CASES.— Powder  barrels  lined  with 
sheet  copper,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  prepared 
cartridges.  Metal-lined  cases  are  used  as  portable 
magazines.  When  tested. they  should  be  water-tight. 

METALLURGY.— The  art  of  extracting  metals  from 
their  ores.     The  operations  are  partly  meclianical 


and  partly  clicmical .     Those  proceBscs  wli  icli  depend 

principally  on  chimical  reactions  for  their  results 
iiave  reference  chielly  to  the  roasting  and  smelting 
of  ores,  and  are  described  under  the  heads  of  the 
different  metals.  I!ut  there  are  certain  preliminary 
operations  of  a  mechanical  kind  which  metallic  ores 
undergo,  such  as  crushing,  jigging,  washing,  etc., 
which  we  shall  describe  here,  as  they  are  essentially 
the  same  for  the  ores  of  lead,  copper,  tin,  zini'.  and 
indeed  most  of  the  metals.  Ores  are  first  broken  up 
with  hammers,  into  piices  of  a  convenient  size  for 
crushing  or  stamping.  Waste  material,  such  as  pieces 
of  rock,  spar,  etc.,  which  always  accompany  ore, 
are  as  far  as  possilile  picked  out  by  hand,  and  the 
ore  itself  is  arranged  in  sorts  according  to  its  jiurity. 
Various  kinds  of  apparatus,  such  as  riddles,  sieves, 
etc.,  are  then  used  for  separating  it  into  (iifferent 
sizes,  in  order  to  secure  a  uniform  strain  on  the 
crushing  machinery.  In  one  of  the  most  a]ii)roved 
forms  of  crushing-mills  the  ore  is  raised  by  means  of 
small  wagons  to  a  i)latfiirm,  where  it  is  ready  to  bo 
sup[)lied  to  the  crushing-rollers  through  an  opening. 
These  rollers  are  mounted  in  a  strong  iron  frame, 
held  together  by  ■\\Tought-irou  bars,  and  bolted  to 


strong  beams-  Their  distance  apart  is  regulated  by 
means  of  a  lever  to  which  a  weight  is  attached.  The 
bearings  of  the  rollers  slide  in  grooves,  so  that  when 
any  extra  pressure  is  put  upon  them  by  a  large  or 
hard  piece  of  ore,  the  lever  rises,  and  allows  the 
space  between  the  rollers  to  widen.  The  crushed 
ore  falls  upon  a  series  of  sieves,  which  are  made  to 
vibrate.  These  have  meshes  increasing  in  fineness 
as  they  descend ;  and  the  upper  two  are  so  wide  that 
pieces  of  ore  too  large  to  pass  through  them  are 
conducted  into  the  lower  part  of  the  Ijucket-wheel 
and  raised  again  to  the  platform  to  be  recrushed. 
The  lower  four  sieves  separate  the  remaining  portion 
of  the  crushed  ore  into  different  degrees  of  fineness, 
which  is  collected  in  pits. 

A  sectional  view  of  the  Blake  Ore  Crusher,  stand- 
ard in  the  United  States  and  abroad,  is  shown  in  Fig. 
1.  A  three-sided  framework  of  cast-iron,  with  broad 
flanged  base,  holding  the  movable  jaw.  J,  in  suspen- 
sion, from  the  front  part  of  the  machine, between  the 
upright  convergent  jaws  of  which  tlie  stone  is  crush- 
ed. "The  jaw  shaft,  K,  is  held  in  place  b.y  wrought 
iron  or  steel  clamps.  C.  which  serve  to  take  part  of 
the  strain  due  to  crushing  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
jaw  space,  and  also  serve  as  walls  thereof.  In  the  low- 
er part  of  the  three-sided  frame  or  front  part  of  the 
crusher,  and  on  each  side  of  it.  are  holes  in  the  cast- 
ing to  receive  the  main  tension  rods  which  connect 
the  front  and  rear  part  of  the  nuichine.  Therearpart 
B.  is  called  the  main  toggle  block,  and  is  also  pro- 
vided with  holes  for  thetension  rods  R.  R.,  corres- 
ponding to  those  in  the  front  casting.  These  two 
parts  of  the  machine  are  connected  by  the  main  steel 


METAL  SEPAKATOK. 


322 


METCALFE  CAETEIDGE  BLOCK. 


tension  rods,  R  R.,eacli  provided -with  screw-tliread 

and  nuts,  ]S.  N.,  by  whicli  their  lcn_s;tlis  and  the  jaw 
opening  are  readily  adjusted  to  crush  coarse  or  tine, 
as  may  be  desired.  The  front  and  rear  castings  are 
supported  on  parallel  timbers,  to  the  under  side  of 
which  are  boiled  the  bo.xes  carrying  the  main  eccen- 
tric shaft,  S,  provided  with  tiy  wheels  and  pullej',  D 
and  E.  The  timbers  are  thus  made  component  parts 
of  the  machine,  and  take  the  transverse  strain  which 
comes  upon  the  pitman  connecting  the  main  shaft 
and  the  toggle  joint  placed  to  the  rear  of  the  mov- 
able jaw,  and  between  it  and  the  main  toggle  block. 

Between  the  broad  flanged  bases  of  the  front  and 
rear  castings  and  the  timber  on  which  they  rest,  are 
placed  flat  rubber  cushions,  CC,  one-quarter  to  three 
eighths  of  an  inch  thick.  Every  revolution  of  the 
shaft  brings  the  toggles.  O.  O,  more  nearly  into  line, 
and  throws  the  swing  jaw  forward  ;  it  is  withdrawn 
by  the  rod  provided  with  rubber  spring  L.  In  this 
way  a  short  reciprocating  or  viljratory  movement  is 
communicated  to  the  movalile  jaw. 

The  rigidity  inseparable  from  macliines  with  cast 
iron  frames, and  which  is  the  cause  of  frequent  break- 
ages is  complete!}'  overcome  in  this  machme,  and 
tile  longitudinal  as  well  as  the  transverse  strains  are 
brought  upon  materials  which  are  strong  and  elastic 
as  compared  with  cast  irnn.     The  rubber  cushions. 


Fig.  2. 
while  offering  sufficiently  great  resistance  to  com- 
pression in  case  of  the  breakage  of  stone  or  in  doing 
the  normal  work  of  the  machine,  will,  in  case  of  the 
accidental  intrusion  of  the  steel  hammers  or  anything 
of  that  kind,  be  compressed  and  so  permit  a  par- 
tial revolution  of  the  fly-wheels  before  connug  to  a 
full  stop,  thus  relieving  the  machine  of  those  nearly 
infinite  strains  to  which  those  of  the  old  forms  were 
subjected, and  which  resulted  in  breakage  of  import- 
ant parts.  The  toggles  are  long,  and  of  equal  leugth, 
and  may  be  worn  indefinitely  as  compared  with  tho.se 
in  the  old  machines.  The  construction  of  the  pit- 
man, R'  II,  is  such  as  to  admit  of  change  of  inclina- 
tion of  the  toggles,  and  consequently  of  adjustment 
of  the  length  of  stroke  of  the  movable  jaw.  The  jaw 
opening  can  be  varied  between  an}'  working  linnts 
by  means  of  the  nuts,  M,  on  the  tension  rods,  and 
the  machine  be  .set  to  cnin/i  roarM  or  fint  as  iiiiiy  be 
desired.  This  Breaker  can  he  run  at  a  higher  rate 
of  speed  with  safety  than  any  of  the  old  forms  of 
cruslier  with  cast  iron  frames, and  will  consequently 
do  a  greater  amount  of  work.  It  is  verj-  uuich  light- 
er than  the  old  forms,  and  has  at  least  doulile  their 
strength.  It  has  been  repcatedl)-  subjected  to  the  | 
test  of  a  steel  hammer  Ixiiig  thniwn  between  its 
jaws,  when  going  at  as  high  a  rate  of  s])eed  as  >iOO 
revolutions  per  nnnute  without  the  slightest  injury 
to  or  any  breakage  of  the  machine.  The  manner 
fif  moutniug  the  t'rusher,  so   that  it  mav  lie   readil- 


hauled  from  place  to  place,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2.  It 
1  wil'  be  seen  how  peculiarily  well  adapted  this  style  of 
Breaker  is  for  mounting.  The  fly  wheels  themsel- 
,  ves  serve  as  the  rear  pair  of  wheels.  The  keys  of 
I  the  main  Hy  wheels  are  withdrawn,  and  the  main 
l'  shaft  is  provided  with  a  collar  and  set  screw  to  hold 
the  wheels  in  place  when  the  machine  is  being  haul- 
ed about.  After  being  crushed,  the  ore  is  washed 
and  sifted  on  a  jigging  sieve.  In  one  of  its  simiJest 
forms  the  ore  is  placed  on  a  table  from  which  a  sieve 
is  tilled.  It  is  then  immersed  in  a  tub  of  water  and 
a  jigging  motion  communicated  to  it  by  a  workman 
alternately  raising  and  lowering  a  handle.  This 
effects  two  purposes — it  washes  the  ore,  and  separa- 
tes the  material  into  two  layers:  the  upper  consists  of 
the  lighter  spar  and  other  impurities,  which  are 
raked  off;  and  the  lower  consi.sts  of  the  heavier  and 
purer  portions  of  the  ore,  which  are  now  ready  for 
the  roasting  furnace.  It  will  be  apparent  that  in  the 
bottom  of  tlie  tub  there  must  be  a  quantity  of  more 
or  less  valuable  ore,  which,  from  its  fineness,  has 
fallen  through  the  sieve.  This  is  called  sludge  or 
slime ;  and  the  minute  particles  of  ore  it  contains 
are  recovered  either  by  simply  forming  an  incline  on 
the  ground,  and  washing  it  with  a  current  of  water, 
or  by  using  an  inclined  table  called  a  dfeping-tnble. 
Ore  which  has  been  reduced  to  powder  at  the  stamp- 
ing-mill, as  well  as  slime,  is  washed  by  tlab 
apparatus.  The  material  is  put  into  a  chest 
which  is  placed  in  a  sloping  position,  and 
is  supplied  with  water  on  turning  a  stop- 
cock. The  current  carries  the  contents 
of  the  chest  through  an  opening  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  spreads  it,  with  the  aid  of  a  se- 
ries of  stops,  or  small  bits  of  wood,  over 
the  surface  of  the  table.  A  stream  of  water 
is  tlien  kept  flowing  over  the  table  till  the 
earthy  impurities  are  ah  carried  down  into 
a  trough,  the  pure  jjartielcs  of  the  ore  re- 
maining, by  reason  of  their  greater  specific 
gravity,  near  the  top  of  the  table,  whence 
tliey  ar(!  removed  to  be  smelted.  Some- 
times the  table  is  suspended  by  chains  and 
receives  a  succession  of  blows  at  the  top 
from  a  hiijf'er,  moved  b_y  cams  on  the  same 
principle  as  the  stamping-mill.  The  varie- 
ty of  machinery  and  apparatus  used  in 
dressing  ores  is  very  great,  and  they  pass 
under  different  names  in  different  districts, 
but  tliev  are  all  very  similar  in  principle 
to  those  we  have  descriiied.  See  Jrvn. 
METAL  SEPAEATOR.— A  machine  much  used  in 
armuries  and  arsenals  for  separating  iron  and  steel 
chips,  turnings  filings  etc.,  from  those  of  brass  or 
composition.  Its  capacity  and  utility  for  this  kind 
of  work  are  very  great.  The  machine  is  not  only  a 
great  labor-saving  device,  but  brass-stock  treated 
with  it  is  much  improved,  as  it  is  so  tlioroughly 
cleansed  that  it  may  be  used  for  the  best  of  work. 
The  machine  may  also  be  used  for  separating  iron 
from  emery.  The  driving  shaft  should  run  tlO  to  100 
turns  per  minute.  There  are  two  things  absolutely 
necessary  in  using  the  machine  :  1st,  ^\  henever  the 
machine  is  not  running,  raise  the  brush  and  cover  the 
wheel  with  iron.  2d,  The  tray  uuder  the  hopper 
should  strike  e(iually  on  each  side,  so  as  to  distribute 
the  stock  evenly  on  the  wheel.  If  you  wish  it  to  feed 
faster,  draw  the  hopper  forward.  The  bo.\es  should 
be  placed  as  shown   in  the  drawing. 

METCALFE  CARTRIDGE-BLOCK.— This  consists  of 
a  wooden  block,  H  inches  by  1  3-4  inches  by  11-16 
incli,  bored  on  its  edge  with  eight  holes  to  receive 
the  same  number  of  ritle  cartridges.  It  is  provided 
with  a  carrier  or  metallic  hook,  sliding  ujion  th<'  belt, 
in  which  it  isprnjiosed  to  carry  the  block  full  of  car 
fridges.  Thcrilleaud  tlie  block  arc  so  arranged  that, 
at  ])lcasure,  they  cun  be  secured  together  in  a  very 
convenient  position  for  loading.  It  is  intended  that 
the  lilocks,  when  exhausted,  shall  be  thrown  away; 
but  Ihev  can,  ifnccessarv,  lie  refilled  and  used  iiLanv 


METEOEOLOGICAL  REGISTER. 


323 


METRICAL  MEASURES. 


imps.  It  is  proposed  tlml  as  iiiiiiiy  of  tliese  carriers 
anil  l)lo<ks  I)c  worn  upon  the  belt  as  may  Ik- iieces- 
fiiiry,  line  re};ar(l  Ijeinj;  hail  to  tlie  size  of  the  men  and 
to  the  ehuracler  of  the  service  reqnirin^  their  nt;e. 
The  ailviinlai;es  of  this  invention  are  niaiiifohl.  The 
hlork  in  ilseif  is  a  nooil  piieUiiL'e  forihe  carlridnes. 
It  is  nearly  indeslrijelihle  in  Iransportation  orhy  wet; 
it  keeps  ihe  eartriiljres  from  joslliui;  together,  and 


Metal  Srpf^rntor. 

therein',  as  has  been  shown  by  e.xperieuce,  endanc;er- 
ing  their  surety  of  tire.  It  also  i)rotects  them  from 
dust  and  sand,  quite  as  injurious  to  the  gun  as  mois- 
ture would  bo  to  the  cartridge.  It  is  a  convenient 
package  in  shape  and  si/.<',  if  an  extra  supply  of  am- 
muniliou  had  to  be  carried  in  the  men's  ])ockets. 

When  combined  with  the  gun,  a  considerable  in- 
crease in  the  possible  rapidity  of  tire  is  attained  and 
a  very  marked  advantage  is  found  in  tiring  lying 
down.  In  this  position  it  seems  jiroijable  that  nuich 
of  Ihe  firing  of  the  future  is  to  be  conducted.  The 
only  i)ortion  of  a  man  so  tiring  whicli  it  is  at,  all 
necessary  to  move  is  his  right  arm.  If  an  isolated 
skirmisher,  he  need  not  twist  or  roll  over  to  get  at 
his  l)ack  or  side  for  amunilion,  and  thereby  attract 
attention.  The  cartridges  are  immediately  in  front 
of  the  firer,  imder  his  eye.  He  sees  just  where  they 
are,  and  how  many  are  left  him.  We  have  frequently 
heard  of  troops  engaged  in  iutrenchments  spreading, 
for  convenience,  their  cartridges  on  the  parajM't  in 
front  of  them.  In  a  similar  ca.se,  a  man  provided 
■with  the  block  has  all  this  facility  of  manipulation, 
with  this  additional  advantage,  that,  if  obliged  to 
change  his  position  hurriedly,  he  does  not  have  to 
leave  his  ammunition  behind  him,  but  carries  it  with 
the  gun  to  which  it  belongs.  Pickets  or  other  troops 
exposed  to  surprise  maj'  sleep  with  their  belts  off  if 
they  have  their  blocks  fixed.  In  case  of  a  surprise, 
they  have  but  one  thing  to  look  for — the  gun. 

Moreover,  the  block  protects  the  hand  from  burn- 
ing on  the  barrel.  After  a  few  shots  have  been  tired 
from  the  new  Springfield  ritle,  especially  on  a  hot 
day,  the  barrel  becomes  so  hot  that  it  can  hardlj'  be 
touched.  The  block,  when  fixed,  prevents  the  hand 
from  touching  it  if  the  thumb  be  properlj'  laid  along 
the  stock.  The  English  War  Department  has  conse- 
quentl}'  been  obliged  to  issue  leal  her  pads  to  buckle 
over  the  barrel  at  the  grip.  With  the  cartridge-block 
it  h  nerer  xn  niiif/i  ni't'tl'dii.i  irhf/i  it  i.i  tixed. 

METEOROLOGICAL  REGISTER.— A  monthly  report 
prepared  and  transmitted  by  the  Senior  Surgeon  on 
duty  at  each  military  post.  It  embraces  the  follow- 
ing items,  as  noted  in  the  forms  on  pages  334  and 
32.'). 

"methylated   spirit.— AIcoholCC^HsOHO),   of 
specific  gravity   of-83.  mixed  with   10   per  cent,  of 


wood  spirit, or  mcthylic  alcohol  (C'HjO, HO), which 

is  one  of  the  products  of  the  destructive!  distillation 
of  w<ioil.  Methylated  spirit  is  used  for  damping  de. 
tonal  ing  compositions,  so  as  to  form  them  into  paste, 
when  tliey  can  be  handled.     It  dissolves  siiellac. 

METIER.  A  term  apiplicable  to  those  nations 
which  keep  up  large  standing  armies,  and  make  war 
their  princijjal  objecl  and  pursuit.  Chevalier  I'olard 
gives  the  following  definition  relative  to  Ihe  question 
which  is  often  discussed  on  the  subject  of  war,  name- 
ly whether  war  be  a  trade  or  a  science.  The  Eng- 
lish  'call  it  a  profession.  Folard,  however,  distin- 
guishes it  in  this  manner:  /ai  guerre  cut  unr,  nnHifr 
pour  I'ti  it/in'rii iitu,  it  iinr  nrifure ])"ur  leHhabileK  fjens, 

METRICAL  MEASURES.  The  frequently  recurring 
necessity  for  clianging  tables  expressing  the  dimen- 
sions, weights,  and  |>ower  of  foreign  guns  Mother  than  , 
British)  into  their  equivalents  in  our  own  system  has 
suggested  tlu;  preparation  and  compilation  of  tlie 
tables  on  pages  320  and  327.  Some  of  the  tables  have 
been  pidjlished  in  part,  or  in  another  form,  but  such 
have  been  generally  based  upon  values  for  the  meter 
and  /-/foyraw, whicli  tlie  latest  accurate  investigations 
have  rendered  obsolete;  other  of  the  tables,  if  ever 
published,  are  not  generally  accessible.  All  (except 
table  M)  are  based  upon  the  value  of  the  meter  in 
iiirhen  and  of  the  kilogram  in  (jrainx.  The  standard 
inch  and  grain  of  the  United  States  are  copies  of 
the  British  ;  the  tables,  therefore,  also  express  the 
equivalents  of  metrical  in  British  measures. 

MeasukesofLknoth,  Squabes. and C'cbic  Measures. 
—  (Tables  A.,  J5.,  and  C;  The  international  bu- 
reau of  weights  and  measures  at  Paris  is  now  en- 
gaged in  delermining,  with  the  utmost  exactness,  the 
relations  of  the  French  standard  to  those  of  other 
nations.  Since  1808  the  United  States  Coast  Survey 
Ollice  has  used  a  value  for  the  meter  equal  to 
31). 370432  inches,  as  determined  by  an  extensive  se- 
ries of  comparisons,  the  results  of  which  are  pub- 
lished in  a  volume  entitled  "Comparisons  of  the 
Standard  of  Lengths  of  England,  France,  Belgium, 
Prussia.  Russia.  India,  and  Australia,  made  at  the 
Ordnance  Survey  Office,  Southampton,  1800."  Pend- 
ing the  result  of  the  investigation  at  Paris,  this  value 
of  the  meter  is  generall.y  accepted  by  scientific  men. 
The  fact  that  the  meter  "is  standard  at  0°  C.  (32"  F.) 
and  the  yard  at  02"  F.  has  been  taken  into  account, 
and  the  value  given  is  that  of  the  meter  in  inches  of 
the  standard  yard.  Tables  A,  B,  and  C,  like  all  the 
remaining  ones,  consist  of  the  values  of  each  denom- 
ination, from  1  to  9  inclusive,  which  can  be  applied 
to  all  numbers,  by  decimal  multiplication  and  di- 
vision. 

Weiohts. — (Table  D.)  The  standard  troy  pound  of 
the  United  States.at  Philadelphia, is  our  only  standard 
of  weight;  it  is  an  exact  copy  of  the  imperial  troy 
pound  of  Great  Britain,  obtained  in  1827.  Elaborate 
comparisons,  since  18.>5,  of  this  troy  pound,  weighing 
.5.700  grains,  and  of  the  commercial  or  avoirdvipois 
pound  of  7,000  grains,  derived  from  the  former, 
with  copies  of  similar  weights  from  the  standard 
pound  of  Great  Britain,  have  shown  that  there  is  less 
than  ^  Jjj  of  a  grain  difference  between  the  monev 
standards  (troy  weights)  of  the  two  countries.  The 
British  ntnndard  pmind  armrdnpoi.i  is  the  weight,  in 
the  latitude  of  London,  of  a  certain  piece  of  platinum 
kept  in  the  exchequer  oflice.  In  the  Philosophic;d 
Transactions  for  1856,  is  published  Prof,  W.  II. 
Miller's  determination  of  the  weight  of  the  kilogram 
equal  to  15.432.34874  grains,  which  is  accepted  as 
authoritative.  This  value  has  been  used  in  the  pre- 
paration of  Table  D. 

Ant  Space  per  Unit  of  Weight  of  Powder-charge. 
— (Table  E. )  In  the  metrical  system,  the  volume 
of  the  chamber  and  bore  of  the  gun  is  expressed  in 
decimeter  cubes  (d.  c.)  or  liters.  The  space  in  the 
bore  (or  chamber),  in  rear  of  the  projectile  in  place, 
in  which  the  combustion  of  the  charge  takes  place, 
constitutes  the  initial  tolume,  smAlhe final  ralumeTe- 
sults  when  the  projectile  leaves  the  piece  and  the  in 


METRICAL  MEASURES. 


324 


METRICAL  MEASUEES. 


60 

s 
c 


e3 


00 


■ssjjBtnajj 

'qj 

•/fmnun^ 

■3  O 

a  a 

■papng; 

a  "3 

•3  ^ 

•ntjSag 

w 

S 

P- 

a 

3 

o 

o 

f5; 

o 

C 

a 

OJ 

S 

S 

•< 

<1 

a            ;^ 

2^-^ 

o  =  S 

, 

S 

Ph 

1^         o 

05 

fe 

u 

^ 

Q 

j 

o 

1 

d. 

a      M 

o 

.2^-2 

e 

0  =  5 

e3 

WH 

»»-t 

O 

1 

^ 

Q 

O 

O 

. 

a      M 

1=1 

S      o 

CD 

fe 

^ 

Q 

a 

fcfj    . 

CD 

1(    o 

p^ 

x  s 

'3)2 

S 

"r  i^ 

1 3 

S-; 

>>B 

C8    =J 

Q  E 

S' 

u 

H 

Ph 

a 

C5 

o 

Lh 

s 

^ 

p-( 

H 

« 

s 

• 

<1 

t- 

oo 

a 

T-H 

S 

5Q 


^ 
^ 

o 
Em 

(7} 

05  & 

■o  o 
^  a 
o  •^- 

6  o 

d 

1 

^ 

6 

iz; 

o 

6 

t» 

1 

No.  of  days  of  ' 
rain  and  liail.  i 

6 

CO 

c 

d 

;zi 

H 

1 

Average      ' 
cloudiness,     i 

d 

|Zi 

p4 
'A 

o 

d 

iz; 

"^ 

1 

Metbical  measures. 


325 


UETRICAL  MEASUBEB. 


188     . 

Barometer  aud  llicrMiuiiiclir  idlmljcd. 

Month. 

7.  A.  M. 

2  P.M. 

9  P.  M. 

Remaiikh. 

Bar. 

ThiT. 

Hnr. 

TIllT. 

Bur. 

ThcT. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

.   14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

• 

188     . 

n 

Dry  and  wet  liulb  thr 

rraometer. 

Month. 

7.  A.  M. 

2  P.  M. 

9  P.M. 

Month. 

7  A.M. 

2  P.  M. 

9  P.M. 

I 

i 

C! 

■■■ 

D.B. 

W.B. 

D.B. 

W.B. 

D.B. 

W.B. 

D.B. 

W.B. 

D.B. 

W.B. 

D.B.    W.B. 

S 

17 

1 

18 

2 

19 

3 

20 

4 

21 

5 

22 

6 

23 

7 

24 

8 

25 

9 

26 

10 

27 

11 

28 

12 

29 

13 

30 

14 

31 

15 

16 

• 

Month! V  mpfln. 

lOITEICAL  MEASURES. 


326 


UETBICAL  MEASURES. 


t^ 

b-. 

1 

6"S 

a 

s 

o 
c 

>         > 

5S          fli 

3 
O 

, 

1           £       § 

5  S-  c  £■ 

||S.| 

_,   £    ^   C  ' 

■"  a 

£- 

OS    o 

o 

a 

5 

03                  rt            ri 

-*                  -* 

V. 

_.         -* 

C-    " 

ri 

"   "  =   ci 

5 

X 

o 

3i5 
a-2 

o 

a.      r' 

a 

c;  .a 

"                             .—                   .r- 

""                 ■"" 

"~ 

p* 

""        "" 

-^ 

"~ 

••" 

■"       .«  ""  'tlr 

2 

^~r^r~^^  '."^~'': 

";  T  .    . 

"^"1 '  T 

^  : 

.   .   .'^ 

■    C3 

"■.'*",'  ^ 

^  '.^ 

N-/-rt      ^^ 

^ 

B 

eg 

ii 

C3 

e! 

•S-.e. 

02       ■ 

03     . 

3    : 
c  : 

■  H 

\  3 

:  o 

O 
1^ 

o 
ci 

3 

o 

£ 

J 

(-1 

a 

1 

0^ 

a. 

?1 

z 

t:  t  S    :  fc    : 

.S-Sgt.S  £ 

53     S 

C3 

-   u 

£.1 

^    0) 

o  ^ 
M   w  cu 

S.S£ 

3    :  o 

Hi 

£    CD    0) 

:  3J 

CMC 

!     "     !   X 

s  ;  s  ;  s 
e  s  s  :  s 

£  c  S   •  ? 

a  a  a. 
■=  £  i^ 

c3 

;-■ 

m 

O 

a  2 

XL-. 

o  u 

S 
So 

i    X 

;S:5:=  gvg^v.i>-S^E 

g  v^  ^  v^;  ^  xD 

ir 

=  ti 

Sra  ":a  o^ 

3 

^-5 

S  £ 

^t^iSoc 

S 

QSSS 

QQSQSSO^CJti 

OI^HUJE-'*  '^ 

-^ 

:<_ 

-<t::i 

E^ 

CO 

l>  CI 

iC 

CO 

C3          I> 

CO 

X  CO        -^ 

c;       **<            CD 

C<l                             t~                 1-H 

CJD  GO 

t^  X  CO          X 

IC  X          LO                 d                       T-' 

CI  [>■           cs       i:r 

CO  '^ 

00  1-1  X         c^ 

X  CO  CO  -**  O 

LO  c:       -^       CO  o                ci 

LO 

CO 

-73  t^  b-        (M  t-  tr-  Ct 

<:r  X  th       -^  CO 

C;  IT-  'Tj^  LC          CO  LO          -Tj*         CM 

M^ 

t>   Tj< 

d 

Cl  I-  t-  C--  CI  f  '^  i-H  rt- 

t-  c-  ■?:■  c^  i>  c;  o  Ci  r- 

«C  CO  ■*  LO          ^ 

CI 

.-I  CO  CO  X  CO  C] 

x-^LOcn       dco       t*       CO 

d 

t*   l-< 

Ci 

CO  CO  X  1- 

-t-   -tH   O' 

I-"  C-  X  X  ■^  t~  f 

■H    -tl 

CICO'^-^COOLO          M<         Ol 

'Tt^ 

X  X 

t-cic;c^oit-cococr 

CO  X  'rt<  ir 

—  X 

CO  CO  O  O  CO  CO 

t-OLOCOCOlO-^-tO         i-" 

O 

O  LO 

lO 

c:c-.  ccLCt-'^O'^e; 

Gi^r^~r  - 

iS    X 

-t*  c  c-.  X 

CI  CO  O  t^  CD          CD 

X 

IC  X 

CO 

0 

c:  re  L't  Cl  ^  Q  O'  -^  O 

CO  O  '-  LO  c 

-  -  p  -t*  CI  cr-  LO  o  ^  1-1       CO 

CD 

1—  t- 

CO 

12; 

",   -.   L'^   ^.   - 

c 

Ti  Z: 

X  -^ 

CO  C:  _■  rt  c 

0   "O 

■i  ^ 

^  CO  C 

LO  '^  o  o  o       o 

q 

■^.  ■^ 

CO 

LTCIOOCCOCCC 

cr.  »H  -f  o  o  o  r:  O  O  ^' 

d  d  d  oc  d  """^ 

d  d  00  d  co"  d  d  CO'  T-i      d 

d 

ci  d 

CO 

CI 

o       ^ 

1-H 

X 
CO 

to 

.-.               CN 

o 

d 

LO 

1—1 
o 

T— 1 

LO 

tK  X  'X  'X'  O  O'  O  CO  ■?- 

<N  CI  CI  CI  ^  ^  '-H  ?:>  r- 

C   C    —    —    — 

-__ 

^H  .— 1 

—  3:^ 

3+1    -^    -h    1-H    T 

_l  — 

^  . 

^  I— 1  — 

-  ■—  ■—  c 

:  o  o       -^ 

"o" 

C  d 

o 

Ol  CI 

X 

-    — '  -^          CO 

o 

X  CO 

CO 

c 

CI   Ol 

'-i    X 

X    X    X   ci  CO    ~. 

-      -H     -^                 d 

X 

d  CO 

00  X  00  X'  C:  O  O  w  1- 

lO 

z  ~  a      X 

t- 

C  X 

^-^-f<'t'':t^-^':t<--H.- 

X    X 

CI  -i- 

-j"  -r  -r  ci  CI  CO 

:  -o  CO       t- 

d 

CO  i-< 

o3 

OOOOXcoXCC'^C 

COOOOC'^CC 

CI  i-H 

^   ^   ^   LO    LO   X 

:  O'  o       lo 

CO 

X  LO 

d 

^  O  TjH  rj<  '^  ^  '^^  C:  C~ 

cicixxxxc:crsctcidCici'^'T-x 

XX-rt^-TflCOCOCOC'O           LO 

X 

■"!  ^. 

uo 

rH  O  «-H  CI  O  ,-H  ''ji  .-i  Tjs  CO  O  Ci  O  CJ  ■<*<  O  (N 

1-1    'Tj^ 

t-i  (M  LO  -I  d  1-H 

cN  ijo  '-'  ci  ci  1-3  -^  CO*  d      c4 

d" 

ci  T-I 

d 

(Nddoaooot-c- 

00-:f-M'#-**3:jCTlTtfCD<X)'X''XiO:-05.-' 

OOOiOlOOCOO         CD 

"o~ 

O  00 

o 

s 

o  o  o  o  c.  z--  ri  I-  l> 

LO  l-O  2  o  r 

t^  L- 

LOOOOOtOCOCO 

dClCOCO-f-t^'t^COCO          CO 

d  CO 

t- 

t-  t-  I-  t-  X  X  X  -_:  --: 

■  t^  t- 

CO    CO   LO    L 

C   X  X        t-- 

d 

t~  CD 

Ci 

^  ^  ^  ^  —  —   —   X   X 

t^   LO 

LO  LO  LO  ir- 

^    _JH     ^    _ 

d 

ct  .-< 

o 

L,0  LO  LO  LO  LO  1-   LT    X    X 

t-   LO 

LO    LO   LO   t-   t-   CO 

X 

X  C-  I 

t   CO  CO          d 

c^ 

CD   X 

t- 

cr-  o  c:j  Cj  ^  ^  1-1  CO  0- 

-  CO  CO 

C-  X 

X    X   X   Tj*   -^   rH 

XX-t-t''^-^'*~CS          'Tj* 

CO 

^     T}< 

t- 

C3 

LO  lO  LO  LO  iO  i-0  LC  o  c 

t-;   t--   r-.   r-J   r-«   r- 

.  o  o 

O  t- 

t-t^t^  in  lO  r-i 

-1  LO  LO  00  CO'  CO  C;  C5          '^ 

X  t- 

^ 

1 

ci  -^  o  -H  T-H  d  CO  d  p- 

• 

d  LO* 

ci  1-5  -i'  ci  i-J  c 

1-J  ^  d'  1- 

"1  CO  O  00  Tf  ^          « 

^' 

co'  d 

^ 

d 

CO 

a 

d                        CO 

t^ 

LO 

'^                 CD 

LO 

»c 

CO  d                 CO  CO         •-( 

t^          CO 

Tt^ 

d  CS  O         C3 

-^ 

00 

d  d 

o  w 

X 

\fi 

'^  CO  CI          CI  CO          ^ 

CO         o 

o 

LO  O  CO  CO          CO 

t- 

c 

CO  CO 

CI  CI          X 

LO 

O'^'cociccca       coi- 

r-.  t^  O  CO 

^  -^ 

IC  -*^          LO  CO  CO 

X 

CO  LO  -t  ^ 

-f<   LO            X 

w  t- 

d 

D-O-+*C0Q0^^C0Cl'- 

CI  t-  LO  o 

^  o 

T-H     CO 

CJ  OS  CD  1-1  O  OC 

Tt* 

•^  !>■  CO  O  CI  CI  X  O          CD 

CO  X 

X 

cot^z:^c:xco^f^ 

'£   CO  LO  O  CO 

IC  1-1 

o  c 

O  CO  CO  CO  CO  Cf 

CO 

■^  d  c 

■;  oi  CO  CO  C-.  d        CO 

t- 

Ci 

c-  ^ 

!:o  o 

^  LO  Tt<  LO  LO  t-  CI  X  LO  r:  oi  -f  - 

-  c;  ^       o 

CD  Ci 

X 

c 

CO  c:  r;  t^  CI  X  i'  ~  -'- 

;  c 

■:  a>  zn 

c:  c 

CO  CI  en  00  •-<  o  00 

rH  CO  t 

1  :z:  X        X 

— 

O  Ci 

OS 

^ 

O  CO  —  CO.  CO  C »  X  c: 

d  d  c^  d  c  CO  d  r^  S^ 

O  -C  O  r^  LO  o  ^,  t^ 

-H    C 

O  O  CO  O  CO  CO  -^  CO  O  CI   C   CI  c 

Z    ~   ^          CO 

« 

55 

c:  »o 

d 

d  d  d  d  LO  d  d  d 

r4  d 

d  ^'  LO  d  i^  T-H 

iCdOLOOOl-J^OO         Ir- 

•i< 

d  Lo' 

d 

CO             X       c: 

^  LO          ^ 

CO  CI          CO 

1-1  CO          00                 o                        O 

d       ^ 

LO 

o 

•^ 

d 

CO          1- 

i-t 

LO 

d 

CO 

TH 

: , 

r^ 

<u 

c 
c 

£ 

t- 
.    C 

-  p- 

:  e 

■   ^ 

i  I 

I. 

;  fc  ^    :  S;    : 
:.=  S  «i  £  ti 

_£ 

is 
SI 

J 

•  -Si 

c 

:    :  oi'TT  c; 
-    !  §  ;S  § 

:  £  c  £  t:  i- 

J)  g    br.^  bfj  ; 

:  c  2 
:_  c3 

:  a  "; 

e 

a 

C3 

a 
c 

—  ^=:  c  y  * 

^  r  t; 

^ 

V 

u 

Uul^l'^z 

3 

IS 

£ 

?=t^?5oc^c^ 

l«  f^ 

s 

o 

2-at! 

a  bi) 

4^ 

-  — , — *. 

J-—r^ 

^^ 

""^  ;- 

'—Y 

—.»—,- 

--•s^-^^ 

^w.,^  O    C 

(J 

.£ 

C3 
3 
o" 

X 

:          o 

a 

i 

e 

3 

6 

=3                = 

e 

S3 

1 

c3 

1 

i    SS 

^    £■? 
a    ^'-^ 
".bo 

1  =1 

5  -SI 

«    .a  _a. 

o 

a; 
£ 

a* 

2 

3 
O 

03 

a 

=i 

i      =i 

.9 

a          ^ 

Si 

c; 

t?3 

1 

'o 
> 

ci 

at  *^ 

Is 

'-5  t„ 

§2 

X 

0!     O 

0/  *^    cfi 

o 

ii  " 

So 

£         •-      ja 

^ 

C^ 

.i         .= 

c 

c 

s 

a 

Si    o  1 

03 

T3 

a 

2°a 

1  " 

•      5         A      i^ 

1      1 

3" 

3 

3 

1        "= 

c 

3 
3 

3 
0 

5   1  ^ 

O 

a 

■S  a  a 

4^  d 
"  o 

Oi 

CC 

w            ^ 

C 

c 

o 

fl( 

H^ 

1 

■^ 

V 

V -^-v^ 

V 

* 

•'>m^x 

— ^ 

CQ 

d 

Q 

-»— 

K] 

^ 

o 

HETKICAL  MEASURES. 


327 


METRICAL  MEASURES. 


in  a  pound  to 
the     square 
inch. 

.s 

1     5       "     -g      2 

g    s     -s    s    ; 

ft     -        j^      ft     - 
«      «       .o      «      a 
a    ..S        £      a      2 

^     tl-^    t     I      a 
g|So   ^      t     - 

7£|fe&   Sfi     1 

■■Z  ^Z  a    a  B-i      5 

■  a  o  2  c   ^■"  0 

a  a 

'o'o 
•go 

1.1 

c 
ll 

•i  a 
5  't 

X  3 

a  * 

a  — 

If 
^« 

"§  5 

•a  a 
a£ 

kilogramme  of  powder 
t-pound  to  a  pound  of 

ilosrauimo  of  powder 
It-ton   to    a    pound   of 

a.  ft 

Fabrenlieit  degree, 
alirenheit  degree. 

t. 

t 

V 

-^     t 

-J.    =     -            K 

2=5  =  5 
o      o 

*-  a  -  c  p 

a^  —  0/  -,  —  ^ 
62  S  a  c  g 

2  s  2^  2-^ 

W=   tfj-   c-= 
:§  ft:5  £  g  S 

l| 

a  ce 
.Sa 

t  I 
Zi  ^ 

s  s 
s  ?: 

El 

ill 

c  ^ 
&  a 

C^  s  0 
3^   C   1- 

0      ^5      a  e 

c!C^__Ci^=£ 

i  5 1(.-=  7  tf.-c  t'"  . 

B    "  — 

•5  u  a 

c  a  ^^ 

a)    : 

y 

S 

a 

(73       ■    CO       . 

03    ;  fy 
S    ••  a 
g    :  £    . 

S  s 

o  c 

ShSh 

M  _W  _H  _ 

al 

w^ 

^H    ^ 

E^ 

W         H 

H 

S" 

s~ 

~"^  ,  ^.,■^_-  ,  - 

WW  .  ^ 

-* 

o 

t^ 

00 

s 

00  ^ 

I> 

OsS       - 

t'  CO 

t* 

t^ 

S? 

CO 

O  (M 

o 

iH  IC         C^ 

I'-  ■* 

CD 

01            C- 

LO  -^  0: 

CO  00 

lO  t- 

00  (N         r- 

t-               Irt 

CO  X 

LO 

S3 

t*               Irt 

LO   -»<  LO 

o  o 

o  c 

rHOO  r-  >* 

d                     lO 

LO  X 

CO 

(N 

0 

C-.               7*1 

IC  -J'  01 

f-CO 

S  ir 

»C  X  CO  X 

O       Oi       cc 

(N  CD 

'^ 

Ci 

0 

l>           t* 

•* 

1«  -)>  OS 

o  o 

-*  c 

CI  't*  r-<  '.r 

O         X         <M 

X  Ci 

rH 

X 

s     s 

l-H 

in  *  »-i 

6 

O  t- 

t-  T 

X'  o  -^  cc 

O         ^         X 

CO  O 

C» 

s 

Ifl 

LO   -*<  LO 

?; 

oo 

10  ?) 

00  O  X  c- 

O        O         X 

0 

y-* 

CO               CD 

LO 

LO  f  01 

d  d 

-■'^ 

■       -1<  c  g  c 
5 

O          tc          L'^' 

T-l              CC 

d  c: 

d 

d 

d         d 

c=>6 

S3 

■^    Tj 

*      Oi  <T'  a  o- 

;D         C5         OS 

o  o 

c^ 

(N 

s 

0          0 

0 

U5  LO  LO 

•^  -; 

*          CO  CO  ^  ^ 

CD         (M         O 

t*  LO 

t- 

i2 

1-H          qj 

LO 

C^  t»  CO 

o 

lo  »r 

-*  -*  Ci  a- 

C^        CO         X 

t-CT 

■^ 

2? 

T-H                             W 

■* 

01  —  OS 

<N  <> 

I         «C  «D  X  CC 

CD  o: 

X 

0 

0           01 

I-H 

t-  X  CO 

I?-  c* 

t-  t- 

X  X  X  X 

O  C 

lO 

CD 

1-H 

^ 

•r* 

■^<  ■^ 

Ci  c 

X  X  CO  C" 

^      S      !n 

^  * 

rD 

99 

X 

LO 

o 

xoo 

CO  CO  o  c 

r-<  --r 

t-^ 

0 

CD 

■^               00 

CD 

i^  cr  .* 

-^*im' 

d  o- 

i      d  CO*  -jJ  T- 

Ift          r-J          -H 

1-H     ^ 

Cl 

y-t 

(m' 

1-1                   tH 

d 

«D  <D 

cc  c: 

t-H   1— 1   .-•   ^ 

Tj*           W           ^ 

o  C 

X 

X 

CD 

9          ° 

0 

10   LO  10 

CC  CO 

IC   L' 

1:^  CT  X  X 

0^          t>         OS 

CO  ir. 

CT 

-^ 

■<*< 

S          ^ 

LO 

CI  OI  CD 

c 

Oi  c: 

■^  -J 

*         UO  lO  o  c 

(N         CD         tH 

CT  t-             in 

0 

CO 

X                 -J- 

LO 

t-  X  0 

ci  m 

t-  t- 

CO  CO  ■— '  ^ 

X          CO          tH 

CO  c 

i-H 

C5 

t- 

cv              t^ 

X 

01  .-  CD 

Cfl  Cfl 

C<I  (> 

t^           LO           LO 

OI  cr 

'^^ 

CO 

X 

'^         '' 

LT  OI  X> 

IC  IC 

,-H  .-<  CD  CC 

lO         CS         '^^ 

lO  c 

TP 

LO  10  OS 

3) 

o 

*"*  ■"! 

00  0 

CO  CO  CI  cr 

40           t-.;           'I* 

X   LC 

'N 

n 

CO 

LO                      «_ 

CO 

OI  CO  LO 

cc  ^' 

rH  fr 

t-H  OI  Lo"  Cq 

Tti      oi      oi 

d  o 

d 

= 

6  c  d 

^ 

^                  1— ( 

CO 

•— t        -t 

00 

■^  3 

T-l                  ?0 

CO         lO 

LO 

CO  CD 

00  U" 

CO          -^  >- 

OI         X 

X 

-S< 

^3 

CD' 

00  X 

00  (T 

CI    --H    ^    -+ 

CC         X 

LO    ^ 

t^ 

t- 

CO 

9        :!! 

d 

X 

cc  t- 

ic  n 

«;      d      to 

t-  u: 

-* 

t- 

.5£           ^ 

00  o 

cr.  c 

X  CO  C  r 

CD         ^         X 

o  c 

X 

t- 

'X               CD 

t* 

t-  CO 

"rt<  <:z 

•^  d  o  •- 

^      oa      t- 

CO  cr 

1-H 

d 

0                     Tt< 

X 

d 

O  Cfl 

CO  c 

o  ^  c  cr 

OS         CD         OI 

CO  <N 

t- 

CO 

X                 CD 

LO  CD 

^ 

CO  ca 

CC  c 

CN  00  C   C 

OI       o       o 

<N  C 

co 

'^ 

X 

Oi          'j; 

CJ 

X  OI  OS 

(m'  ^' 

d  c 

d  '^  d  c 

cd'      =;■      c 

t-"  CI 

x' 

X* 

s 

r:            t-l 

d 

-i  OI  co' 

CI  i-l 

o 

OI 

CI 

'^ 

G^ 

55 

i      £     £i 

_,___, ,_ 

^.^  ■ 

-^/-^  '  ^-^,—  ' 

— s  ^—     ■      — K^—.    ' 

-^./^•'  ^^ 

:    : 

■     ■ 

03         S3 

=3         5 

o  '"o  ~_o 

•Sg 

§0 

tc  a       w  s: 

fl 

i  ^ 

sis 

l| 

:      fl^l 

'     5       a      "i 

c  0 

'3  0 

- 

s=s 

la 

c: .- 

.E  ^ 

s 

a 

3         O         C 

a    '■  S 
2   i2 

;  1  1  1 

2     3     5 

'    rt      s      a 

t 

.11 
0  « 

B.t; 

^  c 

5" 
0  i 

■^  a 

^2 
i  a 

X  "IT 

£? 

C    b^ 

2 

"  0 

X 

-  to 

It 

_t/:- 

a  3 

^  1 

"5  : 

a  c 

a  = 
a" 
5  * 

J       to  :  tji 

r  ^^^^ 

:       ^  =*  ^ 
'      ^  -  ? 

?    °    •  1      .3 
•5  ^-a  -  5 

.5  2 
a| 

5  ~ 
*"  2 
—  5f 

0  a 
0  ^ 

2  0 

c=':?g5 
=11 ^^1 

~4  l'-S5S 

a  1 
§5 

c3  c 
.      0  = 

r  :;  :3 

|.|..s 

If 

c  o  '^ 
rr.'     i  C  ~  .: 

5    5:3=3 J 
=  5lf 1 c£ 

5 '2 

a  :^ 

*=  i  7 

-yii 

^  1^1 i| 

x  2  ^  "P  c 

a      a:  ■— 

a     a  ^ 

*^  '5  "" 

£!S 

■^„ 

-               X     —     ^ 

-     a  i  a  ^  *"  "S 

^' 

T'  " 

j;  *T  ^ 

?*  *-■  z 

c  ~  ~  s  n  ~ 

u       J,  "^ 

1  ^  i 

5  s 

a  • 

;i^^*^ 

^  i,"^"^ " 

U 

1^'! 

t»^  X  .a 

;^       ;£^ 

"^  6  ~ 

^E§5 

^^.^ 

_ 

' 

' 

■' 

•oiqux 

^ 

t-i 

W 

►J 

s  ^ 

METRICAL  ME4SUEES. 


328 


METRICAL  MEASURES 


flamed  passes  have  ex]3andetl  to  completely  fill  the 
wholeof  the  bore.  The  detiuite  i  elation  between  the 
^powder-charge  and  the  initial  and    final    volumes, 

which  we  express  by  " cubic  inches  of  air-space 

:to  the  pound  of  powder,"  is  in  that  system  expressed 

by  " decimeter  cubes  of  air-space  to  the  kilo- 

_gram  of  powder."  Table  E  enables  us  to  convert 
these  expressions. 

PREsstTRE  OF  AN  ATMOSPHERE. — (Table  F.)  Thc 
value  of  the  unit  atmosphere  (or  atmo.)  which  has 
been  adopted  in  tlie  metrical  system,  and  used  by 
Regnault  in  his  investigations  to  determine  the  rela- 
tions between  the  temperature  and  pressure  of  gases, 
is  the  pressure  of  T60  millimeters(29.923  inches)  of  the 
mercurial  column  at  O''  C.  (33'^  F.)  at  Paris;  which 
amounts,  in  that  latitude,  to  1.0333  kilograms  on  the 
square  centimeter,  or  14. 69(17  pounds  on  the  square 
inch.  In  consulting  this  table  it  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  remember  that  it  deals  with  an  arbitrary  unit 
atju-fsphre. 

The  Encvclopa-diaBritannica,  gives  as  an  ntmos- 
phei-c.  in  tlie  English  system,  the  pressure  due  to39.- 
905  inches  of  the  mercurial  column  at  32"  F.  at  IjOU- 
don,  which  atmosphere  thus  becomes  0.99968  of  that 
of  the  metrical  system.  Under  this  pressure  (39,905) 
distilled  water  boils  at  313°  F. 

Rankine  assumes  as  the  value  of  an  English  atmos- 
p/'iere  the  pressure  due  to  39,933  inches  of  the  mercur- 
ial column  at  83"^  F.,  which  in  the  latitude  of  London 
corresponds  to  a  pressure  of  14.704  pounds  per  square 
inch.  This,  it  will  be  observ?d  is  the/ie-g/it  used  in 
the  metrical  system,  which  is  thus  indicated  as  the 
universal  standard.  ■ 

There  are  two  ways  of  taking  such  a  standard. 
1st.  If  the  absolute  pressure  at  Paris,  due  to  76  cen- 
.timeters  of  the  mercurial  column  at  0°  C.  be  as- 
sumed, then  if  we  would  have  the  same  absolute 
pressure  in  taking  readings  of  the  barometer  for 
presmrts,  in  a  different  latitude,  allowance  must  be 
made  for  a  dilTerence  of  height  of  the  mercurial  col- 
umn, corresponding  to  the'difference  between  the 
latitude  of  the  place  of  observation  and  that  of  Paris. 
Tile  height  of  the  mercurial  column  at  0"  C.  giving 
a  pressure  equivalent  to  that  of  this  metrical  atmos- 
phere, can  be  computed  in  centimeters  by  the  follow- 
ing expression : 

(1  -f  .00531  sin^  48°  50') 

76   X 

1  +  .00531  sin-  I. 
for  any  latitude  I.  (48"^  50'  being  the  latitude  of 
Paris.)  Thus  we  have  for  New  York  City,  taking 
^=40°  42'  43",  a  value  for  the  expression,  of  76.063- 
14  centimeters=29.946  inches,  which  height  of  the 
mercurial  column  at  33°  F.  at  New  York  City  would 
indicate  a  pressure  equivalent  to  the  metrical  atmos- 
phere of  constant  pre^n^ure. 

2d.  On  the  other  hand,  assuming  the  universal 
standard  to  be  the  pressure  (wherever  taken)  due 
to  39.922  inches  of  the  mercuri.al  column  at  33*^  F., 
then  the  absolute  pressure  of  this  unit  utmnsphere  at 
New  York  would  equal  but  14.686  pounds  on  the 
square  inch,  which  is  0.999373  of  the  metrical  at- 
mosphere nt  Paris.  It  may  be  added  that  39.923 
inches  of  the  mercurial  column  at  32°  F.  corres- 
ponds to  30  inches  at  57°.8  F.  ;  the  reduction  to 32° 
for  this  reading  being— 0.078  of  an  inch  for  an  ob 
served  reading  of  "the  attached  thermometer  of 
57°.8  F. 

Bendino-Stress  per  Unit  of  IjEnoth.— (Table  G.) — 
In  the  case  of  a  uniformly  distrilnited  load,  or  of  a 
pressure  tending  to  bend  or  burst  ojien  a  structure, 
this  table  enables  us  to  pass  from  "kilogrammes  to 
the  centimeter"  to  "pounds  to  the  incli."  etc.,  and 
i)ice  mrsa. 

Stress  per  Unit  of  Square  and  Cbbio  Measures. — 
—(Tables  II  and  I.)  The  first  of  these  tables  finds  its 
application  especially  in  thc  conversion  of  (■xpressi(ms 
giving  the  tensile  strength  of  materials,  wherein  we 
change  thc^  metrical  expression  in  "kilogrammes  to 
the  square  millimeter"  into  "pounds   to   the  square 


nch,."  otherwise  stated  simply  as  " pounds  ten- 
sile Etrength."  The  two  tables  apply  to  the  conver- 
sion of  values  of  forces  of  compression ;  the  word 
stress  being  used  to  indicate  either  a  force  of  exten- 
sion or  compression. 

Units  OF  Work  or  Enekoy. — (Table  K.) — This  table 
gives  simply  the  equivalent  values  of  "kilogramme- 
ters"  in  "foot-pounds."  and  "tonnes-metres"  (some- 
times written  rfy»«mo(ic,«)  in  "foot-tons."  It  will  be 
used  in  the  translation  of  abstract  quantities  of  work 
or  energy. 

Energy  of  Projectiles. — (Table  L.) — The  transla- 
tion of  expressions  for  total  energies  will  be  made  by 
Table  K,  while  in  this  series  (L)  we  pass  readily  to 
expressions  for  energies  of  projectiles  in  terras  of 
the  "unitsof  the  shot's  circumference"  and  "units  of 
the  shot's  cross  section."  This  series  also  enables 
us  to  translate  the  proportion  of  the  total  eneigy  due 
to  each  kilogram  of  the  powder-charge,  each  kilo- 
gram of  the  piece,  or  each  kilogram  of  the  projectile, 
into  equivalent  denominations  in  our  own  system, 
and  »«■«  versa.  Further,  it  includes  a  translation  of 
the  proportion  of  the  total  energy  due  to  each  unit 
of  the  terms  in  which  the  pressure  upon  the  bore  is 
expressed ;  as,  for  example,  "tonnes-metres  (of  en- 
ergy) per  atmosphere  of  pressure"  in  "foot-tons  per 
pound  of  pressure." 

In  Ordnance  Notes,  No.  XLV,  Maj.  George  W. 
JIcKee,  United  States  Army,  has  already  called  at- 
tention to  the  influence  of  the  local  value  of  the  force 

Vfv' 
of  gravity  (g)  in  using  the  formula  E= ,  which 

2g 
is  employed  |for  determining  the  energy  of  a  pro- 
jectile. In  connection  with  these  tables,  it  may  be 
remarked  that  while  they  translate  the  value  given 
in  the  foreign  tables,  yet  the  values  thus  deduced 
may  not  alwaj's  be  strictly  comparable  with  each 
other  or  with  our  own.  The  practice  of  the  United 
States  Ordnance  Department  is  to  use  a  value  for  ff= 
33.2,  which  is  the  same  as  that  used  in  Great  Bri- 
tain ;  this  makes  the  published  tallies  of  energy  di- 
rectly comparable  for  the  two  countries,  but  slightly 
underrates  the  local  power  of  our  own  guns. 

The  French  use  the  value  of  g  at  Paris,  where  it  is 
equal  to  9.81  meters=33.l85  feet,  which,  it  will  be 
seen,  gives  slighth-  greater  energies  for  one  of  their 
guns  than  we  publish  for  one  of  ours,  supposing  all 
the  values  entering  in  the  formula  (except  g)  to  be 
identically  the  same  for  the  two  guns  under  com- 
parison. Small  changes  introduced  in  the  value  of^ 
will,  however,  make  little  practical  difference  in 
the  published  results,  which,  for  energies,  are  usu- 
ally given  in  foot-tons  to  tenths  only. 

'Phermometers. — (Table  M.)  This  table  presents 
merely  a  tabulated  solution  of  the  formula 

C°  X  9  •  Ro  X  9 

F°= h  33= 1-33. 

5  4 

By  decimal  multiplica'.ion  and  division  it  can  be  ap- 
plied to  all  numbers,  as  the  others.  In  passing  from 
centigrade  or  Heaumur  to  Fahrenheit  we  first  take 
out  tiie  tabular  numbers  and  then  add  33  ;  in  tlie  re- 
verse operation  we  first  subtract  32  from  the  Fahren- 
heit degrees,  to  be  converted  into  centigrade  or 
Reaumur,  and  tlien  take  out  the  tabular  numbers 
corresponding  to  this  remainder. 

Units  of  Heat— (Table  N.)— The  thermal  unit 
centigrade  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise 
unit  mass  of  water  from  0  to  1°  C. 

This  table  exjiresses  the  relation  between  the 
amount  of  heal  re(|uiri'd  to  Tn'i>iv  one  kilogram  (2.2046 
pounds)  of  water  from  0  to  1°  C.  (I'^.S.  F),  and  the 
amount  of  heat  reciuired  to  raise  one  pmind  of  water 
1"  F,  (from  33°  to  33°  F).  The  mechanical  equiva- 
lents of  the  "  unit  of  heat  "  in  the  two  syst<'fiis  bear 
a  like  relation  to  each  other.  This "  mechanical 
equivalent,  in  the  English  system,  is  the  number  of 


METEOKOUE. 


329 


UICBOHETES. 


foot-iiDunds  of  iTiorliniiifiil  ciMTi^y  wliicli  must  l)c  ex- 
pended ill  order  to  riiise  tlic  leiii|)i'niliireof  one  jioiiiid 
of  vviiter  one  dei;rec>.  For  Fureiilieil's  deirrei'  timt 
<piiiintily  (".Ionic's  ei|iiiviileiil )  i-i  77;J  fool  iioiindn;  for 
Uie  Ceiiti^nide  decree  I  of  77:2-  HiHD.d  foot-pouiidH. 
If  we  replnce  tiie  pound  l>y  ii  lviloi;niin  (2.'ii)'Ui-\- 
poniids),  Unit  qimiililv  liecomes  for  the  Cenli'^nide 
degree  2.2()4(>of  g  of  7t2--- W)f.i.r,4  foot-poiindn.whieli 
is  the  inechiinical  e(|niviUein  of  the  nielrieid  nnil  of 
Ileal,  iiiiil  U  i'(|iiiil   to  4'3:i.r).')  kiloijr:iinelers. 

METRONOME.  A  viilnalih'  nmehiiie  for  indiealinj; 
the  correct  liiiieor  eudeiiee.  It  was  inveiiled  in  1H1.') 
by  Miilzel,  tlie  invenloralso  of  Ihe  anlonialon  Irninp- 
eter.  The  lest  of  a  correcl  inctronoine  is.  tliat  wlien 
set  al  I'll)  il  shall  heat  seconds. 

MEURTRIERES.  Small  loop-lioles.siillicienlly  larjre 
to  admit  the  barrel  of  a  rille  or  musket.  throin;li 
which  soldiers  may  Hre,  undercover,  against  an  ene- 
my. Likewise  tlu'  cavities  made  in  tlic  walls  of  a 
forlilicd  town  or  place. 

MEXICAN  SADDLE.  The  ]\Iexiean,  or  California 
saddles  as  soiiidiiiics  cnlleil,  are  extensively  used 
tlinnn^honl  Ihe  Western  Slates  of  America;  and,  in 
proportion  to  their  excessive  cost,  are  considered  b}' 
the  traders  and  Indians  far  superior  to  any  other  sad- 
dles manufactured.  They  are  furnished  with  wool- 
lined  baslos. llama  skin  ancpieras,  siidaderos.  tapade- 
ros  and  slirrup-Ieatlicrs  handsomely  eiit-stam]ied. 
These  saddles,  direct  descendants  of  the  .Moorish- 
Spanisli,  hrounht  over  by  Cortcz  JiOO  years  aio.liave 
hardly  improved  in  the  cli:ui>i;es.  The  convenience 
and  safely  of  the  rider  are  alone  considered.  The 
shape  of  the  bearing  surface  runniiii;  through  all  the 
many  varieties  is  invarialily  liar/.  They  can  never  be 
used  without  a  great  thickness  of  saddle  cloth  or 
blankets,  and  even  then  cut,  gouge,  and  lacerate  the 
back  of  the  liorse.  They  are  always  hmry  and  aw/i- 
■ward. 

MICRO  CHRONOMETER.— When  the  clironograph 
is  used,  willi  an  interval 
of  /iO  meters  or  more  be- 
tween the  targets. the  chro- 
nometer receives  the  dents 
near  the  top,  when  of 
course  it  is  moving  with  its 
greatest  speed,  and.  conse- 
quently, small  dilTcreuces 
in  time  irive  proportion- 
ately large  differences  in 
height.  But  when  the  in- 
terval to  be  measured  be- 
comes small  this  no  longer 
obtains,  for  then  the  dent 
of  the  shot  is  imprinted  on 
the  to(Pf;' recorder  near  the 
disjunction  circle  before 
the  chronometer  has  ac- 
quired much  acceleration. 
To  obviate  this  difficulty 
the  arrangement  shown  in 
the  drawing  is  adopted. 
The  electro-magnet  of  the 
registrar  with  its  stop  is 
removed  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  column,  and  iiitro- 
ducfd  III  the  circuit  that  in 
broken  first.  Ky  this  ar- 
rangement we  obtain  a  dis- 
junction dent  near  the  up- 
per end  of  the  chronometer 
and  thus  regain  the  ad- 
vantage, even  when  the  in- 
terval is  very  small,  of  re- 
cording very  minute  times 
where  the  representative 
scale  is  greatest.  This  dis- 
junctor-reading  is  about 
0".3,  at  least  double  what 
U  was  before,  hence  the  representative  dents  cf 
small  times  are  readily  marked  on  the  chronometer 


when  it  has  double  its  former  velocity.  We  may  re- 
mark here  thai  for  diminishing  velocities  and  in 
measuring  small  liiiies  for  di'crcasinir  intervals,  the 
units  of  the  sialc  in  the  one  case  and  the  correspond- 
ing spai-es  on  the  ilironometer  in  the  otIiiT  increase 
—most  desirable  attributes  of  instrumc-nls  of  thJB 
class.  The  fall  corresponding  to  Ihe  time  to  be  meas- 
uied  is  recorded  nif/ativeli/,  as  thi-  tiring  dent  is  be- 
low the  disjunctor-reading,  and  Ihe  duration  of  this 
fall  is  found  by  siiblnicliiig  that  of  Ihe  former  from 
the  latter.  These  heights  are  measured  to  tenths  of 
a  millimeter  by  means  of  the  scale  engraved  on  the 
rule  and  by  its  vernier  and  the  correspon  ling  times 

2  11 
inav  be  caleulaleil  from  (he  formula  T  =    j .     or 


*J    g 


taken  directly  from  a  table,  which  is  formed  anal- 
ogously to  the  ordinary  logarithmic  tables.  When  the 
interval  becomes  so  great  as  to  give  a  dent  below  the 
up|)er  recorder. Ihe  ring  on  the  rod  iiiiistbe  removed, 
and  two  of  the  larger  tubes  applied  to  the  chronom- 
eter, one  above  the  other.  The  largest  interval  that 
can  be  recorded  by  the  inslrument  thus  arranged  is 
that  which  corresjionds  to  the  disjundor-reading,  a 
little  over  0". 3.  When  Ihe  time  between  the  rupture 
of  the  two  circuits  exceeds  this  reading,  the  cliron- 
ometer  is  struck  before  il  has  commenced  to  fall. and 
the  dent  of  the  origin  is  obtained.  See  A«  Jioulenge 
(!hr"ii'tijr<ij  //. 

MICROMETER  An  instrument  used  with  a  tele- 
scope or  microscope  to  measure  small  distances,  O! 
the  apparent  diameters  of  objeels  which  subtend 
very  small  singles.  The  micrometer  with  a  gradu- 
ated scale  is  used  for  measuring  distances  by  direct 
comparison.  The  apiilication  of  the  micrometer  to 
the  telescope  is  credited  by  Whewell  to  Huyghens, 
Malvasia  and  Azout.  It  was  a  great  advan<'e  in  the 
attempt  to  do  by  accuracy  of  measurement  what  had 
previously  been  attempled,  and  in  part  accom]ilished, 
by  enlarging  the  instrument  so  as  to  enable  the  meas- 
urcmenls  of  smaller  arcs.  The  first  micrometer  on 
record  is  that  of  Gascoigne,  of  England,  constructed 
about  l(i4l),  and  used  by  him  in  measuring  the  diam- 
eters of  the  moon  and  some  of  the  planets.  The 
instrument  had  nicely-ground  parallel  edges  of  brass- 
plate,  and  parallel  hairs  were  substituted  by  the  re- 
nowned Dr.  Ilooke. 

The  drawing  shows  the  micrometer  used  with  the 
Engineer's  Transit  and  other  standard  instruments. 


It  consists  of  a  compound  cross-wire  ring  or  dia- 
pliragrr..  having  three  horizontal  wires,  of  which  the 
middle  one  is  cemented  to  the  ring,  as  tisual,  while 
the  others,  lb  and  cc.  are  fa.stened  to  small  slides, 
held  apart  bv  a  slender  brass  spring  lioo)i,  and  ac- 
tuated by  independent  screws,  dtt.  by  which  the  dis- 
tance between  the  two  movable  wires  can  be  adjusted 
to  include  a  given  space,  as  one  foot  on  a  rod  one 
hundred  feet  distant.  These  wires  will  in  the  same 
manner  include  two  feet  on  a  rod  two  himdn^d  feet 
distant,  or  half  a  foot  at  a  distance  of  fifty  feet,  and 
so  on  in  the  same  proportion,  thus  furnishing  a 
means  of  measuring  distances,  esjjecially  over  broken 
irround.  much  more  easily  and  even  more  accunttely 
than  with  a  tajie  or  chain.— See  Engineer's  lyansit. 
Gradienter  anil  Stadia. 


MICEOPHONE. 


330 


HICBOSCOFE. 


MICROPHONE.— This  instrument,  invented  in  18 
by  I^rnf.  Hiijrlios.  does  for  faint  sounds  what  tlic 
microscope  does  for  matter  too  small  for  siii;ht:  the 
fall  of  a  bit  of  tissue-paper  or  the  tread  of  a  fliy  being 
rendered  audible  at  man_v  miles  distance.  In  prin- 
ciple the  microphone  illustrates  the  action  of  sonor- 
ous vibrations  on  the  strength  of  an  electric  current. 
One  of  the  most  sensitive  substances  for  microphonic 
action  is  willow-charcoal,  plunged  in  a  state  of 
white  lieat  into  mercury.  The  theory  is  that  in  a 
liomogeneous  conductor  the  compressions  and  dila- 
tations of  the  molecules  balance  each  other,  and  no 
variation  of  current  ensues  while  under  minute  sub- 
division, with  electrical  continuity,  sonorous  waves 
affect  the  strength  of  an  electric  current,  and  varia- 
tions in  the  current  reproduce  sonorous  waves.  One 
form  of  microphone  consists  of  a  piece  of  mercury- 
tempered  carbon  an  inch  long,  placed  vertically 
between  two  carbon-blocks  hollowed  to  receive  its 
ends,  wires  connecting  the  blocks  with  the  batter_v 
and  the  receiver  by  which  the  sounds  are  to  be 
heard.  "  A  piece  of  willow-charcoal,"  says  the 
iuveutor,  "  the  size  of  a  pin's  head  is  sutKcient  to 
produce  articulate  speech."  Two  nails  laid  parallel, 
with  wire  connections,  and  a  third  nail  laid  across 
them,  make  a  simple  form  of  microphone.  A  few 
cells  of  any  form  of  battery  may  l)e  used.  A  con- 
tinuous sound  has  been  made  by  the  mutvial  inter- 
action of  the  microphone  and  telephone,  each  instru- 
ment in  turn  repeating  the  sound  made  by  the  other. 
Many  iiseful  applications  of  the  microphone  have 
been  made  or  suggested. 

MICROSCOPE.— An  optical  instrumentby  which  ob- 
jects too  small  to  be  viewed  by  the  naked  eye  may 
be  seen  and  examined.  A  single  or  simple  micros- 
cope is  one  by  which  the  object  is  seen  directly:  it 
may  consist  of  a  single  lens  or  more  than  one.  In  a 
mmpiiurid  microscope  two  or  more  lenses  are  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  image  formed  by  one  is  magnified  by 
the  others,  and  viewed  as  if  it  were  the  object  itself. 
In  a  tiolrir  microscope  a  reflector  and  condensor  are 
employed  to  direct  the  sun's  rayson  the  object.  In  a 
tuceriiiil  microscope  the  rays  of  a  lamp  are  similarly 
directed.  The  microscope  is  used  for  a  variety  of 
military  purposes  in  arsenals,  and  also  for  detecting 
adulterations  in  the  ration  and  fabrics.  Another  use 
to  which  it  may  be  applied  was  disclosed  during  the 
late  Franco-Prussian  war.  Copies  of  newspapers, 
reduced  many-fold  in  size  by  photography,  were 
fastened  in  large  numbers  to  carrier-pigeons  and  in- 
troduced into  besieged  cities.  These  were  easil}- 
real  by  the  microscope. 

The  United  States  Army  microscope,  made  by 
Zentmayer,  is  thus  described  :  It  has  a  brass  body, 
16  inches  high,  on  a  bra.ss  stand,  with  a  joint  to  in- 
cline it  to  any  angle,  double-milled  head-rack  and 
pinion  for  coarse  adjustment,  micrometer-screw 
for  tine  adjustment,  and  a  movable  glass  stage ; 
under  the  stage  a  tube  is  titted  for  carrying  the  ac- 
cessory illuminating  apparatus,  concave  and  plane 
mirrors,  arranged  for  direct  or  oblique  illumination, 
two  eye-pieces,  one  achromatic  object-glpss  {(,  of  an 
inch  focus,  of  24  degrees  angular  aperture,  one  ach- 
romatic object-glass  {  of  an  inch  focus,  of  80  degrees 
angular  aperture  (not  adjustable  for  glass-cover), 
giving  power  of  50,  100,  250,  and  4.')0  diameters  ; 
camera  lucida,  stage  micrometer  ruled  -rJ j  and  ^^,-,'5,-, 
of  an  inch,  and  a  condensing  lens  two  inches  diam- 
eter on  a  separate  stand. 

The  drawing  shows  one  of  the  latest  improved  mi- 
croscopes and  stands.  The  stand  has  a  tripod  (A) 
for  its  base,  upon  which  is  ])laccd  a  rcvolviiig  fitting 
(B),  graduated  to  degrees,  by  wliich  means  the  mi- 
croscope can  be  turned  around  wilhoul  lis  being  lift- 
ed from  the  lal)le,  and  the  anujuni  of  such  rolaliou 
registered;  upon  this  titling  two  pillars  are  firmly 
fixed. and  between  them  the  limb  ((')  can  be  elevated 
or  depressed  to  any  angle,  and  tightened  in  its  posi- 
tion by  the  lever  (D).  The  limb  carries  at  one  end 
the   body  (E;  (binocnilar  or   monocular),  with  eye- 


pieces and  object-glasses  ;  inits  center  the  compound 
stage  (F),  beneath  which  is  the  circular  plate,  slid- 
ing on  a  dove-tailed  fitting,  and  moved  up  and  down 
by  the  lever  (Z),  and  ca'rrying  the  supplementary 
liody  or  sub-stage  (G);  and  at  tlie  lower  end  a  triang- 
ular bar  carrying  tlu  mirror  (H).  Each  of  these  parts 
requires  a  separate  description. 

The  binocular  body  consists  of  two  tubes,  the  one 
fitted  in  the  optical  a.xis  of  the  microscope,  and  the 
other  oblique.  At  their  lower  end  and  immediately 
above  the  object-glass  tliere  is  an  opening. into  which 
a  small  brass  box" or  fitting  (I)  slides;  this  box  holds 
a  prism  so  constructed  that  when  slid  in  it  intercepts 
half  the  rays  from  the  object-glass, diverts  them  from 
their  direct  course,  and  reflects  them  into  the  addi- 
tional or  obliipie  tube.  To  the  prism-box  is  attached 
a  spring-catch,  which,  when  pressed  in,  permits  of 
the  removal  of  the  prism-box:  but  this  is  only  need- 
ed for  cleaning,  as,  when  the  box  is  drawn  back  to 
tlie  distance  properly  allowd  by  this  spring,  the 
prism  in  no  waywhiitever  interferes  with  the  field  of 
view,  and  all  the  rays  pass  up  the  direct  body  and 
the  microscope  is  converted  into  a  monocular  one. 
The  upper  or  eye-piece  ends  of  the  tubes  are  fitted 
with  racks  and  pinion  for  varying  the  distances  be- 
tween the  eyes  of  various  persons;  and  arrangements 
are  made  for  racking  out  one  tube  more  than  the  oth- 
er, to  suit  irregularities  or  inequalities  between  the 
eyes  of  the  observer.  This  body  is  moved  up  anil 
down  with  a  quick  movement  by  means  of  the  mill- 
heads  (K),  and  with  a  very  delicate  and  a  fine  ad- 
justment by  the  milled  head  (L).  This  milled  head 
works  against  a  lever,  which  moves  a  slide  indepen- 
dent of  the  rack-movement,  and  gives  an  adjustment 
at  once  certain  and  decided. 

The  compound  stage  is  of  an  entirely  new  construc- 
tion ;  the  object  is  most  frequently  merely  placed 
upon  it,  but,  if  necessary,  it  can  be  clamped  by  pare- 
fully  bringing  down  the  spring-piece  (JI);  tlit'  ledge 
will  slide  up  or  down,  and  the  object  may  be  pushed 
sidewa_ys  ;  this  arrangement  forms  the  coarse  adjust- 
ment. Finer  movements  in  vertical  and  horizontal  di- 
rections are  effected  by  means  of  two  milled  heads 
(N  and  O),  the  screws  attached  to  which  are  kept  up 
to  their  work  by  opposing  springs,  so  as  to  avoid  all 
strain  or  loss  of  time.  The  whole  stage  revolves  in 
a  circular  ring  by  the  milled  head  (P),  or  this  can  be 
drawn  out,  and  then  it  turns  rapidly  by  merely  ap- 
plying the  fingers  to  the  two  ivory  studs  (Q,  Q)  fas- 
tened on  the  top  plate,  which  is  divided  into  degrees 
to  register  the  amount  of  revolution.  The  stage  is 
attached  to  the  limb  on  a  pivot,  and  can  be  rotated  to 
any  angle,  which  angle  is  recorded  on  the  divided 
plate  (R),  or  can  be  turned  completely  over,  so  that 
the  object  can  be  viewed  by  light  of  any  obliquity 
without  any  interference  from  the  thickness  of  the 
stage.  Beneath  and  attached  to  the  stage  is  an  iris 
diaphram  (S).  which  can  be  easily  and  altogether  re- 
moved, as  shown  in  the  illustration,  from  its  dove- 
tailed fitting,  so  as  not  to  interfere  in  the  .slightest 
degiee  during  the  rotation  of  the  stage.  The  va- 
riations in  the  aperture  of  this  diaphragm  are  made 
by  a  pinion  working  into  a  racked  arc  and  adjusted 
by  the  milled  head'(T). 

"Beneath  the  stage  are  two  triangular  bars  (U,  V), 
the  one  revolving  around  and  tlie  other  rigiil  in  the 
optical  axis  of  the  instrument.  Ou  the  former  the 
sub-stage  (G),  carrying  all  the  apparatus  licn-ifler 
described  for  illumination  and  pi>lariz;ition.  fits,  and 
is  racked  up  and  down  by  the  milled  head  (W):  the 
mirror  also,  if  desired,  slides  on  the  same  bar:  the 
revolving  motion  to  this  bar  is  given  by  the  milled 
head  (  X),  and  the  amount  of  angular  movement  is 
recorded  on  the  circle  (Y),  whilst  the  whole  of  this 
part  of  the  stand  is  raised  and  lowered  coiu-eutric 
with  the  optical  axis  of  the  instrument  by  the  lever 
(Z),  and  the  amount  of  siu'h  elevation  or  de])res:-ion 
registered  on  a  scale  attached  to  the  limb.  This  bar 
can  be  carried  around  and  above  the  stage,  and  l)e 
thus  used   for  opacjue  illumination.      The  lower  tri- 


MICH08C0FE. 


331 


HIC£OSCOF£. 


anpiilar  liar  (V)  rarrips  the  mirror  II.  or  a  ripht- '  of  HIiiminHtinn.  unmo  provision  has  to  be  made  for 

iiiif;lc  prisiii,  when  llii'  illuiniiiiilioii  is  rc(|iiiriMl  lo  lir  lioliliiiK  variuiiM  picci-M  of  apjiaratus  between  the  ob- 

<iiiii'ciitiic  with  till' ciplical   axiB  of  tlir   iiistniiiiriit,  jict  anil  llic>  mirror.    For  lliiH  piirpoHe  a  Hupplenii-nl- 

anil  inil<'pi'ii(lcnl  of  llic  iiiovcini-ntM  of  oilier  iJiiiiiiin-  ary  Ixxiy,  or   Hulj-Ktage,    i.s  inouriti-il  perfectly   true 

utin"  apparatus.     Tlie  iiiirror-lio.\  eoiUainK  two  mir-  willi  llie  l)orly,  and  iH  moved  up  and  down  in  itH  fit- 

rors,  one  !lat  and  the  other  eoneave:   it  HwinL's  in  a  tinj;  by  rack  and  pinion  eonneeted  witli   tlie  milled 

rotalins;    HctniiireU^  attaehed  to  a  lenifthi'iiiiif^-liar,  lieailMfW).     Thi.'<  Hiil).»tai;e,  to  whieli  reference  liaa 

wliicli  enables  it  to  l)e  turned   from  iiiie  Bide  to  the  already  been  made,  is  now  regarded  as  one  of  the 


other,  and  revolves  on  a  circular  tittins  for  frivin?  I  most  important  parts  of  the  achromatic  microscope; 
greater  facilities  in  regulating  the  direction  of  the  '  in  it  all  the  varied  appliances  for  modifying  the  char- 
beam  of  liglit  retlected,'  the  whole  sliding  on  either  ,  acter  and  direction  of  the  light  are  titled.  But  a  few 
of  the  triiiugvdar  bars,  previously  referred  to.  and  :  years  since  it  was  considered  sufficient  for  this 
made  to  reverse  in  the  socket  (a)  so  as  to  bring  the  "part  of  the  stand  to  be  constructed  so  as  to  move  up 
center  of  the  mirror  concentric  with  the  axis  of  the  i  and  down  perfectly  coincident  with  theoptical  a.xisof 
microscope  in  either  case.  the  instrument,  and  for  that  purpose  it  was  racked  in 

As  the  mirror  alone  is  insufficient  for  many  kinds  |  a  groove  planed  out  on  the  same  limb  as  that  on  the 


■MICROSCOPIC-GAUGE. 


332 


MICRO  SFECTROSCOPE. 


Tipper  end  of  which  the  optical  iiortions  were  carried. 
But  lately  microscopists  have  shown  the  desirability 
of  alTordi'na:  every  facility  for  lateral  angular  adjust- 
ments: and  this  has  led  to  the  sub-stage  being  attach- 
ed to  an  arc  (A)  working  in  the  circular  plate  (Y),and 
moved  by  a  rack  and  pinion  (X).whilot  the  amount  of 
such  aniular  movement  is  recorded  on  the  upper  sur- 
face of  tlie  plat?  (Y).  Having  once  fixed  the  angular 
direction  of  the  light.the  focusing  of  it  depends  upon 
the  lever  (Z).  which  moves  the  circle  up  and  down, 
and  with  it  the  arm  ta'Tving  the  illuminating  appar- 
atus, in  the  "pt'rn'  ax  x  of  the  instrument. 

MICROSCOPIC-GAUGE.—An  instrument  used  in  coc- 
nection  with  the  testing  machine.  It  consists  of  a  pair 
of  glass  sides,  which  are  connected  with  the  speci- 
men l)y  collars  in  the  manner  shown.     One  of  the 


Omz 


1'^-.l-<-IM: 


els*^ 


glass  sides  is  graduated  to  thousandths  of  an  inch, 
and  the  other  to  hundredths  of  an  inch.  A  micro- 
scope using  a  one-inch  objection  is  employed  in 
reading  these  scales,  and  by  means  of  it  the  scale 
of  thousandths  may  be  readily  subdivided  into  ten 
th(jusandths  of  an  "inch  by  the  eye  alone.  Tlie  mi- 
croscope is  supported  by  an  adjvistable  arm  attached 
to  one  of  the  posts  or  the  testing  machine,  or  to  a 
post  e.xpresslj'  provided  for  this  purpose,  and  de- 
taclied  from  the  machine.  See  Taper-rule  and  Ver- 
nier f/auge 

MICRO-SFECTEOSCOPE. — A  spectroscope  placed  in 
comiection  wiih  a  microscope,  in  order  that  the  ab- 
sorption lines  may  be  readily  produced.  The  in- 
strument is  employed  in  various  testings ;  but  nota- 


the  focus  of  the  top  lens  of  an  eye-piece  especially 
constructed  is  placed  wliat  is  technically  termed  a 
slit,  B  ;  this  consists  of  two  shutters  me(  ting  in  the 
center  of  the  field,  the  one  sliding  up  to  the  center  of 
the  field  of  view,  and  the  other  adjusting  by  means 
of  a  delicate  milled  head.  L'pon  the  delicacy  of  the 
edge  of  this  slit  the  value  of  the  Spectroscope  large- 
ly depends,  any  irregularity  or  piece  of  dust  appear- 
ing a  dark  band  at  right  angles  to  the  spectrum  un- 
der examination,  and  greatly  interfering  with  the 
definition.  In  the  same  part  of  the  instrument  is  in- 
serted a  small  right-angle  prism,  (D),  which  can  be 
pushed  forward  or  drawn  back  out  of  the  field  of 
view  by  a  milled  head.  In  the  former  position  it  re- 
flects the  rays  passing  through  any  object  placed 
upon  the  supplementary  stage  to  the  eye  placed  at 
the  eye-end  of  the  instrument,  and  enables  the  ob- 
server to  compare  two  spectra  witii  one  another,  or 
to  measure  and  record  the  position  of  the  absorption 
bauds.  Placed  on  the  flat  surface  of  tlie  eye-piece 
are  a  couple  of  levers,  moving  two  shutters,  placed 
immediately  over  the  slit,  for  regulating  the  length 
of  the  spectrum  under  examination.  Above  the  top 
lens  of  the  eye-piece  the  most  important  portion  of 
tlic  instrument  slides;  this  consists  of  a  series  of 
prisms,  (A),  so  arranged  as  to  give  a  direct-vision 
spectrum,  and  upon  the  amount  of  the  dispersion  of 
which  prisms  much  of  the.  value  of  the  instrument 
depends.  At  the  side  of  the  main  tube  is  a  supple- 
mentary stage,  upon  which  a  standard  scale,  or  a 
second  cbject  is  placed,  supjilied  with  a  mirror,  for 
reflecting  the  light  through  tlie  object,  the  rays  then 
being  totally  reflected  by  the  right-angle  prism,  (D), 
before  alluded  to,  and  thrown  up  the  fube  to  the  ob- 
server. To  u.se  the  instrument,  remove  the  ordinary 
eye-piece  of  the  microscope,  and  siide  the  spectro- 
.scope  eye-piece  (Figs.  1  and  2)  into  the  body  in  its 
place.  Remove  the  upper  tube,  containing  the  series 
of  prisms,  and  draw  back  the  sliding  slit  by  a  milled 
head,  so  that  one-half  of  the  fleld  of  view  is  clear. 
Focus  the  microscope  to  the  object  to  be  examined. 


Fig  1. 

blv.by  Surgeons  in  viewing  the  absorption  bands  of 
brood  in  toxieological  research.  The  micro-spec- 
'troscoiH'  designed  tjy  Walmsley  and  Co.,  and  shown 
•in  figures  1  and  2.  consists  of  a  series  of  prisms,  (A), 
arranged  for  direct  vision,  fitted  into  an  eye-piece, 
and  sujiplied  with  various  appliances  namely,  a 
slit,  (H),  a  suijplemenlary  siieclrum  arriuigement, 
consisting  of  a  small  right-angle  jirism,  D.  a  stage, 
.for  |)lacing  an  object  upon,  and  a  niirrdr,  for  reflect- 
ing the  light  and  all  the  necessary  udjustmeuls.     In 


which  is  placed  upon  the  stage,  pass  it  up  to  the 
ed"-e  of  the  slit,  move  the  side  shutters  by  the  levers, 
so'as  to  sliut  off  all  side  light,  save  that  passing 
llirough  the  object,  and  push  back  the  sliding  side 
of  the  slit  by  Ih'e  milled  head.  Focus  tile  top  lens  of 
tlie  eve-piece  to  the  slit  by  nutans  of  the  rack-aud- 
pinion  place  the  tube,  containing  the  compound 
prism  (A),  over  the  eve-piece,  remove  the  object 
from  the  stage,  adjust  the  slit  by  means  of  an  adjust- 
in"  milled  head,  so  as  to  obtain  clear  vision,  if  by  day. 


MICRO!  ASIMETER. 


333 


HILBANK  GUN. 


Hglit,  Sf)  tliat  llic  Frnnnhofcr  lines  iiro  faintly  sppn, 
rcpliuc  llic  iilijcct  tij  lie  <'XiiiMiiii'(l  upon  llic  hIhuc. 
and  llic.  absorption-hands  will  \iv  readily  Ki'i'n.  The 
clmractcr  of  these  hands  and  their  jiosilion  varies  in 
every  objeet:  and  if  any  praelieal  use  is  to  he  made 
of  the  investigations,  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  ob- 
serve, bnt  to  record  their  position,  by  means  of  a 
standaril  scale  provideil  for  the  |)iirpose. 

MICROTASIMETER.  An  iicsinimeiil  invented  by 
Mr.  Thomas  A.  lOdison  for  the  purpose  of  mi'asnrini; 
very  minute  Viiriulioiis  of  pressure  causi'd  by  the  e.\ 
pansion  or  contraction  of  any  t;ivcn  bodj-,  from  what 
ever  causes,  heat,  moisture,  etc.  A  part  of  the  a])- 
paratus  is  constructed  upon  the  principle  of  the  py 
rometer.  and  when  the  e.\pansion  is  caused  by  moist 
lire,  uj)on  that  of  some  forms  of  liyurometer.  Hut 
the  novel  and  unicpie  part  of  the  invention  consists 
in  the  elfeet  which  th<'  pressure  of  the  e.\])aii(linj,' 
rod  has  upon  the  electric  resistance  of  a  piece  of  car- 
bon placed  in  the  circuit  of  a  galvanic  batter}'.  A 
rod  of  vulcanite  is  vised  as  the  expanding  element 
when  it  is  desired  to  use  the  instrument  to  ascertain 
slight  variations  in  the  heat  vil)rations  coming  from 
any  object,  as  the  sun,  or  a  gas,  or  electric  light. 
This  rod  is  adjusted  in  a  strong  frame  kepi  at  an 
equabU;  temperature,  so  that  no  expansions  or  con- 
tractions shall  exert  any  inliucnce,  except  those 
wliich  take  place  in  the  vulcanite  rod  itself.  In  th(! 
chamber  which  receives  one  end  of  this  rod,  or  plate, 
there  is  placed  under  a  follower,  or  slide,  a  piece  of 
carbon,  which  becomes  compressed  witli  great  force 
upon  the  exi)ansion  of  the  vulcanite  rod.  If  radiant 
heat  is  to  be  nieas\ircd,  a  large  funnel  is  placed  in 
front  of  the  ap|)aratus  to  gatlier  the  rays  and  throw 
them  upon  tlic  rod  or  plate.  When  the  ravs  increase 
in  intensity  the  rod  expands,  compresses  tlie  button, 
aiid  changes  its  conducting  capacity,  which  at  every 
moment  is  indicated  by  a  galvanometer.  The  in- 
stnnnent  has  been  used  successfully  to  ascertain  the 
variations  in  the  radiation  from  the  sun  during  an 
eclipse.  It  may  also  be  used  to  note  the  variations 
taking  place  on  a  day  when  clouds  are  passing  across 
the  sun's  disk,  or  wiu-n  the  transmission  of  his  raj's 
differs  from  increase  or  decrease  of  moisture.  It 
may  bi^  used  as  a  delicate  liygronu;tcr  by  substitut- 
ing in  place  of  the  v\dranite  rod  a  body  containing 
gelatine',  which  expands  under  the  influence  of 
moisture. 

MIDDLE  AGES. —The  designation  applied  to  the 
great  historic  period  between  the  limes  of  cl.assir  an- 
tiquity and  modern  times.  The  beginning  and  close 
of  this  period  are  not  very  definite.  It  is  usual. how. 
ever.to  regard  the  Middle  Ages  as  beginning  with  the 
overthrow  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire  in  tlie3'ear 
476 ;  and  there  is  a  pretty  general  concurrence  in  fix- 
ing on  the  Reformation  as  the  great  event  which 
brought  this  period  to  a  close.  It  began  with  the 
rise  of  the  Frankish  upon  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Homiui  Empire,  and  with  the  commencement  of  civ- 
ilization among  the  barbarous  tribes  which  had  taken 
I)09session  of  what  were  formerly  Roman  Provinces. 
lu  course  of  it  the  different  nations  of  Modern 
Europe  were  formed,  and  their  political  and  social 
systems  developed.  It  was  a  period  of  ranch  super- 
stition, in  connection  with  which  much  religious  en- 
thusiasm very  extensively  prevailed,  luanifested  in 
many  great  religious  endowments,  in  magnificent 
ecclesiastical  buildings,  in  pilgrimages,  and,  above 
all,  in  the  Crusades.  In  the  earlier  parts  of  this  per- 
iod file  Church  was  much  occupied  in  the  extension 
of  its  bounds  in  the  north  of  Europe,  where  heath- 
enism still  subsisted,  and  the  means  employed  were 
not  always  consistent  with  the  spirit  of  Christianity. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Hierarchy  acquired 
enormous  power  and  wealth,  and  the  Papacy  rose 
from  comparatively  small  beginnings  to  its  utmost 
greatne'ss. During  thcMiddlc  Ages  chivalry  had  its  rise 
and  decline, modifying  and, in  many  respects,  tending 
to  refine  the  feelings  and  usages  of  society.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  revival  of  letters, 


the  increase  of  knowledge,  and  the  formation  of  a 
wealthy  and  influential  class  in  society .diHtincI  alike 
from  the  aristocracy  and  the  peasantry,  tended. even 
before  the  Reformation,  both  to  the  dindnution  of 
the  power  of  llic  Hierarchy  and  the  liecay  of  the 
feudal  system. 

MIDDLE  ASSEMBLING  BAR.-  A  eompon<fnt  part 
of  the  caisson.  It  is  made  of  iron,  has  two  ears  in 
the  middle  to  serve  as  stay-plates  fi;r  the  middle- 
chests,  and  a  slot  for  the  axe  on  the  right  of  the  mid- 
dle-rail. 

MIDDLE  CHEST.— The  front  ammunition-chest  on 
the  body  of  the  caisson  ;  so  called  because  it  is  be- 
tween the  hind  chest  and  the  limber-chest  wlien  t)ie 
caisson  is  liiiilnTed. 

MIDDLECULVERIN.  -A  cannon  of  tlie  Fren^li  ar- 
tillery, under  Henry  II.,  carrying  a  projectile  weigh- 
ing two  pr.iinds. 

MIGNON.  -The  former  French  term  for  & piekrd 
HoMii  r     at  present  called  Elite. 

MIKADO.  The  popular  title  of  the  Emperor  of  Ja- 
piui,  though  in  official  documents  the  term  Tcnno 
(Heavenly  King)  or  Tenshi  (Child  of  Heaven)  is 
most  frei|uently  used.  Other  titles  used  inthenative 
parlance  or  literature  are  Nin-o  (King  of  men;,  0-6 
or  I)ai-o  (Great  King),  Ko-tei  (Ruler  of  Nations). 
Other  terms  arising  from  the  application  of  the  name 
of  the  Mikado's  place  of  residence  to  his  jjerson,  are 
Dai-ri  (Imperial  Palace),  Chd-tei,  (Hall  of  Audience), 
Kinri  (the  Forbidden  Interior), Go-sho  (Palace;, which 
names  occur  frecpiently  in  old  European  works  on, 
Japan.  The  term  Mikado  means  Honorable  Gate, 
like  the  Turkish  "Sublime  Porte,"  and  the  Egyptian 
"Pharoah."  The  Dynasty  of  Mikados  is  the'oldest 
in  the  world,  the  [iresent  ruler,  JIutsuliito,  beingtlie 
12W  of  the  Imperial  Line.  The  first  Mikado  Was 
JimmuTemio,  who  began  to  reign  (itiO  b.c,  the  pro- 
fessed starting-point  of  Japanese  chronology.  The 
lirst  seventeen  Mikados  in  the  oflicial  list  are  said  to 
have  died  at  ages  ranging  from  100  to  141  years.  The 
Mikados  have  each  a  personal  name,  but  no  family 
name,  and  the  name  of  any  one  Mikado  is  never  re- 
peated; though  in  two  instances  in  the  list,  two  Mika- 
dos reigned  each  twice,  ami  have  each  two  posthu- 
mous titles.  Seven  of  these  Sovereigns  of  Japan  were 
females.  The  average  duration  of  each  reign  is  nearly 
31  years.  The  3Iikados  claim  descent  from  the 
heavenly  gods,  and  their  regalia  of  sovereignity  area 
mirror,  crystal  ball,  and  sword.  The  possession  of 
these  palladia  is  the  test  of  legitimacy  during  civil  or 
dynastic  war,  of  which  but  one  is  known  in  Japanese 
history — the  period  1336-92,  when  a  compromise  was 
made  by  the  rival  in  jiossession  of  the  regalia  receiv- 
ing the  title  of  Ex-Emperor,  and  handing  over  the 
sacred  embleir  s  to  the  other.  After  death,  the  ."^likado 
receives  a  posthumous  title  bj'  which  he  is  known  in 
history.  The  Mikado  is  allowed  twelve  miV^^'/orcon- 
aubines,  besides  the  Empre.ss;  and  in  addition,  there 
are  four  noble  families  called  Shinno  from  whom 
heirs  may  be  chosen  for  adoption.  Succession  is 
not  always  to  the  oldest  son,  but  usually  to  the  Mi- 
kado's nominee.  The  Imperial  Household  forms  a 
distinct  department  o'  :he  govermnent,  called  the 
Kimaisho. 

MILANAISE.— A  G.-rman  fluted  armor  of  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  cuirass  is 
rounded,  the  breast-plate  does  not  possess  the  cen- 
tral ridge  oi  ti^palAxiA  the  shoulder  pieces  are  large 
with  jiiuM-gardm.  The  cuishes  and  upper  arm  pieces 
are  fluted  like  the  rest  of  the  armor  but,  the  lower 
arm  pieces  and  the  greaves  are  plain.  The  mlereU 
are  paw-shaped  and  indicate  the  time  to  which  tliis 
armor  belonsr^. 

MILBANK  GUK.— A  breech  -  loading  small-arm, 
having  a  fixed  chamber  closed  by  a  movable  breech- 
block, which  slides  in  the  line  of  the  barrel  by  di- 
rect action.  The  piece  is  opened  by  raising  the  han- 
dle of  the  breech-bolt  from  its  recoil-bearing  in  the 
receiver,  and  then  drawing  back  the  bolt.  It  is 
closed  by  reversing  the  action  of  the  bolt ;  the  ham- 


Iin,B  STEEL. 


MILD  STEEL. 


J 


mer-bolt  striking  a  sear-bolt  in  closing,  antl  thercb}' 
compressing  the  spiral  mainspring  which  surrounds 
its  rear  portion.  It  is  locked  by  the  support  afford- 
ed the  base  of  the  handle  by  its  bearing  on  the  re- 
coil-shoulder of  the  receiver  when  the  piece  is  closed. 
The  piece  is  tired  by  the  action  of  a  spiral  main- 
spring surrounding  the  hammer-bolt.  The  hammer- 
bolt  is  kept  from  accidentally  discharging  the  cart- 
ridge by  striking  the  tiring-pin  before  the  breech  is 
fulfv  closed,  by  meansof  a tiausversc stop-pin,  which, 
when  the  handle  is  up,  passes  through  the  liriug-pin 
and  keeps  it  forced  back  with  its  point  fiush  with  tlie 
face  of  the  bolt.  When  the  breech  is  fully  locked  by 
turning  do\\"n  the  handle  into  place,  the  transver.se 
pin  is  drawn  back  by  an  inclined  surface  in  the  bole 
of  the  tiring-pin  through  which  it  passes,  and  it 
leaves  the  tiring-pin  free  to  be  driven  forward,  at 
pleasure,  in  the  usual  way.  The  rear  end  of  the 
tiring-bolt  when  drawn  back  passes  through  the  base 
of  the  rear  section  of  the  breech-bolt,  and  indicates 
the  position  if  cocked.  Extraction  is  accomplished 
by  a  book  swinging  on  a  pin  passing  transversely 
through  the  recoil-block  near  its  face.  Ejection  is 
caused  by  the  action  of  a  spiral  spring,  set  in  the  face 
of  the  bolt  and  pressing  against  the  lower  edge  of 
the  cartridge-head  until  tlie  shell  is  clear  of  the 
chamber.  The  shell  being  then  free  to  turn,  is  rota- 
ted around  the  hook  by  which  it  is  held  and  is 
thrown  clear  of  the  gun.  A  .safety-lever  is  connect- 
ed with  this  arm  and  serves  to  disi^ense  wdth  the  ne- 
cessity of  a  half-cock  notch.  The  accidental  open- 
ing of  the  breech  may  be  prevented  bj'  turning  up 
the  handle  part  way  and  jjressing  down  its  stop- 
pin  ;  the  point  of  this  passes  into  a  hole  in  the  side 
of  the  recoil-block,  and  thus  prevents  the  revolution 
of  the  entire  bolt. 

MILD  STEEL.— The  statistics  of  iron  and  steel  are 
very  suggestive  of  the  condition  of  the  times.  In 
the  middle  of  the  last  centur}-  the  amount  made  in 
England  was  about  one  five-hundredth  part  of  what 
it  is  at  present;  the  amount  imported  was  more  than 
that  manufactured  at  home,  whilst  now  the  English 
aunuallj'  export  millions  of  tons;  the  last  few  years 
have  shown  a  striking  increase  in  the  world's  annual 
production, though  great  fluctuations  have  occurred; 
the  amount  produced  has  risen  from  some  10^  mil- 
lion tons  in  1869  toabout  twent)'-one  millions  in  1882 
— an  enormous  increase  due  to  the  vast  development 
in  tlie  use  of  iron  and  steel  for  ships,  railways, bridg- 
es, buildings,  machines,  etc.  Apart,  however,  from 
the  increase  in  the  total  qiiantities  we  notice  (Fig.l) 
that  cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  and  steel  have  not  in- 
creased uniformly,  but  the  last  has  far  surpassed  the 
others  in  the  rate  of  its  growth,  having  nndtiplied 
some  twelve  times  in  the  thirteen  years  under  consid- 
eration. 

Although  steel  has  been  made  from  remote  ages, 
it  was  only  about  twenty-tive  years  ago  employed  on 
a  comparatively  small  scale  for  such  articles  as  tools, 
knives,  swords,  springs,  etc..  and  from  the  expendi- 
ture of  time  and  fuel  on  its  manufacture,  it  was  ne- 
cessarily an  expensive  article:  but  the  inventions  of 
Bessemer,  Siemens,  and  others  have  resulted  in  the 
production  of  a  class  of  "  mild"  steel  in  large  quan- 
tities,moderate  in  price, suitable  for  various  purposes 
of  construction,  and  surpassing  wrought  iron  in  all, 
or  almost  all,  of  its  good  qualities.  Of  late  years 
competition  in  the  trade  has  led  to  numberless  im- 
jirovements,  and  great  economy  in  manufacture,  es- 
pe<'ially  in  the  amount  of  fuel  consumed.  It  may  be 
interesting  to  notice  the  pro]iortion  of  iron  and  steel 
annually  produced  (in  1882,  for  example)  in  each 
country.  We  are  at  once  struck  by  the  salient  fea- 
ture that  (Jreal  Britain  is  far  ahead  of  all  others  in 
quantity ;  in  fact,  excluding  the  United  States,  her 
production  probably  exceeds  that  of  all  the  rest  of 
tlur  world  i)ut  together;  but  other  nations  an^  also 
now  making  good  progress.  With  regard  to  qnality. 
the  reputation  of  English  iron  and  sle(tl  is  deservetUy 
very  high  ;  the  great  majority  of  modern  impro\c- 


ments  in  manufacture  are  due  to  English  inventors, 
practically  developed  by  English  makers,  and  many 
foreign  firms  are  glad  of  English  assistance.  Iron 
ores  and  good  coal, as  well  as  niateri;ds  for  fire-bricks 
and  fluxes,  are  found  abundantly  all  over  England, 
while  the  great  carrj-iug  trade  gives  facilities  for  the 
plentiful  supplj'of  good  ores  from  Spain, and  pig  iron 
from  Sweden  for  modern  steel  making,  as  well  as  for 
the  export  of  manufactured  iron  and  steel  to  foreign 
customers.  The  resources  of  other  countries  are, 
however, being  largely  developed. 

Second  on  the  list  comes  the  United  States,  whose 
rate  of  increase  of  manufacture  is  unexampled.  The 
demand  has  been  hitherto  so  great,  to  meet  the  won- 
derful development  of  the  railway  system,  and  other 
large  works,  that  millions  of  tons  have  been  sent 
from  across  the  Atlantic,  but  the  time  has  now 
come  when  the  United  States  produces  sufficient  for 
its  own  wants.  Its  natural  resources  are  very  great, 
and  it  has  excellent  ores  of  great  richness  and  abun- 
dance, vast  coal-fields,  calculated  to  last  for  centuries, 
and  a  peo|jle  fidl  of  energy.  At  first  sight  it  may  seem 
strange  that  at  the  present  moment  steel  for  only  an 
8-in.  gun  can  lie  produced,  but  this  is  simply  because 
until  lately  there  has  been  no  demand  for  it.  The 
colossal  plant  needed  for  heavy  gun  manufacture 
does  not  exist  in  America,  where  the  heaviest  ham- 
mer is  one  of  17  tons,  while  France  bas  one  of  100 
tons,  and  Krupp  is  said  to  be  making  oneof  l.TO  tons. 
Whitworth  is  now  supplying  the  Government  of  the 
States  with  steel  for  10  in.  guns.  The  United  States 
have  lately  sent  a  Gun  Foundry  Board  to  make  in- 
quiries in  Europe  concerning  the  manufacture  of 
steel  for  military  purposes ;  their  report  has  been 
published,  and  contains  most  valuable  information  : 
a  supplement  submitted  to  the  Senate  22d  December 
last,  gives  plans  of  two  proposed  gun  factories,  one 
for  the  Army  and  the  other  for  the  Navy.  Besides 
certain  annual  expenses,  it  is  estimated  that  a  sum 
of  A'7, 000,000  will  last  for  six  and  a  half  years,  in- 
two  years  will  be  required. 

Next  on  the  list  of  producers  comes  Germany, 
which  po.ssesses  the  largest  manufactory  in  the  world 
— that  of  Krupp— remarkable  for  its  excellent  steel 
which  soon  attained  a  wide  reputation,  as  shown  by 
the  fact  that  in  186.'5  England  ordered  from  this  firm, 
for  her  own  use  and  that  of  her  colonies,  no  less 
than  11,3!)0  tyres  and  .564  axles  for  railwa}-  purposes. 
Krupp  early  applied  his  steel  to  the  manufacture  of 
ordnance,  and  he  lias  supplied  several  nations  with 
guns.  Germany  depends  greatly  on  this  maker  for 
her  ordnance,  but  the  American  officers  do  not  con- 
sider this  a  wise  arrangement,  as  the  Government 
may  find  it  difficult  to  deal  with  a  single  private  firm 
in  times  of  great  emergency. 

Fourth  in  magnitvide  comes  France;  with  her  well 
known  Le  Creusut,  Terre  Noire,  and  other  works. 
The  first,  with  its  massive  plant  and  100-ton  ham- 
mer bas  produced  steel  armor  plates  of  excellent 
quality;  while  the  second  has,  after  many  difficulties, 
attained  great  success  in  steel  castings,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  steel  projectiles.  Although  the  loss 
of  Alsace  bas  told  heavily  on  the  production  of  iron 
and  steel  by  France,  and  though  half  her  ores  are 
imported,  her  progress  is  certainly  very  good,  es- 
pecially in  the  steel  required  for  warlike  purposes, 
as  after  the  war  of  1870  the  French  Govcrnnu'nt  en- 
couraged private  companies  to  such  an  extent  that 
several  can  prixhice  the  largest  steel  ingots,  otlu'rs 
have  the  plant  of  a  gun  factory,  and  others  again  are 
able  to  produ<-e  armor-plates  of  excellent  quality. 
The  American  officers  consider  that  France  has  made 
belter  arrangements  than  other  nations  between  the 
Governnu'nt  and  the  steel  makers. 

Belgium  has  good  sujiplies  of  coal,  but  Having  ex- 
hausted her  own  ores,  has  to  import  for  the  numu- 
facture  of  steel;  nevertheless  she  has  made  good 
jirogrcss,  especially  considering  the  means  at  her 
disposal,  and  she  enters  keenly  into  competition  with 
England  in  certain  departments  of  the  trade. 


UILD  STEEL. 


335 


MILD  BTEEL. 


•     Austria,  though   formrrly  cololirated  for  nctal- 

lurjricnl  m!iiiiif;ictiircs,  and  possi'ssinir  cxrcllcnl  fnics. 
lias  l)c(?i  iin.-ihlc  Id  keep  i)ac(:  with  oilier  coiiiilrirs  in 
tlic  pnidiictiijM  (if  inin  iiixi  Htccl.  'I'lie  wiiiil  of  coal, 
and  of  caHy  (Miiimmniciitifms,  and  piTliaps  tlic  lacli  of 
ornaniziilion  and  (■apilal,  have  proved  liindranocs  to 
dc'chiiiMicnl. 

Kussia  possesses  exeellent  ores  in  tlie  mountains  of 
Hiberiaaiid  tlie  Krai,  liiitllic  want  of  l'ooiI  means  of 
transport  and  of  eoal  prevents  a  larire  manufaet,ire  : 
Imt  mild  steel  has  been  made  since  1870,  andlhi'  pro- 
duel  ion  for  ndliliiiT  ])urposes  is  now  consideralile. 
The  Russian  (lovermueni  seems  anxii>us  lo  supjily 
ilsi'lf  Willi  sleel  ;  armor  and  i^iins  up  lo  oO  tons  are 
now  made  iu  Russia.  Formerly  Krupp  supplied 
ordnance. 

The  best  Swedish  pig  iron  is  of  capital  quality,  as 
the  ores  from  which  it  is  produced  are  very  pure, 
and  the  charcoal  employed  as  the  fuel  in  smelting 
being  free  from  sulphur,  does  not  conlamiiiale  the 
cast  iron:  but  the  waat  of  coal  limits  the  supply. 
Fifj.  1 . 

1882. 


1869 

.B 

1 

:^ii 

h 

;  ',:'■'• 

ym 

Hi 

n 


s 


Fig.  2 

The  production  of  iron  and  steel  by  the 
countries  of  the  world  in  188:', 


Pig.  3 


Increase  of  the  c 
world's  annual  "3 
production  o  f -p* 
iron  and  stcffl  CQ 
during  i:j  years —  « 
1869  to  1883.  g 


6      5  ^---^HS  S*' 

'S  d^  a. 
Figs.     !  and  2  .—A,  steel :  B,  wronglit  iron :  C.  cosMron 
3:— B.  Bessemer;  t",  crucible;  O.  H.,  open  hearth. 


■  U 


Fig 


Spain  cannot  be  calleil  a  manufactuiing  country; 
but  the  Bilbao  ore  has  lately  been  very  largely  used 
in  steel  making ;   twenty  years  ago  hardly  any  for-  Iresult  wi'llbeto  give  brittlenesslnsleaT  of'strength 


lign  ore  was  used  in  England  ;  now  she  annually  im- 
ports about  8,000.000  tons  from  Spain,  and  other  na- 
tions also  supply  Ihemselvcs  largely.  This  country 
is  conseipieiilly  ini|iorlant  to  the  steel  makers. 

Ital}'  has  harilly  any  iron  or  steel  works;  the  Klbd 
ore  has  loii'.^  been  fiimous.  but  is  not  so  important  as 
formerly.  The  huge  armor-clad  ships  of  Italy,  willi 
their  very  heavy  iruns.  have,  however,  called  for 
large  "Upplies  of  mild  sleel  for  warlike  purposes 
from  abroad,  and  they  have  cimlribiiled  not  a  little 
to  the  development  of  some  i>rivate  (inns  for 
producing  heavy  war  material.  Accftrdiiig  to  the 
Stani/jini  of  recent  date  the  firm  of  Sir  U'.  Ami- 
slroiig  and  Co.  has  obtained  a  concession  for  estab- 
lisliing  large  factories  for  making  guns  and  armor 
plates  in  the  neiichborhood  of  Naples. 

The  other  nations  of  Europe  produce  but  little 
iron  and  steel,  and  Ihey  are  chiefly  supplied  from 
those  already  named.  In  the  other  countries  of  the 
world  considerable  progress  has  been  made,  as  also 
in  some  (jf  the  colonies— the  establishment  of  a  gun 
foundry  at  (Quebec  is  under  consideration;  and  in 
many  places  large  sujiplies  of  ore  are  available. 

Steel  is  by  no  means  easy  to  define,  since  it  is  a 
complex  body,  and  as  all  "persons  are  not  exactly 
agreed  concerning  the  dillerence  between  it  and 
iron,  lawsuits  have  conseijuently  arisen;  but  the 
detinilion  of  mild  steel  given  liy  Holley.  quoted  in 
the  Royal  Gun  Factory  Treatise,  that  itis  "an  alloy 
of  iron,  cast,  while  in  a  fluid  slate,  into  a  malleable 
ingot,"  has,  at  any  rale,  the  advantage  of  simplicity, 
if  not  (jf  perfect  exactness.  This  detinilion  serves 
to  distinguish  it  from  cast  iron  on  the  one  hand,  and 
from  wrought  iron  on  the  other  ;  as  cast  iron  is  not 
malleable,  but  crumbles  to  pieces  if  heated  and 
struck  by  the  hammer,  and  wrought  iron,  though 
malleable,  is  produced,  not  as  a  fluid,  but  as  a  pasty 
niass,  the  temperature  of  the  ordmary  furnace  being 
insutlieient  to  mell  it. 

Wrought  iron  is  more  fibrous  than  mild  steel,  and 
it  contains,  from  the  method  of  its  manufacture,  an 
average  of  3  jjer  cent  by  weight,  or  Ti  per  cent  by 
volume  of  slag,  dispersed  through  its"  mass  in  fine 
tilamenls,  which  detracts  from  its  strength  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  process  of  fusion  in  the  manufacture 
of  mild  sleel  gets  rid  of  all  traces  of  slag  ;  and  this 
is  a  great  advantage.  (.)ld  definition.;  of 'steel  stated 
that  I  he  pro))orlion  of  carbon  in  it  was  more  than  in 
wrought  iron,  but  less  th;in  in  east  iron;  but  this 
hardly  holds  good  at  the  present  time,  wdien  some 
mild  steel  has  no  more  carbon  than  some  wrouclit 
iron.  Sir  V,'.  Armstrong  states  that  "  steel  is  iron 
produced  by  a  process  of  fusion  instead  of  by  one  of 
adhesion,  and  in  that  sense  it  is  mdependent  of  any 
particular  sense  of  carbonization.  Using  the  teriii 
in  this  sense,  steel  has  the  advantage  over  iron  in 
being  free  from  defects  in  vvehlini:.  It  irenerallv 
contains  more  carbon  than  wrought  iron,  which  reii- 
ders  it  stronger.  It  is  also  tougher  under  some  tests, 
but  more  prone  to  fracture  under  others.  .  .  .  The 
manufacture  of  steel  continues  to  improve,  while 
that  of  iron  is  stationary,  and  the  time  is  probably 
near  when  the  manufaetureof  iron,  as  now  practiced, 
will  entirely  merge  into  that  of  steel,  as  produced  by 
the  process  of  fusion." 

Taking  HoUey's  definition,  carbon  is  the  essential 
substance  which  alloys  with  iron  to  form  steel  ;  it 
increases  the  hardness,  elasticity,  and  tenacity,  al- 
though it  decreases  the  elongation  before  fracture : 
it  also  gives  rise  to  the  important  property  of  tem- 
pering by  rapid  cooling,  by  which  these  advantases 
can  be  increased,  though  with  a  further  loss  of  power 
to  elongate.  Annealing,  or  softening  by  slow  cool- 
ing, may  be  called  the  reverse  of  tempering.  The 
presence  of  carbon,  however,  greatly  adds  to  the 
difficulty  of  forging,  which  must  be  done  at  a  lower 
temperature  as  Uie  proportion  of  carbon  increases  : 
if  too  hot.  the  mass  will  crumble  to  pieces  under  the 
hammer,  or  if  this  does  not  actually  take  place,  the 


mUD  STEEL. 


336 


MUD  STEEL. 


in  the  operation  of  forging — producing  what  is  tech- 
nically called  ••burnt  steel,"  :  in  explanation  of  this 
remarkal)le  fact  it  can  only  be  stated  that  some  phy- 
sical and  (possibly)  chemical  change  takes  place  in 
steel  at  a  certain  temperature  depending  on  the  pro- 
portion of  carbon  present,  which  causes  it  to  assume 
a  coarsely  crystalline  structure,  greatly  decreasing 
its  strength  and  reliability  :  the  forging  of  steel  is 
consequently  generally  more  tedious  than  that  of 
wrought  iron,  which  can  often  be  heated  to  a  white 
heat  when  it  becomes  soft,  and  can  then  be  quickly 
hammered  into  tlie  required  shape.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  modern  steel  making,  the  necessity  for  care 
about  the  temperature  tor  forging  was  not  fully  rec- 
ognized, and  ••  burnt  steel  "  was  often  produced,  ac- 
counting probably  for  many  of  the  mysterious  frac- 
tures which  happened,  -and  wliich  gave  reason  for  so 
much  distrust.  At  Terre  Noire  especially,  the  men 
who  had  been  accustomed  to  deal  with  wrought  iron 
could  not  understand  for  a  long  time  that  steel  must 
be  treated  differently,  and  experience  was  only 
gained  at  the  cost  of  a  good  many  failures.  On  one 
occasion,  the  ordinary  workmen  were  turned  away, 
and  carpenters  who  had  to  learn  the  work,  but  who 
would  do  what  they  were  told,  were  engaged  in- 
stead 

So  great,  however,  is  the  progress  in  some  depart- 
ments of  steel-making,  that  notwithstanding  these 
ditlicuUies  of  working  we  find  Mr.  Denny  writing 
that  "steel  for  ships'  plates  has  become  so  uniform  as 
to  have  lost  interest,  while  iron  attracts  attention 
from  its  deterioration  and  want  of  uniformit}'.  and 
the  men  complain  if  they  are  put  to  work  upon  it  on 
account  of  the  amount  of  spoilt  work  involved  :" 
and  this  is  not  an  isolated  opinion.  It  cannot  be  said, 
however,  that  the  large  masses  of  steel  for  guns  are 
as  yet  produced  with  such  uniformity. 

Mild  steel  can  be  welded  like  wrought  iron,  but 
the  operation  becomes  more  and  more  difficult  as  the 
carbon  increases  ;  the  13-pr.  steel  axletree  is  conse- 
quently made  in  one  piece  without  any  weld,  but 
wrouglit  iron  axletrees  are  most  conveniently  made 
in  two  pieces,  which  are  afterwards  welded  together. 
On  the  other  hand, large  quantities  of  excellent  tubu- 
lar steel  are  now  produced  by  the  process  of  lap 
welding. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  cast  mild  steel  than  cast  iron, 
because  a  more  uniform  result  is  required,  and  since 
the  temperature  of  fusion  is  so  much  higher  (from 
the  smaller  proportion  of  carbon),  much  greater  con- 
traction takes  place  on  cooling,  giving  rise  to  a  vari- 
ety of  intense  molecular  strains,  whicli  are  sometimes 
sufficient  to  tear  the  metal  apart  in  the  mold,  and 
often  cause  surface  cracks,  telling  of  a  state  of  strain 
which  must  be  allowed  for  and  counteracted  as  far  as 
possible  by  suitable  methods  of  cooling  and  reheating 
Krupp  takes  the  greatest  care  on  this  point,  making 
the  cooling  of  his  ingots  very  slow  indeed,  keeping 
them  warm  with  hot  ashes  sometimes  for  weeks, and 
they  are  said  to  be  remarkably  free  from  cracks  or 
flaws.  Annealing  for  several  days  is  often  resort- 
ed to  in  the  case  of   steel  castings. 

As  small  differences  in  the  proportion  of  carbon 
make  very  great  differences  in  the  elasticity,  tenaci- 
ty, liardness,  elongation,  etc.,  it  is  most  important 
to  use  every  effort  to  control  the  quantity  admitted 
into  steel  in  manufacture,  and  it  is  one  of  the  great- 
est aims  in  nuiking  steel  for  ordnance,  to  obtain,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  the  desired  propDrtion  of  carbon; 
for  this  i)Mrpose  it  ranges  from  about  O.^iT  to  0..'). 
For  the  hard  steel  face  of  compound  armor  plates  it 
may  be  as  high  as  0.8  per  cent. 

In  all  modern  steel  there  is  a  considerable  proj^ir- 
tion  of  manganese;  this  is  supposed  to  act  in  the 
sanu:  way  as  carbon  in  hardening,  but  its  eilect  is 
not  so  marked.  It  is  always  added  to  nu'lted  steel 
in  manufai'ture.  in  order  (it  is  sup])osed)to  lake  away 
ferrous  oxide,  which  forms  at  a  high  lemperalure, 
and  also  to  a  certain  extent,  it  may  take  away  otlur 
impurities  which  would  impart  red  shortness  or 


brittleuess  at  the  forging  temperature ;  asmangan-. 
ese  Las  an  extraordinary  affinity  for  oxygen,  it  is 
prepared  for  use  as  an  alloy  with  carbon  and  iron, 
termed  spiegeleisen  or  ferro-mangauese,  according 
as  the  proportion  of  iron  or  manganese  predomi- 
nates; both  of  these  alloys  are  now  important  articles 
of  commerce.  When  the  manganese  mixture  is  put 
into  the  liquid  steel,  some  of  it  immediately  attacks 
the  ferrous  oxide,  deprives  it  of  its  o.xygen,  and  be- 
coming itself  oxidized,  runs  harmlessly  into  the  slag, 
leaving  a  certain  small  quantity  of  metallic  mangan- 
ese to  alloy  with  the  steel ;  this  is  the  last  operation 
before  pouring  out,  in  the  Bessemer  and  •'open 
hearth"  processes,  so  that  no  time  may  be  given  for 
the  formation  of  any  more  f';rrous  oxide.  Mild  steel 
should  not  have  more  than  about  1.0  per  cent,  of 
manganese,  or  it  will  be  brittle,  but  it  is  generally 
best  to  have  less  than  this  quantity.  Messrs.  Had- 
fleld  and  Co.,  however,  have  lately  produced  steel 
having  as  much  as  12  per  cent,  of  manganese  which 
has  shown  remarkable  qualities,  and  may  perhaps 
become  of  practical  utilit.v  in  various  ways.  This 
alloy  is  very  hard,  but  not  brittle,  and  is  scarcely 
affected  if  lieated  and  plunged  into  water ;  but  con- 
siderable variations  have  occurred  in  its  properties. 
Silicon  has  the  property  of  rendering  cast-steel  in- 
gots sound  and  free  from  blow-holes  ;  small  quanti- 
ties of  pig  iron  rich  in  silicon  are  often  added  for  this 
purpose.  It  is  supposed  to  de-oxidize,  the  carbonic 
oxide  gas  which  forms  the  bubbles,  and  thus  silica  is 
produced  which  enters  the  slag.  Not  more  than  about 
0,3  per  cent,  of  silicon  should  be  present,  and  much 
less  if  the  steel  is  to  be  of  very  mild  quality  'or 
brittleuess  will  be  produced.) 

Sulphur  and  phosphorus  (especially  the  latter)  are 
the  enemies  of  the  steel  maker,  for  if  present  beyond 
a  very  small  amount  (say  0.04  and  O.OG  respectively) 
they  jjroduce  britfleness  :  as  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  ore-deposits  in  the  world  contain  too  mucli 
phosphorus  to  allow  them  to  be  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  steel  as  it  is  generally  carried  on,  it  has  long 
been  a  great  problem  to  invent  some  process  by 
which  it  could  be  eliminated,  and  it  appears  that 
this  has  at  last  been  practically  accomplislied  by  the 
basic  process,  invented  by  Messrs.  Thomas  and  Gil- 
christ, in  which  freshly  calcined  magnesian  lime- 
stone (dolomite)  absorbs  the  phosphorus  almost  en- 
tirely when  the  metal  is  melted,  and  by  this  process 
good  steel  has  been  produced  from  highly  phos- 
phoric ores.  The  averages  of  analy.ses  inade  in  the 
North  Eastern  Railway  Company's  laboratory  by 
Mr.  Routledge.of  twenty  steel  rails  made  from  ha?ma- 
tite  iron,  and  of  twenty  others  made  from  pho'sphoric 
Cleveland  iron  by  thebasic  process,  give  very  nearly 
the  same  results. 

Car-  Sili-  Sul-  Phos-  Man- 
bon  con.  ptiur.  phorus.  eancse.  Iron. 
Ilfematite  Steel.  0-4.5S  0-105  0-121  0-0.53  1-178  98-093 
Cleveland  steel.  0-4.50  0065  0-095  0-0.54  1-301  98-134 
As  far  as  .present  experience  goes,  the  physical 
qualities  of  the  two  steels  are  said  to  be  similar : 
basic  steel  has  not  yet,  however  been  employed  for 
ordnance. 

Although  this  plan  was  invented  by  Englishmen, 
it  has  been  more  widely  adopted  in  some  parts  of  the 
Continent  (where  phosphoric  ores  abound)  than  in 
Euffland,  where  good  ores  are  generally  procurable 
from  abroad  if  not  close  at  hand  :  and  the  practical 
question  now  seems  to  be  generally  one  of  economy, 
whether  it  is  better  acc<irding  to  local  conditions, 
cost  of  carriage,  etc.,  to  employ  an  expensive  ore  and 
a  comparatively  cheap  method  of  production,  or  a 
cheap  ore  and  a  somewhat  more  expensive  process  : 
as  further  experience,  however,  is  obtained,  the  ad- 
ditional labor  and  expense  of  the  basic  lining  plan 
may  possil)ly  be  reduced.  The  results  have  been  so 
godd  that  it"seemsasif  a  new(le|)arture  has  occurred 
in  tlie  pnigress  of  steel  makiiii; ;  already  about  a. 
million  tons  of  steel  are  manufactured  annually  in 
Europe  from  phosphoric  pig,  and  the  highest  honors 


MILD  6TEEL. 


337 


KILD  STEEL. 


Ii;n  !•  Iiiiti  i^ivcn  to  tlie  inventora.  It  must,  how- 
ever, \h;  stiileil  that  orcH  rich  in  Bilicon  [in'seiit 
Bnme  (lifllcully  with  this  |)roccss,  us  Ihr  fiiriiiice  lin- 
ini;  in  iiuicli  corroded,  iiiid  cure  must  he  tulien  to  use 
freshly  caleiiied  liincstone,  us  it  sooti  iihsorl)s  nmist- 
ure  from  (he  atmosphere. 

'Pile  ]>{iwer  lo  resist  alirasioiiaiid  ruhliini;  possessed 
h)'  jjiihl  slcel,  is  jrreater  lliun  tliat  of  wrou^lit  iron; 
tliis  is  a|iparetitly  due,  not  only  to  greater  liardness 
imparted  l)y  more  earl)!!!!,  hut  it  also  results  from 
the  ureater  unifortnily  of  its  structure:  wrousihl  iron, 
on  the  other  hand,  Ihikes  olT,  from  the  [iresence  of 
lilauienis  of  slai;.  The  udvantaf^e  of  mild  steel  over 
wrouirht  iron  in  this  respect  has  heen  shown  in  a 
marked  manner  liy  the  superior  endurance  and  uni- 
forniily  of  steel  rails  :  as,  for  instance,  when  the  Lon- 
don and  Norlliweslern  Haihvay  Company  some  years 
ago  made  a  careful  experiment  it  Chalk  Farm  Slulion 
at  a  spot  where  the  tralllc^  was  specially  heavy,  the 
top  side  only  of  steel  rails  lasted  eleven  times  as  lonj; 
as  both  sides  of  wroui;ht  iron  om'S  on  the  other  side 
of  the  same  liii^.  Steel  has  con.sequently  been  wide- 
ly adopted  for  rails,  thouj^h  it  cannot  be  said  that  all 
now  mamifactured  are  of  nearly  such  linnd  quality 
us  those  made  for  that  experiment.  This  samei)rop- 
erty  was  long  ago  recogni/.ed  in  gun  making,  when 
t  le  bores  of  ordnance,  which  have  lo  resist  the 
abrasion  of  studs,  etc.,  and  the  erosive  action  of  lired 
gunpowder,  were  made  of  steel. 

The  proreis  of  drawing  into  wire  increases  the 
elasticity,  tenacity,  and  elongation  of  steel  to  a  degree 
miattainalile  in  any  other  way.  Advantage  has  of 
late  year.'i  been  taken  of  this  fact  in  the  manufacture 
of  ordnance,  as  this  nietlif  d  also  allows  of  the  initial 
tensions  being  very  accurately  uljusted.  and  no  ex- 
tensive Haws  can  remain  undetected.  Many  other 
physical  and  chemical  properties  of  steel  might  be 
considered,  but  those  just  mentioned  are  probably 
the  most  important  for  the  purposes  under  consid- 
eration. 

Kxcluding  the  oliler  processes  for  the  manufacture 
of  hard  tool  steels,  we  tind  that  mild  §teel  for  con- 
structional purposes  is  produced  by  the  three  follow- 
ing methods: 

1.  Crucible.  2.  Open  hearth.  3.  Bessemer. 
In  each  of  these  plans  a  very  high  temperature 
must  be  obtained  in  flrder  to  melt  the  steel,  which 
must  not  be  in  contact  with  the  solid  fuel,  because 
if  it  were  so,  the  proportion  of  carbon  in  the  steel 
would  be  too  large;  and  means  are  always  taKen  to 
reniler  the  product  as  uniform  as  possible. 

1.  The  crucible  plan  is  by  far  the  oldest,  but  it 
is  now  the  least  employed;  it  has  long  been  known 
that  wrought  iron  enclosed  in  a  crucible  with  car- 
bonaceous matter  is  capable  of  combining  with  the 
carbon,  and  melting,  to  form  steel,  at  a  temperature 
insuthcieut  to  melt  wrought  iron  alone.  At  the 
present  time,  carefully  weighed  proportions  of 
wrought  iron,  with  sometimes  a  little  steel,  or  even 
good  cast  iron  of  known  composition,  powdered 
charcoal,  and  spiegeleisen  are  put  into  a  crucible 
capable  of  holding  some  GO  to  100  pounds,  this  being 
about  the  limit  which  its  strength  will  enable  it  to 
bear  without  risk  of  cracking.  A  number  of  such 
crucibles  are  placed  in  a  furnace  specially  construct- 
ed for  their  reception;  a  very  high  temperature  is 
obtained,  and  after  some  two  and  a  half  to  three 
hours,  according  to  the  degree  of  carbonization  re- 
quired, the  contents  are  melted,  the  carbon  has  al- 
loyeil  with  the  iron  to  form  steel,  and  the  manganese 
in  the  spiegeleisen  has  reduced  any  ferrous  oxide 
which  may  be  present.  A  liquid  slag  formed  at  the 
top,  and  a  tire-clay  cover  prevent  oxidation,  which 
might  otherwise  occur  at  the  high  temperature  at- 
tained; the  contents  of  several  crucibles  are  then 
poured  into  the  same  ingot  mold  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible. Krupp  has  greatly  developed  this"  method, 
anil  he  has  poured  from  as  many  as  1  800  crucibles 
into  one  mold  :  great  care  and  arrangement  in  the 
large  numbers  of  men  employed  being  necessary. 


The  advantages  claimed  for  tliis  plan  are  tliat  the 

llam('  is  not  in  contact  with  the  sleel.  and.  therefore, 
cannot  contaminate  it;  and  uniformity  of  quality  ig 
gaineil  if  the  temperatun;  and  timeof  heating  are  the 
same,  othi-rwise  the  reactions  may  differ  in  dilferent 
crucililes  if  the  heat  varies  in  ileralion  and  intensity. 
Till'  disadvantages  are,  tlir'  r'xpense  and  the  great- 
care  and  arrangement  necessary  for  very  large  in- 
gots, when  great  numbers  of  men  must  lie  carefully 
trained  to  work  togetl:i-r  ;  the  length  of  time  taken  in 
casting  is  al.so  a  drawback,  but  llie  product  is  often 
excellent  if  ull  necessary  conditions  are  observed, 
und  it  has  been  largely  employed  for  gun  tubes, 
where  Firth's  crucibli^  steel  has  been  much  used. 

2.  The  0|)en  hearth  plan  is  pirhai>sthe  most  recent 
mi'thod  of  steel  making,  and  it  owes  its  success  to 
(111!  invention  of  Siemens  and  others,  who  have  con- 
structed furnaces  of  the  regenerating  lype.capulile  of 
producing  very  high  temiieratures.  Thisso-called 
j  hearth  is  somewhat  spoon-shaped,  sloping  down  to 
one  point,  and  the  bed  is  covered  widi  partly  fused 
sand  ;  good  cast  iron  is  first  thrust  in,  Jind  the  flame 
beating  down  or  reverberating  from  the  low  roof, 
soon  melts  i(,  as  the  metal  is  readily  fusilile  from  (he 
large  quantity  of  carbon  which  it  contains,  and  thu.-j 
i  the  so-called  "bath"  is  formed.  Sometimes  only  one 
kind  of  pig  iron  is  used,  but  generally  it  is  more 
economical  to  make  a  mixture-  for  instance,  a  very 
j  pure  Swedish  ])ig  iron  combined  w't^U  a  cheaper  iron 
I  from  English  hienialite  ore,  which  h  asagood  deal  of 
sulphur, but  not  enough  tomakean  injurious  amount 
in  the  mixture,  and  sometimes  steel  mixed  at  first 
with  the  cast  iron.  When  the  bath  is  sufliciently 
fluid,  steel  scrap,  crop  ends  of  rails  or  wrought 
iron  are  thrown  in,  after  being  warmed  by  the  waste 
heat,  the  object  beingto  obtain  a  mixture  having  less 
and  less  carbon  ;  when  these  have  been  well  melted 
down,  a  further  .reduction  of  carbon  is  effected  by 
the  addition  of  known  quantities  of  good  Spanish 
hiematite  ore— an  oxide  of  iron.  When  this  is  added, 
a  violent  ebullition  ensues,  due  to  the  combination  of 
tJ»e  carbon  in  the  melted  charge  with  the  oxygen  in 
the  hffimatite,  and  the  consequent  production  of  car- 
bonic oxide  gas;  this  is  technically  called  "boiling." 
The  whole  operation  7Hi(//it  be  done  by  the  use  of  pig 
iron  and  ore  without  any  wrought  iron  or  steel.  Tliis 
was  a  good  deal  practiced  at  one  time,  but  it  was 
found  to  be  very  expensive,  as  more  fuel  was  re- 
quired, and  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  furnace  lining 
was  considerable,  from  the  corrosive  action  of  the 
large  quantities  of  slag  produced.  JJuring  the  latter 
part  of  the  process  the  steel  maker  is  constantly 
testing  the  composition  of  the  molten  mass,  by  insert- 
ing a  large  iron  rod  with  a  spoon  at  the  end  of  it. 
and  taking  out  a  little  of  the  steel;  this  is  judiciously 
cooled,  hammered  on  an  anvil,  bent  over  and  broken, 
and  the  fracture  and  general  appearance  are  ci  m- 
pared  with  the  samples  previously  obtained  wliich 
have  given  good  results,  and  which  have  been 
chemically  analysed.  If  it  is  judged  that  the  carbon 
is  not  low  enough,  more  ore  must  be  added  if  no 
"boil"  is  going  on;  but  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
too  low  alreadv,  some  good  pig  iron  must  be  put  in. 
and  on  leaving  off  the  operation  the  steel  should  be 
as  quiet  and  free  from  bubbles  as  possible,  to  avoid 
blow  holes  in  the  casting. 

Great  practical  skill  is  required  on  the  part  of  tlie 
s(eel  maker;  his  tests  must  be  (akeu  rapidly,  and  a 
judgment  must  soon  be  made  from  the  scan(y  and 
apparentl}-  rough  data  furnished  by  the  comparison 
of  the  test  pieces  with  the  standards  but.  never- 
theless, the  same  results  may  be  repeatedly  attained 
by  the  same  operator  within  comparatively'  narrow 
limits. 

Just  before  the  pouring  out.  comes  the  addition  of 
the  proper  quantity  of  spiegeleisen  or  ferro-mac- 
ganese :  both  of  these  necessarily  contain  carbon, 
and  consequently  the  melted  mass  should  previously 
be  more  decarbonized  than  the  finished  steel.  The 
manganese  is  previously  heated,  carefully  scattered 


MILD  STEEL. 


;'.;w 


MILS  STEEL. 


over  and  stirred  up  in  the  steel,  and  allowed  to  re-  '  it  becomes  decarbonized  and  consequently  more  in- 
main  a  short  time  to  become  Ihorouijhly  incorporated  i  fusiiilc,  it  still  remains  lii|uid  ;  after  some  :3IJ  minutes 
and  to  ensure  vmiformity  of  cnmiiosilion  ;  at  the  last  i  the  Hame  becomes  much  shorter  and  alters  its  char- 
moment  two  spoon  tests  are  taken,  one  for  chemical  I  acter.  signifying  that  the  carbon  is  becoming  very 
analysis  of  the  carbon   and   the  other  for  physical    low,  and  that  the  operation  is  nearly  completed  ;  it 


trial :  the  lapping  hole  at  the  bottom  is  knocked 
through  by  means  of  hammers  and  a  long  rod.  and 
tlie  liquid  steel  flows  out  along  a  gutter  into  a  large 
iron  ladle  lined  with  tire-clay  and  previously  healed; 
if  not  heated,  or  if  the  temperature  of  tne  liquid 
steel  is  too  low,  a  good  deal  of  waste  occurs  from 
the  formation  of  a  considerable  '•skull,"  or  metallic 
lining,  caused  by  the  solidifying  of  the  outer  part  cf 
the  steel  in  the  ladle.  When  all  the  steel  has  been 
poured  out.  two  spoon  samples  are  very  generally 
taken  for  chemical  and  physical  tests,  the  hulle  is 
carried  by  a  powerful  crane  to  the  ingot  mold  it  is 
desired  to  till,  and  a  plug  is  raised  at  the  bottom, 
worked  bj-  a  rod  passing  through  rings  of  fire-clay  in 
the  liquid  mass;  the  steel  then  runs  out  of  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ladle  and  tills  the  ingot  mold:  the  slag 
being  lighter  remains  at  the  top  and  is  not  mi.vcd  up 
with  the  steel,  unless  indeed  any  difficulty  occurs 
with  the  bottom  plug,  when  the  sieel  must  be  poured 
from  the  top  of  the  jadle,  as  water  is  from  a  jug ;  in 
this  case,  small  quantities  of  slag  may  become  en- 
tangled in  the  steel,  and  the  ingot  will  probably  be 
spoilt. 

Sometimes  the  metal  is  run  direct  into  the  ingot 
mold   without   the  use   of  a  ladle,  but  this   is  not 
generally' considered  a  convenient  plan.     The  whole 
operation  lasts  from  7  to  11  hours,  or  longer,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the   furnace  and   tlie  weight   of 
charge ;  the  largest  furnace  yet  made  will  melt  over 
30  tons  at  a  time ;  the  furnace  bottom  needs  repair 
after  each  charge.     The  advantages  of  this  process 
are  that  it  is  cheaper  than  the  last,  the  composition 
of  the  steel  can  be  very  carefully   controlled,  but  it 
requires  very  great  attention   and  skill  on  the  part 
of  one  or  two  responsible  persons.     It  is  verv  largely 
employed  in   making   steel  for  ordnance,  carriages, 
and  other  military  constructions,  where  uniformity 
and  liigh  qualities  are  more  desirable  than  economy. 
3.  By   far   the   largest   proportion   of  mild   steel 
<^nearly  80  per  cent.)  is  manufactured  by  the  Besse- 
mer process,  but  it   is  not  applied  to  military  piir- 
2ioses  to  anything  like  that  degree  ;  the  ra))idi"ty  and 
economv  of  tliis  plan  are  considerable,  and  the  whole 
operation  is  startling  and  impressive.     A  large  egg- 
shaped    iron  vessel   called  a  "converter,"   can    re- 
volve on  trunnions,  one  of  which  is  provided  with 
teeth   which    gear   with    rack-work,  by  means   of 
which  it  can  be  turned  up  or  down.  The  other  trun- 
nion is  Imllow,  and  through  it  comes  a  pipe  eomnui- 
iiicating   with  a   great   numlier   of  small   holes   or 
"tuyeres"  fitted   in  the   fire-bricks  situated   in   the 
bottom  of  file  vessel ;  a  blast  of  air  can  thus  be  sent 
from  an  engine  through  the  tuyeres.     The  top  of  the 
converter   is  provided   with  a   sliort   chimnej',  and 
the  interior  is  lined  with  a  very  refractory  material 
called  ganister.     The  operation  is  as  follows  :     The 
<-oiiverter    being     heated,   it   is  turned   down   and 
melted  cast-iron  is  poured  in  by  a  gutter,  either  from 
a  reluMtiug  furnace,  or  in  some  e:Lses,  as   first  prac- 
ticed at  Terre  Noire,  direct   from  the  blast   furnace, 
where  it  is  reduced  from  the  ore  ;  when  a  sufficient 
<liarge  has  lieen  poured   in— onl}'   about  J  of  the  to- 
tal capacity,  so  that  the  iron  may  not  rise  to  the  tuy- 
e'res  on  p-uiriug  in— the  blast  is  turned  on,  and  when 
it  is   fully   on,   the   converter  is  turned     up:  the   li- 
(luid  iron  c;mnot   run  down   the   small  tuyere    holes 
through  which  the  blast  coiui'S,  but  on  the  contrary, 
the    i)ressure     is    sufticient     to    cause    a  eonliniuius 
stream  of  bubbh's  of  air  to  rise  up  through  the  mol- 
ten mass,  thus  oxidizing  the  carbon  in  it  with   the 
formation  of  carbonic  o.\ide  gas,  which  burns  with  a 
strong  flame  some  20  feet  in  length  at  the  top  of  the 
<.'liimiiey. 

The  t(-mperature  of  the  iron  is  considerably  raised 
Jjy  the  combustion  of  the  carbon  in  it,  and,  although 


is  essential  that  the  exact  lime  of  leaving  off  should 
be  chosen,   as  if  the  "blow"  is  stopped  too  soon, 
sufficient  carljon  is  not  extracted ;  if,  on  the  other 
Inind,  it  is  continued  too  long,  the  iron  becomes  oxi- 
dized, when  not  only  is  some  of  it  wasted  but  the 
quality  of  the  rest  is  spoilt,  for  the  ir<m  itself  burns, 
and  excess  of  o.xide  is  formed.     The  appearance  of 
certain  lines  in  the  spectroscopic  appearance  of  the 
flame  is  employed  to  find  the  proper  time  for  leaving 
oflf.  but  it  is  often  determined  by  eye  alone.     Before 
pouriug  out,  however,  comes  the  addition  of  man- 
ganese, which  is  absolutely  neces.saiT  in  this  plan : 
as  from  the  method  of  manufacture  a  good  deal  of 
ferrous    oxide    must    necessarily   be    formed ;    the 
"blow"  is  continued  for  rather  less  than  a  minute, 
after  which  the  steel  is  poured  out  into  the  ladle, 
when  it  is  sometimes  stirred  b}'  meaAs  of  an  "agi- 
tator" to   distribute   the   manganese    and   produce 
uniformity.     Tlie  ingot  casting  is  the  same  as  in  the 
"open  hearth"  system.     The  rapidity  of  this  plan 
enables  an  enormous  output  to  be  made  with  a  mod- 
erate plant,  as  each  "blow"  lasts  less  than  half  an 
hour  to  produce  6  to  13  tons  of  steel,  but  this  very 
rapidity  prevents  the  careful  control  over  the  residts 
which  can  be  exercised   in  the  last  method:  in  a 
large  firm  this  can  be  allowed  for  by  sorting  the  in- 
gots produced,  and  ;i|)plying  each  to  the  purpose  for 
which   it  is  most  suited:   but  it  is  most  dlHicidt  to 
know  what  will  be  the  exact  proportions  of  carbon 
and  tlie  other  qualities  of  any  particular  "blow." 
It  does  not  appear  at  present  to  be  well  suited  for 
the  manufacture  of  ordnance ;    and    the  following 
extract  from  the  "  Proceedings  of  the  American  So- 
ciety of  Civil   Engineers"  about   the   Jlonongahela 
Bridge,  Pittsburg,  seems  to  represent  the  facts  con- 
cerning the  employment  of  this  steel  for  work  of  the 
higher  qualifies :  "The  difhcultj' seemed  to  consist 
in   controlling  the   uniformity   of  the   steel   within 
close  limits  for  quality  and  strength  with  the  Bes- 
semer  process.     After  a   while,    the    attempt   was 
given  up,  and  the  'open  iiearth'  was  substituted— 
no  froidile  was  then  experienctd  in  getting  a  uni- 
form grade   of  steel  of  prescribed   quality."     Some 
43,000  tons  of  "open  liearth"  steel  will  be  used  in 
tlie   construction  of  the   Forth   Bridge.     Bessemer 
steel  is  very  much  used  for  rails,  and  also  for  a  great 
variety  of  other  purposes,  including  comjiound  ar- 
mor. 

When  steel  is  to  be  forged,  it  is  c;ist  into  an  ingot 
mold  of  a  very  simple  form,  efforts  being  made,  by 
the  use  of  silicon,  cither  in  the  pig  or  in  a  special 
mixture,  or  by  fluid  pressure  as  used  by  ^\'hitworth. 
to  get  rid  of  blow-holes:  the  ingot  is  taken  out.  re- 
heated, carefully  inspected,  cracks  cut  out,  and  it  is 
then  either  hammered,  rolled,  or  pressed  to  the  re- 
quired shape,  great  care  being  taken  about  the  tem- 
perature. In  order  that  the_blows  may  be  well  trans- 
mitted through  the  mass,  it  appears  that  very  heavy 
hammers  are  now  generally  preferred,  iirobably  be- 
cause mild  steel  is  not  in  as  soft  a  condition  as 
wrought  iron  when  forged.  As  large  masses  of  steel 
are  now  worked,  it  is  probalile  that  the  numbers  of 
already  existing  very  heavy  haniniers  may  be  in- 
creased, unless  Wliitwcn'fh's  method  of  hydraidic 
pressure  be  employed  instead;  and  this  now  appears 
to  be  verj-  gemrally  prefi'rred:  great  progress  has 
been  made  in  some  of  the  leading  factories  abroad: 
and  this  .seems  an  important  unitter  for  Kuglish 
manufacturers  to  consider,  with  reference  to  the  hirge 
masses  re(|uired  for  ordnance.  Larger  ingots  h.ave 
been  produced  in  France  iuid  (fcrmany  th;ui  in  Kng- 
land. 

Increase  of  tenacity  can  be  obtained  by  Hie  inqior- 
tant  operation  of  tempering,  but  this  is  at  the  ex- 
pense of  elougatioujbefore  fracture.     The  temper  ob- 


UILD  STEEL 


339 


UILD  STEEL. 


liiincil  viiricH  with  the  aiiioiiiit  of  ciirboii  iti  the  steci, 
the  li'iniH-nitiiri'  iirid  tlic  iiiiturcof  llic  coormf;  iimliT- 
ial  nipr  oil  hi'iiii;  uciicnilly  I'oiisiclcrcd  llic  lii'st  fur 
iari;i-  iiiasscM,  as  it  Man  a  k'ss  cKiulucliiii;  |miw<t  tliaii 
waTcr,  and  codls  llie  niflal  more  sli)wly.  Kiupp  in 
nai(l  li>  temper  liis  Ktcel  ala  uniform  lieat;  wiiile  our 
plan  for  oriliiance  is  to  temper  a  lest  pii'ce  at  1,450 
<;eLC-  Fm  li'i'l  'f  "''i^  ''"'■'*  ""'  .'-''^'''  ?-"""'  results,  tlie 
temperature  is  varieil  within  eertaiii  limits,  amltlii'M 
the  whole  mass  is  treati-d  in  th<'  sami'  way  as  nearly 
as  possilile,  as  the  test  piece  whi<'h  ;;ave  the  hest  re- 
Bulls.  Temperin'j;  lowers  tlie  si)eeitie  j;ravity  sliu;htly, 
(■oiisei|Uently  warpini:  and  surface  eraeks  are  often 
produced  by  this  operation,  when  larf,'e  masses  are 
aeteil  upon.'  The  S<-hneiiler  steel  jilate  at  the  Hpez- 
zia  experiment  in  1883  was  tempered  on  the  face  to 
fiain  hardness,  and  it  eonse(|uently  warped  so  much 
that  it  had  to  he  planed  otV  at  the  corners  to  make  it 
tit  the  franu' it  was  jilaced  in.  (iun  tubes  often  de- 1 
vclop  surface  cracks  after  Icmpcriui;-,  but  sullieii-nt  , 
thickness  of  metal  is  allowed  so  that  tliey  may  after- 
wards be  cut  out  in  the  lathe. 

With  steel  castinijs,  every  effort  is  made  to  get  rid 
of  blow-holes ;  this  lienerally  involves  (for  all  irood 
work)  a  very  consideral)le  deadhead,  which  adds  to 
the  expens.-"  and  has  to  be  cut  olf.  Annealin';  for 
several  days  is  resorted  to  by  some,  while  others  are 
content  with  slow  cooling  in  hot  ashes;  t<'mi)erinj; 
is  scuuctimes  used  for  sjiecial  pvirposcs,  such  as  the 
head  of  an  armor-piercini;  projectile,  tlioujj;h  it  can- 
not be  said  that  east-steer  projectiles  are  as  yet  ver>' 
suecessfid  for  arnior-pierciuj::  purposes  a;zainst  steel 
or  compound  armor.  Great  progress  has  recently 
beon  made  iu  steel  castings;  and  they  are  now  ii.sed 
for  a  great  variety  of  purposes;  stmie  cast  trucks  have 
been  subjected  to  very  rough  treatment,  and  yet  they 
have  not  shown  anv  s'i^nis  of  fraeture.but  liavc  simi)- 
Iv  bent  out  of  shape.  Swedish  castings  now  being  ex- 
hibited by  Mr.  Xordenfeldl  have  attracted  very  great 


(lono  with  boiler  plalcH,  which  arc  madcof  vcrj'mild 

sli'cl,  having'  but  little  <arbon. 

For  ordnance,  the  tension  and  bending  tests  are 
^•en.rally    sutllcienl ;    the   elasticity,   tenacity,  and 

,.l, ition  are  carefully  recorded,  and  the  area  of 

the  .^aclure  anil  its  general  appearance  are  also  no- 
ticed  both  b<fore  and  after  tempermg.  In  gun  man- 
ufactut  :  the  behavior  of  the  temixred  te.st  piece 
serves  as  a  "uide  for  the  treatment  of  the  mass  from 
which  itcaine;  bit  il  appears  now  to  be  generally 
acknowledged,  that  the  same  heat  will  cause  a  dif- 
ferent temper  in  a  small  test  piece,  and  in  the  large 
mass  as  the  latter  will  cool  so  much  more  slowly  .ami 
will  not,  therefore,  be  so  much  all'ected  as  the  smaller 
iiieee  It  seems  a  sound  method  to  jjroceed  (as  it 
is  believed  the  French  do;  to  cut  a  piece  off  the 
tempered  mass  and  then  test  it,  and  the  result  will 
be  a  more  certain  knowledge  of  the  tenacity  etc., 
really  attained-more  particularly  as  with  all  the 
(  ariMit  ijresent  used,  it  is  not  possible  to  be  quite 
sure  that  the  large  mass  is  brought  to  the  same  heat 
as  the  test  piece  was.  The  elongation  on  fracture 
has  of  late  attracted  attention,  as  it  is  a  well  recog- 
nized fact  that  a  short  test  piece  will  elongate  much 
more  per  cent,  of  its  lenu'Hi  than  a  longer  one  of  the 
same  material  :  this  is  explained  by  the  circumstance 
that  as  the  elongation  is  only  considerable  ju.st  im- 
mediately at  the  i)oint  where  rupture  takes  place, 
the  U>Ud  elongation  of  the  long  piece  is  not  actuaUy 


A 


y 


y 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


A 


^ 


Fig.  2. 
Exflnn)les  of  stffl  ejifstiniis  of  compIicHtod  forms.    Mes..ir*.  n;ul. 
IU-I(1  .&  Co. 

attention  on  account  of  their  soundness  and  excel- 
lence ;  a  very  high  temperature  is  obtained  when 
melting  the  steel,  and  liquid  fuel  is  employed.  In 
designing  the  shape  of  a  casting,  sharp  corners  and 
great  ditferences  of  thickness  must,  if  possible,  be 
avoided  on  account  of  the  difficulties  of  preventing 
unequal  strains  tending  to  produce  rupture  in  con- 
tracting (Ml  cooling  down. 

A  great  varietj'  of  tests  arc  applied  to  steei  in  iiif- 
ferent  places,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  it 
is  retiuired  ;  latterly  there  has  been  a  growing  tend- 
ency towards  uniformity;  the  workmen's  rough  tests 
of  bending,  breaking,  and  observing  the  friicture  has 
been  systemJitized  in  various  pulling  machines,  actu- 
ated by  a  dead  weight  or  by  levers,  or  by  hydraulic 
pressure,  by  idl  of  which  the  limits  of  elasticity  and 
tenacity  are  indicated;  liending  and  torsional  tests 
are  also  often  applied,  ;nid  in  other  cases  dynamical 
trials  are  made,  as  by  dropping  heavyweights  on  to 
rails,  or  by  exploding  gun-cotton,  as  is  sometimes 


Fig.  .3. 

Showing  toes  of  floiiijation  ]ht  cent,  in  test  pieces  of  tliiu  pro 
portions,  bnt  of  tlic  suine  material. 

The  dotted  lines  .\  B  C.   A'h'C    are  drawn  to  indicate  similar 
etongaliuns  .\  .\',  B  B'.  C  C.) 

much  more  than  that  of  the  short  piece,  and  is  con- 
sequently less  iu  proportion  to  its  length — or  the 
elongation  per  cent,  of  its  length  is  less — {vMeFig. 
3,  where  a  test  piece  of  Whitworth's  dimensions  is 
supposed  to  elongate  an  amount  A  A ;  if  the  same 
material  is  made  according  to  Koyal  Arsenal  pattern. 
it  will  only  elongate  BH",  instead  of  BB'  which 
would  be  iii  the  same  proportion  as  the  last,  while  if 
the  test  pieces  are  stiU  longer,  the  elongation  C'C"  is 
even  less  per  cent ;)  thus  if  a  test  is  taken  according 
to  the  Woolwich  plan,  it  will  not  give  such  a  favor- 
able result  as  by  the  Whitworth  method  unless  the 
differences  in  the  proportions  of  the  test  pieces  are 
taken  into  account.  It  is  usual  to  say  that  the 
elongation  is  so  much  in  a  test  piece  of  so  many 
inches,  but  this  is  not  really  correct,  as  a  thick  piece 
will  elongate  more  than  a  thin  one:  it  is  now  pro- 
l)osed  that  all  test  pieces  shall  be  of  the  same  pro- 
portion of  length  to  thickness. 

]      It  is  important  that  the  tests  imposed  should  be 
\  reasonable  and  possible,  but  this  apparently  has  not 
'  always  been  the  case.  as.  for  instance,  when  iron  was 
first  employed  in  the  construction  of  ships. the  test  em- 
ployed iDy  Lloyd's  was  the  single  one  of  good  tenacity, 
irrespective  of  ehjngation.  before  fracture  ;  the  con- 
sequence  was   that   much  inferior  brittle  iron  was 
I  built  into  manv  a  vessel,  accounting,  doubtless,  for 
numbers  of  casualities.    On  the  other  hand,  to  show 


MILD  STEEL. 


840 


UILD  STEEL 


the  advantage  of  good  elongation  before  fracture, 
many  instances  have  occurred  of  steel  vessels  ground- 
ing on  rocky  places,  when  the  bottom  plates  have 
been  bent  anil  crumpled,  but  not  fractured,  as  they 
doubtless  would  have  been  if  they  had  been  brittle, 
although  with  a  high  tenacity.  Going  to  the  other 
extreme,  the  demands  for  tenacitj'  and  elongation, 
within  certain  limits  of  temperature  for  tempering, 
have  been  so  high  in  some  specifications  that  it  has 
not  been  found  possible  to  come  up  to  the  standard 
when  large  masses  have  been  supplied;  the  steel  has 
in  some  cases  been  rejected  wholesale,  whilst  at  other 
times  it  has  been  passed,  when  the  tests  being  set 
aside  became  useless. 

Not  only  are  mechanical  tests  employed,  but  the 
chemical  composition  of  steel  is  found  by  quantitative 
analysis  in  a  most  systematic  manner:  and  each  large 
factory  has  a  regular  laboratory,  with  one  or  more 
analysts,  a  class  of  men  created  by  the  require- 
ments of  the  steel  trade,  in  which  sound  scientitic 
training  in  those  concerned  is  a  sine  qua  non  for  suc- 
cessful manufacture. 

The  tests  imposed  b}'  the  Ordnance  Committee  on 
large  masses  of  steel  appear  to  have  been  very  strin- 
gent, and  manufacturers  have  found  a  difficulty  in 
complying  with  the  conditions,  but  the  making  of 
steel  in  the  Royal  Arsenal  has  given  a  decided  im- 
petus to  gun  steel,  which  differs  somewliat  from  that 
required  for  most  other  purposes.  The  French  Gov- 
ernment,intent  upon  progress,have  insisted  on  rigor- 
ous tests  for  steel  which  their  own  makers  at  first  de- 
clined.but  afterwards  agreed  to  complj-  with  ;  in  the 
meantime,  however,  a  large  contract  was  given  to  a 
foreign  firm.  It  would  appear  to  be  the  wisest  course 
to  insist  on  obtaining  the  very  best  material  for  gun 
steel. 

The  amount  of  steel  used  for  naval  and  military 
purposes  bears  only  a  small  proportion  to  that  which 
is  used  for  ordinary  industries,  and  this  ratio  varied 
greatly  in  different  countries,  being  probably  high- 
est in  Russia  and  lowest  in  the  United  .States.  A  great 
part  of  the  steel  for  warlike  uses  can  only  be  pro- 
duced by  special  plant  on  a  colossal  scale— thus  we 
hear  of  100-ton  iiammers,  immense  rolling  mills  for 
armor.  160-ton  cranes,  a  tank  containing  100  tons 
of  oil  for  tempering,  railway  trucks  for  Faking  im- 
mense weights,  and  tools  for  machining  enormous 
masses  of  metal.  The  number  of  factories  in  the 
world  where  the  heaviest  gims  and  armor  can  be 
produced  is  thus  necessarily  limited. 

About  two  years  ago  a  most  important  decision 
was  made  that  English  ordnance,  of  all  calibers, 
was  in  future  to  be  constructed  entirely  of  steel,  and 
wrought  iron  coils  were  abandoned,  as  there  was  no 
longer  a  doubt  that  steel  is  much  superior  to 
wrought  iron  for  this  purpose,  from  its  greater 
strength.  This  has  been  especially  noticed  with 
guns  tiring  the  mi  dern  large  charges  of  slow-burn- 
ing powder.  The  3;eel  for  ordnance  should  be  of 
such  a  qualit)'  as  to  possess  a  consitlerable  elastic 
limit,  so  that  permanent  deformation  or  enlargement 
of  the  bore  may  not  take  place  to  any  appreciable  ex- 
tent, its  uncertainty  being  always  urged  as  a  reason 
for  its  non-adoption  in  the  service  as  long  as  wrought 
iron  was  used  in  numufacture.  It  appears,  howevtr. 
that  rclialjility  and  uniformity  are  now  bi'ing  attain- 
ed.  thougli  only  by  most  unceasing  and  intelligent 
care  in  all  processes  of  manufacture.  Especially  is 
this  recosruized  to  he  the  casi;  where  very  large 
masses  are  forged,  a<  the  difficulties  in  obtaining  un- 
iformity in  the  mass  become  greatly  increased.  The 
percentage  of  carbon  is  about  0.4  to  0.4")  with  cru- 
cible steel  wlien  tlie  manganese  is  low  ;  but  with  the 
"  open  hearth  "  sleil  lh<' percentage  is  a  good  deal 
less  (0.2S  to  0.31)  when  more  manganese  is  present. 
■  A  modem  heavy  steel  gun  is  constructed  as  fol- 
lows :  The  tube  is  made  from  the  ingot  by  repeated- 
ly and  alternately  heating  and  drawing  out  under 
the  hammer,  and  a  core  is  tlien  cut  out  or  treparmed 
and  thus  most  of  the  material  cut  to  pieces  iu  the  or- 


dinary process  of  boring  is  available  for  other  pur- 
poses ;  the  process  is  also  quicker.  Whitworth  ]iro- 
po.ses,  however,  to  proceed  in  a  different  manner, 
suggesting  the  plan  adopted  with  such  success  by  his 
firm  in  forging  hollow  propeller  sliafts,  which  are 
made  thus  :  An  ingot  is  bored,  and  the  shavings  re- 
melted;  the  interior  containing  a  higher  percentage 
of  carbon  and  other  constituents,  is  not  considered 
of  sufficiently  good  quality  for  further  use  without 
remelting.  The  hollowed  ingot  or  cylinder  is  then 
heated,  a  hollow  steel  mandrel  of  smaller  diameter 
than  the  interior  is  passed  through  it,  anil  both  are 


.»4(iatr""TUw*  ^^1 

Manohu 

1^ 

^  h""^ 

•  ^ 

|j 1 

F"-* 

/ 

IS 1 

n 

V. 

Fig.  4. 
Wllitworth's  Hydraulic  Forging  Press.     Drawing  out  a  Tube. 

placed  in  the  powerful  hydraulic  pressing  machine, 
which  presses  the  metal  of  the  cylinder  against  the 
mandrel  b}' repeated  pressings  while  the  cylinder  and 
mandrel  are  turned  round  into  fresh  positions  (Fig. 
4) ;  the  consequence  is  the  hollow  cylinder  becomes 
gradually  less  in  diameter,  but  increases  in  length, 
this  process  is  repeated  with  thinner  mandrels  and 
repeated  heats  until  the  cylinder  assumes  the  desired 
proportions  of  the  propeller  shaft ;  the  mandrels  are 
kept  cool  by  water  circulating  through  them.  No 
service  gun  tubes,  except  those  supplied  through  the 
Elswick  Company,  have  yet  been  made  in  this  man- 
ner, though  it  may  possibly  be  adopted  for  some  of 
the  largest. 

The  hoops  for  service  guns  are  also  made  from 
the  ingot,  which  is  trepanned,  the  ends  cut  off  and 
remelted,  and  the  rest  is  cut  into  thick  rings,  each  of 


Fig.  5. 
Wllitworth's  Hydraulic  Forging  Press.     Enlarging  a  IToop- 

which  is  afterwards  heated  and  made  thinner  by 
hammering  on  a  mandrel  placed  through  it  and  sup- 
ported at  each  end  (the  hoop  is  thus  suspended  on 
the  mandrel).  This  operation  naturally  increases 
the  diameter,  anil  llie  manufaelure  resembles  thai  of 
the  weldless  tin's  of  railway  wheels.  Wliitworth 
makes  some  hoops  in  this  way.  sulistituting  flic  press 
for  the  hammer  (see  Fig.  .')),  but  he  proposes  to  con 
struct  others  in  tl>e  same  way  as  the  tube,  in  the 
form  of  long,  thin  cylinders,  and  thus  the  heaviest 
guns  could  hi!  made  of  fewer  parts  than  tlio8<>  at 
present  designed.  K'or  instance,  the  1 10-lcm  gun  is 
intended  to  bu  made  of  forty-three  parts,  but  one 


MILD  STEEL. 


341 


MILD  STEIU,. 


of  Wliitwortli  (Icsip-n  woulil  fonsist  of  only  clfvcii 
picfc.s.  The  iiiw  Knulisli  liciivy  guns  an?  now  rc- 
quiri'd  in  liirjjc  nuinlicrs  for  tlu;  Niivy,  iind  also  fur 
the  coasl.  dcfcnHrs  of  Knirland  and  llic  ColcinicH,  anil 
every  cITiirl  slmidd  l»'  inadi'  to  supply  llicin  with  all 
the  rapiilily  I'Dnsislciit  willi  cllii  icncy.  Tin-  nIi-cI 
for  the  110-lon  i^iiiis  is  bciiii;  inadf  liy  Wliilworlli 
and  Caninicll.  and  llic  forginjjs  will  lie  liandi-d  over 
to  lh(!  Klswick  Ordnance  C'oni|)any.  who  will  mach- 
ine Iheni  a]id  build  up  the  L!;Mns.  In  a  few  months 
time  Whilworlh's  liiie  eslahlislinient  will  have  all  the 
tools  necessary  for  erjniplelinc;  tlu'  heaviest  };uns, 
anil  KlswieU  will  jirolialily  have  the  plant  fur  casl- 
inj;  and  for^ini;  tlie  heaviest  infrots;  the  country  will 
then  ])ossess  two  complete  establishments  to  supple- 
inent  the  Itoyal  Gun  Factories,  and  there  are  of 
course  several  other  firms  wdiich  can  produce  excellent 
steel  in  lar^e  masses,  and  who  are  accustomed  to 
the  workini;  of  heavy  steel  fori^iugs.  Care  sliould 
be  taken  that  thoroughly  reliable  i;uns  are  produced, 
an  1  close  inspection  should  be  insisted  on  durini; 
manufacture,  as  well  as  rigorous  proofs,  liefore  the 
guns  are  admitted  in  the  service.  Military  maUrulhns 
before  now  been  nesleeted  in  our  country  for  years 
during  peace  time,  from  indifference  or  on  the  score 
of  economy;  then  suddenly,  wdien  the  need  for  it  has 
been  felt,  on  the  outbreak  of  war,  a  hurried  onU'r 
lias  been  i;iven  for  laru'e  quantities;  this  is  an  expen- 
sive ]>hin,  as  a  liiL'h  price  is  nceess:irily  ehiirircd  un- 
der such  I'ircumslances,  ;ind  it  is  ditlicult  to  m;ike 
proper  insiiectioii;  it  is  far  the  wisest  plan  to  pro- 
ceed methodically  and  ililiirenlly  while  there  is  time. 

The  barrels  for  small  arms  are  made  of  mild  steel 
from  tlie  bar,  in  an  mirenious  machine  with  a  series 
of  vertical  and  horizontal  rolls,  which  in  one  heat 
draws  out  tlie  barrel  to  the  required  lentrtli  with  ac- 
curacy. This  has  been  in  use  some  six  years  at  En- 
field, and  copies  have  since  been  supplied  by  an 
En!j;lish  firm  to  several  foreign  goverinnenls.  The 
bayonet  is  made  of  a  hard  steel  welded  by  the  aid  of 
borax  to  a  socket  of  softer  steel  ;  great  care  being 
taken  not  to  overheat  the  end  of  the  bar,  w  hieh  will 
form  the  blade,  while  the  socket  being  milder,  i.-^ 
made  much  hotter;  the  tests  to  which  bayonets  are 
subjected  before  being  passed  into  the  Service  hsive 
lately  been  niiide  a  good  deal  more  severe  than  be- 
fore the  iate  %var  in  the  Eastern  Soudan. 

The  increased  strains  which  the  large  charges  of 
modern  guns  impose  on  gun-carriages  have  necessi- 
tated the  employment  of  steel  in  their  consttuction, 
in  order  to  obtain  the  necessary  strength;  and  steel 
plates  and  axles  are  now  freely  used,  as  in  the  13-pr., 
but  wrought  iron  is  still  preferred  for  some  parts,  as 
for  instance  the  trail  eye  of  a  field  gun-carriage, 
■which  is  subject  to  constant  jars.  Steel  castings  are 
much  used  for  heavy  gun  carriages ;  some  of  5.5 
cwt.  each  have  been  made  in  considerable  numbers 
for  the  sides  of  43-tou  gun-carriages ;  and  steel  cast- 
ings on  a  grand  scale  are  contemplated  for  the  proof 
'  carriage  of  the  110-ton  gun.  Steel  racers  have  long 
been  introduced  for  use  with  some  of  the  heavier 
garrison  guns,  as  they  well  resist  the  blow  caused  by 
the  jump  of  the  platform  on  tiring,  wdiich  indented 
the  older  and  softer  wrought-iron  racers,  and  ren- 
dered subsequent  traversing  a  difficult  operation ; 
the  path  and  twenty-eight  rollers  of  cast  iron  on 
which  the  tvirrets  of  the  Iiifex'ble  revolve  have  not 
been  found  hard  enough  ;  in  future  they  will  prob- 
nbly  be  of  steel.  Tubular  steel  linings  are  employed 
for  the  cylinders  of  Vavasseur  mountings  ;  and  cor- 
rug;iled  steel  plate  has  been  tried  for  tield  artillery 
ammiuiition  boxes  and  appears  to  succeed. 

Steel  has  been  applied  to  shells  with  great  success, 
but  at  present  the  expense  is  considerable.  Shrap- 
nel are  made  for  the  7-pr.  and  13-pr.  of  Delmard's 
tubes,  with  thin  walls  and  bursting  charge  in  the 
liead  ;  the  proportion  of  useful  weight  in  the  former 
being  45.4  per  cent.,  while  in  other  natures  it  is  35 
per  cent.,  ;ind  often  much  less.  Steel  h;islieen  tried 
for  common  shells,  as  they  do  not  break  up  so  often 


on  striking  earth  as  east-iron  shells.  An  example 
of  the  advantage  of  their  usif  was  furnished  by  an 
cxperiiiiiiit.  whi-n  a  parapet  was  more  readily 
breached  by  a  13-pr.  with  steel  shells,  than  bya.5-in. 
gun  with  50  lb.  cast-iron  ones,  the  velocities  being 
about  the  same  in  each  rase  :  the  walls  of  steel  sliellB 
being  made  thinner  than  those  of  cast-iron  a  larger 
bursting  charge  can  bi'  inserted.  IJy  lengthening 
sliells  and  compressing  the  powder,  it  has  been  found 
l)OSsiblc  lo  more  tjian  double  the  bursting  charge; 
thus  with  the  O-inch  gun  the  bursting  charge  in  the 
ordinary  common  shell  is  under  7  lbs.,  but  long  steel 
ones  have  been  made  liol  ling  10  lbs.  of  compressed 
I)owder;  this  increase  is  most  important  when  de- 
stroying e;irthworks,  etc.  Krupp  has  done  a  good 
deal  in  this  direction.  It  is  doubtful  which  is  the 
best  way  to  apply  steel  for  these  purposes.  wlielhcT 
to  cast  it  at  once  to  the  rcipiircd  slnipe  or  to  forge 
it;  the  first  is  the  simplest  and  eliejipest  way;  but  at 
present  ditliciiltics  arc  ;qit  to  appear  with  blow-holes 
which  may  lead  lo  fniclure  in  the  bore  when  the 
walls  of  the  shell  are  thin  ;  however,  with  recent  im- 
provements in  casting  steel,  this  objection  may  very 
t  possibly  be  overcome. 

I  Anotlier  plan  is  to  cut  off  lengths  of  tubular  steel 
heat  it,  bend  in  one  end  for  the  head,  and  turn  in 
I  and  close  up  the  other  end  for  the  base,  or  else  weld 
in  a  base  disk  ;  another  device  has  been  ingeniously 
.employed  of  cutting  olT  apiece  of  thick  bar  steel 
stamping  it  into  a  hollow,  and  drawing  up  the  sides 
[  gradually  wdicn  he;iteil  to  form  a  shell.  With  regard 
to  armor-piercing  ])ri)jectiles,  some  few  years  ago 
experiments  were  nnide  at  Shoeburyness  with  !)-in<;h 
I)rojectiles,  with  striking  velocity  about  1,.500  f.  s., 
to  determine  the  best  material  of  which  they  should 
be  made,  and  also  the  form  of  bead,  etc.  The  gen- 
eral result  was  that  forged  steel  (from  Sir  J.  W  hit- 
worth  and  Co.)  was  decidedly  the  best,  but  at  the 
sametimeit  wasvery  expensive;  sincethen,  however, 
conditions  have  altered,  and  not  only  is  the  striking 
velocity  of  modern  projectiles  often  considerably 
above  1,500  f.  s.,  but  the  steel  and  compound  armor 
of  ships  now  being  made  is  hardcrlhan  the  wrought 
iron  plates  which  were  formerly  employed.  Conse- 
quently, the  projectiles  break  up.  and  it  cannot  be 
said  that  the  present  shells  are  ipiite  satisfactory. 
Careful  experiment  is  needed  to  find  out  the  best 
methods  to  pursue.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  sub- 
jects of  steel  armor  piercing  projectiles  for  the  heav- 
iest guns  may  be  thoroughly  £one  into,  and  the  best 
material  for  the  purpose  employed. 

At  the  present  time  the  Service  Palliser  cast  iron 
chilled  shells  do  very  great  damage  to  the  targets. but 
the)-  break  up  in  doing  so.  Krupp  has  produced  a 
good  armor-piercing  projectile, and  the  French  2S'avy 
has  for  some  years  past  been  provided  with  steel  ar- 
mor-piercing "shells  for  33  and  19  cm.  guns,  all  sup- 
jilied  by  contract  under  severe  tests  for  reception. 
The  following  conditions  were  imposed  some  time 
ago  when  the  French  Government  invited  their  steel 
makers  to  supply  a  large  number  (3,100)  of  armor- 
piercing  projectiles  for  33  and  27  cm.  guns  ;  the 
conditions  imposed  appear  to  be  somewhat  severe, 
and  show  that  a  high  standard  of  excellence  is  de- 
sired. The  total  number  is  divided  into  four  for 
each  caliber,  and  the  behavior  of  two  shells  tested 
out  of  each  lot  will  determine  the  acceptance  or  re- 
jection of  the  others.  The  heavier  projectiles  are  to 
be  fired  almost  at  right  angles  against  a  30  cm. 
Creusot  steel  plate  with  wood  backing  with  striking 
velocity  of  435  to 445  meters  per  second,  while  the 
lighterones  will  strikea  25  cm.  steel  plate  with  a 
velocity  of  455  to  4G5  meters  per  second.  If  the  first 
))rojectilc  perforates  the  target  ijnbroken  and  im- 
craeked,  the  lot  to  w  hich  it  belongs  is  to  be  at  once 
accepted;  but  if  it  breaks  up  in  perforating,  the  sec- 
ond projectile  will  be  fired, and  only  if  it  getsthrougli 
uninjured  will  the  lot  be  accepted.  If  the  first  round 
does  not  perforate  tiic  target,  the  lot  will  at  once  be 
rejected.     Facilities  were  given  to  allow  the  makers 


MILEAGE. 


342 


UILEA6E. 


to  fire  trial  shots  against  steel  plates  before  submit- 
ting their  finished  shells. 

Nordenfeldt  bullets  for  penetratina;  the  sides  of 
torpedo-boats  are  forged  from  steel  bars  by  drawing 
down  a  part  to  form  two  heads:  pieces  are  tlieu  cut 
off,  stamped  to  true  shape  in  a  die,  and  oil  tempered. 
Compound  armor  is  constructed  on  two  plans  by  the 
only  two  firms  which  at  present  manufacture  it  in 
England. 

The  Atlas  Works  (Sir  J.  Brown  &  Co.)  make  it 
on  Ellis's  patent;  a  considerable  thickness  of  wrought 
iron  and  a  thin  steel  face  plate  are  kept  at  a  few 
inches  distance  from  each  other,  with  wedge  plates 
round  three  sides,  ami  small  steel  studs  at  several 
points  keep  them  from  coming  too  close  to  each 
other  in  the  furnace  ;  tlie  whole  mass  is  then  strong- 
ly heated  with  the  plates  horizontal ;  when  hot 
enough  it  is  taken  out  and  lifted  by  a  crane,  swimg 
vertical,  placed  in  a  pit,  and  melted  steel  is  poured 
from  a  large  ladle  into  a  trough  which  distributes 
little  streams  into  the  cavity  between  the  t.vo  plates 
and  joins  them  together  ;  in  a  short  time  the  whole 
plate  is  taken  up  and  j^ut  back  again  into  the  fur- 
nace ;  when  reheated,  it  is  taken  out.  and  the  whole 
is  passed  through  the  large  rolling  mill. 

In  Wilson's  plan,  adopted  by  Cammell  and  Co..  a 
large  wrought  iron  plaie  built  up  of  many  thick- 
nesses is  passed  through  the  rolls,  and  is  then  pushed 
horizontally  into  a  huge  iron  chamber  which  can  re- 
volve on  trunnions  ;  when  the  plate  is  secured,  the 
whole  is  turned  up  and  becomes  vertical,  and  liquid 
steel  is  poured  in  from  a  ladle  and  tfough,  between 
one  side  of  the  wrought  iron  and  the  side  of  the  bo.x, 
precautions  being  taken  to  prevent  it  from  flowing 
elsewhere.  In  "VVilson's  plan  the  steel  was  formerly 
poured  on  to  a  wrought  iron  plate  provided  with  a 
rim  and  placed  horizontally  ;  but  this  was  given  up, 
as  the  scum,  etc.,  tended  to  remain  on  the  face  of 
the  plate.     The  whole  is  afterwards  rolled. 

The  steel  constitutes  about  one-third  of  the  weight 
in  both  systems,  its  object  being  to  break  up  the 
projectile  on  impact ;  it  consequently  has  a  consid- 
erable amoimt  of  carbon  in  order  to  give  it  the  neces- 
sary hardness,  while  the  wrought  iron  at  the  back 
of  the  plate  is  intended  to  hold  the  plate  together, 
and  to  prevent  the  formation  of  cracks  and  splits  as 
far  as  possible.  This  class  of  armor  has  achieved 
good  results :  the  experiments  at  St.  Petersburg  and 
at  Spezzia  during  the  last  two  or  three  years,  as  well 
as  some  made  at  Shoeburyness,  having  been  favor- 
able. Ellis's  plan  has  the  advantage  of  a  very  good 
front  surface,  but  the  results  attained  by  each  are 
generally  considered  to  be  about  the  same  as  far 
as  present  experience  .has  shown.  The  resisting 
power  of  compound  armor  is  greater  than  that  of 
wrought  iron,  and  consequently  a  less  weight  will 
give  as  great  protection  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, and  it  is  coming  into  use  on  board  sliips ; 
on  land,  however,  it  will  probably  be  little  used,  ex- 
cept, perhaps,  in  some  very  confined  situations. 
Wrought  iron  of  equal  resisting  power,  but  of  great- 
er  weight  is  cheaper. 

The  injury  sustained  by  wrought  iron  when  it  is 
struck  is  generally  local;  but  compound  armor  tends 
to  split  over  a  considerable  area,  and  is  not  well  cal- 
culated to  resist  blows  falling  close  together.  Very 
good  estimates  can  be  formed  beforehand  by  calcu- 
lation of  the  probable  penetralion  of  wrought  iron, 
if  the  plate  be  of  orilinary  (|ualily,  but  tlu'  resisting 
power  of  comi)ouiid  armor  is  at  present  dillicult  to 
foretell  ;  it  depends  uu)re,  perli:ips,  on  tlie  total 
weiirht  than  on  the  thickness  of  the  jilale,  and  the 
nalunt  of  the  backing  h:is  a  most  imporkinl  infiii- 
enee  on  the  rcsistftnce  olfered.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  a  consideral)l(^  number  of  experiments  might 
prolitably  be  made  on  a  small  se;U(^  in  order  to  en- 
deavor to  determine  the  value  of  various  alter;itions 
in  its  arrangement.  Compound  armor  is  now  made 
in  larL'i'  qiiaiililies  in  Russia,  (iermaiiy,  and  France 
on  the  Wilson  system;  in  the  latter  eouiitry  there 


are  three  factories  busily  eng.iged  and  in  Germany 
the  Dillengen  works  have  been  in  operation  for  two 
years  producing  compound  armor  for  tlie  three 
ships  Ulcli  iiburg,  Brernne,  and  Bremmer.  The  Rus- 
sian works  at  Kolpino,  16  miles  from  St.  Petersburg, 
are  just  completed,  and  the  first  of  their  compound 
armor-plates,  under  an  English  director,  are  now 
being  manufactured.  The  works  will  probably  be 
well  employed,  as  the  Russians  are  rapidly  develop- 
ing their  navy,  and  six  large  armor-clads  are  fast 
approaching  completion.  Excellent  steel  armor  has 
been  made  at  Le  Creusut,  of  a  milder  quality  than 
the  face  plates  of  compound  armor,  and  it  has"  given 
good  results  when  tested  at  Spezzia,  in  competition 
with  compound  armor.  Thin  shields  are  used  for 
the  protection  from  musketry  fire  of  men  working 
machine-guns :  they  are  \  inch  thick,  and  oil  tem- 
pered ;  the  resisting  power  is  considerably  better 
than  that  of  wrought  iron. 

Steel  enters  into  the  construction  of  a  variety  of 
warlike  stores,  notably  in  torpedoes;  the  beautiful 
air  receiver  before  us  is  a  good  example  of  the  fin- 
est work,  forged  from  a  bored-out  ingot,  oil  temper- 
ed, and  accurately  turned  down  till  the  metal  is  very 
thin.  It  is  most  carefully  tested  to  make  sure  that 
it  will  sustain  the  pressure  of  the  compressed  air 
which  drives  the  engine  in  the  Whitehead  torpedo  ; 
and  the  hollow  torpedo  propeller  shaft  also  pre- 
sents a  good  example  of  a  weldless  steel  tube  of 
great  strength.  Tubular  steel  also  cornea  into  use 
in  rocket  cases  and  in  sockets  for  tent  poles,  in 
which  strength  and  lightness  are  combined.  Large 
quantities  of  compressed  hay  have  been  sent  out  to 
Egypt  bound  round  with  Bessemer  steel  wire.  A 
very  interesting  and  recent  example  of  the  use  of 
welded  steel  tubes  is  furnished  by  the  gas  vessels 
which  contain  compressed  hydrogen  for  military 
balloons.  These  have  only  been  developed  during 
the  last  few  months,  and  150  are  now  in  South  Africa 
with  Major  Elsdale,  R.  E..  who  hopes  to  make  good 
use  of  them  under  Sir  Charles  Warren.  It  was  con- 
sidered difficult  to  make  hydrogen  in  the  field,  and 
therefore  the  plan  was  adopted  to  carry  it  in  strong 
receivers.  Various  makers  were  asked  to  produce 
this  rather  novel  work,  and  many  responded,  with 
the  result  that  the  pattern  shown  by  Mr,  Delmard 
was  considered  far  the  best,  as  it  holds  more  than 
any  other  with  due  regard  to  weight  and  safety. 
Each  vessel  is  proved  before  uge,  and  it  must  not 
sJiow  signs  of  any  permanent  enlargement  when 
charged  with  a  test  pressvire  very  considerablv  in  ex- 
cess of  that  which  it  will  have  tc  stand  when  the  hy- 
drogen is  stored  in  it.  Some  said  that  under  such 
higii  pressure  the  gas  would  get  through  the  thin 
metal ;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  does  not  do  so,  and 
some  vessels  have  remained  fully  charged  for  montlis. 
It  will  be  most  interesting  to  hear  how  this  contriv- 
ance will  answer  on  active  service.  The  receivers 
can  easily  be  transported  ;  the  weight  of  gas  in  them 
is  only  12  ozs.  when  fidly  charged,  and  thej'  will 
float  in  water.  In  fact  some  fully  charged  have  been 
formed  into  a  raft.  Somewhat  similar  vessels  are 
also  emjiloyed  for  carrying  oxygen  and  hydrogen 
under  great  pressure  for  use  with  the  lime  light 
when  signalling.     See  Steel. 

MILEAGE —An  allowance  of  eight  cents  |)er  mile 
paid  to  othccrs  for  travel.  To  entitle  an  officer  to 
mileage  the  travel  nuisl  be  performed  iriUiinit  trflopn, 
and  be  covered  by  ;i  sjieeific  (ird<Tin  the  case  issued 
bv  a  superior  ofiieer  previous  |o  conuiieneement  of 
llu:  journey.  Sueo  orders  are  issued  only  where  the 
journey  is  on  account  of  and  necessary  lo  the  public 
service  Distances  nnist  "be  calculated  by  the  short- 
est usually  traveled  route,"  no  matter  by  what  route 
the  travel  was  performed.  Ivxceplion  lo  this  nde 
may  be  m;ide  only  when  the  l<'rms  of  tl.e  order,  or 
impraclicability  of  the  "shortest  usu;illy  traveled 
route,"  compel  the  officer  to  proceed  bya  longer 
route.  In  such  cases  mileage  maybe  p:ii(l  for  "each 
mile  actually  traveled."     Lists  of  distances  are  fur- 


MILES. 


HIUXABT  COLLEGEb. 


nislicd  by  the  PaTinnstcr  (Iciifral.  Milciiiii-  (viiwiot 
. l)c  allowed  for  micli  li.'irl  of  a  dlHlaiirc  aH  lies  over 
thai,  portion  of  a  "railroail  on  wliicli  tlic  IroopH  and 
SupplicH  of  Ihc-  rnili-d  Stales  arc  cnlilli-d  lo  belrans- 
ported  free."  Ollieers  whose  orders  entitle  tlietn  to 
niiU'a.i;e  may  exercise  tlieoplion  of  "niilea;j;e"  forllie 
entire  journey  (free  railroads  exeliided):  or  of  "trans- 
portation in  kind"  for  the  enliri' jmirney  ;  or  of  "mile- 
ULCe"  and  "transportation  in  kind"  fordilTerent  parts 
<)'  the  same  journey.  lint  nnli'a;;e  earniot  lie  allowed 
for  any  dist'anee  for  which  Iransporlalion  in  any 
other  form  has  been  furnished  by  the  I'nited  Slates. 
Ailvan<(^  mileage  may  by  paid,  without  special  nu- 
Ihority,  when  the  distance  to  lie  traveled,  exclusive; 
of  anv  part  which  may  by  embraced  in  the  list  of 
free  roads,  is  not  less  than  twothousand  miles.  This 
will  nol  apply,  however,  lo  journeys  in  which  the 
order  contcinplates  delays  at  intermediate  points 
alTordinii;  <ip]iorlunity  to  collect  milcafje  for  complet-  : 
ed  travel.  In  the  followini;  cases  no  expense  of 
travel  is  allowed  :  In  joiniut;  for  duly  upon  lirst 
aiipointment  to  the  military  service  ;  <ir  under  lirst 
order  after  reinstatement,  reappointment,  or  revoca- 
tion of  an  order  of  dismissal ;  or  to  elTect  an  exchani;e 
of  station,  or  a  transfer  from  one  company  or  regi- 
ment to  another  wlien  the  same  is  made  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  parlies.  Except inj;  oidy  in  the  follow- 
iui;  cases  :  Assistant  Surireons,  approved  by  an  ex- 
aminiivi;  board  and  commissioneil,  joiniuii;  for  duty 
under  the  tirsl  order;  jiraduates  of  the  .Military 
Academy,  from  West  Point  to  their  stations  ;  enlist- 
ed men  journeyins  under  first  order  after  appoint- 
ment or  commission. 

MILES. — A  soldier  of  the  Middle  Ages,  usually  of 
noble  or  knightly  rank.  He  went  "to  the  wars, 
mounted  on  a  uooil  war-horse  and  followed  by  an 
escort,  more  or  less  uuniero\is  in  accordance  with 
his  own  rank  and  means,  composed  of  vassals  and 
serfs,  who  were  equipped  with  slings,  bows  and  ar- 
rows, cutlasses,  and  spears. 

MILITARY  ART.— Military  art  may  be  divided  into 
two  principal  branches.  The  first  relates  to  the  or 
der  and  arrangement  which  must  be  observed  in 
the  management  of  an  army, —  when  it  is  to  fight, 
to  march,  or  to  be  <'ncamped.  This  branch  is  gen- 
erally known  under  the  name  of  liirticK,  which  sig- 
nifies order.  The  second  belongs  to  the  other 
branch  of  military  art.  and  includes  the  composition 
and  apiilicalioM  of  warlike  machines. 

MILITARY  ASYLUM,  ROYAL.  An  educational 
(iovernment  Institution  at  Chelsea,  near,  but  wholly 
distinct  from,  the  Royal  Hospital  for  I'ensioned  Sol- 
diers. Its  object  is  the  suitable  education  for  trade, 
etc.,  of  .TOO  male  children — generally  orphans — of 
British  soldiers.  For  tliese,  there  are  a  Model 
Scliool  and  an  Infant  School,  and  the  boys  have  a 
cimipletel}'  military  organization,  with  scarlet  imi- 
foim,  band,  etc.  As  a  result  of  their  training,  a 
large  proportion  of  tlie  pupils  ultimately  volunteer 
into  the  army.  Tliis  school  was  originally  estab- 
lished ill  1803  by  the  late  Duke  of  York,  wlien<-e  it  is 
still  commonly  known  as  the  "  Duke  of  York's 
School."  Originally  a  similar  school  for  soldiers' 
daughters  was  included,  but  was  not  found  to  an- 
swer, and  has  been  discontinued.  Attached  to 
the  school  is  a  training  establishment  for  military 
schoolmasters,  known  as  the  Normal  School.  The 
total  cost  of  the  whole  Institution  is  about  £11,. 000 
per  annum. 

MILITARY  BRIDGE.— A  temporary  construction, 
to  facilitate  the  passage  of  rivers  by  troops,  cannon, 
and  military  wagons.  The  most  efticient  are  de- 
scribed under  Pontoon;  but  there  are  many  other 
kinds.  A  bridge  of  boaU  is  formed  of  sniaII-<Taft. 
especially  cargo-boats,  collected  from  various  places 
up  and  down  the  river;  trestles  are  placed  in  them  to 
bring  tlieir  tops  to  one  common  level;  the  lio;its  are 
anchored  across  the  river,  and  baulks  of  timber,  rest- 
ing on  the  trestles,  form  a  continuous  road  from  boat 
to  boat    across  the  wdiole  breadth  of  tlie  river;    the 


lioats  ought  to  be  of  such  size  that,  when  fully  laden, 

the  gunwales  or  upper  edges  shall  nol  be  Iffss  than 
one  foot  above  tin;  water.  lOipi-hriilaen  are  sonie- 
times.bul  not  fn^qiK'iitly,  used  by  military  enKineers. 
A  liudt-niid-riipf,  hriili/i'  consists  of  rrables  resting  on 
boats,  anil  supporlinga  plalformor  road  of  stout  tim- 
ber. A  rdMk-liridiji'  consists  of  a  series  of  timber-rafts 
resting  on  casks;  the  casks  are  grouped  togellier  in 
ipiadrangular  masses;  at  certain  intervals  timbers  are 
laid  upon  them  to  form  rafts,  and  sevi'ral  such  rafts 
form  a  bridge;  it  is  an  inferior  kind  of  pontoon- 
bridge.  A  treMi  -hridiii-  is  sometimes  made  forcro(;8- 
ing  a  small  stream  in  a  hilly  country:  it  consists  of 
trestles  hastily  made  up  in  any  rough  materials  tliat 
may  Ik;  at  hand,  with  phinking  or  fascines  lo  form  u 
flooring,  cables  to  kei-pthe  trestles  in  a  straight  lire, 
and  heavy  stones  lo  prevriil  them  from  Hoaling. 
lldJ't.lirid'jIiK.  consisling  of  jilanks  lashed  together,  are 
easily  made  of  any  rough  materials  thai  may  be 
found  on  the  spot;"  but  they  have  little  buoyancy, 
and  are  not  very  maiiageiible.  A  nw!iiij-Jlyinij  I  ridge 
consists  of  a  bridge  of  boats,  of  which  one  end  is 
moored  in  the  center  of  the  river,  and  the  other  end 
left  loose;  tills  loose  end  is  Iirouglit  to  the  proper 
side  of  the  river,  the  boats  are  laden,  and  they  make 
a  semicircular  sweep  across  the  river,  by  means  of 
rudders  iind  o;irs,  until  the  loose  end  of  the  bridge 
reaches  the  other  li;ink.  A  triiil-Jiying  I  ridge  is  a 
boat  or  raft,  or  a  string  of  boats  or  rafts,  which  is 
drawn  across  a  river  by  ropes,  in  a  line  marked  out 
and  limited  Iiy  other  ropes. 

History  has  many  examples  of  the  use  of  military 
bridges.  The  first  of  magnitude,  of  which  we  liave 
(k-tafled  accounts,  was  the  one  built  of  boats,  over 
the  Hellespont,  by  Xerxes,  when  he  invaded  Greece, 
nearly  two  thousand  four  hundred  years  ago.  This 
bridge  was  about  one  and  one  half  miles  long,  and 
was  composed  of  two  roadways.  One  was  used  by 
the  troops;  the  other  by  the  baggage  train  and  camp 
followers.  It  is  said  lliat  the  number  with  him  was 
.'5.283,220,  and  that  they  were  seven  days  and  nights 
in  crossing.  Bridge's  across  the  Tigris  resting  on 
boats  are  mentioned  by  Xeiioplioi'i.  Alexander  the 
Great  used  skins  of  animals  inllated,  or  filled  with 
hay,  as  floats  in  crossing  streams,  as  shown  in  his 
passage  of  the  Oxus.  The  Romans  carried  witli  their 
armies  small  boats  and  bridge  material,  when  rivers 
iiitersected  their  lines  of  march.  An  example  of  a 
military  bridge  resting  upon  fixed  iioints  of  support 
is  described  In  the  fourth  book  of  "  t'jfsar's  Com- 
mentaries." This  bridge  was  across  the  Rhine,  and 
was  of  sufficient  strength  to  meet  all  the  demands 
made  upon  it.  We  find  many  descriptions  of  military 
operations  along  the  Rhine. and  of  the  means  used  to 
pass  this  river,  by  armies  operating  along  its  banks. 
The  .same  may  be  said  with  reference  to  the  Danube. 
History  records,  in  many  cases,  the  failures  arising 
]  from  a  want  of  a  military  equipage. and  the  disasters 
j  averted  by  the  use  of  such  equipage,  or  by  the  con- 
i  St  met  ion  of  an  improvised  bridge  from  the  materials 
found  in  the  neighborhood.  The  want  of  a  bridge 
equipage  was  particularly  felt  by  Bonaparte  in  his 
campaign  in  Italy,  in  IT'.Ui.  The  presence  of  such 
an  equipment  would  have  enabled  him  to  cross  the 
Po  in  time  lo  place  his  forces  in  the  rear  of  the  Aus- 
trians,  and  would  have  avoided  the  forcing  of  a  pas- 
sage over  the  Adda,  at  Lodi.  The  importance  of 
bridtre  equip:i2es  was  pari  iciilarly  fell  by  the  armies 
of  till'  United  States  in  the  war  of  IHiil  .").  The  delay 
in  the  arrival  of  the  bridge  material  was.  on  more 
than  one  occasion,  a  cause  of  di.saster.  Xo  better 
example  of  the  imporhuice  of  a  bridge  equipage  and 
the  value  of  skilled  pontoniers  can  be  given  than  the 
single  instance  of  Napoleon's  crossing  of  the  Beresi- 
na.in  1812,  in  his  retreat  from  Moscow.  See  Bridges 
and  P'-nt/wn. 

MILITARY  COLLEGES. — The  great  improvements 
made  in  the  art  of  war  in  late  years,  in  weapons  and 
discipline,  makes  a  demand  "for  a  body  of  trained 
officers  capable  of  moving,  directing,  and  bringing 


MILITART  COLUMH. 


344 


MILITARY  DISCIPLINE. 


into  effective  operation  tlie  modern  applian'-es  of 
■war.  As  this  special  traininjr  cannot  be  olilained  at 
tlie  few  Government  Institutions  and  ordinary  ed- 
ucational estalilisliments,  it  has  become  the  policy 
of  most  governments  to  encouraie  a  study  of  mili- 
tary science  by  establishing);  military  departments 
in  "the  various  State  and  private  Colleges.  In  the 
United  States,  officers  of  the  army  are  detailed  as 
Drofessors  at  Colleges  and  Universities  as  follows:— 
The  details  are  apportioned  throughout  the  United 
States  as  nearly  as  may  be  practicable  according  to 
population  ;  such  States  as  do  not  contain  sufficient 
population  to  entitle  them  to  one  officer  are  grouped 
with  one  or  more  contiguous  States  or  Territories, 
80  that  the  combined  population  of  the  group  will 
allow  the  detail  of  one  or  more  officers,  to  the  extent 
of  thirty  officers  in  all.  As  a  rule  Captains  of  Com- 
panies,Regimental  Staff  Officers, or  officers  who  have 
served  less  than  three  years  with  their  regiments  or 
corps,  or  who  have  recently  cojiipleted  a  tour  of  de- 
tached duty,  are  not  eligible.  No  details  are  made 
tliat  will  leave  a  battery,  troop,  or  company  without 
two  officers  for  duty  with  it.  The  period  for  detail 
is  not  longer  than  three  years.  Retired  officers,  if 
acceptable  to  any  Institution. may,  on  their  own  re- 
quest, be  detailed  on  this  duty  among  the  thirty  au- 
thorized. Besides  this  number,  any  retired  oiEcer 
ma}'  arrange  to  serve  at  a  College  or  University 
■without  detail  from  or  reference  to  the  War  Depart- 
ment; but  unless  rfft(f(7cfZ  imder  section  133o,  Revised 
Statutes,  such  service  will  not  entitle  the  institution 
to  the  arms,  etc.,  provided  by  tliat  section.  No  de- 
dail  is  made  for  any  Institution  except  upon  an  ap- 
plication from  its  proper  representatives,  nor  is  any 
other  so  detailed,  unless  acceptable  to  the  authorities' 
o*  the  Institution,  who  sliould  make  theii  selection 
from  the  officers  available  for  this  [duty.  Applica- 
tions for  officers  should  be  addressed  to  the  Secretary 
of  War,  and  should  duly  certify  the  number  of  male 
students  the  College  or  University  has  the  capacity 
to  educate,  and  should  also  be  accompanied  by  the 
last  printed  catalogue.  Officers  of  thearmj'  desiring 
a  detail  at  Colleges  or  Universities  may  make  appli- 
cation to  the  Adjutant  Genera'.,  through  the  usual 
militarv  channels;  their  applications  and  the  recom- 
mendations forwarded  therewith  will,  if  the  officers 
are  available,  be  furnished  to  such  Institutions  as 
may  desire  to  make  a  selection. 

Issue  of  stores,  limited  to  the  following,  will  be 
made,  under  section  123.'),  Revised  Statutes,  b}'  the 
Chief  of  Ordnance  to  any  selected  Institution  upon 
its  filing  a  bond  in  the  penal  sum  of  double  the  value 
of  the  property,  conditioned  that  it  will  take  good 
care  of  and  safely  keep  account  for  the  same,  and 
will,  when  required  by  the  Secretary  of  War,  duly 
return  the  same,  within  thirty  days,  in  good  order, 
to  the  Chief  of  Ordnance  United  States  Army,  or  to 
such  officer  or  person  as  the  Secretary  of  War  may 
designate  to  receive  it. 
2  3-inch  rifled  guns,  wrought-iron,  model 

18G1,  at  $4no, $900  00 

2  carriages  and  limbers,  3-incli  gun,  at  $325,     650  00 
2  gunners'  haversacks,  at  $3,35,      .      .      ,  6  70 

4  lanyards,  at  10  cents,      ......  40 

2  priming  wires,  at  10  cents, 20 

2  liandspikes,  trail,  at  $1 2  00 

4  sponges  and  rammers,  3-inch,  at  fl,     .  4  00 

4  sponge  covers,  3-inch,  at  80  cents,      .     .  1  20 

2  tube-pouches  at  $1.50 3  00 

4  thumbstalls,  at  20  cents,      .      .     -     .     .  80 

2  tonipions.  ;i-incli,  at  30  cents,      ...  60 

2  vcnl-covers.  at  40  cents 80 

1  pciulMlum  haussc,  3-inch, 2  50 

1  ix'iidulmn  haussc  seat 60 

1  ]>cnduhiMi  hausse  pouch 75 

2  pauliiis,  12  l)y  l."")  feet,  at  .fll,75,    .     .     .        23  50 
1.50  Spriiiglield  "cadet"  rifles,  cal.  .45,  with 

appendages,  etc.,  at  $18 2,700  00 

150  bayonet  scabbards,  steel,   'cadet."  at 

91  cents 136  50 


1.50  waist  belts  and  plates,  at  50  cents,     .  75  00 

1.50  cartridge-boxes,  <-al.  45,  at  $1. '25.     .     .       187.50 

For  practice-firing  the  following  allowances  of  am- 
munition will  be  made  annually  to  each  of  the  vari- 
ous institutions,  viz:  1.000  carbine  metallic  ball- 
cartridges,  cal.  .45;  1.000  metallic  blank  cartridges, 
cal.  .45;  100  rounds  blank  cartridges  for  3-inch  gun; 
300  friction  primers.  This  ammunition  is  issued 
upon  requisitions,  which  should  be  forwarded  to  the 
Chief  of  Ordnance  by  the  presidents  or  superintend- 
ents of  the  institutions.  See  Military  Schools,  and 
Post  Sdtnoh. 

MILITARY  COLUMN.— Among  the  Romans  a  col- 
umn on  wliich  was  engraven  a  list  of  the  forces  in 
the  Roman  Army,  ranged  by  legions  in  their  proper 
order.  They  had  another  kind  of  Military  Culumn 
called  Ciilu'iina  Bell'ra.  standing  before  the  Temple 
of  Janus,  at  the  foot  of  which  the  Consul  declared 
war  bv  throwing  a  javelin  towards  the  enemy's 
coimlrv. 

MILITARY  CREST.— A  common  expression  for  the 
top  line  of  a  slope.  The  drawing  shows  how  the 
defender  (who.  while  standing  near  the  military 
crest,  uncovers   only   his   shoulders   and    observes 


the  whole  body  of  the  assailant  as  he  climbs  the  as- 
cehtj  will,  on  receding  from  the  crest,  place  himself 
below  the  jjrolongation  of  the  slope  and  lose  sight 
of  his  climbing  adversary.  At  the  same  time,  he 
will  receive  the  enemy's  grazing  fire  as  the  latter 
ascends  to  the  crest.    See  interior  Crest. 

MILITARY  DECORATION.— A  medal.cross  of  honor, 
etc.,  bestowed  fi>r  di^linguislied services. 

MILITARY  DEPARTMENT.— A  military  sub-divi- 
sion of  a  country.  The  whole  territory  of  the  United 
States  is  divided  into  Jlilitary  Departments,  each  be- 
ing under  the  command  of  a  general  officer.  See 
Oeogrnpliicnl  Drpartn.ents  and  IJivisionH. 
MILITARY  DISCIPLINE.— The  obedience  to  and  exer- 
cise of  all  orders  and  regulations  which  have  for  their 
object  the  good  govenunent  and  management  of  a 
regiment  or  army.  In  fact,  discipline  may  be  de- 
fined as  the  perfection  of  order  and  regidation  in  an 
army.  To  it  may  be  attrilnited  in  the  ilaj'  of  battle 
much  of  the  success  which  has  attended  the  arms  of 
a  nation.  Without  it,  an  army  becomi-s  a  rabble; 
and  though  braverj'  will  do  much  towards  achieving 
success,  it  is  by  discipline  mainly  that  the  object  of 
a  war  can  be  idtimately  attained.  In  tlie  United 
States  service,  the  following  regulations  in  this  con- 
nection are  observed  :  All  inferiors  are  required  to 
obey  strictly,  and  to  execute  with  alacrity  and  good 
faith  the  lawful  orders  of  the  superiors  appointed 
over  them.  Military  avithority  is  to  be  exercised 
with  lirnniess.  but  with  kindness  and  justice  to  in- 
feriors. Punishments  shall  be  strictly  conformable 
to  military  law.  Superiors  of  every  griide  arc  for- 
liidden  to  injure  those  tmder  them  by  tyr;innical  or 
capricious  conduct,  or  by  abusive  language.  Cour- 
tesy among  military  mensis  indispensable  to  disci- 
pline ;  respect  to  superiors  will  not  be  c(mtined  to 
obedience  on  duty,  but  will  be  extended  on  all  oc 
casions.     Deliberations  or  discussions    among  any 


amiTAKY  EXECUTION. 


345 


MILITABY  JH8TICE. 


class  of  mililiiry  n>cn  liavintr  tlif  ohjpi^t  nf  ronyoyinK 
priiisc^  or  (•(■iisurc,  or  any  ruiirl;  of  aiiproiiiilioii  to- 
ward llicir  Hii|H'rii>rs  or  others  in  llic  inililary  Kcrvicc. 
and  all  piililiralions  rclalivcio  IraiiHactions  helwccn 
oflicernof  a  private  or  persoiiid  naliire.  whether  news- 
jiapir,  i)aniphlet,  or  hand-bill,  are  strictly  prohibitfd. 
Bel'   Di'f'/il'iii'. 

MILITARY  EXECUTION.  The  punishinint  infliil- 
fd  by  the  scMleiiee  of  a  ( 'ourt-.Marl  iai :  also  the  rav- 
ii'-riiiir  or  ilc-.ini\  ire.:  of  .■!  loinilry  or  town  that  refuses 
to  p.MV  till'  eoliliilillliori  inllieird  npoM  tlieni. 

MILITARY  FIRST  PRINCIPLES.  'I'he  bodily  Irain- 
Ini;  for  a  soldier,  to  niaUe  him  hardy, robust,  and  cap- 
able of  preserviiii;  health  arnidsf  fatii;ue,  bad  weath- 
er, and  chanvce  of  climate:  to  niar<-li  at  such  possible 
pace,  for  such  len'j;lli  of  time,  and  with  such  burden, 
as  wilhoul  IrainiiiL'  Iw  would  not  be  able  to  do. 

MILITARY  FRONTIER.     The  formir  name  of  a  nar- 
row strip  of  land  alon;;'  the  TurUisli   frontier  of  the 
Austro-llumcarian  F.mpire.   It  bad  a  si)ecial  military 
constitution   and  formed  a   sejiarate  •' (!ro\vn-land." 
Of  lato,  however,  the  peculiar  institutions  of  the  Mil- 
itary Frontier  have  been  abolished  ;   portions  of  the 
territory   have    been    incor])orated    with    ailjoinin.i; 
provin("es;  and  since  187;^  the  remainder  of  the  Mili- 
tary Frontier,  now  oHicially  ternu'd  tbv  Croato-Slav- 
oni"c   liorder-land.    forms,  ]iUm<x  with   Slavonia  and 
Croatia,  a  de]iendence  of  tlu'  llumrarian  Crown.  The 
Constitution,  civil  and   military,  is  now  accordinizly 
similiar  to  that  of  the  other  Provinces  of  the  HutiLrar- 
ian  part  of  the  Empire-     The  area  of  the  ^Military 
Frontier  was  about  T.^^OO  scpiarc  miles,  and  its  pop\i- 
la-tion  in  lH(i!)  was  (i!)l),800.     The  breadth  of  the  ter- 
ritory once  known  under  this  name  is   considerable 
towards  the   western  <'.\tremily,   but   diminishes  to 
only  a  few  mileu  at  the  eastern'.    The  surface  has  an 
avera;j;e  elevation  of  upwards  of  2,000  feet.     .\11  tbc 
important  rivers  How  eastward.     The  climate  is  se- 
vere in  the  hiiihlands  of  the  west. but  mild  in  the  low- 
er  districts   toward   Slavonia.     Maize,  wheat,  oats, 
fruits,  and  vcjietablcs  are  the  principal  productions. 
Till'   Military  Frontier  owes  its  oriijiu  as  a  Crown- 
Ian  1  to  the  necessity  of  havini;  a  permanent  body  of 
defenders  on  the  borders  durini;  former  wars,  and 
cspeciallv  durina;  wars  wi  h  the  Ti:t:  s.     In  the  15tb 
century  "the   Austrians   had  gained  from  the   Turks 
certain  tracts  of  territory  on  the  banks  of  the  Save 
and  Danube.     These  tracts   they  colonized,  making 
it,  however,  a  condition  that  the  Colonists  must  ren- 
der military  service  against  the  Turks.     Tims  orig- 
inated the  Capitanate  of  Zengg.  during  the  reign  of 
Mat  bias  Corvinus.     The  Wanisdin  Frontier  originat- 
ed in   the  same  manner  in   the   KJtb,  and  the  Banat 
Frontier  in  the  17th  century.     The  Constitution  of 
the  Military  Frontier,  as  it  e"xistc<l  till  1873,  has  been 
thus  described  :  The  nulilary  stations  along  the  fron- 
tier serve  a  threefold  purpose — tlie  defense  of  the 
country,  the  prevention  of  smuggling,  and  the  pre- 
vention of  the  spread  of  contagious  disease  into  the 
territories  of  the  Austrian  Empire.     The  inhabitants 
of  this  Crown-land  enjoy  peculiar  privileges.     Their 
immigrant  ancestors  received   only  the   temporary' 
use  of  lands  consigned  to  them:  but  in  18.50  a  law 
was  passed  making  over  the  land  to  the  occupiers 
as  their  own  property.     This  right  of  property  does 
not  belong,  however,  to  indiviiluals,  but  to  the  f  im- 
ily  in  a  luiited  sense.     The  oldest  member  of  a  fam- 
ily (called  the  Jlrni.teatff)  is  intrusted  with  the  man- 
agement of  the  land;  his  partner  (the  Hau^mutUr) 
ranks   equal   with   him.   and   thev   each   receive   a 
double  share  of  the  profits  for  the  year  as  recom- 
pense for  the  management  of  the  estate.     A  family 
of  this  sort  is  called  a  border-house  {(!>•(  iiihaux).  All 
■who  are  able  to  bear  arms  are  sworn  to  the  service 
from  their  20th  year.     The  soldier  of  the  frontier, 
who  is  clothed  as  well  as  armed  and  supplied  with 
anununition  liy  Government,  finds  it   bis  duty  not 
only  to  watch  and  protect   the  frontier,  but  to  pre- 
serve peace  and  order  in  the  interior,  and  to  go  on 
foreign  service  when  rciiuired.      Only  the  smaller 


portion  of  the  l..i<.  -  ,,r  the  Militarj'  Frontier  in  re- 
tained in  readiness  for  active  service,  while  the  re- 
mainder pursue  their  ordinary  cmploymcniH.  To 
facilitate  the  accomplislunent  of  the  purpoHcs  aimed 
at  by  the  Military  Frontier,  the  rwdon.  a  Hcries  of 
guarii-houses  along  the  frontier,  affording  accomnio- 
dalion  to  from  four  lo  eight  men,  as  well  as  larger 
ones  acconniiodating  twelve  men  and  a  ji;nior  ofTl- 
cer,  has  beiii  instituted.  Within  this  line  an-  the 
olllcer.s'  posts.  Without  annount  iiig  himself  at  the 
posts,  no  one  is  allowed  to  pass  the  lioundary ;  and, 
after  permission  is  given,  the  passenger  nuist  re- 
main a  longer  or  shorter  lime  at  the  (|Uarimline  eg- 
lablisliment,  in  order  that  all  introduction  of  disease 
may  be  ]irc'\ciilc  d. 

MILITARY  INDICATIONS.  There  are  mr.ny  indi- 
cation- which,  if  reported  to  a  General  and  his  Staff, 
enable  them  to  judge  of  what  they  wish  to  know,  as 
clearly  as  if  a  detailed  i)icture  of  thi'  enemy  were 
spread  before  them.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  tiiat 
every  ollicerand  soldier  should  know-  how  to  mark 
and  colled  these  signs.  They  consist,  when  a  camp, 
bivouac,  or  cantonment  is  observed,  in  the  color  of 
coats  and  pantaloons;  other  distinctive  marks,  the 
numbers  of  videtles,  sentinels,  tires,  and  tenis  of  the 
enemy:  the  fre(|uency  and  direction  of  rounds,  pa- 
trols, and  recomioissances;  the  nature  and  time  of 
signals  by  truni|iet  or  dnnn;  the  placing  of  signal 
])osts;  measures  of  straw;  boughs  broken  off;  the 
arrival  of  reinforcements;  new  uniforms;  collections 
of  fascines,  beams,  joists,  ladders,  boats.  When  a 
corps  is  watched  on  the  march,  the  signs  to  observe 
are  the  depth  and  front  of  columns;  tlie  number  of 
subdivisions:  the  sort  of  troops,  infantry,  cavalry, 
artillery,  trains;  the  f|uickness  and  direction  of  the 
march:  the  height  of  the  dust:  the  reliection  of  arms; 
the  munber  of  the  tliinkersand  the  eclaireurs.  When 
an  army  ready  for  battle  is  observed,  we  should 
particuhirly  note  the  number  of  its  Hues,  their  extent, 
the  composition  of  the  troops  in  column  or  in  line 
of  battle;  the  cidiber  of  pieces;  their  position  relative 
to  cavalry  and  infantry;  the  number  of  skirmishers; 
their  maneuvers;  the  concentration  of  forces  or 
artillery  on  s\ich  a  point,  Ihuik  marches  of  <me  or 
many  corps.  If  troops  are  followed  on  their  march, 
we  note  the  tracks  of  tnen  and  horses,  those  made  by 
wheels,  cattle,  and  beasts  of  burden;  the  relative 
positions  of  these  tracks:  whether  they  are  regular 
and  preserve  an  invariable  order;  whether  the  places 
where  thev  stop  have  little  or  much  space  between 
them:  whether  the  route  passed  over  is  covered  with 
remains  of  animals;  whether  the  skletons  of  the 
horses  are  lean  and  sore;  whether  the  ground  is 
bloodv;  if  graves  have  been  freshly  made,  whether 
some  indications  ma.v  not  show  them  to  be  for  sup- 
erior officers;  whether  the  coimtrj-  has  been  devas- 
tated; whether  the  entrails  of  beef,  mutton,  or  horses 
are  seen;  whether  the  tires  are  recent:  whether  they 
are  numerous,  and  show  much  or  little  ashes; 
whether  bridges  are  broken,  and  in  what  jjarts: 
whether  the  inh;ibitants  of  the  country  are  anxious, 
sad.  Inunble,  iuumated.  or  satistied.     Sec  SigiiJi. 

MILITARY  JURISDICTION.— Military  jurisdiction 
is  of  two  kinds:  first,  tluit  which  is  conferred  andde- 
tined  by  statute  ;  second,  that  which  is  derived  from 
the  common  law  of  war.  Jliiitary  offenses  under  the 
statute  law  nmst  be  tried  in  the  manner  therein  di- 
rected ;  but  military  ofTcnses  which  do  not  come 
within  the  statute  nnist  be  tried  and  punished  under 
the  common  law  of  war.  The  character  of  the  courts 
which  exercise  these  jurisdictions  depends  upon  the 
local  laws  of  each  particular  country.  In  the  armies 
of  the  United  States  the  first  is  exercised  by  Courts- 
Martiid  :  while  cases  w  Inch  do  not  come  within  the 
'■  Rules  and  Articles  of  War."  tr  the  jurisdiction  con- 
ferred by  statute  on  Courls-Martial,aretried,by  mili- 
t:ir\  commission-.     See  Jurhdktinn. 

MILITARY  JUSTICE.— That  species  of  justice  which 
prevails  in  the  army,  and  which  is  administered  by 
militarv  tribunals  in  accordance  with  the  Articles  of 


MILITARY  KNIG:ITS. 


346 


MILITAIIY  OKDEES. 


War.  In  Russia  just  ice  is  frfquently  obtained  tlirouuli 
wliat  is  known  as  tlie  Court  of  Honor.     In  tlic  Unit- 
ed States  the  Articles  of  War  provide  that  any  ofticer 
who  thinks  himself  wrona;ed  by  the  Commandin.; 
Officer  of  liis  regiment,  and  upon  due  application  to 
such  Commander,  is  refused  redress,  may  complain 
to  the  General  commandina;  in  the  State  or  Territory 
where  such  regiment  is  stadoned.  The  General  shall 
examine  into  said  complaint  and  take  jiroper  meas- 
ures for  redressing  the  wrong  complained  of :  and  he 
shall,  as  soon  as  possible,  transmit  to  the  Department 
of  War  a  true  statement  of  such  complaint  with  the 
proceedings  had  thereon.     Any  soldier  who   thinks 
himself  wronged  by  any  officer  may  complain  to  the 
Commanding  Officer  of  his  regiment,  who  shall  sum- 
rnon  a  Kegimental  Court-Martial  for  the  doing  of  jus- 
tice to  the  complainant.     Either  party  may-  appeal 
from   such   Kegimental  Court-Martial'to  a  "General 
Court-Mart ia! ;  but  if,  upon  such  second  hearing, the 
appeal  appears  to    be   groundless   and    vexatious, 
the  party  appealing  shall  be  punished  at  the  discre- 
tion of  said  General  Court-Martial.  .  See  Articles  of 
W<n:  T2  to  lO.i.  Court  of  II,m„r,  and  Courtn.Martial. 
MILITARY  KNIGHTS.—     An    Institution  of  Mill- 
tary  Knights  at  Windsor.  England,  formerly    called 
'•  Poor  Knights,"  which  owes  its  origin  to  Edward 
III.,  and  is  a  provision  for  a  limited  "number  of  old 
officers.     These   officers  consist  of  a  Governor  and 
13  Knights  on  the  upper  foundation,  and  .5  on  the 
lower,  together  18,  and  are  composed  of  officers  se- 
lected from  every  grade,   from  a  Ciolonel  to  a  Sub- 
altern, chiefly  veterans,    or  on   half-pay.     They  are 
allowed  three  rooms  each  in  Windsor  Palace,  "and  2 
shillings  per  diem  for  their  sustenance,  besides  other 
small  allowances.     See  Knights. 

MILITARY  LAW.— Under  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  Congress  is  intrusted  with  the  crea- 
tion, government,  regulation  and  support  of  armies; 
and  all  laws  passed  by  Congress  for  those  purposes 
are  military  laws.  Congress,  being  also  invested 
with  power  '•  to  make  alUaws  which  shall  be  neces- 
sary and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the  fore- 
going powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this 
Constitution  in  the  Government  of  theUnited  States, 
or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof,"  is  supreme 
in  all  military  matters.  The  office  of  Commander- 
in-Chief,  intrusted  by  the  Constitution  to  the  Presi- 
dent, must  have  its  "functions  first  defined  by  Con- 
gress. Such  military  powers  only  as  Congress 
confers  upon  him  can  be  exercised.  E.xcept- 
ing  that,  being  the  Commander-in-Chief  under  the 
Constitution,  he  of  course  exercises  all  authority  that 
Congress  may  delegate  to  any  militarv  commiinder 
whatever,  by  reason  of  the  axiom  that"  the  power  of 
the  greater  includes  that  of  the  less.  Many  of  the 
functions,  thus  devolved  by  the  Constitution  on  Con- 
gress, in  most  governments'  belong  to  the  Executive. 
The  King  of  Great  Britain  makes  rules  and  articles 
for  the  government  of  armies  raised  bv  him  with  tlie 
consent  of  Parliament.  Congress,  with  us,  both 
raises  and  governs  armies.  An  army  raised  in  Great 
Britain  is  the  King's  army  ;  with  lis  it  is  the  Army 
of  the  United  States.  These  most  essential  distinc- 
tions should  cause  Congress  to  give  more  of  its  at- 
tention to  the  army.  It  should  "be  borne  in  mind 
that  our  rules  for  the  government  of  the  army  have 
been  borrowed  almost  entirely  from   Great  Britain 


martial  law  is  in  the  highest  degree  arbitrary  and 
capable  of  alnise.  It  may  be  decreed  at  will  bycom- 
petent  military  authority,  and  the  only  rule  as  to  the 
propriety  of  its[being  established  is  the  test  of  neces- 
sity.    Tiie  Duke  of  Wellington,  from  his  place  in  the 
English  House  of  Lords,  deprecated  its  employment, 
except  under  the  most  urgent  pressure,  and  then 
only  with  great  modifications.     In  a  celebrated  Cey- 
lon case  the  late  Lord  Chief-Justice  Cockburn  was 
very  reluctant  to  admit  that  civil  law  could  be  super- 
seded by  Court-Martial,  except  where,  as  in  India,  the 
military  government  was  absolute;  but  in  the  same 
case  Blackburn.  .1..  laid  down  the  dictum  universally 
accepted  in  tlie  United  States,  that  martial  law  is  de- 
rived from  statutory  provisions  and  fovmded  on  para- 
mount necessity.     Thus  the  question  as  to  its  nature 
is  closely  connected  with  the  manner  of  its  exercise, 
and  this  again  with  the  rettpunsibility  for  such  exer- 
cise.    As  to  its  extent,  we  may  refer  to  a  decision  of 
the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  the  case  of  Neal  Dmc  v. 
Bralish  Johnson,  October  term,  1870.     It  was  held: 
that  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  while  in  service 
in  an  enemy's  country,  was  not  liable  to  an  action  in 
Civil  Courts  for  acts  done  in  pursuance  of  a  Super- 
ior's orders  ;  and  when  anj'  portion  of  an  enemy's 
country  was  in  the  military  possession  of  tlie  United 
States,  the  municipal  laws  were  to  be  continued  in 
force  and  administered  through  the  ordinary  chan- 
nels for  the  protection  and  benefit  of  the  inhabitants 
and  others  not  in  military  service,  but  not  for  the 
protection  and  control  of  army  officers  or  soldiers. 
In  the  Supreme  Court  of   Missouri  it  has  been  held 
that  the  Act  of  Congress  making  the  order  or  author- 
ity of  the  President  a  good  defense  for  acts  done  or 
left  undone  during  tlie  Rebellion, is  unconstitutional. 
The  whole  subject  of  the  relations  of  the  civil  and 
military  authorities  in  time  of  war,  and  especially 
the  constitutionality  of  Acts  passed  distinctly  as  wa"r 
measures,  is  of  great  interest,  and,  while  much  may 
be  ret  judicata,  there  are  many  points  not  yet  clearly 
determined.     See  Martial  Lair. 

MILITARY  NECESSITY.— Military  necessity,  as  un- 
derstood by  modern  civilized  nations,  consists  in  the 
necessity  of  those  measures  which  are  indispeusible 
for  securing  the  ends  of  the  war,  and  which  are  law- 
ful according  to  the  modern  law  and  usages  of  war. 
It  admits  of  all  direct  destruction  of  life  and  limb 
of  armed  enemies,  and  of  other  persons  whose  de- 
struction is  incidentall}'  unaroidabie  in  the  armed 
contests  of  the  war;  it  allows  of  the  capturing  of 
every  armed  enemy,  and  every  enemy  of  importance 
to  the  hostile  government,  or  of  peculiar  danger  to 
the  captor  ;  it  allows  of  all  destruction  of  property, 
and  obstruction  of  the  ways  and  channels  of  traffic, 
travel,  or  communication,  and  of  all  withholding  of 
sustenance  or  means  of  life  from  the  enemy;  of  the 
appropriation  of  whatever  an  enemy's  country  af- 
fords necessary  for  the  subsistence  and  safety  of  the 
Army,  and  of  such  deception  as  does  not  involve  the 
breaking  of  good  faith,  either  positively  pledged, 
regarding  agreements  entered  into  during  the  war, 
or  supposed  by  the  modernJaw  of  war  to  exist.  Men 
who  take  up  arms  against  one  another  in  public  war 
do  not  cease  on  this  account  to  be  moral  beings,  re- 
sptmsible  to  one  another,  and  to  God. 

Military  necessity  does  not  admit  of  cruelly,  that 
is,  the  iutliction  of  sutlering  for  the  sake  of  suffering 


that  the  relation  of  the  army  to  the  jieople  is  in  the  j  or  for  revenge,  nor  of  maiming  or  wounding,  except 
two  countries  entiri^ly  distinct ;   therefore,  that  rules  ""  '  "      '  '     ' 

adapted  to  an  aristocratic  government  may  not  be 
entirely  suited  to  democratic  form.-. 

.Martiid  law  must  lie  distinguished  from  both  mili- 
tary law  and  military  government.  The  last  denotes 
the  rule  of  a  coucpicredor  iiisurrectionarv  dislrlcH)V 
military  authority,  while  military  law  is  iliat  branch 
of  the  law  which  regards  military  iliscipline  and  the 
government  of  (lersons  employee!  in  the  military  ser- 
vice. Martial  law.  says  Kent,  supersedes  and  sus- 
pends the  civil  law.  but  military  law  is  superadded 
an  1  subordinate  to  thecivil  law.    It  will  be  seen  that 


in  fight,  nor  of  torture  to  extort  confessions.  It  doi  s 
not  admit  of  the  use  of  poison  in  any  way,  nor  of  the 
wanton  devastation  of  a  district.  It  admits  of  de- 
ception. b\it  disclaims  acts  of  perfidy  :  and.  in  gen- 
end,  military  necessity  does  not  include  any  act  of 
hostility  which  makes  the  return  to  peace  unneces- 
siirily  (lilticull. 

MILITARY  ORDERS.— Religious  Associations  which 
arose  from  a  mixture  of  the  religious  enthusiasm  and 
the  chivalrous  love  of  arms  which  almost  e()ually 
formed  tlie  characteristics  of  medieval  society.  The 
first  origin  of  such  Associations  may  be  traced  to  tlie 


UILITAJIY  PITS. 


:il7 


UILITABY  P08ITI0B. 


npcpssitics  nf  the  ("liristiiiii  rcsidiiiis  uf  ilic  Holy 
Liuiil.iii  wliicli  IIk'  iiKiiikn.wlioM' Mrs!  duly  liail  liccii 
t(i  Hcrvc  III!'  pilLtrinis  in  the  liuspihil  ut  .Icriisiilciii, 
were  coiiipcUi'il.  by  llu'  iicci'ssily  nf  si'If-dcfciisc,  to 
asHiiiiKr  the  cliiiraclcr  of  solilicrs  as  well  asnf  rnnnkH. 
Till!  Order  of  the  'rcniplars  was  of  siiiillar  orif^iii. 
Tlioso  of  Alciiiilara  and  t'alalniva  in  Spain  had  f<jr 
llu'ir  ininicdialc  (jlijcct  llic  difcnsi'  of  llicir  country 
a;;ainsl  llic  Moors.  'I'licsc  ()rd<'rs,  as  well  as  llial  of 
Avis  in  l'ortMi,'al,\vliicli  was  inslif.ilcd  willi  a  similar 
view,  followed  llic  (islcrciaii  rnic,  and  all  llirc<'  dif- 
fered frcjMi  iMe 'I'eiMplarsand  llie  Kniijlils  of  Si.  John 
in  lieini;  ])erMiiUed  l)y  their  institute  to  marry  onee. 
The  .same  privileire  was  enjoyeil  in  the  Savoyard  Or- 
(IcTof  Knii^hts  of  SI.  Maurice  and  the  Flemish  Order 
of  SI.  Ilulicrt.  Oil  the  contrary,  the  Teutonic 
Knights,  who  had  their  orii^in  in  the  Crusades,  were 
bound  by  an  absolute  vow  of  chastity.  Willi  the 
varyini;  conditions  of  society,  these  Hclii;ious  Asso- 
ciations have  at  various  limes  lieeii  abollslu'd  or  fallen 
into  disuse;  but  most  of  tliem  still  subsist  in  the 
form  of  Orders  of  Kiiijihtliood.  and  in  some  of  lliein, 
attempts  liave  recently  been  made  to  revive,  with 
c<rtain  niodilications,  the  monastic  character  which 
tliev  orii^inallv  ])ossessed.     See  Onlrr. 

MILITARY  PITS.  Rows  of  jiits  in  the  form  of  in 
verted  cones  or  pyramids  made  before  a  work,  and 
having  a  stroiii;  |ialisadc  or  slake  in  the  center  of 
each.  To  prevent  Ihe  enemy's  rillemen  from  making 
use  of  them,  they  should  be  made  either  too  deep  or 
too  shallow,  that  is,  either  8  feet  or  2j  feet  deep. 
Till'  diameter  of  the  pits  at  the  top  is  6"  feet,  and  1 
foot  at  the  bottom  ;  that  of  the  shallow  pits,  8  feet 
sipiare  at  the  lop,  and  not  more  than  2,i  feet  deep. 
The  usual  position  for  mililary  pits  is  beyond  the 
counterscarp,  and  principally  opposite  the  salient 
angles.  They  would  form  an  obstacle  to  cavalry. 
One  man  can  construct  two  deep  jiits  per  day  iu  easy 
.soil,  ami  ten  shallow  pits  under  the  same  circum- 
stances. 

MILITARY  POLICE.— A  few  steady  soldiers  wlio 
are  cho.scn  from  a  regiment  or  regiments  to  main- 
tain order  and  regularity  within  the  liin's  of  a  camji 
or  garrison.  They  are  under  the  supcriiiteudeuee  of 
the  Provost-Sergeant,  and  their  number  varies  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  When  on  duly,  they  wear 
i<.  badge  round  their  right  arm  marked  M.  V. 

When  an  army  is  in  the  field,  it  is  reoommended 
that  a  troop  of  polii'c  should  be  attached  to  each  di- 
vision, and  one  to  the  hcad-iiuarters  of  each  army 
corps,  to  preserve  civil  order  as  distinct  from  mili- 
tary discipline.  This  body  of  men  to  be  umler  the 
Provost-Marshal,  who.  during  war  time,  is  vested 
with  exceptional   iiowers. 

MILITARY  POSITION.— All  officer,  to  be  able  to 
select  a  suitable  posiiion  for  an  army,  should  know 
the  distances  taken  up  by  troops  in  order  of  battle: 
the  tactical  combinations  of  the  different  arms,  and 
their  placing  for  mutual  support  to  derive  the  great- 
est advantages  from  their  respective  action  in  battle, 
the  qualitications  of  each  for  the  defensive  and  offen- 
sive, and  the  nature  of  the  ground  best  adaiiled  to 
their  maneuvers.  In  selecting  a  position  for  an  ar- 
my, regard  must  be  had  not  only  to  the  ground  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  field  of  battle;  but  also 
to  Ihe  nature  of  the  surrounding  country  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  position  to  be  chosen:  whether  the  latter 
U'uds  itself  in  every  respect  to  advantage  to  the  par- 
ticular ground  iu  question. 

The  following  are  the  principal  points  to  be  held 
in  view  in  selecting  a  position: 

1st.  The  extent  should  be  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  troops  in  hand  to  occupy  it;  its  general 
direction  being  such  as  to  present  :iii  unliroken  front 
throughout,  from  which  a  strong  direct  tire  ni;iy  be 
broug-lit  to  bear  upon  iill  the  ;ippr"aclies  leading  to 
it.  it  too  cxtendeil,  weak  points  will  have  to  be  left 
in  the  line;  if  too  contracted,  all  the  troo]is  available 
cannot  be  placed  to  bring  their  fire  to  bear  upon  the 
enemy.     An  allowance  of  one  thousaml  y;irds  for 


every  live  Ihoimand  to  six  thousand  men  of  all  arms 
will  generally  be  maile.  'i'liis  provides  for  two  linen 
and  a  reservi'.  Cavalry  in  line  r(<)uires  one  yard  to 
each  file,  infantry  two  feet,  and  artillery  from  eighty 
to  one  hundred  and  ten  yards  for  (  ach  battery  of 
six  pieces,  depending  upon  th<;  inlirvals.  Kvery 
po.sition  should  have  u  depth  of  at  least  five  liundred 
to  one  thousand yards,  to  permit  Ihi'  free  inoveiiientB 
of  troops  of  all  arms.  iS'o  position  should  lie  taken 
up  which  does  not  prisent  ample  means  for  retreat, 
allowing  the  troops  to  be  marched  ofl  the  field  with- 

1  out  confusion  from  crowding. 

i      2d.     Good  communications  should  exist  througli- 

!  out  the  whole  extent  of  the  posiiion,  permitting  the 
troops  to  move  freely  from  point  to  point  to  re-en- 
force the  line  where  necessary;  good  dctioiK^/ien  to  the 
front,  to  allow  the  offensive  to  be  promptly  assumed; 
good  roads  leading  to  the  rear,  to  facilitate  tlie  safe 
withdrawal  of  the  troops  in  case  of  di.saster.     As  a 

j  passive  defense  will  never  lead  to  any  decisive  re- 
sults, a  position  should  always  present  every  facility 
necessary  for  the  army  to  assume  the  offensive  at 

]  any  favorable  period  of  the  battle. 

ad.  Good  commaiul  over  the  ground  by  which 
Ihe   enemy   must   approach,   thus   providing   for  a 

Utrong,  direct  fire,  and  facilitating  shelter  for  the 
iro  ips,  which,  if  n  it  afforded  by  the  natural  features 
of  the  ground,  should  be  sui)plied  by  the  construc- 
tion of  the  best  protections  possible  under  the  cir- 
cumstances. 

4tli.  There  should  be  natural  obstructions  along 
the  front  of  the  position  within  effective  rifle  range, 
as  a  marsh  or  a  stream.  These  serve  to  l)reak  the 
enemy's  line  and  delay  him  in  bis  advance  at  a  time 
when  the  most  daimige  may  lie  inflicted.  If  these 
obstacles  do  not  exist,  the  weak  [loints  of  the  line 
should  he  strengthened  by  abattis,  slashed  timber, 
enlanglenients,  etc.  The  obstacles  should  not,  how- 
ever, be  of  a  nature  to  afford  shelter  to  the  enemy, 
but  simply  cause  a  ilelay  in  his  advance.  A  pond, 
marsh,  or  a  narrow,  deep  stream,  are  good  examples 
of  what  is  most  f:ivorable  to  fulfill  this  condition.  Aji 
obstruction  p:irallel  to  the  front,  and  between  one 
hundred  iind  three  liundred  yards  from  it,  is  very 
favorable  and  adds  to  the  strength  of  a  position, 
provided  always,  that  it  does  not  afford  shelter  to 
the  enemy's  troops.  Any  position  with  obstacles 
perpendicular  to  the  front,  as  hills,  wooded  ground, 
etc.,  should  be  avoided,  as  they  afford  shelter  for 
the  enemy  and  conceal  his  movements.  If,  how- 
ever, these  obstructions  cease  some  distu.ice  in  ad- 
vance of  the  line,  they  are  not  so  uufavoratile.  Any 
position  along  a  small  stream  flowing  into  the  sea 
or  a  large  river,  would  be  a  desirable  one,  as  it  ])re- 
sents  the  features  of  an  obstruction  in  the  front,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  strong  sup}>ort  for  one  fiank. 

.'ilk.  Strength  on  the  flanks  is  particularly  import- 
ant at  Ihe  present  time.  as.  with  the  improved  weap- 
ons, a  front  attack  will  not  offer  many  chances  of 
success  without  severe  losses.  Pleasures  must  then 
Ije  taken  to  turn  a  tiank  and  thus  render  the  position 
untenable,  at  the  same  time  liaving  a  strong  force  in 
fnmt  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  re-euforcing  the 
tiank  attacked,  or  extending  his  line  to  mcei  the 
turning'  movement.  If  the  Hanks  do  not  rest  on  some 
natural  obstacles,  as  a  village,  extended  marsh,  an 
unfordable  river,  etc.,  they  must  be  strengthened  by 
all  the  means  at  hand,  ;is  fortifications,  accumulations 
of  troops,  etc.  The  flanks  should  not  he  commanded 
by  any  ground  in  the  vicinity,  nor  should  there  be 
facilities  of  auy  kind  iu  the  neighborhood  which 
would  allow  the  enemy  to  approach  unseen. 

Gth.  The  location  should  be  healthy,  and  the  re- 
cpiisite  wood  and  water  should  be  near  at  hand  and 
e:isy  of  access. 

7th.     Conditions  two  and  four  cannot  be  satisfied 

at  one  and  the  same  time.  In  case  an  active  defense 
is  intended,  condition  too  will  govern,  in  order  to 
have  good  <ii/ii>iir/u.ihy  which  to  fall  upon  tlie  enemy 
at  the  proper  time.     For  a  passive  defense,  which  is 


MILITABY  POSITIONS. 


348 


MILITAKY  POST. 


generally  impnserl  when  ilie  forces  are  much  inferior 
to  the  enemy  in  nuiiil)ers  or  discipline,  the  third  con- 
dition shouli!  l)e  fulfilled. 

In  a  defensive  position,  if  the  flanks  are  well  pro- 
tected, the  concave  front  is  the  strongest;  for  the 
enemy  while  moving  forward  to  the  attack  exposes 
both  ins  Hanks  to  a  strong  tire  of  artillery  posted  at 
the  extremities  of  the  line.  If,  however,  the  flanks 
are  not  strong  naturallj',  or  are  liable  to  be  turned,  a 
convex  front  is  desirable:  for  it  gives  short  lines  of 
communications,  allowing  supports  to  be  moved 
quickly  to  either  wing  when  threatened.  The  gen- 
eral case  will  be  a  combination  of  the  two  above  men- 
tioned, presenting  alternately  salients,  re-entering 
ansles.  and  straiulit  lines  joinins;  ihem. 

MILITARY  POSITIONS.— Isotated  positions,  oc- 
cupied by  small  detachments,  for  the  purpose  of 
guarding  particular  points  wliicli  are  of  importance 
during  the  operations  of  a  campaign,  or  for  the  lon- 
ger or  shorter  period.  These  positions  are  frecmently 
villages,  farm  houses,  etc.  The  ofticer  charged  with 
placing  a  village  in  a  defensive  attitude,  should  flrst 
proceed  to  a  careful  examination  of  its  environs,  tor 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  what  natural  obstacles, 
and  what  facilities,  they  present  to  the  approach  of 
the  enemy.  Very  slight  accidents  of  ground  may 
be  greatly  improved  by  trenches  of  trifling  depth,  to 
place  troops  speedily  under  cover.  When  the  sur- 
face is  undulating  it  should  be  particularly  examined 
witli  this  view,  the  ofticer  taking  a  position  at  differ- 
ent points  and  directing  men  to  approach  him,  and 
occasioually  stooping  to  observe  how  much  they 
will  be  masked  from  a  fire  at  various  heights  above 
the  surface.  The  side  slope  of  a  ridge  from  the  en- 
emy will  be  the  best  position  for  the  trench  to  obtain 
speed)'  cover,  provided  the  ground  in  advance  of  it 
can  be  well  swept  from  its  crest.  The  next  points 
to  be  considered  are  the  walls,  hedges,  etc.,  of  en- 
closures, which  ma}'  be  turned  to  a  useful  account 
for  the  defense,  or  which  might  serve  as  a  shelter 
totheenemj'.  After  having  finished  this  examina- 
tion, he  will  next  proceed  to  lay  out  his  works;  ar- 
ranging their  plan  so  as  to  draw  every  possible  ad- 
vantage from  the  natural  and  artificial  olistacles  at 
hand,  to  render  certain  points  inaccessible,  and  to 
procure  a  shelter  for  troops  snd  flanking  arrange- 
ments by  means  of  the  walls,  hedges,  etc.  If  there 
should  be  danger  of  an  attack  before  these  works 
can  be  completed,  the  roads  leading  to  the  village, 
by  which  the  enemy  might  approach,  should  be 
broken  up  ;  and  cannon  should  be  placed  in  the  best 
position  to  guard  the  most  accessible  points.  The 
streets  of  the  village  should  by  barricaded,  and  the 
houses  and  walls,  in  the   vicinity  of  the   barricades. 


shorld  be  placed  in  a  defensive  attitude.  In  taking 
these  preparator)'  measures  against  a  sudden  attack, 
any  means  that  will  afford  the  troops  a  cover  from 
the  enemy's  fire  should  be  resorted  to  ;  bales  of  cot- 
ton or  wool,  casks  set  side  by  side,  and  filled  with 
earth,  piles  of  timber,  etc.,  have  been  used  with 
great  success  under  such  circumstances.  As  the  vari- 
ous arrangements  called  for  under  such  circum- 
stances will  demand  great  activity  on  the  part  of  tlie 
garrison,  care  should  be  taken  to  distribute  the  work 
among  the  men  most  conversant  with  it,  placing  the 
men  who  liave  any  skill  in  the  handling  of  tools  at 
preparing  the  wooden  and  stone  defenses,  and  com- 
mon laborers  at  throwing  up  the  earthen  works,  etc. 
The  works  that  surround  the  village  should  be 
placed  so  far  from  tlie  houses  that  the  troops  shall 
not  be  incommoded  either  b}'  the  splinters  occasion- 
ed by  the  enemy's  artillerj-,  or  by  the  flames  and 
smoke,  should  the  houses  be  set  on  fire.  The  com- 
munications from  all  the  exterior  defenses  to  some 
central  rallying  point  should  be  carefully  arranged, 
to  avoid  confusion  in  retreat,  and  check  the  pursuit 
of  the  enemy.  The  garrison  should  be  made  per- 
fectly familiar  with  them  and  with  the  resources  they 
may'afford,  incase  of  need.  Short-cuts  should  be 
made  for  this  purpose  by  breaking  through  garden 
walls,  the  party  walls  of  houses,  etc.,  and  by  the  erec- 
tion of  barricades  at  all  suitable  points  to  make  a 
stand. 

MILITARY  POST.— A  Military  ''Station"  is  synony- 
mous with  Jlilitary  "Post."  In  each  case  it  means 
not  an  ordinary  residence,  having  nothing  military 
about  it  except  that  one  of  its  occupants  holds 
a  militarj'  commission,  but  a  place  where  military 
duty  is  performed  or  stores  are  kept  or  distribu- 
ted, or  something  connected  with  war  or  arms  is  kept 
or  done.  The  interchangeof  official  compliments  and 
visits  between  foreign  Military  or  Kaval  Officers  and 
the  authorities  of  a  Slilitary  Post  are  international  in 
character.  In  all  cases  it  is  the  duty  of  the  comman- 
dant of  a  Military  Post,  without  regard  to  his  rank, 
to  send  a  suitable  officer  to  offer  civilities  and  assist- 
ance to  a  ves.sel-of-war  (foreign  or  otherwise)  recent- 
arrived.  After  such  offer  it  is  the  duty  of  tlie  Com- 
manding Officer  of  the  vessel  to  send  a  suitable  offi- 
cer to  acknowledge  such  civilities,  and  request  that 
a  time  be  specified  for  his  reception  by  the  Command- 
ing Officer  of  the  Post.  The  Commanding  Officer 
of  a  Military  Post,  after  the  usual  offer  of  civilities, 
is  always  to  receive  the  first  visit  without  regard  to 
rank.  The  return  visit  by  the  Commanding  Officer 
of  the  Military  Post  is  made  the  following  day.  or  as 
soon  thereafter  as  practicable,  \\nian  a  Military  Com- 
mander officially  visits  a  vessel-of-war  he  gives  notice 


Abraham  Lincoln,    Fort,  D.   T., 

Dept.  Dak. 
Adams,  Fort,  H.  I.,  Dept.   East. 
Alcatraz  Island,  Cal.,  Dept.Cal. 
•Andrew,     Fort,      Mass.,     Dept. 

East. 
Angel  Island,  Cal.,  Dept.  Cal. 
Apache,  Fort,  Ariz.,  Dept.  Ariz. 
Assinaboine,  Fort.  Mont.,  Dept. 

Dak. 
Barrancas,     Fort,     Fla.,   Dept. 

Eajrt,. 
*Bat(m    Rouge     Barracks,     La., 

De])l.  East. 
Bayard,  Fort,  N.  M.,  Dept.  Mo. 
Benieia    Barracks,    Cal.,    Dept. 

Cal. 
Bennett.Fort,  D.  T..Dppt.  Dak. 
Bidwell,  Fort, Cal..  Dept.Cal. 
Bliss,  Fort,  Texan,  Dept.  Mo. 
Boise    Barracks,     Idaho,    Dept. 

Colundjia. 


Bowie,  Fort,  Ariz.,  Dept.  Ariz. 
Brady,  Fort,  Midi.,  Dept.  East. 
Bridger,     Fort,      Wyo.,     Dept. 

Platte. 
Brown,     Fort.      Texas,     Dept. 

Texas. 
Buford,  Fort,  D.  T.,  Dept.  Dak. 
Canby,  Fort,    Wash.   T.,   Dept. 
Columbia. 
•Carroll,  Fort,  Md.,  Dept.  East. 
•Caswell,  Fort.  N.  (;.,  Dept.  East. 
Clark,  Fort,  Texas,  Dept.  Texas. 
•Clark's     Point,  Mass.,    Fort   at, 

Dept.  East. 
•Clinch,  Fort,  Fla.,  Dept.  Ea,t. 
Ca'ur  d'Alene,  Fort,  Idaho,  Dept 

Columbia. 
Columbus  Barracks,  Ohio. 
Columbus,  Fort.N.  Y.  II.,  Dept. 

East. 
Concho,     Fort,     Texas,      Dept. 
Texas. 


•Constitution,  Fort,  K.  II..  Dept. 
East. 
Craig,  Fort,  N.  M..  Dept.  Mo. 
Cumniin2;s,  Fort,  N,  ^I.,    Dept. 

Mo. 
Custer,  Fort,  Mont.,  Dept.  Dak. 
D.  A.  Russell,  Fort,  Wvo.,  Dept. 

Platte. 
Davids  Island,  N.  Y. 
Davis,  Fort,  Texas,  Dept.  Texas. 
•Delaware,  Fort,  Del.,  Dept.  East. 
Doufflas,     Fort,     Utah,     Dept. 

Platte. 

•Dutcli    Island,    R.  I.,   Fort  on, 

Depl.  East. 

Elliott,  Fort,  Texas,  Dept.  Mo. 

Ellis,  Fort.,  Mont.,  De])!.  Dak. 

•Finn's   Point,  N.J.,   Battery  at, 

Depl.  East. 
•Foote.  Fort,  JId.,  Dept.  East. 
Fred  Steele,   Fort,  Wvo.,  Dept. 
Platte. 


MILITARY  PUNISHMENT. 


U\) 


MILITAHY  PnHIBHMEHT. 


♦Gaines,  Fort,  Alii.,  Dfpt.  Kast. 
(iastdii,  Fori,  Cal..   Dcpl.  Cul. 
(iil)si.ii,  Flirt,  1)1(1. T.,  I)(|il.  .Mo. 
•Oorucs,  Fort,  .Mc,  Dcpt.  Kasl. 
(iraiit.  Fort.  Ariz.,  Dcpt.  Ariz. 
*Ori»wolil,     Fijrt,'    Coiiii.,     Dcpt. 
East. 
Hale,  Fort,  D.  T.,  Dcpt.  Dak. 
llalleek,  Fort,  Nev.,  Dej)!.  Cal. 
JIainilton,   Fori,    N.    V.,   Uept. 

East. 
Hays,  Fort,  Kans.,  Dcpt.  Mo. 
Huachuca,     Fort,    Ariz,    licpt. 
Ariz. 
•Indepeiidenoe,  Fort, -Mass.,  Dcpt. 

East 
Jackson    Barracks,     La.,    Dept. 
East. 
♦Jackson,  Fort,  Ga.,  Dept.  East. 
♦Jackson  Fort,  T,a..  Dcpt.  East. 
JelTcrson  Barracks,  Mo. 
♦Jell'erson,  Fort,  Fla.,  Dept.  East. 
♦Johnston,   Fort,    IS.    C,    Dept. 
East. 
KeoLtli,  Fort,  Mont.,  Dept.  Dak. 
♦Key  West  Barracks,  Fla.,  Dept. 
Kast. 
Klamath,     Fort,     Oreg.,    Dept. 
Columbia. 
♦Kno.v,  Fort,  Mc.,  Dept.  East. 
♦Lafayette,  Fort,  N.  Y.  H.,  Dcpt. 

East. 
Lapwai,  Fort,  Llaho,  Dept.  Co- 

lumliia.  " 

I.,arainie,     Fort,     AVyo.,     Dept. 

Platte. 
Leavenworth,  Fort,  Kans.,  Dept. 

Mo. 
Leavenworth    Military    Prison, 

Kans. 
Lewis,  Fort,  Colo.,  Dcpt.  Mo. 
Little  Rock  Barracks,  Ark., Dept. 
East. 
♦Livingston,     Fort,     La.,    Dept. 
East. 
Lowell,  Fort,  Ariz.,  Dept.  Ariz. 
Lyon,  Fort,  Colo.,  Dept.  Mo. 
Mackinac,   Fort,    Mich.,    Dept. 
East. 
♦JIacorab,  Fort.  La..  Dept.  East. 
♦Macon,  F'ort,  N.  C,  Dept.  East. 
Madison  Barracks,  N.  Y.,  Dept. 

East. 
Maginnis,    Fort,    Mont.,    Dept. 

Dak. 
Marcy,  Fort,  N.5L,  Dept.  Mo. 
♦Marion,  Fort,  Fla.,  Dept.  East. 
Mason,  Fort,  Cal.,  Dept.  Cal. 
♦McClary,  Fort,  Jle.,  Dept.  East. 
McDermit,  Port.  Nev., Dept. Cal. 


McDowell.    Fort.    Ariz.,    Dept. 

Ariz. 
M<llcnry,  Fort,  .Md.,  Dcpt.  East. 
Mcintosh,    Fort,    Texas,    Dept. 

T(  xas. 
McKinncy,    Fort,   Wyo.,    Dept. 

I'latte. 
Mia.le,  Fori,  D.  T.,  Dcpl.  Dak. 
♦.Millliii.  Fort,  I'a.,    Dcpt.  Kast. 
Missoula. Fort,  Mont..Dciit.  Dak. 
.Mojavc.  Fort,  Ariz.,  Dcpt.  Ariz. 
Monroe,  Fori,  Va..  Dept.  East. 
•Montgomery,  Fort,  N.  Y.,  Dept. 

Kast. 
♦Morgan,  Fort,  Ala.,  Dept.  East. 
♦Monltric,  Fort,  S.  (:..  Dept.  East. 
Mount    Vernon   Barracks.   Ala., 

Dcpt.  Kast. 
Jlycr,  Fort,  Va. 
Newport   Barracks,    K}.,   Dcjit. 

East. 
Niagara,  Fort,  N.  Y.,Dept  East. 
Niobrara,     Fort,     Neb.,     Dept. 

Plutte. 
Omaha,  Fort,  Neb.,  Dept.  Platte. 
♦Ontario,  Fort,  N.  Y.,  Dept.  East. 
Pembina,    Fort,    D.    T.,   Dept. 
Dak. 
♦Phoiii.x,  Fort,  ^fass.,  Dept.  East. 
•Pickens,  Fort,  Fla.,  Dept.  East. 
•Pilic,  Fort,  La.,  Dept.  East. 
Platlslmrg  Barracks,  N.Y.  Dept. 
East. 
•Popham,  Fort,  Me.,  Dept.  East. 
Poplar     River,     Camp,     Mont., 

Dept.  Dak.  , 

Porter,  Fort,  N.  Y.,  Dept.  Eas.. 
Preble,  Fort,  Me.,  Dept.  Kast. 
Presidio  of   San  Francisco,  Cal., 

Dcpt.  Cal. 
•I'uliiski,  Fort,  C5a.,  Dept.  East. 
Randall,  Fort,  D.T.,  Dept.  Dak. 
Reno,  Fort,  Ind.  T.,  Dcpt.  :\Io. 
Riley,  Fort,  Kans.,  Dept.  Jlo. 
Ringgold,    Fort,    Te.xas,    Dept. 

Texas. 
Robinson,     Fort,     Neb.,     Dept. 

Platte. 
San  Antonia,  Texas, Dept.  Texas. 
San  Diego  Barracks,  Cal.,  Dept. 
Cal.    " 
•Sandy  Hook,  N.J.,  Fort  at,  Dept. 

East. 
•Scammel,  Fort,  Me.,  Dept.  East. 
Schuyler,    Fort,    N.  Y.,    Dept. 

East. 
Seklen,  Fort,  N.M.,  Dept.  Mo. 
•Sewall,  Fort,  Mass.,  Dept.  East. 
Shaw,  Fort,  Mont..  Dept.    Dak. 
•Ship  Island,  Miss„  Dept.  East. 


Sirlnev,  Fort,  Neb.  Dept.  Platte. 
Sill,  luirt,  Ind.  T..  Deiii.  .\Io. 
Sisseton,  Fort,  D.T.,  Dcpt.  Dak. 
Snclling,  Fort,  Minn.,  Dcpt.  Dak. 
Spokane,  Fort,  Wash.  T.,   Dept. 

Columbia. 
^Standisli,     Fort,    Masn.,     Dept. 

Kast. 
Stanton,  Fort,  N.M.,  Dept.  Mo. 
Stevens,  Fort   CJreg.    Dept.   Col- 

luiibia. 
Stockton,     Fort,    Texas.    Dept. 

Texas. 
St.  Francis  Barracks.  Fla.,  Dept. 

East. 
♦St.    Philip.     Fort.     La..     Dipt. 

East. 
Sullivan,  Fort,  Me.,  Dept.  East. 
Sully,  Fort,  D.  T.,Dept.  Dak. 
•Sumter,  Fort,  S.  ('.,  Dcpt.  East. 
Supply,  Fort,  In(l.,T,.  Dept.  Mo. 
•Taylor,  Fort,  Fla..  Dept.  East. 
Thomas,  Fort,  Ariz..  Dcpt.  Ariz. 
•Thornburgh,  Fort.  Utah.  Dept. 

Platte. 
TolK  n.  Fort,  D.  T.,  Dept.  Dak. 
Townsend,  Fort  Wash.  T., Dept. 

Columbia. 
Trumbull,    Fort,     Conn..    DepU 

East. 
Uncompahgre  River.Cantonment 

on,  Colo.,  Dept.  Mo. 
Union,  Fort.  N.  M.,  Dept.  Mo. 
Vancouver  Barracks.  Wash.  T., 

Dept.  Columbia. 
Verde,  Fort,  Ariz..  Dept.  Ariz. 
Wadsworth,  Fort,  N.  Y..  Dcpt. 

East. 
Walla  Walla.  Fort,    Wash.  T., 

Dept.  Columbia. 
Warren,  Fort,  Mass..  Dept.  East. 
Washakie,    Fort,   Wyo..    Dept. 

Platte. 
•Washington    Barracks.    D.    C, 

Dept.  East. 
Washington,    Fort,   Md.,    Dept. 

East. 
Wayne,  Fort,  Mich.,  Dept.  East. 
West  Point,  N.  Y.,  U.  S.  Military 

Academy. 
Whipple  Barracks,  Ariz.,  Dept. 

Ariz. 
Willets  Point,  N.  Y. 
Wintield  Scott  Fort,  Cal.,  Dept. 

Cal. 
Wingate,  Fort.N.M..  Dept.  Mo. 
♦WinUirop,    Fort,    Mass..    Dept. 

East. 
•Wolcott,  Fort.  R.  L,  Dept.  East. 
Yates,  Fort,  D.  T.,  Dept.  Dak. 


of  his  visit  to  the  vessel  previously  thereto,  or  sends 

an  officer  to  the  gangway  to  annoimce  his  presence, 
if  such  notice  has  not  been  given.  He  is  then  receiv- 
ed at  the  gangway  by  the  Commander  of  the  vessel, 
and  is  accompanied  there  on  leaving  liy  the  same  offi- 
cer. The  officer  who  is  sent  with  the  customary  offer 
of  civilities  is  met  at  the  gangway  of  a  vessel-of-war 
by  the  Officer-of-the-Deck ;  through  the  latter  he  is 
presented  to  theComnuinderof  the  vessel,  with  whom 
it  is  his  duty  to  communicate.  A  vessel-of-war  is  ap- 
proached and  boarded  by  Commissioned  Officers  by 
the  starboard  side  and  gangway. when  tlicre  are  gang- 
ways on  each  side.  In  entering  a  boat  the^wwV'rgoes 
first  and  other  officers  according  to  rank  :  in  leaving 
a  boat,  the  siiiior  goes  first.  The  latter  is  to  acknowl- 
edge the  salutes  which  are  given  at  the  gangway  of 
naval  vessels.  Naval  vessels  fire  personal  salutes  to 
efficers  entitled  to  them  when  the  boat  containing  the 
officer  to  be  saluted  has  cleared  the  ship.   It  is  an  ac- 


knowledgment for  his  boat  to  "  lie  on  her  oars  "  from 
the  first  until  the  last  gun  of  the  salute,  and  for  the 
officer  saluted  to  uncoVer.  then  at  the  conclusion  to 
"give  way."  The  exchange  of  official  visits  between 
the  Commanding  Officers  "of  a  Post  and  vessel  opens 
the  door  to  both  official  and  social  courtesies  among 
the  other  officers. 

The  foregoing  list  comprises  the  Military  Posts  oc- 
cupied by  troops  of  the  United  States  on  the  1st  of 
January,  1884.     Those  not  garrisoned  are  marked*. 

MILITAHY  PONISHMENT.— In  a  military  sense, 
the  execution  of  a  sentence  pronounced  by  a  Court- 
Martial  upon  any  delin(|uent.  The  Ronians  pun- 
ished crimes  committed  by  the  soldiery  with  the  ut- 
most rigor.  On  the  occurrence  of  a  mutiny,  every 
tenth,  twentieth,  or  hundredth  man  was  sometimes 
chosen  by  lot.  but  generally  only  the  ringleaders 
were  selected  for  punishment.  Deserters  and  sedi- 
tious persons  were  frequently,  after  being  scoorged. 


MILITARY  REGULATIONS. 


350 


MILITARY  SCHOOLS. 


sold  for  slaves,  and  occasionally  the  offender  was 
made  to  lose  his  right  haud,  or  was  bled  nearly  to 
death.  Among  the  nations  of  Western  Europe,  t':e 
■punishments  for  military  offen.ses  were,  till  ]atel_v, 
no  less  severe  than  tliey  were  among  the  Romans. 
Besides  the  infliction  of  a  certain  number  of  lashes 
with  cords,  soldiers  convicted  <if  theft,  marauding, 
or  any  other  breach  c^f  discipline  which  was  not 
punishable  with  death,  were  sentenced  to  run  the 
gantlope.  In  Russia  the  knout  was  extensively 
used.  (See  Knout.)  It  is  often  necessary  to  punish 
to  maintain  discipline,, and  the  Rules  and  Articles  of 
War  provide  ample  means  of  punishment,  but  not 
sufficient  rewards  and  guards  against  errors  of  judg- 
ment. In  the  French  Army  degrading  pimishmcnts 
are  illegal,  but  soldiers  may  be  confined  to  quarters 
or  deprived  of  the  libert.y  of  leaving  the  garrison  ; 
confined  in  the  guard-room,  in  prison,  or  in  dun- 
geon ;  required  to  walk  or  to  perform  hard  labor ; 
and  officers  may  be  subjected  to  simple  or  rigorous 
arrests.  Everj'  officer  who  inflicts  a  punishment 
must  account  for  it  to  his  superior,  who  approves  or 
disapproves,  confirms,  augments,  or  diminishes  it. 
If  an  inferior  is  confined  to  the  guard-room,  he  can- 
not be  lil)erated  except  upon  application  to  a  super- 
ior. Any  officer  who  has  been  subjected  to  pun- 
ishment must,  when  relieved,  make  a  visit  to  him 
who  ordered  it.  The  French  Code  has,  in  a  word, 
been  careful  to  provide  for  both  the  security  of  its 
citizens  and  the  strength  of  authority.  The  punish- 
ments establislied  by  law  or  custom  for  U.  R.  sol- 
diers'by  senteuce  of  Court-Martial,  arc  embodied  in 
the  Articles  of  War.  (See  Articles  of  War.)  It  is 
regarded  as  inhuman  to  punish  by  solitary  confine- 
ment or  confinement  on  bread  and  water  exceeding 
fourteen  days  at  a  time,  or  for  more  than  eighty- 
four  days  in  a  year,  at  intervals  of  fourteen  daj-s. 

MILITARY  REGULATIONS.— The  rules  and  regula- 
tions observed  in  one  uniform  system,  and  by  which 
the  discipline,  formations,  fleld-exercises,  and  move- 
ments of  the  whole  army  are  directed.  See  Army 
Eegidatioiu  and  Articles  of  War. 

MILITARY  SCHOOLS.— Establishments  for  the  edu- 
cation of  officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and 
men  of  the  army.  In  the  United  States,  schools  are 
established  at  all  posts,  garrisons,  and  permanent 
camps  at  which  troops  are  stationed,  in  which  the 
enlisted  men  are  instructed  in  the  common  English 
V)ranches  of  education,  and  especially  in  the  history 
of  tlie  United  States.  The  Secretary  of  War  details 
such  officers  and  enlisted  men  as  may  be  necessary 
to  conduct  them.  It  is  the  duty  of  every  post  and 
garrison  commander  to  set  apart  a  suitable  room  or 
iiuilding  forschool  and  religious  purposes.  The  Uni- 
ted States  Military  Academy,  the  Artillery  Scliool, 
and  the  School  of  Application  for  Cavalry  and  In- 
fantry are  discussed  in  detail  imder  the  appropriate 
lieads. 

Tiie  military  schools  of  foreign  countries  deserve 
consideralile  attention,  especialh'  those  of  France, 
where  a  military  commission  is  one  of  the  best  schol- 
astic prizes  looked  forward  to.  In  France  no  at- 
tempt is  made  to  impait  general  education  at  the  mili- 
tary semiuarics;  a  boy  is  required  to  have  a  thorough 
general  knowledge  before  he  can  be  admitted  to  these 
institutions.  Being  open  to  universal  competition, 
and  being  the  only  channel — or  nearly  so — to  the  Ijcst 
employment  under  tlic  state  the  great  military  schools 
by  the  high  standard  required  for  them,  give  great 
im])etus  to  general  education  throughout  the  em- 
pire and  tlie  ly<'ees,  or  public  schools,  adapt  their 
course  of  instruction  to'the  anticipated  competition. 
In  the  army,  two-thirds  of  the  line  commissions  and 
one-third  of  those  for  the  scientific  corps  are  given 
to  non-commissioned  olhcers,  but  very  few  of  tliese 
rise  bcy<md  tlie  rank  of  Captain;  the  remaining  com- 
missions in  tlie  line  and  scientific  corps,  and  all  ap- 
pointments to  tlie  Staff,  are  given  by  competion  after 
a  careful  course  of  ])rot,'ssional  education.  The  can- 
didates in  open  competition  are  jjlaced  according  to 


merit  either  in  the  Infantrj'  School  of  St.  Cyr  or  the 

celebrated  Polytechnique:  at  both  colleges  tliey  have 
the  right,  if  tliey  need  it,  to  jjartial  or  entire  stale 
support.  From  the  School  of  St.  Cyr  tlie  more  prom- 
ising pupils  pass  to  the  Staff  School,  and  thence,  af- 
ter a  thorough  course,  to  the  Etat  Majeur  of  the 
army;  the  remaining  students  pass  as  subalterns  in. 
to  the  Line.  The  pupils  of  the  Polytechnique, which 
is  entered  after  the  age  of  17  years,  have  annually 
about  IGO  valuable  prizes  open  to  them.  The  first 
30  to  40  candidates  usually  select  civil  emploj-ment 
under  the  state,  such  as  the  "ponts  et  chausiies;" 
those  next  in  merit  choose  the  artillery  and  engineers, 
and  pass  through  a  technical  course  at  the  School  of 
Application.  The  remaining  students  either  fail  to 
(jualifv  and  leave  the  school,  or  have  to  content 
tliemselves  with  commissions  in  the  line,  subordin- 
ate situations  in  the  government,  civil  or  colonial 
service,  or  they  retire  into  civil  life  altogether.  In 
actual  service  there  are  schools  for  the  men,  who  are 
also  taught  trades  and  singing.  The  standard  of  edu- 
cation among  French  soldiers  is  far  higher  than 
among  their  English  brethren,  as  the  conscription 
draws  the  men  from  all  classes  of  society. 

The  Prussian  system  of  military  education  differs 
from  that  of  France  in  that  competition  is  but  spar- 
ingly resorted  to;  and  the  object  is  to  give  a  good 
general  and  professional  education  to  all  the  officers, 
rather  than  a  specially  excellent  training  to  a  selected 
few.  Aspirants  for  commissions  must  enter  in  the 
ranks,  and  within  six  months  pass  a  good  examina- 
tion in  general  and  liberal  knowledge;  if  however, 
the  candidate  has  been  educated  in  Cadet  House — 
which  is  a  semi-military  school  for  j-ouths — and  has 
passed  properly  out  of  it,  this  examination  is  dis- 
pensed with.  After  some  further  service,  the  aspi- 
rant goes  for  nine  months  to  one  of  three  "Division 
Schools",  where  he  completes  his  professional  edu- 
cation. If  he  pass  the  standard  here  required,  he  is 
eligible  for  the  next  vacancy,  but  cannot  be  com- 
tnissioned  unless  tlie  officers  of  tlie  corps  are  willing 
to  accept  him  as  a  comrade.  The  Artillery  and  En- 
gineer Schools  do  for  those  services  what  the  Divi- 
sion Schools  do  for  the  line.  The  culmination  of 
Prussian  military  education  is  the  Staff  School,  open 
to  competition  for  all  the  officers  of  the  army,  and 
presenting  the  highest  prizes  in  the  profession.  In 
all  the  schools,  the  candidates  study  at  the  expense 
of  the  state,  or  receive  great  auxiliary  grants. 

The  Austrian  system  is  very  elaborate,  and  com- 
mences at  an  early  age;  boys  intended  for  military 
service  beginning  their  professional  almost  contem- 
poraneously with  their  general  education.  There 
are  schools  for  training  for  non-commissioned 
officers  and  for  officers,  and  senior  departments  for 
imparting  more  extended  instruction  to  both  classes. 
C'andidates  for  appointment  as  non-commissioned 
officers  pass  by  competition  through  the  lower 
houses,  where  they  remain  till  11  years  old;  the 
upper  houses,  which  detain  them  till  15;  and  the 
school  companies,  whence,  after  actual  apprentice- 
ship to  service,  a  few  pupils  pass  to  the  academies 
for  aspirants  for  commissions,  and  the  others  are 
drafted  into  the  service  as  non-commissioned  officers. 
For  officers,  boys  are  pledged  to  the  service  by  their 
parents  at  the  age  of  11,  when  they  are  placed  in 
Ciidet  Schools;  after  which  the  state  takes  charge  of 
them.  At  about  16  the  hoys  pass,  according  to 
qualification,  to  the  line  or  scientific  corps  academies, 
and  four  years  later  into  tho.se  services  themselves. 
The  young  otHcer's  cluince  of  entering  the  Staff 
School — and  tlierefore  the  Staff — depends  upon  his 
place  at  tlie  final  academic  cxiimination.  The  compe- 
tition observed  through<iut  the  course  of  militarj' 
education  is  said  to  impart  great  vigor  to  ^lie 
tuition. 

In  tlic  Italian  army  the  system  so  nejirly  approaches 
tlial  of  France  tliiU  a  separate  descriplioii  is  unne- 
cessary. It  need  only  be  slat,ed  that  the  educational 
status  of  the  Italian  oflicers  is  consider(!d  high.     In 


MILITARY  SCIENCE. 


351 


MILITARY  BURGEE Y. 


the  British  army  tlie  scliools  are  of  spvcnil  variciics.    cxclianjrcfl.  plerlged,  loaned,  or  given  away;  and  no 

1.  Tliosi- for  Ihi:  t'diiciition  (jf  the  olHccrH  alrciidy  piTson  not  a  soldier,  or  duly  aiitliori/.cd  oftf^•r  of  *hc 
in  llic  sirvife,  an  the  Stuff  CulViji'  uiid  (lie  ewlabliHli-  '  l'nit<-d  SlateH.wlioliaH  possrssion  of  any  Kiieli  eJotlieB, 
meiil    at    Clialliain    for    training  eni;incr-r  olHecrs.  [  arriix,  inililary  outfltH,  or  aeeouterments,  no  furniHli- 

2.  I'rofi'ssiona!    scliools   connnoii    to    odlccrs    and 


men,  as  tlie  Sciiooi.  ok  (itTNNKitv  and  the  Sciiooi,  or 
Mc'HKKTHV.  ;!.  Schools  for  Ihc  professional  ediiea- 
lion  of  candidates  for  conwnissions;   as    Sand  iichht 

MiLITAIlY    (loI.LKOK  anil   the     KoYAL    MiLITAIiy     ACAD- 

KMV.  4.  The  schools  for  men  in  the  ranks  and  for 
their  children,  or  llie  Ukoimkntal   Schooi.s;   and  tin- 


ed,  an<l  which  have  been  the  subjeet  of  any  hikJi 
sale,  tiarler.  exchange,  pleilife,  loan,  or  irift.can  have 
any  riiihl.  lille.or  inleri'st  therein:  Init  the  same  may 
bi'  seized  and  taken  wherevir  found  by  any  ofllcer 
of  the  l'nit<'d  States,  civil  or  military,  ami  thi'nupon 
\h-  delivered  lo  any  (^uarlermastir.  or  other  odioer 
authorized  to  receive  the  same.  The  possession  of 
instruction  provided  for  their  sons  or  orplnuis,  as  at  1  any  such  clothes,  arms,  military  outfits,  or  accouter- 
th(^  RovAi.  Mii.iTAHv  Asylum.  See  MiUlary  f'o/-  ments  by  any  person  not  a  soldier  or  oHicer  of  the 
^r/c.v.  United  States  is  i)rcsum])tive  evidence  uf  such  a  sal?, 

MILITARY  SCIENCE.  -War  is  both  a  iirirnra\nt\  an  '  barter,  c.vchani^e,  pledije,  loan,  or  K'f- 
art.  AH  invcstitjalioiis  whicli  liavc  lor  their  o'ljcct  MILITARY  SURGERY.— Heslricted  to  its  rijrorous 
thedetcrni illation  of  tlic  iireal  principles  ivliich  should  |  sii;nilicatioii,  MiliUiry  Surf/iTy  is  the  surfjical  prac- 
govern  a  Ueneral  in  condiictinir  his  military  opera-  tiee  in  armii-s;  but  in  lis  broad  anrl  ordinary  accept- 
tions;  all  analyses  which  are  made  to  show  the  im-  '  ation  embraces  many  other  branches  of  artcompre- 
portant  and  essential  fealiircs  which  characterizi^  a  '[  liendin!;  the  practice  of  medicine,  sanitary  preeau- 
campaiirn  or  battle,  and  coni])arisons  made  with  other  i  tions,  hosjiital  administration,  andiulanccs,  etc. 
campaisjns  .•mil  bullies;  all  deductions  and  forma-'  The  military  surceon  must  not  finly  be  a  skillful 
tions  of  rules  wliicli  are  to  be  used  in  military  oper-  physician  iin:l  surireon.  but  he  must  have  a  constitu- 
atioiis;  all  thi'se  belon;;  to  the  ■' .Sc/'trtce  "/' Tl'a;-."  ,  tion  snfliciently  strong  to  resist  the  fatigues  of  war. 
The  pra<tical  application  of  these  great  principles  i  and  all  inclemencies  of  weather;  a  solid  judgment 
and  rules  belong  to  the  "  AH  of  War."  |  and  a  generous. activity  in  givinij  prompt  assistance 

In  the  science  of  war  as  in  the  other  physical  I  to  the  wounded  without  distinction  of  rank  or  grade, 
geiences,  the  facts  must  precede  theory;  and  al- |  and  without  even  e.\T:luding  enemies.  Hemusthave 
though  the  number  of  known  facts  issteadily  increas-  i  the  courage  to  face  dangers  without  the  power,  in 
ingtlie  number  of  general  principles  upon  which  the  all  cases,  of  combating  them:  hemusthave  great 
thi'ories  of  the  science  are  b.'iseil.  is  constant,  if  not  '  coolness  in  order  to  act  and  operate  in  the  most  diifi- 
decreasing.  Tiiese  general  principles  are  deduced  by  cult  positions,  whether  amidst  tile  movement  of 
a  close  and  critical  e.xamiimtiou  of  such  methods  of    troops,  the  shock  of  arms,  the  cries  of  the  wounded, 


waging  war  as  have  been  adopted  by  those  great 
(Jenerals  who  are  known  as  eminent  in  their  profes- 
sion. It  is  evident  then  that  an  intimate  connection 
exists  between  military  history  and  the  science  of 
war.  Napoleon  said,  "  AU-xander  made  eight  cam- 
paigns; Hannibal,  seventeen,  one  in  Spain,  fifteen  in 
Italy,  and  one  in  Africa;  C'a'sar.  thirteen,  of  which 
eight  were  against  the  Gauls  and  five  against  the  le- 
gions of  Pompey  ;  (Justavus  Adolphus,  three  ;  Tii- 
reune,  eighteen  ;  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,  thirteen  ; 
Frederick,  eleven,  in  Bohemia.  Silesia,  and  on  the 
banks  of  the  Elbe.  The  history  of  these  eighty-four 
campaigns,  written  with  care,  would  be  a  complete 
treatise  on  the  art  of  war.  From  this  source,  the 
prin<'iples  whicli  ought  to  be  followed. in  offensive  as 
well  as  defensive  warfare,  could  at  once  be  obtained." 
To  these  campaigns,  are  to  be  added  the  battles  and 
campaigns  of  Napoleon.  .Jomini,  an  eminent  writer 
on  military  art.  says:  "Correct  theories,  founded 
upon  right  principles,  sustained  by  actual  events  of 
wars,  ami  added  to  accurate  military  history  will 
form  a  true  school  of  instruction  for  generals.  If 
these  means  do  not  produce  great  men.  they  will  at 
least  proiiuee  generals  of  sufficient  skill  to  take  rank  | 
next  after  the  natural  masters  of  the  art  of  war." 
The  sources  of  all  treatises  on  ilHltarji  Sc'i'iire  are  to 
be  found  in  the  military  liistories  narr;itiug  the  events 
an  1  results  of  the  b;Utlesaud  campaigns  just  enumer- 
ated. 

MILITARY  STORES.  —The  arms, ammunition, cloth- 
ing. ])rovisious,  etc.,  pertaining  to  an  army.  In  the 
United  States  all  public  stores  hiken  in  the  enemy's 
camp,  towns,  forts,  or  magazines,  is  secured  for  the 
service  of  the  rnited  States.  The  clothes,  arms. mili- 
tary outfits,  and  acc.outerments  furnished  by  the 
Doited  States  to  any  soldier  cannot  be  sold, bartered. 


in  a  charge,  in  a  retreat,  in  intrenclim;-nts. under  the 
I  ramparts  of  a  besieged  place,  or  at  a  breach.  He 
niust  have  inventive  ingenuity  which  will  supply  the 
wants  of  the  wounded  in  extreme  cases,  and  must  be 
prepared  for  all  emergencies. 

Frequently  the  surgeon  is  not  immediately  avail- 
able. In  anticipation  of  such  an  evmt,  it  is  incum- 
bent upon  all  who  take  the  tield  to  possess  a  suffi- 
cient knowledge  of  medicine  and  practical  surgerj- 
to  enable  them  to  relieve  the  sick  and  wounded 
(both  men  and  horses)  until  professional  aid  c;iu  be 
secured. 

The  fracture  or  dislocation  of  a  limb  is  the  most 
fretpient  of  all  accidents  attending  a  campaign  in  a 
rough  or  mountainous  country.  A  mis-step  of  the 
soldier,  or  a  fall  of  the  horse",  often  results  in  this 
mishap.  When  fractures  occur  and  there  are  no 
splints  at  hand,  they  must  be  improvised  from  such 
materials  as  may  be  found.  If  the  thigh  be  fractur- 
ed, a  rifle  may  be  used  for  a  splint,  placing  its  butt  in 
the  axilla,  and  allowing  it  to  pass  ahmg  the  outside 
of  the  limb,  being  secured  by  bandages  around  the 
trunk  and  ankle.  A  fractured  leg  may  be  secured 
with  a  splint  of  any  description  placed  along  its  out- 
side and  the  whole  then  wrapped  in  a  coat  or  blank- 
et and  made  fast  by  strajis.  or  strings  of  soft  materi- 
al. It  is  a  good  plan  to  tie  the  fractured  leg.  at  the 
ankles  and  convenient  points,  to  the  uninjured  leg, 
and  rest  them  on  coats,  blankets,  or  a  mattress.  In 
this  manner  the  two  legs  will  move  as  one,  and  the 
broken  bone  will  not  injure  the  flesli.  A  fracture 
may  be  "put  tip"  with  a  gim  stock  or  sword  scab- 
bard—even a  roll  of  straw  or  grass  makes  a  good 
temporary  splint.  A  fracture  of  the  arm  may  be 
"put  up"  with  a  bayonet  scabbard,  or  with  thin  bun- 
dles of  straw  or  grass.     Light  pieces  of  board,  bark. 


MILlf  ABY  TENTTRE. 


MILITABY  TENURE. 


or  even  tie  soles  of  shoes  or  boots  are  often  useful 
for  splints.  Tlie  fore-arm  should  be  carefully  sup- 
ported in  a  sling.  Often  a  severe  shock  or  collapse 
from  pain  or  nervous  fear  follows  the  fracture,  in 


which  case  a  stimulant  (whisky  and  water)  should 
be  administered. 

Dislocated  and  broken  ribs  are  frequently  the  re- 
sults of  falls  and  other  accidents.  The  drawino- 
shows  the  normal  position  of  the  ribs  and  adjacent 
bones— IT  is  the  breast-bone ;  c.  c.  r.  the  ribs,  which 
a,Ti  fastened  at  one  end  to  the  spine 
i.  />..  and  at  the  other  end  are  at- 
tached to  the  breast-bone  by  means 
of  strips  of  cartilage,  d.  d.'d.  ;  e  is 
the  collar-bone.  There  are  twelve 
(13)  ribs  on  each  side,  all  of  differ- 
ent lengths— the  shortest  are  at  the 
top  and  have  the  smallest  curves ; 
descending  they  increase  in  lengt ' 
to  the  seventh,  which  is  the  longest, 
then  decrease.  The  last  two  have  no  cartilages, 
are  very  short,  and  are  attached  to  the  spine  only. 

In  this  connection  it  would  be  well  to  carefully 
note  the  formation  of  the  pelvis,  and  the  sacrurn 
which  supports  the  spine.     The  pelvis  is  frequently 


of  the  limb.  Should  there  beany  difficulty  in  check- 
ing it.  ligatures  should  be  applied.  When  the  bleed- 
ing is  arterial,  the  limb  should  be  firmly  grasped  by 
both  hands  above  the  wound,  so  as  to  cut  off  tlie 
current  from  the  heart  by  firmly  compressing  the 
woimded  vessel  against  the  bone,  until  a  tourniquet 
may  be  applied. 

A  temporary  tourniquet  may  be  adjusted  by  plac- 
ing a  fiat  or  roundish  stone  over  the  course  "of  the 
artery  and  above  the  wound,  l)etweenit  and  the  cen- 
ter of  circulation,  holding  it  hi  situ  by  means  of  a 
biud.handkerchief,string,or  thong, the  ends  of  which 
are  securely  tied.  A  stick  or  bayonet  is  then  passed 
througb  the  band  or  thong  and  twisted  round  and 
round  several  times,  until  the  band  is  so  tightened 
as  to  press  the  stone  forcibly  on  the  artery,  which, 
being  compressed  against  the  main  bone  of  the  limb, 
will  cut  off  ihe  passage  of  blood  through  the  vessel. 
If  the  bleeding  be  from  the  hand,  fore-arm,  or  arm, 
apply  the  tourniquet  or  bandage  near  the  shoulder. 
If  from  the  foot,  leg,  or  thigh,  apply  it  between  the 
knee  and  hip. 

As  a  rule  the  main  arteries  are  so  placed  that  they 
are  not  likely  to  be  reached  and  injured;  they  are 
deep  in  tlie  flesh,  and  follow  the  courses  of  the  inner 
seams  of  the  coat  sleeves  and  pants.  Thus  the  main 
artery  of  the  arm  runs  from  the  a.xilla  down  the  inner 
side  or  the  arm,  at  the  lower  edge  of  the  biceps 
muscle,  to  the  end  of  the  elbow;  that  of  the  thigh 
runs  from  midway  the  groin,  down  the  inner  side  of 
the  thigh,  under  the  deeper  muscles  to  the  back  of 
the  thigh  near  the  ham. 

Ice.  if  convenient,  may  be  applied  to  wounds  of 
small  vessels,  with  good  results,  causing  a  rapid  con- 
gelation of  the  blood.    Hot  water  will  accomplish  the 


injured  by  thrusts  and  gun-shots.all  of  which  wounds 
demand  the  most  careful  and  cautious  treatment. 
The  drawing  shows  its  form,  with  the  location  of 
the  iliac  fossae,  a.  a.,  and  the  anterior  surface  of  the 
promontory  of  the  sacrum,  h.  To  know  how  to 
arrest  bleeding  is  all  important,  as  life  may  often  be 
saved  by  promptly  adopting  simple  means."  Bleeding 
may  be  from  veins  or  from  arteries.  In  the  first 
case  the  blood  is  of  a  dark  color,  and  flows  slowly 
in  a  stream  towards  the  heart;  in  the  second  ease 
it  is  of  a  bright  red  color,  forcibly  issues  in  jets,  and 
is  in  a  direction  from  the  heart.  In  ordinary  venous 
hemorrhage,  such  as  the  bursting  of  a  varicose  vein, 
the  bleeding  may  be  stopped  by  pressure  or  elevation 


same,  and  is  far  preferable  if  the  patient  be  feeble. 
When  the  patient  becomes  faint  and  insensible  from 
loss  of  blood,  he  should  be  placed  flat  on  his  hack, 
with  his  head  low.  Cautery  may  be  resorted  to 
when  the  tourniquet  fails  to  do  its  work.  The  ac- 
companying drawing  shows  the  manner  of  Uie  at- 
tacliment  of  the  muscles,  a,  b,  to  the  bone,  the  func- 
tions of  ligaments  about  the  joints,  and  the  manner 
in  which  the  arteries  are  covered  and  protected  by 
the  muscles,  etc.  In  reseting  a  strong  and  muscu- 
lar limb  it  is  often  necessary  to  keep  up  a  great  strain 
on  the  muscles  in  order  to  weary  them  and  cause 
them  to  rela.K,  when  the  bone  may  be  set  with  less 
difficulty.  See  Fifld  Remedies,  Medical  Supplies, 
Medicine  C'he/<t,  and  Woutidn, 

MILITARY  TENURE.— In  England,  an  accompani- 
ment or  immediate  consequence  of  the  Feudal  Sj's- 
tem  estalilislied  during  theMiddle  Ages  throughout 
j  the  greater  part  of  Europe.  Feuds  were  introduced 
by  the  barbarous  tribes  who  poured  themselves  into 
the  Roman  Empire  during  the  4th.  .5th,  and  (itli  cen- 
turies. The  chief  feature  of  feuds  was,  that  the 
lands  of  the  conquered  country  were  parceled  out  to 
the  leaders,  on  the  condition  of  bearing  arms  when- 
ever the  Sovereign  required  them.  The  relation  thus 
created  between  Sovereign  and  Vassal  was  called 
a  feud.  The  Grantee  held  his  lands  at  first  for  life 
oiilv,  but  grailually  it  was  developed  into  a  heredi- 
tary character,  and  also  into  one  which  admitted  of 
subinfeudatiim,  i.  e.,  the  parceling  out  of  the  feudal 
land  among  Vassals  of  the  head  Vassal,  who  was 
the  Lord  of  his  own  Vass.als  Tliis  kind  of  relation 
between  Lord  and  Vassal  gradually  was  extended  to 
all  kinds  of  land,  for  the  owners  ofallcidial  land  vo- 
luntarily surrendered  their  land  to  some  Lord,  so  as 


MILITARY  TRAIN. 


353 


MILITIA. 


to  Imvc  tlie  Hiuno  advantaces.  The  Vassal  diil  ho- 
niUK'''"'!"'  Ijonl.  anil  ti)i)k  thf  oalli  of  fciilly.  Hc 
Kidcs  llicsfi  cliariiftcrislics,  the  licililiri};  cariic  to  he 
atU-nilcd  with  llic  folliiwiiij;  incidciils.  1.  An  aid, 
wliicli  was  a  paymcnl  [jraiiti'd  tn  lii-l|)  the  Lord  in  his 
ncccssitirs.  2.  .\  relief  was  a  triliiiti'  [laid  liy  a  new 
Tenant  on  succeeding  to  his  |)redeeessor.  It.  A  tine 
was  paid  by  a  Tenant  to  the  Lord  on  alienating  tlie 
lauds  to  a  pnrciiaser.  4.  An  escheat  or  forfeiture 
was  tl'.e  revertini;  of  the  estate  to  the  Lord  when 
there  was  a  failure  of  heirs  or  some  violation  of  duty 
on  the  part  of  the  Vassal.  The  Feuilal  System  was 
extended  to  iCnijland  by  the  Norman  15arons  soon 
after  the  ('oni|uesl,  with  the  concurrence  of  William 
L,  mucii  to  th(^  dislike  of  the  Sa.vons,  whose  griev,- 
anees  grew  until  th<!y  found  vent  in  Magna  Cliarta, 
which  Was  in  fact  an  attempt  to  restore  their  earlier 
Constitution. — Th(^  chief  liction,  however,  of  a  rela- 
tion between  the  Crown  and  tlie  holders  of  land  was 
not  got  rill  of.  The  Crown  was  nominally  the  Lord 
I'arariiount,  and  tliere  were  intermediate  Lords  called 
Mesne  L'lrcls,  of  whom  the  Tenants  helil.  (ira<lual- 
ly.  the  kinds  of  tenure  were  classed  uniler  free  and 
base  services-  -the  former  being  those  which  a  free- 
man might  p'rform,  as  serving  in  war,  or  paying  a 
sum  of  money;  the  latter,  such  as  a  Peasant  might 
perform,  such  as  ploughing  the  Lord's  land,  etc. 

MILITARY  TRAIN.  Formerly  a  highly  important 
corps  of  the  army,  of  winch  the  function  was  to 
transport  the  provisions,  ammunition  and  all  other 
materiel,  together  with  the  wounded  in  time  of  bat- 
tle. It  was  formed  after  the  Crimean  war,  on  the 
dissolution  of  the  Land-Transport  Corps.  It  com- 
prised six  battalions,  in  all  1H4(J  officers  and  men  ; 
and  its  annual  cost  forjjay,  etc.,  was  about  X71.000. 
The  corps  ranked  after  the  Koyal  Engineers, and  was 
classed  as  Moimted  Infantry,  the  otHcers  receiving 
infantry  rates,  anil  the  men  cavalry  rates  of  pay. 
The  commissions  were  purchasable,  as  in  the  line. 
The  men  were  armed  with  carbine  and  sword,  but 
rather  for  defensive  than  aggressive  purposes.  At- 
tached to  each  battalion  were  100  liorses,  with  pro- 
portionate wagons  and  aml)idances. 

It  is  proper  to  observe  that  the  Military  Train  con- 
stituted only  the  nucleus  of  a  transport  service  for  a 
large  army,  and  that  in  lime  of  war  it  would  be  ex- 
panded by  the  addition  of  thousands  of  horses  or 
mules,  and  the  incorporation  of  many  hundred 
drivers,  etc.  The  advantage  of  posse.ssing  even  a 
few  men  ready  traineil,  and  capable  of  directing  the 
movements  of  others,  was  amply  demonstrated  liy 
the  failures  of  the  Crimea  in  1854-1800  ;  so  tha*  Par- 
liament voted  ungrudgingh'  the  expense  of  this  corps, 
although  in  time  of  peace  it  was  comparatively  with- 
out employment.  The  jMilitarj"  Train  was  disband- 
ed in  1870"  as  being  too  military  in  its  formation.  Its 
functions  were  transferred  to  tlic  Transport  section 
of  the  Army  Service  Corps,  a  purely  non-combatant 
organization. 

MILITARY  WAYS.— The  large  Roman  roads  which 
Airripiia  caused  to  be  made  through  the  empire  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus  for  the  marching  of  troops  and 
conveying  of  carriages.  They  were  paved  from  tlie 
gates  "of  Home  to  the  utmost  limits  of  the  Empire. 
The  British  have  constructed  a  military  road 
throughout  India,  with  wells  and  other  accommoda- 
tions at  certain  distances. 

MILITIA. — The  purpose  and  opinion  of  tne  found- 
ers of  our  government  is  unequivocally  expressed  in 
the  second  ameudment  to  the  Conslitution,  which 
declares,  "  A  well-regulated  militia  being  uecessarj- 
to  the  security  of  a  free  State."  The  unvaried 
agreement  of  all  subsequent  writers  and  statesmen 
WMth  this  assertion  might  well  cause  us  to  view  with 
some  alarm  the  fact  that  all  attempts  to  secure  an 
efficient  militia  have  hitherto  signally  failed.  While 
all  agree  that  the  perpetuity  of  a  republican  form  of 
government  depends  on  raaiutainiug  a  well-regulated 
militia,  the  fact  has  been  demonstrated  that  under 
no  other  form  of  government  is  it  so  difficult,  owing 


to  the  indisposition  of  the  people  to  subinit  to  the 
enforcement  of  military  duty  in  time  of  peace. 
Washington,  in  liis  annual  mesHage  to  C'ongresH  in 
17i)4,  said  :  "  The  devising  and  establishing  of  a  well- 
regulated  militia  would  be  a  genuine  source  of  legis- 
lative honor,  and  a  perfect  title  to  publirt  gratitude." 
The  wisdom  of  this  assertion  has  been  proven  by 
the  stibsecjuent  failure  of  all  attempts  at  legislation. 
Nevertheless,  we  are  certainly  convinced  that  llir; 
solution  of  the  difllculties  is  now  en.sy,  not  through 
any  superior  wisdom  of  our  own,  but  because 
time  and  experience  have  solved  the  difficulties 
for  us.  This  solution  we  conceive  to  be  to  sub- 
stitute a  volunteer  militia  in  place  of  enforced  militia 
duty,  believing  that  our  population  has  reached  such 
a  number  that  the  volunteer  militia  of  the  Slates  will 
be  sufficiently  large  and  efficient  for  all  the  purposes 
for  which  militia  can  or  ever  should  be  used. 

Xo  subject,  unless  it  be  that  of  finance,  has  so  long 
and  so  often  engaged  the  attention  of  Congress  as  that 
of  the  militia,  anil  on  none  have  more  able  and  ex- 
haustive reports  been  written  by  those  whose  slight- 
est utterances  we  have  been  taught  to  honor  and  re- 
spect. The  records  of  Congress  are  filled  with  mes- 
sages from  Presidents,  reports  of  Executive  Officers, 
reports  of  Committees  of  both  Houses  of  Congress, 
and  with  jilans  and  bills  for  the  imjirovement  and  or- 
ganization of  the  militia,  to  attempt  even  a  brief  out- 
line of  which  would  far  exceed  the  proper  limits  of 
this  article.  We  cannot,  therefore,  do  more  than  give 
a  brief  outline  of  the  most  salient  features  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  subject. 

On  July  18,  177.5,  the  Continental  Congress  pa.ssed 
a  series  of  resolutions  recommending  '■  to  the  inhab- 
itants of  all  the  United  English  Colonies  in  Xorth 
America  that  all  able-bodied  effective  men  between 
sixteen  and  fifty  years  of  age  in  each  colony  immed- 
iately form  themselves  info  regular  companies  of 
militia."  One  of  these  resolutions  is  particularly  sug- 
gestive, as  it  contains  the  germ  of  the  volunteer  sys- 
tem which  has  now  grown  to  such  nroporlions.  '  It 
is  as  follows: 

That  one-fourth  i)arl  of  the  militia  In  every  Colony 
be  selected  for  minute  men,  of  such  persons  as  are 
willing  to  enter  into  the  necessary  service,  .  .  .  and 
as  these  minute  men  may  eventually  be  called  to  ac- 
tion before  the  whole  body  of  the  militia  are  suffic- 
iently trained,  it  is  recommended  that  a  more  par- 
ticular and  diligent  attention  be  paid  to  their  instruc- 
tion in  military  discipline. 

On  the  formation  of  the  Federal  Government  one 
of  the  earliest  acts  of  the  first  House  of  Kepresenla- 
tives,  in  1789,  was  the  appointment  of  a  Committee 
to  prepare  a  bill  to  organize  the  militia.  The  session 
adjourned  before  the  Committee  made  a  report,  but 
at  the  following  session,  in  1790,  General  Knox, 
Secretary  of  War,  submitted  his  celebrated  plan  for 
organizing  the  militia,  accompanying  it  by  a  letter 
of  transmittal  which  is  remarkable  for  its  terse, 
striking,  and  strong  arguments.  His  plan,  in  brief, 
was  that  every  boy  on  arriving  at  the  age  of  eighteen 
years  should  be  enrolled  in  the  cadet  corps  of  militia 
and  be  obliged  to  serve  in  camp  of  instruction  thirty 
days  in  each  of  first  two  years  and  ten  days  in  the 
third  year,  and  that  no  person  arriving  at  the  age 
of  twenty-one  years  .should  be  entitled  to  exercise 
the  rights  of  a  citizen  unless  he  could  produce  his 
certificate  of  having  so  served ;  all  citizens  between 
twenty-one  and  forty-five  years  of  age  were  to  be 
enrolled  in  the  main  corps  of  militia  and  be  obliged 
to  drill  four  days  in  each  year  ;  and  between  forty- 
five  anil  sixty  years  of  age  to  be  enrolled  in  the  re- 
serve corps,  which  should  be  assembled  twice  in 
each  year  for  inspection  of  arms.  L'nder  his  plan 
the  general  government  was  to  furnish  uniform, 
arms,  equipments,  and  bear  all  the  expenses  of  the 
camps  of  instruc.ion.  The  features  of  General  Knox's 
plan  were  clearly  embodied  in  a  bill  prepared  by  a 
Committee  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  the 
subject  was  discussed  in  detail  on  many  occasion* 


ffllLITIA. 


354 


MILITIA. 


through  the  two  su'cceedinj:  sessions  until  all  of  its 
original  features  were  eliangeil  or  nioililied,  and  the 
Act  of  May  8,  1792.  tinally  agreed  upon  and  enacted. 
As  this  is  ilie  law  still  in  force,  we  reserve  a  detailed 
explanation  of  its  provisions,  and  simply  state  here 
that  its  main  feature  is  that  every  citizen,  between 
eighteen  and  forty-five  years  of  age.  shall  be  enrolled 
in  the  militia  and  shall  arm  and  equij)  himself  at  his 
individual  expense.  This  law  was  found  to  be  so 
crude  and  inadequate  that  it  became  the  subject  of 
criticism  immediately-  after  its  passage,  and  of  ef- 
forts to  amend  it  which  have  continued  to  the  pres- 
ent time.  As  well  expressed  by  Washington,  after 
the  attempt  was  made  to  put  it  in  practical  operation 
it  •■  exhiljited  such  striking  defects,  as  could  not 
have  Ijeen  siqiplied  but  by  the  zeal  of  our  citizens"  ; 
and  in  his  annual  messages  to  each  succeeding  ses- 
sion of  Congress,  during  his  two  terms  of  office,  he 
urged  that  the  evident  defects  of  the  law  be  re- 
medied. In  the  session  succeeding  the  enactment 
of  the  law  an  effort  was  made  to  repeal  the  provi- 
sion requiring  everj'  citizen  to  arm  himself.  In  the 
next  following  session,  in  1794.  a  bill  was  reported 
by  a  C'onimitfee  of  the  House  of  Representatives  to 
organize  a  "  select  carps"  of  militia,  to  be  armed  and 
equipped  b}'  the  general  government,  and  paid  for 
service  in  amiual  camps  of  instruction.  Different 
propositions,  having  in  view  these  two  changes  in 
the  militia  system,  were  discussed  in  successive  ses- 
sions until  1798.  when  the  threatening  condition  of 
our  relations  with  France  culminated  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  provisional  army  and  other  warlike  prepa- 
rations that  temporarily  suspended  consideration  of 
the  militia  system. 

Our  troubles  with  France  having  been  amicably 
settled,  the  militia  (juestion  again  assumed  promin- 
ence, and  Jefferson,  in  his  annual  message  to  Con- 
gress, importuned  them  to  take  some  action.  It  was 
chieflv  through  his  earnest  efforts  that  the  law  of 
Aprir23,  1808  (section  1661  Revised  Statutes),  was 
passed,  making  a  permanent  appropriation  of  f  200,- 
000  a  year  to  provide  arms  and  equijimeuts  for  the 
militia.  Somewhat  curiously,  however,  the  require- 
ment of  the  old  law  that  everj-  citizen  shouhl  arm  and 
equip  himself  was  not  repealed,  and  still  remains  the 
statute.  As  the  country  was  rapidly  increasing  in 
population  the  uselessuess  of  requiring  active  mili- 
tary duty  from  the  whole  body  of  citizens  became 
more  apparent,  and  was  felt  to  be  an  unnecessary  bur- 
den. JelTerson  in  his  annual  message  in  180.'5. recom- 
mended that  the  militia  be  classined  according  to 
ages,  and  thought  that  those  from  eighteen  to  twenty- 
six  years  of  age  would  form  a  sufficiently  large  body 
to  be  subjected  to  any  duty  in  time  of  peace.  This 
proposition  was  taken  up  by  Congress,  and  in  various 
forms  was  the  subject  of  debate  in  successive  ses- 
sions, until  the  war  of  1812  put  an  end  to  the  discus- 
sion without  any  result  having  been  reached. 

Madison  was  almost  as  urgent  in  liis  appeals  to  Con- 
gress to  amend  the  militia  law  as  JelTerson  had  been. 
In  his  annual  message  in  1810  he  advanced  anew 
])roposition  in  the  suggestion  that  the  commissi(med 
and  non-conunissioned  officers  of  the  militia  should  he 
assembled  in  annual  camps  of  instruction  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  general  government:  and  in  his  last  an- 
nual message,  in  1816.  he  earnestly  reeonunended  a 
reorganization  of  the  militia,  and  classifying  Ihem  ac- 
cording to  age.  Pronqited  bylhe  reconiniendal  ions 
of  Madison,  the  Fourteenth  Congress,  in  1816.  di- 
rected the  Secretary  of  War  to  prepare  anil  report  a 
plan  for  the  organization  of  the  militia.  Secretary  of 
War  (Iraham  reported  to  the  following  Session,  re- 
commending very  forcibly  that  the  militia  be  divi- 
ded into  three  <'lasses  aceoriling  to  age,  anil  thai  the 
two  younger,;  classes  be  detailed  and  required  lo 
assemble  annually  in  large  camps  of  instruclion 
and  l)e  arnu'd.  eipiipped.  and  subsisted  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  general  government.  This  report  was 
referred  lo  a  eommiltee  of  which  (ieneral  Harrison 
((then  a  Representalive   from  Ohio;  was   chairman. 


Harnson  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  subject,  and  pre- 
sented a  careful  report.  lie  deemed  it  essential  that 
the  whole  body  of  the  people  should  be  instructed  in 
military  mailers,  and  fortius  purpose  recommended 
that  mililary  instruction  be  made  a  branch  of  educa- 
ticm  in  every  school  in  the  country.  Believing  that 
it  would  entail  loo  great  an  expenditure  of  time  and 
money  to  subject  the  whole  enrolled  militia  to  drill 
and  military  training,  he  revived  the  old  proposi- 
tit>ns  first  made  by  President  Madison,  and  recom- 
mended tliiit  the  Officers  and  Sergeants  be  as.seinbled 
annually  in  camps  of  instruction,  be  paid  for  their 
time,  and  be  tlioroughh' drilled  and  instructed  at  the 
expense  of  the  general  government,  which  he  esti- 
mated would  amount  to  about  one  and  a  half  million 
dollars  a  year.  Harrison  continued  the  agitation  of 
the  subject  while  he  remained  in  Congress,  and  made 
reports  in  1818  and  1819  urging  action.  ■ 

In  182.')  Secretary  of  War  Barl)our  addressed  a  cir- 
cular letter  to  the  Governors  of  all  the  States  and  to 
many  citizens  most  prominent  in  military  and  civil 
life,  setting  forth  that  it  had  long  been  apparent  that 
some  change  in  the  militia  law  was  uecessar}-.  and 
asking  their  views  on  the  subject.  He  then  conven- 
ed a  Board  composed  of  some  of  the  most  distinguish- 
ed officers  of  the  army  and  militia  for  the  purpose 
of  considering  the  question,  and  sidjmitted  to  them 
the  voluminous  correspondence  that  had  resulted 
from  his  circular  letter.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the 
president  of  this  Board  was  Winfield  Scott,  then  a 
Jlajor  General  in  the  Army,  and  that  Zachary  Tay- 
lor.then  a  Lieutenant-colonel  of  Artillery. was  one  of 
the  members.  The  militia  were  represented  on  the 
Board  by  General  Cadwalader  of  Pennsylvania, Gen- 
eral Sumner.of  Massachusetts,  and  General  Daniel  of 
Xorlh  Carolina.  The  report  of  this  Board,  together 
with  all  the  papers  and  correspondence  connected 
with  it,  was  transmitted  to  Congress  by  the  Presi- 
dent. The  Board  reported  that  they  considered  the 
primarj'  defect  of  the  militia  law  to  be  in  the  excess 
of  numbers  which  it  held  to  service.  They  recom- 
mended that  a  select  corps  of  militia  be  formed,  to 
consist  in  each  State  of  one  brigade  for  every  Con- 
gressional Representative,  and  that  the  officers  of 
this  select  militia  be  assembled  in  camps  of  in.struc- 
tion  ten  days  in  each  year,  and  be  paid  by  the  gen- 
eral government  for  their  time  and  traveling  ex- 
penses. They  also  recommended  that  the  office  of 
Adjutant  General  of  militia  be  created,  and  that,  on 
the  application  of  State  Executives. the  United  States 
shoidd  furnish  officers  to  instruct  the  annual  camps. 
In  183.5  President  Jackson,  in  his  amuial  message 
urged  C^ongress.  in  his  usual  forcible  style,  to  give 
their  attention  to  the  subject. and  among  other  things 
recommended  that  volimteer  organizations  be  en- 
couragetl  and  inducements  held  out  for  their  forma- 
tion. The  Secretary  of  War  (General  Cass),  in  his 
annual  report,  gave  his  views  on  the  subject,  and 
represented  the  necessity  of  some  legislation.  Ur- 
gent etfort  waf  nuide  in  Congress  to  secure  agree- 
ment to  some  plan,  but  without  success. 

In  1840  Secretary  of  War  Poinsett  submitted  a 
jilan  to  Congress.  Ajiparenlly  d<>spairing  of  securing 
agreement  Xo  any  plan  that  sinqily  changed  and  per- 
petuated the  existing  system,  he  proposed  a  radical 
reform  that  strelehed"  the  constitutional  powers  of 
the  general  government  lo  such  an  extent  as  to  cause 
opposition  lo  it  on  that  ground.  His  plan  was  to 
divide  the  militia  into  three  classes  -the  active,  re- 
serve, and  mass.  The  active  militia  to  consist  of 
100.000  men.  apporticmed  to  the  respective  States. 
and  each  Stale  lo  be  rei|uired  to  keep  its  (piola  filled 
at  all  tiuu'S,  either  by  voluntary  enlistment  or  draft. 
One-fourlh  of  the  active  mililia  to  go  out  of  .service 
■imuially  and  be  enrolled  in  the  reserve  corjjs.  The 
mass  of  llie  mililia  not  lo  be  subject  to  any  duly  in 
lime  of  jieace.  He  proposed  thai  Congress  should 
by  law  aiilhorize  the  PresidenI  to  order  the  active 
niililia  inio  the  service  anil  pay  of  Ihe  United  Slates 
for  tliJrly  days  iu  each  year  for  i  he  purpo.se  of  placing 


UIUXIA. 


355 


MILITIA. 


them  in  campa  of  instriiftion.  This  appRiirs  ti> 
have  been  tlie  lust  derided  allcmpt  to  save  the  de- 
oayiiiK  system  from  <lissoliili()ii,  willi  tlie  exeeplion 
of  an  eli'orl  in  1H4(),  when  a  liill  was  reporh'd  lo 
renii'dy  the  excess  of  mmmiIiit  of  the  militia  hy  lim- 
itinfj  tlie  enrollment  in  lime  of  peaee  to  those  be- 
tween twenty-one  and  Ihirly  years  of  ai;e,  who 
shonld  lie  formed  into  a  lej^ion  of  active  militia  in 
oaeii  State,  the  olliccrs  of  which  should  serve  an- 
nually in  camps  of  instructiou  at  the  expense  of  the 
general  frovernment. 

The  militia  system,  iiy  this  time,  was  virtually 
dead  ;  durini,'  the  many  years  ilevoled  to  dehalinfj  a 
remedy  for  its  defects  it  iiad  gradually  sunk,  until  it 
no  longer  existed  except  on  the  Statute-hook.  In 
the  mean  time,  in  all  the  States,  by  a  process  of 
"  natural  selection,"  there  had  sprung  up  volunteer 
organizations  of  militia,  and  the  Slates,  by  fostering 
and  encouraging  Ihem,  had  supplieil  the  (leticieiicies 
of  the  general  law.  These  volunleer  organizations 
made  possible  and  gave  elliciency  lo  that  splendid 
body  of  volunteers  whose  soldierly  (pialili<'S  and 
deeds  of  valor  in  the  Mexican  War  gave  such  re- 
nown to  our  arms.  After  that  war  still  greater  in- 
terest was  manifested  in  the  volunteer  militia  ;  the 
States  devoted  to  Ihem  the  meager  supply  of  arms  and 
e(|ui|)ments  olitained  aninnilly  from  the  general  gov- 
ernmcMt.  which  in  many  inslances  they  supplemenled 
by  large  appropriations  of  Ihcir  own,  and  Ihe  volun- 
teiT  mililia  continued  lo  increasi'  in  nundiers  and 
efficiency  until  the  lireaking  out  of  the  "  War  of  the 
Kebelliou."  Of  that  fearful  struggle  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  the  magnificent  armies  which  were  so  quickly 
formed  on  both  sides  were  only  made  possible  by 
the  facts  that  the  efforts  of  regularly  educated  ofli- 
cers  in  drilling  and  disciplining  them  were  supple- 
mented by  those  who  had  received  a  partial  military 
training  in  the  volunteer  militia. 

.Inst  before  Ihe  war,  in  ll-KiO,  an  earnest  effort  was 
made  in  the  House  of  Representatives  to  increase  the 
annual  appropriation  for  furnishing  arms  and  equip- 
ments to  ttie  mililia.  In  urging  the  measure,  Mr. 
Vallandigham  reviewed  the  militia  system  and  spoke 
of  the  volunteer  system  replacing  it.  asserting  that 
they  would  ''  in  time  become  the  National  (iuard  of 
America." 

After  the  close  of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion,  an- 
other most  decided  effort  was  made,  both  in  the 
House  and  Senate,  to  reorganize  thenulitia,  or  rather 
to  create  a  new  militia  system,  and  several  bills  for 
that  purpose  were  introduced  in  the  Thirty-ninth 
Congress.  Although  none  of  these  bills  were  passed, 
they  contained  provisiims  that  are  interesting  and 
suggestive,  and  some  that  went  lo  the  extreme  limit, 
if  they  did  not  go  beyond  the  constitutional  power 
of  Congress  in  the  premises.  It  w'as.  however, 
a  purpose  common  to  all  the  bills  to  form  au  act- 
ive volunteer  militia,  and  that  seemed  to  be  ac- 
cepted as  the  true  solution  of  the  militia  question. 
This  closes  the  history  of  the  efforts  to  achieve  a 
satisfactory  militia  system,  with  the  exception  of  an 
interesting  report  by  the  Chief  of  Ordnance,  and  a 
report  by  the  Senate  Committee  on  Jlilitary  Affairs 
(S.  Report  50,  second  .session  Forty-tifth  Congress), 
both  recommending  that  the  permanent  appropria- 
tion for  providing  arms  and  equipments  for  the  mi- 
Mtia  be  increa.sed'to  .fl, 000, 000  a  year. 

The  three  following  points  are  at  present  urged  as 
the  proper  remedy  for  the  defects  in  the  Militia  sys- 
tem : 

First.  To  substitute  a  volunteer  militia,  limited  in 
number  in  time  of  peace,  for  the  existing  compul- 
sory system  that  applies  to  the  whole  body  of  the 
people,  and  which  has  become  so  inapplicable  as  to 
be  utterly  disregarded. 

Second.  To  make  such  provisions  as  will  aid  and 
encourage  the  formation  of  volunteer  organizations, 
remove  the  disparity  in  their  numbers  and  discipline 
tliat  exists  between  ditfercnt  States,  ami  promote 
their  efficiency  to  a  common  standard  that  will  make 


thi-m  availal)!e  for  all  the  purpoBCB  for  which  a  mi. 
litia  is  reipiired. 

Thiril.  To  abolish  the  present  system  of  a  perma. 
nent  appropriation  to  provide  arms  an<l  equipmi-nl)) 
for  tlie  mililia,  and  subslilute  provisions  prescribing 
with  wlial  amis  and  equipments  the  mililia  shall  be 
furnished,  and  on  what  conditions— leaving  it  lo  tin; 
discretion  of  Congress  to  regulate  the  aiiniiul  ujipro- 
prialions  for  that  purpose. 

In  relation  to  the  lirsl  frature,  the   substilulion  of 
the  volunlier  system,  Ihe  lirief  sketch  we  have  given 
of  Ihe  history  of  the  mililia  law  will    liave   made  il 
apparent  that  the  chief  defect  of  Ihe  existing  system 
was  early  recognizicl  to  be  in  the  excess  of  numbers 
lield  to  milili.-i  duty  by  it.     As  tliecounlry  increased 
in  iiopiilalion  this  excess  of  numbers  corresponding- 
ly increas<d,  until  the  law   lias  now  bi'come  a  prac- 
tical alisurdity  by  re(|uiring  to-day  actual  militia  ser- 
vici;  from  six   and    one-half   millions   of  tiien.     We 
have  seen  that  for  more  than  half  a  century  the  Itest 
and  wi.sest  statesmen  of   our  country  endeavored  to 
procure  agreemeni    to  some    plan    that   would  limit 
the  militia  to  a  practicaljle  number,  in  order  that  it 
might  be  made  an   elfective   body.     The   more  the 
coimtry  increased  in  population,  and  the  more  the 
population  became  absorbed  in  the  pursuit  of  wealth 
and  material  prosperity,  the  more  imi)racticabli'  be- 
came the  provisions  of  the  militia  law,  until  tinally 
it  sank  into  such  utter  contempt  that  all  iireiensi-  of 
regarding  it  ceased-     The    "cornstalk   mililia"    and 
the  annual  "trainings,"  with  all  their  accompanying 
parodies  on  military  efticiencj',  remain  only  as  recol- 
lections of  our  boyhood  days.     Volunteer  organiza- 
tions gradually  increased  as  regard  of  existing  law 
decreased,  and,  though  unrecognized  by  the  general 
law,  and  without  any   of  the.  aids  or  requirements 
necessary  to  secure  efliciency,  they  have   managed 
to  maintain  a   precarious   existence.  .Hid    have   nn- 
questionalily  been  of  great  and   essential  service  to 
the  country.     We  think   it   good   policy   and   true 
statesmanship  to  acknowledge  the  changesand  avail 
ourselves  of  the  results  which  time  and  the  force  of 
circumstances  have   brought  aliout,  and  we  there- 
fore assent   to   the    proposition    that    the  volunteer 
militia  of  the  State— the  mililia  in   fact— should  be 
recognized  as  the  militia   of   the  law,  and  provided 
for  accordingly.     On  the   second  feature,  the  provi- 
sions made  for  promoting  the   efficiency  of  the  vol- 
unteer militia   and  securing  a  uniformly  high  stan- 
dard in  -Jill  the  States,  we   tielieve   there   can  be  no 
disagreement.     Theunorganized levies  which,  un<ler 
the  name  of  militia,  have  been  called  into  service  in 
all  the  great  wars  of  the  country,  while  they  occa- 
sionally performed  some  brilliant   service,  have  not 
only  shown  the  inefficiency  of  existing  law,  but  have 
also  served  to  make  the  term  "militia"  one  of  con- 
tempt and  derision.     It  is  not  denied  that  great  dis- 
parity exists  in  the  character  and   efficiency  of  the 
existing  volunteer  organizations  between  the  Slates 
and  even  within   the   States.     During   the  "Labor 
Riots  of  1877"  some  volunteer  organizations  proved 
utterly   undi.sciplined   and  unreliable,  while   others 
performed  conspicuous  and  valuable  service.     Con- 
gress has  never  exercised   its   constitutional  power 
"  to  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and   disciplin- 
ing" the  volunteer  militia.      On  the  ccmtran.-.   Ihe 
volunteer  organizations  have  maintained  themselves 
at  their  own  expense,  with  such  aid  as  by  unwearied 
exertions  they  may  have  been  able  to  procure  from 
their  respective  States.     It  is  due  solely  to  the  want 
of  support  and  of  uniform  requirements  as   to  drill 
and  discipline  that  the  volunteer  organizations  have 
not  all  reached  the  same  efficiency  that  characterize 
a  part  of  them.     The  men  who  constitute  the  volun- 
teer  organizations   are   naturally   those   who   have 
some  love   or  aptitude  for  military  affairs,  and  we 
therefore  see  no  reas(ni  why.  un<ler  the  proper  regu- 
lations for  their  discipline  and  training,  they  cannot 
attain  a  high   and  uniform   efficiency.     That  they 
have  been  or  are  in  any  particular  inefficient  is  not 


MILITIA. 


356 


MILITIA. 


an  arsiument  against  the  possibility  of  making  them 
all  that  we  desire.  We  therefore  consiiler  the  sug- 
gestions made,  to  aid  and  encourage  tht  volunteer 
system  and  to  exact  certain  requirements  of  them, 
as  both  politic  iin<l  wise.  We  deem  Ihem  politic, 
for  the  reason  that  the  aid  they  offer  is  conditioned 
on  the  volunteers  complying  with  the  provisions 
which  are  deemed  essential  to'their  efficiency.  We 
deem  them  wise,  for  the  reason  that  we  believe  that 
under  their  operations  a  volunteer  militia  will  be 
created,  which,  although  remaining  under  the  ex- 
clusive control  of  the  States,  will,  when  its  services 
are  required  by  the  general  government,  be  fovmd 
ready  and  ecpiipped  for  instantaneous  service  and 
fully  efficient  to  perform  the  duties  of  militia,  which 
Jefferson  defined  to  be  "  not  only  to  meet  the  first 
attack,  but,  it  it  threatens  to  be  permanent,  to  main- 
tain the  defense  until  regulars  can  be  engaged  to  re- 
lieve them."  It  is  also  worthy  of  consideration  that 
in  encouraging  the  volunteer  system  you  provide  for 
disseminating  military   knowledge    and    a    partial 


milit*yy  training  among  those  who  would  be  most 
likely  to  respond  to  a  call  for  volunteers  in  time  of 
war.  It  has  been  agreed  by  all  who  have  preceded 
us  in  considering  the  subject  that,  whatever  might 
be  the  expense  of  securing  an  eflicient  militia,  it 
would  be  so  small,  as  compared  with  the  benefits  to 
be  derived  from  it,  that  it  sliould  not  be  considered, 
and  would,  in  fact,  be  covered  by  indirect  savings  of 
expense  which  it  would  render  practicable  in  ofiier 
directions.  While  the  States  have  applied  all  the 
existing  permanent  appropriation  for  the  militia  to 
providing  the  volunteer  militia,  the  issue  of  property 
under  that  appropriation  is  limited  to  arms  and 
equipments.  This  has  been  not  only  the  greatest 
obstacle  to  the  advancement  of  the  volunteer  militia, 
but  has  also  prevented  them  from  being  useful  on 
the  occasions  when  theirservices  have  been  required, 
Tents  and  camp  equijjage  are  absolutely  necessary 
to  enable  the  volunteers  to  go  into  camps  of  instruc- 
tion and  learn  the  elementary  duties  of  soldiers.  A 
plain,  serviceable,  and  unostentatious  uniform,  over- 


Organized  strength. 

So 

STATES. 

2 
g 

e 
o   • 

1 

a 

2 

O 

e 

O 

2 

c 

5 

-  o 

aO 

2 

a 

e 
o 

a 

s 

o 

-3 

ZJ 

a 
_o 

S 

a 

o 
O 

'S 
o 
H 

o  a 

Ill 

E- 

ho 

la  a 
:a  3 

03  ^-' 

§>, 
S  S.2 

3 

1878 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1878 
1879 
1879 
1878 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 

1 

1 
1 

2 
4 

19 
3 
6 
3 

1 
1 

10 

8 

14 

17 

35 

15 

205 

35 

50 

4 

8 

1 

9 

27 

13 

95 

76 

37 

264 

67 

174 

1 

6 

23 

41 
107 

38 
215 

99 
134 
851 
130 
451 
6 

66 
161 

61 
143 

65 
329 
214 
193 
1,339 
235 
687 

14 

81 
185 

814 

1.805 

605 

3,699 

1.764 

2,895 

18,941 

2,988 

9,063 

76 

1,164 

2,450 

875 
1,948 

670 
4,028 
1,978 
3,088 
20.280 
3,223 
9,750 
90 
1.245 
2,635 

78.458 

Ne w  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode  Island 

48.770 
44.366 
225.461 
42,969 
73.961 

567,669 

248,127 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

433.371 
24,073 
89.344 

Virginia 

315.200 
100.000 

1879 
1879 

7 
16 

18 
163 

41 
67 

196 

748 

263 
993 

2,. 521 

10,812 

3,783 

11,805 



200,000 

95,856 

180.000 

Florida      

1878 

8 

50 

100 

315 

373 

5,130 

5.503 

25.903 

170,000 

1879 
1879 
1879 
1877 
1879 
1876 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1877 
1879 
1879 

7 
5 

1 
14 

2 
5 

1 

32 

1 

6 

16 

■     8 

12 

51 

4 

6 

3 

11 

1 

5 

9 

206 
87 

953 
48 
79 

531 
80 

111 

548 
77 
92 
13 

331 
38 

127 

9 

3,757 

1,306 

16,377 

722 
1.284 
8,374 
1,.544 
1,799 
7,394 
1,347 
1,824 

204 
4,581 

696 
2.047 

135,178 

47 
1 

197 
4 

149 
84 

710 
43 
72 

400 
73 
71 

387 

67 

78 

8 

369 
36 

106 

2,.551 

1,119 

15,424 

674 
1,205 
7,343 
1.464 
1,688 
0.846 
1.370 
1.732 

191 
4  250 

658 
1.920 

137.973 

Texas 

1.50.000 
100.000 

218,000 

1 
1 

239,564 

Oil  jo              

114 

500.000 

320.546 

5 
3 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 
5 

23 

107 
5 
5 

1 
50 

300.000 

350,000 

300,000 

250,(100 

120,000 

197,456 

Nebraska 

46  000 

11 

121.070 

20.000 

1878 
1879 
1878 

3 

7 
6 

34 

88 

7 

33 

130 

36 

59 

357 

49 

582 

2,340 

553 

641 

2,.597 

603 

14,878 

42 

114,.565 

29,000 

Grand  aggregate 

145 

931 

1,605 

6,198 

8.869 

117,037 

125,906 

6,516,758 

MILITIA  ADJUTANT. 


357 


UlLITIA  ABJU'i'ANT. 


cduls,  liliiiikc(s,  liiivcrsucks,  ranlccns,  dr.,  are  cs- 
Hciitial  lo  Uic  outfit  of  tlx'  volunteer,  lliiil  hr  iiiiiy  be 
ciilleil  into  Herviee  iit  a  nioinenl's  warniinr,  ami  that 
lliH  .services  may  l)e  ell'eelive  wljen  caKeil  for. 

(Id  |)ai,'e  ■H'lll  U  an  alistrael  of  llie  inililiii  force  of 
the  United  Stales  foruanizeil  anil  unorL'ani/.eilj,  ac- 
cording' to  tlic  latest  returns  received  at  llie  olllce  of 
the  Adjutant  General, United  States  Artny,  furnislwd 
for  the  information  of  the  ('onf;ress  of  the  United 
Slates  in  compliance  vi'itli  section  3^3  of  the  Keviscd 
Slaliiles. 

The  existini;  vohinleer  militia  are  provided  with 
what  is  essential.  !-ioiu<'  of  the  Stales  have  made  very 
lari:e  appropriations  to  sup|)lemeiit  tlii'  amount  here- 
tofore allowed  b}'  theOeneral  ( iovernineni,  anil  many 
of  the  States,  as  we  have  before  menlioned.  have 
now  in  possession  considerable  amounts  of  arms  and 
eipiipments  thai  have  been  issued  to  them  by  the 
fieneral  f;overnnient.  It  is  Iherefore  dillicult  to  es- 
tiniale  what  would  be  the  cost  of  making  up  dehc- 
iencies,  and  of  conipletinij  the  armiu'.:;  and  eipiip- 
mcnt  and  of  |)rovidiim;  luiiforms  and  i:nnp  e(|uipaire 
for  the  vohinleer  militia  in  the  manner  eonlemplaled, 
but  we  .judge  that  three  million  dollars  wo\dd  be  am- 
ple for  that  purpose,  and  that  itsappropriation  mi;j;ht 
be  distributed  into  the  budget  of  three  successive 
years.  After  the  volunteer  militia  should  be  once 
"completely  armed  and  e(pupped,  we  juil;;e  that  an 
annual  expenditure  of  $750,000  would  mainlaiu  it  in 
proper  condition.  These  sums  are  comparatively 
very  small,  scarcely  larsjc  enough  to  excite  either 
opposition  or  comment,  being  smaller  than  was  fre- 
qiU'ntly  contemplated  and  advocated  in  the  earlj' 
days  of  tlie  Republic.  The  annual  expenditure 
would  be  less  than  is  required  to  sustain  a  regiment 
of  cavalry  in  the  regular  service,  and  it  cannot  for  a 
moment  be  questioned  that  a  standing  force  of  l.'JO,- 
000  thoroughly  armed,  equipped,  and  well-drilled 
volunteers,  ready  to  take  the  ticld  atthe  lirst  mo- 
ment of  danger,  would  be  as  eJTective  in  the  national 
defense  as  one  regiment  of  regulars,  ami  that  the  ex- 
istence of  such  a  force  would  be  seriously  considered 
by  any  Nation  contemplating  an  attack  on  us.  In 
this  connection  it  is  not  improper  for  us  to  observe 
thattlie  Senate  C'onunittee  on  Military  Affairs  in  the 
Forty-tiftli  Congress  recomniended  that  the  annual 
appro])rialiou  fcr  the  militia  be  increased  to  iji  1,000, - 
000,  very  pertinently  observing  that  "if  .fSOO.OOO  was 
none  too  much  in  1808,  certainly  $1,000,000  is  none 
too  much  now  " 

There  is  no  feature  in  our  form  of  government  in 
which  the  powers  of  the  general  government  and 
the  rights  of  the  States  are  so  intimate'.y  interwoven 
as  in  the  jurisdiction  over  the  militia.  One  of  the 
stated  primary  causes  for  forming  the  Union  was  to 
"provide  for  the  common  defense."  In  the  opinion 
of  the  framers  of  the  Constitution,  a  well-regidated 
militia  was  the  essential  means  of  providing  for  the 
common  defense,  and  they  accordingly  framed  the 
clause  to  provide  tliat  Congress  sliall  have  power — 
to  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplin- 
ing the  militia,  and  for  governing  such  part  of  them 
as  may  be  enqjloyed  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  officers  and  tlie  authority  of  train- 
ing the  militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed, 
by  Congress. 

The  purposes  and  provisions  of  this  clause  are 
clearly  and  distinctly  stated  and  scarcely  admit  of 
misinterpretation.  The  States  are  expressly  limited 
to  the  appointment  of  the  officers  and  to  training  the 
militia,  and  in  training  it,  it  will  be  observed,  ac- 
cording to  the  discipline  prescribed  l)y  Congress 
If  the  certain  power  conveyed  to  Congress  by  the 
words  "organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining"  could 
bedoulited,  the  debates  of  tlie  Federal  Convention 
are  sufficiently  clear  to  remove  them.  The  Commit- 
tee that  reported  the  clause,  on  being  asked  the  scope 
of  the  powers  that  they  intended  to  convey,  replied 
that  they  meant  bj'  "organizing"  proportioning  the 


ofllcer.s  to  the  men  ;  l)y  "arming,"  not  only  lo  pro- 
vide  for  uidformily  of  arms,  but  llie  uuthorily  lo 
regulate  the  modesof  furnishing  thiMn,  either  tjy  the 
miiilla  Iheinselves,  the  Stall'  governmenis,  or  the  na- 
tional Treasury  ;  and  by  "iliseii)lining,"  to  prescribe 
the  manual  exercise,  evolutions,  etc.,  and  that  laws 
for  disciplining  miiHt  involve;  penalties  and  every- 
thing necessary  for  enforring  pi-nalties. 

TJie  debates  of  the  Federal  Convinlion  on  adopt- 
ing the  clause,  Ihouirh  short,  are  pertinent.  jMr. 
Mason,  who  inlrodiiced  the  subiect,  llioiight  that  all 
powers  overthe  militia  should  be  vested  in  the  gene- 
ral government,  which  he  suliseipiently  morlilied  liy 
suggesting  that  this  absolute  power  should  lie  limit- 
ed to  a  iiortion  of  the  militia  at  a  time,  so  that  tiy 
serving  in  rotation  the  whole  body  woulfl  finally  be 
disciplined.  Mr.  Madison  Ihouirhl  that  the  regula- 
tion of  the  militia  naturally  apiartained  to  the  au- 
thority charged  with  the  public  defense,  that  it  flid 
not  seem  in  its  nature  divisible  between  two  distinct 
authorities,  and  that  the  discipline  of  the  militia  is 
evidently  a  national  concern,  and  ought  to  be  pro- 
vided for  in  the  national  Constitution.  The  clause  as 
reported  by  the  Committee  had  but  little  opposition, 
it  being  conceded,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Handoli)h.  tliat 
reserving  to  theStateslheapiiointinent  of  the  officers 
was  all  the  security  they  needed.  .Mr.  Dayton  and 
Mr.  Ellsworth  expressed  Ihem.selves  in  favorof  plac- 
ing greater  limitation  on  the  power  of  Congress,  but 
a  motion  made  for  that  )iuri)Ose  received  only  one 
vote,  that  of  Mr.  p^llsworlh,  who  moved  it.  and  the 
clause,  as  it  now  stands,  wasthereforcaihipled  with 
a  marked   unanimity  in  sentiment  and  vote. 

We  have  only  adverted  lo  the  question  of  the  con- 
stitutional power  of  Congress  as  a  matter  of  historic- 
al interest  in  connection  with  the  general  subject,  for 
whatever  (pieslion  there  may  he  as  to  the  constitu- 
tionality of  the  existing  law,  or  of  some  of  the  plans 
heretofore  suggested  for  reorganizing  the  militia, 
none  can  possibly  arise  on  the  proposed  reorganiza- 
tion, for  it  is  a  happy  solution  of  all  the  constitution- 
al questions  involved.  There  is  not  a  compulsory 
feature  presented.  It  simply  says  to  the  Slates  that 
if  they  will  by  their  own  laws  provide  for  and  enforce 
such  requirements  as  Congress  deems  necessary  to 
secure  an  efiicient  militia.  Congress  will  exercise  its 
unquestioned  constitutional  power,  and  provide  for 
arming  such  militia  out  of  the  national  Treasury. 
■  From  this  review  of  the  subject  we  are  satisfied 
that  time  has  solved  those  difficulties  of  the  militia 
system  for  which  the  wisdom  of  our  predecessors 
could  find  no  acceptable  remedy,  and  that  the  great 
increase  in  the  population  of  the  country  now  makes 
it  not  onl)' practicable  but  desirable  to  substitute  the 
volunteer  system  for  enforced  militia  duty  in  time  of 
peace.  The  subject  is  one  on  which  there  never  liave 
been  any  political  differences,  and  on  which  none 
should  exist.  Washington,  as  the  exponent  of  the 
Federalists,  was  unceasing  in  his  efforts  to  procure 
legislation,  and  Jefferson,  as  the  leader  of  the  Anti- 
Federalists,  was  even  more  importunate  in  urging  it. 
In  view  of  these  facts,  and  of  the  fact  that  we  now 
have  practically  no  militia  system,  and  that  the 
strength  and  perpetuity  of  our  republican  form  of 
government  largely  depend  on  the  existence  of  a 
well-regulated  militia,  we  indulge  the  hope  that  the 
subject'will  receive  the  earnest  consideration  whicli 
it  deserves,  and  that  some  decisive  action  will  be 
taken  on  it.  See  Stote  Trofp.i. 

MILITIA  ADJUTANT. -^.\n  officer  appointed  to  each 
regiment  of  militia  to  superintend  the  drill  and  in- 
struction of  the  regiment.  He  is  taken  from  the  reg- 
ular army.  The  following  are  the  regulations  re- 
cently issued  relative  to  the  duties  of  Adjutants  of 
Militia: 

-■  1.  The  Militia  Adjutant  will  be,  during  the  nrtn- 
training  period,  the  representative  at  the  brigade 
depot  of  the  officer  commanding  the  militia  battalion 
or  battalions. 

"2.  He  will  raise  and  enroll  all  recruits  for  the 


MILITIA  AETILLEKY. 


358 


MILLING. 


militia  battalion  or  battalions,  and  superintend  tlie 
out-statiou  recruiting  for  the  army  and  the  militia  as 
required. 

"3.  He  will  have  military  charge  of  the  militia 
staff  during  the  non-training  period,  and  the  military 
charge  and  supervision  of  tlie  drill  of  the  militia  re- 
cruits when  they  are  trained  in  large  bodies;  militia 
recruits,  when  they  come  up  singly  or  in  small  num- 
bers, will  be  attached  to  squads  of  line  recruits,  and 
they  will  in  that  case  be  under  the  supervision  of  the 
officer  of  the  brigade  depot. 

4.  Tlie  duties  specified  in  the  foregoing  paragraph 
will  have  priority  over  all  others,  but  when  Militia 
Adjutants  are  not  employed  upon  them,  they  will  be 
liable  to  perform  such  other  depot  and  sub-district 
duties  as  the  officer  commanding  the  brigade  depot 
or  sub-district  niav  direct. 

MILITIA  ARTILLERY.— Forms  a  large  body  of  ar- 
tillery in  atldition  to  that  of  the  regular  forces  of 
Great  Britain.  Formerly  the  militia  artillery  was 
called  upon  to  exerci.se  with  all  kinds  of  ordnance, 
tut  since  1873  the}'  only  practice  with  garrison  and 
coast  guns.  Each  regiment,  however,  has  some 
Armstrong  guns  for  the  drill  of  recruits;  but,  from 
the  absence  of  horses,  its  organization  into  batteries 
remains  incomplete.  The  places  of  meeting  chosen 
for  the  yearly  drills  (two  months  for  recruits, and  one 
for  a  regiment)  are  some  fortified  poin*sof  the  coast, 
where  the  men  are  taught  to  exercise  with  garrison 
and  field  pieces.  There  are  30  regiments  of  artillery, 
composed  of  7'.)()  officers,  06  surgeons,  15,978  men. 

MILITIA  RESERVE.— A  force^created  by  the  Act  of 
1867  ;  its  numbers  not  to  exceed  one-fourth  of  mili- 
tia quota;  the  men  to  be  enlisted  for  5  years,  during 
which  time  they  remain  on  the  strength  of  militia 
regiments,  but  are  liable  to  be  drafted  into  the  army 
in  time  of  war. 

MILLAR  GUNS.— Guns  introduced  into  the  English 
service  liy  General  Millar  in  1827.  The  thickness  of 
metal  at  the  breech  is  considerable, and  comparative-  I 
ly  slight  in  the  chase.  Two  of  his  8-inch  guns  are 
still  in  the  service.  Besides  these  guns.  General  ilil- 
lar  also  introduced  the  10-inch  and  8-inch  iron  how- 
itzers and  the  present  L.  S.  S.  B.  iron  mortars. 

MILLAR  HIND  SIGHT.— A  sight  consisting  of  a 
block  of  guu-metal,  with  a  thumb-screw,  lead  pack- 
ing, a  brass  scale,  and  two  screws.  The  blocks  are 
of  five  different  patterns.  The  scale  differs  for  each 
nature.  It  is  tightened  by  a  thumb-screw  working 
against  a  brass  spring  in  the  block,  and  is  in  every' 
case  graduated  to  j  degrees.  It  is  attached  to  the 
rear  of  the  base  ring  at  an  angle  of  76'-'. 

MILLBANK — A  large  prison. situated  on  the  banks 
of  the  Thames,  Chelsea.  All  soldiers  under  sentence 
of  Courts-Martial  for  lengthened  terms  of  imprison- 
ment in  England  are  committed  to  the  military  divi- 
sion of  this  prison.  Soldiers  also  sent  from  abroad 
un'ler  punishment  for  lengthened  periods  are  gener- 
ally sent  to  Jlillbank,  or  to  the  military  prisonin  the 
district  in  which  they  disembark. 

MILL-CAKE. — The  incorporated  materials  for  gun- 
powder,  in  tlie  form  of  a  dense  mass  or  cake,  ready- 
to  be  subjected  to  the  process  of  granulation.  As 
the  process  of  incorporation  approaches  completion, 
the  (;harge  requires  to  be  carefully  watched,  in  or- 
der to  insure  each  finished  charge  leaving  the  mill  in 
as  nearly  as  ])ossil)Ie  the  same  state  as  regards  mois- 
ture. The  appearance  of  the  ])owder  wlien  finished 
depends  mainly  on  the  state  in  which  the  charges 
leave  the  mill.  The  finished  charge  usually  has  from 
two  to  three  per  cent,  of  moisture.  If  loo  much 
moisture  be  present  as  the  incori)oralion  draws  to  a 
close,  the  charge  nuist  be  repeatedly  pushed  u]i  witli 
wsliirer;  if  too  little,  some  more  must  be  added 
from  the  watering-pot.  Tlie  color  of  the  charge 
gives  a  very  good  indication  of  the  amoMul^of  mois- 
lirre  present.  When  the  process  is  finished,  the 
charge,  now  known  «.»  mill-mice — being  pari  ly  in  the 
state  of  soft  cake,  and  partly  of  dust— is  scraped 
and  swept  up  from  the  mill-bed,  placed  in  wooden 


tubs,  and  transferred  to  the  charge-house  to  await 
inspection.  If  the  charges  are  found  to  be  of  a 
])roper  color  and  consistency,  samples  from  each  are 
taken,  wliich,  after  being  roughly  granulated  by 
hand  and  dried,  are  Hashed  on  a  gliiss-plate  to  ^cer- 
tain the  thoroughness  of  the  incorporation  they  have 
undergone.  This  flashing  is  more  a  matter  of  form 
than  anything  else,  for  the  mill-cake  seldom  fails  to 
give  satisfactory  results.     See  (junpuwder. 

MILLER  MAGAZINE-GUN.— This  gun  is  an  adapta- 
tion of  a  magazine  to  the  United  States  service  Spring- 
fieUl  rifle.  The  alterations  are  as  follows  :  The  or- 
iginal receiver  and  breech-pin  are  replaced  by  a  re- 
ceiver alone  the  tang  being  solid  with  it.  The  upper 
'  rear  pari  of  the  receiver  gives  the  bearing  for  the 
I  cam,  while  the  space  ordinarily  filled  by  the  breech- 
pin  if  utilized  as  a  channel  through  which  the  cart- 
ridges are  fed  from  the  magazine  in  tlie  butt-stock. 
The  ejector-stud  is  replaced  by  one  beveled  on  its  rear 
as  well  as  its  front,  in  order  that  the  cartridges  may 
slip  easily  over  it  into  the  chamber.  The  magazine, 
is  a  tube  slotted  through  its  whole  length.  To  the 
upper  side  of  the  side  of  the  tube  fiat  springs  are 
screwed.  At  the  end  of  each  spring  and  riveted  to  it 
is  a  lug,  beveled  on  its  rear  service  ;  all  these  lugs 
pass  through  holes  cut  in  the  magazine  and  serve  to 
separate  the  cartridges.  A  ratchet  works  in  the  slot 
in  tlie  magazine-tube.  It  is  operated  by  a  slide  at- 
tached to  the  guard-plate.  When  the  slide  is  drawn 
back  the  teeth  of  the  ratchet  pass  in  the  rear  of  the 
heads  of  the  cartridges.  On  being  returned  to  posi- 
tion each  tooth  moves  a  cartridge  forward,  the  lugs 
on  the  springs  being  pressed  out  of  the  way  by  the 
cartridges  themselves.  At  the  front  of  the  ratchet 
is  a  cartridge-stop,  held  up  b}'  a  spring.  The  stop  is 
prevented  from  rising  too  far  by  a  pin.  Wlien  the 
ratchet  is  withdrawn  the  stop-spring  jields — since 
the  cartridge  cannot  move  backward  on  account  of 
the  shoulders  of  the  lugs  on  the  springs— the  stop 
descends  and  is  drawn  under  the  firstcartridge, which 
is  then  free  to  leave  the  magazine  and  enter  the  cham- 
ber, gravit}'  being  tlie  motive  force,  the  gun  being 
held  muzzle  downward.  When  the  ratchet  is  moved 
forward  the  2  1  cartridge  occupies  the  place  of  the 
1st,  the  3d  of  the  2d,  and  so  on.  The  ratchet  is  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  tube  by  two  pins  which 
bear  against  the  outer  surface  of  the  tube  along  the 
edges  of  the  slot.  It  is  held  in  contact  with  the  tube 
by  a  spring,  which  is  kept  from  slipping  off  the  bot- 
tom of  ;thc  ratchet  by  two  forks.  The  magazine  is 
loaded  through  a  gale  in  the  butt-plate.  A  projec- 
tion im  the  breech-block  hooks  over  a  pin  and  pre- 
vents motion  of  the  ratchet  when  the  piece  is  lock- 
ed. As  a  magazine-gun,  five  motions  are  necessary 
to  operate  it,  viz :  cocked,  opened,  loaded  (by  oper- 
ating the  ratchet  by  the  slide),  closed,  fired.  The 
same  number  of  motions  is  necessary  as  a  single- 
loader.  This  gun  carries  six  cartridges  in  the  mag- 
azine and  one  in  the  chamber.  The  last  cartridge  will 
not  feed  from  the  magazine,  however,  until  forced 
down  by  others  when  the  magazine  is  reloaded.  See 
Magazine-nun,  ami  Springjiild  Ji/'flt'. 

MILLING.— Tlie  term  "milling"  as  generally  un- 
derstood, means  the  cutting  of  inetals  by  aid  of  ser- 
rated revolving  cutters,  eacli  having  a  suitable 
number  of  cutting-teeth.  Milling  cutters  have  been 
used  in  this  country  for  many  years,  but  until  re- 
cently Willi  only  a  limileil  amount  of  success,  owing 
to  the  expense  anil  dillicully  of  iiroduciug  their  cut- 
ting edges  and  keeping  them  in  order.  This  was 
next  toimpossible  before  the  introduction  of  a  small 
emery-wheel  and  compound  slides,  etc.,  for  carrying 
the  milling  cutter  wliile  being  re-sharpened.  Hence 
in  the  old  system  of  milling,  v.hicli  did  not  permit 
of  the  re-sbiirpening  of  the  hiird  [leclh,  the  results 
were,  that  after  much  expense  and  time  had  been 
bestowed  on  a  culler  (including  a  (inantily  of  hand- 
labor  spent  upon  it  while  in  its  unsliarpeued  state), 
the  whole  was  as  it  were  upset  by  the  process  of 
tempering  ;  the  accuracy  which  had  previously  been 


HILLING. 


350 


KILLIHa. 


iinpiirlcd  lo  it,  liciiitr  iisiiully  <|"'''' 'l'''*'''"y<"(l  liy  lli'' 
aclinii  (if  111!'  liri'  ;uiil  siiildcii  cijcjIiiiL'.  In  siimi'  cases 
the  culliT  would  lie  fi)iiiiil  sli'j:lilly  warped  iirt  wisleil; 
in  (iIIkts  it,  woidd  lie  oval  or  eef:enl,rie  ;  mid  tiiosI 
In'iineiilly,    when   set   to    work   o? 


ex|Mri-'ive  and  iinrelinblo  prnrrss  of  rp-sharpcning 
by  liand-liliri'^  Mail  Id  lie  ;.'oiie  tliroiifrli  oiiei-  iiioro  ; 
llieii  llie  re-li-rii|)<Tiii;;,  wliieli  caused  the  eiiltiT  aj^ain 
to  become;    warped,  swelleil,  or  eccentric ;   and  eiicli 


niotlK'rsit.   woiMil    tie   oval   or   ecf:eniric  ;   aiiii    niosi  ,  lo  oecome    w.ii  pen,  nnemii,  oi  i-eieiniji  ,    unn  I'lieii 
frciinenlly,    when   set   to    work   on   a   trnly-rnnniiiK    li""'  it  was  siitiji'cted  to  the  lieat  of  lh(r   lire,  It  raa 
mandrel  in  the  millini;  machine,  not  more  "than  one-    the  risk  of  beinj;  destroyed  by  cracking  when  plunged 
third  of  the  number  of  its  le<lh  were  foniid  to  1)<;  I  into  a  cold  bath. 
....ifincr  lit  all.  the  others  not  comiiej- in  contact  with'       We   reiiresent   in    Fit'.    1    the   Brown  and   ShiirDe 


iniril      '"      lit*        liUUHUl       ,'i        II. T      11,1.  II      ,,  ,1,        i'',i,i>,      ,,r      •"■ 

cnttin;;  at  all.  the  others  not  cominir  in  contact  with 
tlie  work.  This  really  meant  that  not  more  than  oni' 
third  of  the  pro]KT  feed  per   revoliilion   could  be  ap 


We  represent  in  FIl'.  1  the  I5rown  and  Shurpe 
niiiv<irsal  millini;  inachinc.  which  has  all  the  move- 
ments of  a  plain  milliicj-  macirme,  and  the  following 


plied,  and  not  more  than  one-thir.l  of|tlie  proper 
work  produced.  Nor  was  this  tlie  only  drawback: 
the  quality  of  the  workmanship  produced  by  such 
a  millini:  cutter  was  not  of  the  best,  and  deteriorated 
hourly  from  blunting  and  wear.  Sucli  a  culler  would 
probably  not  work  for  more  than  two  whole  days 
before  it  would  require  to  be  asain  softene  1  by  being 
heated  red-hot  and  allowed  to  cool  gradually.     The 


in  addition: — the  carriage  moves  and^is  fed  auto- 
matically, not  only  at  right  angles  to  the  spindle,  but 
at  any  angle,  and  can  be  stopped  at  any  required 
point.  On  the  carriage,  centers  are  arranged  in 
which  reamers,  drills  ;ind  mills  can  be  cut  either 
strai::ht  or  spiral.  The  head  which  holds  one  center 
can  be  raised  to  any  angle,  and  conical  blanks  placed 
on  an  arbor  iii  it,  cut  straight  or  spiralling.     The 


MILLING. 


360 


MILLING. 


cone  has  three  diameters,  each  3^  inches  face.  In 
addition,  the  cone  is  strongly  geared,  thus  making 
six  changes  of  speed.  Tlicre  are.  also,  the  same 
number  of  changes  of  feed.  The  spindle  boxes  are 
of  hardened  east  steel,  and,  together  with  the  spin- 
dle bearings,  are  carefully  ground,  and  are  provided 
with  means  of  compensation  for  wear.  The  spindle 
will  carry  a  cutter  arbor  projecting  15  inches,  which 
is  supported  by  an  adjustable  center  at  the  outer 
end.  Cutters  of  eight  inches  or  less  diameter  can 
be  used.  The  horizontal  movement  of  the  spiral 
clamp  bed  upon  the  knee,  in  a  Hue  with  the  spindle 
of  the  machine,  is  6i  inches,  and  the  vertical  move- 
ment of  the  spiral  bed  centers  below  the  spindle 
centers  is  11  inches.  The  spiral  bed  can  be  set  at 
angles  of  3.5"  each  way  from  center  line  of  spindle, 
and  can  be  fed  automatically  33  inches,  taking  also 
23  inches  between  the  centers,  and  will  swing  lU 
inches.  The  hole  througli  the  chuck  anr!  iTpira'l 
head  is  U  inches.  In  add'ition  to  all  the  more  com- 
mon kinds  of  plain  surface  milling,  this  macliine  is 
applicable  to  a  great  variety  of  work,  among  which 


on  a  mandrel  of  the  small  cutter-grinding  machine  ; 
th"  mandrel  itself  is  adjusted  vertically  and  liori- 
zontally  Ijy  ordinary  slides,  and  by  means  of  a 
^yorm  and  worm-wheel,  to  its  required  angular  po- 
sition ;  and  each  tooth  is  ground  or  re-sharpened 
by  passing  at  once  rapidly  f(3rward  and  backward 
under  a  small  revolving  emery-wheel.  The  man- 
drel fits  easily  into  the  cutter  which  is  being  ground, 
so  that  the  latter  may  be  readily  turned  round  by 
the  thumb  and  linger  of  the  operator.  Milling  cut- 
ters are  made  of  the  required  form  to  suit  the  va- 
rious shapes  they  are  intended  to  produce ;  and 
all  the  ordinary  forms  can  be  used  in  any  milling 
machine  eillief  of  the  horizontal  or  vertical  class" 
The  face-milling  cutters.  Fig.  3.  are  of  disk  form, and 
are  among  the  most  useful.  They  are  constructed 
to  cut  on  one  face  and  on  the  periphery ;  and  they 
produce  very  perfect  finish,  especially  on  cast-iron. 
This  form  is  also  very  useful  for  all  kinds  of  stepped 
work,  wliich  even  when  not  of  the  simplest  form, 
can  be  readily  and  reliably  finished  to  standard 
breadths  and  depths  ;  so  that  the  pieces  may  be  in- 


Fig  4. 


may  be  mentioned  the  following :  cutting  nf  bevel  and 
spur  wheels,  worm  wheels  and  racks  ;  milling  of  cir- 
cular arcs  and  slots ;  squaring  of  bolt  heads  and 
nuts  ;  fluting  of  tops,  reamers.  &c.,  cutting  the  teeth 
of  mills,  either  straight  or  spiral ;  slotting  of  screw- 
heads ;  making  of  twist  drills;  drilling  of  holes  on 
the  periphery  or  face  of  plates;  die-sinking,  milling 
key-ways  in  spindles,  &c.,  &c.;  proving  as  its  name 
indicates,  a  machine  adapted  for  universal  applica- 
tion to  milling  purposes. 

It  is  proper  now  to  describe  the  modem  system  of 
making  and  maintaining  the  improved  milling  cut- 
ters. A  cast-steel  forging,  or  l)lank  as  it  is  usu- 
ally styled,  is  bored,  and  then  turned  to  its  proper 
shape  in  a  lathe.  The  teeth  are  then  machined 
out  of  the  solid  to  the  required  forms,  in  a  uni- 
versal milling  or  other  machine.  The  work  is  so 
accurately  jiroduced,  direct  from  the  machine,  that 
no  costly  hand-labor  need  be  expended  ui)Ou  the 
milled  cutter,  which  is  tiiken  direct  from  the  mill- 
ing maclnne  to  the  hardening  furnace,  and  tem- 
pered. The  hole  in  the  center  of  the  cutter  is  then  ; 
carefully  ground  out  to  standard  size,  so  that  it ! 
may  tit  accurately  and  without  shake  on  the  nian- 
«irels  both  of  the  grinding  machine  and  of  its  own  ! 
milling  machine.     The  culler  or  mill  isnowplaeeil 


Fig.  6. 

terchanffeablp,  and  fit  together  without  the  slightest 
shake  or  play,  just  as  they  leave  the  machine,  and 
without  any  hand-labor  bestowed  on  them.  Another 
ordinary  and  useful  form  is  the  cylindrical  cutter, 
with  teeth  cut  spirally  over  its  circumference.  This 
is  largely  employed  for  cutting  flat,  vertical,  or  hor- 
izontal surfaces,  for  finishing  concave  and  convex 
curves,  and  for  complicated  forms  made  up  of  straight 
lines  and  curves.  With  this  spiral  arrangement  of 
the  teeth,  and  with  reliable  means  of  re-grinding  or 
re-sharpening  them,  very  high-class  machine  work 
can  be  produced.  Some  experiments  liave  been  made 
by  cutting  a  spiral  groove  or  thread  into  the  outer 
surface  of  one  of  this  class  of  mills,  and  thus  re- 
ducing the  aggregate  length  of  its  cutting  surface. 
Other  mills  again  arc  made  in  the  form  of  sm;dl  cir- 
cular saws,  varying  from  ^J  to  Ik  in.  or  more  in  thick- 
ness. Tiie  teeth  in  some  of  these  arc  sinqily  cut 
around  the  circumference  ;  others  have  these  teeth 
cxti'nding  SOUK'  dist;ince  down  each  side, their  edges 
radiating  from  the  center  of  the  mill.  Towa-d  the 
center  they  are  reduced  in  thickness  so  as  to  clear 
themselves.  These  cuttersareusefid  foragrcat  vari- 
ety of  work  ;  for  instiince  the  cutting  of  key-ways, 
parting  otT  or  cutting  through  pieces  of  metal,  and 
making  parallel  slotsof  various  widths, for  the  broad- 


KILLINa. 


mi 


MILLINO. 


or  of  which  two  or  moro  riittors  mny  bo  nwrl  side  bv 
Hide.  Coniciil  iiiid  iiiiL'uhir  iiiiHiiiL;  ruttcrs  arc  iiiucli 
c>iM|)l()yo(l  for  a  ureal  variely  of  work, such  as  llienit- 
tini;  of  rimers,  tlie  iiiakiii!;  of  iiiilliii^  cullers  Uietii- 
selves.bcvclintt.ctilliiii;  llie  serraled  part  of  hand  and 
tliumb-acrews,  inilH,etc.  Any  loniphx  fonns.  such  us 
tlu' spaces  bet  ween  llie  leelliof  spur,  miler,  and  otiier 
wheels,  I'an  l)e  machined  by  usiiii;  what  are  known 
as  tlic  paleill  cutters,  which  can  he  rc-sliiirpencd  as 
often  as  rc((uireil  liy  simjily  ^rriiidiuL;  the  face  of  eacli 
tootli.  They  are  so  coustrncled  that,  liowcver  often 
tliey  arc  re-ground,  lliey  never  lose  their  original 
curved  forms,  and  always  produce  the  same  (hpth 
of  cut.  One  of  these  cutters,  for  instance,  will  cut 
the  same  standard  shajies  of  teeth  in  a  spur-wlieel, 
after  it  has  been  u.sed  for  years,  as  it  did  the  first 
day  it  was  started.  Fiijufes,  :i,  4,  and  n  illustrate 
some  forms  to  which  tliese  cutters  are  adapted. 
There  is  risk  of  fracture  in  niakim.;  lar!j;e  milling 
cutlers  out  of  one  solid  cast  steel  blank, tlie  principal 
dilticulty  being  in  the  teinpering.  In  practice  it  is 
found  that  if  they  arc  required  of  larger  diameter 


ly  fastonod  at  any  angle, by  two  square  h.  ;i'l  i  r^  ws, 
one  of  which  is  shown  in  the  drawing.  Fig.  it  shows 
a  dividini/  haul  iiiul  tail  Stock,  well  adapted  to  tho 
uses  for  which  it  is  designed.  It  has  a  conipensaling 
wedg<-  for  adjusting  the  halves  of  the  spacing  worm 
gear. and  .'in  alteration  of  the  usual  tail  stock  pattern 
so  that  milling  riitters.  ailjusted  close  to  the  center, 
pass  clear  across.  With  it  gears  can  be  accurately 
s|)iiced,  mills  cut  of  straight,  conical  or  irri'giilar 
forms,  taps  and  reamers  tliitcfl  and  worm  wheels 
gasheil.  The  slots  in  the  stock  allow  the  head  to  be 
elevated  from  a  horizontal  to  a  vertical  position. and 
by  supplemental  slots  in  the  elevated  head,  in  which 
llicT  heads  of  clamp  l>olts  slide,  the  head  can  be  rje- 
pressed  to  :il)  dr  irri'cs  iielow  a  horizontal  line,  and  .'i 
degrees  beyond  a  vertical,  making  125  deirrees  of 
change, all  determined  by  graduations  on  stock.  The 
spacing  worm  gear  is  made  in  halves,  and  all  points 
liable  io  wear  are  provided  with  means  of  c:om|)ensa- 
tion  for  wear.  Three  inde.x  dials  go  with  the  hea<l, di- 
viding all  numbers  uj)  to  50,  and  as  many  others  as 
an  every  day  machine  shop  practice  may  demand. 


Fig.  7. 

than  about  8  ins.  they  are  better  made  of  wrought- 1 
iron  or  mild-steel  disks,  with  hardened  cast-steel 
30  securely  titled  into  them  that  they  do  not  re- [ 
quire  to  be  removed.  The  cutting-edges  can  then 
be  re-sharpeneil  in  their  own  places,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  ordinary  uiilling  cutters;  thus  insuring  that 
each  shall  liave  the  same  angle  of  cutting  and 
clearance,  run  perfectly  concentric,  and  therefore 
do  a  maximiun  amount  of  c\itting  in  a  given  time. 
It  must  however  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  smaller 
the  diameter  of  the  milling  cutter,  the  better  finish 
it  will  produce;  and  cutters  of  large  diiimeters  should 
only  be  used  to  reach  into  depths  where  one  of 
smaller  diameter  cotdd  not,  or  to  do  the  heavier 
classes  of  work.  Again,  the  smaller  the  cutter,  the 
less  does  it  cost  to  make  and  maintain. 

Fig.  6  represents  a  cutter  in  connection  with  the 
work,  showing  the  position  required  in  cutting  the 
teeth  of  a  spiral  cutter.  The  distance  a=one  tenth 
of  B.  The  hole  in  the  cutter  is  I  inch.  Fig.  7  shows 


FJg.  8. 

Garvin's  spiral  attachment,  designed  for  use  with  the 
milling  machine,  and  which  will  cut  with  the  proper 
charge  gears,  spirals  with  pitch  varying  from  one 
turn  in  1.66  inches  to  one  turn  in  (iO  inches.  Fig.  8 
shows  the  swivel  vise,  mounted  upon  a  graduated 
base  3i  inches  high.  This  vise  is  useful  for  a  vari- 
ety of  work,  is  quickly  adjusted, aud  may  be  secure- 


The  spindle  of  the  elevating  head  has  a  taper  hole 
clear  through,  and  the  end  of  the  spindle  is  threaded 
to  receive  the  chuck,  allowing  pieces  of  any  lenirth 
less  than  1  and  l-lli  inch  diameter  to  be  milled.  The 
tongues  under  the  base  of  the  head  and  tail  stock  are 
of  steel,  and  can  be  removed  to  allow  swivelling  of 
the  head,  so  that  work  held  in  the  chuck,  such  as 
hollow  mills,  etc.,  can  be  cut  under  or  hooking.  The 
tail  stock  has  a  milled  head  adjusting  screw,  and 
screw  to  bind  the  spindle  central  in  any  position. 
These  centers  are  designed  to  be  used  on  milling, 
shaping  and  planing  machines. 

The  cutting  speed  which  can  be  employed  in  mill- 
ing is  much  greater  than  that  which  can  be  used  in 
any  of  the  ordinary  operations  of  turning  in  the  lathe, 
or  of  planing,  shaping,  or  slotting.  A  milling  cutter 
with  a  plentiful  supply  pf  oil,  or  soap  and  water,  can 
be  run  at  from  80  to  100  ft.  perminute  when  cutting 
wrought  iron.  The  same  metal  can  only  be  turned 
in  a  lathe,  with  a  tool-holder  having  a  good  cutter, 
at  the  rate  of  30  ft.  per  minute,  or  about  one-third 
the  speed  of  milling.  Again,  a  milling  cutter  will  cut 
cast-steel  at  the  rate  of  25  to  30  ft.  per  minute.  The 
uicrcased  cutting  speed  is  due  to  the  fact  that  a  mill- 
ing cutter,  having  some  thirty  points,  has  rarely 
more  than  three  of  these  cutting  at  the  same  time. 
Each  cutting  point  therefore  is  only  in  contact  with 
the  metal  during  one-tenth  of  each  revohition.  Thus, 
if  we  suppose  it  is  cutting  for  one  second,  it  is  out 
of  ciuitact,  and  therefore  cooling,  for  the  succeeding 
nine  seconds,  before  it  has  made  a  complete  revolu- 
tion and  commences  to  cut  again.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  turning  tool  while  cutting  is  constantlj- in  contact 
with  the  metal:  and  therels  no  time  for  it  to  cool 
down  and  loo.se  the  heat  imparted  to  it  by  the  cut- 
ting. Hence,  if  the  cutting  speed  exceeds  .30  ft.  per 
minute,  so  much  heat  will  be  produced  that  the  tem- 
per will  be  drawn  from  the  tool.  The  same  ditticulty 
to  a  great  extent  applies  to  the  cutting  tools  in  plan- 
ing, shaping,  and  slotting  machines.  The  speed  of 
cutting  is  governed  also  by  the  thickness  of  the  shav- 
ing and  by  the  hardness  and  tenacity  of  the  me'al 
which  is  being  cut;  for  instance,  in  cutting  mild  steel 


HILLSINS. 


362 


HILLS  SPUS. 


■withatraverseof  3-8  in.  per  revolution  or  stroke,  and  drawing,  is  composed  of  a  liecl-strap,  a,  or  "main 
with  a  shaving  about  US  in.  thick,  the  speed  of  cut-  I  leather  band,"  as  it  is  called  by  the  inventor,  to 
ting.must  be  reduced  to  about  8  ft.  per  minute.  A  [  which  the  rowel-plate,  b,  is  riveted,  a  lower  strap, 
good  average  cutting  speed  for  wrought  or  cast-iron  i  or  under  strap,  c,  passing  under  the  boot :  and  a 
is  20  ft.  per  minute,  whether  for  the  lathe, planing,  j  spur-strap,  d.  The  metallic  parts  of  the  spur  are  the 
shaping,  or  slotting  machine.  i  rowel-plate,  b,  the  yoke  or  frame,  6,  the  shoulder,  h 


Fig. 
MILLBIITS, — MTLLBiND.  or  Fer  | 
DE  MOULIN  in  Heraldry:  a  charge 
meaut  to  represent  a  mill-iron  or- 
iginally a  mere  variety  in  desig- 
nating the  cross  moline,  but  ac- 
counted a  distinct  charge  by  some 
heralds.    See  Heraldry. 

MILLS  CARTRIDGE  BELT.  This 
Ill-It  in  its  ninin  features  is  not  un- 
ilillrmd.  \\\i^^.  what  has  beeu  for  along  time 

known  as  the  ''Prairie  Belt,"  its  distinguishing  cliar- 
acteristic  being  tliat  it  is  not  only  made  entirely  of 
heavy  cotton  fabric,  but  that  the  whole  belt — the 
main  fabric  or  body  of  the  belt,  as  well  as  the  loops 
or  thimbles  which  hold  the  cartridges — are  woven 
in  one  solid  piece,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  in  the 
same  loom,  there  being  no  sewing  whatever  in  the 
entire  belt.  The  cylindrical  loops  are  taken  from 
and  returned  to  the  main  web  at  the  same  point,  so 
the  cartridge  is  held  in  place  b.y  friction  produced  by 
contact  with  its  whole  circumference,  and  are  of 
such  accurate  form  that,  aided  hy  tlie  cord  at  the  top 
of  the  belt,  the  cartridge  cannot  drop  out. 


(all  of  brass  in  one  piece),  the  rowel,/,  of  steel,  the 
rowel-pin  of  steel,  the  buckle,  k.  of  brass,  eyelet,  I, 
and  the  brass  rivets  and  burs,  marked  1,  2,  and  3. 
The  buckle  is  fastened  to  the  understrap  by  means 
of  a  small  projection,  which  is  twined  over  the  bar 
of  the  buckle  and  riveted,  the  tongue  passing  through 
the  slot.  The  eyelet,  I,  is  intended  for  the  insertiou 
of  a  button  attached  to  a  steel  wire  double  loop  for 
strapping  down  the  trowsers. 

Tue  different  steps  in  the  process  of  manufacture 
of  the  rowel-plate  and  yoke  are  very  simple.  The 
plate  and  yoke  are  first  punched  out  flat  in  a  rotary 
press.  The  middle  slot  and  the  holes  for  the  rivet^ 
and  rowel-pin  are  then  punched.  The  branches  of 
the  yoke  are  next  rounded  and  bent  up  b}-  means  of 
a  punch  and  die  of  proper  shape.  The  shoulder  is 
then  formed  and  by  the  next  operation  set  lirmly 
down  on  tlie  rowel-plate.  The  holes  are  then  drilled, 
and  the  finished  rowel-plate  and  yoke  are  pickled 
ami  i)(ilislieil.  The  hole  for  the  rivet  is  drilled  or 
punclied,  and  the  rowels  are  strung  on  a  wire  pass- 
ing tlirougli  the  hole,  placed  in  the  milling  machine, 
and  the  teeth  milled  out. 


'^.M^:AM.I^ 


As  seen  in  the  drawing,  the  belt  has  a  suitable 
margin  above  and  below  the  cartridge  and  loop 
wliicli  prevents  the  wearing  of  the  former  by  rubbing 
against  the  clothes  of  the  wearer.  Handsome  and 
(lural)lc  buckles  are  furnished,  so  formed  that  the 
wearer  may  adjust  tlic  length  of  the  belt  to  his 
person  without  sewing  or  cutting,  and  can  also 
adjust  the  buckle  midway  Iietwecn  the  cartridge 
loops.  This  belt  was  recommended  by  llie  Kipiip- 
meiit  Board  of  1879,  was  very  fully  approved  by  tlie 
(Jcneral  of  the  Army,  and  adopted  by  the  Secretary 
of  War.  and  is  now  the  Regulation  Helt  for  tlie 
I'nitcd  States  Army.     See  Pwiler-Juiii'H  lielt. 

MILLS  SPUR.— This  spur,  the^invention  of  ('  olonc 
Anson  Mills,  I'nited  Slates  Armv.  and  shown  in  the 


The  rowel  is  riveted  in  the  yoke  with  a  rotary 
press.  The  rivet  is  increased  in  diameter  throughout 
its  entire  length  by  this  operation,  and  the  hole  in 
the  rowel  is  made  i'^''  larger  than  the  rivet  to  allow 
for  this  increase.  The  rowel-plate  is  riveted  to  the 
heej-slrap  by  the  same  press,  as  it  is  not  easy  to  do 
the  rivetingby  hand  without  the  iilate.  The  leather 
parts  are  assembled  after  the  rowel-plate  has  been 
riveted.  The  sjiur-strap  and  heel-strap  are  placed 
together  and  the  eyelet  inserted;  the  heel-slrap  and 
under-strap  on  the  other  side  are  assembled  in  the 
same  manner;  the  end  of  the  under-strap  with  the 
■slot  in  it  is  theu'carefully  hiserlcd  between  the  heel- 
strap  and  the  spur-strap,  and  the  whole  securely 
riveted. 


V.-p'tf'iw;  X 


mt 


iX-S7S. 


Mining.    1.  Miners  ftt  work.    !).  ScafTol.ling.    8.  Filling  ore-carl. 


I' 


miners  ill  Strassfiirt  satt-mine.     G.  Steam-nuiiip.     7.  I.lfal  soctioi.  ..f  a  mine. 


MIM  BASHT. 


m 


MINES. 


MIM  BA8HY.    -In  the  East  Indies,  a  commander  of 

Oiii'  tliiiiisiuiil  liiirsc. 
MINER'S  TRUCK.     In  lnw  gallerips  and  branches, 

wlicri'  wheelbarrows  cuiinot,  l)(^  UHed,  small  wagons 
or  mf/ifj'\H  intr/rs,  restini;  on  short  east-iron  wlieels, 
answer  the  same  piirpnse,  a  man  pushing  l)eliiri(I, 
assisted  hy  arinlher  piilliiii;  wilh  a  rope  in  front, 
wlieu  lljc  gallery  is  desceudim;. 


chief  wToiijrht  hy  the  mine  often  very  frrc&t  1»  its 

moral  iiilluenee  on  tlie  troops,  and  especially  on  the 
assailants.  The  hravesl  soldiers,  who  advance  with- 
ont  llinciiinu:  to  the  very  mouth  of  the  cannon  ir/u'r./i. 
tlinj  Hfe,  will  hesitate  to  cross  jff'und  which  they 
suppose  to  he  iindirmined,  and  on  whicli  Ihi-y  may 
he  dashed  to  di'slruelion  in  a  moment,  without  tin; 
\  power  of  averting  llic  uusctii.  danger.     Tht  lirsl  em- 


MilJH  Spur. 


MINES. — Military  mines  constitute  at  imce  one  of 
the  most   important    dej);irtmenls   in  niililary  enjrin- 
eeTing,  and  a  very  formidable  accessory  bolh  in  the  i 
attack  and  defense  of  fortresses.     A  nnlitary  mine  I 
consists  of  a  gallery  of  crreater  or  less  length,  run 
from  some  point  of  safety  imder  an  opposim;  work,  \ 
or\mderan  area  over  which  an  at larUiiiir  force  must 
pass,    and    terndnatins;  in   a  chandxT  which,  beim; 
stored   witli   tninpowder,  can   be  exploded   at    the 
critical  moment.    Mines  are  of  great  ii.su  to  the  be- 1 


ploymenl  of  ndnes  was  very  ancient,and  merely  con- 
sisted in  obtaining  an  entrance  to  the  interior  of 
towns  by  passing  lieneatli  the  defenses  ;  but  this 
soon  fell  into  disuse,  the  chances  of  success  being 
merely  those  of  introducing  a  body  of  men  before  the 
besieged  discovered  the  mine.  Tlie  ne.vluse  occured 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  was  more  destructive. 
'I'he  miners  went  no  further  than  beneath  the  wall, 
tlien  diverged  to  either  side,  and  undermined  the 
wall,  say  for  about  IIH)  feet.     During  the  process, 


Fii,',  1. 

siegers  in  the  overthrow  of  ramparts  and  formation  1  the  wall  was  sustained  Ijy  timber  props;  and  these 
of  a  l)reach  :  the '■<"(«((rw/'«(S  of  the  besieged  in  \ui-  being  ultimately  set  on  lire,  the  wall  fell:  and  the 
dermining  the  glacis  over  which  the  assaulting  col- 1  besiegers,  wlio  had  awaited  the  opportunity,  rushed 
umn  nuist  charge,  and  blowing  them  into  the  air.  in  at  the  lireaeh.  This  use  of  ndnes  of  attack  neces- 
or  in  destroying  batteries  erected  for  breaching,  are  |  silated  those  of  defense  winch  obtained  in  medi.Tval 
equally  serviceable.     But  far  above  tlie  actual  mis- 1  times  and  have  ever  since  kept  the  name  of"  cninter. 


VnSTES. 


364 


KINES. 


mine!'."  The  earliest  subterranean  defense  consisted 
of  a  gallery  surrounding  the  fort  in  advance  of  the 
foot  of  the  wall,  and  termed  an  enveloping  gallery. 
From  this  the  garrison  would- push  forward  small 
branches  of  triliutarj'  galleries,  wlience  they  could 
obtain  warning  of  the  approach  of  hostile  miners, 
and  by  which  they  succeeded,  at  times,  in  overthrow- 
ing the  biittering-rams  or  towers  of  the  besiegers. 

Two  centuries  appear  to  have  elapsed  between  the 
introduction  of   gunpowder  into  European  warfare 
and  its  application  to  subterranean  operations.    The 
first  instance  of  this  occurred  in  l.'JOS,  at  the  siege  of 
the  Castello  del'  Uovo,  in  tlie  bay  of  Naples,  which 
a  French   garrison   liad   succeeded   in   holding  for 
three  years  against  the  combined  Spanish  and  Nea- 
politan forces.     At  length  a  Spanish  Captain,  Pedro 
Navarro,  devised  a  gallery  into  the  rock,  which  he 
stored  with  powder,  whereof  the  explosion,  hurling 
portions  of  the  rock  and  many  of  the  besieged  into 
the  sea,  caused  the  immediate  capture  of  the  place. 
At  once  the  use  of  mines  of  attack  spread  through- 
out Europe  :  and  so  irresistible  were  they  soon  con- 
sidered by  all  military   engineers,   that  it  was   not 
at  all   unusual   for  the  besieger,  after  preparing  his 
mine,  to  invite  the  besieged  to  inspect  it,  with  the 
view  of  inducing  the  latter  at  once  to  surrender. 
Defense  soon  availed  itself  of  the  new  power,  and, 
retaining  the  enveloping  gallery  as  a  base,  ran  small 
countermines  in  many  directions,  to  ascertain,  by 
hearing,  the  approach  of  the  enemy's  sappers — his 
work  being  audible,  to  a  practiced  ear,  at  a  hori- 
zontal distance  of  CO  feet.     Small  charges  were  then 
exploded,  which,  without  creating  surface  disturb- 
ance, blew  in  the  approaching  gallery,  and  buried 
the  sappers  in  its  ruins.     Thus  commenced  a  sj-stem 
of  subterranean  warfare,  requiring  the  greatest  risk 
and  courage,  in  which  the  operator  was  in  constant 
danger  of  being  suffocated.     Of  course,  in  such  a 
system,  the  balance  of  advantage  lay  with  the  be- 
sieged,   who   had   ample   opportunities,  before   the 
siege  commenced,  of  completing  his  ramifications  in 
every  direction,  and,  if  desirable,  of  revetting  them 
with  masonry,  which  much  diminished  the  chance 
of  being  blown  in;  while  the  assailant,  no  longer 
able  to  cross  the  glacis  by  an  open  zigzag  trench, 
was  compelled  to  engage  in  a  most  uncertain  subter- 
ranean advance.     The  French  engineer,  Belidor,  in 
the  18th  century  restored  the  advantage  to  the  attack, 
by  demonstrating  that  the  explosion  of  a  very  large 
mass  of  powder  in  a  mine  which  had  not  yet  entered 
the  labyrinth  of  defensive  mines,  effected  the  de- 
struction of  the  latter  for  a  great  space  round,  clear- 
ing the  way  with  certainty  for  the  hostile  advance. 
Although  the  primary  purpose  of  a  mine  is  the  ex- 
plosion of  a  charge  of  powder,  they  are  often  used 
as   a   means   of   communication   between   different 
works,  or  between  different  parts  of  the  same  work, 
some  being  constructed  of  size  sufiieient  to  permit 
the  passage  of  four  men  abreast,  of  horses,  and  of 
artillery. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible,  in  such  a  work  as  this 
to  give  even  an  outline  of  the  professional  part  of 
military  mining;  but  the  article  would  be  incom- 
plete without  some  allusion  to  the  main  principles. 
Mines  are  either  vertical  (x/iafts).  horizontal,  or  in- 
clined, in  either  of  which  latter  cases,  they  are  giU- 
kru'.n,  the  word  "ascending"  or  "descending"  being 
added  if  there  be  inclination.  The  dimensions  range 
from  the  i/reat  gallery,  0  ft,  6  in.  by  7  ft.,  to  the 
xmiM  branrh — tlie  last  diminutive  of  the  gallery — 
which  has  but  'i  ft,  G  in.  height,  with  a  breadth  of  3 
feet.  The  most  fre(|i»'nt  work  is  the  rmiimoii  (jdtltry, 
4  ft.  0  in.  by  'A  ft.,  which  is  considered  the  easiest 
for  the  miner.  The  sapper's  tools  are  numeroiis, 
but  most  in  request  are  his  shovel,  pickaxe,  and, 
above  all,  his  push-pick,  he  has,  besides,  a  l)arrow, 
a  small  wagon,  a  lamp,  and  other  accessories.  As 
he  advances,  it  is  necessary  to  line  his  gallery,  al- 
ways at  the  top,  and  almost  always  at  the  sides. 
This  he  does  either  by  frames — which  resemble  door- 


frames, and  serve  to  retain  horizontal  planks  or 
sheetmg  in  position  against  the  earth — or  by  cases 
somewh.at  resembling  packing-cases,  of  little  depth, 
which  are  used  to  form  the  sides  and  top.  With 
cases,  galleries  are  suppo.sed  to  advance  one  foot  and 
a  half  per  hour  ;  while  with  frames,  the  progress  is 
barely  more  than  half  that  amount.  Whena  mine 
is  exploded,  the  circular  opening  on  the  surface  is 
cjilled  the  crater;  the  line  of  leant  resistance  is  the 
perpendicular  from  the  charge  to  the  surface;  the  half, 
diameter  of  the  crater  is  its  radius  ;  and  the  radius 
of  explosion  is  a  line  from  the  charge  to  the  edge  of 
the  crater,  on  the  hypothenuse  of  the  triangle,  the 
revolution  of  which  would  form  the  cone.  When 
the  diameter  equals  the  line  of  least  resistance,  the 
crater  is  called  a  one-lined  crater ;  when  it  doubles 
that  line,  a  two-lined  crater;  and  so  on.  The  com- 
mon mine  for  ordinany  operations  is  the  two-lined 
crater ;  and  for  this  the  charge  of  powder  should — 
in  ground  of  average  weight  and  tenacity — be  in 
pounds  a  number  equal  to  one-tenth  of  the" cube  of 
the  line  of  least  resistance  in  feet,  for  example,  at  a 
depth  of  18  feet,  the  charge  should  consist  of  583 
pounds.  In  surcharged  mines,  or  globes  of  com- 
pression, as  introduced  by  Belidor,  vastly  greater 
charges  are  employed,  and  craters  of  sixlines  are 
sometimes  produced.  The  rules,  in  these  cases,  for 
computing  the  charges  vary  exceedingly,  accord- 
ing to  different  engineers,  and  in  every  case  are  very 
complicated.  Previous  to  the  explosion,  the  gallery- 
is  filled  up  behind  the  charge,  or  tamped,  witirearth, 
sand-bags,  etc.,  to  prevent  the  force  of  the  powder 
wasting  itself  in  the  mine.  This  tamping  must  extend 
backwards  for  one  and  a  half  or  twice  the  length  of 
the  line  of  least  resistance.  The  mine  is  commonly 
fired  by  means  of  a  powder-hose,  composed  of  strong 
linen,  inclosed  in  a  wooden  pipe  laid  carefully  through 
the  tamping,  or  b_y  wires  from  a  voltaic  battery. 

One  of  the  most  important  subjects  engaging  the 
attention  of  the  engineer  is  the  proper  ventilation  of 
the  mines.  With  the  progress  of  civilization,  this  sub- 
ject is  assuming,  every  day,  aspects  of  more  and 
more  importance,  not  only  in  relation  to  safety  and 
health,  but  in  a  great  measure  from  its  vital  connec- 
tion with  some  of  the  great  enterprises  of  the  day. 
The  entire  inadequacy  of  any  of  the  present  arrange- 
ments or  systems  to  give  any  thing  like  a  thorough 
and  perfect  ventilation  becomes  niore  and  more  ap- 
parent as  they  proceed  to  greater  depths  and  dis- 
tances under  ground ;    which,  taken  in  connection 
with  the  unhealthiness,  great  risk  and  fearful  loss  of 
life  from  explosions,  now  of  such  common  occur- 
rence, suggest  the  alarming  contingency  of  being 
compelled  to  abandon  them  at  no  very  distant  day. 
The  consequences  of  even  a  slight  interference  with 
the  mining  interests  of  Europe  are  dreadful  to  con- 
template.    And  in  some  parts  of  our  own  country 
the  subject  is  one  of  great  importance.     Sometimes, 
in  connection  with  high  chimneys  above  ground, 
additional  shafts  have  been  sunk.     Fires  have  been 
kept  in  the  mines  and  chimneys,  in  order  to  rarefy 
the  air  and  thus  produce  draught.     This  is  uot  only 
dangerous,  but  to  a  great  degree  ineffectual.     And 
further,  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  power  re- 
sulting from  the  combustion  of  one  pound  of  coal 
will  give  more  ventilation  than  thirty  to  fifty  pounds 
consumed  in  the  way  spoken  of.     May  we  not,  there- 
fore, on  the  whole,  pronounce  this  system  a  failure? 
The  only  remaining  plan  of  note  to  be  considered  is 
the  fan.     Of  late  they  have  received  considerable  at- 
tention.    Enormous  fans  of  from  twenty  to  fifty  feet 
in  diameter,  have  been  constructed  at  great  cxpcn.sc, 
and  rc(pnring  ;i  vast  amount  of  power  to  run  them. 
But  these  considerations   would  not  be  of  so  much 
consequence,  if  they  accomplished  the  purpose;  but 
this,  in  mines  of  any  consideral)le  dcptii  and  extent, 
tliey  do  not  and  can  not.     Within  a  certain  range, 
fauM  woidd  luidoubtedly  be   beneficial,  but  fans  do 
not  have  a  |)ositive  action  either  fcu'  pressure  or  ex- 
haustion.    Their  capabilities  are  thus  limited.     Tlie 


MINES. 


3G5 


UIB£6. 


(lc'<'i)(T  and  nioro  extensive  tlie  mine,  I  lie  printer  the 
neeessilicH  fur  tlioruuf^li  venlilulion.  lleri^  they 
must  iilwiiys  fail. 

The  KiioI'h  ])iisilive  hlower  appears  to  Ik;  Hk; 
most  sati.Hfaotory  niaehine  ever  iiHcil  by  llie  mining 
engineer.  With  tliis  apparatus  phieeil  at  the  mouth 
of  the  shaft  we  ean  exhaust  tlie  damps  and  foul  air 
in  any  required  ((Uiiiitity,  and  discliarge  it  entirely 
out  of  ami  away  from  tlie  mine,  where  it  ean  do  no 
liarm  whatever.  The  foul  air  thus  displaced  will  l)e 
replaced  by  ])urc  air,  which  will  rush  in  from  the 
surface  in  a  volunu'  equal  1o  the  air  displaced.  Thus 
the  most  distant  parts  of  the  mine;  will  be  e(pudly  as 
well  ventilated  as  any  other  part  and  th(;  nunc 
throughout  its  entire  extent  may  be  said  to  be  washed 
out  with  pure  air.  By  this  method,  the  foul  air  re- 
sulting from  blasting  in  mines  and  tunnels  is  ex-' 
hausletl  at  the  point  where  the  gases  are  formed,  and 
entirely  removed  from  I  he  tunnel  and  replaced  with 
pure  air.  This  venlilalor  is  shown  in  scclion  in  Fig. 
1.  It  consists  of  two  rotary  pistons,  which  are  eacii 
2:")  ft.  diameter  and  11!  ft.  wide,  and  arc  built  upon 
steel  shafts.  Upon  each  of  the  shafts  are  keyed  live 
cast  iron  disc  plates,  having  llanges  at,  their  circum- 
ference which  are  all  turned  to  exactly  the  same  i 
diameter.  In  each  disc  jilate  there  are  three  wrought  ' 
iron  bars  lixed  on  each  siilc  of  the  center,  and  reach-  \ 
ing  Id  the  outsid<' of  the  rotary  piston ;  planed  re- 
cessi'S  are  provided  in  the  disc  plates  to  receive  the 
bars,  which  are  also  secured  to  the  disc  plates  by 
bolls  turned  to  tit.  The  outer  ends  of  the  bars  are 
widened,  and  marked  off  and  slotted  to  the  radius 
of  the  outer  circle.  Angle  irons  bent  to  the  radius  I 
of  the  outer  circle  are  riveted  to  the  extremities  of  i 


tween  the  periphery  of  one  of  the  rotary  pistonB 
and  the  center  circle  of  the  other  is  also  tlie  sarnc, 
and  thus  in  any  part  of  the  ventilator  the  clearance 
for  loss  by  l\w.  returning  of  the  air  is  not  much  more 
llian  fl  inch. 

The  arrangement  of  the  engine-house  and  venti- 
lator building  is  shown  in  the  engraving  ;  the  dis- 
charged air  escapes  through  perforated  openings  in 
the  roof,  and,  owing  to  the  viTv  large  area  of  outlet 
from  the  ventilator— the  top  of  the  ventilator  casing 
being  left  entirely  ojien  tlie  air  that  is  being  ex- 
hausted from  the  pit  must  necessarily  be  delivered 
into  tli<;  atmosphere  at  a  lower  velocity  than  is  usual 
with  other  ventilating  machines.  The  range  of  thi.H 
blower,  when  employed  as  an  exhauster,  is  cer- 
tainly in  advance  of  any  of  the  previous  mechanical 
ventilators  ;  and  in  the  writer's  opinion  this  would 
be  a  decided  advantage  in  the  case  (jf  an  explosion. 
When  the  air-doors  become  disarranged,  the  ventila- 
tion of  the  mine  is  interfered  with  at  the  moment 
when  it  would  be  of  the  greatest  service,  and  this 
owing  to  the  limited  power  of  fan  ventilation,  which 
can  only  be  dependetl  ujion  up  to  about  3  in.  water 
gauge ;  but  in  a  case  of  emergency,  with  a  Root's 
ventilator  similar  to  the  one  described,  the  machine 
could  be  instantly  driven  at  its  maximum  power, 
and  would  speedily  clear  the  workings  of  the  choke- 
damp,  fire-damp,  or  after-damp.  Since  explosion.s 
cannot  always  be  prevented,  it  is  of  importance  that 
the  deadly  gases  should  be  drawn  out  in  tlie  shortest 
possible  space  of  time,  and  replaced  with  pure  air; 
and  from  present  experience  this  ventilator  appears 
to  be  well  fitted  to  suit  these  reipiirements. 

rig  2.  shows  the  adaptation  of  the  Cameron  min- 


Fig.  3. 


the  bars,  and  are  covered  with  ^  in.  sheet  iron  plate; 
the  center  circles  are  also  covered  with  |  in.  sheet 
iron  jilates  on  the  turned  flanges  of  the  disc  plates. 
The  sides  of  the  pistons  are  covered  with  %vood,  and 
the  ends  with  sheet  iron.  These  rotary  pistons  re- 
volve in  bearings  fixed  upon  deep  cast  iron  girders, 
which  form  the  framework  of  the  ventilator  pit, 
and  are  connected  together  at  each  end  of  the  ven- 
tilator by  cross  girders.  The  girders  and  the  cast 
iron  side  plates  above  them  are  planed  on  their  in- 
side surfaces,  and  the  stonework  of  the  ventilator 
pit  is  dressed  off  level  with  the  planed  girders.  The 
engines  to  drive  the  ventilator  are  a  pair  of  28  inch 
cylinders  with  4  ft.  stroke,  and  provided  with  ad- 
justable cut-off  valves.  They  are  placed  at  right 
angles  to  the  ventilator,  and  are  connected  to  it  with 
bevel  wheels  9  ft.  2-|  in.  diameter,  two  bevel  wheels 
being  tixcd  upon  the  crank  shaft,  each  gearing  into 
a  bevel  wheel  keyed  upou  the  end  of  the  ventilator 
shalts.  The  engine  beds  are  carried  along  and  fixed 
upon  a  stay  girder,  securely  keyed  and  bolted  to 
the  main  girder.  The  main  girders  are  fixed  13  ft. 
^  in.  apart,  therefore,  the  clearance  between  the 
rotary  pistons  of  13  ft.  and  the  sides  of  the  ventila- 
tor pit  is  only  ^  in.  on  each  side.  At  each  end  of 
the  ventilator  pit,  and  at  the  bottom  on  each  side  of 
the  inlet  from  the  upcast  shaft,  adjustable  packing 
blocks  of  timber  are  fixed^pon  hinged  iron  frames,  ! 
and  can  be  adjusted  with  screws  and  nut  ;  these  j 
blocks  are  set  up  quite  clo.se  to  the  periphery  of  the 
rotary  pistons  within   ^  inch.     The    clearance  be-  I 


ing  pump  for  sinking  and  recovering  shafts.  It  fre- 
quently happens  in  sinking  a  shaft  that  it  makes 
water  so  rapidly  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  remove  it 
as  fast  as  necessary,  and  for  the  same  reason  great 
trouble  is  experienced  in  lowering  an  ordinary  hori- 
zontal ptjmp  from  one  level  to  another ;  and  in 
attempting  to  recover  old  mines  fhat  liave  been 
"  drownecl  out,"  the  difficulty  is  the  more  serious, 
because  of  the  large  surface  below  to  make  water. 
This  machine  is  held  in  suspension  in  the  shaft,  and 
being  vertical,  reipiires  but  little  room,  and  can  be 
raised  and  lowered  as  required.  There  is  no  dan- 
ger of  its  being  submerged.  Being  compact  and 
strongly  made,  without  any  of  the  working  parts 
exposed  to  injury,  they  are  well  adapted  for  the 
rough  usage  incidental  to  the  work  for  which  they 
were  designed.  Adjustable  wrought-iron  dogs  are 
provided  to  fasten  the  pump  to  the  shaft  timbering, 
although  they  will  work  equally  as  well  when  hang- 
ing by  the  tackle,  or  will  operate  perfectly  when 
placed  at  an  angle  or  horizontally.  The  general 
features  are  exacUy  the  same  as  in  an  ordinary  hori- 
zontal machine,  except  that  they  are  arranged  to 
work  vertically.  Iron  pipes  or  flexible  hose  may  be 
employed  as  best  suits  the  situation. 

It  is  but  rare  that,  in  the  defensive  arrrangements 
of  a  field  work,  any  combination  for  a  war  of  mining 
is  provided  for  ;  although  in  many,  and  those  but 
recent  cases  of  a  stubborn  and  protracted  defense  of 
field  works  against  regular  siege  operations,  mines 
have  been  employed   with  great  success,  although 


UINIE  BALL. 


566 


MINISTEK. 


not  made  before  the  works  of  the  assailant  were  un- 
der way.  As  the  end  to  be  attained  is  the  same  in 
conducting  the  defense  of  a  work  by  mines,  whether 
it  be  a  temporary  or  a  permanent  one,  the  same  prin- 
ciples in  the  .arrangement  of  a  combination  of  mines 
for  this  purpose  are  equally  applicable  to  the  two 
cases;  the  most  essential  of  which  are  as  follows: 
As  the  galleries  of  a  system  of  mines  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  underground  communication,  they  should  be 
sul)jected  to  the  same  conditions  as  other  communi- 
cations. A  condition  of  primary  importance  is,  that 
no  combination  shall  be  made  which  might  com- 
promise the  safety  of  the  work.  To  this  end,  no  gal- 
lery beyond  the  ditch  should  lead  to  the  interior  of 
the  work;  for  should  the  enemy  get  possession  of 
such  a  gallery  he  might  either  penetrate  into  the 
work,  or  else  barricade  the  gallery  and  hold  posses- 
sion of  it  long  enough  to  blow  up  the  works  under 
which  it  leads.  The  galleries  should  not  offer  anj- 
facilities  to  the  besiegers  for  carrying  on  tlieir  works. 
Those  galleries,  therefore,  which,  communicating 
with  the  ditches,  might  serve  the  besiegers  for  their 
descent  of  the  ditch ;  also  a  continued  counterscarp 
galler}%  which  may  not  only  facilitate  the  descent  of 
the  ditch  to  the  besiegers,  but  also,  when  in  their 
possession,  give  them  that  of  the  whole  system  of 
mines,  and,  besides,  serve  to  protect  their  passage  of 
the  ditch,  and  to  prevent  sorties  in  it,  should  be  re- 
jected. A  gallery  behind  a  portion  of  the  counter- 
scarp not  favorable  to  the  enemy's  works,  is  very  use- 
ful as  a  depot  for  the  implements  of  the  miners,  and 
also  as  a  communication.  A  complex  sj'stem  of  mines 
should  not  be  used  for  works  that  can  be  carried  by 
storm  ;  for  the  reason  that  the  besiegers  might  easily 
get  possession  of  the  system  before  it  could  be 
brought  into  play.  The  entrance  to  a  sytsem  from 
the  ditch  must  be  revetted,  to  offer  a  sufficient  ob- 
stacle to  prevent  the  enemy  from  getting  possession 
of  the  system  by  surprise ;  hence,  a  revetted  counter- 
scarp is  a  necessary  condition  in  the  establishment 
of  the  system.  The  galleries  should  not  be  run  out 
to  any  considerable  distance  beyond  the  covered- 
ways,  both  on  account  of  procuring  a  good  circula- 
tion of  air,  and  because  very  advanced  galleries  are 
easily  destroyed  by  the  besiegers.  The  distance  to 
which  the  galleries  may  extend  should  be  so  much 
the  less  as  the  ground  above  them  is  well  protected 
by  the  collateral  defenses.  The  soil  must  be  suita- 
ble for  the  establishment  of  a  system  ;  wet,  marshy 
ground,  shifting  sand,  and  hard  rock,  present  almost 
insuperable  obstacles ;  whereas  a  dry,  firm  soil,  soft 
rock,  or  ordinary  earth,  under  a  thin  superstratum 
of  hard  rock,  are  very  favorable  circumst.-inces.  If 
tlie  sub-soil  is  wet,  but  presents  a  firm  and  dry  su- 
perstratum 13  ft.  thick  above  the  level  at  which  the 
water  collects^  mines  may  still  bo  jilaced  with  ad- 
vantage. 

Besides  the  above  general  conditions,  there  are 
certain  special  ones  to  be  attended  to  in  arranging 
the"  galleries  and  chambers.  The  galleries  should  be 
placed  as  far  below  the  surface  as  practicable,  to 
withdraw  them  from  the  effect  of  the  globes  of  com- 
pression of  the  besiegers.  To  drain  the  galleries  they 
sliould  have  a  slight  inclination,  about  j'j,  towards 
the  ditches ;  or,  if  the  ground  descends  towards  a 
hollow,  the  inclination  may  be  given  in  that  direc- 
tion. The  cliambers,  on  the  contrary,  should  be 
near  the  surface  ;  by  this  arrangement  the  powder  is 
economized,  and  all  danger  to  the  galleries  from  the 
explosion  avoided,  whilst  the  object  of  the  mines, 
which  is  to  destroy  the  enemy's  works,  can  be  as  ful- 
ly attained  by  small  mines  as  large  ones.  The  galler- 
ies should  not  be  placed  nearer  to  eacli  other  than 
twic(^  tlie  lineof  least  resistance  of  tlie  heaviest  cliarg- 
ed  mines,  and  not  mueli  less  than  four  times  tlie  line 
of  least  resistance  of  llie  smallest  charges.  This  ar- 
rangement will  readily  admit  of  a  combination  of 
mines  in  two  tiers,  the  line  of  least  resistance  of 
the  lower  being  at  least  doubles  tliat  of  the  u|)per, 
the  cliamberH  of  which   mav  be  so  arranged  that  the 


explosions  of  one  tier  shall  not  affect  either  the  gal- 
leries or  the  mines  of  the  other.  Twice  the  line  of 
least  resistance  of  the  largest  mines  is  the  least  dis- 
tance that  can  be  allowed  between  the  galleries,  in 
order  that  the  mines  of  the  lowest  tier,  which,  be- 
ing placed  near  one  gallery  to  destroy  a  part  of  it, 
shall  not  injure  those  parallel  to  it.  By  placing  the 
galleries  at  this  least  distance  apart,  the"  branches  for 
the  service  of  the  upper  tier  will  be  as  short  as  pos- 
sible, effecting  thus  a  saving  of  time  and  labor ;  and 
for  the  same  reason,  the  galleries  on  any  one  point 
being  as  many  as  can  be  "placed,  there  will  be  less 
chance  of  all  being  destroyed  by  an  explosion,  but 
that  some  one  of  the  galleries  will  be  found  service- 
able. The  galleries  and  branches  for  the  service  of 
the  different  groups  of  mines  should  be  independent 
of  each  other,  so  that  there  may  be  no  confusion  in 
the  service,  and  that  no  group  may  be  rendered  un- 
serviceable by  the  destruction  of  the  communications 
to  another.  The  same  principle  should  be  attended 
to  in  combining  the  different  groups  of  mine  cham- 
bers. The  galleries  and  branches  should  never  pre- 
sent their  flanks  or  sides  to  the  globes  of  compres- 
sion of  the  besiegers.  This  rule  leads  to  the  rejec- 
tion of  enveloping  galleries.  See  lUoirer,  Gounter- 
mhien,  F!r'iig.'i<itt(ry.  Oallery,  and  Shaft. 

MINIE  BALL.— A  liall  or  bullet  of  peculiar  con- 
struction. It  is  cast  hollow  for  nearly  two-thirds  of 
its  length,  and  into  the  opening  of  the  internal  cyl- 
inder there  is  introduced  a  small  concave  piece  of 
iron,  which  the  powder  at  the  moment  of  firing 
forces  into  the  slug,  spreading  it  open,  and  causing 
it  to  fit  perfectly  to  the  barrel.  Hence,  a  great  in- 
crease in  the  precision  of  aim  and  the  extent  of  range. 
See  /hilM. 

MINIE  RIFLE.— A  rifle  introduced  some  years  ago 
and  adapted  for  firing  the  Minie  bullet,  the  peculiar- 
ity of  which  bvdlet  was  that  it  had  an  iron  cup  placed 
in  a  cavity  at  the  base,  which, on  the  rifle  being  fired, 
expanded  the  lead  into  the  grooves  of  the  barrel.  In 
1851  a  rifle  musket  of  the  Minie  pattern  was 
supplied  to  the  English  Army,  but  only  to  a  limited 
extent;  it  was  used  in  the  Crimea,  at  the  battles  of 
the  Alma  and  Inkermau.  Notwithstanding  its  many 
advantages,  it  was  found  to  be  defective  in  practice, 
and  was  superseded  by  the  Enfield  rifle  in  1853. 

MINION. — An  ancient  form  of  ordnance  of  small 
size,  the  caliber  of  which  was  about  three  inches. 

MINISTER.— I.  FuNCTioNAKY  Diplomatic.  By  the 
American  system  Ministers  to  exercise  diplomatic 
f  imctions  near  Foreign  Courts  are  appointed  by  the 
President  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States.  They  are  accredited  by  letter  to  the  Sover- 
eign of  the  country  to  which  they  are  appointed,  and 
are  permitted  certain  immunities  and  privileges, 
being  entitled  to  be  addressed  as  "  Excellency,"  and 
conceded  exemption  from  the  operation  of  municipal 
law.  The  United  States  send  no  Envoys  of  the  rank 
of  Embassadors,  permanently  accredited  to  Foreign 
Courts;  but  have  not  infrequently  conferred  the  rank 
and  authority  in  the  case  of  special  missions.  II, 
Functionary  Executive,  In  the  United  .States  Gov- 
ernment, the  executive  officers  are  under  the  imme- 
diate official  direction  and  control  of  Heads  of  De- 
partments, ineludingthose  of  State,  Treasury,  Interi- 
or, War,  Post-Oftice,  Navy,  Justice,  and  Agriculture. 
Seven  of  these  Officials  have  seats  in  the  Cabinet  or 
Coimcil  of  Advisers  of  the  President,  and  are  termed 
"The  Cabinet."  They  are  the  Secretaries  of  State, 
War,  the  Treasury,  the  Navy,  and  the  Interior;  the 
Postmaster-Oeneral,  and  the  Attorney-General,  or 
the  H(  ad  of  the  Department  of  .lustice!  These  Offi- 
cials are  aiipoiiiled  by  the  Presiilent,  and  confirmed 
by  the  Senate;  their  duly  is  to  administer  or  execiile 
the  functions  of  their  respective  offices  under  the 
direction  of  the  President;  to  whom  they  are  imnu>- 
(liately  resi)onsil)le  and  t(»  whom  they  report  aniuially; 
and  from  tiim^  to  time  on  special  subjects  if  so  desir- 
ed by  him.  They  hold  their  offices  at  llie  will  of  the 
President,  who  may  request  their  resignations  if  the 


KIROR  BARONS. 


367 


HIBAOE. 


good  (if  Ilic  publir  Hprvico  slmllofprn  torcr|iiirc  it.  As 
iin  AilviHory  Council,  tlicy  iis.^cuililrui  llic  call  of  tlic 
President,  or  ill  stilled  tiincs,  for  coiifcn-ncc,  to  cn- 
unciiitc  oi)inions  or  to  imswcr  (nioslions.  Tiicre  iH 
nothini;,  liowrv(T,in  UicConstitutioii  or  elsewhere  in 
American  law  wliicli  renders  il  ol)lii;Hlory  on  the 
President  to  eni|)loy  them  in  this  nianner,  thoujcli 
custom  has  made  it  usual  and  convenient  so  to  do. 
K.vcepliiif;  to  the  {'resident  for  tlie  [iroper  perfonn- 
anee  of  their  ofljcial  duties,  tliey  have  no  responsibil- 
ities; and  in  no  particidar  e.xce])!  in  l\w  nature  of 
these  duties  do  they  resemble  the  IMinislers  of  Great 
ISritain  or  those  of  the  Kuropean  Powers 

MINOR  BARONS.  Tin'  word  baron,  in  the  earliest 
Iieriod  of  l''eu(hilisni,  sii;nilied  one  who  held  lands 
of  a  superior  by  military  lenun'.  The  superior  miL'ht 
be  the  Sovereinn,  or  he  mi;,dit  be  an  Karl  or  other 
eminent  jxTson,  who  held  of  the  Hovereijrn.  Ac- 
cording as  he  was  the  one  or  the  other,  the  Huron 
waa,  in  the  earliest  sense  of  the  distinction,  a  (ireat- 
cr  or  Lesser  Baron.  At  the  Coiujuest  a  larj;e  jjart 
of  the  soil  of  Kiifjland  was  parceled  by  William  the 
Norman  amons;  liis  military  retainers,  wlio  were 
bound  in  return  to  perform  services,  to  do  honuii^e, 
aiul  to  assist  in  ailministerini;  justice,  and  in  trans- 
act ini;  the  other  business  done  in  the  Court  of  the 
King.  400  of  these  Tenants-in-Chief  of  the  Crown 
are  enumerated  in  Domesday,  ineludinij;  among  them 
"Yiee-coniites"  and  "comites",  who  together  con- 
Ktituted  the  body  of  men  called  the  Barons  of  Kng- 
land.  As  the  Sovereign  was  entitled  to  demand  from 
11. e  Baron's  military  service,  homage,  and  attendance 
in  tlie  Courts,  so,  many  of  tlie  principal  liarons,  pnr- 
ticularly^  such  of  them  as  were  Karls,  had  .Military 
Tenants,  from  whom  they  in  turn  received  homage 
and  assistance  in  administering  justice  in  their  Ba- 
ronial Courts.  These  Tenants  were  Barons  of  the 
Barons,  or,  in  the  earliest  sense.  Minor  Barons  ;  but 
by  the  usage  of  England,  from  the  Conijuest  down- 
wards, they  were  seldom  called  ISarons,  that  term 
having  l)een  generally  restricted  to  the'  former  class, 
the  holders  of  land  direct  from  the  Crown,  who 
were  ne.xt  to  the  King  in  dignity,  formed  his  army 
and  his  legislative  as.scmbly,  ami  ol)tained  the  great 
Cliarter  from  King.Iohn.  Thesul)infcudation  which 
produced  the  iMinor  Barons  was  checked  by  a  statute 
of  Kdward  I.,  directing  that  all  persons  acquiring 
lands  from  a  subjc<'t,  should  hold  not  of  that  subject, 
but  of  his  superior. 

MINUTE  GUNS.— Guns  lired  on  the  interment  of  an 
officer  of  rank,  or  of  some  liigh  pers<mage  of  the 
realm.  The  officer  to  whom  these  honors  are  paid 
must  have  been  above  the  rank  of  Colonel  in  the 
Armj',  or  of  Commodore  in  the  Navy,  and  have  died 
on  service.  Minute  gims  are  also  tired  as  signals  of 
distress. 

MINUTE  MAN. — A  man  enlisteil  for  service  wher- 
ever required,  and  ready  to  march  at  a  moment's 
notice.  The  term  was  first  used  in  the  American 
Uevplution. 

MINUTES.—  A  l)rief  orrough  rejiort  of  the  proceed- 
ings of  a  Society  or  Council  drawn   uji  by  the  Secre- 
tary or   Hecorder.     They  are    so  called   from   being 
taken  down  sliorlly,  and  in  minute  or  small  writing,  j 
tfi  lie  afterwards   ensjrossed.  I 

MINUTES   OF  COUNCILS   IN  THE  MILITARY  DE- 
PARTMENT.—'I'he  notification  of  orders  and  regula- 
tions, which  are  directed  to  be  observed  by  the  Brit- 
ish Army  in  India.     These  minutes  receive  the  sanc- 
tion of  tiie  Governor-General  in  Council,  and  are  the 
results  of  previous  communications  from  the  Court 
of  Directors  in  Europe.     The  answer  to  the  French 
word,  Iltxultiit,  which  was  prefixed  to  all  orders  and 
regulations  that  were  occasionally  issued  by  tlie  Mil- ) 
itary  Boards,  or  ConseiiKle  Guerre,  for  the  govern- 
irent  of  tlie  Army.    The  term,  Jugeinent  (fun  Conneil  | 
de  Guerre,  corresponded  with  minutes  of  a  General ; 
or  Garrison  Court-Martial,  and  expressed  not  only 
the  minutes,  but  the   .sentence  of  the  Court. 

MIQUELETTI.— Asmall  body  of  mountain  fusiliers,  ! 


'  who  formerly  belonged  to  the  Neapolitan  Army. 
The  term  jl/M/'/'Wt  is  applird  to  Bandits,  who  liav« 
infested  th«!  I'yrenean  Alouiilains ;  the  name  is  alHo 
I  borne  by  the  Captain-General's  Guard.  In  1H08, 
Napoleon  organized  a  corps  of  Miipielet»  Fraiicaiii, 
who  ri'iidered  good  services. 
j  MIRAGE.— A  phenomenon  extremely  common  in 
'  certain  localities,  and  as  simple  in  itB*origin  as  aston- 
ishing in  its  elTe('ts.  L'nder  it  art  classed  the  ap- 
pearance of  distant  objects  as  double,  or  as  if  bus. 
jiended  in  the  air  erect  or  inverted,  etc.  One  caiise 
of  the  mirage  is  a  diminution  of  the  density  of 
I  the  air  near  the  .surface  of  the  earth,  produceil 
I  by  the  transmission  of  heat  from  flie  earth,  or  in 
'  some  other  way;  the  denser  stratum  being  thiiH 
placed  (ihitn ,  instead  of.  as  is  usually  the  case,  hehw 
the  rare#.  Now,  rays  of  light  from  a  distant  object 
situated  in  the  denser  nieiiiiim  ti.  e.,  a  little  above 
the  earth's  level),  coming  in  a  direction  nearly  jiar- 
allel  to  the  earth's  surface,  meet  the  rarer  medium 
at  a  very  obtuse  angle,  and  instead  of  passing  into  il, 
are  reflected  back  to  the  dense  medium,  the  com- 
mon 8urfac(?  of  the  two  media  acting  as  a  mirror. 
Su)ipose,  then.  iisiiectHlor  tobe  situated  on  an  emin- 
ence, and  looking  at  an  object  situated  like  himself 
in  the  denser  stratum  of  air,  he  will  see  the  object 
by  means  of  Vlirectly  transmitted  rays;  but  besides 
this,  rays  from  the  object  will  be  retfeeted  from  the 
upper  surface  of  the  rarer  stratum  of  air  beneath  to 
his  eye.  The  image  produced  by  the  rellected  rays 
will  appear  inverted,  and  luhiw  the  real  object,  just 
as  an  image  rellected  in  water  appears  when  ob- 
served from  a  distance.  If  the  object  is  a  cloud  or 
portion  of  sky,  it  will  apjiear  by  the  reflected  raj's 
as  lying  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  bearing  a 
strong  resemblance  to  a  sheet  of  water;  also,  as  the 
reflecting  surface  is  irregular,  and  constantly  varies 
its  position,  owing  to  the  constant  communication 
of  heat  to  the  upper  stratum,  the  reflected  image 
will  be  constantly  varying,  and  will  ]iresent  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  water  surface  ruftled  liy  the  wind.  This 
form  of  mirage,  which  even  experienced  travelers 
have  found  to  be  completely  deceptive,  is  of  com- 
mon occurrence  in  the  arid  deserts  of  lower  Egj-pt. 
Persia,  Tartary,  etc. 


In  particular  states  of  the  atmosphere,  reflection 
of  a  portion  only  of  the  rays  takes  place  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  dense  medium,  and  thus  double  images 
are  formed,  one  by  reflection,  and  the  other  by  re- 
fraction— the  first  inverted,  and  the  seccmd  erect. 
The  phenomena  of  mirage  are  fre(iuently  much  more 
strange  and  complicated,  the  images  being  often 
much  distorted  and  magnified,]and  in  some  instanc- 
es occurring  at  a  consideral)le  distance  from  the 
object,  as  iii  the  case  of  a  tower  or  church  seen  over 
the  sea,  or  a  vessel  over  dry  land,  etc.  The  particu- 
lar form  of  mirage  known  as  looming  is  very  fre- 
(juently  observed  pt  sea,  and  consists  in  an  excessive 
apparent  elevation  of  the  object.  A  most  remarkable 
case  of  this  sort  occurred  on  July  26,  1798.  at  Has- 
tings. From  this  place  the  French  coast  is  fifty 
miles  distant;  yet.  from  the  sea-side  the  whole  coast 
of  France,  from  Calais  to  near  Dieppe,  was  distinctly 


HIRE. 


368 


MITEAILLE. 


visible,  and  continued  so  for  three  hours.  In  the 
Artie  regions  it  is  no  uncommon  occurrence  for 
whale-flshers  to  discover  tlie  proximity  of  other  ships 
by  meaus  of  thier  images  seen  elevated  in  tlie  air, 
though  tlie  ships  themselves  may  be  below  the  hori- 
zon. GeneralU',  when  the  ship  is  above  the  horizon, 
only  one  image,  and  that  inverted,  is  found;  but 
when  it  is  wholly,  or  in  great  part  below  the  hori- 
zon, double  images,  one  erect  aud  t!ie  other  inverted, 
are  f rcqueutly  seen.  The  faithfuluess  and  distinct- 
ness of  these  images  at  times  may  be  imagined  from 
the  fact,  that  Captain  Scoresby,  while  cruising  oflf 
the  coast  of  Greenland  in  1822,  discovered  the  pro- 
pinquity of  his  father's  ship  from  its  inverted  image 
in  the  sky.  Another  remarkable  instance  of  mirage 
occurred  in  May,  1854,  when,  from  the  deck  of  H. 
M.  screw-steamer  Archer,  then  cruising  of  Oesel,  in 
the  Baltic,  the  whole  English  fleet  of  nineteen  sail, 
then  nearly  thirty  miles  distant,  was  seen  as  if  sus- 
pended in  the  air  upside  down.  Besides  such  phe- 
nomena as  these  the  celebrated  Fata  Morgana  of  the 
Straits  of  Messina  sinks  into  insignificance.  The 
Spfctcr  of  the  Bracken  in  Hanover,  is  another  cele- 
brated instance  of  mirage.  Its  varieties  are  indeed 
numberless,  and  we  refer  those  who  wish  for  fur- 
ther information  to  Brewster's  Optics,  Blot's  Traite 
de  Phys'que,  and  for  the  mathematical  theory  of  the 
mirage  to  the  works  of  Biot,  Monge,  and  Wollaston. 
MIKE. — In  the  French  artillery,  a  piece  of  wood 
aboiu.  4  inches  thick,  1  foot  high,  and  2^  feet  long, 
which  is  used  in  pointing  cannon. 

MIKEUE. — An  instrument  employed  in  coast  bat- 
teries for  ascertaining  whether  the  enemy's  ships  are 
within  the  range  of  the  guns,  and  thus  to  prevent 
the  gunners  from  expending  their  shot  unneces- 
sarily. 

MIRMILLONES.— A  variety  of  Roman  gladiators, 
said  to  have  been  so  called  from  their  having  the 
image  of  a  fish  on  their  helmets.  Their  armsVere 
like  those  of  the  Gauls;  hence  we  find  that  they 
were  also  called  Galli.  They  were  usually  matched 
with  the''Retiarii. 

MIRROK. — An  instrument  used  in  the  inspection 
of  cannon.  The  interior  of  the  bore  is  examined  b_y 
reflecting  the  rays  of  the  sun  into  it  from  tlie  mirror 
or  mirrors ;  or,  if  the  sun  is  obscured,  and  there  can 
be  no  delay,  by  means  of  a  spirit-lamp  or  of  a  wax 
taper  on  the  end  of  a  rod,  tiiking  care  not  to  smoke 
the  surface  of  the  bore.  See  Inspfrtimi  of  Ordnance. 
MISBEHAVIOK  BEFORE  THE  ENEMY.— The  Art- 
icles of  War  declare  that  anj'  officer  or  soldier  who 
misbehaves  himself  before  the  enemy,  runs  awav, 
or  shamefully  abandons  any  fort,  post,  or  a  guard 
which  lie  is  commanded  to  defend,  or  speaks  words 
inducing  others  to  do  the  like,  or  casts  away  his 
arms  or  ammunition,  or  quits  his  post  or  colors  to 
plunder  or  pillage,  shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other 
punishment  as   a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

MISCELLANEOUS.— An  item  or  charge  in  the  Esti . 
mates  of  the  British  Army,  and  so  distinguished  as 
Miscellnnewds  Services;  the  same  as  our  Contingent 
JSipfnditnres. 

MISCONDUCT  AT  DIVINE  SERVICE.- In  the  Art- 
icles of  War,  it  is  earnestly  recommended  to  all 
Officers  and  Soldiers  diligently  to  attend  divine 
service.  Any  officer  who  behaves  indecently  or 
irreverently  at  any  place  of  divine  worship  is 
brought  before  a  General  Court-Martial,  there  to  be 
jmblicly  and  severely  reprimanded  by  the  President 
tliereof.  Any  soldier  who  so  ofl'enda,  for  his  first 
offense,  forfeits  oue-si.xth  of  a  dollar;  foreacli  further 
offense  he  forfeits  ii  like  sum,  and  is  confined  twenty- 
four  hours.  Tlie  money  so  forfeited  is  deducted 
from  his  ne.xt  jiay,  and  is  ajiplied,  by  the  Ciqitain  or 
Senior  Officer  of  his  troop,  battery,  or  company,  to 
the  use  of  llie  sick  scildicrs  of  the  same. 

MISCONDUCT  IN  TIME  OF  WAR.— All  Officers  and 
Soldiers  are  to  beliave  themselves  orderly  in  quarters 
and  fin  tlie  march;  and  wlioever  commits  any  waste 
orspoil,  either  in  walks  or  trees,  parks, warrens,  fish- 


ponds,houses, gardens, grain-fields.inclosures, or  mea- 
dows,or  maliciously  destroys  any  property  whatsoev- 
er belonging  to  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  (un- 
less by  order  of  a  General  Officer  commanding  a  sep- 
arate army  in  the  field),  shall,  besides  such  penalties 
as  he  may  be  liable  to  by  law, be  punished  as  a  Court- 
Martial  may  direct. 

In  time  of  war,  insurrection,  or  rebellion,  larceny, 
robbery,  burglary,  arson,  mayhem,  manslaughter, 
murder,  assault  and  battery  with  an  intent  to  kill, 
wounding,  by  shooting  or  stabliing,  with  an  intent 
to  commit  murder,  rape,  or  assault  and  battery  with 
and  intent  to  commit  rape,  shall  be  punishable  by 
the  sentence  of  a  General  Court-Martial,  when  com- 
mitted by  persons  in  the  military  service  of  the  Unit- 
ed States,  and  the  punishment  in  any  such  case  shall 
not  be  less  than  the  punishment  provided,  for  the 
like  offense,  by  the  laws  of  the  State,  Territorj',  or 
District  in  which  such  offense  may  have  been  com- 
mitted. 

MISERXCORDE.  —A  very  short  sword, in  early  times, 
attached  to  the  right  side,  corresponding  with  the 
position  of  thereguhir  sword  on  the  left  side.  This 
weapon  is  so  called  because  it  was  habitually  used  to 
stab  the  fallen  and  vanquished  foe,  when  iii  such  ex- 
tremity either  that  mercy  would  be  sought,  or  that  it 
would  be  a  merciful  deed  to  put  an  end  to  the  suffer- 
er's agonies. 

MISNOMER.- Themistaking  of  the  true  name  of  a 
person.  If  auj' prisoner  plead  a  misnomer  heiore  a 
Court-Martial,  tlie  Court  may  ask  the  prisoner  his 
real  name,  and  call  upon  him  to  plead  to  the  amend- 
ed charge. 

MISSILE. -^A  weapon  thrown,  or  intended  to  be 
thrown,  for  doing  execution  ;  as.  a  lance,  an  arrow, 
or  a  bullet. 

MITER. — The  miter,  as  an  ornament,  seems  to 
have  descended  in  the  earliest  times  from  Bishop  to 
Bishop.  Among  the  Cottonian  MSS.  is  an  order 
dated  July  1,  4  Henry  VI.,  for  the  delivery  to  Arch- 
bishop Chichely  of  the  miter  which  had  been  worn 
b/  his  predecessor.  It  was  in  some  cases  a  very 
costly  ornament.  Ajchbishop  Pecheham's  new 
miter,  in  1288,  cost  £17.3  4s.  Id.  In  England,  since 
the  Reformation,  the  miter  is  no  longer  a  part  of  the 
Epi.scopal  costume,  but  it  is  placed  over  the  shield 
of  an  Archbishop  or  Bishop,  instead  of  a  crest. 
The  miter  of  a  Bishop  has  its  lower  rim  surrounded 
with  a  fillet  of  gold  ;  but  the  Archbishops  of  Canter- 
bur}'  and  York  are  in  the  practice  of  encircling  theirs 
with  a  ducal  conmet,  a  usage  of  late  date  and  doubt- 
ful propriety.  The  Bishop  of  Durham  surrounds  his 
miter  with  an  Earl's  coronet,  in  consequence  of  being 
titular  count  palatine  of  Durham  and  Earl  of  Sed- 
burgh.  Before  the  custom  was  introduced  of  Bish- 
ops impaling  the  insignia  of  their  sees  with  their 
family  arms,  tliej'  sometimes  differenced  their  pater- 
nal coat  by  the  addition  of  a  miter.  Miters  are  rare 
as  a  charge  in  Heraldry, but  are  sometimes  borne  as 
a  crest,  particularly  in  Germany,  to  indicate  that  the 
bearers  were  feudatories,  or  dependencies  of  ancient 
Abbevs. 

MITFORD  PERCUSSION  BULLET.— An  ordinary  En- 
field bullet,  having  a  iliamber.down  its  longer  axis, 
to  within  \  inch  of  the  hollow;  this  clianiber  contains 
i\  grains  of  detonating  composition ;  and  the  bot- 
tom is  closed  with  wa.v.  It  is  intended  to  explode, 
ammunition  wagons. 

MITIGATE.— T'o  diminish  the  severhy  of  punish- 
ment. Every  otlicer  who  is  authorized  to  order  a 
Genenil  Court-Martial  has  jiower  to  pardon  or  miti- 
gate any  punisliment  adjudged  by  it,  except  the 
punishment  of  deiilh  or  of  dismissal  of  an  officer. 
Every  officer  commanding  a  regiment  or  garrison  in 
which  a  Regimental  or  Gaitrison  Court-Martial  may 
bi'  held,  has  power  to  pardon  or  mitigate  any  pun- 
ishment which  such  Court  may  adjudge. 

MITRAILLE.  Small  pieces  of  old  iron,  such  as 
lieads  of  n;nls,  etc.,  with  whicli  pieces  of  ordnance 
are  sometimes  loaded. 


MITKAILLEUK. 


•m;'.) 


MITBAILLEUB. 


MITRAILLEUE.— A  nmchino-ciin  in  vvliicli  nii- 
iiicroiis  liirn<'  Imri'd  rifles  arc  ('(itiiljini'il  with  hrcceli 
iiclioii,  1)V  iiic'iiiis  of  wliicli  a  shower  of  liiillels  may 
h.'  rapiilly  projeelcil  by  oik-  man.  It  was  invcnti'd  in 
Helitiiiin,  anil  uiloplcil  by  llie  Freneh  Kni])eror  kooii 
Mft<T  the  I'rnHsiaii-AnHtriaii  war  of  lH(!(i.  It  was  t)i(! 
ejiief  cannon  of  the  Frenell  artillery  diirini;  the 
Franeo-(;erinan  war  of  1870.  The  mitrailleuse  e.x- 
isteil  in  a  jirimitivc  form  as  early  as  the  Ittli  eeii- 
lury,  and  well-preserved  speeimens  mav  lie  found 
in  the  arsenals  and  museums  of  Vienna,  Uome,  Ber- 
lin, Moscow  and  ('onstantinoi)lc.  A  late  form  of  the 
weapon,  used  liy  the  French,  has  :i7  barrels,  and  am- 
inuiiilion  chests  alongside  the  iinn  on  the  same  axle. 
The  :!T  carlridi;es,  intended  for  the  cliari;e,  are  con- 
tained in  a  small  box.  A  steel  plate  with  corres- 
p.mdini;  holes  is  placed  on  the  open  box,  which  is 
then  reversed,  and  the  cartridges  fall,  ])oints  fore- 
most into  their  respective  holes.  They  iire  prevent- 
ed from  fallini;  throngh  by  the  rims  at  their  bases. 
The  loaded  plate  is  then  introduced  into  the  breech- 
slot,  an  1  when  the  breech  is  closed  by  a  lever,  a 
number  of  steel  pins,  pressed  by  spiral  springs,  arc 
only  lirevcnted  from  striking  the  percussion  arrange- 
ment ill  the  cartridges  by  a  plate  in  front  of  llicm. 
When  this  case  is  moved  slowly  by  a  handle,  the 
cartridges  are  tired  one  by  one.  If  the  plate  be  with- 
drawn rapidly,  tlu'y  follow  each  other  so  quickly 
that  Iheir  discharge  is  almost  simultaneous.  The 
projectile  weighs  ;i7  grammes,  or  a  little  over  an 
ounce.  The  charge  of  powder  is  from  (!  to  8  gram- 
mes. The  last  amount  is  that  connseled  by  the  in- 
ventors. Thismilrailleur  weighs  ISO  kilogrammes, 
or  400  pounds  without  the  carriage,  and  it  can  be 
worked  by  two  men.  It  was  found,  however,  at 
Vienna,  in  December  \W.),  that  to  obtain  the  most 
rapid  tiring,  or  48  balls  jicr  mimite,  five  men  were 
necessary  to  work  the  piece.  The  front  carriage 
contains  from  48  to  Hii  boxes  for  loading,  an'd  the 
two  caissons  hold  l(i  breech- plates  furnished  with 
cartridges.  The  piece  is,  therefore,  ])rovi<led  with 
23(i8  cartridges ;  and  a  battery  of  8  mitrailleurs  can 
hurl  on  an  attacking  column  3848  effective  projec- 
tiles per  minute. 

The  description  and  nomenclature  of  the  one-inch 
mitrailleur  (Gatlin  Gun),  a  jiiece  much  used  in  the 
United  States  Army,  is  as  follows:  The  breech  load- 
ing rifled  hurrels  (1)  are  fastened  together  by  a  front 


per-gromtii;  hnp^fr-itpr.'ng.  Son  the  drawing  below 
The  following  parts  are  within  the  breech-easing 
lork.r.yliiidfr;  rcar-giLde  nut ;  a/ckiny-ring;  CKkiiig 
kwih ;  cucking-di-vice  ;  mrking-rinf/  clatitpn  ;  Hpiral 
cam  ;  diaphragm  ;  diaphnigin-jilug  ;  genr-irluel ;  pin. 
inn  ;  rn'ir  iiainKC.ri'W ;  era nk-Hlioft ;  in/rm ;  ituriii-gc/ir. 
Kach  lock  consists  of  a  hirk-hntl,  lork-tuhe  iir  plunger, 
hick-li<iiitiiirr,  tork.Hpring,Jiring-jiin,  and  iTlrnrli.r. 

T(i  talcf'  Itie.  mitrailleur  upurt  ii]i>ik  tip  frame  anil 
Ijarrels;  takeoff  hopper;  take  off  cascabel  jilati- ; 
take  pin  out  of  pinion,  turn  crank  downward,  and 
then  remove  crank-Khaft ;  take  out  rear-sight,  and 
then  remove  large  gear-wheel ;  take  out  rear  plug 
in  diaphragm,  and  gently  revolve  the  jiiece  until  a 
lock  presents  itself  on  a  line  with  the  hole  in  the 
diaphragm,  through  which  the  locks  are  success- 
ively removed  ;  take  out  large  screws  on  sides  of 
breech-casing,  and  remove  casing  to  the  rear.  Be 
careful  to  have  the  lock-cylinder  and  piece  supported 
so  as  to  keep  the  center-line  of  main-shaft  parallel 
to  top  of  frame ;  this  is  necessary  to  prevent  the 
inner  breech  or  rear  of  the  piece  from  dropping 
when  the  casing  is  removed.  The  large  rear  nut, 
on  the  shaft  in  rear  of  the  lock-cylinder,"  and  which 
serves  as  a  guide  for  the  rear-ends  of  the  locks,  is 
made  fast  by  a  tapered  |)in  and  a  bft-htinded  ncriic  ; 
to  remove  this  nut,  the  pin  is  taken  out  and  the  nut 
turned  to  the  right.  The  lock-cylinder  and  carrier- 
block  are  then  taken  off.  The  spiral  cam  need  not 
come  out  of  the  casing  in  taking  the  mitrailleur 
apart. 

To  put  the  mitrailleur  together — P\it  main-shaft  in 
place,  through  the  plates  which  hold  the  barrels,  and 
then  replace  carrier-block,  lock-cylinder,  and  large 
rear  nut;  screw  up  this  nut  tightly. and  put  tapered  pin 
through  the  nut  and  shaft:  jjlace  the  mitrailleur  in 
the  frame,  and  let  front  end  of  main  shaft  rest  in  the 
hole  designed  for  it.  in  the  front  of  frame;  take  care 
to  keep  the  center  of  iiKiin-shaft  in  the  plane  of  top 
of  frame.  When  the  piece  is  in  this  position,  push 
the  cocking-ring  over  the  lock-cylinder  :ind  let  it 
hang  loosely  round  the  carrier-block;  raise  the 
breech  .slightly,  and  push  the  breech-casing  over 
the  lock-cylinder,  etc.,  to  its  place;  screw  casing  to 
frame  and  put  cocking-ring  in  its  proper  place  ;  re- 
volve the  piece  to  the  right  or  left,  so  that  the  places 
for  the  locks  will  come  on  a  line  with  the  liole  ia 
the  diaphragm,  through  which    the  locks  are  suc- 


barrel-plute  (2)  and  a  rear  hnrrel-plute  (3).  The  enr- 
riir-hloek  (4), a  hollow  cylinder  whicli  carries  the  car- 
tridges, is  directly  behind  the  barrels.  The  lock-cyl- 
inder, another  cylinder  behind  the  carrier-block. con- 
tains the  loek.^  (one  to  each  barrel).  The  barrels, 
carrier-block,  and  lock-cylinder,  revolve  around  a 
common  axis  called  the  mninshaft  (5).  which  is  turn- 
by  the  hand-crank  ((i).  The  lock-cylinder  revolves 
within  a  brerch-casi/ig  (7),  forming  the  body  of  the 
gnu  and  closed  in  rear  by  the  cn.mibel  plate  (8)  The 
breech-casing  is  fastened  to  {he  frame  (9)  by  theca<- 
ing-screirn  (W).  The  cartridges  are  inserted  in  the 
h'ipper  (\\),  and  pass  successively  into  the  rhannels 
of  the  carrier-block,  whence  the)'  are  thrust  into  the 
barrels  by  tlie  lork-tiiheK  or  plungers .  and  held  there 
until  exploded  by  tUaf ring-pins.  The  cartridgi-nliell 
stop  is  attached  to  the  hopper.  The  other  parts  are 
the  trunnions  (12)  ;  rear-sight  (13)  ;  front-sight  (14): 
face  (15) :  socket,  for  head  of  elevating-screw  ;  socket 
guide-plnte  and  screic ;  locking-block  for  locking  bolt : 
plug  for  removing  locks  :  trarersing-screir  ;  regulat- 
ing nut,  on  traversing-screw  ;  thumb-.y,ring  for  regu- 
lating nut;  crank-atop;  hinges;  hoppei-spindle;  hop- 


cessivcly  inserted  and  placed  in  a  proper  position; 
then  insert  screw-plug  to  close  the  hole  through 
diaphragm  ;  put  on  cog-wheel :  replace  crank-shaft, 
pinion,  and  tapered  pin  ;  then  put  on  rear-sight,  and 
screw  on  butt-plate  and  hojiper. 

The  following  is  the  nomenclature  of  the  gun-car- 
riage for  the  mitrailleur:  Stock:  head  ;  groove  ;  trail; 
rounding  of  trail;  trail-plate;  henette ;  jointing -rng; 
pointing-socket;  trail-handler;  wheel-guard  plate;  tle- 
vating-screw ;  elevating-scrau  box  ;  ehrating-screic  bid; 
rondelles;  checks;  ira.':her-hooks  for  liandspike ;  under, 
straps ;  handspike-rings ;  ceiji-iqtiare.i ;  cap~\qiiare 
chains;  key-chains  and  keys;  trunninn.bids  ;  trunnion 
swivel;  trunnion.-swicel  friction-bed;  Jrame  ferr  trater. 
sing.apparatus  or  tran  rsing-arm  ;  tracersing-fork  ; 
traversing-fork  spring:  (si)iral);  traversing-fork han- 
dle: tran  rsing-fork  ciamp-screw:  traversing-fork  c<7.i>', 
with  slot  for  handle ;  locking-bolt  connected  with 
traversing-fork  by  a  lueking-lecer ;  I'xking-lolt  c-nse; 
.itock-teat,  with  /linge  and  prop;  drag-hooks;  eletating- 
screuD  nut ;  elevating-n  ut  luindlr ;  eletating-rlamp 
.icrew;  rod-ca.ie  and  kegs;  axle;  uheels.  See  GatXing 
Oun,  Machine-gun,  and  Piece. 


MITTEN. 


370 


MODEL. 


MITTEN. — A  liand-covering  which  superseded  the 
gauntlet  in  tlie  15th  century.  It  was  made  of  thin 
plates  of  steel,  with  joints,  to  enable  the  hand  to 
move  freely.  It  is  of  this  mitten  that  Bayard  saj's, — 
"Ce  que  gantelet  gague.  gorgeriu  le  mange." 

MITTLEREE.— One  of  the  three  parts  of  which  the 
encieute  is  formed,  in  the  German  system  of  fortifi- 
cation. 

MIXED  BATTLE. — A  combination  of  defensive  and 
offensive  battles.  The  most  common  case  of  this 
class  is  that  in  which  a  position  is  selected  before 
hand  where  the  army  awaits  the  attack  of  the  enem}-, 
and  at  a  suitable  moment  moves  from  it  and  attacks 
the  assaulting  columns.  This  case  is  sometimes 
known  as  a  "defensive-offensive"  battle.  Where  the 
ground  is  favorable  ami  the  troops  are  in  good  con- 
dition, these  battles  offer  peculiar  advantages,  since 
the  assaulting  columns, being  exhausted  by  their  first 
efforts  are  not  in  the  best  condition  to  repel  the  at- 
tack of  an  armj'  rushing  forward  from  its  position. 
See  liiiltlj'n.   Defensive  Battle,  and  Offensive  Battle. 

MIXING  MACHINE.- A  machine  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  gun  powder.  It  consists  of  a  hollow 
drum  of  copper  about  2'  wide  by  3'  in  diameter 
which  is  made  to  revolve  at  a  speed  of  thirt3--five 
revolutions  per  minute.  The  bearings  of  this  drum 
are  hollow,  and  a  shaft  passes  through  them,  having 
in  the  interior  of  the  drum  an  eight  sided  boss  or 
tube  secured  to  it;  into  this  a  series  of  arms  or  flyers 
are  screwed,  there  being  five  on  one  face  of  the  octa- 
gon and  six  on  tlie  next  alternately,  so  that  there  are 


iortj'-four  flyers  altogether.  They  are  made  of  a  flat 
section,  but  forked  at  the  ends,  and  provided  with 
holes  through  their  flat  sides,  and  each  one  is  set  at 
a  different  angle  to  the  next:  their  points  just  clear 
the  inside  of  the  drum,  and  they  revolve  in  the  op- 
posite direction  to  it  at  the  rate  of  seventy  revolu- 
tions per  minute.  The  three  bags  of  ingredients  (50 
lb.  in  all)  are  emiitied  one  at  a  time  through  a  door 
into  the  copper  drum, and  after  the  machine  has  been 
five  minutes  at  work  they  will  be  found  to  be  thor- 
oughly mixed.  Tlie  door  in  the  drum  is  now  opened, 
and  tlie  com])ositicm  falls  down  a  shoot  into  a  tub, 
and  after  being  spread  out,  is  carefidly  examined, 
and  then  placed  in  the  receiving  bags.  When  the 
bags  are  filled,  they  are  tightly  tied  up,  and  it  is  very 
essential  that  this  operation  be  carefully  performed, 
for  should  tlie  eoinposition  be  allowcil  to  remain  loose 
in  the  bags  (the  ingredients  having  very  dillVrent 
specific  gravities),  the  saltpeter  would  fall  to  the 
bottom,  the  charcoal  rise  to  the  top,  and  the  sulphur 
occupy  th('  center,  lliereby  undoing  the  mixing;  and 
as  any  vibration  caused  l)y  the  working  of  adjacent 
machinery  would  lie  much  ag;iinst  the  composition 
retiiining  llie  thorough  mixture  given  loit  liythi'uia- 
rf-hiuc,  tlie  bags  are  put  into  small  magazines   sepa- 


rate from  all  buildings  containing  machinery,  and 
there  laid  on  their  sides,  so  that  the  weight  of  the 
saltpeter  may  affect  the  mixture  as  little  as  possible 
The  composition  is  now  ready  for  the  next  operation, 
and  this  is  performed  in  the  incorporating  mill.  See 
Gimpowder. 

MOAT. — The  ditch  round  the  ramparts  of  a  fort- 
ress, may  be  either  wet — i.e.,  full  of  water— or  dry. 
In  the  latter,  which  is  the  commoner  case,  the  depth 
should  not  be  less  than  12  feet  nor  the  widtli  under 
24.  The  more  perpendicular  the  walls,  so  much  the 
greater  will  be  the  obstruction  to  the  enemy.  In 
regular  works  the  walls  are  usually  reveted  with 
masonry,  that  at  the  foot  of  the  rampart  being  the 
scarp  or  escarp,  and  that  below  the  covered  way  the 
counterscarp.     See  Ditch  ;ind  FortiHration. 

MOBILISATION  MOBILIZATION.— The  act  of  pre- 
paring troops  for  war.  The  process  consists  in  augu- 
mentmg  a  regiment  from  its  peace  to  its  war  com- 
plement, in  calling  in  men  on  furlough, in  organizing 
the  staff  of  divisiolis  and  brigades,  constitudng  the 
commissariat,  medical,  artillerj-,  and  transport  ser- 
vices, and  in  accumulating  provisions  and  munitions 
As  the  work  of  mobilizing  an  armj'  causes  great  and 
inevitable  expense,  it  is  only  resorted  to  \vhen  hos- 
tilities appear  imminent.  The  rapidity  with  which 
armies  can  be  mobilized  has  been  of  late  years  great. 
In  18.59, it  took  thirty-seven  days  for  Prance  to  collect 
on  the  river  Po,  a  force  of  104,000  men,  with  12,000 
more  in  Italy.  In  1806,  the  Prussian  armies  (220.000 
in  number)  were  placed  on  the  Frontiers  of  Saxony 
and  Silesia  iua  fortnight;  and  in  1870,  Germany  was 
able  to  mobilize  her  forces  in  nine  days,  and 
to  send  in  eight  days  more  to  the  French  frontier  an 
army  of  400,000  soldiers  and  1200  guns.  The  mobil- 
ization of  the  British  armj-  has  been  provided  for 
under  orders  issued  by  the  War  Office  and  Horse 
Guards.  By  this  scheme,  which  is  not  only  based 
upon  defensive  requirements,  but  also  adapted  for 
offensive  warfare  as  well.  800.000  men  will  be  avail- 
able within  a  few  da3's  for  the  defense  of  the  coun- 
try, and  if  necessary,  a  certain  portion  of  the  force 
can  be  embarked  for  a  war  in  foreign  countries. 

MOBILITY. — Lightness,  facilit}-  in  moving.  In  war- 
fare it  is  of  the  highest  importance  that  the  artillery 
and  transport  of  the  army  should  be  as  light  and 
movable  as  is  consistent  with  efficiency.  Not  only 
does  this  term  apply  to  the  particular  branches 
above  adverted  to,  but  mobility  expresses  also  the 
facility  and  rapidity  with  which  an  army  can  trav- 
erse a  country,  when  called  upon  to  do  battle  with 
the  enemy,  which,  combined  with  concentration  of 
force,  is  likely  to  bring  :iiatters  to  a  successful  issue. 

MODEL. — A  pattern  or  imitation  of  anything  on  a 
small  scale,  in  wood,  stone,  wax,  or  any  other  con- 
venient substance.  Models  are  not  only  made  for 
the  reduction  in  size  of,  articles  of  all  sorts,  and  for 
possession  of  fac-similes  of  all  such  works  as  are 
either  too  large  to  be  moved  or  too  expensive  to  be 
bought,  but  they  are  valuable  in  a  military  point  of 
view  in  giving,  in  a  handy  and  instructive  form,  the 
elevation  of  grovmd  sketched  out  in  topographical 
maps,  and  which  is  also  applicable  to  fortifications, 
etc.  Under  the  name  oi  model  an  ajiparatus  has  been 
lately  invented  by  Captain  E.  Padmore  Clark  (In- 
structor of  Musketry,  Herefordshire  Militia),  for  the 
purpose  of  instructing  officers  and  men  in  the  cavalry 
and  infantry  drill.  The  infantry  model  consists  of 
a  miniature  regiment  of  infantry,  i  .  metal,  and  is  so 
formed  that  the  ranks  can  be  simultaneously  turned 
in  any  direction,  ;uid  the  position  of  otflcers  and 
m;u'kers  is  ele;irly  dctiiied.  This  appamtus.  which 
is  called  "  Drill  Moiiel  App;iratus,"  consists  of  a  bat- 
talion of  six  companies,  with  mounted  ami  other  of- 
ficers, color-party, band, and  picnieers.  complete.  Two 
of  the  companies  are  divisilile  into  half-companies, 
for  the  purpose  of  sliowing  the  movement  of  the  side- 
face  cinn  panics  in  the  format  ion  of  a  two-deep  square 
in  a  batlalion  of/"//r  comiianics.  There  are  six  small 
stands  to  attacli  to  the  riglit  or  left,  or  the  center,  of 


MODULUS. 


371 


MOFyATT  GUN. 


oacli  company,  for  tlu'  loadiiijj;  Riiidc  in  formations 

of  fours  Id  a  ihiiik,  or  for  llic  rii^'lil  ujiiiilc  in  n-tiriiif; 
in  liiir.  Tliis  apparatiiH  will,  (loiil)llrss.  jirovc  vc-ry 
iisi'fiil  \i  iinpiirlitiiit.o  younn  olliccrs  jirai'ticai  knowi- 
cdf^c  in  lliisirniiorlanl  hrancli  of  tiii-ir  profrwsion.and 
will  assist  tlicin  in  (•Icarly  unili-rstandini.;  llir  diircrint 
movements  whirli  eoni|)anics  and  l)allalions  arceall- 
ed  upon  to  perform  on  the  drill-ground  or  in  the 
Held.  Tlie  drill  model  for  eavalry  is  similar,  and  rr>- 
l)r<'senls  a  whole  regiment, and  the  troopsand  sipiail- 
rons  are  divisihle  on  the  plaJi  of  the  infanlry  nioilel. 
MODULUS.  X  constant  c<ieHicient  or  nudtiplier, 
Ijy  means  of  which  one  .series  or  system  of  quanti- 
ties can  he  reduced  to  another  similar  series  or  sys- 
tem. Thus  we  have  the  modulus  of  elasticity,  of 
friction,  and  of  .systems  of  lonarilhnis.  The  system 
of  loijarillims  wliich  is  universally  acf^'pted  as  the 
prim.'iry  is  Napier's,  and  from  it  all  other  systems  are 
deduei'd  in  the  followini,'  muimer :  l,et  N  he  a 
numlier  of  which  th<'  Napierian  loij;arillini  is  /<,  <■  heiiiir 
the  Napierian  hase,  it  is  required  to  find  the  lou;ariHim 
of  N  to  some  other  base  a.  Let  x  be  this  logaritlim, 
then,  we  will  liud 

A  log.cN         1 

X= ;  i.  e.,  log.  nN= = X  log.  cN. 

log.  i"  log.  ,a    log.  t« 

1 
This    multiplier    or    "modulus," • — ,   is     indc- 

log.  id 

pendent  of  N,  and   is  therefore  constant  for  the  re- 
duction of  all  Napierian  logarithms  to  the  system 
whose  hase  is  a.     If  ((=^11),  ihe  multiplier  becomes 
■    1 

,  the  modulus  of  Brliigs',  or  the  common  sys- 

log. clO, 

temof  logarithn:s,  and  is  equal  to- 


=.4342- 


2.30258.509 
944. 

MOENCHS  BUCHSE.— A  small  hand-cannon  11 
inches  long  and  4','  inches  in  diameter.  It  preceded 
the  invention  of  tlie  wheel-lock,  and  gave  the  tirst 
idea  of  it, 

MOFFATT  GUN.— A  breecli-loading  rifled  field- 
gun.  The  body  A  is  of  steel,  and  bored  through 
from  end  to  end.  The  breech-mechanism  consists 
of  a  conical  lireech-plug,  accurately  fitted  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bore,  and  efticiently  closing  the  same 
through  the  support  atforded  by  the  lireech-strap. 
This  strap  is  attached  to  the  truunious  as  au  a.\is  of 


against  the  lugs,  the  loops  of  the  strap  over  thr- 
trunnions  acbnitting  of  a  slight  play  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

In  the  |)reliminary  lirings  had  with  the  gun,  to  test 
till' working  of  the  parts,  the  breech  was  thrown 
open  by  the  shock  of  discharge,  closing  again  during 
the  recoil.  To  obviate  this  a  locking  device  wa8 
adiled.  consisting  of  a  bolt  and  key,  passing  through 
the  breech-strap  and  into  a  rccesH  in  the  breecli- 
block.  A  half-turn  of  the  handle  is  sufllcient  to 
press  the  block  liirnly  ilown  into  jilace,  and  there 
retain  it.  A  half-liirn  in  a  contrary  direction  disen- 
gages the  key  from  the  recess  in  tlie  block,  and  the 
breech  can  be  thrown  open.  Should  the  breech- 
block not  always  fall  back  on  tilling  up  the  breech, 
a  leather  strap  is  provided,  which  pulls  back  the 
block  after  the  breech  has  been  sntlicii-ntly  rai.sed  to 
disengage  it  from  the  strap.  The  trunnions  are 
screwed  into  the  gun-body,  and  are  furnished  with 
shoulders,  by  which  the  loops  of  the  brceeh-straps 
are  confined  to  IIk;  rimbases. 

The  rilling  of  the  gun  consists  of  twelve  grooves 
and  lands  each,  the  width  of  the  lands  being  0".2.5, 
and  the  depth  of  the  grooves  0".0.5.  The  twist  is 
uniform,  and  makes  one  turn  in  12  feet.  The  cham- 
ber is  concentric  with  the  bore,  but  of  larger  diam- 
eter, measuring  3". 19.  the  diameter  of  the  bore 
through  grooves  being  but  3". 17.  Its  capacity  is 
such  as  to  accommodate  a  charge  of  1{  pounds  of 
powder  and  a  lead-coated  or  a  double-bearing  Butler 
projectile  of  about  10  pounds  weight,  the  projectile 
being  inserted  in  the  ritled  portion  of  the  bore  as  far 
as  the  front  rib  or  band.  The  vent  is  in  the  normal 
position  on  top  of  the  gun.  When  the  gun  was  orig- 
inally linished  it  was  provided  with  a  cup-shaped 
gas-che<'k  of  copper;  but  having  failed  to  give  satis- 
faction under  heavy  charges,  a  number  of  Broadwell 
rings,  of  steel,  brass,  and  compositicm,  were  tried, 
several  of  w  hich  gave  excellent  results.  The  use  of 
a  loose  internal  Hodman  pressure-gauge  being  pre- 
cluded in  a  small  breech-loader,  and  it  not  being 
wished  to  mar  the  gun  liy  boring  for  the  external 
gauge,  the  inner  faci'  of  the  breech-block  was  bored 
and  tapped  for  the  reception  of  an  interior  plug. 

The  gun-body  was  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Firth 
&  Sons,  Sheffield,  England,  of  the  best  quality  of 
crucible  cast-steel,  and  forgeii  from  a  single  ingot. 
As  received  at  the  South  Boston  foundry,  it  was 
rough-bored  and  turned.  The  steel  for  the  l)reecli- 
block,  strap,  etc.,  were  forgings  from  the  XasUua 


motion,  but  is  enabled  to  withstand  the  strain  of 
discharge  by  locking  into  lugs  on  either  side  of  the 
breech  of  tlie  gun.  "The  breech-strap  rests  in  n'ar 
upon  the  top  of  the  elevating-screw,  to  which  it  is 
attached  by  a  suitable  coupling,  to  a<lniit  of  the  free 
movement  of  the  screw.  The  breech-block  is  hinged 
in  a  fork  attached  to  tlie  under  side  of  the  breech. 
The  operation  of  the  mechanism  is  as  follows:  The 
breech  is  opened  bj-  tilting  up  the  breech  of  the  gun. 
through  the  medium  of  a  lever  E,  which  has  its  axis 
in  a  stirrup  underneath  the  breech-strap.  By  this 
operation  the  block  is  raised  out  of  the  breech-strap, 
and  falls  back  tiy  its  own  weight  upon  the  latter, 
thus  exposing  the  chamber.  To  close  the  breech 
again  the  lever  is  raised,  and  the  gun,  owing  to  its 
preponderance,  falls  back  into  the  position  for  tir- 
in<T  ;  the  wedge-shaped  back  of  the  breech-lilock,  at 
the  same  time,  enters  a  correspondingly  beveled  re- 
■  cess  in  the  breech-strap,  and  draws  the  latter  firmly 


Works,  New  Hampshire.  The  final  work  of  fitting, 
finishing,  and  assembling,  was  accomplished  at  the 
South  Boston  foundry,  under  the  :;upervision  of  the 
Inventor. 

The  following  are  the  dimensions  of  its  principal 
parts,  to  wit : 

Diameter  of  bore  across  lands 3.07  inches 

Diameter  of  bore  through  grooves 3.17  inches 

Diameter  of  chamber 3.19  inches 

Diameter  of  breech-block  cavity  at  seat 

of  gas-check 3.90  Inches 

Diameter  of  breech-block  cavity,  outer 

edse 5-23  inches 

Diameter  of  piece  at  muzzle 5.90  inches 

Diameter  of  piece  at  trunnions S.OO  inches 

Diameter  of  breech 9.57  inches 

Diameter  of  trunnions 3.67  inches 

Length  of  rille  portion  of  bore 55.00  inches 


MOGRABIAN. 


372 


MOLDING. 


Length  of  beveled  juuction  of  chamber 

and  bore 1.00  inches 

Length  of  chamber 9.50  inches 

Total  lengtli  of  gun 72.05  inches 

Pitch  of  rifling  uuiform;^one  turn  in 144.00  inches 

Number  of  grooves  and  lauds 12 

AVidth  of  lands 0.25  inch. 

Weight   of   gun 1,000  lbs, 

Weiiilit  of  gun-carriage  without  imple- 
ments....."        900  lbs. 

The  preponderance  of  the  gun  at  the  elevating- 
screw  is  such  as  to  render  the  gun  easily  operated. 
The  gun  is  mounted  on  a  United  States  6-poundcr 
carriage;  the  only  modifications  required  being  to 
change  the  housing  for  the  elevating-screw,  and  to 
slighUy  increase  the  space  between  tlie cheek-pieces. 
See  R'liKl  ILiiritzcrs,  anil  Ordiifinfe. 
MOGEABIAN.— A  soldier  of  a  branch  of  the  Turk- 


fuse  of  distillery  wash  called  "  returns."  Great  care 
is  required  in  securing  the  proper  degree  of  cohe- 
aiveness  in  the  composition,  as  it  must  be  sufficient  to 
enable  the  mold  to  preserve  its  form  in  handling, 
and  not  so  much  as  to  cause  it  to  be  injured  by  con- 
traction in  drying.  It  is  considered  sufficiently  co- 
hesive when  it  wil!  retain  its  form  when  taken  in  a 
moist  state  and  squeezed  in  the  hand.  The  same 
composition  may  be  repeatedly  used  in  molding,  but 
as  its  cohesive  property  is  destroyed  bj'  tiie  heat  to 
which  it  is  exposed,  it  must  be  reprepared  in  the 
same  manner  as  when  first  formed. 

The  mold  is  formed  in  a  cast-iron  case  called  a 
flank,  which  is  usually  made  in  sections  correspond- 
ing in  number  and  length  to  those  of  the  pattern. 
These  sections  consist  of  two  pieces  wliicli,  when 
united,  arc  circular  iu  cross-section,  excepting  two 
slight  enlargements  opposite  each  otlier  for  the  for- 


ish  infantry  composed  of  the  peasants  of  the  north-  ;  mation  of  the  channels  or  "side  gates"  for  the  metal 
ern  part  of  Africa,  who  sought  to  better  their  con-  \  to  pass  down.  The  pieces  are  flanged  at  the  edges, 
dition  by  entering  foreign  service.  |  fastened  by  bolts,  and  additionally  secured  by  clamps 

MOGUL.-  The  popular  designation  of  the  Emperor  |  over  the  flanges.     The  trunnion  sections  of  the  flask 


of  Delhi,  as  the  impersonation  of  the  powerful  Em 
pire  established  iu  Hindustan  by  the  Mongols,  who 
were  called  MnguU  by  the  Persians.  The  first  Great 
Mogul  was  Baber,  the  great-grandson  of  Timur,whD 
founded  the  Mongol  Empire  in  Hindustan  iu  1526. 
In  1803  the  Great  Mogul  was  deprived  of  his  throne  ; 
In  1827,  of  even  the  appearance  of  autliority,  be- 
coming a  mere  pensioner  of  the  British ;  and  in  1858, 
>Iohammed  Bahadur,  the  last  of  the  Dynasty,  was 


are  fitted  with  trunnion  boxes  which  have  movable 
plates  at  their  ends  for  the  purpose  of  introducing 
the  trunnion  patterns  and  facilitating  the  formation, 
of  that  part  of  the  mold.  The  several  sections  are 
so  constructed  as  to  be  tmited  to  each  otlier  in  their 
regular  order  by  means  of  clamps  over  tlie  flanges  at 
the  top  and  bottom.  To  form  the  mold  the  lower  or 
breech  section  of  the  flask  is  placed  upon  an  iron 
plate  in  an  upright  position,  the  corresponding  sec- 


condemned,  and   transported  for  complicity  in  the  '  tion  of  the   pattern   introduced   and  centered:  the 

Indian  Mutiny.  i  space  between  the  pattern  and  the  flask  filled  with 

MOIENNE.-A  piece  of  ordnance, which  is  now  called    molding  composition,  which  is  rammed  down  in  thin 

a  4-pounder,   and  which  is  tea  feet  long.  It  was  for- '  la_yers  around  the  pattern  until  the   section  is  com- 

merly  used  by  the  French.  ]  pleted.     The  patterns  for  the  side  gates   and  their 

MOINEAU. — A  small, flat  bastion,  raised  in  front  of  :  branches  for  conveying  the  metal  into  the  mold  are 

an  indented  fortification,  to  defend  it  against  attacks  '  iatroduced  as  the  work  progresses.     After  the  mold 

fnim  small-arms.  i  for  the  lower  section  is  finished  the  next  section  of 

MOLDED  POWDER. — A  powder  having   the   same  !  the  fiask  is  placed  upon  it   and   secured,  the  corre- 

ingredients  as    those  of   ordinarj-   gunpowder,   but    sponding   section   of  the  pattern  introduced,  fitted 


each  grain  is  separately  molde<l.  Gen.  Hodman  was  the 
first  to  propose  this  variety  of  powder :  the  object 
being  to  cause  the  powder  to  burn  on  an  increasing 
surface,  thus  lessening  the  strain  on  the  gun  in  the 
first  moments  of  combustion.  See  Oiijipmcchr. 

MOLDING. — The  process  by  which  a  cavity  of  the 
form  of  the  gun  is  obtained  by  imbedding  a  model 
in  sand  and  then  withdrawing  it.  The  model  of  a 
gun,  technically  termed  the  pattei-ii,  is  usually  con- 
structed of  wood  made  in  as  many  sections  and  parts 
as  may  be  necessary  to  admit  of  its  being  easily 
withdrawn  from  the  mold.  The  sections  of  the 
pattern  for  the  breech  and  reinforce  are  made  with 
diameters  exceeding  very  slightly  those  of  the  fin- 
ished gun.  while  the  diameters  of  the  sections  for 
the  chase  are  largely  in  excess.  The  breech  section 
is  provided  with  a  cascabel_  for  supporting  the  gun 
in  tlie  lathe  while  being  turned  and  bored.  The  pat- 
terns of  the  trunnions  are  attached  in  tlieir  places 
by  wooden  pins,  which  can  be  easily  witlulrawu 
when  it  becomes  necessary  to  detach  the  pattenis. 
Tlie  several  sections  of  the  pattern  for  the  body  of 
the  gun  are  made  with  a  slight  taper  to  facilitate 
their  withdrawal.  The  pattern  for  the  chase  of  the 
gun  is  made  considerably  longer  than  the  required 
length  of  that  part,  to  provide  a  "sinking-head"' 
which,  when  the  gun  is  cast,  receives  the  scoria  of 
the  melted  metal  as  it  rises  to  the  surface,  and  also 
furnishes  the  metal  required  to  feed  tlie  shrinkage 
caused  by  the  cooling  of  the  casting.  The  sand 
used  for  ilie  molding  composition  should  lie  princi- 
pally of  silex,  very  refractory,  commonly  called 
sharp-sand.  When  not  .sufficiently  refractory  it  is 
vitrified  by  the  high  temperature  of  the  melted  metal, 
and  protuberances  are  formed  ujion  the  casting 
which  are  removed  with  great  difficulty.  To  pre- 
pare th(^  composition  for  use  the  sand  is  carefully 
aifled.  then  projierly  mixed  and  moistened  with 
water  in  which  clay  has  been  stirred,  or  with  the  rc- 


witli  dowels,  which  enter  the  breech  section  and 
hold  it  accurately  in  place.  The  molding  is  con- 
tinued with  this  section  as  with  the  first,  and  when 
completed  it  is  lifted  off,  the  pattern  being  left  in 
the  mold.  The  third  section  of  the  flask,  which  is 
usually  the  trunnion  section,  is  then  placed  upon 
the  second  and  secured,  and  the  pattern  adjusted  in 
the  same  way  as  before.  The  trunnion  patterns  are 
attached  and  the  molding  is  continued.  When  this 
section  is  completed  the  pins  attaching  the  trunnion 
patterns  are  removed  and  the  patterns  withdrawn. 
The  formation  of  the  remaining  sections  is  continued 
until  the  whole  is  completed,  thus  insuring  a  perfect 
mold  throughout,  free  from  irregularities  at  the 
junction  of  the  sections. 

Care  is  taken  to  sprinkle  dry  sand  upon  the  surface 
of  each  section  of  the  mold  before  continuing  the 
work  to  prevent  adhesion  and  to  admit  of  the  sec- 
tions being  separated  without  injur}-.  As  the  work 
upon  the  respective  sections  is  finished  the  patterns 
are  withdrawn.  If  any  portions  of  the  mold  are 
injured  iu  the  withdrawal  they  are  repaired.  The 
several  sections  are  placed  in  the  drying  oven,  where 
a  moderate  heat  is  kept  up,  until  thoroughly  drie<i. 
They  arc  then  removed  from  the  oven,  and  a  .vash, 
composed  of  German  graphite,  pulverized  anthracite 
coal,  and  distillery  returns,  applied  to  the  interior 
surface  of  the  mold.  The  sections  are  replaced  in 
the  oven,  and  when  dried  removed,  and  a  second 
coating  of  the  wash  applied  while  the  mold  is  still 
warm.  This  wash  is  to  produce  a  smooth,  hard  sur- 
face. It  prevents  the  melted  metal  from  mixing 
with  the  sand  of  the  mokl  and  forming  protuber- 
ances on  the  surface  of  the  casting. 

The  ciire-harrcl  or  arbor  consists  of  a  water-tight 
cast-iron  tube,  made  sufficieully  thick  to  withstand 
the  pressure  of  the  metal  in  the  mold.  lis  length 
and  diameter  are  such  as  to  leavea  sufiicieut  surplus 
of  metal  iu   the  bore  of  tlie  gun  to  secure  a  good 


HOLDING  COMPOSITION. 


373 


MOLLY  MAGUIEE8. 


finish.  It  is  conslnictcd  witli  n  sliirlit  taper  to  fnfil- 
itate  its  wiUiilruwiil  after  the  riislin},'.  'I"he  hiwer 
end  is  rouiiiled  oil'  uiiil  is  lilted  with  sevenil  iniii 
pins  fi)r  seeuriii};  tlje  extremity  iif  the  rope,  wliich 
is  used  iiH  vvruppin;;  nmteriid  in  tlie  prepariitiun 
of  the  cure;  tlie  exterior  of  tlic  l)arrel  is  fluted 
from  top  to  hottom  to  allow  the  escape  of  the 
pases  generated  hy  its  combustion.  liefore  bc- 
int;  used  the  core-l)arrel  is  always  sulijeeted 
to  a  powiTful  water  i)ressure  to  test  its  soundnes. 
To  prepare  the  core  for  <'astin!^,  journals  are  fitted  at 
its  extremities.  It  is  tlien  placed  iti  a  horizontal  po- 
mlion  upon  an  iron  truck,  sup]iorte(l  hy  the  jour- 
nals rest  iiii;  in  heariims,  and  turned  Ijy  a  crank  at- 
tached to  on<'  of  the  journals.  It  is  first  wrapped 
■with  wliite  hemp  rope  so  as  to  cover  uU  of  llie  e.xter- 


ior  surface  in  contact  with  the  melted  metal  in  the 
mold.  (_)ver  this  a  coatins;  of  molding  composition 
is  applied  quite  wet,  wrapped  with  twine  or  wire  to 
instire  its  adhering.  AVhen  the  compo.sition  has  par- 
tially dried  another  thin  coating  is  applied,  and  the 
surface  rendered  smooth  and  even  by  revolving  the 
core  in  contact  with  a  straight  edge  resting  on  the 
truck.  The  truck  witli  the  core  is  then  rolled  into 
the  drying  oven.  When  the  composition  is  dried  the 
core  is  removed  from  the  oven  and  a  coating  of  the 
same  wash  again  applied.  It  is  again  replaced  in  the 
oven  luitil  thoroughly  dry,  when  it  is  removed  and 
the  journals  taken  out.  Tlie  one  at  the  bottom  is 
replaced  by  a  tight  fitting  screw-plug  covered  over 
with  molding  composition.  The  top  is  fitted  with  a 
water-tiglit  cap  so  constructed  as  to  receive  the  con- 
ducting-pipes  for  the  water,  and  is  ready  for  use. 

Thvpi't  as  usually  constructed  for  the  casting  of 
guns  on  the  Uodman  plan,  is  cylindrical  in  form  and 
is  surrounded  with  a  brick  wall,  Ijuilt  in  offsets,  af- 
fording supports  for  braces  to  steady  the  mold  in  po- 
sition; grates  are  arranged  aro\md  the  circumference 
of  the  ijottom  for  tires  lighted  immediately  after  the 
casting  to  retard  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  ex- 
terior of  the  mold.  To  retain  the  lieat  of  the  fires 
in  the  grates  the  mouth  of  the  pit  is  covered  with  a 
close-fitting  cover  of  boiler  iron.  For  furnishing  air 
to  the  fires,  flues  are  made  opening  into  the  pit  below 


the  grates,  while  near  the  top  another  flue,  making 
suitable  connection  with  a  chimney,  produces  the 
necessary  drauglit.  If  the  pit  has  bein  out  of  use 
for  any  very  great  length  of  time,  it  is  thorouglily 
dried  l)y  tires  in  the  grates  liefore  placing  the 
molds  in  position.  To  prepare  the  pit  to  receive 
the  mold,  the  bottom  is  covered  with  a  layer  of 
sand.  A  heavy  cast-iron  plate  in  then  laid  down 
and  carefully  leveled.  Upon  this  section  the  breech 
section  of  the  mold  is  placed  in  an  upright  position. 
The  otliiT  sections  are  successively  lowereil  and 
secureil  in  their  places,  the  whole  beinir  liraceil  from 
the  sides  of  tlie  pit  to  keep  it  in  a  vertical  i)osition. 
The  core  is  then  lowered  into  the  mold  of  the  gun. 
To  center  and  secure  it  in  position,  a  cast-iron  frame, 
usually  termed  a  "  si)irler,"  is  employed.  The  spider 
consists  of  a  heavy  ring  supported  upon  three  legs, 
each  having  a  projection  at  the  bottom  fitted  with 
an  adjustable  screw  resting  uj)on  the  upper  flange 
of  file  flask.  The  core  passes  through  the  ring 
of  the  spider,  is  secured  to  it  by  bolts  through  the 
Itange  at  the  top  of  the  barrel,  and  held  firmly,  so 
that  any  movement  of  the  sjiider  will  produce  a 
change  in  the  position  of  the  core.  To  center  the 
core,  a  long  wooden  rod  is  used,  to  the  end  of  which 
a  piece  of  board  is  fixed  to  hold  a  light.  The  length 
of  this  projecting  board,  previousjy  determined,  is 
the  distance  which  the  core  shoulil  be,  whi'ii  in  the 
center,  from  the  mold  at  its  maximum  diameter. 
Having  adjusted  the  core  in  the  mold  by  means  of 
the  screws  in  the  legs  of  the  spider,  it  is  firmly 
secured  in  its  position  by  clamps  made  to  fit  under 
the  flange  at  the  top  of  the  flask  and  over  the  pro- 
jections at  the  end  of  the  legs  of  the  spider.  The 
fuel  for  the  tires  in  the  ])it  i^;  arranged  on  the  grates 
in  readiness  to  be  kindled.     See  It'idinnn  Gun. 

MOLDING  COMPOSITION.- The  sand  most  used 
for  this  purpose  is  a  kind  of  hjani,  which  contains  a 
suliicient  (|uantity  of  clay  to  reniler  it  moderately 
cohesive  when  damp.  Sand,  possessing  all  the 
qinilities  required  for  molding,  is  seldom,  if  ever, 
found  in  a  state  of  nature;  but  when  the  requisite 
qualities  are  known  the  materials  may  be  selected, 
and  an  artificial  composition  produced  without 
difficulty.  The  sand  should  lie  principally  of  silex, 
very  refractory,  and  of  the  kind  commonly  called 
aftarp-sand.  When  not  sufficiently  refractory,  the 
sand  is  vitrified  by  the  high  temperature  of  the 
melted  metal,  and  protuberances  are  found  upon  the 
casting  which  are  not  easily  removed. 

The  method  of  preparing  the  molding-composition 
artificial!}',  varies  according  to  the  kind  of  casting 
for  which  it  is  to  be  used.  In  preparing  it  for  cannon, 
great  care  is  taken  to  introduce  the  exact  quantity 
of  clay  required.  When  too  litle  is  used,  the  com- 
position is  not  sufficiently  adhesive;  when  too  nuich 
is  used,  the  mold  is  injured  by  contraction  in  drying. 
The  sand  is  first  carefutly  sifted,  then  properly 
mixed  and  moistened  with  water  in  which  clay  has 
been  stirred;  the  composition  is  considered  sufficient- 
ly adhesive  when  it  will  retain  its  form  after  having 
been  taken  in  a  moist  state  and  squeezed  in  the 
hand. 

The  same  composition  may  be  repeatedly  used 
for  molding,  but  as  the  adhesive  property  of  the 
clay  is  destroyed  by  the  heat  to  which  it  is  exposed 
in  casting,  more  clay  must  be  added  every  time,  in 
the  same  manner  as  wlien  the  composition  is  first 
formed.     See   .UnMhig. 

MOLLY  MAGUIRES.— A  secret  Order  which  existed 
in  1S54-~T,  and  probablj'  still  exists,  in  the  anthra- 
cite coal  mining  region  of  north-eastern  Pennsyl- 
vania. Here  400  collieries  employed  60.000  men; 
Americans.  Germans,  Welshmen,  Englishmen,  and 
Swedes  comprising  one-half  the  number,  the  re- 
mainder being  Irisli.  Among  the  latter  half  origi- 
nated, in  the  loc;dity  named,  the  Order  of  JfoTly 
Maguires,  a  branch  of  the  "  Ribbonmen"  of  Ire- 
land. The  Order,  howevsr.  had  a  much  wider  ex- 
istence, and  is  alleged  to  have  been  affiliated  with 


UOMENI. 


374 


VOUENTUU. 


the  "Ancient  Order  of  Ilibercians,"  elsewhere  a 
peaeeable  and  reputable  organization.  Until  1865 
and  '66  the  Order  of  Molly  Maguires  had  not  become 
generally  known  for  the  murders  and  other  brutali- 
ties which  then  distinguished  it.  In  ISTn,  having 
gained  control  of  a  combination  which  forced  a 
general  strike  in  the  coal  regions,  it  succeeded  in 
obtaining  an  ascendency  in  the  councils  of  the 
miners,  and  from  that  period  was  prominent  in 
assassinations  and  other  outrages,  committed  usu- 
ally on  the  persons  and  against  the  property  of  Jus- 
tices of  the  Peace,  Police  Officers,  and  Mining 
Bosses.  The  number  of  murders  increased  between 
1869  and  '71,  and  fell  off  after  the  latter  year,  and 
until  that  of  the  great  strike  of  1875.  According  to 
some  of  those  who  made  an  investigation  into  the 
antecedents  of  the  Mollj'  Maguires,  they  originated 
in  the  trade-unions,  and  not  in  the  A.  O.  H.  or 
among  the  Ribbonmeu.  None  but  Catholic  Irish- 
men or  their  descendants  were  admitted  to  member- 
ship :  the  Order  was  organized  in  divisions,  each 
having  a  chief  ofBcial  known  as  a  "  Bod3'-Master  "  ; 
and  there  were  signs  and  passwords  to  enable  mem- 
bers to  distinguish  each  other.  These  signs  and 
passwords  were  given  to  the  members  by  the  Body- 
Masters,  who  received  them  from  the  County  Dele- 
gate, wlio  got  them  from  the  State  Delegate,  to 
whom  the}'  were  furnished  by  the  National  Delegate 
or  National  Board  in  New  York  City  ;  to  the  latter 
they  came  quarterly  from  Ireland,  by  the  hands  of 
the  Steward  of  one  of  the  transatlantic  steamships. 
A  central  and  governing  organization  known  as 
"The  Board  of  trin"  was  said  to  be  the  origination 
of  the  Order,  and  this  held  quarterly  meetings  in 
England,  Scotland,  or  Ireland.  So  extended  were 
tlie  ramitications  of  this  Order  in  Pennsylvania,  that 
it  was  made  known  during  the  trials  of  the  Molly 
Maguires  in  1877  that  one  of  their  Body-Masters  in 
thei'ottsville  district  held  tlie  high  office  of  County 
Commissioner.  The  tiual  exposure,  capture,  and 
punishment  of  the  ili^lly  >Iaguires  was  largel}'  due 
to  the  energy  and  determination  of  Franklin  B. 
Gowen,  President  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading 
Railroad  Company  ;  through  the  immediate  instru- 
mentality of  James  McParlan,  a  detective,  who  joined 
the  JIoll}'  Maguires,  he  became  acquainted  with 
their  members  and  the  secrets  of  organization,  and 
was  at  length  enabled  to  afford  information  which 
disclosed  the  names  of  criminals  connected  with  a 
majority  of  the  murders  committed  by  the  Order. 
A  large  number  were  apprehended,  tried,  and  con- 
demned, and  their  execution — that  of  a  number  of 
them  occurring  on  the  same  day — so  alarmed 'the 
members  of  the  Order  that  it  ceased  to  possess  any 
extended  influence. 

MOMENT. — The  moment  of  any  physical  agency  is 
it>  importance  with  reference  to  some  special  appli- 
cation. Thus  the  moment  of  a  force  applied  (per- 
pendicularly) to  a  lever,  is  the  importance  of  the 
force  as  regards  turning  tlie  lever  about  its  fulcrum. 
It  is.  as  we  know  (see  Lever),  proportional  to  the 
product  of  the  force  b)'  the  distance  of  its  point  of 
application  from  the  fulcrum.  The  moment  of  a  force 
about  any  axis  (to  which  its  direction  is  perpendic- 
ular) is  the  product  of  the  force  by  its  least  distance 
from  the  axis  ;  and  a  similar  definition  is  laid  down 
for  moment  of  velocity  and  moment  of  momentum. 
It  is  easy  to  see  (see  Momentum)  that  in  any  system 
of  nnilually  acting  bodies  the  moment  of  momentum 
about  any  axis  remains  constant,  since  tlie  equal 
mutual  forces  measure  the  momentum  transferred 
from  one  body  to  another,  and  the  moments  of  these 
forces  are  in  pairs  equal  and  opposite.  A  particular 
case  of  this  is  Kepler's  law, I  hat  each  planet  describes 
equal  areas  in  equal  times  about  the  sun. 

In  the  rotation  of  bodies  round  an  axis,  (he  mo- 
ment of  inertia  is  thct  sum  of  the  products  of  each  par- 
ticle of  the:  bo  ly  into  the  square  of  its  distance  from 
the  axis;  or  if  .M  lie  the  body,  7/»i,  7/1.^.  m,,,  etc.,  the 
particles  composing  it,and  /'i,  rj,  r,,  etc., their  corres- 


ponding distances  from  the  axis,  then  the  moment  of 
inertia  of  M=m.,)\--^-m„r^^-{-7n,r,'-'-\-  etc.,  and  if  a 
quantity,  K,  be  found  such  that  MK^="iir,=-|-m2r2  ^ 
-)-  '«3''3^+.  etc.  then  K  is  called  the  radius  "f  gyra- 
tion.    See  Ctnter  of  Gyration. 

MOMENTUM. — Momentum  maybe  defined  as  pro- 
portional to  the  mass  moving,  and  its  velocity,  con- 
jointly. If  we  assume  unit  of  momentum  to  be  that 
unit  of  mass  moving  with  unit  of  velocity,  we  shall 
evidently  have,  for  the  momentum  of  a  mass  M, 
moving  with  velocity  V,  the  expression  MV.  And 
such  is  the  unit  generally  adopted.  It  is  .shown  by 
experiment  that,  when  force  produces  motion  in  any 
body,  the  momentum  produced  in  one  second  is  pro- 
portional to  the  force — and,  in  fact,/o;r«  ismeasni-ed 
by  the,  momentum  it  is  capable  of  producing  in  unit  of 
tinw.  Thus,  the  same  force,  if  acting  for  one  second 
on  each  of  a  number  of  bodies,  produces  in  them 
velocities  which  are  inversely  as  their  masses.  Also 
when,  as  in  the  case  of  falling  bodies,  the  velocities 
produced  in  one  second  are  the  same  in  all,  we  con- 
clude that  the  forces  are  pi'opurtiomil  to  the  masses; 
and,  in  fact,  this  is  the  phj-sical  proof  that  the  weight 
of  a  body  is  proportional  to  its  mass.  Again,  if 
diflEerent  forces  act,  each  for  a  second,  on  the  same 
mass,  the  velocities  produced  are  proportional  to  the 
forces.  All  these  are  but  different  modes  of  state- 
ment of  the  experimental  fact  that  force  is  propor- 
tional to  the  momentum  it  produces  in  unit  of  time  ; 
which  forms  a  part  of  Newton's  second  law  of 
motion.  When  two  masses  act  on  each  other, 
Newton's  third  law  of  motion  shows  that  the 
forces  they  mutually  exert  are  equal  and  oppo- 
site. The  momenta  produced  by  these  must  there- 
fore be  equal  and  opposite.  Thus  in  attraction 
or  impact  of  two  masses,  no  momentum  is  lost; 
since  what  is  lost  by  one  is  gained  bj-  the  other. 
The  momentum  of  a  system  of  bodies  can  be  re- 
solved (as  velocity  is  resolved)  into  components  in 
any  assigned  directions,  and  the  mutual  forces  of  the 
system  may  be  thus  likewise  resolved.  Applying 
the  previous  result,  we  see  at  once  that  in  any  s3-stem 
of  mutually  acting  bodies  (such,  for  instance,  as  the 
solar  system),  no  momentum  is,  on  the  whole,  either 
gained  or  lost  in  any  particular  direction  ;  it  is  merely 
transferred  from  one  part  of  the  sj'stem  to  another. 
This  fact,  called  the  conservation  of  momentum,  has 
caused  great  confusion  in  the  minds  of  p.seudo-phy.sic- 
ists,  who  constantly  confound  it  with  conservation 
of  work  or  energy,  a  totally  different  thing.  The  mo- 
mentum produced  by  a  force  in  any  period  of  time  is 
measured  by  the  product  of  the  force  and  the  tiine 
during  which  it  has  acted — the  energy  or  work  done  by 
a  force  is  measured  by  the  product  of  the  force  and  the 
spacf  through  which  it  has  acted.  Jlomentum  is  pro- 
portional to  the  simple  velocity  of  a  body,  and  can, 
iiecer,  by  any  i'notrn  process,  he  transformed  into  any- 
thing elsi'.  Energ3',  when  de[>ending  on  velocity,  is 
proportional  to  the  square  of  the  velocity,  and  is  in 
the  natural  world  constantly  being  tran.iform^'d  from 
its  actual  or  kinetic  form  to  its  pott  ntial  form ,  and  bach 
again,  or  to  some  other  kinetic  form,  sucli  as  heat,  and 
finally  m.ust  liectmie  heat.  Momentum,  on  the  con- 
trarJ^  is  never  altered,  either  in  kind  or  in  amount. 
In  knocking  doirn  a  wall,  or  in  staving  in  the  whole 
side  of  a  ship,  the  battering-ram  of  the  ancients  (when 
constructed  of  sufficient  mass,  and  worked  by  the 
proper  number  of  men  or  animals)  was  jirobably 
nearly  as  etfective  as  the  best  modern  artillery.  But 
in  making  a  breach  in  a  wall,  or  in  punching  a  hole 
in  the  armor  of  an  iron-clad,  mere  massive  shot  with 
low  velocities  (such  as  those  of  the  Dahlgren  guns), 
are  comparatively  ineffective,  however  great  tlieir 
momentum  ;  while  an  Armstrong  or 'Whitworth  (iro- 
jectile,  with  a  fraction  of  the  momentum,  but  with 
greater  velocity,  and,  for  its  size,  much  greater 
kinetic  energy,  effects  the  object  with  ease.  In  many 
every-day  ])henomena,  we  see  most  distinctly  the 
dilTerence  between  these  two  atfections  of  matter. 
Thus,  a  blow  delivered  from  the  shoulder  by  a  heavj/ 


MONARCHY. 


375 


MONCBIEFF  DEFBESSION  CABBIAGES. 


pugilist,  evfln  if  it  be  Hliic;gi»lily  Rivpn,  senenilly 
floors  its  man,  witlioul  ildiiiiririiicli  oIIkt  injur}'  ;  but 
a  sharp  stroke  adniiniKtcrcil  liya  liglil  wcii,'lit,  while 
liardly  disturbini;  I  he  adversary's  equilihriuMi,  iii- 
fliets  serious  |MUiishriienl. 

MONARCHY.  -  'I'liat  fonn  of  ij;overnineiil  iu  aeoin- 
linniit\'  by  whicli  one  person  e.\creises  Uk*  soverf-ii^n 
aulhorily.  Il  is  only  when  the  Ivini;,  or  Cliief  .Mag- 
istrate of  the  coinniunily,  possesses  Ihe  entire  rnl- 
ini^  power  liiatlie  is,  in  Ihe  proi)er  aeeeplalion  of  Ihi' 
term,  a  Monareli.  Most  of  tlie  Oriental  (Joverninents 
past  ami  pre.scnt,  Russia  at  ])resent,  anil  Spain  ami 
France  as  they  were-  in  the  last  century,  are  in  this 
strict  sense  Monarchies.  Tlie  deiienerale  form  of 
Monarchy  is  tyranny,  or  (Joverinnent  for  tlie  exclu- 
sive^ benelit  of  the  liuler.  Wlien  thelleadof  the 
State,  still  possessin;;;  IIk!  status  and  diLTnity  of  roy- 
alty, shares  the  supreme  power  with  a  class  of  No- 
btes,  with  a  pojmlar  body,  or  with  both,  as  in  our 
own  country,  the  (iovernment,  though  no  Ioniser  in 
strictness  monarchical,  is  called  in  jiopular  laniruaife 
a  Mixed  or  I.iiniled  Monarchy,  the  term  Absolute 
Monarchy  beini;  applied  to  a  Goveriuuent  properly 
monarchical.  The  biiiliest  ideal  of  (government 
would  piTliaps  beallaiiieil  by  an  Absolute  Monarchy, 
if  there  were  any  seenrily  for  always  possessin;^  a 
thoroui^hly  wi.se  and  uood  Monarch  ;  but  tliis  con- 
dition is  obviously  unattainable,  and  a  bad  Despot 
Inis  it  in  his  power  to  intlict  intinite  evil.  It  there- 
for becomes  desirable  that  a  coverning  class,  com- 
posed, if  possible,  of  the  wisest  and  most  enlight- 
ened in  the  country,  should  share  the  stiprcme  ])ow- 
er  with  the  Sovereign.  A  Limited  .Monarchy  has 
this  ailvautage  over  an  Aristocratic  Republic  that, 
in  ditiicult  crises  of  the  nation's  e.xistanee,  Royalty 
becomes  a  neutral  and  guiding  [Kiwer,  raised  al)ove 
the  accidents  and  struggles  of  political  life.  Mon- 
archy, most  usually  hereditar}-,  has  sometimes  been 
elective,  a  condition  generall}-  attended  with  feuds 
and  distractions,  as  was  the  case  iu  Poland.  The 
elective  system  is  still  followed  in  the  choice  of  the 
Pope.  Constitutional  Monarchy  may  be  in  its  ori- 
gin elective,  or  combine  both  sj'stems,  as  when  one 
family  is  disinherited,  and  the  scepter  declared 
hereditary  in  the  hands  of  another  under  certain  con- 
ditions. 

MONCRIEFF  DEPRESSION  CARRIAGES.— The  de- 
pressing garrison-carriages  have  been  made  to 
mount  guns  of  G. 3-inch,  7-inch,  and  'J-inch  calibers, 
the  latter  being  as  large  as  it  is  thought  practicable 
to  work  on  this  kind  of  carriage.  The  cheeks  are 
made  like  those  of  the  heavy  carriages,  of  two  h- 
incli  plates  riveted  together,  with  wrought-iron 
frames  S\  inches  wide  between  them.  The  cheeks 
are  connected  by  two  transoms  of  plate-iron.  The 
elevator  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  the  cheeks.  The 
chassis-rails  are  of  girder-iron,  19J  feet  long,  G',- 
incbes  wide  on  the  flange,  and  12  inches  deep  for 
the  9-inch  gun.  Si.v  traverse-wheels  are  used.  The 
carriage  lias  been  tested  at  Shoeburyness  by  re- 
peated firings,  some  of  which  with  the  6.3-inch  and 
9-inch  gnu  we  witnessed.  The  smaller  gun  comes 
down  to  the  loading  position  after  firing  more 
smoothly  .and  with  less  shock  than  the  larger  gun. 
the  charge  for  which  was  50  pounds  of  powder  and 
a  projectile  weighing  2.')0  pounds.  The  G.8-incli  gun 
is  designed  to  fire  over  a  parapet  9  feet  4  inclies 
high,  and  the  9-inch  gun  over  one  12i  feet  high.  In 
the  9-inch  hydro-pneumatic  carriage  the  force  of 
the  recoil  is  utilized  to  compress  a  certain  volume 
of  air  contained  within  a  close  vessel,  and  is  after- 
ward employed  to  raise  the  gun  from  under  cover 
to  the  firing  position.  The  gun  is  supported  on  two 
strong  lever  supports.  One  end  of  each  embraces 
the  trunnion  of  the  gun.  and  the  other  is  keyed  to  a 
heavy  shaft  which  turns  in  journals  near  the  founda- 
tion-plate. This  shaft  has  two  strong  cranks  wliich 
operate  pistons  fitted  to  two  cylinders.  A  third  lever 
support  is  hinged  at  one  end  to  the  breech  of  the 
gun,,  and  the  other  to  a  support  attached  to  the  ele- 


vating-apparatus.    The  cylinders  communicat*  by 

means  of  strong  pipes  witli  air-vessels,  and  a  valve 
is  arranged  to  jiermit  the  water  to  pass  from  the 
cylinders  to  the  air-vessels,  but  does  not  allow  it  to 
return.  A  sutllcient  quantity  of  water  is  used  to 
assuri:  the  valves  being  always  immersc'd  in  it.  The 
air  in  Ihe  vessels  is  compressed  by  means  of  the  air- 
pump  until  it  is  under  sutllcient  pressure  to  raise  the 
gun  from  the  loading  to  the  firing  position.  When 
the  gun  is  tired,  tho.  recoil  forces  the  pistons  in  the 
cylinders,  and  compresses  the  air  in  the  vessels, 
whi(^h  hold  it  in  store  until  required  to  raise  the  gun 
for  the  next  i'lrtt.  By  turning  the  valve  which  allows 
the  water  to  flow  back  fnjm  the  vessels  to  the  cylin- 
ders, the  water  at  on<-e  jiresses  against  the  piston- 
heads,  and  forcing  them  back  raises  the  gun  to  the 
firing  position.  The  carriage  is  the  same  in  prin- 
ciple as  the  hydro-pneumatic  siege-carriage,  which 
will  be  noticed  in  detail. 

Major  Moncriefl"  urges  with  much  force  that  by  the 
adoption  of  a  depressing  carriage  for  siege-guns, 
embrazuri's  for  earthworks,  which  are  entirely  un- 
suited  to  modern  warfare,  may  be  dispensed  with, 
and  a  better  and  safer  Ijattery  can  be  used  ;  namely, 
that  in  which  the  guns  are  i)lanted  in  pits  or  trench- 
es where  the  gunners  are  entirely  protected  from  the 
fire  of  sharpshooters  and  the  direct  fire  of  canister 
and  shrajjuel.  In  his  siege-carriage,  instead  of  using 
the  recoil  of  the  gun  to  raise  a  counterpoise  weight 
which  sliall  in  turn  elevate  the  gun  from  the  loading 
to  the  firing  jiosition  as  in  his  sea-coast  carriage,  he 
utilizc'sthe  recoil  to  compress  a  volume  of  air.  which 
being  brought  to  act  upon  the  gun  shall  raise  it  to 
the  firing  position.  The  same  idea,  was  proposed 
several  jears  ago  by  Mr.  James  Eads,  civil  engineer 
of  St.  Louis,  and  a  carriage  made  to  operate  on  this 
principle  was  patented  by  him.  Moncrieff's  car- 
riage is  built  for  a  (H-pounder  rifled  gun.  It  resem- 
bles in  its  general  appearance  an  ordinary  wrought- 
iron  siege-carriage,  and  diiTers  from  it  only  in  the 
addition  of  the  hydro-pneumatic  cylinder  and  piston, 
the  elevating  arms  or  supports,  and  a  modification 
of  the  apparatus  for  pointing  the  gun.  Between 
the  cheeks  of  the  carriage  is  placed  a  cast-iron cj'lin- 
der  with  trunnions,  which  are  supported  in  trun- 
nion-beds in  the  cheeks.  The  cylinder  hangs  in  a 
vertical  position,  and  comes  down  to  within  lo  inch- 
es of  the  ground.  This  cylinder  is  a  compound 
one,  having  an  inner  cylinder  in  its  axis,  there  being 
two  channels  of  communication  between  them. closed 
by  valves.  The  first  is  intended  to  permit  the  pas- 
.sage  of  the  liquid  from  Ihe  inner  to  the  outer  cylin- 
der, and  is  closed  on .  one  side  by  a  valve  which 
works  out  automatically,  and  on  the  otherby  a  reg- 
ulating-valve for  moderating  the  motion  of  the  piece 
at  the  last  part  of  the  recoil,  and  also  acting  auto- 
matically :  the  other  channel  allows  the  liquid  in  the 
outer  cylinder  to  pass  into  the  inner  one.  and  is 
closed  b}'  a  valve  which  is  operated  by  means  of  a 
lever  attached  to  the  left  trunnion  of  the  cylinder. 
A  piston  fits  the  inner  cylinder  closely.  Its  head  is 
divided  into  two  branches  and  serves  as  a  transom 
to  the  two  lever  arms,  to  which  it  is  secured  by 
hinge-bolts.  The  two  lever-iirms  are  strong  wrought- 
iron  bars,  the  lower  ends  of  which  are  formed  in  the 
shape  of  trunnions,  and  fit  in  the  trunnion-beds  of 
the  carriage,  being  held  in  place  by  the  cap-squares. 
The  upper  ends  have  holes  bored  in  them  to  receive 
the  trunnions  of  the  gun.  In  the  firing  position 
these  arms  are  nearly  vertical,  and  raise  the  axis  of 
the  piece  8  feet  above  the  platform :  the  recoil 
brings  them  nearly  horizontal,  lowering  the  trun- 
nions of  the  gun  to  about  3|  feet.  Two  long  iron 
rods  are  fastened  to  one  end  to  the  breech  of  the  gun 
by  a  hinge-bolt,  and  the  other  end  to  the  elevating 
apparatus. 

The  inner  cylinder  is  filled  with  liquid,  which  also 
occupies  the  lower  part  of  the  outer  cylinder,  but 
only  for  a  short  distance,  so  as  to  cover  the  passages 
between  the  two  cylinders.     The  liquid  is  a  mixture 


MONGOLIAN  CASQinB. 


376 


HONE. 


of  one  part  of  glycerine  to  two  of  water.  The  air  is  the 
outer  cylinder  is  compressed  ,by  means  of  an  air- 
pump  before  it  is  put  in  position.  The  exact  degree 
of  pressure  must  be  determined  by  experiment.  The 
carriage  is  held  in  place  l)ehind  the  epaulement  by 
means  of  a  chain  or  rope,  which  is  made  fast  at  one 
end  to  a  hook  on  the  axle  at  its  middle  point,  and  the 
other  to  an  anchor  in  the  ground  in  frout  of  the  gun. 
The  recoil  of  the  carriage  must  be  prevented  in  order 
that  the  hydraulic  apparatus  may  be  made  to  oper- 
ate. The  regulating-valve  of  the  cylinder  is  worked 
by  a  crank,  which  is  moved  by  a  connecting-rod  at- 
tached at  its  uppc  end  by  a  hinge-bolt  to  the  right 
lever-arm.  The  connecting-rod  has  a  slot  in  its  low- 
er end,  in  which  the  pin  of  the  crank  plays.  Suppos- 
ing the  gun  to  be  in  the  firing  position,  the  regulat- 
ing-valve is  wide  open.  "When  the  gun  is  discharged 
the  recoil  presses  the  lever-arms  down  to  the  rear, 
forcing  the  piston  in  the  cylinder, which  turns  around 
its  trunions.  The  pressure  on  the  liquid  opens  the 
valve  and  allows  it  to  pass  into  the  outer  cylinder, 
compressing  the  air  contained  therein.  The  regulat- 
ing-valve is  open  during  the  great  part  of  the  motion 
downward,  the  length  of  the  slot  being  so  regulated 
that  the  pin  of  the  crank  will  not  reach  its  upper  end 
until  the  gun  is  almost  down,  when  it  will  turn  the 
crank  and  close  the  passage  between  the  two  cylind- 
ers. The  trunions  strike  on  India-rubber  buffers  bolt- 


long  iron  rods  attached  to  the  breech  are  hinged  to 
the  upper  end  of  the  racks.  By  turning  the  handle 
of  the  endless  screw,  the  circular  racks  are  raised  or 
lowered,  and  also  the  breech  of  the  gun.  The  circu- 
lar rack  has  its  center  at  the  point  around  which  the 
rod  is  pivoted  on  the  breech  of  the  gun  when  it  is  in 
the  loading  position,  so  that  the  angle  that  its  axis 
makes  with  the  horizon  in  this  position  is  the  same, 
no  matter  at  what  angle  it  may  be  fired.  Reflecting 
sights  are  arranged  on  the  carriage,  so  that  the  gun 
maybe  aimed  by  the  gunner  without  exposing  him- 
self to  the  enemy's  fire. 

The  carriage  is  mounted  on  an  ordinary  siege-plat- 
form.and  the^ parapet  should  be  an  overhanging  one, 
in  order  that  there  should  be  the  necessary  space  for 
loading,  and  to  insure  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  when 
in  the  firing  position  being  well  beyond  the  crest. 
If  the  hydro-pneumatic  arrangement  be  disabled, the 
gun  may  be  then  mounted  on  the  carriage  as  an  or- 
dinary siege-gun.  The  hydro-pneumatic  cylinder 
should  be  charged  in  the  park  and  not  in  the  battery. 
Air-pumps  are  provided  for  this  purpose.  The  mean 
pressure  in  the  cylinder  during  the  experiments  has 
been  400  pounds  per  square  inch,  about  27.2  atmos- 
pheres, the  piece  being  in  the  firing  position. and  cor- 
responds to  500  pounds  when  it  is  in  the  loading  pos- 
ition. If  it  should  be  necessary  for  any  reason  to 
increase  the  pressure  in  the   cylinder,  portable  air- 


ed to  the  upper  side  of  the  cheeks.  The  greatest  dis- 
tance that  the  piston  can  be  forced  into  the  cylinder 
is  28J  inches,  and  the  dimensions  of  the  cylinder  and 
piston  are  so  determined  that  at  the  end  of  the  mo- 
tion this  air  will  have  been  compressed  to  about 
one-third  of  its  original  volume.  When  the  piece  is 
loaded,  in  order  tobringit  to  the  firing  position, it  is 
only  necessary  to  open  the  passage  between  the  out- 
er and  inner  cylinders.  To  effect  this,  the  gunner 
on  the  left  turns  the  key  in  the  left  trunnion  of  the 
cvlinder,  and  opens  the  valve  which  allows  the  li- 
.  quid  to  return  to  the  inner  cylinder  ;  tlie  pressure 
of  air  drives  back  the  lifiuid, 'which  raises  the  pis- 
ton and  the  gun.  Two  chains  fastened  on  the  right 
and  left  of  the  piece,  one  end  to  the  lever-arms  and 
the  other  to  the  clu'eks,  stop  the  gim  when  it  has 
Tcaclicd  the  firing  j)Osition.  During  the  ujiward 
motiim  the  conned ing-rod  attaclied  to  the  right  lever 
turns  the  regulating-valve  and  opens  it  ready  for  the 
discharge  of  tlie  piece.  A  windlass  lictwcen  tlu' 
sides  of  the  trail  affords  (he  means  of  bringing  down 
the  gun  by  the  aid  of  ropes  to  the  loading  position 
without  firing,  or  when  the  trunnions  are  not 
brought  in  contact  with  the  rubber  buffers,  as  will 
happen  when  firing  with  small  charges  at  high  an- 
gles. 

The  elevating  apparatus  consists  of  two  circular 
lacks  placed  on  the  inside  of  the  cheeks,  and  o])cr- 
ateil  by  means  of  an  ciulless  screw,  which  turns  a 
pinion" engaging  in  the  teeth  of  the  rack.     The  two 


reservoirs  are  proviiicd  containing  air  compressed  to 
75  or  80  atmosplieres.  The  gun  lias  been  fired  many 
times  with  12  pounds  of  powder  and  a  projectile 
weighing  64  pounds;  tlie  carriage  worked  well.  It 
has  been  found  that  it  can  be  fired  at  the  rate  of  one 
round  per  minute  at  low  angles  of  elevation.  The 
weiglit  of  the  carriage  comprete  is  G2J-  cwt.,  the  ser- 
vice-carriage being  32}  cwt.  Major  Moncrieff  be- 
lieves the  weight  may  be  reduced  (by  making  the 
cylinder  of  bronze  instead  of  iron,  the  plunger  a  hol- 
low cylinder  of  wrought  iron,  and  the  lever-arms  of 
built  iieams instead  of  solid)  to  50j  cwt.  The  great 
weight  of  the  carriage  is  still  regarded  as  a  serious 
objection  to  it.  Besides,  the  complex  and  delicate 
nature  of  the  machinery,  and  the  complication  of 
stores  required  to  go  with  it,  induce  the  belief  that 
it  would  prove  too  cumbrous  for  use  in  sieges  gener- 
ally. See  Seawnut  and  Garrison  C'arriagefi,' ana  Siege 
C'ai-riar/ef.. 

MONGOLIAN  CASQUE.— An  ancient  helmet  with 
peak  crest  ami  socket  for  plume.  It  was  very  beau- 
tiful, and  richly  ornamented  with  damascened  work. 

MONK. — The  most  common  methods  of  firing 
mines  are  by  the  use  of  the  monk  and  the  box-trap 
These  two  methods  recpiire  a  powder-hose.  The 
monk  is  a  bit  of  agaric  lA  inches  in  length.  The 
train  to  be  fired  by  it.  is  arranged  as  follows.  Stretch 
the  extremity  of  the  hose  tipnii  a  sheet  of  jiaper  and 
sprinkle  some  dry.  fine  powder  ujion  it;  cover  this 
powder  over  with  another  sheet  of  paper,  secured  at 


MONOMACHY. 


377 


UOORINO. 


its  four  forncra  with  dry  ciirlli  or  Htoncs;  pass  tlic; 
monk  tlirouLtli  11  hole  in  llic  iiii])cr  slicct,  and  let  it 
project  liiUf  itH  IcMu'lli  alirivc  it,  its  Imsclicirit;  pliiiiu'- 
Cll  in  tlie  j)oW(l(r  on  llir  liotloin  kIiimM;  si-l  lire  lotlie 
nioiilt  lit  top  witli  another  pie(M;  of  agaric,  termed  an 
infiirmfr  of  tli(^  same  diuiensions  and  form  as  the 
first,  and  retire  (ini(:l<ly. 

IJoth  tlie  use  of  tlie  Ijox-traj)  and  monk  I.ave  tli(^ 
jnconvenienee  of  recpiirini;  a  powder-hose,  wliieli, 
from  its  own  explosion,  poisons  llie.  galleries.  They 
have  also,  and  more  jiarlicularly  the  monk,  thedefeet 
of  not  producing  the  explosion  aUvaysat  the  instant 
desired.  To  avoid  these  inconveniences  a  galvanic 
current  has  of  late  l)een  applicil  to  lire  mines,  and 
with  complete  success.  This  method  has  been  found 
particularl}'  serviceable  in  tiringchargi'S  underwater. 
Sec  //<(.('-^;v(/),and  Jtiirket-tniiiuh. 

MONOMACHY.— A  single  combat  or  the  fighting  of 
two,  hanil  to  hand.  Il  is  di-rivcd  from  Ihc  (in^'k. 
A  due]  Miav  prcipcrly  l)e  (■.■dli'd  a  .Moiiomachv. 

montal'embert"  system  of  foktification> 

Among  the  wrilcTs  on  permanent  fori ilic.al ion  whose 
works  liave  hail  an  imporlant  bearing  <jn  Ihc'  progress 
of  Ilie  art,  Monlalcmbert  holds  a  conspicuous  ])lace, 
although  not  educated  as   an   engineer.     Struck  liy 
the  evident   defccis    of   the    methoils    of   Ids   prede- 
cessors, particularly  the  want  of  casemates,  both  for 
defensive  dispositions  for   artillery    and    musketry, 
imd  the  shelter  of  the  garrison  and  munitions,   Mon- 
ta.enibert  devoted  his  time,  talents,   and    fortime    to 
bringing  about  a  change  in  tlie   direction   in   which 
it  seemed  to  him  called  for.     Ilis  elforts,    however, 
..ed  to  no   modilicatious  of  consequence   during  his 
-ife,  which  was  principally   spent   in  angry  contro- 
versies with  his  opponents,  except  the  extension  of 
casemaled  defenses  for  sea-coast   works;    and   it   is 
only  within  a   comparatively   recent  period,   in   the 
present  century,  that  a  new  sciiool  of  engineers  has 
grown  up  principally  in  Germany,   based    upon    the 
views  put  forth  mainly  by  Montalembert.    Tlie  prin- 
cipal propositions  of  Montalend)ert   consist  :  1.  In 
the    entire    rejection   of  the  bastioned   .system,  as, 
according  to   liis  views,  imsuitable  to  a  good  defen- 
sive disposition;  and  in  its  stead  he  proposed  to   n.se 
either  the  Unnillcilty.ilitii,  or  else  thv  j)ii/ygoiiiil  .yj/nh-in. 
2.  In  basing  the  strength  of  these  last  systems  upon 
aa  overwhelming  force  of  artillery  tire   in   defensive 
casemates.      3.    In    organizing    strong     permanent' 
works  within,  and  indeueudeut  of  the  body   of   the 
place,  wliicli  are  to  serve  as  a  .secure  retreat   for  the 
garrison  when  forced   to  give  up  its  defense.     Mon- 
talembert tirst  gave  the  name  jiolygonal   system  to  a 
trace  of  the  enceinte  in  which  all  of   the   angles   are 
either  salient,  or   where   the   re-entcrings   are   very 
slight.     A  description  of  the  polygonal  system  in  its 
most  simple  form,  tlie  one  in   wliicli   Montalembert 
presented  it  for  the  fortifications  at   Cherbourg,  one 
of  the  most  important  naval  stations  in  France,  will 
be  given  lierc  as  an  example.     The  body  of  the  place 
consists  of  the  sc;irp  wall,  arranged  with    casemates 
for  artillery  and   musketry;  of  n   corridor,    between 
these  casemates  ami  the  earthen  rampart   and   para- 
pet.    In  rear  of  the  rampart  is  a  high  wall,  arranged 
with  loop-holes,  within  which  the  garrison   retired 
when  driven  from  the  defense  of  the  rampart.  Case- 
mated  capoimieres,  which  arc  secure  from  a  cmt.p-de- 
mahi,  are  placed  along  the  rampart,  and  so  amiiged 
that  a  tire  can  be  thrown  from  tlieni  overtlu-  parapet 
and  also  along  the  tcrre-plein.     The  corridor  is  also 
swept    by   a   casemated   capouiiiere   for   musketry; 
and  the  front  of  the   wall    b_v  a   like  arrangement. 
The  principal  caponniere  for  tlauking  the  main  ditch 
is  in  the  form  of  a  lunette,  anil  placed  at  the  middle 
of  the  exterior  side,  its  ilanks  joining  the  casemated 
gallery  of  the  enceinte.     The  Hanks  and  the  faces  of 
this  work,  are  arranged  with   two  tiers   of  artilU-ry 
and  musketry  lire;  e;ich  think  carrying  ten  ami  each 
face  twelve  guns.  A  wet  ditch  sep;irates  the  faces  ;ind 
flanks;  a  loop-holed  wall  enclosesthe  portion  between 
the  tlanks,  from  which  the  opposite  port  ion  between  \ 


the  faces  is  swept  by  muskrrtry.  The  capoimiJ-rc  !» 
covered  in  front  by  a  face  cover  of  earth,  in  the 
shape  of  a  redan.  Tlie  scarp  of  the  enceinte  i» 
covered  in  like  manner  by  the  continuous  face  cover 
of  earth,  in  the  re  entering  angles  of  whicli  casema- 
led batteries  of  two  stories,  for  artillery  and  mus- 
ketry, ari'  i>laced  to  (lank  the  ditches  ami  sweej)  tlic 
positions  for  counter  batteries  around  the  salients  of 
the  covered- way.  These  batteries  are  7nasked  in 
front  by  eartlien  works.  Tlie  whole  is  covered  by 
the  glacis  of  the  covered  way,  arranged  in  the  usual 
manner.  The  better  to  flank  the  main  caponnitrc, 
the  portion  of  the  casemated  gallery  joining  it  ig 
arranged  with  two  tiers  of  artillery  tire,  the  remain- 
ing jjortion  having  but  one  tier  of  guns.  The  com- 
munications between  the  dilferent  works  are  by 
bridges  across  the  wet  ditches.  Sec  I'olyf/nnal  fiyn- 
ieiii  of  FDrUftratiim,  and  St/ntem  of  Forlifiration. 

MONTER  -.A  term  signifying  to  rise  from  one 
rank  to  another  in  the  way  of  [jromotion,  as  from 
l-ieuteiiant  to  Captain,  etc.",  orfroni  having  the  com- 
mand of  the  youngest  company  to  be  promoted  to 
that  of  thi.  oldest. 

MONTEEO.— A  military  cap  and  hood  formerly  worn 

in  ("imp. 

MONTIGNY  MITRAILLEUR.— A  machine  gun  con- 
sisting III  :iT  ritliil  still  b:irrels,  hexagonally  formed 
exteriorly,  and  fitted  iinil  soldered  into  a  wroiiglit- 
iron  tube,  somewhat  in  Ihe  form  of  an  ordinary 
piece  of  artillery.  This  has  a  movalile  breech-piece 
worked  by  means  of  ii  lever,  and  containing  a  sjiring 
and  striker,  corresponding  with  each  barrel.  The 
whole  of  the  barrels  can  be  charged  simultaneously 
by  the  introduction  of  a  steel  plate  containing  the 
thirty-seven  cartridges  ;  they  can  be  tired  independ- 
ently, and  at  any  interval  of  lime,  or  the  whole  may 
be  tired  in  one  second  ;  reloading  takes  five  seconds, 
and  a  continuous  tire  at  the  rale  of  ten  discharges 
per  minute  can  be  maint;dned.  The  l'uu  is  provid- 
ed with  both  vertical  and  horizontal' adjustments, 
and  may  be  made  to  sweep  horizontally  along  a  line 
of  adjustment  between  each  discharge,  or  "during 
the  discharge  itself.  As  there  is  no  recoil,  the  gun 
once  laid  will  continue  to  throw  28  lbs.  weiglif  of 
lirojectiles  per  minute  on  tlie  same  spot,  or  at  var- 
ious points  of  any  line  requiring  the  same  eleva- 
tion without  any  further  labor  Uian  that  involved 
in  the  working  of  the  lateral  adjustment.  It  appears 
from  Major  Fosbery's  account,  who  was  sent  to  Bel- 
gium by  the  English  government  to  report  on  this 
mitrailleiir,  that  at  860  yards  the  hits  were  32-12  per 
cent.  From  the  report  of  the  Special  Committee  ap- 
pointed to  carry  out  comparative  experiments  with 
the  Jlontigny  and  Galling  milrailleurs,  it  would 
seem  that  the  result  is  in  faVor  of  the  latter.  In  the 
special  competition  between  this  gun  andthe.Mon- 
tigny  mitrailleur  of  thirty-seven  barrels,  the  former 
made  G18  hitsin  3minutes31  seconds,  in  720  roundsat 
(iOO yards;  the  Montigny.  at  the  same  ran^e  and  with 
the  same  number  of  rounds,  scoring  .'iSS  in  4  min- 
tutes.  With  ."ioS  roundsat  SOIJ  vards^  the  result  was 
even  more  favorable  to  the  (Jailing,  which  made  439  ' 
hitsin  2  minutes  20  seconds,  agaiiist  the  Montigny's 
292  in  3  minutes  3  seconds. 

MONT-PAGNOTE.— In   fortification,  an  eminence 
where  persons  post  themselves  out  of  reach  of  can 
non,  to  see  a  camp,  siege,  battle,  etc.,  without  beino- 
exposed  to  danger.     It  is  also  called  the  Post  of  the 
InruhwrafileK. 

MOORING- — This  is  the  most  difficult  operation  con- 
nected with  submarine  mines.  It  is  a  problem  con- 
taining so  many  conditions  1  hat  it  is  impossible  to  sive 
more  than  general  suggestions  coucernius  its  solu- 
tion. In  order  to  possess  a  ma.xinium  of  "efficiency, 
no  indication  of  the  position  of  a  mine  should  appear 
on  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  yet  the  spot,  to 
within  a  few  feet  of  where  it  is  deposited,  must  be 
known  to  the  defenders  of  the  channel  in  which  it  is 
used.  In  certain  cases— as  when  there  is  consider- 
able rise  and  fall  of  the  tide— it  is  impossible  to  total- 


MOOBS. 


378 


MOOBS. 


ly  conceal  the  position  of  a  system  of  mines.  Wlien 
such  is  the  case,  the  very  smallest  indication  possible 
should  be  allowed  to  appear  on  the  surface  of  the 
water.  It  has  been  found  that  the  least  current,  or 
so  much  roughness  as  only  a  moderate  breeze  would 
cause,  renders  the  placing  of  even  a  single  mine  in  a 
definite  position  a  matter  of  very  considerable  difB- 
cult}-.  When  a  series  of  mines  are  to  be  moored  in 
proper  relative  position,  this  difficulty  is  much  in- 
creased, and  it  is,  furthermore, augmented  in  propor- 
tion to  the  depth  of  the  water. 

The  objects  to  be  obtained  in  mooring  are  as  fol- 
lows :  1st.  That  the  charge  should  be  ke^pt  as  nearly 
as  possible  stationary  at  the  point  where  it  is  requir- 
ed to  act.  This  is  paVtieularly  necessary  where  there 
is  a  tide  which,  flowing  first  in  one  direction  and 
then  in  another,  tends  to  cause  the  mine  to  shift  its 
position,  and  is  indispensable  in  the  case  of  mines 
intended  to  be  fired  by  judgment.  2d.  The  moorings 
should  be  so  arranged  that  there  shall  be  as  little 
twisting  as  possible, which  might  break  or  injure  the 
insulation  of  the  electrical  cables.  3d.  The  anchors 
or  heavy  weights  used  should  be  suited  to  the  nature 
of  the  holding  ground  or  bottom.  4th.  Mooring  cables 
should  be  so  arranged  that  they  may  not  be  likely  to 
become  twisted  together  or  entangled.  The  best 
special  mooring  appartus  for  general  purposes  is  tlie 
mu«tirixim  anclior.  It  is  decidedly  so  for  a  soft,  mud- 
dy bottom.  On  a  hard,  rocky  bottom  the  dead- 
w'eight  of  the  mooring  must  be  depended  upon  to 
keep  a  mine  stationary,  and  if  a  heavy  mushroom 
anchor  is  used,  its  edges  should  be  furnished  with 
toes  or  points  to  catch  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks. 
The  weight  of  the  anchor  would  depend  on  the  buoy- 
ancy to  be  overcome,  and  would  usually  be  from  500 
pounds  upwards.  Ordinary  mooring  chains  and  hemp 
cables  may  generally  be  employed  in  connecting  the 
charges  or  circuit-closers  with  the  anchors.  Where 
there  is  any  tendency  to  twist,  a  wire  cable  is  tlie 
best  to  counteract  it.  Any  considerable  amount  of 
twisting  must  be  checked,  as  it  is  liable  to  entangle 
the  moorings  and  to  rub  and  injure  the  electric 
cables. 

Jvext  to  the  mushroom  sinker  the  ordinary  anchor 
is  the  best.  For  make-shifts,  any  heavy-weights— as 
large  stones,  pigs  of  metal,  or  bars  of  iron— may  be 
used.  These  must  necessarily  be  sufficiently  heavy 
to  hold  a  mine  iu  position  simply  b}'  their  dead- 
weight. The  material  just  mentioned  can  be  fastened 
to  frames  of  wood,  and  the  whole  sunk  as  one  mass. 

The  weight  necessary  for  a  mooring,  whetlier  an- 
chor, sinker,or  other  apparatus, will  depend  upon  the 
buoyant  force  of  the  mine,  the  nature  of  the  bottom, 
an<l  the  currents. 

The  buoyancy  of  a  mine  is  in  excess  of  flotation 
over  its  weight.  This  would  be  measured  by  the 
number  of  poimds  required  to  sink  it,  and  no  more. 
When  wooden  casks  are  used  the  Ijuoj'ancy  may  be 
roughly  taken  as  equal  to  the  vvciglit  of  the  charge 
of  powder.  With  heavy  metallic  cases  their  weight 
must,  in  all  cases,  be  taken  into  consideration.  In 
watcT  free  from  currents  twice  its  buoyancy  is  con- 
sidered necessary  to  keep  the  mine  in  a  vertical  posi- 
tion over  the  mooring;  this,  tlierefore,  wovild  l)e  the 
wi-ii;hl  rccpiircd  for  tlic  mooring.  Wlieri-  tlicre  is  a 
current,  additional  weight  to  keep  it  from  swinging 
off  with' it  is  required,  and  this  hiereases  with  the 
strengtii  of  tlic  latter.  Whi'uthe  mine  is  moored  by 
a  single  cable,  a  convenient  rule,  approximating 
closely  to  results  from  experiments,  is  to  allow  one 
addition.'w  buoyancy  for  each  mile  per  hour  of  current; 
i.e.,  two  buoyancies  being  allowed  for  slill  watei, 
three  would  be  allowed  for  a  current  of  one  mile; 
four  for  two  miles;  five  for  three  miles,  ami  so  on. 
These  represent  the  weights  fortlnr  mooring  in  each 
instance.  In  a  tide-way  where  there  is  a  current  of 
more  than  five  miles  au  hour,  two  anchors  m.ay  be 
advantageously  used,  placed  up  and  down  stream  at 
a  considerable  distance  ajiart,  depending  upon  the 
force  of  the-  current  and  the   ilistance  from  the  bot- 


tom at  which  the  mine  is  to  float.  It  is  extremely 
difficult  to  moor  miues  in  proper  lines  and  depths 
by  this  means.  When  the  mine  is  small,  say  one 
containing  a  charge  not  greater  than  200  pounds,  a 
single  large  barge  may  suffice  for  placing  it.  The 
anchors  can  be  let  down  at  a  suitable  distance  apart 
from  the  extremities  of  two  out-riggers,  (me  from 
each  end  of  the  barge.  The  mine,  attached  to  the 
middle  of  the  cable  connecting  the  anchors,  is  weight- 
ed  down  by  a  heavy  saddle,  wliich  after  the  an- 
chors are  down,  is  hoisted  in  and  the  mine  permitted 
to  rise  to  the  proper  depth  from  the  surface. 

In  order  to  place  a  large  buoyant  charge  of,  say, 
1000  pounds  and  upwards,  three  of  these  large  boats 
are  required  to  carry  it  and  its  anchors.one  for  each 
anchor  or  mooring  sinker,  and  one  for  the  chargfe  it- 
self. They  are  connected  by  a  rope,  which,  if  kept 
stretched,  would  insure  the  anchors  being  placed  at 
the  proper  distance  apart.  The  sinkers  and  mine  are 
carried  out  and  lowered  from  the  davits  at  the  stern 
of  each  boat.  Skillful  boatmen  and  sailors  are  re- 
quired for  all  operations  connected  with  the  placing 
of  mines,  and  a  handy  steam-tug  is  the  most  conven- 
ient craft  to  use.  The  floating  mine  is  used  where 
the  depth  of  water  is  so  great  that,  if  placed  on  the 
bottom,  the  mine  would  require  for  efficiency  an  ex- 
cessively large  charge.  In  this  case  it  is  held  to  the 
bottom  by  moorings  in  such  position  as  not  to  rise 
to  the  surface  at  low  tide. nor  at  high  tide  be  so  deep 
as  to  be  beyond  effective  range  of  over-passing 
vessels.  To  arrive  at  this  exact  point,  it  is  best  to 
haul  the  mine  down  towards  the  sinker.  For  this 
purpose  there  are  various  contrivances,  someone  of 
which  would  be  supplied  with  the  rigging  furnished 
with  the  mine.  When  the  mines  are  to  rest  upon  the 
bottom,  they  are  lashed  to  some  heavy  object  suffi- 
cient to  sink  and  hold  them  in  position,  and  then 
lowered  to  their  places.     See  t^ubmariiie  ilines. 

MOORS, — A  people  who  form  the  great  majority 
of  the  population  of  Barbary.  Their  appearance  in- 
dicates their  origin,  which  is  a  mixture  of  the  Mauri, 
(from  whom  they  derive  their  name),  Numidians, 
Phenicians,  Romans,  and  Arabs,  who  have  success- 
ively held  possession  of  the  country.  Inconsequence, 
they  are  found  to  vary  considerably  in  appearance 
and  character  in  different  parts  of  Barbary,  but  all 
show  much  more  or  less  strongly  the  sj'mptoms  of  a 
•  considerable  infusion  of  Arabian  blood.  They  are  a 
well-formed  race,  with  fine  oriental  features,  and  a 
mild  and  melancholy  expression  of  countenance. 
They  are  more  friendly  and  sociable  than  the  Be- 
doinns  and  Berbers,  who  inhabit  the  deserts  and 
mountains:  but  are  inferior  to  them  in  mental  ability, 
besides  being  voluptuous  and  cruel. 

As  the  Arab  conquerors  of  Spain  invaded  that 
countrj'  from  Africa,  where  they  had  largely  re- 
cruited their  forces,  they  were  naturally  enough 
called  Moors,  and  in  Spanish  history  the  terms  Moors, 
Saracens,  and  Arabs  are  synonymous.  From  this 
mixed  Moorish-Arab  race  sprang  the  ^VonVwHCf  who 
were  permitted  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  to  remain 
in  Spain  after  the  expulsion  of  their  cinmtrymen,  on 
condition  of  their  embracing  Christianity.  A  cruel 
persecution,  which  was  originated  by  Philip  II., 
drove  them  to  rebellion  (l.'iOT-TO),  and  in  l/JTl  many 
of  them  emigrated  to  Africa;  those  who  remained 
lieins,  to  the  number  of  500,000,  expelled  in  1610  by 
Philip  III. 

The  Moors  first  appear  in  modern  history  as  the 
Allies  of  the  Vandals  in  their  invasion  of  Africa,  and 
wcrecontimially  rebelling  ag;iinst  the  Byzantine  Krn- 
peror.  They  were  next,  after  a  severe  struggle,  con- 
quered and  converted  by  the  Arabs  in  707.  In  lO'.tl 
they  were  smnmonedhy  the  latter  into  Spain,  to  aid 
in  stemming  the  tide  of  Christian  Conqiu'st;  and  af- 
ter faithfully  siqiporling  the  Arab  Calif  of  Cordova, 
etc.,  till  bis  dominions  fell  inlotlie  hands  of  the  King 
of  Leon  and  Castile,  tliey  n-lired  in  1238  to  Granada, 
where  Ihey  founded  tlu'ir  kingdom.  The  Kings  of 
(Jranada   carried  on  a   vigorous,  and,  at   the   same 


MOOBSOM  FUSE. 


379 


MORTAR. 


timo  ,  rliivalrotis  wiirfaro  with  the  KinRH  of  Cnstilo; 
bill  ill  Iciinlli,  wc-;ikciii'il  liy  iiilcnial  ilisciinl,  were 
(•(irnpL-llcil  U)  succiiinli  lo  FinliiiuMd  llic  ( 'utiiolic  in 
14!)3.  The  Moors,  or  ill  Iciisl  Ihiil,  portion  of  them 
who  refused  to  adopt  Christianity,  were  then  ex- 
pelled from  Spiiin,  mid  in  revenue,  foundeil  in  IHIH 
the   pinillr;il  Sillies  of  Ali;iers    Tiinis,  iind  Morocco. 

MOORSOM  FUSE.  'I'lie  liody  of  lliis  fuse  is  made 
of  hroii/i',  mid  is  screwed  into  the  ey  of  llie  sliell  by 
incmis  of  a  licy  tilled  into  two  niorlises  made  in  the 
head.  Tlie  lower  part  is  not  Ihrcaded,  and  iirojec'ts 
into  the  ehamber  of  the  shell.  In  llie  body  of  the  fuse 
two  cylindrical  chambers  are  ])laced,  one  above  the 
other,  with  their  axes  perpendicular  to  each  other. 
These  chmiibersare  both  alike,  with  similar  jiercus- 
sion  apparatus.  In  each  chamber  is  placed  a  solid 
cylinder  of  tironze.terminaled  al  each  end  by  a  small 
l)roie(iioii,  or  piston  One  head  of  the  chmnber  is 
movable,  and  win  n  screwed  into  ils  place,  its  exter- 
ior is  Hush  with  the  convex  surface  of  the  fuse.  Holes 
are  left  on  the  exterior  for  the  use  of  a  key,  and  the 
head  is  screwed  in, after  the  hammer  is  placed  in  the 
chamber  and  suspended.  In  each  end  of  the  cham- 
lier  is  a  small  recess,  a  vent  beinn  bored  throuijh  to 
it  from  the  I'Xteriiir  of  the  fuse.  'I'liese  are  both  tilled 
with  fulminating  powder.  A  hole  is  drilled  through 
the  hammer  at  its  middle  point,  and  per^ieudicular 
to  its  axis,  and  is  used  to  suspend  the  hammer,  by 
means  of  a  copper  wire,  in  the  center  of  the  cham- 
ber. The  wire  passes  througii  corresponding  lioles 
iu  the  body  of  the  fuse,  and  is  soldered  at  the  ends 
in  the  curved  positions  of  the  holes  near  the  surface 
of  tlie  fuse.  In  the  lower  end  of  tiiefusc  a  third 
chamber  is  placed  willi  a  percussion  apparatus  sim- 
ilar lo  the  preceding,  acting,  however,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  axis  of  the  fuse,  and  having  but  one  end 
of  the  chamber  provided  with  percussion-powder, 
the  vent  leading  from  which  communicates  with  a 
cross-chamber,  liaving  at  eacli  end  a  small  chamber 
tilled  with  powder.  The  hammer,  a  cylinder  of 
bronze,  with  a  piston  like  Ibe  others,  on  its  upper 
end,  is  suspended  in  the  same  way,  and  has  below  it 
a  copper-wire  passing  through  holes  in  the  fuse,  and 
soldered  like  tlie  rest.  At  the  Iiottom  of  this  last 
chamber  stands  a  cylinder  of  lead,  fixed  in  its  posi- 
tion by  its  base,  which  is  pressed  in  a  little  offset,be- 
tween  the  bottom  end  of  the  fuse  and  the  cap  wliicli 
closes  the  chamber.  When  the  shell  strikes,  the  sus- 
pension wire  of  that  liammer  whose  axis  coincides 
with  diameter  of  the  shell  passing  through  the  point 
of  impact,  or,  is  parallel  to  it,  is  torn  loose,  relea.sing 
the  hammer,  and  allowing  it  to  plunge  forward  and 
explode  the  fulminate,  by  striking  it  with  the  piston 
ou  its  end.  From  the  construction  of  this  fuse  it 
will  be  seen  that  there  are  six  points  on  the  surface 
of  the  shell,  the  striking  of  wliieli  will  produce  the 
working  of  tlie  apparatus  with  certainty.     See  Fuse. 

MOOflANA.— In  the  East  Indies,  a  "term  applied 
to  the  soldiers  who  are  employed  to  collect  the 
revenue. 

MOPPAT. — A  very  early  name  for  a  cannon  sponge. 

MORGENSTEEN.— A  mace  with  a  long  handle  and 
spiked  liead.     See  Jfurn/ii)}  Star. 

MORGENSTERN  GUN.— A  breech-loading  rifle  hav- 
ing a  fixed  chamber  closed  by  a  movable  breech- 
block, which  rotates  about  a  horizontal  at  DC  to  the 
axis  of  tlie  barrel,  lying  above  the  axis  of  the  barrel, 
and  in  front.  It  is  opened  by  drawing  back  the 
handle  of  the  tiring-bolt  until"  the  ribs  on  its  sides 
are  clear  of  the  grooves  in  the  receiver  in  which  they 
slide.  This  cocks  the  piece  by  compressing  the 
spiral  mainspring  which  surrounds  the  tiring-bolt, 
until  it  is  caught  and  held  by  a  sear  lying  well  in 
the  bottom  of  the  breech-lilock.  The  breech-block 
may  then  be  thrown  upward  and  forward  until  it  is 
stopped  by  striking  the  front  part  of  the  receiver. 
It  is  held  open  there  by  the  head  of  the  ejector- 
spindle,  which  changes  its  bearing  on  the  extractor 
so  as,  througii  it,  to  support  the  block.  The  piece 
is  closed  by  reversing  the  movement  of  the  breech- 


Work,  nnd  is  lorked  by  the  sidn  ribs  of  the  flring- 

boll  engaging  with  the  undercut  grooves  in  the  rear 
portion  ot  the  receiver,  'i'lie  piece  is  llred  by  a  con- 
cealed spiral-spring  lock  the  liring-bolt  being  re- 
leased by  the  action  of  the  triggiT  within  the  re- 
ceiver upon  the  sear  within  the  block.  Extraction 
is  accomplished  by  the  breech-blork  striking  the  liiK 
on  the  extra<tor  above  its  centre  of  motion,  and 
ejection  is  caiiseii  liy  the  acceleraliun  im|iresseil  on 
Ihe  extractor  liy  the  action  of  the  ejector  spring  on 
the  fjector-siiindle,  when,  by  the  motion  of  opening, 
the  direction  of  this  latter  passes  below  the 
axis  of  th(!  extractor.  The  ejector-spring  is  then 
released  from  \\u:  tension  caused  by  its  compression 
in  opening,  and  causes  the  extractor  to  rapirlly 
rotate  about  its  axis,  carrying  the  empty  cartridge 
against  the  beveled  shoulders  of  the  receiver,  by 
which  it  is  deflected  upward  and  thrown  clear  of 
the  L'un. 

MORGLAY. — An  ancient  and  very  deadly  weapon, 
in  the  form  of  a  great  sword. 

MORION.  -Originally  a  {Spanish  helmet.  It  had 
neither  vizor,  nose-piece,  gorget,  nor  neck-guard; 
but  was  suniionnled  by  a  high  crest  sometimes  half 
the  height  of  the  helmet.  Its  edge  lurned  up  in  a 
|)oint  in  front  and  behind,  so  as  to  form  a  crescent 
when  seen  in  profile.  The  itfojv'ore  was  worn  by  Ar- 
quebusiers  and  Men-at-Arms. 

HORNE. — The  head  of  the  lance  used  in  tilting  or 
other  peaceful  encounters.  It  was  curved  so  that  an 
adversary  might  be  unhorsed,  but  not  wounded,  by 
a  stroke.     Also  written  Martru:. 

MORNING  GUN.  The  gun  fired  at  the  first  note  of 
reveille,  al  all  mililarv  posts,  forts,  etc. 

MORNING  PARADE.  -The  daily  parade  at  troop, 
sometimes  called  Troop  Parade.  In  every  garri- 
soned town,  fortified  place  and  camp,  as  well  as  in 
every  town  througii  which  soldiers  pass,  or  occa- 
sionally halt,  a  certain  hour  in  the  morning  is  fixed 
for  the  assembling  of  the  different  corps,  troops,  or 
companies,  in  regular  order.     See  Dre.ts  Parade. 

MORNING  REPORT.— A  report  of  troops,  their 
service,  condition,  etc.,  rendered  every  morning  to 
superior  authority.  The  Morning  Reports  of  Com- 
panies and  Detachments  are  comliined  and  form  the 
Conmlidated  Morning  Report.  The  form  of  Jlorn- 
ing  Report,  given  on  page  380,  used  at  West  Point, 
will  illustrate  its  purpose. 

MORNING  STAB.— A  mace  having  a  long  handle 
and  a  head  with  projecting  spikes.  It  received  its 
name  from  the  ominous  jest  of  wishing  the  enemy 
good  morning  with  the  Morning-itar.  when  they 
had  been  surprised  in  camp  or  city.  This  weapon 
became  very  popular  on  account  of  the  facility  and 
quickness  with  which  it  could  be  manufactured. 
The  peasant  made  it  easily  with  the  trunk  of  a 
small  shrub  and  a  handful  of  large  nails.  Mornijig- 
stim,  short  in  the  handle,  like  hammers,  were 
made  especially  for  the  Cavalry,  Some  were  sup- 
plemented witli  small  hand-cannon  in  the  1.5tU  cen- 
turv. 

MORRIS-PIKE.— An  ancient  pike  much  used  by  Ihe 
Moors.     See  Pike. 

MORTAR.— A  short  and  comparatively  light  can- 
non, employed  to  throw  hollow  projectiles  at  great 
angles  of  elevation.  It  is  intended  to  produce  effect 
by'the  force  with  which  these  explode.  The  great 
curvature  of  their  fire  gives  them  power  of  reacliing 
objects  behind  works  which  would  be  secure  from 
direct  fire.  As  the  projectile  has  a  large  diameter, 
and,  except  in  rare  instances,  a  very  great  range  is 
necessary,  a  comparatively  small  charge  of  powder 
is  requisite.  To  give  this" its  utmost  powerand  con- 
centration, it  is  confined  in  a  hemispherical  chamber 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  bore,  but  of  less  diameter. 
The  shell  completely  closes  tliis  chamber;  and  when 
the  explosion  ensues  receives  its  full  force  on  its 
center.  Ordinary  mortars  range  in  diameter  of  bore 
from  f>  to  13  incites.  Large  mortars  have,  however, 
been  tried  at  times,  as  at  the  siege  of  Antwerp  citadel 


MORTAR. 


380 


MORTAH. 


u 
c 


"  .0 
Cm 

©  4J 
^  S 

c8 


g 

c 

H 

o 
a 


6* 


Note.     On  the  monthly  return  of  absentees  and  men  on  special  duty  to  be  accounted 
for  by  name,  after  "Explanations  of  AlterationB." 


S. 
CS 

O 


O 

w 
it 


I 


c 
a 

K 
1 

i 

a 

.2 

1 

< 

Explaual'u 

of 
Alteration. 

S 

5 

•IlJ.qBSIQ  JOJ 

1 

1 

1 

1 
1 

1 

'S 
a 
« 

s 
Q 

0 
+:> 

a 

02 

uapjo  A"a 

•lEiUBjei.OA-g 

•nopBnpcjSA'a 

-3 
a> 
a 

'3 

1-5 

•jajsoBJi  Ag 

jn.iu^jsni-aj  Ag 
l.iuiUToddu  Ag 

•njnjajj  is^i  ajBSajS^y 

?§ 

•ajBSajSlBY 

"imox 

<1 

o 
02 

•SaiBAUJ 

•sjaouJO  '0  "X 

a; 
Q 

■s;uBnainaiq 
•sniBidBO 

.^ 

•SajBAUjJ 

2" 

•bjaogjO  "0  -N 

02 

O 

■ 

•sjuBua^nan 

•sniBjdcj 

6 
> 

a 
O 

•sajBAUj 

•sjaoc^o  0  -R 

•siUBnajnaii 

•sutBjdBg 

ID 

■Sa}BAI.IJ 

O 

•siaofflo  -0  -K 

•S}UEnajnai7 

■saiBjdBO 

o 

a 

c 

■SajBAUJ 

•siaouio  -0  "N 

■sjUBuainatq 

■sniBidBO 

i 

•AUcl'3J'«"3WO-0'N^ 

•sjaoujo  P.inoo 

c 

p 

•sajBAUj 

"SJJ3HJO  '0  'N 

•siUBuainan 

•sniBjdBf) 

E 

OS 

•sajBAtaj 

•SI 

aoUIO  "0   N 

BiuBnainaiT 

•snii!)dB;^ 

3 

Q 

•SajBAUJ 

sjaoujo  -0  'N: 

•sjuBua^nan 

1 

jC^                suie+uB.j 

o 

e 
o 

tj) 

□ 

a 

K 

t 

c2 

•saiiiAUfl 

■tfjaoujo  D  "N 

■siuBnaiuari 

suniidwo 

>> 

SajBAUJ 

•siBjodaoo 

•sjUBaSiag 

•siUBuainaj'i 

•SUIBldtl^ 

-3     . 


o  bn 

cj  g 

S  a 


a 
o 

o:'a 


c 

— 1 

71 

c 

O 

o 

, ^ 

o 

3, 

o 
br 

t.1 

O 

O 

MORIAB  BATIEBIES. 


381 


UOBTA£  BATT£EI£S. 


in  1833,  when  Hie  Frcnrh  broufi;lit  tm<-  of  24  inches 
bore  to  llic  ailiicU.  'I'liis  inonHtcr,  owin^  to  its  iin- 
wii-lcliiiiss  and  otlicr  raiiscs,  was  a  failuri'.  I^arifcr 
Hiili  tliari  lliis,  tlioiiL;li  iiciliaps  nionr  manai;cal)lc,  is 
Mr.  .Mallet's  great,  ;i(i-ineli  mortar,  constriicti'd  in 
ISHf),  of  iniii  |>arts  wel  leil  toi;ellier.  and  now  at 
Woolwich,  riitlier  iis  a  curiosity  than  for  use.  Ah 
loaded  shells  arc  of  immense  wei!i;ht,  so  lieavy,  in- 
deed, as  in  larger  calibers  to  involve  the  apparatus 
to  deposit  them  in  their  places,  and  the  mortar  is 
lired  at  liiLjh  elevaliims,  the  recoil  is  so  great  and  so 
nearly  vertical  that  no  carriaLTc  conid  withstand  the 
shock;  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  the  mortar 
shoiilil  be  mounted  on  a  solid  iron  or  lindier  bed,  by 
the  trunnions,  which  are  placed  l)i'hind  the  breech, 
and  supported  in  front  by  massive  bhx^ks  of  wood. 
Tills  arraugenieut  renders  the   ajiparatus  so  heavy  I 


provided  with  complete'  pointing  apparatus,  are  oa- 
pabli' of  following  the  course  of  a  moving  vcbhcI  with 
the  same  facility  as  a  gun. 

Mortars,  likcr  other  cannon,  are  aimed  In'  first 
giving  the  direction  and  then  the  elevation.  The  ele- 
vation, which  is  usually  tliatof  tlu^  greatest  range  of 
projectiles  in  rac'/'/,  vi/..,  ^I",  is  determined  by  ap- 
plying theijuadranl  to  tlie  face  of  the  piece,  and  raiH- 
ingandlowering  the  breech  until  that  number  of  de- 
grees is  indicated.  Tliechargeof  powder  is  varied  to 
suit  tile  re(iuired  range.  'I  o  give  tlie  shell,  for  the 
same  range,  a  greater  velocity  in  l\u:  decendinp 
liranch  of  its  trajef^tory, the  mortar  is  sometimes  lired 
at  an  angle  of  (i(J",  in  winch  case  the  charge  of  pow- 
der must  be  increa.sed  accordingly.  As  ?nortars  are 
usually  masked  from  llie  object  to  be  bombardeil  by 
an  epaulment  or  parapet,  different  means  from  those 


-T  »0 

1.  Chcfkn,  2.  Maneuvering  bolt.      .3.  Deck  plank.      4.  .'<lee^JU^. 

5.  Cap  square,      tj.  Cap  straps.  7.  BoisttT.  8.  (^uuin. 

a.  Eye  bolts. 


that  mortars  of  large  size  .arc  rarely  used  in  field 
operations,  their  ordinary  positions  being  in  defen- 
sive or  siege  works,  and  in  mortar-vessels.  More 
■wieldy, however, are  t he Coehorn  mortars, invented  by 
the  Dutch  engineer  of  that  name,  for  clearing  the 
covert-way  or  ditch  of  a  fortress.  This  mortar  issufti- 
cieutl}'  small  to  be  managed  by  one  man,  and  is  ac- 
counted usefid  in  siege  or  defense  operations.  Tlie 
French  use  a  similar  Lilliputian  ordnance  under  the 
denomination  of  pierriers,or  stone-throwers.  Small 
mortars  are  likewise  constructed  for  mountain  war- 
fare: a  mule  carries  the  mortar,  another  the  bed. and  a 
third  is  laden  with  the  projectiles.  The  use  of  mor- 
tars is  diminishing  at  the  present  time,  elongated 
shells  of  great  weight  being  now  thrown  from  rifled 
cannon. 

Vertical  fire  is  effective  when  it  is  desirable  to 
prevent  an  enemy  from  occupying  certain  anchor- 
age. The  deck  of  a  ship  is  as  completely  vulnerable 
to  falling  shells  as  the  bottom  is  to  submarine  mines 
and  torpedoes.  Judiciously-placed  batteries,  if  arm- 
ed with  a  sufficient  number  of  mortals  throwing 
shells,  would  make  it  perilous  for  an  enemy  to  re- 
main within  their  reach.  But  mortar-firing  from 
smooth-bore  mortars  is  at  best  somewhat  wild,  ami 
depends  on  quantity  for  its  effectiveness.  It  is, 
however,  safe  to  say  that  no  fleet  nor  vessel  can  re- 
main under  well-directed  fire  from  heavy  mortars. 
A  battery  of  one  hundred  heavy  mortars  will  keep 
at  bay  all  the  iron-clads  that  can  maneuver  or  anchor 
within  th :ir  range.  The  moral  elTect  of  mortar-fir- 
ing is  appalling,  and  increases  vastly  with  the  num- 
bers of  mortars  used.  The  armor  that  a  vessel  is 
capable  of  carrying  on  her  deck,  in  addition  to  that 
upon  other  parts,  is  not  sutticient  to  resist  the  crush- 
ing power  of  a  13-iuch  shell  withma.\imum  velocity 
— il9  feet  per  second.  The  10-iiich  mortar  is  ser- 
vicealile  only  against  unarmored  decks,  or  those 
very  slightly  protected.  In  firing  at  iron-clads  the 
shells  slundd  not  burst  before  striking;  in  fact,  it  is 
best  to  fill  the  shells  with  .sand  instead  of  jiowder. 
Solid  shot  would  be  preferable  to  either.  JFortars 
mounted  on  the  center-pintle  traversing  chassis,  and 


used  with  guns  become  necessarj-  for  giving  them 
their  direction.  There  are  several  processes  em- 
ployed, all  of  which,  however,  are  reduced  to  de- 
termining practically  two  fi.xed  points  which  sliallbe 
in  line  with  the  piece  and  tne  object,  and  sufficiently 
near  to  be  readily  distinguislied  by  the  person  point- 
ing the  mortar.  Tliese  points  determine  a  vertical 
plane  which  when  including  the  line  of  metal  becomes 
the  plane  of  fire.  See  Ji"b,  Coelmm  Mortnr,  l)y(r 
Pointing  Apparatus,  Ordnance,  I'addock  InterpoUi- 
ter.  Plummet,  Sea-ninst  Mortar,  and  Siege  Mortar. 

MORTAH  BATTERIES.— :Mortar  batteries  have  prin- 
cipal fc.-iluns  of  b;itteries  for  guns.  It  is  desirable 
that  they  should  be  located  where  good  views  of  tlie 
enemy's  positicm  may  be  had :  this,  in  order  that  the 
gunner  may  himself  see  the  effect  of  his  shot,  and 
not,  as  is  too  frequently  the  case,  have  to  depend  up- 
on the  imperfect  report  of  a  distant  observer.  For 
siege  mortars,  the  platforms  are  placed  the  same  dia- 
tance  apart  as  for  siege  guns,  viz.,  16  feet:  for  sea- 
coast  mortars,  the  distance  is  the  same  as  for  sea- 
coast  guns,  viz.,  18  to  23  feet.  They  are  usually 
placed  in  pairs,  with  traverses  between  each  set  of 
jiairs.  Embrasures  are  not  required,  and  as  tlie 
platform  must  be  at  such  distance  from  the  parapet 
that  the  blast  will  not  injure  the  interior  crest,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  revet  the  interior  slope,  the  earth 
being  allowed  to  assume  its  natural  .slope. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  mortar  batteries  used  in 
the  attack:  those  for  mortars  throwing  shells  ;  and 
those  for  mortars  throwing  baskets  of  stones,  or 
other  like  projectiles.  Hesides  these,  there  is  the 
Coehorn  mortar,  which,  from  its  small  size,  may  be 
placed  in  any  unoccupied  corner  of  the  trenches 
within  their  range  from  the  besieged  works.  The 
first  kind  of  batteries  maybe  in  front  of  the  first  and 
second  parallels,  or  any  other  points  farther  back. 
The  positions  chosen  for  them  should  be  such  as  to 
bring  as  great  a  portion  of  the  defences  under  the 
direction  of  their  fire  as  jiracticable,  to  increase  the 
chances  of  destructibility  of  each  shell  thrown.  The 
second  kind  are  usually  placed  in  front  of  the  third 
parallel,  mainly  with  li  view  to  annoy  the  covered- 


MORTAR  BEDS. 


382 


MORTAR  CARRIAGES. 


ways  and  parts  adjacent.  These  batteries  are  usually 
sunk  below  the  natural  surface,  since  even  several 
feet  difference  nf  level  iu  the  position  of  a  mortar 
will  have  but  little  effect  on  the  range,  or  the  tra- 
jectory. The  profile  suitable  for  such  positions, 
vHider  the  ordinary  circumstances,  is  the  following. 
Widtli  of  trench  a"t  bottom.  13  feet  6  inches.  Depth 
in  front,  3  feet  6  inches.  Depth  in  rear,  4  feet.  Re- 
verse slope,  i.  Front  slope,  2  feel  base.  Height  of 
parapet,  4  feet.  Thickness  of  parapet,  18  feet. 
Berm,  1  foot.  Tlie  earth  for  the  epaulement  is  taken 
from  an  exterior  ditch ;  and,  when  splinter-proof 
traverses  are  required,  portions  of  ditches  are  made 
opposite  to  their  position  to  furnish  the  requisite 
earth. 

The  siege-mortar  platform  furnished  for  field-pur- 
poses is  too  light  to  sustain  much  firing.  For  fi.xed 
batteries,  they  shoidd  lie  constructed  of  heavy  tim- 
bers, and  to  insure  anything  like  accuracy  iu  firing, 
must  be  both  level  and  stable.  The  sea-coast  plat- 
forms when  properly  laid,  are  in  every  respect  effic- 
ient. A  good  kind  of  rail  platform  may  be  made  by 
using  two  pieces  of  timber,  13  to  15  inches  square 
and  9  feet  long  for  the  rails,  to  which  planks  3  (cr  8 
inches  thick  aud  8  or  9  feet  long  are  spiked.  The  rails 
are  parallel,  and  have  their  centres  38  inches  apart 
for  the  10-inch  mortar,  aud  32  inches  for  the  8-inch. 
A  pit  is  dug  large  enough  to  receive  this  structure, 
and  the  bottom  being  made  perfectly  level, it  is  placed 
in  it  with  planks  down.  Earth  is  filled  in  on  top  of 
the  planking.  Tliis  kind  of  platform  is  particularly 
well  adapted  to  sandy  localities.  If  the  mortar  is  in- 
tended to  be  fired  in  various  directions,  a  sufficient 
number  of  rails  are  used  to  extend  over  the  whole 
surface,  the  planks  being  spiked  to  all  of  them.  Mor- 
tar and  other  batteries  for  firing. loaded  shells,  are 
provided  with  bomb-proof  shelters  for  the  men  who 
load  tlie  shells,  and  others  also  for  the  loaded  shells 
These  shelters  may  be  placed  in  the  epaulements  of 
the  batteries,  under  thick  traverses,  or  in  an}-  posi- 
tion most  convenitnt  for  the  service  of  the  battery. 

When  the  site  of  the  battery  is  marshj-,  the  con- 
struction of  the  parapet  and  the  laying  of  the  plat- 
forms require  great  care  to  give  them  the  requisite 
strength  and  firmness.  Each  of  these  parts  should 
receive  a  firm  bottoming  of  two  layers  of  long  fas- 
-cines,  13  inches  in  diameter,  the  border  for  a  breadth 
of  3  or  3  feet  receiving  a  thickness  of  3  or  4  layers, 
the  first  well  covered  with  sand  or  rammed  clay,  if 
they  can  be   obtained,   before   placing   the   second 


forms  are  to  rest,  is  too  uneven  or  too  much  inclined 
to  be  easily  leveled  by  hammers,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  fill  in  the  space  required  for  the  service  of  the 
guns  with  earth  or  sand,  and  to  use  a  cribwork  if 
necessary  around  the  border  of  t!ie  interior  to  con- 
fine the  soil,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  a  marshy  soil, 
sJiould  be  well  rammed  and  levelled  before  laying 
Uie  platforms. 

The  drawing  shows  a  plan  of  an  indented  sunken 
battery  on  a  causeway  from  50  to  GO  feet  wide.  a.b. 
is  the  line  of  direction  of  fire;  c,  contraction  of  rear 
of  battery;  d  d,  enlargement  of  rear  of  battery ;  e, 
ramp. 

MORTAR  BEDS.— Mortar  beds  serve  the  same  pur- 
pose as  gun-carriages.     The  beds  for  the  smaller 


Jf^ 


layer,  which  should  cross  the  first  at  rieht  angles, 
and  be  well  picketed  to  it.  On  this  bed  the  parapet 
is  raised,  and,  if  the  adjacent  soil  of  wliicli  it  is 
formed  is  very  wet,  layers  of  smaller  fascines  may  be 
advantageously  used  at  different  heii;hts  to  prevent 
the  wet  soil  from  running.  The  site  of  the  guns 
should  be  covered,  to  a  depth  of  at  least  (>  inches, 
with  moist  sand,  or  good  loam  well  rammed,  to  re- 
cciv(^  the  platforms;  which,  like  those  at  the  sieges 
of  Forts  Pulaski  and  Wugiier.  should  rest  on  a  bed 
of  plank,  over  which  the  weight  of  the  guns  should 
be  well  distributed  by  the  under  timbers  of  the  plat- 
form. 

On  a  site  of  solid  rock  the  only  means  that  can  be 
well  employed  for  constructing  the  jxirapel  is  sand- 
bars.    If  the  surf;ice  of  the  rock  on  which  the  ]ilat- 


mortars  are  made  of  one  solid  block.  The  larger 
beds  are  constructed  and  put  together  in  a  manner 
similar  to  the  top-carriages  for  guns.  At  the  ends 
of  each  cheek  are  projections,  called  front  and  rear 
notches,  underneath  which  the  cannoneers  embar 
with  their  handspikes  to  move  the  carriage.  On 
those  for  siege  mortars  there  are  also  two  front  aud 
two  rear  maneuvering  bolts  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  bottom  part  of  each  cheek,  resting  on  the  plat- 
form, is  called  the  shoe;  the  front  aud  rear  ends 
being  designated  the  toe  and  heel,  respectively. 
Carriages  for  siege  mortars  are  without  truck- 
wheels,  and  rest  directly  on  the  platform.  Sea- 
coast  mortars  have  two  truck-wheels  on  an  eccen- 
tric axle,  for  maneuvering  the  carriage  on  the  plat- 
form, and  maneuvering  bolts  are  omitted.  See 
Miirtur  ('arriaqen  and  Tliirteen-inrh  Mortar. 

MORTAR  CARRIAGES.— The  application  of  the 
principle  of  rifling  to  mortars,  in  common  with  guns 
of  all  kinds,  has  had  the  effect  to  obliterate  to  a 
great  degree  the  sharply-defined  lines  of  distinction 
which  formerly  divided  the  different  classes  of  can- 
non, and  to  reduce  them  more  closely  to  a  common 
model,  adapted  more  nearly  to  a  common  use.  The 
rilled  mortar,  to  give  it  the  desired  efficiency,  has 
been  increased  in  length  until  it  differs 
in  no  respect  from  a  howitzer  or  short 
gun,  and  is  no  longer  confined  as  for- 
merly to  a  vertical  tire  exclusively,  but 
may  be  used  with  effect  for  direct  or 
curved  fire,  with  solid  or  hollow  shot, 
as  well  as  shell.  Tlie  carriages  for  the 
different  guns  havT'  had  to  iradcrgo  ne- 
cessarily corresponding  changes  to  adapt 
them  to  the  new  ccmditions  of  service  ; 
and  as  the  guns  have  been  modified  till 
tliey  bear  a  resemblance  to  each  other, 
so  the  carriages  on  which  moiuued 
are  less  distinctive  in  appearance  and 
more  nearly  approach  the  same  pattern.  The  mor- 
tar, in  place  of  being  mounted  as  formerly  on  its 
bed.  must  in  its  changed  condition  be  provided  with 
a  carriage  constructed  so  as  to  enable  it  to  deliver 
its  fire  at  any  angle  from  O*-'  to  00'^,  and  be  turned 
with  promptness  on  any  object  within  a  wide  field 
of  fire, 

United  States. — The  Coehorn  mortar  carriage  is 
simply  a  block  of  wood,  weighing  133  pounds ; 
the  total  weiglit  of  piece,  e(|uiiiMients,  and  carriage 
being  311  pounds.  The  carriage  or  block  ujxm 
whicli  the  mortar  is  mounted,  is  provided  with  two 
handles  on  each  side,  by  means  of  which  the  mortar 
is  readily  carried  by  four  men  from  one  part  of  the 
work  to  another.  They  accompany  troops  in  the 
field  for  use  against  an  enemy  covered  by  intrench- 


UOKTAR  CARRIAGES, 


388 


MOETAH  CAEHIAGE8. 


menla.  The  fjround,  wlicii  firm,  in  sufTlciinl  for  llic 
carriiitjc  Id  rest  upiin;  if  il  is  mil,  linn,  ii  |il:iifiirMi 
can  rriiilily  Iki  (,'.\UMii|)ciri/.cii  fnirii  siiili  iii;it('ri:il  iiH 
may  lii'  al  lianil.  Tlic  carriaiic  sIkimIiI  lie  li-vrl  wlini 
tlic  iiiorlar  is  tirfd.  Tlic  sici;c  murlars  arc  lircil 
from  woollen  plalforms,  'I'lic  carriagcH  arc  of 
wrouKlit-iroii,  ami,  bcim;  williout  fhasHos,  rest  di- 
rectly 111)011  the  plalforms.  'I'lic  lli-iiicji  mortar  is 
fired  from  a  wooden  plaiform.  The  ('arria^e  is  of 
wroui^lil-iroii,  and,  lieiii'^  willimit  eliaxsis.  re.^ls  di- 
rectly upon  llie  ]ilalform.  An  axle,  earryini,'  at  each 
extremity  a  IrneU-wlieel,  (lasses  llironi;li  tlie  carriai;!^ 
near  (lie  front  end  ;  this  axle  is  eccentric,  and  when 
thrown  in  u;ear  the  truck-wheels  rest  upon  the  plat- 
form ;  only  the  rear  part  of  the  shoo  then  rests  on 
the  platform  and  moves  with  slidini;  friction.  Two 
steps  are  placed  on  tlu^  front  pari  of  the  carriai;e  for 
convenience  in  loadinu;,  'I'lic  carria;;e  of  lli(>  lO-incli 
.sea-coast  mortar  is  of  vvrou^dil-iron,  and  is  provideil 
with  an  eccentric  axle  and  truck-wheels  similar  to 
the  earriaiji'  for  the  i;i-incli  niorlar, 

Aii.itn'ii.—  The  Austrian  carriai^e  is  composed  of 
two  cIku'Us,  ciK'h  formed  of  1  wo  plates  of  hoiler-iron 
riveted  tos^etlicr  around  their  outer  edtjes.  with  a 
wrousht  iron  frame  between  them.  The  cheeks 
are  47  inches  liii^h  in  front  and  \H\  indies  in  rear. 
Trunnion-lieds  formed  in  thc>  upjier  face  are  jiro- 
vided  with  Irunnion-plates  and  cap  squares:  the 
hitter  are  held  each  by  two  keys.  The  two  cheeks 
are  joined  to,!::etlier  front  and  rear  by  two  transoms, 
each  formed  of  two  plates  of  iron  and  aniile-irons. 
These  transoms  pass  throui;h  cuts  made  in  the 
inner  plate  and  arc  riveted  to  the  outer  jilale  of  the 
cheek;  they  are  also  secured  to  the  inner  plate  by 
angle-irons  riveted  to  each.  Two  bolts  pass  throuich 
these  transoms  and  join  the  cheeks,  besides  a.  bolt, 
about  a  third  of  the  heiii'lit  from  the  top  in  front. 
The  part  of  the  bolts  embraced  between  the  cheeks 
has  a  wroughl-iron  pipe  over  it.  A  square  hole  is 
cut  in  the  cheek  near  the  front  edge,  intended  for 
the  wrought-iron  axle  used  in  transportation.  The 
a.xle  is  eonijiosed  of  a  body,  sipiarc  in  cross-.section, 
and  two  cylindrical  arms  for  the  wooden  wheels. 
The  cheeks  arc  provided  with  four  pairs  of  truck- 
wheels,  two  for  moving  the  carriage  to  the  front  or 
rear,  and  two  others  for  moving  it  lalerall}'.  They 
are  all  mounted  onecceutric  axles,  which  have  cast- 


iron  handspike  sockets.  The  carriage  ma)'  be  thus 
moved  in  either  direction,  as  may  be  desired,  or  it 
muy  rest  flat  on  the  platform  for  tiring.  The  axles 
are  held  in  position  by  means  of  keys.  The  elevat- 
ing apparatus  is  composed  of  a  screw,  which  moves 
a  nut  which  has  a  hook  bearing  against  the  breech 
of  the  mortar.  The  screw  rests  in  a  bi'd  of  sheet- 
iron  inclined  upward  to  the  rear,  riveted  by  angle- 
irons  to  the  inner  face  of  the  cheeks.  Near  tlie 
Tear  end  of  the  bed  there  is  a  collar,  in  which  the 
screw  turns.     The  head  of  the  screw  has  in  il  holes 


in  whidi  is  inserted  a  crank-handU-  to  give  rotation 
to  the  screw.  'I"hi-  nut  is  guided  in  its  motion  by 
two  projections  which  move  in  correspondinj; 
grooves  in  the  bill.  For  firing  at  low  angles  of 
elevation  a  block  is  placed  on  the  hook,  lilting  over 
it  and  increasing  ils  height.  In  order  to  bring  the 
mortar  quickly  from  the  (iring  posilion  to  that  for 
loading,  there   are   fastened   to   eiiher  side   of   the 

I  lireecli  of  the  mortar  two  circular  steel  arcs  with 

i  teeth  which  engage  each  with  a  jiinion  on  the  iniier 
face  of  the  checks.  A  wheel  and  pillion  on  the  out- 
side of  the  cheeks  are  used  to  give  motion  to  the 
inner  pinion.  To  transport  the  mortar  an  axle  i.s 
inserted  in  the  checks  of  the  carriage  and  ordinary 
wheels  are  put  on,  raising  the  carriage  with  jacks. 
A  trail  is  )irovided  which  lias  a  lunette  for  hooking 
on  to  an  ordinary  siege-limber :  it  is  secured  to  the 
carriage  by  passing  one  end  under  the  front  tran- 
som and  engaging  it  in  two  hooks  under  the  point- 
ing-bed, and  held  liy  a  cro.ss-piece.  Weight  of  the 
carriage,  r>,l40  pounds:  of  the  axle,  2;jl  pounds; 
the  trail,  1!)^  pounds;  with  the  lock-chain  and  shoe. 
380  pounds;  the  two  wheels,  470  poi  nils  ;  the  lim- 
ber with  wheels,  838  pounds;  the  total  weight  of 
the  carriage  ready  for  traveling.  0,973  |)oiinds ;  with 
the  mortar,  17,830  pounds.  Width  of  track  of  rear 
wheels,  73  inches;  front  wheels,  48./).  Angle  for 
turning.  43".  The  elevating  screw  with  the  ordin- 
ary hool:  will  give  elevation  of  20"  to  00"  ;  by  put-  . 
ting  on  the  block,  angles  from  10"  to  20". 

Gtrman!/ — This  carriage  is  composed  of  two 
wooden  cheeks,  the  greater  portion  of  the  border  re- 
enforced  by  iron  straps  and  ji^ined  together  bj'  four 
wooden  transoms  and  eight  transom-bolts.  A  trun- 
nion-piece, rt,  of  wrouglit-iron  is  bolted  to  the  upper 
side  of  each  check,  and  is  provided  with  a  cap- 
square,  key,  and  chain.  The  elevating  apparatus  is 
composed  of  a  long  iron  screw  with  a  square  double 
thread, turning  from  right  to  left. inclined  at  about  2,')". 
It  is  terminated  at  the  upper  end  by  a  wheel  and 
handle,  and  turns  in  two  collars  fastened  one  to  the 
front  side  of  the  lower  transom  and  the  other  to  the 
middle  transom.  The  nut '■  travels  along  the  screw 
tliroughoul  its  length.  The  ends  of  the  female  screw 
are  provideil  with  rollers,  which  play  in  the  grooves 
of  channel-beams  secured  on  the  inner  face  .of  the 
cheeks.  Two  iron  rods,  t>,  connect  the  female  screw- 
to  the  breech  of  the  mortar,  which  has  a  horiz-ntal 
hole  drilled  into  it  to  receive  a  bolt,  forming  an  axle 
around  which  the  rods,  o  n.  move.  By  this  ;irr;inge- 
menl  ;iiigles  of  elevation  froniO"  10  7.5*^  may  be  given. 
The  c;irri:ige  is  provided  w  illi  two  siege-wlieels  and 
a  wroughl-iron  axle,  which  may  be  raised  vertically 
by  means  of  a  hoisting  apparatus  and  made  to  move 
in  two  slots  formed  by  an  iron  bar  fastened  to  the 
front  face  of  the  cheeks.  This  axle  has  near  each 
arm  a  square  re-enforce,  with  a  vertical  hole  in  it.  in 
which  is  placed  a  lironze  female  screw  with  a  doulile 
thread;  one  nut  is  right-hamled.  the  other  left.  The 
hoisting  apparatus  is  composed  of  two  vertical  screws 
in  the  slots,  e,  passing  through  the  nuts  in  the  axle. 
The  screws  have  on  their  upper  end  the  spur-w  heel, 

/.  engaging  in  the  threads  of  the  endless  screws. one 
of  which  is  right-handed,  the  other  left. and  mounted 

\  on  the  same  horizontal  shaft, which  is  turned  in  jour- 
nal-boxes in  the  upper  part  of  the  grooves  by  means 
of  a  cai)stan-liandle.  A,  on  each  end.  The  axle  is 
guided  in  its  motion  in  the  grooves  by  a  plate  of  iron, 
screwed  to  the  inner  face  of  the  axle, between  the  two 
-shoulders,  and  terminating  in  square  hooks,  which 
form  guides,  and  slide  in  tlie  grooves.  The  hoisting 
apparatus  is  used  either  to  lower  the  carriage  on  the 
platform  by  raising  the  wheels  so  that  they  do  not 
touch,  ortoraise  the  carriage  by  bringing  the  wheels 
on  the  ground.  Fournun  :it  the  handles  of  the  screw 
are  sutficient  todo  this  work.  To  lower  the  mortar 
on  the  platform,  it  is  neccssarj-  to  raise  the  wheels 
only  from  i  to  ij  of  an  inch,  whereas  for  the  transpor- 
tation of  the  mortar  the  carr^ige  must  be  raised  suffi- 
cientlv  to  attach  it  to  the  limber.     This  is  done  by 


MORTAB  CAHBIAGES. 


384 


HOKTAB  CABBIAGES. 


means  of  a  trail.  /■,  of  T-iron.  This  lias  a  lunette  at 
one  end,  and  is  made  fast  to  l\u-  middle  transom  by 
means  of  a  strong  bolt,  I.  and  to  the  rear  transom 
bj' two  iron  ears,  between  which  it  is  tirmly  held, 
A  15-centiraeter  gun-limber  is  used.  The  wear  on 
the  female  screws  in  the  axle  is  diminished  b}-  means 
of  stirrups  with  screw  ends  ;  the  axle  is  lowered  to 
its  lowe.st  point  in  the  groove,  the  ends  of  the  stir- 
rups are  passed  through  holes  drilled  in  the  axle  to 
the  right  and  left  of  the  shoulders,  and  the  threaded 
ends  are  screwed  into  double  nuts,  which  are  jammed 
hard.  The  middle  part  of  the  stirrup  fits  in  a  notch, 
g,  cut  in  the  lower  end  of  the  screw,  and  prevents  it 
from  turning.  There  are  several  other  irons  on  the 
cheeks  ;  two  priming  wire  eye-bolts,  four  equipment- 


axles,  and  when  the  gun  is  to  be  traversed  these 
wlieels  are  thrown  in  gear,  and  when  the  proper 
horizontal  direction  has  been  given  to  the  gun  they 
are  thrown  out  of  gear,and  receive  none  of  the  shock 
of  the  recoil.  The  n  jans  for  traversing  the  chassis 
are  the  same  as  in  the  sea-coast  carriages,  namely, 
a  windlass  and  chain  maile  fast  to  the  platform  near 
either  end  of  the  outer  traverse-fircle.  The  pintle  is 
in  the  front  transom.  In  order  to  preserve  the  axis 
of  the  gun  at  the  proper  height  above  the  platform 
to  enable  the  gun  to  tire  over  parapets  of  the  usual 
construction.it  is  necessary  to  make  the  top  carriage 
as  much  higher  as  the  top  of  the  chassis  has  been  low- 
ered. To  give  the  different  elevations  ranging  from 
0  to  75",  a  circular  rack  is  fixed  to  the  under  side  of 


rings,  /  /,  two  hooks,  t,  four  plates,  p  p,  at  the  rear, 
two  of  which  are  on  the  otiterface  of  the  cheeks  and 
two  on  the  rear  face;  they  present  a  kiud  of  cup 
turned  downward,  in  which  the  hook  of  the  roller- 
liandspike  engages.  The  lower  front  transom  and 
rear  transom  are  provided  with  pointing-plates. 
Weight  of  carriage,  4,457  pounds;  the  carriage  and 
morTar,  11,125  pounds.  Height  of  the  axis  of  the 
ti'unnions  above  the  platform  in  tiring  position,  54 
inches.  Length  of  the  cheeks,  80  inches.  Total 
length  from  the  front  part  of  the  wheels  to  the  end 
of  the  trail,  158  inches. 

Krupp's  carriage  for  what  he  designates  as  his  28- 
ceutimeter  (11-inch;  howitzer  is  arranged  to  enable 
the  gun  to  deliver  a  direct  tire  over  a  parapet  in  the 
same  manner  as  a  gun  mounted  in  an  ordinary  bar- 
bette battery,  and  to  tire  as  a  mortar  at  an  angle  of 
elevation  of  15°.        The  carnage  in  its  general  cou- 


tlic  gun,  the  center  of  the  rack  tieing  at  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  axis  of  the  trunnions  with  that  of  the  gun. 
A  cog-wheel  engages  in  the  teeth  of  the  rack,  and  is 
operated  by  two  wheels  on  the  outside  of  the  cheeks, 
the  same  as  in  the  sea-coast  carriage.  A  graduated 
arc  is  attached  to  the  outside  of  the  left  cheek,  just 
under  the  tnmnion;  an  index  about  11  inclies  in 
length  is  made  fast  to  the  left  trunnion,  and  indicates 
the  elevation  of  the  gun.  The  means  for  checking 
the  recoil,  nmning  the  gun  from  battery,  hoisting  the 
allot,  etc.,  are  the  same  as  in  the  other  carriages  for 
heavy  guns. 

Hussm. — The  6-inch-mortar  carriage  represented 
in  the  drawing,  as  well  as  the  8-iuch,  which  differs 
from  this  only  in  the  dimensions,  were  designed  by 
Colonel  SemeuotT.  It  is  composed  of  two  cheeks  of 
boiler-plate  1  inch  thick,  connected  by  five  bolts, 
with  pipes,  forming  transoms,  two  above  and  three 


stniotion  is  quite  similar  to  that  made  for  the  sea- 
coast  guns,  wilh  such  moditications  only  as  became 
necessary  to  fit  it  for  the  special  service  required  of  it. 
To  enable-  tliechassislo  resist  the  strain  brougbl  upon 
il  in  tiring  at  elevations  of  75".  the  rails  are  made  to 
licar  evenly  fm  four  traverse-circles  laid  in  the  plat- 
form, placed    at   (•(|ual   distances  from    <'ach  other. 


below.  The  tninnion-bcd  is  formed  by  re-enforcing 
the  hole  cut  in  the  iilate  with  a  Hat  piece  of  iron  on 
the  outside  and  an  angle-iron  on  the  inside.  The 
trunnion-bed  is  secured  to  this  by  means  of  rivets 
with  countersunk  heads,  and  inside  of  the  angle- 
irons  are  ballens,  with  screws  on  tlie  end  for  hold- 
ing the  cap-s(|uares.     The  lower  edge  of  the  clieek 


The  rear  traverse-wlieefs  are  mounted  on   eccentric  i  is  re-enforced  both   on   the   inside  and  outside  by 


UORTAR  CABRIAGE8. 


385 


MORTAE  CARRIAGES. 


angle-irons,  nnd  slind  with  a  flat  bar  fnstoncd  liy 
rivets  witli  oountcrsunk  heads.  Two  jriiiiles  are 
fastened  to  tlie  aiigle-irons  in  front  and  rear,  and 
serve  lo  niii(h'  the  earriai^<'  in  its  motion  hy  i)ressinf; 
against  tlie  direelrix,  wliich  will  lie  ineiUi<iiied  here. 
after.  The  elevating  iipparatiis  is  composed  of  an 
are  fastened  at  each  end  to  the  mortar,  having  teeth 
which  cngag<'  in  a  jiinion  iiioiinted  on  an  axle  turned 
by  two  haililles  outside  of  the  checks.  Two  can- 
noneers, one  on  tlie  right  and  the  other  on  the  left, 
give  the  elevation  by  turning  the  two  handles  at  the 
same  time.  The  angles  of  lire  are  embraced  be- 
tween !>"  depression  and  73°  of  elevation.  A  clamp- 
gcrew  on  th<>  left  end  of  the  shaft  prevents  the  gun 
from  moving  after  it  has  been  pointed.  To  load  the 
mortar,  it  must  be  brought  after  tiring  to  nearly  a 
liori/.onlal  position.  The  use  of  a  gunner's  level 
each  time  is  avoided  by  having  a  graduated  bron/e 
arc  fastened  on  the  outside  of  tiic  cheeks,  just  under 
the  right  truimion.  anil  an  index  marked  on  the  face 
of  the  truiuiion. 

In  firing,  the  carriage  slides  on  the  jilatform  ;  or, 
for  the  facility  of  running  it  into  battery  anil  moving 
it  lalcrally,  it  may  be  mounted  by  means  of  four 
truck-wheels  on  a  kind  of  low  chassis  or  directrix. 
The  two  front  wheels,  mounted  on  the  same  axle, 
are  just  over  the  top  of  the  chassis,  but  do  not  touch 
it;  the  rear  wheels  are  mounted  each  on  a  crank-axle; 
a  forked  lever,  \<1iieh  can  be  l)rought  down  between 
the  cheeks,  serves  to  bring  the  wheels  in  contact 
with  the  tops  of  the  directrix.  To  cause  the  carriage 
to  run  on  its  four  wheels,  it  is  sullicient  for  a  can- 
noneer to  force  the  forked  lever  down  to  the  rear : 
the  rear  end  of  the  carriage  is  thus  raised,  and  the 
front  wheels  are  made  to  bear.  The  directrix  is  com- 
posed of  two  wooden  beams, covered  on  top  and  sides 
bj'  plates  of  iron,  and  ioineil  by  two  wooden  tran- 
soms and  three  bolts.  Near  the  front  end  is  an  iron 
axle,  with  a  vertical  hole  in  its  middle  for  the  pintle, 
and  provided  with  two  traverse-wheels  which  rest 
on  the  front  traverse-circle  of  the  platform.  Two 
hurters,  attached  to  the  front  end  of  the  directrix. 
Stop  the  carriage  in  its  motion  into  battery,  and  two 
counter-liurters,  placed  la  rear,  limit  the  recoil  when 


in  cross-section,  arc  placed  crosswise,  four  toward 
the  front,  thn-e  in  the  ndildle,  and  two  in  rear; 
eleven  round  sleepers  are  laid  on  and  slightly  let  into 
them;  nine  of  the  round  sleepers  are  laid  down  in 
the  shape  of  a  fan,  and  the  other  two  halved  inlfi  the 
others  form  the  rear  obliipn'  sides  f)f  the  platform. 
On  top  of  the  eleven  slecpirs.  and  slightly  let  into 
them,  arc  laid  thirty-two  (1-inch  sipiare  scantling  of 
variable  length,  accordinir  to  their  jiosition,  the  <'nd8 
cut  olf  ol]|i(|ui'ly.  The  last  sixteen  sciintlini;  are  se- 
cured at  their  ends  by  two  hnrler-planks  let  into  the 
scantling  and  held  by  bolts.  The  front  scantlings  are 
secured  in  the  same  way,  only  the  Ijurtcr-plank  is 
not  let  into  the  scantling.  In  rear  of  each  sleeper  a 
large  |iicket  is  driven.  Near  the  front  end  of  the 
platform  the  pintle])lateand  friction-circlearc  placed 
and  screwed  fast,  .and  near  tln'  middle  of  Ihi'  plat- 
form a  second  traverse-circle  with  ohhng  holes  in  it. 
The  length  of  the  platfiprm  is  Id  feet,  its  slope  to  the 
rear  U",  and  the  lateral  lield  of  tire  00".  This  plat- 
form, wddch  is  still  provisionally  used  in  sea-coast 
batteries,  has  been  recently  replaced  in  siege  and 
garrison  batteries  by  a  simpler  one,  which  has  been 
tested  with  much  satisfaction  since  1873.  This  last 
is  formed  of  two  rectangular  parts  f)f  unerpial  width. 
It  is  composed  of  nine  sleepers,  (i  inches  sijuare, 
and  covered  with  twenty  pl.-uiks  3  inches  thick  and 
9  inches  wide  ;  seven  sleepers,  five  in  the  middle  and 
two  at  the  edge  of  the  platform,  arc  b")  feet  long,  and 
extend  from  one  end  to  the  other  ;  the  remaining  two 
are  7  feet  !)  inches  long,  and  sujiport  only  the  rear 
plank.  The  sleepers  rest  on  the  heads  of  fifty-eiglit 
pickets  3  inches  in  diameter  and  3  feet  long, driven 
into  the  earth.  Twocross-pieces  are  placi-d  under 
the  front  ends  and  middle  of  the  seven  long  sleepens; 
that  under  the  middle  supports  the  front  ends  of  the 
short  sleepers,  also  the  traverse-circle  and  the  rear 
end  of  the  carriage. 

For  transporting  the  mortar  and  its  carriage  an 
axle  has  been  Htted  to  the  latter  for  two  wheels,  and 
a  movable  trail  intended  to  hitch  onto  the  siege- 
limber  is  used.  The  axle  is  held  in  the  boxes  cut  in 
the  front  edge  of  the  clieeks  by  means  of  cap-squares 
and  bolts.   'The  movable  trail  is  represented  in  the 


firing  at  low  angles.  Near  the  middle,  between  the 
two  beams,  is  placed  a  traverse-wheel,  which  travels 
on  the  rear  traverse-circle.  The  directrix  is  provided 
imderneath  with  four  cross- sleepers,  which  prevent 
its  bending  under  the  weight  of  the  carriage.  The 
length  of  the  directrix  will  allow  a  recoil  of  9  feet, 
which  is  sufficient  for  the  maximmn  charges  with  a 
dry  platform  at  angles  greater  than  20'"''.  and  with  a 
damp  platform  at  angles  greater  than  45".  For  less 
angles  it  is  necessary  to  throw  some  sand  or  similar 
materi:d  under  the  carriage.  To  give  lateral  mo- 
tion to  the  mortar,  if  only  a  slight  motion  is  re- 
quired, insert  the  end  of  the  lever  in  the  holes  in  the 
rear  traverse-circle  and  press  against  the  carriage. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  desired  to  move  the  carriage 
through  a  great  angle,  the  directrix  is  traversed  on 
its  wheels  by  three  or  four  men  pulling  on  a  rope 
fastened  to  its  rear  end.  The  platform,  as  originally 
adopted,  is  fan-shaped;  nine  sleepers,  semi-circular 


drawing,  with  its  lunette,  its  friction-plate,  and  lash- 
ing-ring. It  is  put  in  place  by  unscrewing  the  two 
rear  bolts  of  the  carriage,  bringing  the  trail  in  posi- 
tion, replacing  the  bolts,  and  securing  them  by  the 
nuts.  The  mortar  being  in  battery,  to  put  it  in 
traveling  position  it  is  rini  back  to  the  rear  of  the 
lilatform:  the  axle  and  trail  are  put  in  place.  The 
front  of  the  carriage  is  raised  by  means  of  a  jack  put 
under  the  middle  of  the  axle,  blocking  up  with  blocks 
till  it  is  high  enouirh.  The  rear  end  of  the  carriage 
is  raised  with  two  jacks,  or  by  means  of  a  lever-bar 
passed  imder  the  carriage  crosswise.  Tli.  wheels 
are  put  on  and  the  limber  hooked.  A  seat  for  the 
driver  IS  placed  on  the  forward  end  of  the  trail,  in 
front  of  the  pintle;  in  the  box  under  this  scat  the 
bandlesof  the  elevating-screw  are  carried:  they  have 
to  be  removed  to  admit  the  wheels  being  put  on.  The 
axle  is  provided  with  a  bucket-hook.  The  siege- 
limber  is  arranged  so  as  to  be  drawn  by  ten  horses. 


UORTAB  CASEMATES. 


386 


MORTISING  MACHINE. 


In  rear  of  the  fixed  splinter-bar,  with  its  two  swingle- 
trees,  a  longer  splinter-bar  is  made  fast,  and  provided 
with  two  swingle-trees.  The  pole  has  a  movable 
double-tree  at  its  end  with  three  swingle-trees  :  the 
front  horses  are  hitched  to  the  traces  of  the  three 
middle  ones.  Two  lock-shoes  for  the  rear  wheels  are 
carried  on  the  body  of  the  limber.  The  directrices 
of  the  mortar  carriages  are  carried  by  themselves  in 
siege-wagons ;  four  can  be  carried  in  one  wagon,  with 
great  ease. 

The  following  are  the  principal  weights  and  di- 
mensions : 

Pounds. 

Weight  of  the  carriage  with  mortar  and 

limber 8,893 

Weight  of  the  mortar 3,461 

"Weight  of  the  carriage  without  trail,  a.vle 

.  or  wheels 3,693 

Weight  of  the  trail  and  seat 3,373 

Weight  of  the  axle  with  two  wheels    .     .  1,030 

Weight  of  the  siege-limber 1.373 

Kumljer  of  horses  to  draw  the  carriage  .  10 

Wliole  length  of  the  carriage  to  the  end 

of  the  pole 23  feet. 

Width  of  the  carriage     ......      76    inches. 

Diameter  of  the  front  wheels  ...  56  inclies. 
Diameter  of  the  rear  wheels  .  .  .  62i  inches. 
See  Gu>i-mrriage<  and  8!ege-m'jHar. 

MORTAK  CASEMATES. —These  arc  usually  placed 
in  rear  of  the  parapet,  by  which  it  is  covered  from 
direct  fire.  The  arch  is"covered  by  earth,  to  break 
the  shock  of  shells.  It  rises  towards  the  front  to 
give  ample  room  for  the  shell  in  its  flight.  The  case- 
mates are  covered  on  their  flanks  from  enfilading 
fire  by  an  embankment,  and  are  partly  closed  by  a 
wall  in  the  rear.  A  small  ditch  is  made  in  front  of 
the  chamber,  and  a  slight  wall  built  within  it,  to 
give  cover  from  the  splinters  of  shells  falling  l)e- 
tweeu  the  parapet  and  the  casemate.  Arched  cham- 
bers are  in  some  cases  made  beneath  the  mortar 
chambers  which  serve  as  store-rooms  and  tempo- 
rary magazines.  When  these  casemates  are  placed  in 
rear  of  a  portion  of  the  parapet  but  little  expo.sed  to 
direct  fire,  the  thickness  of  the  parapet  in  front  of 
them  maj^  be  reduced,  and  the  interim  slope  be  re- 
placed by  a  breast-height  wall  along  the  front  of  the 
casemates,  in  order  to  give  better  cover  in  flank  and 
from  slant  fire,  by  throwing  forward  the  casemates 
more  under  cover  of  the  parapet.     See  Caseinatea. 

MORTAR-FOSE.— The  mortar-fuse  now  used  is  a 
paper-case  time-fuse,  similar  in  general  appearance 
to  the  ordinary  paper-case  fuse,  of  long  time  of 
burning.  The}'  are  made  up  in  packages  and  marked 
with  the  kind  and  length  of  fuse.  For  any  shorter 
time  the  fuse  is  cut  with"  a  sharp 
knife  or  fine  saw.  With  this  fuse  is 
used  a  wooden  fuse-plug,  having  a 
conical  opening,  which  is  reamed  out 
to  fit  the  paper  case.  When  the  shell 
is  loaded,  and  the  fuse  cut  to  the 
required  lengtli,  it  is  pressed  in  the 
plug  and  the  plug  firndy  set  in  the 
fuse-hole.  The  lieail  of  the  fuse  hav- 
ing been  covered  vvitli  tow  or  some- 
tliiiig  to  prevent  breakuig  the  com- 
position, the  fuse-setter  is  placed  on 
the  plug,  and  it  is  driven  with  the 
mallet  until  the  head  is  about  :|-  of  an 
incli  above  the  surface  of  tlie  shell. 
The  old  form  of  mortar-fuse  con- 
sists of  a  case  made  of  beecli-wood, 
turned  in  a  lathe  to  a  conical  shape, 
and  bored  out  nearly  to  the  bottom 
to  receive  the  composition.  The 
composition  is  driven  with  fifteen 
blows  of  the  mallet.  The  bore  is  en- 
larged at  the  lop  to  receive  a  priming 
of  mealed  powder  moistened  witii 
alcohol.  To  protect  priming  from 
moisture,   the  top   of  the  fuse   is  covered  with  a 


cap  of  water-proof  paper,   on  which  is  marked  the 

rate  of  burning  of  the  composition.  The  exterior  is 
divided  into  inches  and  tenths,  to  guide  tlie  gunner 
in  regulating  the  time  of  burning.  This  operation  is 
generally  performed  before  tlie  fuse  is  driven  into 
the  fuse-hole  of  the  shell,  by  cutting  it  off  with  a  saw, 
or  boring  into  the  composition  with  a  gimlet.  If 
the  fuse  be  driven,  the  column  of  composition  may 
be  shortened  by  taking  a  nortion  from  the  top  with 
the  fuse-auger. 

Tlie  great  disadvantage  of  this  fuse  is  its  irregu- 
larity, it  being  very  difficult  to  press  such  a  large 
column  of  composition  so  that  equal  lengths  will 
burn  in  equal  times.     See  Fuae  and  Time-fane. 

MORTAR  PLATFORM.— A  platform  similar  to  that 
used  with  siege  guns,  but  of  smaller  dimensions  and 
withiiut  a  slope.     See  riatfurm. 

MDRTAR  SCRAPER.— A  slender  piece  of  iron  with 
a  spciou  at  one  end  and  a  scraper  at  the  other,  used 
for  cleaning  the  cliambers  of  mortars. 

MORTAR  SHELL.— A  hollow  projectile  of  dimen- 
sions to  fit  the  pieces  shown  under  the  head  of  Mor- 
tar. Mortar  shells  are  issued  loose,  but  are  filled 
with  a  charge  of  bursting-powder  at  the  time  they 
are  required.  They  are  tired  from  mortars  at  high 
angles ;  the  larger  natures,  with  the  object  of  set- 
ting fire  to  buildings,  ships,  or  other  combustible 
constructions  (and  in  the  attack  of  a  place  they 
would  be  especially  directed  on  the  gunpowder 
magazines);  the  smaller  natures,  to  annoy  or  drive 
out  troops  behind  parapets  or  any  particular  cover. 

MORTAR  VESSEL.— A  class  of  gun-boat  for  mount- 
ing sea-service  mortars,  and  in  some  cases  provided 
with  steam-power.  The  mortars  are  usually  of  the 
largest  caliber — 13  inch.  To  enable  the  mortar  to  be 
properly  maneuvered,  and  to  resist  the  recoil  from 
the  nearly  perpendicular  explosion  of  so  great  a  piece 
of  ordnance,  the  vessel  has  considerable  breadth  in 
proportion  to  her  length.  The  mortar  is  slung  amid- 
ships in  a  massive  bed.  The  ancient  form  of  mor- 
tar-vessel was  the  "  bomb-ketch,"  convenient  because 
of  the  length  of  deck  without  a  mast.  The  present 
vessels  originated  during  the  Russian  war.  and  were 
fonnd  serviceable  at  the  bombardment  of  Sveaborg. 

MORTAR  "WAGON.— A  wagon  used  for  the  trans- 
portjition  of  siege  mortars. siege  guns, and  heavj'  pro- 
jectiles. The  limber  and  wheels  are  the  same  as  those 
for  the  siege-gun  carriage.  The  body  consists  of  a 
platform  of  rails  and  transoms,  resting  on  the  rear 
axle-tree, the  two  middle  rails  being  prolonged  to  the 
front  to  form  the  stock.  The  side  rails -are  prolong- 
ed to  the  rear,  and  furnish  supports  for  the  roller  ijf 
a  windlass;  which  is  used  for  loading  the  wagon,  the 
guns,  mortars,  etc.,  being  drawn  up  the  stock. which 
rests  on  tlie  ground, forming  an  inclined  plane.  Each 
end  of  the  roller  is  provided  with  pawl  and  ratchet, 
operated  by  a  handspike,  fitting  into  a  socket  after 
the  manner  of  the  windlass  of  a  giu.  Over  good  and 
firm  roads,  the  mortar-wagon  is  capable  of  carrying 
the  100-pounder  Parrott,  or  any  other  uiece  not  ex- 
ceeding in  weight  10,000  pounds. 

MORTISING-MACHINE.— A  machine  much  used  in 
arsenals  in  the  construction  of  gun-carriages,  etc. 
The  self-acting  mortising-machine  was  invented  by 
General  Bentham,  and  described  in  his  specification 
of  1793.  lie  made  them  for  the  Uritish  Admiralty 
previous  to  1800.  His  descriptiim  includes  the  oper- 
ation by  means  of  a  hole  previously  bored  and  then 
elongated  by  a  vertically  reciprocating  chisel;  and 
also  the  making  of  a  mortise  liy  a  rotiiry  cutter  dur- 
ing the  traveling  of  the  work.  One  form  included  a 
pivoted  table.  Hrunel's  mortising-machine,  made 
by  .Maudslay  for  the  iiritish  Admiralty,  about  1804, 
with  improvements,  is  emiiloyed  at  this  time  for 
mortising  the  shells  of  blocks.  The  drawing  shows 
the  C  B.  Rogers  medium-power  mortising-niachine, 
as  employed  in  most  of  the  arsenals  of  construction. 
This  niacliine  is  provided  with  boring  appiiralus  and 
is  especially  adapted  for  ordinary  work  in  hard 
wood  and   the  heavier  classes   of  building.     The 


MOSS  TROOPERS. 


387 


MOTION. 


oliiscl  liim  a  rapid  perpendicular  niDlion,  and  !« 
br()M;;lit  down  to  (lie  work  hy  the  treadle,  and  ear 
ried  up  l)y  the  baianee-wei!;lil  on  baeU  end  of  treadle. 
It  is  self-revernin}j,  twrninK  the  chiMel  when  the 
treadle  is  l<'t  u\>,  at  eaeh  end  of  the  mortise.  Tlio 
lied  can  he  set  at  any  anule  re(|uircd.  The  inaeliine 
has  llie  horirii,'  apparatus,  which  is  si't  on  the  same 
line  wilh  Ihe  chisi'l,  so  Ihal  the  work  can  he  liored 
and  llien  riui  under  the  chisel  and  morlised  without 
unclampirii;  it  from  the  lieil.  The  hit-shaft  is  run 
by  a  bell  from  the  chisel-shaft,  and  so  arraugcd,  that 


when  the  chisel  is  workint;  the  hit  stops,  and,  as  the 
chisel  is  let  up  by  the  treadle,  the  bit  starts,  ready 
for  horiiis:.  The  driving  pulley  is  10  inch  diameter, 
3  inch  face,  and  should  make  800  revolutions  per 
minute.  The  machine  may  be  driven  from  a  main 
line,  if  it  is  level  with  the  pulley  in  top  of  machine. 
If  not.  a  counter  will  be  needed,  to  set  on  a  level 
with  the  pulley,  and  8  or  10  feet  distant.  The  weight 


of  the  m.'irhine  is  1,4.')0  pounds.  8cc  Double  llnrlny 
and  M'rrtixiiiii-iiKirkinf,  and  Jfith  Mi/rliHijiy-mmliiw. 

MOSS  TROOPERS.— AfaraiiderH;  free-boolcrH;  plun- 
derers, 'i'hey  wf  11-  eonlined  to  the  districts  winch 
divided  the  Scotcii  and  KuKlish  territories  before  (he 
Union.  They  were  lianded  top'dii-r  in  clans,  anri 
lived  by  rapine,  and  received  this  denomination  from 
the  characlir  of  (he  country  over  which  they  (ravel- 
ed in  their  adventurous  mode  of  life.  In  Fuller's 
Wi>rl/iit:i  of  h'/ir/ln/iil  it  is  stated  that,  at  one  time, 
they  nuiid)ered  S(!veral  thousands,  and  that  their 
jfreat  enemies  were  "The  laws  of  llie  land  and  the 
Lord  William  Naworlh,"  who  finally  reduced  them 
to  leijal  obedience.  Scolt  mentions  them  in  'J'/ie  Imj/ 
I'f  till-  l,a«t  Min«lrH. 

MOTHIR  AL  MOOLK.— In  the  East  Indies,  a  term 
applied  lofordlications,  tiarricades,  intrenchmen(s,or 
hrcast  works. 

MOTION. — 1.  A  division  of  a  movement  in  the 
manual  of  arms  to  facilitate  the  instruction  of  re- 
cruits. 2.  The  laws  of  motion  are  the  fundamental 
principles  connectin^r  force  and  motion  in  (he  physi- 
cal universe;  and  are  oliviously  to  be  derived  from 
I'xperiiiienl  alone,  since  intuitive  reasoning  cannot 
possibly  give  us  any  informal  ion  as  to  what  may  or 
may  not  be  a  law  of  nature.  Thou<;h  these  laws  are 
derived  from  experiment,  it  cannot  be  said  that  we 
have  any  very  direct  experimental  proofs  of  their 
truth — our  most  satisfactory  veriticatioua  of  them 
are  derived  from  (he  exact  accordance  of  the  results 
of  calculation  widi  those  of  ob.servation  in  the  case 
of  such  i,dirantic  comliinations  of  mutually  influenc- 
ing bodies  as  (hat  of  the  solar  system:  and  it  is  by 
such  proofs  that  they  must  be  considered  to  have 
been  finally  established.  They  seem  first  to  have 
been  given  .systematically  and  completely  by  New- 
ton, at  the  opening  of  the  J'rhicipia;  but  tlie  first 
two  were  known  to  Galileo,  and  some  of  the  many 
forms  of  a //((/•<  of  the  third  were  known  to  Hookc, 
Iluyghens,  Wren,  and  others.  We  shall  give  them 
here  in  order,  wi(h  a  few  brief  comments,  showing 
their  htn.wfi/  and  (heir  ii.se  First,  then,  we  natur- 
ally inquire,  what  matter  would  do  if  left  to  itself; 
and,  by  considering  cases  in  which  less  and  less  e.x- 
lerual  force  is  applied  to  a  body,  we  are  led  to  the 
statement  called  [he  first  law  of  median. 

1 .  Jii'cry  body  continues  in  its  state  of  rest  or  of  uni- 
form motion  in  a  straight  line,  except  in  so  far  as  it 

may  be  compelled  by  impressed  forces  to  change  that 
stiite.  This  e-xjiresses  simply  the  inertia  of  matter — 
i.  e.,  a  body  cannot  alter  its  stiit(  of  rest  or  motion ; 
for  any  such  alteration  external  force  is  required. 
Hence  the  definition  of  force  as  that  which  changes 
or  tends  to  change  a  body's  state  of  rest  or  motion. 
Now,  how  does  the  change  of  state  depend  on  the 
force  which  produces  it  ?  This  is  obviously  a  new 
question,  to  he  resolved  b)'  experiment ;  and  the  an- 
swer is  (he  second  lair  of  motion: 

2.  Change  of  motion  is  proportional  to  the  impressed 
force,  and  takes  place  in  the  direction  of  the  straight  line 
inwkieh  the  force  acts.  Newton's  silence  is  as  expres- 
sive as  his  speech.  Nothing  is  here  said  about  the 
previous  motion  of  the  body,  or  about  the  number 
of  forces  which  may  be  at  work  simultaneously. 
Hence,  a  force  produces  its  full  effect  in  the  form  of 
change  of  motion,  whether  it  act  singularly,  or  be 
associated  with  others;  and  whatever,  moreover,  be 
the  original  motion  of  the  body  to  which  it  is  applied. 
Hence,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  equilibrium  oi  forces; 
every  force  produces  motion— and  what  we  call  equi- 
librium is  not  the  balancing  of  forces,  but  the  bal- 
ancing of  their  iff(cts.  Hence,  the  absurdity  of  at- 
tempting to  found  the  science  of  Statics  on  aiiy  other 
basis  than  is  to  be  derived  from  the  second  hu»of 
motion ;  which,  in  fact,  leads  us  at  once  (by  the  ;«/•- 
allelogram  of  velocities,  which  is  a  purely  geometrical 
conception)  to  Wie  paralU  I  ig  ram  of  forces,  and  thence, 
with  the  help  of  the  third  law,  (o  (he  whole  subject  of 
Statics.  The  second  law  also  supplies  the  means  of 
measuring /orc«  and  mass;  and  of  solving  any  prob- 


MOTON. 


388 


MOUNT. 


lem  whatever  coneeming  the  motion  nf  one  particle. 
But  more  is  required  before  we  can  study  Hie  motion 
of  a  sysU'in  of  particles — as  a  rigid  bod_v,  or  a  liquid, 
for  instance ;  or  a  system  of  connected  bodies.  Here 
there  are  mutual  actions  and  reactions  of  the  nature 
of  pressure  or  of  transference  of  energy  between  the 
parts — and  these  are  regulated  by  the  third  law  of 
motion. 

3.  To  euery  motion  there  is  always  an  eqiuil  and 
contrary  reactian;  or,  the  mutual  actions  of  any  two 
bodies  are  always  equal  and  oppositely  directed  m  the 
same  straight  line.  Thus,  the  mutual  pressure  be- 
tween two  bodies  has  equal,  but  opposite,  values  for 
the  two.  The  tension  of  a  rope  is  the  same  through- 
out, and  tends  as  much  to  pull  back  the  horse  at  one 
end  as  to  pull  fn-ward  the  ^inal-boat  at  the  other. 
The  earth  exerts  as  much  attractive  force  on  the 
suu  as  the  sun  e.xerts  on  the  earth — and  the  same 
law  applies  to  the  other  attractive  and  repulsive 
forces,  as  those  cf  electricity  and  magnetism.  But 
Newton  goes  much  further  than  this :  he  shows,  in 
fact,  that  action  and  reaction  fsubject  to  the  third 
law)  may  consist  in  work  done  by  a  force,  instead  of 
the  mere  force  or  pressure  itself.  From  this  form 
of  the  third  law  we  derive  at  once  the  principle  of 
virtual  velocities,  which  in  its  application  to  ma- 
chines is  familiar  as  "  What  is  gained  in  power  is  lost 
in  spe4!d."  But  we  also  derive  the  grand  principle  of 
the  indestructibility  of  work  or  energy ;  at  all  events 
in  the  case  of  the  ordinar}'  meclianical  forces — and 
this  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  grandest  dis- 
coveries which  Science  owes  to  Newton.  It  is  true 
that  he  merely  mentions  it,  and  then  abruptly  passes 
to  another  subject ;  yet  we  can  hardly  exaggerate 
the  value  of  this  single  remark.  Experimenters, 
mainly  Davy  and  Joule,  have  since  shown  that  all 
the  physical  energies,  as  heat,  light,  electricity,  etc., 
are  subject  in  their  transformations  to  the  third  law 
of  motion,  and  tlius  the  system  constructed  by  New- 
ton for  ordinary  dynamical  purposes,  is  now  found 
to  rule  the  most  mysterious  of  the  affections  of 
matter.     See  Force,  and  Mutipli^rs. 

MOTON. — In  ancient  armor,  a  small  plate  covering 
the  armpits  of  a  knight,  used  when  plate  armor  was 
worn. 

MOTTLED  CAST-IRON.— A  mi.\t\ire  of  the  white 
and  the  gray  varieties  in  varying  proporiions,  the 
gray  iron  sometimes  appearing  in  specks,  like  min- 
ute flowers  upon  a  white  ground;  whilst  in  other 
specimens  the  mass  is  composed  of  gray  iron,  and 
the  white  iron  appears  in  spots.  Fine^  graj'  mottled 
iron  from  its  great  tenacity  is  known  to  be  the  best 
titted  for  large  castings  wliere  great  strength  is  re- 
quired, and  is  employed  for  gun-founding.  It  may 
be  made  by  mixing  white  and  gray  iron,  or  by  con- 
tinuing gray  iron  in  fusion  for  some  time,  until  it 
gets  the  proper  color.  The  kind  of  mottle  will  de- 
pend much  upon  tlie  size  of  the  castings.  See  Cast- 
iron. 

MOTTO.— In  Heraldry,  a  word  or  short  sentence 
which  forms  an  accompaniment  to  a  coat-of-arms, 
crest,  or  household  badge.  Mottoes  were  originally 
attached  to  the  badge  when  the  family  had  one,  or 
to  tlic  crest  where  there  was  no  badge.  In  later 
Heraldry,  the  practice  isto  place  the  motto  in  an  es- 
crol  either  over  the  crest  or  below  the  shield.  A  mot- 
to is  sometimes  a  religious  or  moral  sentiment,  as 
'•Gardez  la  foi."  "Ilumanitate;"  it  isnot  unfrequent- 
ly  a  heroic  exclamation  or  war-cry,  "Courage  sans 
peur,  ■'  "Forward."  In  a  great  many  cases  it  bears 
reference  to  the  crest,  badge,  or  some  bearing  of  the 
escutcheon ;  thus,  Stuart,  Earl  of  Moray,  has  for 
crest  a  jielican  wounding  herself,  and  for  motto, 
"Stilus  per  C'lirislum  Hedemptorcni  ;"and  not  a  few 
mottoes  are  punning  allusions  to  Hie  family  name — 
as  Scudamore.  "Scutoamo.*s  Uivini:"  Vernon,  "V'er 
non  semper  viret;"  "Fare,  fac,"  for  Fairfax;  and 
"Time  Deum,  cole  regem,"  for  (Coleridge.  Two 
mottoes  are  sometimes  used  liy  the  samir  family — 
one  above  the  crest,  the  other  below  the  shield.  The 


[  motto,  "Dieu  et  mon  Droit,"  which  accompanies  the 
royal  arms  of  Great  Britain,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
I  a  war-cry,  and  was  used  in  England  at  least  as  early 
;  as  the  time  of  Henry  VI.  Its  origin  has  been  as- 
;  signed  to  a  saying  of  Richard  I.,  "Not  we,  but  God 
and  our  right  have  vanquished  France." 

MOULINETS.— 1.  Circular  swings  of  the  sword  or 
saber,  performed  as  follows:  Left  Moulinet.  Being 
at  guard,  extend  the  arm  oliliquely  to  tlie  left  and 
front  to  its  full  length,  the  hand  in  tierce  and  as  high 
as  the  eyes,  the  point  of  the  saber  to  the  front,  and 
a  little  higher  than  the  hilt.  (Two).  Lower  the 
blade,  edge  to  the  front,  and  make  rapidly  a  circle 
around  tlie  hand,  to  the  left  of  and  near  the  horse's 
j  neck,  the  blade  passing  close  to  the  left  elbow;  re- 
turn to  the  first  position.  (Thbee).  Resume  the 
guard. 

Right  Moulinet.  Being  at  guard,  extend  the  arm 
to  the  front  to  its  full  length,  the  hand  in  quarte, 
and  as  high  as  the  eyes,  the  point  to  the  front,  and  a 
little  higher  than  the  hilt.  (Two).  Lower  the  blade, 
edge  to  the  front,  make  rapidly  a  circle  around  the 
hand,  to  the  right  of  and  near  the  horse's  neck,  the 
blade  passing  close  to  the  right  elbow;  return  to  the 
first  position.     (Thbee).  Resume  the  guard. 

Rear  Moulinet.  Being  at  guard,  raise  the  arm  to 
the  right  and  rear  to  its  full  extent,  the  point  of  the 
saber  upward,  the  edge  to  the  right,  the  body 
slightly  turned  to  the  right.  (Two.)  Begin  by 
moving  the  point  of  the  saber  toward  the  left,  and 
describe  a  circle  in  rear.  (Thbee.)  Resume  the 
guard.  In  executing  the  moulinets,  the  right  arm 
is  kept  as  steady  as  possible  in  position,  the  saber 
being  controlled  by  motions  of  the  wrist  and  hand. 
See  Saber  Exercise. 

2.  Mechanical  appliances  employed  to  draw  up 
the  cords  of  the  cross-bows,  while  the  bows  were 
held  down  by  the  feet.  They  were  in  common  use 
about  the  end  of  the  13th  century. 

MOUND.— A  bulwark  for  of- 
fense or  defense.  2.  In  Herald- 
ry, a  representation  of  a  globe, 
surmounted  with  a  cross  (gene- 
rally) patttie.  As  a  device,  it 
is  said  to  liave  been  used  by 
the  Emperor  Justinian,  and  to 
have  been  intended  to  represent 
the  ascendancy  of  Christianity 
over  the  world.  The  royal  crown 
of  England  is  surmounted  by  a 
mound,  which  first  appears  on  the  seal  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  though  the  globe  without  the  cross 
was  used  earlier. 

MOUNT. — The  means  or  opportunity  for  mount- 
ing, especially  a  horse  :  and  the  equipments  essen- 
tial to  a  mounted  horseman.  2.  To  place  one's  self 
on,  as  a  hor.se,  or  anything  that 
one  bestrides  or  sits  upon.  Hence, 
to  put  on  horseback  ;  to  furnish 
with  animals  for  riding.  3.  To 
put  anything  that  sustains  and 
tits,  for  use  ;  as,  to  mount  a  gun 
on  its  carriage,  to  prepare'for 
being  worn  or  otherwise  used  ; 
as,  a  sword-blade  by  adding  the 
hilt  and  scabbard.  A  sliii)  or  a 
fort  is  said  to  »H6<»;(i  cannon  when 
they  are  arranged  for  use  in  and  about  it.  4.  A  term 
in  Heraldry.  When  the  lower  part  of  the  shield  is  oc- 
cupied  with  a  representation  of  ground  sliglilly  rais- 
ed, and  covered  with  grass,  this  is  called  a  mount  in 
base;  e.  g.,  argent,  on  a  mount  in  base,  a  grove  of 
trees ppr. — Walkinshaw.  of  that  ilk,  S<-olland.  ,'>.  A 
word  of  command  in  cavalry  exercise  for  tiic  men  to 
mount  their  horses.  It  is  executed  as  follows:  The 
men  standing  to  horse,  the  Instructor  commands  : 
Pkepauk  to  mount,  whereupon  the  odd  numlxrs  lead 
out.  All  the  men  then  face  to  the  right,  dropping 
the  right  rein  from  the  hand,  take  two  side  steps  to 
the  right,  sliding  the  hand  along  the  left  rein,  make 


HonncL 


•Mnnrifc 


MOUNTAIN  AETILLEHT. 


380 


MOUNTAIN  ARTILLERY  CARRIAGE. 


a  half  face  In  tlic  left  ho  uh  tn  brinj;  tlic  riclil  ni(lc  to- 
ward tlic  liursc'M  Hank;  nirry  the  rif;lil,  fool,  three 
inches  Id  the  rear  ;  take  the  reinM  with  llje  riL'hl  hariil 
aided  by  the  left,  and  plaee  the  rii;lil  hiirid  on  llje 
j)oniinei,  ll»^  reins  eoniini,'  into  the  lianil  hel  ween  the 
tliiirnli  and  fnre-tini^er,  and  held  so  as  to  feel  lit,'litly 
Uie  horse's  nicmlli.  (Two.)  Ka<'h  reernit  places  a 
third  of  the  left  foot  in  the  stirrup,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  left  hand  if  ne<'essary,  and  supports  it, 
ai;ainst  the  forearm  of  tlie  horse;  rests  upon  the  hall 
of  the  riiiht  foot;  places  the  h'fl  hand  on  top  of  lh(^ 
neck,  well  forward,  and  i;rasps  a  lock  of  the  ni-ine, 
the  lock  eoniini;  out  between  the  ihunih  and  forc- 
finirer.  The  Instructor  thin  conunands  :  2.  .Mount. 
At  this  eoninuind,  siirini;  from  the  riirht  foot,  hold- 
ing lirinly  to  the  mane,  and  keeiiin^  the  ris;hl  hand 
on  the  poMUuel ;  l)rini;  the  heels  toi^ether,  tlie  knees 
straiiihtened  and  resting  against  the  saddle,  tlu'  l)ody 
erect.  (Two.)  Pass  the  rijiht  lei;  extended  over  the 
croup  of  the  horse  without  touching  him  ;  let  the 
body  come  gently  down  into  the  saddle;  let  go  the 
maiie.  insert  the  right  foot  in  the  stirrup,  pass  the 
reins  into  the  left  hand  and  adjust  them.  At  the 
conunands,  3.  For?)!.,  4.  Hank,  the  even  numbers 
move  n|)  upon  reaching  tin- saddle,  a  position  shonhi 
be  assumeil  with  the  buttocks  bearing  e((iuilly  upon 
the  saddle,  and  as  far  forward  as  possible  ;  the  reins 
coming  into  the  left  hand  on  the  side  of  the  little 
linger,  and  leaving  it  between  the  thunib  and  fore- 
finger; the  little  finger  between  the  reins,  the  other 
lingers  closed,  the  thumb  pressing  the  reins  tirmly 
on  the  second  Joint  of  the  fore-tingcr;  the  left  fore- 
arm horizontal,  the  lingers  six  inches  from  the  body 
and  turned  toward  it;  the  little  linger  a  little  nearer 
the  body  than  the  upper  i)art  of  the  luuid  ;  the  right 
hand  behind  the  thigh,  the  arm  falling  niitnrally, the 
feet  inserted  one-third  of  their  length  in  the  stirrups, 
the  hi'els  slightly  lower  thiin  the  toes. 

MOUNTAIN    AETILLEEY.— Mountain   artillery   is 
designed  to  operate  in  a  country  destitate  of  car 


from  the  facility  will]  which  it  eoidil  ]»■  carried  up 
stei'p  ascents,  and  to  the  tops  of  llal-roofed  houses, 
in  slreel.flL'liling.      See  Full/  ,  I /•////, /■//. 

MOUNTAIN  ARTILLERY  CARRIAGE.  Till;  carri- 
age fur  llie  Miountain-rille  is  ^imihir  in  material  and 
general  conslrui-lion  to  that  of  the  lield-gun.and  com- 
l)ines  strength,  simplicity,  and  lightnesH.  Tlic  axle 
is  without  an  axle-body,  and  the  wheels  Iiave  metal 
naves. 

The  mounlain-howit/.er  carriage  should  be  light 
enough  to  be  carried  on  the  back  of  a  i>ar;k  animal, 
and  the  axle-tree  should  be  short  enough  to  permit  it 
to  ])ass  through  very  narrow  deliles.  It  dillers  in 
construction  from  the  lield-carriage,  inasmuf:li  as  the 
stock  and  cheeks  are  formed  of  the  same  jjieee,  by 
hollowing  out  the  head  of  tlx;  stock.  The  wlieelH 
an;  thirty-eight  inchi'S  in  diameter,  and  the  axle-tree 
is  nuide  of  wood,  the  arms  being  protected  from 
wear  by  «/>«««.  or  strips  of  iron.  The  distance  be." 
twecn  ihe  wheels  is  about  e(|ual  to  thi-ir  diainelcr. 
It  is  arrangecl  for  dr:iught  liy  attaching  a  jiair  of 
shafts  to  the  trail.  The  pack-saddle  and  its  harness 
are  constructed  to  carry  severally.  tli(;  howitzer  and 
shaft,  the  carriage,  or  two  anniumition  chests,  or  it 
enables  an  animal  to  draw  the  carriage,  with  the 
howitzer  mounted  upon  it.  A  iiortable  forge  ac- 
companies each  mount;iin  battery, and  is  so  construct- 
ed that  it  can  be  enclosed  in  two  chests,  and  carried, 
with  a  bag  of  co;il,  u])on  the  jiack-saddle. 

The  Russian  carriage  has  very  short  cheeks,  the 
front  ends  of  which  are  cut  off  obliquely  instead  of 
vertically;  the  trunnion-beds  are  let  into  this  ob- 
lique face,  and  the  trunnions  are  heldliy  cap-squares 
and  keys.  Krupp  makes  two  sizes  of  carriages  for 
the  8-ccntimeter  and  (i-centimeter  guns,  respectively. 
The  elevating-screw  admits  of  IH"  of  elevation  and 
10"  depression.  The  anmumilion-chests  arc  made 
of  wood,  with  iron  angle-pieces. 

The  English  have  two  carriage.?,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing,  for  the  two  7-pounder  guns,  one   of  which 


riage-roads,  and  inaccessible  to  field  artillery.  It 
must,  therefore,  be  light  enough  to  be  carried  on 
pack-animals.  The  piece  used  for  nu)untain  service 
in  the  United  States  is  a  short,  light  12-pdr.  how- 
itzer, weighing  320  lbs.  The  form  of  the  chamber 
is  cylindrical,  and  suited  to  a  charge  of  \  lb.  of  pow- 
der. The  projectiles  are  shells  and  case-sliot.  It  is 
discharged  from  a  low,  two-wheel  carriage,  which 
serves  for  transportation  whenever  the  ground  will 
permit.  When  the  piece  is  packed,  the  carriage  is 
packed  on  a  separate  animal  The  mountain  howit- 
zer is  also  employed  for  prairie  service,  and  in  de- 
fending camps  and  frontier  forts  against  Inilians,  in 
which^asc  it  is  mounted  on  a  light,  four-wheel  car- 
riage, called  '■  the  prairie  carriage."  In  the  Mexi- 
can war,  the  mountain  howitzer  was  found  useful. 


weighs  150  pounds  when  made  of  steel,  and  200 
pounds  if  made  of  brass  ;  the  other  weighs  200  pound.s 
when  made  of  steel,  and  224  if  made  of  bronze.  The 
wheels  are  30  inches  and  3lj  inches  in  diameter,  re- 
spectively, and  have  a  track  of  27  inches.  The  ele- 
vating apparatus  consists  of  a  movable  bed.  which 
hooks  on  a  cross-bar  between  the  cheeks  over  the 
axle,  and  has  two  studs,  one  on  each  side,  to  rest  in 
racks  riveted  to  the  inside  of  the  trail-pieces.  A 
sliding-quoin  rests  on  the  bed.  and  is  worked  by  a 
screw" which  passes  through  a  collar  in  the  end  of 
the  bed  and  enters  a  nut  in  the  quoin.  A  light  iron 
limber  is  made  for  tlie  heavier  carriage,  and  carries 
two  ammunition-ciiests,  which  contain  ten  rounds 
of  ammunition  each. 
In  transportation  the  gun  is  carried  in  Russia  and 


MOUNTAINOUS  SITES. 


390 


MOUNTAIN  TEANSIT. 


6-centimet«r. 
178^  pounds. 
198      pounde. 

105^^  pounds. 

16' 

4fJV  pounds. 
7      ounces. 

4  lbs.  C>r  oz. 
919  feet. 


Germany  over  the  horse's  spine,  the  breech  in  front, 
this  being  deemed  the  more  favorable  position  for 
passing  narrow  passes  and  tlie  roads  Ihrougli  wliicli 
mountain  artillery  has  frequently  to  make  its  way. 
The  obiection  to  having  any  part  of  the  load  cross- 
ways  has  induced  the  Russians  to  detach  the  axles  for 
transportation,  believing  that  the  delays  which  may 
occur  on  the  march  from  the  axle-arms  interfering 
■with  a  free  passage  through  woods,  etc.,  would  be 
greater  than  would  result  from  having  to  adjust  the 
axle  to  the  carriage  when  it  was  required  to  com- 
mence tiring.  The  carriage  pack-saddle  is  provided 
■with  a  rear  pad  to  protect  the  animal's  rump  from 
blows  from  the  end  of  the  trail. 

The  following  are  the  principal  -weights  and  di- 
mensions of  Krupps  carriages  :— 

8-ceBtimeter, 
"Welglit  of  carriage  with  wheels.  332    pounds. 

■Weiglit  of  gun  with  wedge 2*27    pounds. 

Weight    of    aramunition-chest, 

paclced 103.6  pounds. 

Number  of  roundsin  each  chest.      8 

Weight  of  pack-saddle 4G?i  pounds. 

■yVeight  of  powder-charge 14      ounces. 

Weight  of  shell,  loaded 8  lbs.  13  oz. 

Initial  velocity  of  shell 952  feet 

The  following  are  the  principal  weights  of  the 
English  carriages:  — 

Pounds. 

Weight  of  lisht  carriage  without  wheels 161 

Weight  of  light  carriage  with  wheels 287 

Weight  of  lieavier  carriage  without  wheels 192 

Weight  of  tieavier  carriage  witll  wheels 328 

Weight  of  limber 333 

MOUNTAINOUS  SITES.— The  crests  and  gorges  are 
the  most  important  military  features  of  a  promi- 
nently marked  mountainous  position.  It  is  tlirough 
the  latter  that  the  roads  are  made,  and  the  former, 
from  their  elevation,  command  the  latter.  The 
crests  should  therefore  never  be  abandoned  to  the 
enemy,  although  from  their  position,  or  distance, 
they  may  not  directly  overlook  the  gorges ;  for, 
independently  of  the  real  advantage  of  position, 
■which  the  enemy  would  thus  acquire,  he  would 
possess  a  relative  advantage  in  the  moral  effect  pro- 
duced on  troops  when  they  lind  themselves  in  a  com- 
manded position.  If  the  base  of  the  mountain  does 
not  stretch  out  too  far  from  the  summit  to  admit  of 
a  sure  retreat  on  the  latter,  -^orks  may  be  thrown 
up  for  the  defense  of  the  base,  with  intermediate 
works  between  the  base  and  the  summit  placed  on 
the  secondary  ridges,  or  other  commanding  points. 
But  if  the  distance  between  the  summit  and  the 
base  is  great,  and  particularly  if  it  is  decided  before- 
liand  to  retreat  upon  the  summits,  in  case  of  disaster, 
then  the  base  should  be  disregarded. 

The  works  thrown  up  for  the  defense  of  the  sum- 
mit should  be  laid  out  on  the  brow  of  the  height, 
for  the  purpose  of  overlooking  and  guarding  its 
sides.  As  has  already  been  stated,  the  ]ilan  and 
relief  of  the  defenses  will  be  subordinated  to  the 
features  of  the  ground.  Where  the  surface  along 
the  crests  is  undulating,  presenting  salient  and  re- 
entering parts,  consisting  of  spurs  and  ravines  more 
or  less  prominent,  the  salient  points  should  be  occu- 
pied by  works  with  a  good  relief,  and  otherwise 
strengthened  b}'  passive  obstructions  to  the  assail- 
ant's advance,  as  from  tJu-ir  position  a  broad  Hank- 
ing sweep  of  the  surface  for  artillery  can  be  ob- 
tained for  the  defense  of  the  approaches  upon  the 
collateral  salients.  The  re-entering  portions  may  be 
occupied  with  defenses  of  a  ■weaker  profile,  as  their 
position  is  stronger  and  it  is  from  them  tliat  a  strong 
fire  of  mvisketry  and  of  llu;  lighler  Held  guns  can  be 
brought  to  l)ear  upon  the  ground  directlj^  in  front 
of  the  salients  adjacent  to  them.  Tlic  cremaillere 
line  and  tlie  redan  line  with  long  curtains  broken 
forward,  so  as  to  form  a  tenailled  combination  with 
alternate  long  and  short  brandies,  botli  lend  them- 
selves  lictter  tlian  most  other  combinations  to  a  wm- 
figuration  of  ground  of  this  description. 

Very  steep  slopes  will  not  admit  of  a  defense  with 
artillery,  because  the  gun  cannot  be  tireil  under  a 


much  greater  depression  than  one-si.xth,  and  unless 
the  shot  take  effect  the  enemy  will  be  inspirited  lo 
advance,  confiding  in  the  safety  of  his  position.  In 
slopes  of  this  character  the  works  may  consist  sim- 
ply of  a  parapet,  in  the  form  of  a  glacis,  without  any 
ditch,  the  earth  for  the  parapet  being  taken  from  an 
interior  trench  ;  in  some  cases  a  dry  stone  wall  may 
be  substituted  for  an  eartlien  parapet.  An  abattis 
may  be  formed  in  front  of  the  parapet  ■within  close 
musket  range;  and  heavy  round  logs,  or  large 
masses  of  rock,  be  arranged  along  the  parapet, 
ready  to  be  rolled  over  on  the  enemy  should  he 
break  through  the  abattis.  Steep  escarpments  of 
rock  are  generally  considered  as  inaccessible ;  but 
those  points  should  never  be  left  to  their  o^wn 
strength.  It  is  always  prudent  to  post  a  small  de- 
tachment to  frustrate  an  attempt  of  the  enemy  to  sur- 
prise them.  A  steep  natural  slope  maybe  made  in- 
accessible by  cutting  awaj' the  face  of  tlie  eminence. 

It  may,  in  some  cases,  be  indispensably  necessary 
to  guard  certain  points  at  the  base  of  a  mountain,  as, 
for  example,  where  the  base  is  washed  by  a  river, 
over  which  there  is  an  important  ferry.  Under 
such  circumstances  the  point  to  be  guarded  should 
be  most  thoroughly  protected  by  some  strong  work; 
moreover,  a  number  of  posts,  placed  at  intervals  on 
the  most  commanding  points  between  the  summit 
and  the  base,  should  connect  the  two.  These  posts 
should,  when  practicable,  be  placed  in  defensive  re- 
lations, and  in  all  cases  their  tire  should  sweep  all 
the  ground  between  the  two  principal  points.  The 
interior  of  the  posts  most  advanced  should  be  ex- 
posed to  the  Are  of  those  in  their  rear,  in  order  that 
the  enemy  may  be  driven  out,  should  he  succeed  in 
forcing  his  way  into  any  one.  As  these  posts  will 
require  a  considerable  detachment  for  their  defense, 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  multiply  their  number 
unnecessaril}-,  and  never  at  the  expense  of  the  main 
defense.  All  communications,  leading  through  the 
mountains,  should  be  carefully  guarded,  both  at 
their  outlets  and  at  the  most  suitable  intermediate 
points  for  defense  ;  otherwise  the  most  respectable 
positions  will  be  liable  to  be  turned  by  the  enemy. 
If  the  communications  are  not  of  ase  to  the  assailed, 
they  must  be  barred  b}-  a  line  of  abattis,  or  by  an 
artilicial  inundation,  etc.  ;  and  they  sliould  be 
watched  by  a  detachment  of  light  troops,  whose 
retreat  on  the  main  works  should  be  secured  in  case 
of  an  attack  by  superinr  forces.  If  the  communica- 
tions are  of  use  to  the  assailed  they  should  be  de- 
fended by  intrenchraents,  which  should  command 
and  enlilade  them  in  the  most  effectual  manner. 

MOUNTAIN  TRANSIT.— This  instrument  is  a  mod- 
ification of  the  Engineer's  Transit,  made  for  moun- 
tain and  mine  survej-s.  but  applicalile  as  well  to  all 
the  other  work  of  the  Engineer.  It  is  made  exceed- 
ingly light  and  portable,  its  needle  being  4  inches 
long;  and  its  telescope  8  inches  long,  having  a  pow- 
er of  30  diameters.  Its  sockets  with  the  leveling 
head,  remain  attached  to  the  instrument;  and  its 
compass  circle  is  movable  about  its  center,  so  as  to 
lay  off  the  variation  of  the  needle.  In  this  instru- 
ment the  limb  is  divided  on  solid  silver  to  half  de- 
grees, with  verniers  reading  to  single  minutes;  some- 
times the  limb  is  divided  to  twenty  minutes  with 
verniers  reading  to  half  minutes.  There  are  also 
cylindrical  caps  above  the  leveling  screws  to  exclude 
the  dust,  etc.  The  drawing  shows  one  of  the  cellu- 
loid refiectors,  wliieh  are  placed  over  the  two  oppo- 
site verniers  of  the  limb,  and  are  of  service  especially 
in  the  surveys  of  mines,  to  throw  light  upon  the  di- 
visions below. 

Like  the  Engineer's  Transit,  this  instrument  is 
sometimes  used  Willi  a  plain  telescope;  but  oftener 
with  one  or  more  of  the  extras,  as  level,  chiiiip  and 
tangent,  and  vertical  circle.  More  frequently,  how- 
ever, the  Alountain  Transit  is  furnished  as  shown, 
with  vertical  arc,  level,  clamp  and  tangent,  and  the 
solar  altaehinent. '  which  is  essentially  the  solar  ap- 
paratus of  IJurt  iilaced  upon  the  cross-bar  of  the  or- 


MOUNTAIN  WARFAHK. 


MOUNTAIN  WAEFAHE. 


(liiiiiry  Iniiisit,  llii'  jmliir  axis  being  directed  above 
insteud  of  liclow,  iif*  is  llieoiisc  in  llic  solar  coinpiiss. 
A  lit  lie  circular  disk  of  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
diamclcr,  and  having  a  very  short,  round  pivot, 
projcclini;  hIkivc  its  u])p('r  surface,  is  first  sccuri'ly 
screwed  to  the  lelevcope  axis.  I'pon  this  piv(;t 
rr!sls  Ihi'  eularijcd  base  of  the  polar  axis,  which  is 
also  lirnily  connected  with  the  disk  by  four  capslan- 
liead  screws  iiassini;  from  the  underside  of  the  disk 
into  the  base  already  named.  These  screws  serve  to 
adjust  the  polar  axis. 

The  hour  circle  surr()un<lini;  the  base  of  I  he  polar 
axis  is  easily  movable  about  it.  and  can  bcfaslened 
at  any  point  desireil  by  two  fhil-head  screws  above. 
It  is  dividcii  to  live  minutes  of  lime;  is  lii^ured  from 
1.  to  XII.,  anil  is  re;id  liy  a  small  index  tixed  lo  llic 
declinathiu  are,  and  moving  with  il.  A  hollow  coui', 
or  Rocket,  tittinu;  closely  to  the  polar  axis  and  made 
to  move  snuijly  upon  it,  or  clamped  at  any  jioint 
desired  by  a  milled-head  screw  on  top,  furnishes 
by  its  two  expandeil  arms  below,  a  lirni  supjiortfor 
the  declination  arc,  which  is  securely  fastened  to  it 
by  two  lari^e  screws,  as  shown. 

The  (h'clinution  arc  is  of  about  five  inches  radius, 
is  divided  tociuarter  degrees,  and  reads  by  its  ver- 
nier to  simrle  minutes  of  arc,  the  divisions  of  both 
vernier  aiKi  limb  bcini;  in  the  same  plane.  The  ile- 
cliuatiou  arm  lias  the  usual  lenses  and  silver  plates 


on  the  two  opposite  lilocks.  made  precisely  like  those 
of  the  ordinary  solar  compass,  but  its  vernier  is  out- 
side the  block,  and  more  easily  read.  The  declination 
arm  lias  also  a  clamp  and  tangent  movement,  as 
shown  in  the  drawing.  The  arc  of  the  declination 
limb  is  turned  on  its  axis  and  one  or  the  other  solar 
lens  used,  as  the  sun  is  north  or  south  of  the  equa- 
tor; the  drawing  shows  its  position  when  it  is  north. 
The  latitude  is  set  olT  liy  means  of  a  large  vertical 
limb  having  a  radius  of  two  and  a  half  inches;  the 
are  is  divided  to  thirty  minutes,  is  figured  from  the 
center,  each  way,  in  two  rows,  viz.,  from  0  to  80"^ 
and  from  90*^  to  10^,  the  first  series  being  intendej 
for  reading  vertical  angles;  the  last  series  for  setting 
off  the  latitude,  and  is  read  by  its  vernier  to  single 
minutes.  When  desired. an  arc  of  three  inches  rad- 
ius is  prepared  reading  by  its  vernier  to  lialf  min- 
utes of  a  degree.  It  lias  also  a  clamp-screw  inser- 
ted near  its  center,  by  which  it  can  be  set  fast  to  the 
telescope  axis  in  any  desired  pi  sition.  The  vernier 
of  tlie  vertical  limb  is  made  movable  by  the  tangent- 


Hcrew  attached,  ho  that  its  zero  and  that  of  the  limb 
arc  ri'iidily  made  to  coincide  when,  in  adjusting  the 
limb  to  the-  level  of  the  leles<;one,  the  ar<:  is  clamped 
I  to  the  a.xis.  The  iiwial  tangent  movement  to  the 
telescope;  axis  serves,  of  course,  to  bring  the  vertical 
limb  lo  the  proper  elevation.  A  level  on  the  under 
side  of  I  hi-  telescope,  with  ground  vial  and  scale,  ig 
indispensable  in  the  use  of  the  solar  ..tiachment. 
The  diviih'd  arcs,  verniers,  and  hour  circle  are  all  on 
silver  plate,  and  are  thus  easily  read  and  [)reserved 
from  tarnishing. 

To  determine  latitude,  first  level  the  instrument 
very  carefully,  using,  as  befon;,  the  level  of  the 
lele.scoiie  until  the  bubble  will  remain  in  the  center 
during  a  complete  revolution  of  the  instrument,  the 
tangent  movement  of  the  ti'lescope  beini.'  used  in 
connection  with  the  leveling  screws  of  the  parallel 
plates,  and  the  a.xis  of  the  teli-scope  firmly  clam[)ed. 
Next  clamp  the  vertical  arc,  so  tliat  its  zero  and  that 
of  its  vernier  coincide  as  near  as  may  be,  and  tlien 
bring  them  into  exact  line  by  the  tangent-screw  of 
the  vernier.  'I'lien,  having  the  declination  of  the 
sun  for  12  o'clock  of  the  given  day  as  aflected  by  the 
meridional  refraction  carefully  set  off  u|)on  the  de- 
clination arc,  note  also  the  c(|uation  of  lime  and 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  before  noon,  the  telescope 
being  directed  lo  the  north,  and  the  object-end 
lowered  until,  by  moving  the  instrument  upon  its 
spindle  and  the  declination  arc  from  side  to  side,  the 
sun's  image  is  brought  nearly  into  position  between 
the  equatorial  lines.  Now  bring  the  declinalii  n  arc 
directly  in  line  with  the  telescope,  chimp  the  a.xis 
firmly,  and  with  the  tangent-screw  bring  Ihe  image 
precisely  between  the  lines  and  keep  it  there  with 
the  tangent-screw,  raising  it  just  as  long  as  it  will 
run  bclovir  the  lower  equatorial  line,  or  in  other 
words,  as  long  as  the  sun  continues  to  rise  in 
the  heavens.  When  the  sun  reaches  the  merid- 
ian the  image  will  remain  stationary  for  an  in- 
stant, and  then  begin  to  rise  on  the  plate.  The 
moment  the  image  ceases  to  run  below  is  of  course 
apparent  noon,  when  the  inde.x  of  the  hour  arc 
should  indicate  XII,  and  the  latitude  be  determined 
by  the  reading  of  the  vertical  arc.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  the  angle  through  which 
the  polar  axis  has  moved  in  the  operation  just  de- 
scribed is  measured  from  the  zenith  instead  of  the 
horizon  as  in  the  ordinary  solar,  so  that  the  angle 
read  on  the  vertical  limb  is  the  complement  of  the 
latitude. 

The  Mountain  Transit  is  usuallj'  placed  upon  an 
extension  tripod,  in  which  all  the  legs  can  be  short- 
ened or  lengthened  at  will.  It  is  thus  adapted  for 
use  in  mountain  surveys,  where  one  or  more  legs 
must  be  shortened  ;  or  for  mines,  where  in  many 
places  a  short  tripod  is  indispensable.  If  desired, 
Ihe  sliding  pieces  can  be  easily  turned  end  for  end, 
the  points  being  thus  put  out  of  the  way,  and  the 
tripod  morr  s,;?ely  transported.  The  tripod  wheu 
closed  is  only  three  feet  long,  and  is  carried  by  an 
ordinary  shawl-strap.  The  weight  of  this  instru- 
ment, as  made  by  the  Jlessrs.  Ourlcy.  United  States, 
with  plain  telescope  is  8i  pounds:  with  the  solar  at- 
tachment, arc,  level,  and  clamp,  Di  jiounds.  The 
extension  tripod  weighs  about  8  pounds.  See  En- 
giiiffV^x     Transit. 

MOUNTAIN  WARFARE.— In  warfare,  mountains 
offer  a  considerable  obstacle  to  an  invading  army, 
and,  if  properly  defended,  may  either  stay  the  ad- 
vance of  an  enemy  or  prevent  ingress  into  the  coun- 
try. The  difliculty  to  be  overcome  will  be  still 
greater  if  there  be  other  obstacles,  such  as  rivers  and 
a  succession  of  mountain  ranges.  In  such  warfare 
the  invading  General  should  use  every  precaution  in 
examining  each  step  of  the  way,  and  gleaning  all  in- 
formatiim  in  his  power  from  maps,  guides,  and  re- 
connoissances.  Further,  he  should  be  careful  that 
he  does  not  fall  into  a  trap,  which  the  enemy  may 
lay  for  him  in  feigning  retreat,  when  he  is  endeavor- 
ing to  outflank  him  and  get  in  his  rear,  thus  render- 


HOUNTED  PAY. 


392 


MOUNTING  CANNON. 


ing  the  position  of  the  invader  very  precarious.  It 
sliould  therefore  be  laid  down  as  a  nia.xim  that,  in 
mountain  operations,  especially,  the  tianks  and  rear 
of  the  invading  army  must  be  secured,  to  prevent 
being  surrounded.     One  of  the  great   difficulties  in 


small  bodies  of  mounted  riflemen.  Mounted  rifle" 
men  were  considerably  used  and  appreciated  by 
Napoleon  I.  and  his  Generals.  .Jomini  writes  on  the 
subject  as  follows:  "  It  is  certainly  an  advantage  to 
liavc  several  battalions  of  mounted  infantry,  who  can 
this  nature  of  warfare  is  keeping  the  communication  '  anticipate  an  enemy  at  a  defile,  defend  itin  retreat, 
open  with  the  rear,  and  bringing  up  food  for  the  j  or  scour  a  wood."  Sir  G.  Wolseley,  in  writing  on 
army,  as  mountain  ranges,  passes,  etc.,  do  not  afford  the  subject  of  outposts,  gives  it  as  liis  opinion  that, 
facility  for  using  wheeled  carriages  ;  and  the  trans- !  whenever  mounted  infantry  is  introduced  into  the 


port,  therefore,  resolves  itself  into  men  and  pack 
animals.  Such  transport  forms  but  a  slow  and  pre- 
carious means  of  carrying  forward  supplies,  if  not 
well  guarded.  History  affords  examples  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  mountain  warfare  in  transporting  the  wa- 
teriel  of  war :  thus,  for  instance,  that  of  Napoleon, 
the  First  Consul,  whilst  effecting  the  passage  of  the 
Alps,  with  the  French  army,  in'that  part  called  the 
Great  and  the  Little  St.  Bernard.  The  carriage  of 
his  artillery  and  stores  was  a  source  of  great  anxiety 
ami  difficulty.  The  exertion  of  a  whole  battalion 
was  requisite  for  the  conveyance  of  one  field-piece, 
with  its  proportion  of  ammunition;  one-half  of  the 
regiment  could  only  draw  the  load,  while  the  other 
half  was  obliged  to  carry  the  knapsacks,  firelocks, 
camp  kettles,  and  five  days'  rations. 

MOUNTED  PAY.— A  grade  of  pay  allowed  mounted 
officers,  or  to  other  officers  serving  under  conditions 
which  entitle  them  to  the  same  pay.  The  following 
officers,  in  addition  to  those  whose  pay  is  fixed  by 
law,  are  entitled  to  pay  as  mounted  oilicers  :  officers 
of  the  Staff  Corps  below  the  rank  of  Major,  officers 
of  troops  of  cavalry,  officers  of  one  light  battery  for 
each  regiment  of  artillery,  officers  announced  in 
orders  from  the  Adjutant  General's  Office  as  Acting 
Signal  Officers,  and  authorized  Aides-de-Camp  duly 
appointed  as  such.  Other  light  batteries  of  artillerv 
which  may  be  designated  by  the  President,  and 
equipped  as  such,  will  each  have  the  organization  of 
a  light  battery,  except  the  additional  2d  Lieutenant 
and  the  officers  thereof  actually  serving  with  the 
light  batteries  will  be  mounted.  Officers  actually 
serving  with  companies  of  infantry  mounted  by  au- 
thority of  the  War  Department,  and  not  iu  excess 
of  the  legal  organization  of  infantry,  are  mounted 
while  so  serving.  A  company  of  infantry  moimted 
retains  the  same  organization  as  on  foot.  Other 
officers  on  duty  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Depart- 
ment Commander,  requires  them  to  be  mounted, 
are  entitled  to  be  so  considered,  on  the  certificate  of 
their  Department  Commanders  that  they  have  been 
on  duty  in  the  service  of  the  United  States  which  re- 
quired them  to  be  mounted  during  the  time.  See 
Pai/. 

MOUNTED  RIFLEMEN.— Mounted  infantry,  the 
designation  of  riflemen  being  given  to  them  from  the 
arm  they  were  equipped  with.  Mounted  riflemen 
are  soldiers  trained  to  act  as  foot  and  cavalry  sol- 
diers. This  arm  is  but  little  known  at  the  present 
time  in  the  British  service,  but  since  the  war  of  1870- 
71,  which  has  confirmed  the  opinion  held  by  many 
soldiers,  ^that  mcmnted  riflemen  are  now  essential  to 
every  enterprising  army,  the  subject  of  reintroduc- 
ing it  in  the  army  has  been  often  discussed.  The 
flrst  mention  in  military  history  of  mounted  riflemen 
is  that  of  the  dragoons  created  by  Marechal  de  Bris- 
sac  in  1600.  They  were  foot  soldiers  mounted  on 
horses,  who  on  emergencies  carried  a  comrade  en 
i-niuiv.  The  flrst  official  record  of  such  troops  in  the 
Brilish  service  dates  from  a  royal  warrant  of  1072, 
which  regulates  the  matchlock  as  one  of  the  arms.  ' 
The  Scots  Greys,  who  were  raised  in  1083,  carried 
also  fire-arms,  as  well  as  the  British  (iragoons  of  the 
seventeenth  century  ;  both  were  instructed  to  act  as 
infantry  on  horses,  to  enable  them  to  make  more 
rapid  movements.  Dragoons,  acting  as  such,  were 
evcniually  changed  into  cavalry  ;  and  the  last  corps 
liearing  the  name  of  mounted  riflemen  was  that  at 
the  Cape,  which  wasdisbandecl  afew  yearsago.  This 
nature  of  n)ounled  infantry  has  been  reintroduced  in 
the  volunteer  forces  of  the  country,  there  being  four 


service,  and  its  employment  properly  understood, 
these  outpost  duties  will  devolve  to  a  very  consider- 
able extent  on  it.     Such  men  are  invaluable  in  cover- 
ing retreats;  to  seize,  destroy,  and  hold  bridges;  for 
works   of  destruction,  such  as  removing  rails  and 
telegraphs,  etc.    For  these  duties  they  were  frequent- 
ly employed  in  the  American  and  thelast  Continental 
wars,  most  foreign  armies  having  adhered  to  that 
system.     Colonel  Hamley  says,  in  his  "Operations 
of  War,"  second  edition:   "As  cavalry  alone  could 
effect  nothing  in  an  intersected  country,  or  against  a 
body  of  mixed  troops,  or  a  force  shelteredby  ob- 
stacles, it  is  indispensable  that  the  troops  thus  em- 
ployed, while  mounted  for  the  sake  of  celerity,  should 
be  able  to  meet  infantry  on  good  terms.     Their  chief 
action  must  therefore  be  as  infantry,  the  horses  of  the 
dismounted  men  being  held  by  their  comrades.   .  .  . 
Mounted  infantry  is  altogether  a  different  thing  from 
dismounted  cavalry,  and  the    two   kinds   of"  force 
should  be  kept   carefully  distinct.     All   experience 
has  shown  that  cavalry  who  are  habituated  to  rely 
on  their  fire-arms  are  apt   to  lose   their  distinctive 
characteristics  of  promptitude,  impulsion,  and  reso- 
lution iu  attack;  and  it  would  be  impossible,  by  any 
amount  of  training,  to  combine  such  opposite  "func- 
tions in  the  same  troops.     By  establishing  mounted 
riflemen  as  a  separate  arm  of  the  service,  men  and 
horses  of  a  size  which,  though  admirably  suited  for 
rapid  and  sustained  movements,  is  deficient  in  the 
power  and   weight  that   tell   so  formidably  in  the 
charge,   might   be   turned    to   excellent    account." 
Colonel  Hamley  further  states  that  on  this  kind  of 
troops  might  jjroperly  devolve  the  business  of  recon- 
noitring or  heading  the  advanced  guards,  of  seizing 
defiles,  etc.     On  the  other  hand,  the  regular  cavalry, 
spared  in  great  measure  the  harassing  duties  which 
fritter  away  its  strength,  would  be  preserved  intact 
for  the  day  of  battle.     In  a  country  like  India,  in- 
fantrj*  can  be  mounted  on  camels,  and  has  been  .so 
utilized  when  it  was  desirable  to  send  troops  on  a 
forced  march  to  take  a  place  by  surprise,  or  to  scat- 
ter a  collecting  force.     Each  camel  carries  two  men. 
It  would  be  necessary  on  such  service  to  dismount; 
and  rest  the  men  during  the  journey.     But  except 
for  the  expense  there  is  no  reason  why  there  should 
not  be  a  permanent  Corps. 

MOUNTING  CANNON.-Jf  the  platform  is  nmch 
above  the  general  level  of  the  ground,  as  in  case- 
mated  batteries  and  on  ramparts,  the  cannon  have 
to  be  raised  by  strong  derricks  to  the  level  of  the 
platform,  or  they  may  be  drawn  up  ramps  of  earth 
or  of  scaffolding. 

1st.  The  cha.ssis  being  on  the  jjlatform,  the  top 
carriage  not  in  position. 

There  will  be  re(iuired  to  mount  the  gun  one  or 
two  hydrnuUc  or  two  or  three  screw  jacks,  depending 
on  their  power,  and  hhcks  of  different  lengths  and 
widths,  varying  in  thickness  from  one  to  twelve  in., 
also  a  few  skids  and  chocks.  The  gun  is  brought 
parallel  and  near  the  chassis,  a  jack  is  jilaced  under 
the  breech  luid  one  under  the  nuizzle  ;  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  gun  are  raised  alternately  and  sujiported 
by  blocks  till  they  are  at  such  a  height  that  skids 
jJaced  <m  the  rails  of  the  chassis  will  p;iss  under  it. 
The  gun  is  rolled  till  it  occupies  a  proper  position 
tuuler  that  for  the  top  carriage.  It  is  then  raised  as 
before,  being  suiiported  by  cribs  of  blocks  built  one 
luider  Iheswellof  the  hreecli.anotlier  under  the  chase, 
three  feet  from  the  muzzle,  till  it  is  brought  to  a 
height  iibove  that  for  the  truimion  beds. the  trunnions 
being  level.     The  lop  carriage  is  taken  to  pieces  and 


UOUBNE. 


393 


MOVABLE  PIVOT. 


asspmhlpd  in  posilion  under  tho  gun,  which  is  then 

let  ilown  inli>  |il,'icc. 

2(i.  The  (liiisHis  iiriil  l(pii  ciirriagc  IxMng  in  posi- 1 
tion. — T\ut  jfun  is  bnnmlil  piinillcl  to  tlicchiissis.  and 
is  raist'il  anil  rolled  us  i)i-fcjrc  on  to  skids  placed  on 
tlie  rails  in  rear  of  the  top  carriage,  tlie  breeeh  pro- 
jectini;  to  the  rear.  It  is  then  lifted  liy  jaeks  and  sup- 
porleil  on  a  erih  of  tiloeks  bnilt  in  rear  of  Ihc'ehassis 
nnder  tile  hreeeh,  and  Ijy  a  skid  liearinir  under  the 
lini/./.le  laid  across  and  restini;  on  I  wo  cribs,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  muzzle  without  the  chassis.  The 
gun  l)eing  sufllciently  hii;li,  the  top  carriajri'  is  moved 
to  the  rear  and  the  gun  lowered  into  the  trunnion 
beds.  In  raising  heavy  cannon  an  onlinary  gin  can 
sonu'liines  be  used  for  llie  muzzle,  the  jack  being  re-  | 
((uired  for  elcvaling  tlie  breech  only.  In  buililing 
tlic  cribs  the  thickest  blocks,   as  a  rule,  should  be  I 


—  "y- 


was  flomotimoB  used  in  uport  to  dlHtingiiiRh  the  bat- 
talion men  from  the  flank  companies.  It  was  in- 
deed generally  apiilieil  to  them  by  the  Grenudiern 
and  Fjghl  IJobs,  meaning  that  whilr-  the  latter  arc  de- 
tached, the  former  rr main  in   (juarters,  like   cutH  to 

watell   the   iriiri'.  etc. 

MOUSING  A  HOOK.— A  mode  of  passing  a  piece  of 
spun  yarn  round  the  point  and  back  of  the  liook  of 
a  block,  in  ordiT  to  prevent  it  disengaging  itself 
from  anvlhiii'.;  to  which  it  may  be  hooked. 

MOUSftUETAIRES.-  A  body  of  horse-soldiers  un- 
der the  oM  I'reiK  h  lli'jfimf.,  raised  by  Louis  XIII.  in 
1033.  This  Corjjs  was  considered  a  Military  School 
for  the  French  nobility.  It  was  disbanded  in  l(i4(f, 
but  was  restored  in  l(i.')7.  A  .second  company  wa.i 
created  in  KidO,  and  formed  (,'ardinal  Muzarin's 
Guard.    Also  written  Muaketeim 


/fl* 


tt^aaafgstfejtfe* 


placed  at  the  bottom,  and  thin  blocks  .should  be  re- 
placed by  thicker  ones  as  the  gun  rises. 

3d.  The  cannon  being  on  or  by  the  platform,  the 
chassis  and  the  top  carriage  in  position  or  not. 

In  many  instances  the  position  of  the  platform  is 
such  that  the  mounting  may  be  facilitated  by  th? 
jacks  being  placed  above  the  gun.  In  this  case  a 
special  device  is  used.  The  jacks,  two  in  number, 
are  supported  each  upon  a  heavy  timber  or  bolnter 
resting  on  blocks,  or  on  high,  strong  trestles.  On 
top  of  the  jac:k  rests  one  end  of  a  lerer,  the  other  end 
bearing  on  a  fulcrum.  A  strong  iron  hoisting-bnr 
also  through  one  made  in  the  lever.  This  bar  is 
passes  through  a  mortise  prepared  in  the  bolster  and 
pierced  with  a  number  of  holes,  into  which  iron  pins 
maj-  be  placed.  The  extremities  of  the  gun  are 
slung  to  the  lower  ends  of  the  hoisting-bars  ;  pins 
being  placed  in  the  bars  immediately  above  the 
levers,  the  jacks  acting  on  the  levers  raise  the  gun  ; 
pins  are  then  passed  through  the  bars  above  the 
bolsters  and  the  weight  sustained  by  them  till  a  new- 
lift  is  taken  with  the  jacks  ;  by  transferring  the  pins 
the  gun  is  brought  to  any  desired  height,  the  jacks 
being  worked  together.  The  bolsters  should  be  of 
sufficient  length  to  embrace  the  chas.sis,  and  the  gun 
placed  by  the  side  of  it.  If  the  chassis  and  top  car- 
riage are  in  position  the  gun  is  raised  to  the  neces- 
sary height,  the  carriage  traversed  till  it  is  brought 
beneath  it,  and  the  gun  then  lowered  into  place.  If 
the  gun  alone  is  on  the  platform  it  can  be  raised, 
and  the  chassis  and  top  carriage  be  brought  in  suc- 
cession on  a  truck  and  placed  in  position  beneath  it. 
The  appliances  to  be  employed  in  mounting  heavy 
cannon,  and  the  order  in  which  the  different  parts 
should  be  placed  on  the  platform,  must  vary  with 
the  position  and  nature  of  the  work  and  the  am- 
strnction  and  the  arrangement  of  each  particular 
platform.  Any  device  or  arrangement  that  maj- 
expedite  or  facilitate  the  work  sliould  be  resorted  to. 
The  circumstances  may  be  such  as  to  render  advis- 
able slight  variations  in  the  steps  taken  in  mounting 
each  sun  in  a  battery.     See  Mefhnnical  Maneuvers. 

MOURNE.— That  part  of  a  lance  or  halbert  to 
'which  the  steel  or  blade  is  fixed. 

MOTTSER. — In  the  British  Army,  a  sobriquet  which 


!  MOUSQUET  FUSIL.— A//»«-''W-  gun  which  was  in- 
venteil  by  .Marshal  Vauban,  about  1(!40.  and  which 
was  so  contrived  that  in  case  the  Hint  did  not  strike 
tire, the  powder  might  beintlamed  by  means  of  a  small 
match  which  was  fixed  to  the  breech.  Most  authors 
of  Encyclopedias,  from  the  habit  of  copying  one  an- 
other, have  repeated  that  the  bayonet  was  invented 
and  manufactured  at  BayonnebyPuysegur,  who  died 
in  1682.  Nevertheless  this  sort  of  dagger  pr  sword 
had  been  adapted  to  the  arquebuscand  even  perhaps 
to  the  earliest  portable  fire-arms.  The  bayonet  was 
already  known  in  France  in  l.'iTO,  but  was  not  uni- 
versally adopted  tmtil  1640. when  it  replaced  the  pike 
in  certain  regiments.  Subsequently  the  bayonet  was 
fixed  at  the  end  of  the  gun  by  means  of  the  socket. 
This  was  the  side-arm  joined  to  the  fire-arm,  called 
mii^ket-gun,  and  attributed  to  Vauban. 

MOUTH. — 1.  The  opening  of  a  piece  of  ordnance 
at  which  the  charge  is  introduced,  and  from  which, 
when  fired,  it  issues.  2.  The  interior  opening  of  an 
embrasure,  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  wide, 
according  to  the  caliber  of  the  gun,  and  of  a  rect- 
aniular  or  trapezoidal  form.     See  Einbra.fure. 

MOVABLE  BATTERY.— A  battery  usually  consist- 
ing of  field  guns  and  small  mortars  which  can  take 
up,  temporarily,  any  favorable  position  for  damaging 
the  enemy's  defences.  The  movable  gun  batteries 
will  consist  of  10,  in  some  cases,  20-pounder  rifled 
guns ;  and  the  Napoleon  gun  for  throwing  hollow 
projectiles.  These  guns  will  take  advantage  of  any 
temporarj'  covers,  as  undulations  of  the  ground, 
woods,  fences,  etc.,  from  which  they  can  bring  a 
damaging  fire  on  the  defences,  and  which  they  will 
maintain  until  the  fire  of  the  besieged  becomes  too 
heavy  for  them.  In  this  way,  a  very  important  au.x- 
iliary  to  the  fixed  batteries  will  be  called  into  play  ; 
sometimes  forcing  the  besieged  to  establish  new  po- 
sitions to  drive  oil  these  light  guns.  In  like  manner 
the  smaller  mortars  that  can  be  readily  moved  by 
hand,  or  on  sleds,  may  be  placed  in  good  temporary 
positions  to  increase  the  amount  of  fire  delivered  on 
anv  stiven  point.     See  BatUrie.'i SlViA  Fixed  Batttries. 

MOVABLE  PIVOT.— The  arc  described  by  the  sol- 
dier or  guide  on  that  flank  of  a  line  of  troops  toward 
which  a  wheel  is  made.     See  Pivot. 


MOTEMEHT. 


394 


MULLET. 


MOVEMENT.— The  regular  and  orderly  motion  of 
au  army  for  some  particular  purpose.  It  is  also  de- 
scribed as  the  changes  made  by  an  army  from  place 
to  place,  either  to  take  up  new  camping  ground,  to 
engage  the  enemy,  or  to  avoid  him.  "Under  this 
term  are  comprehended  all  the  ditferent  evolutions, 
marches,  countermarches,  and  maneuvers,  which 
are  made  in  Tactics,  for  the  purpose  of  retreating 
from  or  of  approaching  towards  an  enemy.  The 
science  of  military  movements  forms  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal features  in  the  character  of  a  great  Commander. 
If  he  be  full  of  resource  in  this  important  branch,  he 
may  oftentimes  defeat  an  enemy  without  even  com- 
ing to  blows,  for  to  conceal  one's  movements  re- 
quires great  art  and  much  ingenuity. 

MOTJENNE.— An  ancient  4-pounder,  10  feet  long, 
weighing  1,300  pounds.  In  the  time  of  Charles  IX. 
(1572)  it  was  a  2J  pounder. 

MOYENNE  VILLE.— A  term  formerly  given  by  the 
Fr'-nch  to  an\'  town  in  which  the  garrison  was  equal 
to  one-third  of  the  inhabitants,  and  which  was  not 
deemed  sufRcienth'  important  to  bear  the  expense 
of  a  citadel ;  more  especially  so  because  it  was  not 
in  the  power  of  the  inhabitants  to  form  seditious 
meetings  without  the  knowledge  of  the  soldiers  who 
were  quartered  on  them. 

MOYENS  COTES.— In  a  fortification,  all  those  sides 
which  contain  from  80  to  120  toises  in  extent.  The}' 
are  always  fortified  with  bastions  on  their  angles. 
Tlie  miij/eii.t  cottn  are  generally  found  along  the  ex- 
tent of  irregular  places,  and  "each  one  of  these  is  in- 
dividually subdivided  into  small,  mean,  and  great 
sides. 

MUFTI. — A  term  in  the  army  for  plain  clothes,  the 
opposite  of  regimental  clothing.  In  the  British  army, 
an  officer  in  England  is  permitted  to  appear  in  vmfti 
when  off  duty. 

MUHLAGIS. — Turkish  Cavalry  composed  of  expert 
horsemen,  who  generally  attend  the  beglierbe3's. 
Tlicv  arc  not  verv  numerous. 

MUIKKIRK  IKON.— A  variety  of  iron  well  suited  for 
the  purposes  of  gun  construction.  It  is  made  with 
charcoal  at  Muifkirk, Prince  George's  County,  Mary- 
land The  ore  used  is  a  nodular  carbonate  of  iron 
from  the  tertiary  sands  of  the  western  shore  of  Ches- 
apeake Bay.  It  is  more  or  less  altered  into  sesqui- 
oxido  of  iron  by  the  action  of  surface  water,  and  is 
cleaned  and  roasted  before  charging  the  furnace. 
The  yield  of  iron  from  the  raw  ore  is  from  40  to  45 
per  cent.,  and  from  the  roasted  about  50  per  cent. 
This  iron  has  been  used  at  the  South  Boston  foundry 
for  a  number  of  years  and  with  excellent  results,  bu"t 
has  not  until  recently  been  employed  for  ordnance 
purposes.     Sec  Don r  [run  and  Iron. 

MUIR  MONTSTOEM  KIFLE.  —  A  breech-loading 
small-arm  ha  ving  a  fixed  chamber  closed  by  a  movable 
breech-block,  winch  rotates  about  a  horizontal  axis 
at  'M"  to  the  axis  of  the  barrel,  lying  below  the  axis  of 
the  barrel  and  in  front,  being  moved  from  above  by  a 
thumb-piece.  The  breech-block  of  this  arm  is  moved 
by  an  outside  lever,  the  interior  shaft  connected  with 
which  is  cam-shaped,  so  that  the  first  motion  of 
opening  draws  down  the  breech-block,  until  a  li]i  on 
its  upper  surface  is  clear  of  a  hook  or  jaw  formed  on 
the  under  side  of  a  projection  of  tlie  frame  over- 
hanging the  mouth  of  the  chamber.  By  continuing 
the  Miulion  of  the  lever,  the  breech  is  fully  exposed 
by  the  rotation  of  Die  block,  I  he  h:imnicrat  the  same 
time  being  brought  to  tlie  full-cock.  Bv  reversing 
tlie  movement  of  the  lever  the  bn'ccji  is  Hosed.  The 
breech-block  is  locked  by  the  abutment  of  the  frame 
upon  its  back.  Extraction  and  ejection  are  accom- 
plished by  a  sliding  extractor  in'the  lower  side  of 
the  barrel.  Its  under  side  is  notched  for  the  upper 
end  of  a  lever,  which  is  pivoted  on  the  .same  pin  as 
Ihc  hammer.  This  lever  has  two  horizonlid  arms, 
which  are  struck  by  corresponding  jirongs  on  the 
lower  side  of  the  block,  in  opening  the  piece. 

MULCT.  A  soldier  is  said  to  be  niiilrtirl  of  Ifis  pay 
when  put  under  fine  or  slojjpages  for  necessaries,  o"r 


to  make  good  some  dilapidations  committed  by  him 
on  the  propert}'  of  the  people  or  the  government. 

MULE. — A  hybrid  animal,  the  offspring  of  the  male 
ass  and  the  mare,  much  used  and  valued  in  many 
parts  of  the  world  as  a  beast  of  burden.  The  ears 
are  long;  the  head,  croup,  and  tail  resemble  thoseof 
the  ass  rather  than  those  of  the  horse;  but  in  bulk 
and  stature  the  mule  approaches  more  nearly  to  the 
horse.  The  mule  seems  to  excel  both  the  ass  and 
the  horse  in  intelligence  ;  it  is  remarkable  for  its 
powers  of  muscular  endurance ;  and  its  sure-footed- 
ness  particularly  adapts  it  to  mountainous  coun- 
tries. It  has  been  common  from  very  ancient  times 
in  many  parts  of  the  East ;  and  is  much  used  also  in 
most  of  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
and  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  South  America. 
Great  care  is  bestowed  on  the  breeding  of  mules  in 
Spain  and  Italy,  and  those  of  particular  districts  are 
highl}'  esteemed.  In  ancient  times  the  sons  of  Kings 
rode  on  mules,  and  they  were  yoked  in  chariots. 
They  are  still  used  to  draw  the  carriages  of  Italian 
Cardinals  and  other  ecclesiastical  dignitaries.  Both 
in  Spain  and  in  South  America  mules  emplojed  to 
carry  burdens  are  driven  in  troops,  each  preceded 
by  an  animal— in  Soutii  America  usually  an  old  mare 
— called  tiie  iixf/rina,  or  godmother,  to  the  neck  of 
which  a  little  bell  is  attacdied,  and  the  mules  follow 
with  the  greatest  docility.  When  troops  mingle  in 
their  halting-places  or  elsewhere,  they  are  readily 
separated,  as  they  recognize  at  once  the  sound  of 
their  own  bell.  Mules  are  comparatively  little  used 
in  Britain. 

Pack  mules  should  not  be  too  large  or  high  on 
their  legs.  The  Spanish-Mexican  mules,  for  endur- 
ance, are  superior  to  all  others.  These  mules  are 
small,  but  can  stand  a  great  amount  of  abuse  and 
starvation,  and  will  suffer  but  little  from  the  effects 
of  a  hard  drive.  Being  smaller  than  the  American 
nmles,  they  can  fill  up  in  a  much  less  time,  and  it 
will  be  found  that  in  three  hours  on  thin  grass  they 
will  fill  up  and  recuperate  better  than  American 
mules  on  the  same  pasture  in  six  hours.  This  is  the 
secret  of  small  mules  outlasting  the  large  ones  in  the 
mountains  and  on  the  prairies.  The  time  spent  in 
camp  is  not  sutficientlj-  long,  when  the  grass  is 
scarce,  to  allow  a  large  one  to  find  enough  to  eat. 
The  small  mule  finds  sulficient  in  a  shortVhile  and 
has  some  time  left  for  rest  and  recuperation. 

As  in  other  hybrid  animals  generally,  males  are 
more  numerous  among  mules  than  females,  in  the 
proportion,  it  is  said,  of  two  or  three  to  one.  There 
is  no  instance  on  record  of  offspring  produced  by 
two  mules:  but  instances  occur,  although  rarely,  of 
their  producing  offspring  with  the  horse  and  with 
the  ass.  The  mule  is  verj-  superior  in  size,  strength, 
and  beauty  to  the  hinny,  the  offspring  of  the  male 
horse  and  the  female  ass.     See  Pack  A  nimah. 

MULLEB. — A  hand  instrument  made  of  wood  and 
covered  with  leather;  it  is  used  in  the  laboratory  for 
reducing  powder  to  great  fineness.  The  term  is  also 
applied  (u  the  painter's  stone  for  miximj  paint. 

MULLET. -Mullet,  or  MoUet,  in  Heraldry,  is  a 
charge  in  the  form  of  a  star,    having  generally  five 


Mullets. 

points,  intended  to  represent  a  spur-rowel,  and  of 
fr,^'i|uent  occurrence  from  the  earliest  beginnings  of 
coat-armor.  Gwillim,  SirGeorgc  jMackenzic,  lUulNis- 
betlay  it  downtlial  mullclssbould  always  be  iiierced 
to  represent  tlie  round  bole  in  which  the  spur-rowel 
lunis,  liut  Ihis  has  been  by  no  means  uniformly  at- 
tended to  in  practice.     Much  confusion  exists  iu  bla- 


MULTIBALL  CARTRIDGE. 


•MK) 


MULTIPLF,  DEILI. 


zonry  hetwi'iii  mullcls  lunl  slars;  in  Enp^land  tlie 
rule  most  gcncrully  luloptcil  is  thai  llic  iniillcl  liiis 
live  |)oints,  wliiTciis  the  star  liiis  si.\,  unless  any 
otliiT  nuinljcr  lie  spccilied.  Nishct  lays  (Idwii  st 
rule  nearly  tlic  convcrHi!  of  this,  wliieli  lias  never 
been  ailliered  to;  anil  in  Seollisli  Heraldry  llie  same 
fifTure  seems  lo  he  often  hlazoned  as  a  midlel  or  a 
star,  aeeordin;^  as  it  aeeompanies  mililary  or  celes- 
tial lii;iires.  The  midlel  is  llie  mark  of  eadenev  as- 
sij^neil  lo  (he  third  son,  "Toineile  him  to  <'hivalry." 
Till;  mullet  is  occasionally  used  in  Heraldry  for  the 
fish  so  called.     See  Jfinttdry. 

MULTIBALL  CARTRIDGE."  A  carl  ridge  in  which 
two  or  more  liidlels  or  jiieces  of  lead  are  snhslitiiled 
for  the  ordinary  bullel,  with  the  idea  of  doini;  more 
execution  at  short  ranges,  'i'lie  followim;  advan- 
tages are  claimed  for  the  encased  multiljall  cart- 
ridge as  manufactured  liy  Mervvin,  lliilhert  A;  Co: 
1.  No  Icadiiii;  of  liarrel  l)y  any  numlier  of  discliarg- 
cs.  2.  At  each  discharse  the  casing  acts  as  the 
cleaner  and  lubricates  the  barrel.  3.  The  lubricated 
case  taking  the  rilling  gives  an  easy  transit  of  halls 
iiud  accuraiy  of  lliglit.  4.  The  hd)rieant  is  preserv- 
ed uniier  the  dilVercnt  ordinary  degrees  of  tempera- 
ture, f).  By  the  centrifugal  force  given  to  the  casing 
and  balls  by  the  rilling,  the  casing  is  thrown  olT 
after  leaving  the  barrel,  Ihe  balls  diverge  or  separate 
nearly  e(pial  to  the  front  of  three  men  at  about  one 
hundred  yards  distance.  (!.  The  multi  (or  ;i-ball) 
cartridge  in  its  cfTcclivc  (or  destructive)  results  at 
each  discharge  at  short  range  is  nearly  ecpial  to  three 
separate  discharges  by  a  breech-loiuler  throwing  one 
ball.  7.  The  cartridge  is  tirndy  constructed  and 
will  withstand  rough  usage  of  actual  service  and 
preserve  its  uniformity  of  shape.  8.  Continuous 
(and  rapid)  firing  without  re(iuiring  the  barrel  to  be 
cleaned.  9.  Preservation  of  powder.  The  casing 
as  an  insulator  prevents  galvanic  action  between  the 
metallic  shell  and  balls  which  chemical  action  in 
time  would  deteriorate  the  powder.  10.  The  cas- 
ings are  made,  the  balls  placed  an<l  secured  firmly 
therein,  separate  from  Ihemclallic  shells  and  can  l)e 
transported  in  l)ulk  or  otherwise  without  injury  and 
attached  to  the  loaded  metallic  powder  case  when 
desirable  (or  at  reloading  of  shells) 

The   mulliball    carlriilge   for   the  service  rifie  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  and  has  the  following  particulars: 
Weight  of  powder  charge.     .     .     .grains.     .53 

Nuntber  of  balls 8 

Diameter  of  balls  (each) 0".424 

Weight  of  balls grains.    108. OG 

Total  weight  of  lead grains,    326 


Fig.  1. 


Fig. 


The  charge  is  inclosed  in  a  copper  cartridge  case 
of  service  dimensious.     The  three  balls  are  inclosed 


I  in  a  strong  casing  of  paper  lubricated  with  a  mlxtiir" 

Of  paralllni-  and   beeswax,  making  of  them  a   single 

piece.     The   paper  is  saturated  with  the   lubricant. 

The  case  is  crimped  at  the  base  to  hold  the  bulls  in 

place;  longitudinal  cuts  are  made  through  the  case 

;  to  facilitate  rupture  after  it  has  left  Ihe  i>iece.     (A 

I  light  coating  of  shellac  covers  the  portion  of  IhecuHC 

I  that  projects  from  the  shcjl  in  some  of  the  carlrirlgcH 

with  a  view  to  ])rotection  of  the  cartridges  from  al- 

niospheric  intluences;.     'Ihe  lubricant  is  placed  in 

[  the  recesses  (corresponding   to  cannelures),  where 

the  balls  come  in  contact. 

The  mulliball  cartridge  for  the  service  revolver  ia 
shown  in  Fig.  2,  ;ind  has  the  following  parlicularH: 
Weight  of  powder  charger     .     .     .     grains     23 
Number  of  balls  (1  ogival  and  2  spherical  seg- 
ments;      3 

Diameter  of  balls 0".434 

Length  of  ogival  bidlc't 0".39 

Altitude  of  segments     - 0".23<J 

Weight  of  ogival  bullet  •  .  .  .  grains  111 
Weight  of  segments  (each)  .  .  .  grains.  H3 
Total  weight  of  lead     .....    grains.     27.5 

The  charge  is  inclosed  in  a  copper  cartridge  case, 
of  service  dimensions-  The  paper  casing  for  the 
bullets  is  like  that  for  the  rifie.  The  ogival  has  a 
fiat  base,  and  the  bases  of  the  segments  fit  to  this 
and  to  each  other.  The  lid)ricant  is  placed  in  the 
reces.ses  and  about  their  junctions.  'Assuming  that 
li  inches  penetration  in  soft  |)ine  boards  with  these 
balls  would  inllic-l  a  dangerous  wound,  it  has  Iieen. 
foinid  by  experiment  that  the  effective  range  (jf  the 
rifie-bullel  mulliball  is  limited  to  tibout  100  yards; 
and  with  the  ])istol  even  at  2-5  yards,  but  one" of  the 
bullets  in  Ihe  ciirtridge  has  a  penetration  of  1^  inches. 
The  (luestion  naturally  arises  whether  it  woidd  be 
advisable  to  encumber  men  in  action  with  cartridges 
wdiich.as  revolver  cartridges,  are  not  at  any  range 
ajperior  to  the  uniball  lo  inflict  a  dangerous  wound, 
and  in  an}- case  could  not  be  used  with  effect  beyond 
7-5  yards;  and  as  rille  cartridges  cotdil  not  be  "iisc-d 
with  c-fi'ect  beyond  17.5  yards,  while  their«uperiority 
lo  the  imiball  is  limited  between  30  and  100  yards. 
See  Hnckxliut  Cartridge  and  Wright  Multihall  Cart. 
riiige. 

MULTI-CHARGE  GUN.— Many  attempts  have  been 
made  by  inventors  lo  utilize  the  accelerating  effect 
on  Ihe  projectile  of  several  charges  successively  fired 
in  a  gun.  Bessemer  proposed  to  use  a  very  long  gun, 
placing  the  charges  separ:ilely  in  holes  at  the  breech, 
to  be  fired  in  succession  by  electricity.  In  the  Ly- 
man-Haskell midti-charge  cannon,  the  inertia  of  the 
shot  is  first  overcome  b.y  a  moderate  charge  of 
very  coarse-grained,  slow-burning  powder,  and  then 
repeated  charges  of  quick-ljurning  powder  are  ap- 
plied in  succession  until  a  great  increased  velocity 
is  allained.  In  recent  experiments  with  an  acc.^  e  - 
atiug  or  multi-charge  gun  tlie  average  ])enetration  in 
laminated  armor  composed  of  one-half  inch  boiler- 
plates was  4]',5  inches.  No  doubts  are  entertained 
by  experts  tliat  early  experiments  will  show  that 
these  guns,  at  comparatvely  moderate  cost,  will  be 
at  least  as  efficient  as  the  best  in  Europe.  See 
I,l/iiiiin  Hdx/,-/!/  Miilti-clidrgi'  Cnnin/n, 

MULTIPLE  DRILL.— A  tool  designed  more  espe- 
ciidly  for  drilling  side  fr;inu-s  and  steel  armor  plates, 
but  well  ;idapted  to  a  wide  range  of  other  general 
w  irk  in  the  armory.  The  large  size  machine  is 
fitte  1  with  two  or  any  required  numtjer  of  sliding 
heads ;  these  heads,  carrying  drill  spindles,  with  a 
lateral  range  of  17  feet  from  center  to  center  of 
spindles,  and  a  forward  and  back  movement,  at 
riglit  angles,  on  a  sliding  horizontal  arm,  of  10 
incites  (or  more  if  desired),  thus  enabling  holes  to  be 
drilled  in  line  orot/ierwise.  Capacity  on  top  of  table 
under  drill  spindle,  32  inches  ;  from  floor  to  top  of 
table.  32  inches:  fsom  colui."n  to  center  of  drill 
spindle.  22  inches,  or  more,  according  to  length  of 
tiie  sliding  arm:  from  column  to  frc'int  of  table  18 
inches;  top  surface  of  table.  14  inches  wide  by  18 


JTOLTIPLE  LimSS. 


39G 


UITLTIFLIEB8. 


feet  4  inches  in  length  ;  table  has  a  front  or  vertical 
surface,  25  inches  deep  by  18  feet  4  inches  in  length; 
T-slots  on  both  top  and  vertical  surfaces  for  clamp- 
ing work  ;  vertical  traverse  of  spindles,  13  inches : 
spindles  balanced  by  weight  attached  direct  to  top 
of  spindle ;  lias  quick  return  by  wheel  and  rack : 
has  automatic  gear  feed  suitalile  for  drilling  or 
boring:  driving  cone  22x4j  inches  in  diameter, 
to  run  325  turns  per  minute,  four  or  more  sections  ; 
each  head  has  perfectly  independent  universal  move- 
ment and  an  independent  feed,  also  an  independent 
friction  for  stopping  and  starting ;  spindles  are 
steel ;  pinions  and  rack  gearing  are  of  steel ;  steel 
shafts  and  screws ;  all  cut  gearing ;  floor  space  oc- 


cupied, 48  inches  wide  by  18  feet  8  inches  long ; 
total  height  to  top  of  spindles,  9  feet ;  weight,  18,- 
000  pounds.  The  drawing  shows  a  smaller  tool 
which  is  used  for  general  work.  The  spindles  have 
hand  and  power  feed ;  balanced,  quick  return  by 
lever;  lateral  adjustment,  can  be  run  one  or  more  at 
same  time,  and  at  any  desired  speed,  by  arrange- 
ment of  gearing ;  table  has  vertical  adjustment  by 
right  and  left  screw ;  distance  from  spindle  to  col- 
umn. 7i  inches ;  and  with  counter-shaft  and  pulleys, 
12  by  Sk  inches,  to  run  350  turns  per  minute. 
Weight,  850  pounds.  See  Drill  Prem  and  Gang 
Briih. 

MULTIPLE  LINES.— It  has  been  proposed,  by  some 
writers,  til  throw  )ip  several  lines  of  detached  works 
for  the  defence  of  a  position  ;  so  that  the  troops  in 
the  first  line  m;iy  retreat  under  cover  of  the  second, 
and  so  on.  This  arrangement,  in  the  first  |)laci',  can 
seldom  be  made,  without  makfiiing  the  order  nf  bat- 
tle, and  fherefore  weakening  the  defence,  by  too 
great  a  dissemination  of  the  troops.  Moreover,  in 
works  of  great  extent  there  never  can  be  that  con- 
cert wliirli  is  soessc.lial  1o  a  vigorous  defence,  from 
the  iinprai-licabiiity  to  direct  it  properly.  The  troops 
destine<l  to  act  offensively  against  the  enemy  if  re- 
pulsed, are  too  far  in  the  rear  to  be  l)roughi  u])  in 
time;  and  the  ground  being  greatly  cut  up.  by  such 
a  multiplication  of  works,  will  render  the  man- 
euvers slow  and  dilllcull.  Besides,  a  rrrj/  e.dpitnl oh. 
i'c.tion  in  war,  the  time  a;id  liibor  reiiuireil   to  throw 


up  so  many  works  are  altogether  beyond  what  can 
be  disposed  of  in  the  ordinary  circumstances  of  an 
army.     See  Lines. 

MULTIPLIERS.— It  would  exceed  the  limits  of  l\\\s 
work  to  enter  into  a  discusion  of  the  formulas  from 
which  the  values  of  the  multipliers  used  in  the  equa- 
tions of  motion  in  air  are  calculated  ;  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  explain  how  these  tables  are  used  in  prac- 
tice. 

The  reader  will  find  this  .subject,  as  well  as  all 
others  relating  to  Ballistics,  ably  and  fully  treated 
in  Dinion's  Traite  de  Baliatique. 

Multiplier  B.  The  decimals  are  carried  out  to 
three  places,  which  Is  sufficient  for  ordinary  pur- 

X 

poses.     The  values  of  —  are  given  in  the  first  hori- 
e 
V, 
zontal  line,  the  value  of  —  in  the  first  vertical  col- 

r 
lunn.  and  the  values  of  the  corresponding  multipliers 
are  set  opposite  to  them. 
To   find  the  multiplier  B  for   two  intermediate 
X        V, 
values  of  —  and  — ,  not  given  in  the  tables,  we  seek, 

c  r 
in  the  absence  of  the  proper  numbers,  the  corres- 
ponding values  of  the  nearest  tabular  numbers.  We 
add  to  these,  parts  proportional  to  the  differences, 
as  though  each  part  were  to  be  considered  separ- 
ately. 

Multiplier  I.  The  values  of  /  are  given  in  the 
same  table  as  tho.se  of  B;  except  that  it  is  necessary 
to  commence  in  the  lower  horizontal  line,  and  sub- 


tract from  them  the  product  of 


t(-:^) 


by 


the  corresponding  number  of  the  line  called  "Correc- 
tion." 

Values  of  Uand  D.     This  table   is  calculated  for 

X 

differences  of  0.10  in  case  of -,  in  the  upper  line,  and 

c 
V, 
for  differences  of  .05  in  case  of  — .  For  P',the  values 

r 

of  -  are  fotmd  in  the  upper  horizontal  line,  and  for 

c 
D,  in  the  lower  line. 

X 

Values  of  -Bfor\calculationoj  Ranges.    This  table 
c 

X  V, 

gives  the  value  of  -  and   — ,  for  differences  of  0.05 

c  r 

and  0.05;  the  unknown  quantity  to  be  determined  is 
X  V,        X 

~  when  —  and  -iJ=:P,  are  given. 
c,  re 

Arrange  the  calculations  as  in  the  preceding  cases. 
Only  (me  of  the  proportional  parts  is  unknown,  and 
this  is  determined  by  the  condition,  that  if  it  be  ad- 
ded to  the  other  proportional  part,  and  to  the  num- 
ber in  the  table, the  sum  is  equal  to  the  required  num- 
ber, y, 

Vahies  of  r  for  initial  velocities.     This  table  gives 

the  result  arising  by  dividing       by  v//?  for  vahies  of 

r 
X      .    V,  V, 

-and—;  tlie  i|u;inlitv  to  be  determined  is —.  The 
e  r  '  r 

method  is  the  same  ;is  in  the  preceding  table  ;  the 
siiznof  the  ililTercnce  should  invariably  be  clianged 
ifllie  valui'  of  file  quotient'/  is  found  to  diminish  as 


MnNCHEEL. 


397 


MUSKET. 


-increases.     Sec  DhUaii'K  Formulan. 

MUNCHEEL.  A  kind  iif  litter  wljicli  iHtisedon  tlie 
Muclras  \\.w\  lidiiiliiiy  side  of  India.  It  is  Kiinply  a 
liainiiHK  U  siispeiideil  from  a  liori/Diilal  pole,  an<l  is 
carried  liy  two  iiwii,  It,  \veii;lis  uliout  yO  llis.  To 
keej)  llie  canvas  of  tlie  cot  or  Ijainiiioelt  at  full  lenirlli, 
there  is  a  cross  piec(' of  wood  at  the  top  and  liottoni. 
On  service  it  wonldbe  used  for  the  same  purpose  us 
the  doolie  of  Heiii^al.  Under  another  name,  the 
mnnclieel  is  largely  used  to  carry  jieople  ahout  in 
tlie  Himalaya  Mountains.  A  large  niidirella  is  used 
to  keep  oil'  the  snn.  and  a  waterproof  ])i('ce  of  clotli, 
or  a  l)lanUet,  is  thrown  over  the  siipiHirting  pole  to 
keep  otT  the  rain.     See  LitUr. 

MUNIFICE.  A  Honian  soldier  who  was  subjected 
to  every  kind  of  drudgery-work  in  camp. 

MUNIMELL. — A  stronghold,  fortification,  breast- 
work. I'le. 

MUNITIONS  OF  WAR.— Ammunition  and  military 
stores  of  (•v<Ty  description. 

MURAOE. — An  ancient  term  for  money  appropri- 
ated to  the  r<'pair  of  military  works. 

MURAL  CIRCLE.  -An  astronomical  instrument  for 
taking  declinations ;  consisting  of  a  large  circle  built 
against  the  wall  (whence  its  name),  movalile  on  its 
axis  in  the  plane  of  the  m^.idian,  and  with  a  tele- 
scope attached,  also  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian, 
which  turns  about  an  axis.  The  circle  is  graduated, 
the  whole  instrviment  counterweighted  and  furnisheil 
with  an  illuminating  apparatus  for  night  readings. 
Headings  are  made  accurate  by  set-screws  and  mi- 
croscopic micrometers.  Tlie  plane  of  the  limb  and 
the  optical  axis  of  the  telescope  are  made  [jarallel  to 
the  meridian  by  leveling  and  sweeping-screws,  and 
the  cross  lines  of  the  eye-piece  should  follow  a  star 
near  the  etiuator  their  whole  length.  The  instru- 
ment being  rectitied,  the  height  of  a  star  above  the 
horizon  is  measured  by  a  cu])  of  mercury  ;  the  star 
is  observed  directly  and  then  by  reflexion,  the  half 
sum  of  the  readings  being  the  correct  angle.  The 
co-latitude  of  the  place  is  obtained  as  with  the  the- 
odolite. As  the  tube  is  movable  about  the  circle, 
reading  should  always  be  checked  by  reiteration : 
with  more  tiian  one  limb  of  tiie  circle. 

MURAL  CROWN.— In  Heraldry,  a  crown  in  the 
form  of  the  top  of  a  circular  tower,  masoned  and  em- 
battled. It  is  meant  to  represent  the  crown  which 
was  given  by  the  Romans  as  a  mark  of  distinction  to 
the  soldier  who  first  mounted  the  walls  of  a  besieged 
town,  and  fixed  there  the  standard  of  the  army.  A 
mural  crown  sujiporting  the  crest,  in  place  of  a 
wreath,  occurs  in  the  achievements  of  several  of  the 
English  Nobility,  and  in  various  grants  of  arms  made 
in  tlie  early  part  of  the  present  century  to  officers 
who  had  distinguished  themselves  in  war.  Viscount 
Bercsford,  in  consequence  of  his  gallantry  at  the 
battle  of  Albuera.  obtained  as  crest,  issuing  out  of  a 
mural  crown,  a  dragon's  head  with  its  neck  pierced 
tlirough  by  a  broken  spear,  the  head  of  the  spear, 
point  downwards,  being  held  in  the  mouth  of  the 
dragon. 

MURDER. — The  crime  of  killing  a  human  being  of 
malice  aforethought,  and  is  punishable  with  death. 
It  is  immaterial  what  means  are  employed  to  effect 
the  object.  Blackstone  says  that  the  name  of  mur- 
der, as  a  crime,  was  anciently  applied  only  to  the 
secret  killing  of  another,  which  the  word  moerda 
signifies  in  the  Teutonic  language.  And  among  the 
ancient  Goths  in  Sweden  and  Denmark  the  whole 
vill  or  neigliborhood  was  punished  for  the  crime,  if 
the  murderer  was  not  discovered.  Murder  is  defined 
by  Coke  thus:  "When  a  person  of  sound  memory 
and  tliscretion  unlawfully  killeth  any  reasonable 
creature  in  being,  and  under  the  King's  peace,  with 
malice  aforethought,  either  express  or  implied."  Al- 
most every  word  in  this  definition  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  discussion  in  the  numerous  cases  that  have 
occurred  in  the  law  courts.     Tlie  murderer  must  be 


of  sounil  memory  or  discretion;  I.  e.,  he  must  be  at 
least  14  years  of  age,  and  not  a  liinalie  or  idiot.  Tlie 
act  must  be  done  unlawfully,  i.  e.,it  must  not  be  in 
self-defense,  or  from  other  justifiable  cause.  The 
person  killed  must  be  a  reasonable  creature,  and 
lienci;  killing  a  child  in  the  womb  is  not  murder, 
but  is  puiiisliabh'  in  another  way.  The  essential 
thing  in  murder  is  that  it  be  done  maliciously  and 
deliberately,  and  hence  in  cases  of  hot  blood  and 
sciitlling,  the  olfense  is  generally  manslaughter  only. 
Killing  by  duelling  is  thus  murder,  for  it  is  deliber- 
ate. It  is  not  necessary,  in  order  to  constitute  mur- 
der, that  the  murderer  kill  the  man  he  intended, 
provided  he  had  a  deliberate  design  to  murder  some 
one.  Thus  if  one  shoots  at  A,  and  misses  hiin,  but 
kills  IJ,  this  is  murder,  because  of  the  previous  felon- 
ious intent  which  the  law  transfers  from  one  to  the 
other.  So  if  one  lays  poison  for  A,  and  B,  again.st 
whom  the  poisoner  had  no  felonious  intent,  takes  it, 
and  is  killed,  this  is  murder.  The  only  sentence  on 
murderers  is  now  deatli.  which  is  carried  out  by 
hanging.  Formerly  the  murderer  was  directed  after 
death  to  be  hung  on  a  gibbet  in  chains  near  the 
jilace  of  the  crime.  Formerly,  also,  dissection  wa.* 
added  as  part  of  the  sentence,  and  the  execution  was 
to  take  iilace  on  the  day  next  but  one  after  sentence- 
But  now  an  interval  of  a  fortnight  usually  takea 
[ilace  and  the  body  is  buried  in  the  precincts  of  the 
prison.  Attempts  to  murder  were  until  recently  pun- 
ishable i(i  England  like  capital  felony;  but  now  all 
attempts  to  murder  are  jiunishable  only  with  penal 
servitude  for  life,  or  for  a  term  not  less  than  three 
years. 

MURDERER. — A  great  piece  of  artillery.  Among 
the  ordnance  given  up  to  jlonk  with  Edinburgh  Cas- 
tle in  KioO  is  mentioned  "The  great  iron  murderer, 
Muekl.'  Meg." 

MURDEESSES.— In  ancient  fortification,  a  sort  of 
battlement  w  ilh  interstices  raised  on  the  tops  of  tow- 
ers in  order  to  fire  through. 

MURSAIL.— That  portion  of  the  helmet  made  so 
as  to  lower  or  turn  down  in  order  to  protect  the 
face.  So  called  from  the  resemblance  it  bore  to  the 
muzzle  of  an  animal.  It  is  the  same  as  Mesail  and 
Ventail. 

MUSCHITE. — A  local  designation  applied  to  the 
earl\-  hand-culverins,  and  which  gave  its  form  to  the 
word  Vd'unquet  or  musket. 

MUSCULE. — In  ancient  times,  a  machine  of  war; 
alow,  long,  and  sharp-roofed  shed,  which  enabled 
the  besiegers  to  advance  to  and  sap  the  wall  of  the 
besieged.     See  Textudu. 

MU'SICIANS.— The  men  enlisted  and  detailed  to 
furnish  music  for  troops.  Regiments  are  supplied 
with  field  music  on  the  requsitions  of  the  Command- 
ers, made,  from  time  to  time,  direct  on  the  Adjutant 
General ;  and,  when  requested  by  Regimental  Com- 
manders, the  Adjutaut  General  will  endeavor  to  have 
suitable  men  selected  from  the  recruits,  or  enlisted, 
for  the  regimental  bands.  See  Band,  Drummer, 
Fiftr,  and  Trumpeter. 

MUSKET— MUSQUET.— The  fire-arm  for  infantry 
soldiers,  which  succeeded  the  clumsy  arquebuse,  and 
in  I80I  gave  wa}'  before  the  Enfield  rifle,  which,  in 
its  turn,  was  converted  into  Snider's  patent  breech- 
loading  rifle,  now  known  as  the  Snider-Enfleld  ;  the 
latter  arm,  so  far  as  the  regular  infantry  is  concerned, 
has  been  replaced  by  theilartiui-Henry  breech-load- 
er, but  the  English  navy,  cavalry,  andthe  auxilliary 
forces  still  retain  the  Snider.  The  first  muskets 
were  match-locKs;  after  which  came  wheel-locks 
asnaphans  or  snap-hance  and  flint  muskets:  and  last- 
ly, percussion  muskets,  w  hich  were  a  vast  improve- 
liient,  both  for  accuracy  and  lightness,  on  all  which 
had  gone  before.  Compared,  however,  to  either  the 
Enfield  or  JIartini-Henry  rifle,  the  musket  familiar- 
ly known  as  Brown  Bess,  was  a  heavy,  ugly,  and  in- 
effective weapon.  The  following  is  a  table  of  the 
ranges  attained,  on  an  average,  by  the  musket,  the 
Enfield,  and  the  Martini-Henry  : 


MUSKET  BASKETS. 


398 


MUTINY. 


Enfield     Martini- 
Musket      Rifle.  Hcnrv  Rifle. 

Accuratefire 100  600  1300 

Effective  against  detached  parties....  150         800  1500 

Effectivcagainst  troops  iu  column...  200         1000  1800 

MUSKET  BASKETS.— Small  baskets  about  afoot  or 

a  font  and  a  half  high,  8  or  10  inches  diameter  at 
bottom,  and  a  foot  at  the  top,  so  that  being  filled 
with  earth  there  is  room  to  lay  a  musket  between 
tliem  at  the  bottom.  They  are  set  on  low  breast- 
works, or  parapets,  or  on  such  as  are  beaten  down. 
MUSKETEEK.— A  soldier  armed  with  a  musket. 
See  Monsfjuetiu'res. 

MUSKETOON. — An  obsolete  weapon,  a  short  mus- 
ket witli  a  very  wide  bore,  carrying  a  ball  of  5  oz., 
and  sometimes  bell-mouthed  like  a  blunderbuss. 
The  arm  was  mostly  used  toward  the  close  of  the 
seventeentli  century.     Also  written  Musquetoon. 

MUSKETRY  INSTRUCTION.— The  knowledge  im- 
parted to  the  officers  and  soldiers  of  a  regiment,  to 
perfect  them  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  small- 
arms.  The  following  is  the  course  pursued  in  all 
Line  Regiments.  Every  year,in  tlie  infantry  and  ca- 
valry, each  company  and  troop  in  a  regiment  is 
struck  off  duty  in  turn,  to  go  through  the  annual 
course  of  mu.sketrj', under  the  Regimental  Instructor. 
This  is  divided  into  preliminarj'  drill  and  practice. 
The  former  lasts  four  days,  and  consists  of  position 
(standing  and  kneeling),  aiming,  the  judging  dis- 
tance drill,  and  the  teaching  of  theory ;  the  latter  is 
divided  into  three  periods,  and  consists  in  firing  a 
number  of  rounds  at  different  distances,  from  l.^O  to 
8U0  _yards — standing,  kneeling,  or  in  an}-  position. 
Volley  and  independent  firing,  skirmishing,  etc. 
form  part  of  the  course,  during  which  each  man 
fires  90  rounds.  The  result  of  each  man's  firing  is 
consigned  to  carefully  drawn  up  tables,  and  c'las- 
sified  by  regiments  according  to  the  figure  of  merit. 
These  tables  are  publislied  yearly  ma.  blue-book. 
See  Schiuila  of  Muxketn/.  '  j 

MUSKETRY  INSTRUCTOR  —In  England,  an  officer 
attached  to  each  regiment  of  the  regular  and  au.xi- 
liary  forces,  to  carry  out  the  instruction  and  prac- 
tice of  the  musket.  He  is  one  of  the  Permanent 
Staff  of  a  regiment. 

MUSTER. — A  review  of  troops  under  arms  and 
fullly  equipped,  in  order  to  take  an  account  of  their 
numbers,  inspect  their  arms  and  accoutrements,  and 
examine  their  condition. 

In  the  British  army,  muster  is  a  calling  over  of 
the  names  of  all  the  men  composing  a  regiment. 
Each  man  present  answers  to  his  nalne,  those  not 
answering  being  returned  as  absent.  The  muster- 
roll  from  which  the  names  are  called  is  the  Pay- 
master's voucher  for  the  pay  he  issues,  and  must  be 
signed  by  the  Commanding  Offlcer,the  Adjutant, and 
himself.  The  crime  of  signing  a  fal.se  muster-roll, 
or  of  personating  another  individual  at  a  muster,  is 
held  most  severely  punishable — by  imprisonment  and 
flogging  for  a  common  soldier,  by  immediate  cashier- 
ing in  the  case  of  an  officer.  In  regiments  of  the 
Line  a  nuister  is  taken  on  the  24th  of  each  month. 
The  muster  after  a  battle  is  a  melancholy  proceed- 
ing, intended  to  show  the  casualties  death  has 
wrought.  In  early  times,  before  the  army  was  a 
standmg  force,  and  when  each  (.Captain  was  a  sort  of 
contractor  to  the  Crown  for  so  many  men,  the  mus- 
ter was  most  important  as  the  only  security  the 
Sovereign  had  that  he  really  obtained  the  services  of 
the  number  of  men  for  whom  he  paid.  Accordingly, 
any  fraud,  as  making  a  false  return,  or  as  mustering 
with  his  troop  men  not  actually  serving  in  it  was 
by  the  Articles  of  War  of  Henry  V.  made  pimishable 
with  dentil  for  the  .second  offense,  and  by  Charles  I. 
with  death  "  witlioul  mercy  "  for  evi^n  tiie  first  such 
crime;  while  any  jjcrson  abetting  in  any  way  in  the 
fraud  shared  the  penalty. 

In  the  United  Stales,  troops  are  mustered  for  pay 
on  the  last  day  of  February,  April,  .June,  August, 
October,    and    December.     The   musters  are  made 


by  sox  Inspector  General,  if  present,  otherwise  by  an 
officer  specially  designated  by  the  Commander  of 
the  Arm}',  Division,  or  Department ;  and  in  absence 
of  either  an  Inspector  General  or  officer  specially 
designated,  the  muster  is  made  by  the  Commander 
of  the  Post.  All  stated  musters  of  the  troops,  when 
practicable,  are  preceded  by  a  minute  and  careful 
Inxpei-tion  in  the  prescribed  mode  ;  and  if  the  com- 
mand be  of  more  than  a  company,  by  a  Review, 
before  inspection.  The  Mustering  Officer  having 
inspected  the  companies  in  succession,  beginning  at 
tlie  head  of  the  cohnnn,  returns  to  the  first  company 
to  muster  it ;  each  Captain,  as  the  Mustering  Officer 
approaches,  brings  his  company  to  rear  open  order, 
supports  arms,  and  commands  :  Attention  to  muster. 
The  Mustering  Officer  then  calls  over  the  names  on 
the  roll ;  each  man,  as  his  name  is  called,  distinctly 
answers  Here!  and  brings  his  piece  to  a  carry  and 
then  to  an  order  anas.  The  Adjutant,  at  muster, 
provides  himself  with  the  muster-roll  of  the  Field 
and  Staff ;  and  each  Captain  with  a  roll  of  his  com- 
pany, and  a  list  of  absentees  alphabetically  arranged. 
After  muster,  the  presence  of  the  men  reported  in 
the  hospital  and  on  guard  is  verified  by  the  Muster- 
ing Officer,  who  is  accompanied  by  the  Company 
Commanders. 

MUSTER-BOOK.— A  book  in  which  military  forces 
are  registered. 

MUSTER-MASTER.— The  Mmtering  or  Inspecting 
officer  who  takes  an  account  of  troops,  and  of  their 
arms  and  other  military  apparatus.  Tliis  title  is  not 
known  in  the  United  States  Army.     See  Muder. 

MUSTER-ROLL.— A  return  or  list  of  all  troops  and 
establishments,  actually  present  on  parade  or  other- 
wise accounted  for,  which  is  taken  on  the  day  of  mus- 
ter. The  presence  at  muster  of  all  concerned  is  per- 
emptorily necessary,  otherwise  au  officer  or  soldier 
subjects  himself  to  forfeiture  of  pay,  unless  leave  by 
competent  authority  has  been  obtained  Sometimes 
written  Muster-file  .     See  Pay-roll. 

MUTILATED. — Wounded  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
lose  the  use  of  a  limb.  A  battalion  is  said  to  be  muti- 
lated when  its  divisions,  etc.,  stand  unequal. 

MUTINY. — Behavior  either  by  word  or  deed  sub- 
versive of  discipline,  or  tending  to  undermine  su- 
perior authority.  Till  recently  mutiny  comprised 
speaking  disrespectfully  of  the  Sovereign,  Royal 
Family,  or  General  Commanding,  quarrelling,  and 
resisting  arrest  while  quarrelling;  but  these  offenses 
have  now  been  reduced  to  the  lesser  crime  of 
"Mutinous  Conduct."  The  acts  now  constituting 
mutiny  proper  are  e.xciting,  causing,  or  joining  in 
any  mutiny  or  sedition ;  or  when  present  thereat, 
failing  to  use  the  utmost  effort  to  suppress  it;  when, 
knowing  of  a  mutiny  or  intended  mutiny,  failing  to 
give  notice  of  it  to  the  Commanding  Officer;  strik- 
ing a  Superior  Officer;  or  in  using  or  offering  any 
violence  against  him  while  in  the  execution  of  his 
duty:  disobeying  the  lawful  command  of  a  Superior 
Officer.  The  puni.shment  awarded  by  the  Mutiny 
Act  to  these  crimes  is,  if  the  culprit  be  an  officer, 
death  or  such  other  punishment  as  a  General  Court- 
Martial  shall  award;  if  a  soldier,  death,  penal  servi- 
tude for  not  less  than  four  years,  or  such  other 
punishment  as  a  General  Court-Martial  shall  award. 
As  the  crime  of  mutiny  has  a  tendency  to  immedia- 
tely destroy  all  authority  and  all  cohesion  in  tlie 
naval  or  military  body.  Commanding  Officers  have 
strong  powers  to  stop  it  summarily.  A  Drum-liead 
Court-Martial  may  sentence  an  offender,  and  if  the 
case  be  urgent,  and  the  spread  of  the  mutiny  appre- 
hended, the  immediate  execution  of  the  mutineer 
may  follow  within  a  few  minutes  of  the  detection  of, 
his  crime.  It,  however,  behooves  Commanding 
Officers  to  exercise  this  extraordinary  power  with 
great  caution,  as  the  use  of  so  absolute  an  authority 
is  narrowly  and  jealously  watched.  To  prevent 
mutiny  among  men  the  ofiieers  should  be  strict 
without  harshness,  kind  without  familiarity,  atten- 
tive to  all  the  just  rights  of  their  subordinates,  and 


MUTINY  ACT. 


399 


MYOPIA. 


above  all  tilings  inOHl  ijarlicular  io  Ihr-  currying  out, 
to   tlic  very   letter  of   any   promisi;  they  may   liavc 

IIlMilr. 

MUTINY  ACT;— An  Act  of  the  BritiBli  Parliament 

pasHi-d  from  ycarto  year,  invcstinj;  the  Crown  with 
powors  Io  n'fi;iilat(!  Hie  j;ovcniiiiciil,  of  llir  Army  anil 
to  frame  Arlieles  of  War.  The  Navy  stands  under 
Navy  Discipline  Acts,  IMIil  and  IHfili,  the  suceessors 
of  Articles  of  War  first  enacted  imdc'r  (,'harles  II., 
which,  indike  the  Mutiny  Act.  remained  in  forces  for 
an  indelijiite  lime.  i}y  ihe  Bill  of  |{if;hts,the  main- 
tenance of  a  Htandiiifi  Army  in  time  of  peace,  unless 
by  consent  of  I'arliajnenI,  was  declareil  ille.^al,  and 
from  that  time  the  nuniIxT  of  troDps  to  he  maintain- 
ed, and  the  cost  of  the  dilVerenl  hranelies  (if  th('  ser- 
vice, have  been  regulated  by  an  anmial  vote  of  Ihe 
House  of  (Commons.  Hut  Parliament  possesses  a 
further  control  ov('r  the  Army.  Soldiers,  in  time  of 
war  or  rebellion,  being  subject  to  martial  law,  may 
be  piuiisluMl  for  mutiny  or  desertion;  but  the  occur- 
rence of  a  mutiny  in  certain  Scotch  regiments  soon 
after  the  Kevohition,  raiseil  the  (pieslion  whether 
military  disciplines  coidd  be  maintained  in  lime  of 
peace;  and  tlie  courts  of  law  decided  that,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  any  statute  to  enforce  discipline,  a  soldier 
was  only  amenable  to  the  common  law  ;  if  he  de- 
serted, he  was  only  liable  for  breach  of  contract ;  or 
if  \h:  struck  his  oll'icer,  to  an  indictment  for  assault. 
The  authority  of  the  Legislature  became  indispens- 
ablis  to  the  mainlena'i'-e  of  disciijline  ;  and  Parlia- 
ment, from  UiSl)  till  IHT!),  at  the  beginning  of  every 
Session,  conferred  this  and  other  powers  in  the  !Mn- 
tiny  Act,  limited  in  its  duration  at  one  time  to  si.\ 
months,  but  latterly  to  a  year.  Although  it  was 
greatly  changed  from  the  form  in  which  it  tirst 
passed,  l'.)0  years  ago,  the  annual  alterations  were 
slight,  and  substantially  it  had  a  lixed  form.  The 
preamble  ([Uoting  thealiove  de<!laratiou  from  the  Bill 
of  Rights,  added  that  it  was  judged  necessary  that  a 
force  of  such  a  number  should  be  continued,  while 
it  gave  authority  to  the  Sovereign  to  enact  Articles 
of  War  for  the  government  of  the  force.  The  Act 
had  107  clauses,  the  (irst  live  speeitied  the  persons 
liable  to  its  provisions — namely,  all  enlisted  soldiers 
or  commissioned  otlicers  on  full  pay,  those  of  the 
Militia  or  Yeomanry  employed  on  active  service,  and 
to  recruits  for  the  Militia  under  training.  Clauses 
C-14  treated  of  Courts-Martial;  clauses  l.'i-SS  re- 
lated to  crimes  and  their  punishment;  for  mutiny, 
desertion,  cowardice,  treason,  insubordination,  death 
might  be  the  penalty;  for  frauds,  embezzlement,  etc., 
penal  servitude  was  awarded.  Clauses  29-33  pro- 
vided for  military  prisons,  the  reception  of  soldiers 
in  civil  jails  under  the  sentences  of  Courts-Martial. 
Clauses  34-37  enacted  rules  for  deserters.  Clause 
38  referred  to  furlough;  39-41  enacted  that  no  per- 
son acquitted  or  convicted  by  a  Civil  Magistrate  or 
Jurj'  be  tried  by  Court-Martial  for  the  same  offense, 
and  similar  matters.  Clauses  4'2-.')9  referred  to  En 
listment ;  GO-74  to  stoppages,  billets,  carriages,  and 
ferries,  and  the  conveyance  and  entertainment  of 
troops.  The  remaining  24  clauses  adverted  to  mis- 
cellaneous matters.  By  clauses  II).')  and  100,  the  Mi- 
litia, Yeomanry  and  Volunteers  might  on  emergency 
be  attached  to  the  regular  forces.  For  years  prior 
to  1878,  attention  had  been  drawn  in  Parliament  and 
ehsewhere  to  the  shortcomings  of  tlie  Act,  as  well  as 
to  its  cumbrousness,  and  the  Articles  of  War  by 
which  it  was  accompanied,  explained  and  amplilied. 
These  represenlatiimsctdniinated  in  the  appointment 
of  a  Parliamentary  Committee,  which,  in  1879,  pre- 
sented a  Bill  to  supersede  the  JIutiny  Act,  and,  like 
it,  to  be  passed  annually  as  the  "Army  Discipline 
and  Regulation  Act."  The  Marine  Mutiny  Act.  ap- 
plj'ing  to  the  Marine  Forces  when  serving  on  shore, 
was  almost  identical  in  its  jirovisious  with  the  Mu- 
tiny Act.  Passed  annually  up  to  1!S78.  it  was  in 
1S79  -nergcd  with  the  Mutiny  .Vet  in  the  "  Army 
Discipline  ami  Regulation  Act." 
MUZZLE-LOADER.— The  name  given  to  all  guns. 


smooth-bore  or  rifled,  which  are  loaded  at  the  mouth 
or  muzzle,  to  distinguish  them  from  those  loaded 
at  the  brei-cji.  All  the;  newly-made  ordnance  used 
in  the  service  are  rilli-d,  and  loaded  at  the  muzzle, 
but  the  tirst  rilled  guns  ('.\rmslrong'sj  were  breech- 
loaders. The  change  from  breech-loading  to  muz- 
zh'-loading  was  brought  about,  (sjiielly,  from  the  in- 
stability of  the  system  in  lieavy  guns,  a  want  of  a, 
reliable  l)ree('h-clo8er,  ami  the  want  also  of  a  suit- 
able percussion-fuse.  JMoreover,  the  nature  of  the 
powder  used  when  heavy  breech-loaders  were  in  the 
.service  was  such  as  to  render  the?  breech  apparutuH 
unsafe.  A  muzzle-loading  gun  has  a  simpler,  less 
costly,  and  stronger  construction  ;  the  ammunition 
is  less  t:ostly,  and  a  simi)le  fuse,  without  percussion 
urrantremeni,  can  be  \ised. 

MUZZLE-PIVOTING  CARRIAGE.— The  vertical  ficl  1 
of  tire  of  guns  mounted  in  casemates  is  so  muoli  re- 
stricted by  the  embrasure  Ihat  l\u:  want  has  long 
been  felt  of  a  carriage  which  w  ill  allow  tlie  gun  to 
be  used  at  high  angles  of  elevation,  and  also  at  a 
depression,  without  a  great  enlargement  of  the  em- 
brasure.  With  the  view  of  solving  this  problem,  a 
new  carriage  for  casennites  has  been  constructed 
recently,  by  which  the  gun  can  l)e  fired  through  an 
embrasure  of  the  usual  dimensions  at  1.0"  elevation 
and  7"  depression.  The  principle  adopted  in  its 
<oustruction  is  to  vary  the  height  of  th('  trunnion- 
beds  instead  of  always  preserving  them  in  tbe  .same 
li.xed  positions  as  in  the  ordinary  <arriages.  To 
effect  this,  each  cheek  of  the  carriage  is  cut  with  a 
wide  vertical  slot,  in  which  plays  up  and  down  a 
rectangular  block  of  iron  bored  with  a  hole  to  re- 
ceive the  truimion  of  the  gun.  Under  this  block  is 
placed  a  strong  screw  to  support  the  weight  of 
the  gun.  By  means  of  a  hydraulic  jack  i)laced 
under  each  trunnion-block  the  gun  is  raised  or 
lowered  (o  any  desired  height,  and  the  motion  is 
immediately  followed  up  by  the  two  screws,  to 
which  the  weight  of  the  gun  is  at  once  trans- 
ferred. Two  minutes  are  required  to  raise  the  gun 
from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  position.  In  order 
to  obtain  the  greatest  elevation,  it  is  of  course  neces- 
sary to  lower  the  trunnion-blocks  to  the  bottom  of 
the  slot,  and  for  the  greatest  depression  to  raise 
them  to  their  highest  position.  See  Sea-coajit  and 
Oarrisiii,   I  'tirriftfjta. 

MUZZLE  RING.— The  metallic  ring  or  circle  that 
surrounds  the  mouth  of  a  cannon  or  other  piece  of 
ordnance. 

MUZZLE  SIGHT.— A  front  sight  placed  on  or  near 
tbe  muzzle  of  a  tire-arm. 

MUZZLE  VELOCITY.— A  term  more  properly  em- 
ployed for  tlie  iiiitiiil  velocitj',  or  the  velocitj'  at 
the  muzzle  of  the  piece. 

MYOPIA. — An  anomaly  in  the  refraction  of  the 
eye  which,  by  law,  disr|ualifies  a  recruit  for  enlist- 
ment in  the  army.     This  defect  depends  upon  the 


refrarlive  condition  of  the  eye  ;  it  is  that  condition 

in  which   the  rays  from  distant   objects  come  to  a 

\Uicnn  ill  front  of  the   retina,  and   consequently  the 

latter  receives  but  the  blurred  and  indistinct  image 

of  external  objects.     A  glance  at  the  drawing  will 

explain  this.     Myopia  is  usually  due  to  an  abnormal 

lengthening  of  the  eyeball,  thus"  causing  the  retina  to 

recede  from  the  point  where  the  rays  come  to  an  ac- 

I  curate  focus.     It  is  a  disease  which  often  exists  from 

i  birth,  and  is  freqiienlly  hereditary;    but.  although 

I  frequently  this  condition  is  present  from  birth,  and 


MYElAaCH. 


400 


NAIE8. 


manifests  itself  in  later  life,  no  doubt,  many  cases 
are  developed  by  excessive  use  of  the  eyes  at  fine 
"  near  work,"  such  as  reading  or  sewing,  before  the 
coats  of  the  e}-e  have  become  fully  developed  and 
hardened.  Statistics  show  that  the  percentage  of 
Myopia  iucreases  in  proportion  to  intellectual  devel- 
opment, and,  that  while  it  may  be  quite  small  in  the 
lowest  grades  of  Schools,  it  steadily  gains  in  num- 
bers as  the  course  of  study  becomes  higher,  uutil,  in 
the  Colleges  and  Universities  it  reaches  a  very  large 
percentage. 

Among  the  prolific  causes  of  the  development  of 
this  disease,  is  the  habit  of  reading  with  the  head 
bent  forward  and  over  the  book,  thus  preventing  the 
free  circulation  of  >he  blood,  and  causing  a  conges- 
tion of  the  eyes,  which  tends  still  further  to  stretch 
the  coats  of  the  perhaps  already  weakened  organ. 
The  habit  of  reading  with  insutiicient  illumination, 
or  in  a  reclining  posture,  is  also  most  injurious.  The 
popular  belief  that  near-sighted  eyes  are  strong  ones 
is  not  only  absolutely  incorrect,  but  also  most  mis- ! 
chievous,  since  there  is  no  state  of  the  eye  which  j 
more  urgently  demands  the  use  of  a  proper  glass, 
than  does  Alj-opia.  Such  eyes  instead  of  being 
strong,  are  not  only  absolutely  weak,  but  they  are ! 


sick  ejes,  and,  if  the  defect  be  of  a  high  degree,  li- 
able to  the  most  serious  accidents,  which  may  result 
in  loss  of  sight.  The  danger  lies  not  in  the  imper- 
fect vision.  Ibut  in  the  interocular  changes  which  ac 
company  the  defect  in  its  higher  grades,  and  which 
often  are  progressive. 

The  treatment  of  near-sightedness  is  the  use  of  the 
proper  cuncate  glasses.  By  this,  there  is  an  endeav- 
or to  attain  two  objects.  The  rays  are  brought  to  a 
focus  on  the  retina,  and  thus  distinct  vision  is  insur- 
ed :  and,  by  wearing  the  proper  glasses,  the  disease 
may  usually  be  arrested.  In  cases  where  the  defect 
is  slight,  the  correcting-glasses  can  be  given  by  a 
good  optician,  care  being  taken  to  select  the  irea'/cest 
concave  lens  with  which  vision  is  normal  ;  where, 
however,  the  defect  is  high,  the  advice  of  an  oculist 
should  be  sought.  Messrs.  Walmslej'  &  Co.  make  a 
specialty  of  glasses  for  mj'opic  eyes,  and  supply  most 
hospitals  with  same.     See -Recruits. 

MYRIARCH.— A  Captain  or  Commander  of  10,000 
men. 

MYRMIDONS.— Tliose  soldiers  who  accompanied 
Achilles  in  the  expedition  against  Troy.  Hough, 
desperate  characters  banded  under  a  leader,  are  fre- 
quently called  Myrmidons. 


N 


NABOB. — A  corruption  of  the  word  nntrith  (depu- 
ty;, was  the  title  belonging  to  the  atlministrators,  un- 
der the  Mogul  Empire,  of  the  separate  Provinces  into 
which  the  district  of  a  Suhahdar  was  divided.  The 
title  was  continued  under  the  British  rule. but  it  grad- 
ually came  to  be  applied  generally  to  natives  who 
were  men  of  wealth  and  consideration.  In  Evirope, 
and  especially  in  Britain,  it  is  applied  derisively  to 
those  who, having  made  great  fortunes  in  the  Indies, 
return  to  their  native  country, where  they  live  in  ori- 
ental splendor.     Also  written  A'n'ab. 

N4GAKKANA,— In  the  East  Indies,tbe  place  where 
all  the  drums  and  war-music  are  kept. 

NAGGUK. — The  principal  drum  in  Asiatic  armies, 
commonly  allowed  only  to  persons  of  high  dignity; 
the  Ijass  drum. 

NAIANT— NATANT.— A  heraldic 
term  applied  to  a  fish  when  borne 
horizontally  across  the  shield  in  a 
swimming  position. 

NAIGUE.— A  native  subaltern  of- 
ficer among  Indian  and  Anglo- Asia- 
tic troops,  whose  functions  are  rath- 
er somewhat  analogous  to  those  per- 
,     ,  formed  among  European  troops  by 

TSaianB.  (jjg   DriU-sergeant.      Also  written 

Kii/'rk  and  Naik. 

NAIL  BALL. — A  round  projectile  with  an  iron  pin 
proinidiug  from  it,  to  prevent  its  turning  in  the  bore 
of  the  i)iece. 

NAILS. — Pointed  pieces  of  metal,  generally  having 
flattened  or  rounded  heads,  used  for  driving  into 
wood-work,  for  the  purpose  'of  holding  'lie  |iieces 
together.  A  variety,  in  which  the  head  is  very  large, 
and  the  spike  portion  snudl,  used  by  shoemakers  for 
[irotecting  the  soles  of  boots  and  shoes  from  wear, 
is.called  the  h'lli-iinil;  another,  which  is  ma<le  by  cut- 
ting thin  plate-iron  into  thin  |)ointed  |iic<esof  various 
lengths,  is  called  brmh:  these  sometimesare  without 
heads,  but  are  usually  made  with  a  slight  projection 
by  way  of  a  head.  When  made  small,  with  fiat 
heads,  for  attaching  cloth  or  hangings  in  upholstery 
work,  they  are  called  Uiekii;  and  when  very  large  for 
heavy  carpentry,  spikes.      formerly,  all   nails  were 


hand-made,  by  forging  on  an  anvil;  and  in  Britain 
and  the  north  of  Europe  vast  quantities  are  still  made 
in  this  manner,  being  preferable,  for  many  kinds  of 
carpenters'  work,  to  those  made  by  machinery.  In 
France,  the  greater  part  of  the  nails  used  for  light 
carpentry-work  are  made  of  soft  iron  wire,  pointed 
with  the  hammer;  and  in  order  to  head  them  they 
are  pinched  in  a  toothed-vise;  which  leaves  the 
portion  for  the  head  projecting,  and  makes  below  it 
three  or  four  grooves  in  the  nail,  which  increase  its 
hold  on  the  wood  when  driven  home.  The  head  is 
beaten  into  a  counter-sinking  on  the  vise,  which  reg- 
ulates the  size.  The  iron  used  for  hand  nail-making 
in  Britain  is  sold  in  bimdles,  and  is  called  nail-rods; 
it  is  either  prepared  bj'  rolliug  the  malleable  iron  in- 
to r  .ds  or  small  bars  of  the  required  thickness — 
which  process  is  only  employed  for  very  fine  quali- 
ties— or  by  cutting  plate-iron  into  strips  by  means  of 
rolling-shears;  these  shears  consist  of  two  powerful 
revolving  shafts,  upon  which  are  fixed  discs  of  hard 
steel  with  squared  edges.  The  discs  of  one  shaft  al- 
ternate with  those  of  The  other;  they  are  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  plate  to  be  cut,  and  the  shafts  are  so 
placed  tiiiit  a  small  portion  of  one  set  of  the  discs  are 
inserted  between  those  of  the  other  set.  When  the 
shaftsjare  revolving  a  plate  of  iron  is  pressed  between 
the  discs,  and  it  is  forcibly  drawn  through,  the  steel 
discs  cutting  the  plates  into  strips  with  great  rapidity. 
The  quantity  proiluced  in  this  waj-  is  enormous,  some 
mills  turning  out  at  the  rale  of  ten  miles  per  hour  of 
nail-rods.  Several  inventions  in  which  America  took 
the  leiul,  have  been  introduced,  and  are  succes.sfully 
worked,  for  making  nails  direct  from  plate-iron, 
either  by  cutting  them  out  cold  or  hot;  and  a  very 
large  jiroportion  of  the  naihi  in  use  are  m;ide  in  this 
way.  Nail-making  by  machinerj'  was  originated  in 
Massachusetts  in  IHlti. 

NAIKS.— A  nativi'  military  tribe  of  the  Malabar 
Coast.  Thiy  atlirm  that  they  are  the  oldest  nobil- 
ity in  the  world.  Thi'ir  ]iri(leon  this  supposition 
is  greater  than  that  of  the  Kiijpoots.  In  17.T),  the 
King  of  Travaiieore,  with  the  assistance  of  a  French 
officer  called  Lannoy,  disciplined  10,000  J^uirs  in  the 
method  of  European  Infantry. 


KAISSANT. 


401 


NATIONAL  ABMOEY  CIECULAE  CUTTEB. 


NAI88ANT.  A  term  iii)plic(l  in 
hcialilric  liliizoii  tii  an  aiiiiniil  dc- 
picicil  as  coiiiini;  forlli  out  of  llic 
middle  not  lii\r  i/thtiant  or  jtHHunt 
oiil  of  llic  hoiindary  line— of  iiii  or- 
dinary . 

NAKED  BULLET.— A  (rrnnvfd  or 
cannclnriMl    hullcl  as  dislinf;iii»hcd 
from  llic  patcliiMl  Itiillct.  S<'c  Hiillel. 
NANA.-  In  the  East  Indi'H,   tlie 
Niiieeant.  ,i,|,.  „  lii.li  isfrivcn  to  a  Chief  of  tlic 

^lalirattas.  It  more  pro[iiTly  sij^nilics  llic  aclinj; 
lii'ud  of  llic  ( iovcrniiicnt,  and  Ocncral  of  llic  forccH. 
NAPOLEON  GUN.  -In  iK.^li  it  was  jiroposcd  to  in- 
crease llie  power  of  the  liijlit  and  diniinisli  tin- weifilil 
of  llic  heavy  lield  arlillcry,  liy  llie  inlroduetion  of  u 
single  piece  of  nicdinni  wci);lil  and  ealihcr.  'riieforni 
of  the  new  piece  is  sliown  in  the  drawing;.  It  has  no 
clianibcr  and  shoidd  tlicreforc  lie  chis.scd  as  a  K""' 
Its  e.vterlor  is  characterized  by  the  entire  aliscnce  of 
nioldinj;  and  ornament ;  ami  in  this  respect  il  may  be 
al  om-c  dislin;;uislicd  from  llie  old  lield  cannon.  'Plic 
first  reinforce  is  cylindrical ;  and  il  has  no  second  re- 
inforce, ii3  the  exterior  tiiixrs  uniformly  with  the 
chase  from  the  extremity  of  the  first  reinforce.  The 
size  of  the  trunnions  and  the  distance  between  the 
rimbases  are  the  same  as  in  the  a4-pdr.  liowitzer.  in 
order  Unit  both  pieces  may  be  transported  on  the 
same  kind  of  carriage,  '['hi' </iameiir  of  t/ie  b'rre  \n 
that  of  a  12-i)dr.  The  Irnyth  nf  Imre  is  ju.«t  l!i^'  cali- 
bers. The  weight  is  one  hundred  times  the  pro- 
jectile, or  1,200  lbs.  The  fluirge  (if  pumUr  is  exact- 
ly tlie  same  as  that  for  the  heavy  li-pdrs.  (pattern 
of  1840),  or  2J  lbs.   for  solid  and  case  shot. and  '21bs. 


iSl 


for  canister  shot.  It  lias,' therefore,  as  trrcat  range 
and  accuracy  as  the  heaviest  gun  of  the  old  system; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  the  recoil  and  strain  on  the 
carriage  are  not  so  severe.  The  new  gun  and  carriage 
weigh  about  500  lbs.  more  tlian  the  6pdr.  and  car- 
riage; still  it  has  been  found  to  possess  sufficient  mobil- 
ity for  the  general  purposes  of  light  artillery.  The 
effect  of  this  change  is  to  simplify  the  innteriel  of  field 
artillery,  and  to  increase  its  ability  to  cope  with  the 
rifle-musket,  principally  by  the  use  of  larger  and 
more  spherical  case-shot.  The  principal  objection 
to  an  increased  caliber  for  light  field-guns  is  the  in- 
creased weight  of  the  ammunition,  and  the  reduction 
of  the  number  of  rounds  that  can  be  carried  in  the  am- 
munition chests.     See  Field  Artillery. 

NASAL. — A  kind  of  peak  or  visor,on  ancient  helms 
for  the  protection  of  the  nose. 

NASIR-JUNG. — An  Indian  term  expressing  victor- 
ious or  triumphant  in  war. 

NATION. — A  word  used  in  two  distinct  senses. 
1.  A  State  or  Independent  Society  united  by  com- 
mon Political  Institutions.  2.  An  aggregate  mass 
of  persons  connected  by  ties  of  blood  and  lineage. 
and  sometimes  of  language.  The  modern  dogma 
of  nationalism,  as  maintained  by  a  class  of  Conti- 
nental Politicians,  starts  from  an  assumption  that  a 
nation  in  the  latter  sense  ought  necessarily  to  be 
also  a  Nation  in  the  former,  and  endeavors  lo  assign 
limits  to  the  several  races  of  Europe,  with  the  view  ' 
of  erecting  each  into  a  distinct  State,  separated  from 
other  States  or  Nationalities.  The  extreme  Polili- 
cians  of  the. National  School  seem  to  consider  the 
supposed  rights  of  Nationalities  as  paramount  even 
to  llie  obligations  of  treaties,  and  the  political  con- 
junction of  one  Nationality  witli  another  is  looked 
on  by  them  as  an  adequate  ground  for  a  revolt  or 
separation,  apart  altogether  from  the  cpicstlon 
whether  the  Kalionality  is  well  or  ill  governed.     In 


point  of  fact,  the  different  races  in  Europe  are  »o 
commingled,  that  any  reconKlriiction  <if  the  political 
map  of  Europe,  on  elhnological  principles,  would 
be  impossible,  even  if  <leHirabli'.  The  blood  of  ninc- 
lenllis  of  Euro|)e  lias  been  mixeil  within  the  histor- 
ical period.  'I'hc  test  of  language,  on  which  Nation- 
ality has  .somelimes  been  based,  is  a  dr-ceptive  one, 
in  so  far  as  il  is  indelinilr- and  perpetually  lluclnatinf;. 
The  people  on  tlii'  fronlier  between  two  races,  as  in 
the  South  Tyrol,  generally  speak  two  languuf;c8. 
Then  we  have  dialects,  liki-  the  Walloon,  the  (Jrfid- 
nerisch  of  the  Tyrol,  and  the  J{omaiiscli  of  the  «!ri- 
Kons— as  also  the  IJrclon,  Welsh,  (iaelic.  anil  Irish 
languages,  which  could  hardly  be  made  the  basis  of 
independent  communities.  The  well-being  of  the 
people  governed  is  properly  the  end  of  all  govern- 
ment, and  it  has  praelically  not  been  iilways  found 
that  a  State  is  better  governed  when  it  eo'nsisis  of 
one  race  only,  than  when  it  includes  an  aggregutc  of 
races.  Highly  diversified  Xalionalilies  may  be 
united  in  one  political  .syst<'m,  provided  only  that 
the  Uovernment  respects  and  (-onsulls  the  (lecul'ari- 
ties  of  the  several  races  and  does  not  attempt  to 
force  the  usages,  habits,  or  language  of  one  oa  the 
rest. 

NATIONAL  ANTHEM.— A  selection  of  music  set  lo 
words.  :ui(l  <  iiiiimc.n  lo  all  nations.  In  England  the 
national  anlheiii  is  "God  save  the  Queen,"  which  is 
played  when  troops  pay  the  prescribed  honors  to  the 
Sovereign  and  members  of  the  Koyal  Family  ;  in 
the  latter  case  only  six  bars  of  ihi'  aiilliem  are  "play- 
ed. The  first  part  of  the  national  anthem  may  also 
be  played  at  the  salute  of  a  Viceroy,  at  state  cere- 
monials, and  at  the  trooping  of  colors.  The  play- 
ing of  the  national  anthem  is  only  due  to 
those  personages  who  are  entitled,  under 

the  regulations,    to  a  royal  salute. 

__b  NATIONAL  ARMORY.— A  national  es- 

I  tablishment  for  the  manufacture  of  small- 
— jj  arms,  etc.  The  manufacture  of  I'nited 
^  States  small-arms  and  small-arm  am- 
munition for  the  present  armies  and  mil- 
itia, and  for  the  reserve  supply,  isoneof  the  LTcatest 
importance,  and  the  Springfield  Armory  is  a  model 
one  of  the  world  in  the  perfectiim  of  its  fabrications, 
the  extent  and  completeness  of  its  arrangements  and 
the  facilties  for  the  production  of  this  class  of  war- 
ike  stores. 

NATIONAL  ARMORY  CIRCULAR  CUTTER.- A  mod- 
ification of  the  Adams  cutter,  from  whicli  it  differs 
only  in  the  details  of  its  form  and  dimensions.  The 
diameter  of  the  circle  which  forms  the  cutting-edge 
is  3";  the  angle  formed  by  the  elements  of  the  two 
right  cones  whose  intersection  forms  that  edge  is  60° 
instead  of  61"  20'.  The  altitudes  of  these  cones  are 
the  same,  and  are  equal  to  0'.86G.  The  thickness 
of  the  disk  is  0".25  The  angle  of  60''  was  adopted 
for  the  edge  as  being  an  an^le  which  could  be  ac- 
curately formed  in  a  turning-lathe  without  difficulty, 
as  almost  every  machinist  possesses  an  equilateral 
triangular  gauge  by  which  he  can  verify  at  any  in- 
stant the  angle  included  between  the"  legs  of  the 
striding-gauge  that  he  uses  to  guide  him  in  turning 
the  bevels.  "The  diameter  and  Uiicknc-ss  of  the  disk- 
plate  were  cho.sen  with  reference  to  retaining  the 
angle  of  60',  ar.d  with  reference  to  ease  of  exact 
measurement  by  practical  mechanics.  By  assuming 
these  dimensions  the  strength  of  the  cutter  is  not 
impaired  :  it  is  rendered  a  little  more  sensitive  to 
small  dilTercnces  of  pressure  than  the  Adams  cutter; 
and  its  dimensions,  both  linear  and  angular,  are 
easily  jireserved  in  fabrication  by  any  one  of  ordi- 
nary mechanical  skill.  The  limits  of  these  linear 
dimensions,  whether  expressed  in  hundredths  or 
thousandths  of  an  inch,  can  always  be  made  to  fall 
upon  the  larger  and  more  common  divisions  of  al- 
most any  English  scale  of  inches.  The  special  ad- 
vantage of  the  circular  cutting  or  indenting  edge  is 
that  it  can  be  readily  pressed  into  the  indentation, 
previously  made  in  the  copper  block  or  disk  while 


NATIONAL  CEMETKRIES. 


402 


NATIONAL  HYMNS. 


in  the  piece,  upon  its  removal  to  tlie  dynamometer 
or  testing-machine.  In  tlie  case  of  the  pyramidal 
cutter,  it  is,  and  always  will  be,  a  matter  of  consid- 
erable difficulty  to  make  the  apex  of  the  pyramid 
coincide  with  its  former  position,  in  adjusting  it  in 
a  dynamometer  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the  read- 
ing" of  the  estimator  or  the  setting  of  the  limit-gauge, 
in  order  to  govern  the  operator  in  making  the  simi- 
lar secondary  cut  or  cuts  from  or  by  means  of  which 
the  pressures  are  determined.  The  more  accurately 
the  cutter  is  inserted  into  the  indentation  made  by 
the  force  of  discharge,  and  the  greater  the  precision 
of  the  adjustment  of  the  limit-gauge,  the  more  near- 
ly will  be  the  appro.ximation  to  the  true  pressure  as 
determined  by  the  dynamometer.  AVith  the  circular 
cutter,  no  difficulty  is  experienced  in  adjiisting  its 
edge  to  the  bottom  of  the  indentation  in  the  copper. 
The  steel  disks  for  the  National  Armory  circular 
cutters  were  made  in  September,  18T(i.  See  Adams 
Cutter,  Benton  Dynamometer,  Circular  Cutter,  and 
Prear-ure  Gauge. 

NATIONAL  CEMETERIES.— In  the  United  States, 
these  arc  the  burial-places  for  soldiers,  provided  by 
the  general  government.  The  Quartermaster  Gene- 
ral of  the  arm}'  has  cliarge  of  all  the  National  Ceme- 
teries, and  the  records  pertaining  thereto.  There 
are,  at  present,  (1884)  26  National  Cemeteries  of  the 
First  Class;  20  of  the  Second  Class;  11  of  the  T/tird 
Class,  and  some  23  of  the  Fuurth  (Hass.  The 
Superintendents  of  these  classes  are  paid  |>75, 
$70,  .*6.5.  and  $60  per  month  respectively.  Military 
Commanders  exercise  the  same  supervision  over 
National  jMilitary  Cemeteries  within  the  Geographi- 
cal limits  of  their  commands  as  over  other  military 
posts  or  establishments  under  them,  only  excepting 
the  Military  Cemeteries  in  the  District  of  Columbia 
and  at  Arlington  and  Alexandria,  Virginia,  which 
are  attached  to  the  Quartermaster's  Priucipal  Depot 
of  Washington.  D.  C. — 

A  copy  of  the  following  law  is  kept  posted  at  the 
entrance,  and  in  several  other  conspicuous  places,  in 
eacii  Cemetery  : 

Every  person  who  willfully  destroys,  mutilates, 
defaces,  injures,  or  removes  an}-  monument,  grave- 
stone, or  other  structure,  or  who  willfull}'  destroys, 
cuts,  breaks,  injures,  or  removes  any  tree,  shrub,  or 
plant  within  the  limits  of  any  National  Cemetery, 
shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  punishable 
by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  twenty-five  dollars  and  not 
more  than  one  hundred,  or  by  imprisonment  for  not 
less  than  fifteen  daj-s  and  not  more  than  sixty.  The 
Superintendent  in  charge  of  any  National  Ceme- 
terj-  is  authorized  to  arrest  forthwith  any  person 
engaged  in  committing  any  misdemeanor  herein 
pniliibited,  and  to  bring  such  person  before  any 
United  States  commissioner  or  judge  of  any  district 
or  circuit  court  of  the  United  Slates  within  any 
State  or  district  where  any  of  the  cemeteries  are 
situated,  for  the  purpo.se  of  holding  such  person  to 
answer  lor  such  misdemeanor,  and  then  and  there 
.shall  make  the  complaint  in  due  form.  See  Battle- 
gniund  Cemeteries,  I'ost  Cemeteries,  and  Superin- 
tendent rif  National  Cenieteriis. 

NATIONAL  DEFENSE.'  The  defense  of  a  State  or  a 
Nation  against  invasion.  The  national  defenses  of  a 
country  consist,  besid<'S  her  armies  and  reserves,  of 
the  navy  ;  of  the  fortifications,  forts,  and  fortresses 
l)uilt  along  the  coasts,  and  on  some  important  strate- 
gical points,  either  iidand  or  on  the  frontier  line  ;  of 
torpedoes  laid  <lown  for  tlie  iirotection  of  harbors, 
arsenals,  etc.  When  these  have  been  found  insuffi- 
cient, an  a])peal  is  maik'  to  all  men  alile  to  carry 
arms  to  stand  up  for  the  defense  of  the  country,  and 
to  repulscr  the  invasion.  This  is  called  a  levee  en 
Timsse.  In  England,  in  the  event  of  a  threatened  in- 
vasion, the  volunteers  would  be  called  out  and  mobi- 
lised with  the  different  army  corps  to  which  they 
liehmg. 
NATIONAL  GDAED.— A  body  of  militia  composed 
ncipally  of  the  Bourgeoisie,  first  formed  by  the 


Committee  of  safety  in  1789,  and  musterine  at  cue 
time  300,000  men  under  the  command  of  Laiayette. 
Napoleon  dissolved  them  in  1795,  and  reorganized 
them  in  1814.  They  were  again  dissolved  in  1837, 
by  Charles  X.,  were  reorganized  in  1830,  deserted 
Louis  Philippe  in  1848,  were  reorganized  in  18.52, 
and  took  part  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  and  the 
Insurrection  of  the  Commune. — The  .same  term  is 
applied  to  the  State  Militia  of  New  York  and  New 
Jersey. 

In  England  the  National  Guard  is  an  organization 
for  local  defense,  differing  from  the  British  militia 
and  volunteers,  in  being  at  the  disposal  of  the  Mu- 
nicipalities, not  of  the  Crown.  Italy,  Greece,  and 
other  nations  have  maintained  this  civic  force;  but 
the  country  whence  it  derives  historic  fame  is 
France.  The  French  National  Guard  was  instituted 
in  Paris  in  1789,  when  the  Government  had  an  army 
of  30,000  at  the  gates.  The  Municipality  armed  48^- 
000  men,  and  their  example  was  followed  by  the 
chief  towns  ofFrance.  These  corps  obtained  the 
name  of  National  Guard  and  assumed  the  famous 
tricolor  as  their  ensign.  In  179.5,  30,000  of  the  Paris 
National  Guards  attacked  the  Tuileries  and  were  re- 
pulsed by  Napoleon  Bonaparte  with  6,000  regular 
fjoops.  In  1830  they  were  reorganized  under  the 
command  of  Lafayette,  their  original  chief;  and  be- 
tween 1848  and  1851  a  law  was  passed  by  which  all 
males  above  20  not  otherwise  employed  under  Gov- 
ernment were  included  in  the  National  Guard.  Af- 
ter the  Coup  d'Etat  in  December,  1851,  they  were 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  an  armed  police.  In  the 
war  of  1870-1871  they  showed  some  signs  of  vitality 
in  sympathy  with  the  Commune,  but  effected 
nothing  for  France.  After  the  fall  of  the  Commune 
thev  were  disbandad.      See  Militia. 

NATIONAL  HYMNS.— Popular  airs  which  are  pe- 
culiar to  and  characteristic  of  a  particular  nation.  It 
is  a  singular  fact  that  the  composers  of  national 
hymns  are  seldom  known.  The  Germans  call  their 
national  music  i)olk's  mimik.  a  designation  which  is 
very  appropriate,  as  a  people  collectively  may  not 
improperly  be  considered  as  the  actual  composer  of 
its  national  tunes.  A  short  melody  extemporized 
by  some  one  in  a  moment  of  patriotic  emotion,  is 
often  taken  upby  others  and  traditionally  preserved. 
In  the  course  of  time  it  generally  undergoes  modifi- 
cations, until  it  has  attained  those  conditions  which 
insure  it  a  general  acceptance.  This  fully  explains 
what  W.  Grimm  means  in  his  laconic  saying,  "A 
national  song  composes  itself  "  {Eiyi  Volkslieddiehtet 
■lick  .wlbst),  for  the  attempts  of  celebrated  musicians 
to  invest  a  tune  with  universal  and  permanent  popu- 
larity have  been  successful  in  a  few  instances  only. 
Among  the  most  popular  European  national  hymns, 
is  Cod  sffi'f  the  King,  but  the  authorship  of  the  tune 
has  not  hitherto  been  satisfactorily  ascertained.  In 
Prussia  it  is  called  Heil  Dir  im  Sieger  Kram,  and  in 
the  United  Statf  s  the  melody  is  simg  with  the  words 
"  My  country  'tis  of  thee,"  etc.  Although  there  is  no 
satisfactory  evidence  of  its  having  been  in  existence 
before  the  reign  of  George  II.,  there  are  several  tunes 
known  of  an  earlier  date  in  some  degree  resembling 
it.  The  Austrian  national  hymn,  Gotte  irhatte 
l^Franz]  den  Kaiser,  is  a  composition  by  Joseph 
llaydn.  Having  during  his  visit  to  England  wit- 
nessed tlie  effect  of  God.  save  the  King,  on  public  oc- 
casions, Haydn  resolved  .after  his  return  to  Vienna, 
to  present  his  country  with  a  similiir  composition. 
15aron  Swicten  and  (lount  Saurau  procured  the 
])octr_v  for  him,  and  the  hymn  was  sung  for  the  first 
time  on  the  birtlulay  of  the  Emperor  Franz,  Feb. 
12,  1797.  The  iioetry  was  written  by  L.  Leopold 
Haschka.  The  Russian  hymn  dates  from  the  year 
1K30,  when  the  Emperor  Nicholas  ordered  it  to  be  per- 
formed in  concerts  and  representations  on  the  stage. 
Its  coiii))oser  was  Alexis  LwofT,  and  the  air  appears 
to  have  been  suggested  liy  the  Sicilian  Marincr'x 
Hymn,  which  is  also  a  favorite  melody  of  the  Gon- 
doliers iit  Venice.     The  poetry  of  the  patriotic  song 


JCATIONAL  BIPLE  ASSOCIATION.  \ 


403 


NATIONAL  RIFLE  ASSOCIATION. 


of  the  Danes,  Kong  Christian  stod  ved  piyien  Mont, 
was  written  by  Ewald,  iind  the  iimsie  Ik  by  a  (Jer- 
liian  CDmiioscr,  .Ii)li:iiin  i  larliiiauri.  The  Freiieh 
imtioiial  liyii".  tl"'  Miii-n(Hl(iini .  dates  fniiii  tlieyeur 
17i)2.  It  was  eoinposed  liy  Koujjet  de  I'lsh',  diiriiii; 
tlie  Freneh  Uevohitioii.  Ylie  national  hymn  of  the 
Germans,  Die  Wuclit,  nin  /I'/iciu,  eame  into  f;reat 
popuhirity  durini;  the  Franeo-German  war  of  1H~0. 
Will  iit  dfx  Deiitxclien  Vulirlund  was  written  hy 
Krnst  Moritz  Arndt,  a  (Jornian  patriot.  diirini.f  the 
wars  of  Napoleon  I.  There  liave  hei'n  many  at- 
tempts to  mannfaeture  national  son^s  in  llii-  Inited 
States,  but  the  great  national  liymn  of  Ameriea  will 
probably  be  a  spontaneous  ])ri)duction.  The  mar- 
Spnni/led  lianner  was  written  by  F.  S.  Key,  in 
1814,  and  the  words  were  adapted  hy  F.  Durang  to 
an  old  Freneh  air,  long  known  in  England  as  Ann. 
creoii  in,  Itirinn,  and  in  Ameriea  as  Ailnmn  and 
Liberty.  It  grew  in  favor  in  the  Loyal  Stales  during 
the  Rebellion,  and  was  played  eontinually  liy  all 
military  and  orehestral  bands.  But  as  a  patriotic 
song  for  tlie  people  at  large  it  is  almost  useless,  as 
the  range  of  the  air,  an  octave  and  a  half,  places  it 
out  of  the  compass  of  ordinary  voices.  Yankee 
Doodle  has  the  claim  of  long  association,  and  will 
probabl}'  always  retain  a  certain  degree  of  favor.  Its 
words  are  mere  childish  burlesque,  audit  is  n'ported 
to  have  been  a  popular  tune  in  England  during  the 
Commonwealth.  Some  state  that  its  doggerel 
words  originated  at  that  time,  Oliver  Cromwell  lieing 
designated  as  Nankee  Doodle.  Others  state  that  it 
was  the  tune  originally  set  to  the  old  English  song, 
Lydia  Locket  lout  her  I'ucket,  and  that  the  present 
words  were  written  by  a  British  Sergeant  in  Boston 
in  177.5.  Hail  ('ulnmbia.  was  written  by  .biseph 
Ilopkinson  in  1798,  and  was  set  to  the  music  of  the 
V rexid)  nV a  March,  which  was  composed  by  one 
Phylas  or  Fayles,  a  German  leader  of  orchestra  in 
New  York.  Columbia  the  Oem  of  the  Ocean,  and 
Harrison  Millard's  Viva  V America  have  also  attained 
considerable  jiopularitv. 

NATIONAL  ELFLE  ASSOCIATION.— Althougli  the 
introduction  of  the  ritHe  as  a  military  weapon  was 
owing  to  the  lessons  of  our  Kevolution,  andalthough 
our  success  in  the  earlier  contests  of  our  history  de- 
pended upon  the  skill  in  its  use  displayed  by  our  an- 
cestors, no  recognition,  until  lately,  was  given  by  our 
citizens  of  the  fact  that  the  change  which  has  taken 
place  in  the  habits  of  the  American  people  was  rapid- 
ly depriving  them  of  that  personal  skill  in  arms  and 
marksmanship,  which  hitherto  formed  one  of  tlie 
greaest  elements  of  our  national  strength.  Other 
nations  have  long  since  instituted  a  thorough  system 
in  rifle  practice.  France,  Germany,  Switzerland, 
and,  above  all,  England  and  Canada,  unite  in  giving 
to  rifle  practice  a  leading  position  in  their  system  of 
military  training.  150,000  trained  riflemen  are  a 
standing  proof  of  the  Wimbletou  contests  in  Eng- 
land. So,  on  our  Northern  border.  Canada  boasts 
lier  40,000  skilled  shots,  and  has  her  annual  Local, 
Provincial,  and  Dominion  matches,  by  which  their 
skill  is  maintained.  In  this  country,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  matter  was  entirely  neglected,  although 
our  entire  system  of  defense  is  based  upon  the  levy- 
ing of  volunteers  in  cases  of  emergency,  who,  to  be 
valuable,  or  even  available,  must  understand  the 
use  of  arms,  and  supply  by  their  skill  as  individuals 
the  confidence  which  discipline  gives  to  regular 
troops. 

While  England  had  a  system  of  rifle  practice  which 
was  required  to  be  annually  and  thoroughly  perform- 
ed by  everj'  soldier  in  the  army,  whether  stationed  in 
India,  Australia,  or  Europe,  our  war  Department 
for  a  long  time  sent  raw  recruits  against  the  Indian 
sharp-shooters  of  the  plains.  In  the  National  tiuards 
a  similar  apathy  prevailed  ;  and  it  was  tlie  rule,  not 
the  exception,  for  a  man  to  .serve  out  liis  full  term 
of  enlistment  in  their  ranks  without  firing  a  shot. 

This  anomalous  condition  of  affairs  having  excited 
on  siderable  discussion  among  military  men  through 


the  press,  finally,  on  November  24,  1871,  led  to  the 
formation  in  the  cit_v  of  New  V'ork  of  the  NotioruU 
liijle  AHKociatlon,  which  was  designed  to  Ije  the 
parent  of  many  similar  Associations  throughout  the 
country,  and  of  uniform  pra<;tiei'  in  the  Army.  Thi« 
Association  was  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the 
state  of  N(;w  York,  and  included  among  its  incorpo- 
rators many  jirominent  otllcers  and  ex-ollicers  of  the 
Army  and  iN'ational  guard. 

TIk'  main  aim  of  the  ,\ssociation  is  the  encourage- 
ment of  ritl(-  |)raeti(,e  throughout  the  United  States, 
and  the  success  thus  far  attained  surpasses  the  mo.st 
sanguine  anticipations.  The  present  scope  and  con- 
dition of  th(^  Association  will  be  best  comprehended 
by  carefully  reviewing  the  Regulations: 

I. — Manaokmknt. — A. — Annval  Meetingx. — 1.  An- 
nual meetings  for  competition  will  be  conducted  by 
an  E.xecutive  Ollicer,  wearing  a  tri^colored  badge, 
allied  by  a  Slalislieal  Ollicer,  wearing  a  blue  badge, 
a  Financial  Ollicer,  wearing  a  white  badge,  a  Range 
Officer,  wearing  a  red  badge,  and  assistants,  wearing 
badges  corresponding  in  color  to  those  worn  by  the 
chiefs  of  their  res])ectiv(?  Departments.  2.  The  Ex- 
ecutive Ollicer  shall  have  control  of  the  range  for  the 
conduct  of  matches,  and  shall  a|)[>oint  an  Adjutant 
to  assLst  Inin.  y.  The  Statistical  Ollicer  shall  have 
charge  of  all  statistics.  4.  The  Financial  Officer 
shall  have  charge  of  all  tinanees  connected  with  these 
meetings.  5.  The  Range  Ollicer  shall  have  charge 
of  all  Firing  Points,  and  of  the  shooting  thereat.  B. 
—  Other  detmpetitionx.  1.  All  other  association  compe- 
titions will  be  conducted  by  an  Officer  or  Director  of 
the  Association,  or  other  competent  person  previous- 
ly designated  as  the  E.xecutive  Officer.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  the  Oflieer,  Director,  or  other  person  previ- 
ously designated,  the  Assistant-Secretary  or  Super- 
intendent of  Range  shall  act  as  the  E.xecutive  Officer. 

II. — General  Regulations. —  1.  During  the  pro- 
gress of  a  match,  no  one,  except,  the  Oflicers,  Di- 
rectors and  Employees  of  the  Association,  the  com- 
petitors and  the  Scorekeepers,  will  be  permitted 
within  tlie  ropes,  without  special  permission  of  the 
Range  Officer.  3.  The  squads  of  competitors  will 
be  stationed  not  less  than  four  yards  in  the  rear  of 
the  tiring  points,  where  each  competitor  must  remain 
until  called  by  the  Scorekeeper  to  take  liis  position 
at  the  firing  point,  and  until  he  has  completed  his 
score.  The  Scorekeepers  will  be  seated  close  to  and 
in  rear  of  the  firing  point  stakes.  3.  Scorekeepers 
shall,  as  each  shot  is  signaled,  call  in  a  loud  voice 
the  name  of  the  competitor  andthe  value  of  the  shot, 
and  at  the  conclusion  of  the  score  of  each  competitor, 
announce  in  like  manner  his  name  and  total  score. 
Competitors  must  paj-  attention  to  tlie  scores  as  an- 
nounced and  recorded,  so  that  any  error  may  be 
promptly  investigated.  4.  All  competitors  will  be 
allowed  to  examine  the  records  of  the  Scorekeeper 
during  the  progress  of  any  match.  5.  All  protests 
and  objections  must  be  made  to  the  Executive  Offi- 
cer, or,  in  his  absence,  to  the  Range  Officer  in 
charge.  In  case  a  competitor  is  dissatisfied  with  the 
decison  of  the  latter,  he  may  appeal  to  the  Executive 
Officer.  6.  Anj'  competitor  feeling  himself  aggriev- 
ed by  the  ruling  of  an  Executive  Officer,  may  make 
to  the  Secretary  a  statement  of  his  grievance  in 
writing,  giving  the  names  of  two  ormore  witnesses  in 
the  case,  whicli  shall  be  handed  to  the  Executive 
Committee  at  its  first  meeting  thereafter  for  its  con- 
sideration. The  decision  of  tlie  Executive  Commit- 
tee shall  be  final,  subject,  however,  to  the  discretion 
of  said  Committee,  or  any  two  members  of  it.  to  refer 
tlifi  matter  to  the  Board  of  Directorsfor  its  decision. 
7.  .lUl  practice  upon  the  Range  is  subordinate  and 
must  give  way  to  matches  of  the  Association.  8. 
These  regulations,  and  such  special  rules  or  direc- 
tions as  the  Executive  Officer  may  give,  must  be  rig- 
idly complied  with  by  competitors  and  all  other  per- 
sons upon  the  Range  grounds. 

III. — Rlfles.— The  rifles  or  carbines  allowed  to  be 
used  in  the  competitions  are — 1st.   Military  rifles; 


NATIONAL  RIFLE  ASSOCIATION. 


404 


NATIONAL  BLFLE  ASSOCLATION^ 


2d.  Any  rifles ;  and  must  comply  with  the  following 
conditions,  viz.:  1.  Military  Ii>ytes.  V!e\ght  (without 
bayonet)  not  to  exceed  9  pounds,  4  ounces.  Stock 
sufficiently  strong  for  military  purposes,  and  such  as 
to  admit  the  use  "of  a  sling ;  minimum  pull  of  trigger 
six  pounds.  Sights  to  be  of  h"na  fide  military  pat- 
tern, to  be  attached  to  the  barrel ;  the  front  sight  to 
be  immovable.  The  rear  sight  may  be  used  as  a 
wind  gauge,  by  the  sliding  bar  or  the  leaf  being 
moved  laterally,  either  by  sTiding,  or  by  a  screw,  or 
by  an}'  similar  device  suitable  for  military  purposes. 
Filing  or  altering  the  sights  of  such  rifles,  or  of  the 
riflesused  by  the  Katioiial  Guard,  or  Regular  forces 
(except  as  authorized  by  the  military  authorities 
thereof)  is  prohibited.  The  sliding  bar  of  the  rear 
sight  may  be  inverted,  and  lines  drawn  to  mark  the 
center.  Any  pad  or  shoe  attached  to  the  butt  is 
prohibited.  2.  -4Hy  i?///<", maximum  weight  lOpounds, 
minimum  pidl  of  trigger  three  pounds  ;  sights  of  any 
description,  except  telescope,  magnifying  and  sucli 
front  aperture  sights  as  solid  disks  or  bnshes  pierced 
in  the  center,  which  cover  the  target  so  as  to  con- 
ceal the  danger  signal  when  displayed.  No  stirrup 
constructed  of  metal  or  other  substance,  connected 
to  the  ritle  by  straps  of  any  kind,  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  up  or"  lessening  its  recoil,  will  be  allowed.  3. 
Competitors  shall  sut)niit  their  rifles  and  ammunition 
for  inspection  whenever  required.  4.  No  hair  or 
set  trigger  will  be  allowed.  5.  No  fixed  or  artificial 
rests  will  be  allowed. 

IV.  — Ammttnitiox. — 1.  In  competitions  restricted 
to  the  use  of  breech-loaders,  the  gun  shall  be  loaded 
at  the  breech  with  fixed  ammunition.  2.  In  all 
other  competitions  any  ammunition  may  be  used. 

V. — Takgets. — The  targets  are  divided  into  three 
classes,  and  shall  be  of  the  following  sizes : 

1.  Third  ClnKf,  to  be  used  at  all  distances  up  to, 
and  including  300  yards — Target  4x6  feet. 

Bull's-eye  circular,  8  inches  in  diameter. 
Center  "'        26       " 

Inner  "        46       " 

Outer,  remainder  of  target. 

2.  Second  Ctas/<.  to  be  used  at  !ill  distances  over 
300,  to,  and  including  600  yards— Target  6x6  feet. 

Bull's-eye,  circular,  23  inches  in  diameter. 

Center  "  38 ' 

Inner  "  54     "         "      " 

Outer,  remainder  of  target. 
8.  Firxt  C'laxK,  to  be  used  at  all  distances  over  600 
yards— Target  6x12  feet. 

Bull's-eye,  circular,  36  inches  in|diameter, 
Center  "  54      "      "        " 

Inner,  square,  6x6  feet. 
Outer,  remainder  of  the  target. 

MAKKING,    SCOKING    AND     SIGNALING. 

1.  Bull's-eye,  counts  5  ;  signal,  white  circular  disk. 
Center,"  "      4;       "         red 

white  and  black  ■• 
black  " 

red  flag  waved  quicklj' 
twice  right  and  left  in  front  of  the  target.  Ricochet 
hits  will  be  marked  out  after  the  flag  signal.  2. 
Wlicn  a  shot  strikes  the  angh-  iron  uikiu  which  the 
tarL'Cl  sIuikIs.  the  marker  will  open  II. e  trap  andraise 
and  lower  his  flag  three  times  in  front  of  the  target.  3. 
Any  objection  to  the  record  of  a  sliot  as  signaled  or 
to  one  not  signaled,  must  be  made  before  another 
shot  is  fired.  Any  competitor  challenging  the  mark- 
ing of  a  shot  shall  first  deposit  witli  the  Kxecutive 
officer,  or  his  representative,  the  sum  of  §1.00.  If 
liis  challenge  is  sustained  the  money  sliall  lie  return- 
ed. In  ease  the  challenge  is  not  sustained  tlie  money 
shall  be  forfeited  to  the  Association.  The  C'iiallen- 
ger  shall  be  permitted  to  inspect  the  target  in  com- 
pany with  the  proper  officer.  4  Any  alterati(m  of 
a  scoring  ticket  must  be  witnessed  by  the  officer  in 
charge  of  the  firing  point,  and  endorsed  with  his 
initials. 

VII. — KcNNiNG  Deeb. — 1.  Will  he  run  only  liy  a 
signal  from  the  firing  point.     Any  rifle  may  he  used, 


VI. 


Inner,  "       3; 

Outer,  '•        2; 

Ricocliet,  scored  R : 


provided  the  sights  are  without  traverse  adjust- 
ment. Position,  standing:  distance,  100  yards,  un- 
less otherwise  prescribed.  A  fine  of  ten  cents  will  be 
imposed  for  firing  when  out  of  bounds,  not  firing,  or 
for  hitting  the  haunch. 

Scaring  and  Signalling, 

Bull's-eye,  wliite  disk,  counts  4, 

Center,         red         "         "        3. 

Outer  black     "         "        2. 

Haunch,  white  disk,  with  black  cross,  scoring  II. 

VIII. — Bull's-Eye  Targets. — 1.  Bull's-eye  tar- 
gets will  be  open  all  the  time  during  the  Annual 
Meetings.  2.  Tickets  (entitling  the  hoMer  to  one 
shot  af  any  Bull's-eye  target)  will  be  sold  at  the 
office  of  the  Financial  Officer,  upon  the  Range,  at  10 
cents  each,  or  fsvelve  for  ifl.OO.  i.  Each  competi- 
tor making  a  Bull's-eye  will  receive  a  Bull's-eye 
ticket.  4.  At  the  close  of  the  firing  each  evening, 
the  pool  receipts  (less  one-half  retained  for  expenses) 
will  be  divided  yro  rnto  among  tliose  making  Bull's- 
eyes,  on  presentation  of  their  tickets.  5.  No  person 
will  be  allowed  to  fire  more  than  three  shots  consec- 
utively at  any  Bull's-eye  target,  provided  others  are 
waiting  to  fire. 

IX. — Matches. — 1.  The  commencement  of  the  An- 
nual Meetings  will  be  signaled  by  the  firing  of  two 
guns,  15  minutes  apart.  The  first  will  be"  the  sig- 
nal for  competitors  and  scorekeepers  to  assemble  at 
the  firing  points,  and  the  second  to  commence  firing. 

2.  The  matches  will  take  place,  if  possible,  at  the 
hour  previously  named.  Any  deviation  from  the 
programmes  will  be  posted  upon  the  Bulletin  board 
as  long  before  hand  as  practicable.  The  pouting 
upon  mick  bulletin  board  trill  be  coniddfred  .sufficient 
notice  to  all  competiUrrs  of  everything  so  posted.  It 
sliould  be  examined  by  all  competitors  daily,  both 
morning  and  afternoon,  before  the  shooting  com- 
mences. 3.  In  team  matches,  at  Annual  Meetings, 
an  officer  will  be  assigned  to  each  of  the  firing  posts- 
as  Supervisor,  and  he  will,  in  connection  with  the 
Scorekeeper,  keep  a  record  of  the  firing  ;  and  any 
disagreement  between  such  officer  and  Scorekeeper, 
will  be  decided  bj'  the  Executive  Officer,  subject  to 
appeal,  as  provided  for  in  the  Regulations.  4  Each 
Team  may  appoint  a  responsible  person  to  act  as 
Supervisor,  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  see  that  the 
rules  of  the  N.  R.  A.  are  strictly  adhered  to  by  tlie 
team  at  whose  target  he  may  be  assigned.  5.  No 
practice  will  be  allowed  upon  the  range  on  any  of 
tlie  days  of  the  Annual  Meetings,  unless  specially 
authorized  by  the  Executive  Officer.  This  does  not 
apply  to  days  upon  which  special  matches  of  the  As- 
sociation, or  of  affiliating  associations  or  clubs  take 
place. 

X. — Entries. — A.''Annual  Meetings. — 1.  For  all 
competitions  open  to  militarj'  organizations,  the 
teams  shall  (unless  otherwise  specified )  consist  of 
twelve  from  each  Regiment,  Battalion,  Company, 
or  Troop.  2.  In  all  cases  competitors  for  prizes  of- 
fered to  military  organizations  must  be  either  offi- 
cers or  regularly  enlisted  members  in  good  standing 
of  thcReiriment.  15att:ilion,  Company,  or  Troop  which 
they  represent,  and  shall  have  been  such  for  at  least 
three  months  prior  to  the  match  for  which  they  are 
entered.     All  entries  must  be   made   for  full  teams. 

3.  Entries  must  be  made  at  tlie  office  of  tlie  Associa- 
tion, in  New  York  City,  at  least  one  ireek  preceding 
the  commencement  of  the  meetings,  when  the  en- 
try books  will  be  closed  ;it  the  office  of  the  Associa- 
tion, .indall  subsequent  entrii's  shall  be  called  I'ost 
ICnIi'ies.  and  a  ch;irge  of  .'iO  percent,  additional  will 
be  imposed  upon  all  such  I'ost  Entries.  4.  Com- 
jietitors  who  are  prevented  from  being  jiresent  at 
any  meeting  shall  have  the  entrance  fees  they  have 
paid  returned  after  the  meeting,  provided  that  they 
send  their  tickets  and  give  written  notice  to  the 
Secretary  before  thi^  (lay  on  which  the  prize  for 
which  tluy  have  entered  has  been  aimoimccd  for 
competition.  5.  Competitors  i>revented  from  com 
peting  by  illness  will  receive  back  tlieir  entrance  fee 


NATIONAL  KIFLE  ASSOCIATION. 


401 


NAXIONAX.  £IFL£  ASSOCIATION. 


in  full,  on  production  i)f  it  incilical  rcrlillciito  and 
tlu'ir  entry  tickils.  (!.  The  lioldcrsof  post  cnlry 
tickets  nmy  lie  (inlered  tci  tire  wlienever  tiiTf^et  iie- 
conmicHliitinn  ciin  lie  |ir(jviile(l,  Init  slioiild  tiii'V  l)e 
precluded  friini  eiinipetini;  by  delieieney  of  tiirnet 
accoinniodalion,  their  I'ntniMce  fees  will  be  returned 
to  them,  the  iCxecutive  Otiicernol  l)einf;  ubletonnar- 
antee  acconmiodal  ion  for  all  siu-h  entries.  7.  All  en- 
tries are  received  upon  the  express  <'ondition  that 
the  coinp<'tilor  is  toappear  at  tiie  lirin'.;  point  at  the 
exact  time  named  upon  his  score  ciinl,  and  completi' 
liisscore  within  tlie  limitation  of  time  prescribed, 
regardless  of  weather  or  any  other  nnforeseen  cause. 
8.  The  same  person  shall  not  be  a  member  of  more 
than  one  team  in  the  .same  unit ch.  i).  ('om|)etitors 
selected  to  shoot  in  team  matches,  or  who  are  de- 
tailed to  shoot  olf  a  tie  at  a  particular  hour,  and  who 
tind  that  such  en!;ai;ements  will  int<'rf'ere  with  their 
shootimj;  in  other  conipetitions,  irnist  at  once  com- 
municate with  the  I'jxeculive  Otlicer.  'i'hesi:  cases 
will  be  i)rovided  for,  irhen  jmnxi/di',  liy  alt<'rin!;  the 
hour ;  and  when  that  cannot  be  done,  the  entry 
will  be  cancelled  and  the  entrance  fee  refunded. 
Ji.—  OeneralUegul(iti'iit.i.-\.  A  mendierof  the  Associa- 
tion enterinj;  for  or  shooting  in  a  matcli  on  the  range 
must  exhibit  his  badge.  2.  A  register  ticket  may 
be  transferred  at  any  time  before  the  tiring  for  the 
match  has  commenced,  l)y  cxi'hanging  it  at  the 
office  of  the  Statistical  011i<'er  for  one  having  the 
name  of  the  new  liolder.  It  is  available  oidy  for 
the  hour  and  target  for  which  it  was  originally  is- 
sued. Any  erasure  or  alteration  not  initialed  l>y  tlu' 
Executive  Ollicer  will  r<'nder  the  ticket  invalid.  3. 
No  post  entries  shall  be  received  for  any  competi- 
tion after  the  tiring  in  such  competition  has  com- 
menced, unless  expressly  permitted  by  tlie  terms  of 
a  match. 

XI. — SHooTtNO. — 1.  Competitors  must  be  present 
at  the  firing  points  punctually  at  the  time  stated 
upon  their  tickets,  or  forfeit  their  riglit  to  shoot.  2. 
After  a  competitor  has  joined  a  sipiad  he  shall  not 
quit  it  until  he  has  completed  his  tiring,  or  retired. 
3.  No  two  competitors  shall  shoot  in  any  match 
with  the  sanu'  ritle,  nor  shall  a  competitor  change 
Ids  rifle  during  a  competition,  unless  exjiressly  per- 
mitted liy  the  terms  of  a  match,  or  unless  his  first 
rifie  has  become  iuiserviceat)le  througli  an  accident, 
which  must  be  verified  liy  the  officer  in  charge  of 
his  firing  point.  4.  In  all  competitions  confined  to 
members  of  military  organizations,  competitors  shall 
shoot  in  tlie  authorized  uniform  of  their  corps,  in- 
cluding waist  belts.  .5.  In  each  match  of  the  An- 
nual Meetings,  except  wliere  otherwise  stated,  the 
squad  or  team  assigned  to  each  target  will  lie  re- 
quired to  commence  firing  at  the  time  nanu'd  on  the 
score  card,  and  to  continue  firing  at  the  rate  of  one 
shot  per  minute  until  the  completion  of  the  score. 
6  The  time  for  each  squad  to  commence  and  close 
will  be  signaled  by  firing  a  gun  every  thirty  nnnutes, 
from  9  A.  M.  to  5.30  p.  m.,  and  no  firing  by  any  of  its 
members  will  be  permitted  except  between  tliose 
signals.  In  case  a  competitor,  without  fault  on  his 
part,  has  Ijeen  prevented  from  finishing  his  score 
within  that  time,  he  may  apply  to  the  Executive 
Officer  for  further  assignment,  the  granting  of  which 
will  be  in  the  discretion  of  that  officer.  7.  Competi- 
tors retiring  from  matches  forfeit  all  claims  therein. 

8.  iV«  sighting  .i/intn  trill  he  allowed  in  any  iimtrli,  but 
targets  will  be  assigned  as  BuWu-eye  Tnrgetn  at  which 
competitors  may  practice  at  any  time,  provided  such 
practice  does  not  in  any  manner  interfere  with  their 
presence  at  the  designated  time  at  the  firing  point 
to  which  tliey  may  have  been  previously  assigned. 

9.  In  all  competitions  restricted  to  military  rifies  the 
competitors  sliall  place  themselves  at  the  firing 
point  by  twos,  and  shall  fire  alternately  until  they 
have  fired  all  their  shots.  10.  In  other  competitions 
the  competitors  shall  fire  their  shots  alternately  j 
throughout  the  squad.  11.  Competitors  may  wipe 
or  clean  their  rifles  during  any  competition,  except  I 


those  restricted  to  the  use  of  mililary  rifles.  In 
com[ietitions  at  more  than  one  distance,  restricted 
to  mililary  ritles,  cleaning  will  lie  permitted  between 
distances.  12.  Wheniver  the  daiiL'er  Hag  is  dis- 
played, competitors  about  to  lire  will  be  reipiired  to 
open  the  breecli  block  of  their  rifles  ("if  breedi- 
load(rrs).  If  they  leave  the  firing  point  thev  miiHt 
withdraw  the  cartriilge.  13.  Any  competitor" delay- 
ing his  sipiad  will  be  passed  l)y.  In  no  case  will  the 
tiring  be  delayed  to  enalile  a  competitor  to  jjrocure  a 
ritle.  14.  Compelilors  must  shoot  their  scores  at 
(lilferent  distances  in  the  oriler  named  in  the  condi- 
tions of  the  competition. 

XII.— I'oHiTioN.  — 1.  In  all  matches  rexcept  those 
specially  for  carbinesj,  the  position  \\\t  to  and  in- 
cluding 300  yards,  shall  be  standing.  The  left  elbow 
nuiy  be  rested  against  tlie  body,  jirovidc-il  the  little 
linger  of  the  left  hand  is  in"frout  of  the  trigger 
guard.  2.  In  carbine  matches,  the  position  at'  200 
yards  shall  be  standing;  at  300  yards,  kneeling; 
over  that  distance,  in  anv  position  tas  prescribed 
for  infantry;.  3.  In  all  other  matches,  at  distances 
aliove  .300  yards,  any  position  may  be  taken  without 
artificial  rest  to  the  rifie  or  body.  4.  One-armed 
competitors  will  be  allowed  to  use  false  arms,  with- 
out extra  sujiport,  in  the  standing  and  kneeling 
jiositions,  and  to  assume  any  position  in  the  use 
of  military  rifles,  at  distances  above  200  yard.s. 
T).  Shots  at  Bull's-eye  larirets,  at  all  distances,  be^ 
yond  300  yards  may  be  fired  in  any  position  without 
artificial  rest.  6.  In  all  cases  the  rifle  shall  be  held 
clear  of  the  ground. 

XIII  — Ties.— 1.  Ties  shall  be  decided  as  follows  : 
A.— fa  ludividual  Shmtiiig.  1.  When  the  firinc 
takes  place  at  more  than  one  distance,  liy  the  total 
score  made  at  the  longest  distance  ;  and  if  still  a  tie, 
and  there  be  three  distances  in  tlie  comjietition  by 
tlie  total  score  at  the  seconil  distance.  2.  By  the 
fewest  misses  in  the  entire  score.  3.  By  tlie  fewest 
outers  in  the  entire  score.  4.  By  the  fewest  inners 
in  the  entire  score.  ,5.  In  handicap  n'latches  (after 
the  preceding),  by  the  fewest  centers  in  the  entire 
score.  0.  If  still  a  tie,  by  inverse  order  of  shots 
counting  singly  from  the  last  to  the  first.  7.  In 
matches  where  two  or  more  scores  added  together 
count,  if  still  a  tie,  by  adding  together  the  last  shots 
of  each  single  score,  and  if  .still  a  tie.  by  adding  to- 
gether the  next  to  the  last  and  so  on.  8.  By  tirine 
single  shots  at  the  longest  range. 

B.~I)i  Team  Shooting.  1.  By  the  aggregate  total 
score  made  at  the  different  distances  in  inverse  order. 
2.  By  the  fewest  misses  in  the  entire  .score.  3.  By 
the  fewest  outers  in  the  entire  score.  4.  By  the  few. 
est  inners  in  the  entire  score.  .5.  By  the  loijd  of  each 
round  in  inverse  order.  6.  By  the  competitor  on 
each  side  who  has  made  the  highest  s<-ore,  firing  five 
rounds  at  the  longest  distance.  II.  The  naines  of 
competitors  who  have  to  shoot  off  ties  will  be  po.sted 
on  the  Bulletin-board  as  soon  after  each  match  as 
practicable.  III.  When  the  ties  are  shot  off,  one 
sighting  shot  shall  be  allowed  without  charge  '  IV. 
Competitors  not  present  at  tlie  firins:  point's  at  the 
hour  named  for  shooting  off  tics,  loo.sc  their  right  to 
shoot.  V.  If.  having  forfeited  their  right  to'^ com- 
pete, they  shall  still  be  within  the  number  of  prize 
winners,  they  shall  take  any  prize  that  may  be  al- 
lotted to  them  by  the  Executive  Committee. 

Xiy.— PRIZES.  1.  Prize  winners, upon  application  to 
Statistical  Officer  on  tlie  range,  will  receive  certifi- 
cates, which  must  be  given  up  on  receiving  the  prizes. 
2.  Prizes  will  be  delivered  on  the  ranseat  the  close 
of  the  nieetino;,  under  the  direction  of  the  Prize 
Committee,  uuleBs  otherwise  specified.  3.  All  prizes 
and  Bull's-eye  money  not  claimed  within  thirty  days 
after  the  day  on  which  same  was  won,  shall  be  for- 
feited to  the  Association. 

XV.— Penalties.- Competitors  must  make  them- 
selves acquainted  with  the  regulations,  as  well  as 
with  the  conditions  of  anv  match  for  which  they 
may  have  entered,  as  the  plea  of  ignorance  of  either 


NATIONAL  SALUTE. 


406 


NAVAL  HOWITZ£B. 


of  them  will  not  be  entertained.  DisqvnUflcaUon  -. 
Any  competitor  (a)  who  shall  tire  in  a  name  other 
than  his  own,  or  who  shall  fire  twice  for  the  same 
prize,  unless  permitted  by  the  conditions  of  the 
competition  to  do  so,  or  '{h)  who  shall  be  guilty 
of  any  conduct  considered  by  the  Board  of  Directors 
or  the  Executive  Committee  as  discreditable  ;  or  {c) 
who  shall  be  guilty  of  falsifying  his  score  or  being 
accessory  thereto:  or  {d)  who  shall  offer  a  bribe  of  any 
kind  to  an  employee — shall,  upon  the  occurrence  be- 
ing proved  to  tlie  satisfaction  of  the  Board  of  Directors 
or  the  Executive  Committee,  forfeit  all  his  entrance 
fees,  be  forever  disqualified  from  competing  at  any 
time  upon  the  range  of  the  association,  and  shall 
not  be  entitled  to  have  any  prize  won  by  him  at  the 
time  or  meeting  awarded  to  him. 

Exclusion  from  all  further  Competition.  1.  Any 
competitor  who  shall  be  detected  in  an  in- 
vasion of  the  conditions  prescribed  for  the  conduct 
of  any  match,  shall  be  ruled  out  of  such  competition. 
2.  Any  competitor, in  any  meeting  or  match, refusing 
to  obey  any  instructions  of  the  Executive  Officer,  or 
his  assistants,  or  violating  any  of  these  regulations, 
or  being  guilty  of  imruly  or  disorderly  conduct,  or 
being  intoxicated,  will  be  immediately  ruled  out  of 
all  furtlier  competition,  during  such  meeting  or 
match,  and  forfeit  his  entrance  fees  ;  and  may  also 
be  reported  to  the  Board  of  Directors  or  the  Execu- 
tive Committee,  and  be  by  them  disqualified  from 
the  use  of  the  Range.  3.  Any  competitor  firing  when 
the  danger  flag  or  trap  disc  is  shown  at  the  target  or 
firing  point,  or  knowingly  discharging  his  rifle  except 
at  alarget  to  which  he  has  been  assigned  or  into  the 
blowing-off  pits,  or  as  may  be  directed  by  an  Officer, 
shall  be  debarred fromallfurthercompetitionsdtiring 
the  meeting,  and  shall  forfeit  his  entrance  fees.  This 
shall  not  apply  to  a  competitor  accidentally  firing 
at  the  wrong  target,  when  no  danger  disc  is  up.  4. 
Any  person  discharging  a  rifle  or  snapping  a  cap 
within  the  inclosure.  except  in  accordance  with  the 
regulations  for  shooting  may,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Executive  Officer,  be  required  to  leave  the  ground. 

5.  Any  competitor  or  other  person  found  with  a  load- 
ed rifle  except  at  tlie  firing  points  and  when  about 
to  shoot,  shall  be  debarred  from  further  competition 
during  the  whole  of  that  meeting  or  competition. 

6.  Any  person,  whether  a  competitor  or  not,  inter- 
fering with  anj'  of  the  firing  squads,  or  annoying 
them  in  any  way  will  be  at  once  expelled  frorri  the 
ground.  7.  Anj'  competitor  discharging  his  rifle 
accidentally,  either  by  his  own  want  of  care  or  by 
reason  of  any  defect  in  the  rifle,  shall  be  disqualified 
from  further  competition  in  the  match.  8.  Should 
a  competitor  lose  his  register  ticket,  omit  to  take  it 
to  the  firing  point,  fail  to  attend  at  the  prescribed 
hour,  or  give  a  wrong  ticket,  and  so  by  his  own 
neglect  miss  tlie  opportunity  given  to  him  of  com- 
licting  for  the  prize  for  which  his  ticket  was  issued, 
his  claim  in  regard  to  such  competition  shall  be  can- 
celled. 9.  Any  person  firing  on  a  wrong  target  will 
be  reported  by  the  scorer  to  the  Executive  or  Range 
Officers  present  and  will  be  fined  i|1.00  or  be  de- 
barred from  further  competition ;  or  both,  in  the 
discretion  of  the  Executive  Officer.  10.  Any  per- 
son ruled  out  of  any  meeting  or  competition  shall 
forfeit  all  entrance  fees. 

NATIONAL  SALUTE.— A  salute  of  one  gun  for  each 
State  in  llic  Union.  This  salute  is  fired  at  noon  on 
the  anniversary  of  the  Independence  of  the  United 
States  at  each  military  post  or  camp  providetl  with 
artillery.     See  Sriliit)H. 

NATIONAL  TROOPS.  -Troops  raised  under  the  au- 
thority (if  Ciiugress,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Mil- 
ilia,  which  may  be  called  State  troops,  being  organ- 
i/eil  bv  the  several  States. 

NATURAL  ANGLE  OF  SIGHT.  The  angle  which 
the  niitiirdl  line  if  night  iTiakes  with  the  axis  of  tlie 
pieee. 

NATURAL  FORTIFICATION.— A  fortification  consist- 
ing of  those  obstacles  wliich  nature  affords  to  retard 


the  progress  of  an  enemy ;  such  as  woods,  deep  rav. 
ines,  rocks,  marshes,  etc.  The  term  is  emploj'ed  in 
contradistinction  to  Artificial  Portifieatioii,  or  that 
which  is  raised  by  liuman  ingenuity  to  aid  the  nat^ 
ural  advantages  of  the  ground,  or  supply  its  defi- 
ciencies.    See   Fortification. 

NATURAL  LINE  OF  SIGHT.— The  right  line  pass- 
ing through  the  highest  point  of  the  line  of  metal  at 
the  muzzle,  and  the  highest  point  of  the  same  line  in 
rear  of  the  trunnions.     See  Line  of  Metal. 

NATURAL  POINT-BLANK.— The  point-blank  is  the 
point  at  which  the  line  of  sight  intersects  the  tra- 
jectory the  second  time ;  or,  more  practically  speak- 
ing, it  is  that  point  which,  being  aimed  at,  is  struck 
by  the  projectile.  The  natural  point-blank  corre- 
sponds to  the  natural  line  of  sight  when  this  line  is 
horizontal,  and  the  distance  of  this  point  from  the 
muzzle  is  called  the  point-blank  range. 

NATURAL  STEEL.— A  variety  of  steel  which  is  ob- 
tained by  reducing  the  rich  and  pure  kinds  of  iron 
ore  with  charcoal,  and  refining  the  cast-iron,  so  as  to 
bring  it  to  a  malleable  state.  It  is  made  principally 
in  Germany,  and  is  used  for  making  files  and  other 
tools.  The  India  steel,  called  irooti,  is  said  to  be  a 
natural  steel,  containing  a  small  portion  of  other 
metals.     See  Shear  Steel  and  Steel. 

NAVAL  CAMP.— In  .military  antiquities,  a  fortifi- 
cation, consisting  of  a  ditch  and  parapet  on  the  land 
side,  or  a  wall  built  in  the  form  of  a  semi-circle,  and 
extended  from  one  point  of  the  sea  to  the  other. 
This  was  beautified  with  gates,  and  sometimes  de- 
fended with  towers,  through  which  the  defender* 
issued  forth  to  attack  their  enemies.  Towards  the 
sea,  or  within  it,  they  fixed  great  piles  of  wood,  like 
those  in  their  artificial  harbors;  before  these,  the  ves- 
sels of  burden  were  placed  in  such  order,  that  they 
might  serve  instead  of  a  wall,  and  give  protection  to 
those  without;  in  this  maimer,  Nicias  is  reported  by 
Thucydides  to  have  encamped  himself.  When  their 
fortifications  were  thought  strong  enough  to  defend 
them  from  the  assaults  of  enemies,  the  ancients  fre- 
quently dragged  their  ships  on  shore.  Around  these 
ships  the  soldiers  disposed  their  tents,  as  appears 
everywhere  in  Homer  But  this  seems  only  to  have 
been  practiced  in  winter,  when  their  enemy's  fleet 
was  laid  up,  and  could  not  assault  them;  or  in  long 
sieges, and  when  they  lay  in  no  danger  from  their  en- 
emies by  sea,  as  in  the  Trojan  war,  where  the  de- 
fenders of  Troy  never  once  attempted  to  encounter 
the  Grecians  in  a  sea-fight. 

NAVAL  CROWN.  — In"Heraldry,a  rim  of  gold  round 
which  are  placed  alternately  prows  of  galleys  and 
square  sails.  The  device  is  said  to  have  originated 
with  the  Roman  Emperor  Claudius,  who,  afler  the 
conquest  of  Britain  instituted  it  as  a  reward  for 
maritime  services.  He  who  first  boarded  the 
enemy's  ship,  and  was  the  occasion  of  its  being 
captured,  was  entitled  to  a  naval 
crown.  A  naval  crown  supporting 
the  crest  in  place  of  a  wreath  oc- 
curs in  various  grants  of  arms  in 
the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tur_v,  to  the  naval  heroes  of  the 
late  war.  The  crest  of  the  Earl  of 
St.  Vincent,  bestowed  on  him  after 
his  victory  over  the  Spanish  fleet  in 
1797,  is  issuing  otit  of  a  naval  crown  or,  enwrapped 
by  a  wreath  of  laurel  vert,  a  demi-pegasus  argent 
nianed  and  hoofed  of  the  first  and  winged  azure, 
charijed  in  the  win;;  with  a  fleur-de-lis  or. 

NAVAL  HOWITZER,-  A  bninze  shell-gun.  adapted 
t(i  field  and  biial  servi<'e.  Tliey  are  made  (if  bronze 
on  aecdiint  (if  their  cdinparative  lightness  for  the 
same  strength,  and  from  their  being  less  liable  to 
burst  than  iron  guns  of  the  same  caliber.  They  are 
both  smooth-bore  and  rifled,  and  are  alike  in  the 
principle  of  construction  and  general  appearance, 
and  differ  only  in  weight  and  dimensions.  Around 
the  charge  the  metal  is  distributed  in  the  form  of  a. 
evlinder,  extending  suflicienllv  in  fr(int  of   the  seal 


Naval  Crown. 


NAVE. 


407 


NAVEZ  LEUE8  CHEONOSCOPE. 


of  tlic  prnjpctilc  ;  thence  to  the  muzzle  it  iH  continued 

UH  a  triHicati'd  cone. 

NAVE. — The  central  portion  of  a  wheel;  it  is'^en- 
(■rally  coinijosed  of  a  cylindriciil  ]<\<ick  of  wood  in 
wliicU  the  .H])okes  arc  lirnily  lixerl,  and  in  which  the 
axle-arm  works.  This  has  hillierto  hcen  Wiv  inive  of 
all  artillery  carriajj;cs  in  the  Urilisli  service,  hut  in 
tlic  newly  constructed  wroui;lit-iron  carriafies  the 
Madras  pattern  nave,  made  of  metal,  willi  some 
slight  modilication,  has  heen  adopted.  In  the  .Mad- 
ras wheel,  as  ori;;inally  formed,  the  nave. box  is 
made  of  gun-metal,  and  cast  in  one  piece  with  one 
t)f  the  plates,  hut  the  principle  of  construction  is  the 
same  whether  it  he  so  united  or  cast  separately,  be- 
tween the  two  plates,  13  spokes  anr  placed,  so 
formed  that  the  parts  which  enter  the  nave  are  in 
close  (-ontac^t  with  each  other,  and  with  their  ends 
forming  an  arch  completely  round,  hut  not  (piite 
touching,  the  nave  hox.  Tlic  vvliole  <-onstru(tion  is 
tlu'ii  tirndy  bolted  togetlier,  witli  \2  triangular  holts 
passing  through  holes  in  the  discs,  and  fitting  into 
the  triangular  spaces  fornu-d  hetwecn  each  sjjokc  by 
their  radiation  from  each  other.  These  bolls  have 
circular  heads,  ami  when  driven  into  their  places, 
their  ends  are  secured  outside  by  nuts.  The  naves 
are  in  two  or  three  parts.  The  great  advantage  in 
the  latter  is  that  the  top  and  bottom,  as  two  cjf  its 
parts  are  termed,  are  almost  rendered  perpetual, 
whereas  in  the  nave  in  two  parts,  if  the  i)ox  wears 
and  therefore  becomes  unserviceable,  the  box  with 
bottom,  altogether  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  nave  , 
is  rendered  useless,  and  must  be  reneweil;  hut  with 
the  nave  in  three  parts,  the  box  alone  is  renewable 
if  it  wears  away.  In  the  late  Madras  artillery,  the 
guH-meUil  lunv  hud  been  in  use  for  the  last  sixty  or 
seventy  years,  and  no  failure  of  its  strength  or  want 
of  durability  had  ever  been  reported.      For  many 


in  the  nave,  must  bo  fixed  with  ■■peeial  reference  to 
thes(r  side  thrusts.  Th(t  strains  in  the  planes  of 
traction  are  l)ut  slight,  on  account  of  the  small  in- 
ertia of  the  nave  about  itsaxis.     IScc  Arr/ii/jitl/l  Wheel. 

NAVE  BOXES.  H>;xes  which  are  plated  in  the 
naves;  they  were  formerly  made  of  brasH,  but  expe- 
rien<:e  has  shown  that  those  of  cast-iron  cause  Icbb 
friction,  and  are  mucli  cheaper.  There  are  two, 
one  at  each  end,  to  diminish  the  friction  of  the  uxle- 
tree  aL'ainst  the  nave. 

NAVE  BEAKE.  A  contrivance  for  skidiling  the 
weeds  of  giHi  carriages  in  order  to  increase  the 
frictional  resistance,  at  the  time  of  recoil.  The 
two  halves  of  the  brake  clasp  the  nave  with  more  or 
less  tightness.  The  attachmi'iit  between  the  brake 
and  tiie  nave  is  only  a  frictional  one,  and  a  certain 
amount  of  slipping  round  occurs  if  there  is  a  very 
violent  recoil. 

NAVE  HOOPS.— Flat  iron  rings  used  to  bind  the 
nave;    tlKTc  are  generally  three  on  each  nave. 

NAVEL.— A  lug  with  a  hole  through  it  on  the 
under  side  of  a  carronadc,  used  to  connect  it  with  its 
carriage.  • 

NAVEZ  LEUES  CHEONOSCOPE.— This  is  probably 
the  most  successful  of  all  the  pendulum  instruments, 
where  the  value  of  the  time  is  expressed  in  arc.  It 
may  be  said  to  consist  of  two  separate  instruments, 
the  pend'dinii  and  the  (liHJunrUir.  The  pendulum  is 
an  upright  plate  of  vulcanite  with  a  graduated  arc, 
.1,  moiuited  on  a  stand,  and  supportin;'  two  pendu- 
lums, two  electro-magnets,  a  pair  of  sprmgs,  and  the 
pivot  upon  which  the  escapement  system  works. 
One  of  the  pendulums,  «,  is  termed  the  chronometer 
pendulum,  and  the  other,  i,  the  regixUr  pendulum; 
and  the  magnets  are  so  adjusted,  one  behind  each 
pen<lulum,  that  when  magnetized  by  a  current  of 
electricity  they  will   just   sustain  the"  bobs  o£  their 


.^circuit  from  t)aflery  which  maffnetize.'!  the  chronometer  electro-magnet. 
.  .(.'ircuit  Irom  ttic  buttery  which  maunetizes  the  rejrister  electro. magnet. 
-Arrangement  of  the  second  circuit  to  investigate  the  value  of  the  coeflicicnt  x. 


reasons  it  was  a  great  improvement  on  the  hlnck 
nave.  Its  durability  was  apparent  after  the  occupa- 
tion of  Burmah  in  1852,  and  svibsequent  years.  In 
that  country,  for  a  long  period  after  it  was  annexed  to 
the  British  possessions,  gun  carriages.  Bengal  and 
Madras,  had  for  want  of  cover  to  stand  out  exposed 
to  Sim  and  rain.  During  that  period  not  a  Madras 
wheel  was  the  worse  for  exposure,  wiiereas  the  ma- 
jority of  the  Bengal  wheels  had  large  deep  slits  in 
the  wooden  naves,  wddch  necessitated  their  being  re- 
placed and  the  wheels  set  up  afresh.  Side  thrusts 
on  the  wheel  tend  to  shear  the  material  of  the  nave 
(if  it  be  of  wood),  and  to  bend  the  flanges  when  of 
metal.     The  amount  of  material  and  its  disposition 


respective  pendulums,  into  both  of  which  a  piece  of 
soft  iron  is  inserted.  -Yn  index-needle,  having  a 
vernier  at  the  end  to  slide  along  the  graduated  arc, 
is  riveted  to  a  steel  disc,  c.  working  in  the  same  axis 
as  the  chronometer  pendulum,  with  which  it  oscil- 
lates, simply  by  friction,  initil  clamped  by  the  action 
of  the  escapement.  The  springs  are  attached  to  the 
vertical  plate,  and  pass  one  on  each  side  of  the 
steel  disc,  e;  near  the  ends  of  the  springs  are  two 
cleats,  one  on  each  spring,  between  which  a  wedge- 
lever,  f,  can  be  adjusted  To  keep  the  springs  apart  : 

\  two  other  cleats  close  on  the  disc  of  the  index-needle, 
which   is   between   the    springs,  when  the   wedge- 

I  lever,  e,  is  displaced  by  the  face   of  the   stirrup,  rf. 


NAVICULAR  DISEASE. 


408 


VEEDLK, 


The  rod  of  the  register  pendulum  is  provided  with  an 
arc  carrying  a  stirrup,  rf,  which  in  its  descent  when 
tlie  pendulum  is  released,  knocks  away  the  wedge- 
lever,  e,  from  between  the  springs,  and  so  closes 
them  upon  the  disc,  c,  of  the  index-needle,  thus 
clamping  it.  The  disjunctor  consists  of  a  small 
stand.  B,  on  which  are  two  pieces  of  brass,//,  each 
provided  with  a  pressure-screw,  a  brass  spring, 
g.  fastened  by  another  pressure-screw,  and  a  cam,  7>, 
to  work  the  spring  ;  the  brass  pieces  have  platinum 
points,  separated  from  each  other  liy  a  very  short  in- 
terval, and  the  spring  has  also  a  platinum  point  be- 
low it,  which,  when  pressed  down  by  the  action  of 
the  cam,  connects  the  two  other  points ;  thus  con- 
necting, when  requisite,  the  circuits  through  the 
apparatus. 

The  electric  currents  are  obtained  b.y  means  of 
Bunsen's  voltaic  batteries,  there  being  two  circuits 
for  an  ordinary-  experiment,  one  passing  tlirough  tlie 
magnet  of  the  chronometer  pendulum  on  the  first 
screw,  the  otlier  through  the  magnet  of  the  register 
pendulum  and  the  second  screw ;  as  both  pass 
through  the  disjunctor.the  simultaneous  disjunction 
of  both  circuits  can  be  effected  by  turning  the  cam, 
releasing  the  spring,  and  so  disconnecting  the  plati- 
num points.  The  apparatus  is  placed  in  a  small 
house  at  a  distance  of  about  130  yards  from  the  gun. 
so  that  it  may  not  be  effected  by  the  firing,  and  tlie 
arrangement  of  the  gun  and  targets  is  as  follows : 
The  first  target  is  place<l  at  a  distance  of  10  j-anls  in 
front  of  the  muzzle  of  the  piece,  and  the  second  tar- 
get 40  yards  beyond  the  former  ;  both  targets  are  of 
the  same  construction  and  dimensions ;  each  con- 
sisting of  a  wooden  frame  having  copper  wires 
stretcued  across  in  parallel  rows  liy  means  of  pins 
in  the  sides  of  the  frame,  and  these  wires  are  broken 
by  the  passage  of  the  projectile  through  them.  In 
order  to  protect  the  wires  of  the  first  target  from  the 
action  of  the  gas,  a  wooden  screen  is  pUiced  about 
40  inches  from  this  target,  between  it  and  the  gun  ; 
the  screen  has  a  circular  hole,  about  1^  calibers  in 
diameter,  through  which  tlie  projectile  passes.  When 
the  gun  is  fired,  the  projectile  passes  through  the 
first  target,  breaks  the  first  circuit,  and  demagnet- 
izes the  magnet  of  the  chronometer  pendulum  ;  the 
bob  begins  to  fall,  carrying  with  it  the  index-needle. 
When  the  projectile  cuts  the  wires  of  the  second 
target,  the  circuit  is  broken,  and  the  magnet  of  the 
register  pendulum  is  demagnetized ;  the  bob  falls, 
carrying  with  it  the  arc  and  stirrup,  which  in  its 
descent  knocks  away  the  wedge-lever  and  clamps 
the  index-needle.  The  time  due  to  this  arc  of  vi- 
bration can,  by  the  theory  of  the  pendulum,  be  read- 
ily ascertained,  but  it  must  be  greater  than  the  time 
taken  by  the  projectile  to  pass  from  one  target  to 
the  other  ;  for  a  certain  small  interval  of  time  eTapses 
between  the  rupture  of  the  second  circuit  and  the 
claniiiing  of  the  index-needle.  This  small  portion 
of  time  is  found  Iiy  means  of  the  disjunctor,  before 
the  gun  is  fired,  by  breaking  both  circuits  at  once, 
and  the  small  arc  so  found  must  be  deducted  from 
the  arc  determined  by  firing  the  gun.     See  Chruno- 

NAVICULAR  DISEASE.— A  disease  in  the  horse, 
consisting  in  strain  of  the  strong  fiexor  tendon  of  the 
foot,  at  tlie  point  within  the  hollow  of  the  fetlock, 
where  it  passes  over  the  navicular  bone.  It  is  mo.st 
common  amongst  the  ligiiter  sorts  nf  horses,  and 
especially  where  they  have  upright  jiasterns,  out- 
turned  toes,  and  early  severe  work  on  hard  roads. 
It  soon  gives  rise  to  a  short,  trijiping,  yet  cautious 
gait,  undue  wear  of  the  toe  of  the  siioe,  wasting  of 
the  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  and  jirojecting  or 
'■pointing"  of  the  alTected  limb  whilst  standing. 
VVIieu  early  noticed,  and  in  horses  with  well-forined 
legs,  it  is  often  curable  ;  Imt  when  of  several  weeks 
standing,  it  leads  to  so  much  iiiMainination  and  de- 
.struction  of  the  tendon  and  adjoining  parts,  that 
.soundness  and  fitness  for  fast  work  are  again  inipos 
sible.     Kest  should   at   once  be  given,  the  shoe  re- 


moved, the  toe  shortened,  and  the  foot  placed  in  a 
large,  soft,  hot  poultice,  chansed  everj'  few  hours. 
Laxative  medicine  and  bran  niashes  should  be  or- 
dered, and  a  soft  bed  made  with  old  short  litter. 
After  a  few  days,  and  when  the  heat  and  tenderness 
abate,  cold  applications  should  supersede  the  hot ; 
and.  after  another  week,  a  blister  may  be  applied 
round  the  coronet,  and  the  animal  placed  for  two 
mouths  in  a  good  yard  or  in  a  grass  field,  if  the 
ground  be  soft  and  moist ;  or,  if  sufficiently  strong, 
at  slow  farm-work  on  soft  land.  Division  of  the 
nerve  going  to  the  foot  removes  sensation,  and  con- 
sequently lameness ;  and  hence  is  useful  in  relieving 
animals  intended  for  breeding  jiurposes  or  for  slow 
work.  The  operation,  however,  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended where  fast  work  is  recpiired  ;  for  the  animal, 
insensible  to  pain,  uses  the  limb  as  if  nothing  were 
amiss,  and  the  disease  rapidly  becomes  worse. 

NEBULY. — One  of  the  partition  lines  in  Heraldry, 
which  runs  out  and  in, in  a  form  supposed  to  represent 
the  uneven  ed-ies  of  clouds. 

NECESSARIES.— The  articles  issued  to  the  British 
soldier,  such  as  boots,  shirts,  stockings;  razor,  etc., 
which  are  requisite  for  his  comfort  and  cleanliness. 
These  are  technically  termed  regimental  nece-imriex. 
Non-commissioned  officers  are  not  allowed  to  sell 
regimental  necessaries  to  the  soldiers.  Every  arti- 
cle is  directed  by  the  Regulations  to  be  marked  with 
the  owner's  name,  the  letter  of  his  company,  and  the 
number  of  his  regiment;  and  the  sale  or  injury  of 
them  renders  him  liable  to  be  tried  by  Court-Martial 
and  punished. 

NECK.— The  elbow  or  part  connecting  the  blade 
and  socket  of  a  bayonet.     See  Jinyonet. 

NECK  COLLAR. — A  piece  of  armor  which  support- 
ed the  whole  of  the  rest  of  the  harness.  This  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  ^'"/•jrff.  underneath  which 
it  was  placed,  and  which,  like  it,  was  formed  of  sev- 
eral plates. 

NECK  LINE. — Xn  old  term  in  fortification  signify- 
ing the  cortre. 

NECK  OF  A  CASCABEL.— The  part  joining  the  knob 
to  the  base  of  the  breech.     See  Camihel. 

NECK  OF  A  GUN.— The  small  part  of  the  piece  in 
front  of  the  chase. 

NEEDFIRE.— Fire  obtained  by  the  friction  of  wood 
upon  wood, or  the  friction  of  a  rope  on  a  stake  of  wood, 
to  which  a  wide-spread  superstition  assigns  peculiar 
virtues.  With  varieties  of  detail,  the  practice  of 
raising  needfire  in  cases  of  calamity,  particularly  of 
disease  among  cattle,  has  been  found  to  exist  among 
most  nations  of  the  Indo-European  race.  It  has  been 
supposed  effectual  to  defeat  the  sorcery  to  which  the 
disease  is  assigned.  When  the  incantation  is  taking 
place,  all  the  fires  in  the  neighborhood  must  be  ex- 
tinguished and  they  have  aU  to  be  relighted  from 
the  sacred  spark.  In  various  parts  of  the  Scottish 
highlands  the  raising  of  needfire  was  practiced  not 
long  ago,  and  it  is  perhaps  still  had  recourse  to  in 
some  very  remote  localities.  The  sacrifice  of  a  heifer 
was  thought  necessary  to  insure  its  efficiency.  The 
ways  of  obtaining  fire  from  wood  have  been  various; 
one  is  lij-  an  apparatus  which  has  been  called  the 
'■  fire-churn,"  a  cylinder  turning  on  a  pivot,  and  fur- 
nished with  spokes,  by  means  of  which  it  is  made  to 
revolve  very  rapidly,  and  fire  is  generated  by  the 
friction.  Fire  struck  from  metal  has  been  supposed 
not  to  possess  the  same  virtue,  and  in  .some  instances 
the  persons  who  performed  the  ceremony  were  re- 
quired to  divest  themselves  of  any  metal  which 
might  be  about  them.  In  its  origin  the  fire-churn 
was  considered  a  moih'l  of  the  apparatus  by  which 
the  fires  of  heaven  were  daily  rekindled.  It  is  still 
in  daily  use  in  the  temples  <if  the  Hindus.  The 
same  superstition  was  doubtless  the  origiu  of  the 
story  of  Prometheus. 

NEEDLE.-  An  instrument  of  metal,  or  other  ma- 
terial, for  the  jiiirpose  of  carrying  the  thread  in  sew- 
ing, embroiderv,  knitting,  netting,  and  other  similar 
operations.     >feedles  are  generally  made  of  metal, 


KEEDLE-QUKB. 


409 


NEEDLE  OURS. 


but  hone,  ivory,  ami  wood  urc  also  used  ;  for  orrli- 
niiry  iiciMllcwork.  ciillcil  Hrwioi;,  tlicy  an'  made  of 
line  Hlccl,  iind  arr  too  wril  known  to  need  descrip- 
tion ;  for  other  kimls  of  work  they  are  ofleii  inueli 
larger  ami  dill'ereiitly  formed,  aeeordiii(;  to  the  re- 
quirenientH  of  tlie  work  to  be  done.  Tlie  iiKUiiirtic, 
iu'kUi-  is  a  slender  bar,  usually  pointed  and  resting 
on  a  pivot,  in  a  compass,  so  as  to  turn  freelv  towards 
the  maiineti(^  poles  of  the  earth  by  vii'tne  of  the  mag- 
nelic  polarity  with  which  il  has  been  arliliciully  en- 
dued. 

NEEDLE  GUNS.-  To  be  loaded  at  the  breech,  and 
lo  lie  lired  by  the  |)eiietrali(in  of  a  needle  into,  or  the 
impiiiiiint;  of  a  piston  on,  a  detonatiii!;  cap  within 
the  cartridi^e,  arc  distinct  attributes  in  a  weapon  ; 
and  althoui^li  it  is  only  within  the  last  tifty  years 
that  the  .system  has  been  carrieil  out  with  success, 
breech-loadini;  arms  have  been  tried,  accepted,  and 
aliandoned  without  niunber  durini;  the  last  three 
centuries.  Indeed,  a  sort  of  instinct  iliclates  that 
loadini;  at  the  breech  is  the  jircferable  course  ;  and 
all  the  earliest  nuiskets  were  so  made,  the  system 
beinj;  doubtless  abandoned  from  the  dilliculty  of  ac- 
curately closim;  the  breech,  in  tlio.se  days  of  rough 
workmanship.  The  extraordinary  ellicacy  of  breech- 
loading  arms  for  military  i)ur])oscs  was  brought 
|)rominently  forward  during  I  he  wars  of  the  last  few 
years,  and  mitably  in  the  Prussian  campaigns  of 
"l8()4  against  Denmark,  and  of  l.S(it)  against  Austria. 
The  successes  of  the  Prussian  arms  were  attributed 
in  no  small  degree  to  the  rapidity  with  which  their 
troops  cotddlirc  as  compared  with  the  enemy.  They 
had,  in  greater  or  less  numbers,  liorne  these  same 
rilles  since  1835,  but  these  were  the  first  opportuni- 
ties of  using  them  in  warfare.  To  all  tie  other' 
powers,  whose  men  still  carried  nuizzle-Ioadiug  ritles 
and  who  bad  debated,  without  practical  result,  for 
years  past  the  (luestion  of  armanu'iit  with  breech-  i 
loaders,  soldiers  thus  armed  appeared  irresistible.  | 
From  July.  1800,  to  the  present  moment,  the  ham- 
mer and  the  anvil  have  been  busy  night  and  day 
througliout  the  civilized  world  in  making  the  weap- 
ons  of  ileatb  yet  more  deadly.  Scarcely  two  couii- 
tries  seem  to  have  adopted  the  same  i)lan  ;  each  na- 
tion has  elaborated  a  system  from  among  its  own  in- 
ventors. Tho.se  possessing  no  great  reserve  of  rifles 
have  prepared  new  arms ;  but  the  majority  of  Gov- 
ernments have  been  content,  in  the  tirst  instance,  to 
convert  their  existing  stock  into  breech-loaders  of  as 
good  a  con.struction  as  circumstances  would  permit. 
Thus,  Britain,  after  oiTcring  a  handsome  prize  for 
the  best  design,  selected  one  said  (subject  to  some 
controversy)  to  be  the  invention  of  the  late  Mr. 
Snider.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  British 
Government  only  regarded  the  Snider  arm  as  a  make-  i 
shift  for  the  conversicm  of  the  enormous  stock  of 
Enfield  rifles  then  in  hand,  reserving  to  itself  the 
ultimate  selection  of  a  sintable  pattern  on  which 
to  manufacture  new  weapons.  It  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood from  what  is  said  above  that  Britain  adopted 
a  breech-loading  arm  in  a  sort  of  panic  after  the 
battle  of  Sadowa.  It  was  after  the  Danish  Cam- 
paign, on  the  llth  Jul}-,  18t)4,  that  it  was  decided  as 
an  abstract  question  to  arm  the  British  infantry  with 
breech-loaders;  a  portion  of  the  cavalry  having  for 
aminiber  of  years  previously  been  armed  with  Sharp 
and  Westley  Richards  carbines,  loading  at  the  breech. 
The  selection  of  an  arm  took  longer ;  tiut  by  the  be- 
ginning of  18G.5  it  had  been  decided  to  convert  the 
great  stock  of  rifles  on  the  "Snider"  sj'stem.  In  186!) 
it  Vi-as  determined  that  new  arms  should  be  on  the 
Martini-Henry  system — i.  e  ,  with  the  Henry  barrel, 
and  the  Martini  breech  action.  The  advantage  of 
breech-loading  is  obvious  ;  to  be  able  to  insert  the 
charge  at  the  breech  end  instead  of  tli<'  muzzle,  is  to 
save  time,  and  to  avoid  exposure  to  hostile  tire  dur- 
ing the  operation  of  loading  and  ramming  home, 
wliich  involves  considerable  outstretching  of  the 
limbs.  The  great  condition  of  success  is,  that  the 
bullet  shall  be   propelletl  with  equal   force  and  ac- 


curacy, and  with  equal  safety  to  the  rifleman,  an 
from  the  muzzle-loader.  When  a  charge  is  Ignited, 
the  constituents  of  the  gunpowder,  assnnnng  a  gas- 
eous condition  under  the  lieat  engendered,  expand 
into  a  voluiiU'  of  light  gas  many  times  greater  in  bulk 
than  the  powder  Ix'fore  occupied.  On  the  amount 
r)f  this  expansion  and  its  sudden  action  on  the  pro- 
jectile, the  force  of  the  shot  depends.  Any  joint  in 
the  breech-piece  through  wliich  a  portion  of  this  gas 
can  escape,  without  having  imparled  its  thrust  to 
the  ball,  tends,  tlierefon-,  to  lessen  tin-  range  and 
penetration  ;  while  the  shock  of  the  explosion  falling 
more  severely  on  this  than  on  any  other  part  of  tlie 
barrel,  tends  yet  more^lo  dislocate  the  breech-piece, 
and  diminish  the  clo.seness  of  the  joint's  fit.  In 
weapons  which  do  not  call  for  a  long  range,  as  re- 
volver pistols,  a  jierceptible  interval  is  left  between 
the  chamber  and  barrel,  through  which  much  gas 
es<!apes  ;  but  in  rifles,  which  have  range  and  pene- 
tration as  i)rincipal  objects,  there  is  prima  facie 
ground  for  preferring  a  muzzle-loader.  The  gas, 
however,  is  far  from  i)ure, as  generated  in  the  barrel, 
for  much  water  is  produced  and  held  in  suspension, 
while  there  is  also  a  solid  residuum  consisting  of  un- 
burned  materials  of  the  powder.  In  the  muzzle- 
loader,  these  clog  for,  technically,  foul;  the  barrel, 
filling  the  gnxives.  and  ren<iering  the  ramming  home 
of  succeeding  charges  more  and  more  dirticult.  Tlic 
effect  is,  that  a  solid  mass  of  unburned  matter  is 
gradually  forced  by  ramming  into  the  head  of  the 
barrel,  destroying  th(^  accuracy  and  usefulness  of 
the  weapon.  In  the  breech-loader,  this  solid  depos- 
it must  be  provich'd  against  both  ways.  The  back- 
ward throw  on  firing  (for,  of  course,  the  charge  ex- 
plodes with  ecpial  power  in  every  direction j  tends 
to  force  it  into  the  mechanism  of  the  joints,  prevent- 
ing their  proper  til,  and  continually  augmenting  the 
escape  of  gas;  and,  on  the  other  hiind.tlie  de])osit  in 
front  is  most  detrimental  to  accuracy  of  fire.  This 
protection  of  the  breech  apparatus,  the  prevention 
of  fouling,  and  the  retaining. and. if  possible. improv- 
ing the  force  and  accuracy  of  fire,  were  the  pro- 
blems which  inventors  have  had  to  solve. 

A  moderate  escape  of  gas  in  front  of  the  first  position 
of  the  ball, is  not  under  an}'  circumstance, found  to  l)e 
of  any  material  disadvantage.  If,  then,  the  barrel 
could  have  an  opening  where  the  cartridge  could  be 
inserted,  and  then  pushed  backwards,  an  escape  of 
gas  through  the  joints  by  which  the  opening  might 
he  subsequently  clo.sed  would  be  comparatively  im- 
material; but  this  formation  would  be  impracticalile, 
because  the  explosion  of  each  cartridge  would  drive 
the  fouling  more  and  more  backwards,  till  ultimately 
the  chamber  at  the  breech  would  be  unable  to  con- 
tain the  cartridge.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  tlie 
charge  must  be  inserted  either  at  the  barrel's  head, 
or,  if  the  barrel  be  opened,  in  a  space  close  to  the 
barrel's  head.  In  either  of  these  cases,  the  breech 
must  be  solidly  closed  to  resist  the  explosion.  A 
third  case,  as  in  the  Snider,  is  where  the  cartridge 
is  inserted  and  then  pushed  forward,  tlie  aperture 
being  closed  by  a  solid  breech-piece  which  com- 
pletely fills  that  portion  of  the  barrel,  and  forms, 
with  the  barrel's  head,  a  massive  foot   to  resist  the 

,  backward  pressure  of  the  fired  powder.  Xo  breech 
action  can  be  made  to  fit  so  accurately, as  to  prevent  a 
backward  escape  of  gas  unless  a  properly-construct- 
ed cartridge-case  is  used.  A  perpendicular  moving 
joint  is  found  in  practice  to  be  the  one  which  is 
best  adapted  for  preventing  a  serious  escape  of  gas. 
In  the  Prussian  needle-gun,  the  end  of  the  barrel  is 
the  frustum  of  a  cone,  which  fits  into  a  correspond- 
ing cavity  in  the  fore-end  of  the  breech-piece,  but* 

'  in  practice  this  joint  is  not  sufficiently  tight  to  pre- 
vent an  escape  of  gas  from  the  self-consuming  cart- 
ridge used  with  this  gun,  which  becomes  incon- 
veiiientl}'  great  after  long  use  of  the  weapon,  and  it 
is  only  ;ivailable  when  the  breech-piece  is  pushed  up 
from   the   rear.     In   the   Snider   and  several   other 

I  breech-loading  weapons,  the  cartridge  is  made  itself 


N££DL£-6UNS. 


410 


NEEDLE  GUNS 


to  close  hermetically  the  aperture  between  the  barrel 
and  the  fore-end  of  the  breech-piece.  Tliis  is  effected 
by  the  expansion  of  the  cartridge-case  which,  being 
composed  of  metal,  or  a  combination  of  metal  and 
paper,  is  driven  out  by  the  force  of  the  explosion  till 
it  completely  tills  the  chamber  and  prevents  any 
escape  backwards  between  the  sides  of  the  case  and 
the  chamber.  The  cartridge  has  a  portion  of  its 
case  at  the  base  flattened  out  into  a  rim  which  tits 


along  the  groove.  When  the  cartridge  is  deposited 
in  vhe  recess  in  the  chamber,  this  breech-piece  is- 
closed  against  the  heel  of  the  barrel  by  moving  up 
the  handle  to  the  front  end  of  the  groove,  and  then 
turning  it  down  to  prevent  it  from  being  driven  back 
on  the  explosion  of  the  charge  ;  representing,  indeed, 
the  resistance  offered  by  the  heel  of  an  ordinary 
muzzle-loading  barrel.  Firmly  screwed  within  the 
breech-piece,  at  a  short  distance  from  its  front,  is  a 


FiL'.  1. 


into  a  corresponding  recess  in  the  end  of  the  barrel; 
and  to  prevent  expansion  backwards,  which  would 
fracture  the  cartridge-case,  and  injure  the  breech  or 
the  firer,  the  breech-piece  is  made  to  fit  as  closely  as 
possible  against  this  base.  This  rim  is  on  the  Snider 
cartridM. 

The  Prussian  gun,  although  it  may  be  said  to  be 
now  obsolete  (having  been  superseded  bj'  the  Mauser, 
a  bolt  gun  on  much  the  same  principle,  but  \ising  a 
metallic  cartridge-case),  was  first  in  the  field.  As 
regards  its  breech-apparatus  and  needle-lock,  it  con- 
sists of  three  concentric  hollow  cylinders,  with  a 
solid  cylindrical  bolt  inside  the  last  (Figs.  1  and  3). 


solid  block  of  metal,  on  which  impinges  the  first 
force  of  the  explosion.  Projecting  from  this  block 
to  the  base  of  the  cartridge  is  a  strong  tige,  or  pillar, 
around  which  a  suitable  space  containing  air  is  left. 
Through  this  same  pillar  is  the  channel  for  the 
needle  to  work.  Fitting  within  the  rear-end  of  the 
breech-piece  is  a  smaller  cylinder,  h.  constituting  the 
lock  of  the  gun.  It  slides  within  the  breerh-piece, 
and  is  retained  from  falling  out  backwards  by  the 
spring,  /,  which  catches  in  a  notch,  d.  Along  the 
bottom  of  this  cylinder  is  a  groove  to  admit  the  pas- 
sage of  the  trigger,  k,  and  at  the  back  is  a  short,  up- 
right handle,   by  means  of  which   the   weapon   is 


Fig.  2. 


The  rear-end  of  the  barrel  is  firmly  screwed  into  the 
head  of  the  chamber,  a.  which  is  fixed  to  the  stock 
of  the  iiiecc,  and  is  open  at  the  rear-end.  Tlie  up- 
|)er  half  of  tiie  cylinder  is  cut  away  at  the  front  end 
for  rather  luore  than  the  length  of  the  cartridge  ;  this 
constitutes  the  opening  in  whicli  the  musketeer  in- 
serts the  cartridge.  From  the  rear  of  this  opening 
to  the  back,  a  groove  is  cut,  sultii-iently  wide  to  al- 
low the  square  pillar  of  the  breech-handle,  c,  to  pass 
along  it.  In  the  middle  of  this  groove  is  aright- 
angled  shunt,  iiffcriug  a  stop  to  the  lireeeli-iianiUc 
when  drawn  backwards,  unless  it  he  likewise  lurneil 
downwards  wlien  it  may  be  passed  eompl<'tcly  out 
at  the  rear  end.  Next  within  the  chamber  is  the 
Iireech-piece,  which,  to  ailniit  the  cartridge,  is  drawn 
back  for  a  sutlicienl  distance  by  the  breecli-handk' 


cocked.  Lastly,  within  the  lock  is  a  bolt,  I,  pressed 
forward  by  a  spiral  spring,  and  having  the  needle, 
m,  rigidly  fastened  to  its  front  end.  Having  now 
descrilK'd  the  several  parts  of  the  ritle,  it  is  easy  to 
follow  it  from  the  moment  of  a  shot  being  fired  until 
the  next  is  ready  for  discharge.  The  soldier  first 
presses  down  the  spring,  i,  with  his  finger,  releasing 
the  catch  below  it,  and  enabling  him  to  draw  back 
the  lock  to  the  next  catch  on  the  spring  (Fig.  1.) 
Having  done  so,  he    raises  the    breeeli-handle  to  the 

!  perpenilieular,  and  passes  it  along  the  groove  to  open 
the  lireecli.     This  done,  \u'    ])laces  the    cartridge    in 

j  the  opening  tlius  made  in  the  chamber,  and  again 
moving  up  llie  breech-piece  to  close  the  breech,  the 
tige  in  it  pushes  the  cartridge  forward  into  the  bar- 
rel, and   the  rifle  is  at   once  at  "half-cock;"   for  in 


NEE8HUN0PAT. 


Ill 


R£UT£ALg. 


drawinpbiirk  the  Inrk,  tlin  front  point  of  the  sprinp, 

/,  fiircc'd  llic  holt,  I  fiiii'liiilinir  llic  nrcdlc  m),  with 
it,  1111(1  till-  iirojcctiiiii,  II.,  oil  it,  Imviiif;  pusHrd  over 
tlic  liciid-of  llic  IrifTL'cr,  k,  isfuutclit  by  the  litltcr  in 
awuywliicli  (-an  only  be  rilcaHcd  by  1  he  fulling  of 
the  Irinncr. 

t  It  will  be  observed  that  at  half-cock  tlie  needle  is 
ready  lo  penetrate  the  carlridu'c,  hut  thai  the  Kpirii! 
HJiriii;;  is  loose  and  witliout  power.  To  "  fiill-crick," 
iio  more  is  necessary  than  lo  push  /(  back  lo  ils  ori;^- 
inal  position.  It  cannot  lake  llie  boll,  I.  with  il,  as 
the  I rii;!;er retains  it  t<i  the  rear.  'I'hc  posilion  (Fij^.i; 
is  now  obtained,  in  which  the  boll,  /,  ])rojeets  at  the 
back,  and  the  spiral  sprin;;  iseoinjiressed  into  ustale 
of  passive  slreiii;th.  All  Ihat  is  now  needed  to  lire 
the  {tun  is  to  |iress  upon  the  trinijer,  iiiilil  the  jxiint 
II  bears,  when  Ihe  boll,  /,  beiiii;  released  by  Hie  de- 
pression of  /',  the  spiral  sprini;  asserts  ils  jiower,  and 
drives  Ihe  needle  into  ilie  heart  of  Ihe  carlrid{;e,  tlie 
parts  all  resuming  their  orif^inal  positions.  At  first 
sifrht,  one  cannot  help  exclaiming:  "  What  a  com- 
plicated apparatus  with  Ihe  four  cylinders  and  Ihe 
springs";  but, in  reality,  it  is  as  simple  as  almost  any 
otlier  gun,  for  the  whole  ineclianisin  of  Ihe  lock  is 
dispensed  with.  If  il  be  desired  lo  lake  the  needle- 
gun  to  pieces,  press  Ihe  trigger  till  the  iioini,/), bears. 
If  the  breech-handle  hellien  in  Ihe  tiinder  pari  of  ils 
groove,  the  breech-piece  with  its  <'oiilenls  will  slip 
out  of  the  chamber.  Pressing  down,  next, Ihe  sjiring 
!",  until  the  second  catch  is  passed,  there  is  nothing 
to  retain  the  lock,  //,  in  the  bn'cch-piece;  and  Ihe 
lock  being  free,  the  needle,  with  its  attached  liolt 
and  spring,  falls  readily  out  of  ils  fore-end.  The  gun 
is  thus  taken  to  pi<'ces  in  a  few  seconds, and  as  many 
sutlice  to  put  it  again  in  lighting  order.  The  niosi 
delicate  portions  are  the  needle  and  Ihe  spiral  spring; 
but  in  case  of  accident  to  these,  I  here  is  a  spare  one 
in  a  small  cavity  opening  by  a  spring  in  the  butt-end 
of  the  stock.  The  worst  feature  about  this  celebrat- 
ed gun  is  its  weiglil,  12  lbs.,  or  33  ])er  cent,  heavier 
than  IheEntield  or  Snider  ritle.  See  "rumian  Nee- 
dle (^trfiinf  and  J'ntnniiiit  Nu'dle.guii. 

NEESHUNGPAT.-  An  Indian  term  expressinga  vio- 
lent assault  without  bloodshed. 

NEGATIVE.— 1.  A  term  used  to  express  the  result 
of  measures  or  enterprises  which, though  not  enlirely 
successful,  are  not  productive  of  serious  or  mischiev- 
ous consequences.  Hence  the  lirilish  expeditions  to 
Spain  and  Walcheren  may  be  consideretl  as  having 
had  negative  success.  3.  In  pholograidiy,  that 
kind  of  photographic  picture  in  •which  the  lights 
and  shadows  of  the  natural  object  are  transposed; 
the  high  lights  being  black,  and  Ihe  deep  shadows 
transparent,  or  nearly  so.  Negatives  are  taken  on 
glass  and  paper  by  various  processes,  and  should 
indicate  with  extreme  delicacy,  and  in  reverse  order, 
the  various  gradations  of  light  and  shade  which 
occur  in  a  landscape  or  portrait.  A  negative  dilTers 
from  a  positive  inasmuch  as  in  the  latter  case  it  is 
required  to  produce  a  deposit  of  pure  metallic  silver 
to  be  viewed  by  reflected  light;  while  in  the  latter, 
density  to  traiiamltted  light  is  the  chief  desideratum; 
accordingly  inorganic  reducing  and  retarding  agents 
are  employed  in  the  development  of  a  positive,  while 
those  of  organic  origin  are  used  in  the  production  of 
a  neirative. 

NEGATIVE  HAUSSE.— In  order  to  strike  an  object 
at  a  distance  less  than  point-blank  range,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  diminish  the  angle  that  the  axis  of  the 
piece  makes  with  Ihe  natural  line  of  sight.  This 
will  be  accomplished  by  diminishing  the  difference 
between  the  radii  of  the  muzzle  and  base-ring. 
This  amount,  required  to  be  taken  from  Ihe  radius 
of    the  base-ring,    is   generally  calletl   the   iiegathe 

NEGATIVE  PENALTY.— The  term  applied  to  such 
punishments  as  removal  from  command,  bars  to  in- 
dulgence, reprimands,  etc. 

NEGLECT  OF  DUTY. — Total  omission  or  disregard 
of  any  prescribed  service,  or  unsoldier-like  execu- 


tion. All  crimcH  not  cnpitnl,  and  all  disorders  and 
nr-glects,  which  oIlicerH  and  soldiers  may  be  guilty 
of,  lo  the  prejudice  of  good  order  and  military  dis- 
ciiiline,  though  not  meiilioned  in  Ihe  Arlicfes  iif 
War,  an;  lo  be  taken  cognizance  of  by  a  (iineral,  or 
a  Kegimenlal,  (iarrisoii,  or  Field  Olllcers'  Courl- 
.Marlial,  according  lo  Ihe  nature  and  degree  of  the 
olfeiisi',  and  punished  at  the  di.scretiou  of  such 
Coiirl. 

NESHAUMBURDAE.-  The  Indian  name  of  an  En- 
siL'ii. 

NETLEY  HOSPITAL.  -The  Royal  Victoria  Hospital, 
at  Nelley,  is  a  superb  building,  on  Ihe  shore  of 
Southanipton  water,  for  the  recepli(m  <if  invalids  from 
Ihe  army  on  foreign  srrvice,  and  from  among  the 
Iroops  serving  in  the  adjacent  niililary  districts.  In 
times  of  peace,  il  is  only  necessary  lo  use  a  portion 
of  the  vast  slriiclure;  but  in  Ihe  event  of  a  Kuropean 
war,  in  wliicii  Ihe  British  armv  should  lake  jiart,  the 
exigencies  of  the  servi<;e  woufd  probably  tax  its  ac- 
commodalion  lo  the  utmost.  There  is  provision  for 
1,000  patients  willi  power  lo  increase  the  number  if 
necessary.  The  .Medical  SlalT  of  course  varies  in  pro- 
|)orlion  to  Ihe  work  to  lie  done  :  but  al  jiresent  it  con- 
sists of  a  (Jovernor.  an  ,\djulaiit.  a  I'ayniasler,  an 
.\ssistanl-('oiiiiiiandant,  and  .Medical  (jtlicers,  and 
Ollicers  of  Orderlies  of  various  ranks.  The  total  cost 
of  the  conslruclion  of  this  hospital,  which  was  com- 
menced in  1H.")5,  has  been  about  XSOO.IXtO.  Attached 
is  Ihe  Medical  School  for  candidates^ for  the  army 
.Medical  Dejiarlment,  the  students  having  the  best 
means  of  [iraclical  inslruclion  in  the  wards  of  the 
hospital.  Netley  is  also  the  head-quarters  of  the  fe- 
male nurses  of  the  army,  who  are  under  the  control 
of  a  lady  stationed  there  as  Superintendent.  Complete 
arrangements  have  been  made  for  Ihe  landing  of 
wounded  men  in  front  of  the  hospital  and  for  con- 
veying them  thither  with  the  least  disturbance. 
Tliere  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  convenience  of  this  great 
hospital  for  its  purposes;  but  some  questions  have 
been  raised,  under  high  sanitiiry  authority,  as  to  the 
salubrity  of  the  site,  adjacent  as  it  is  to  the  wide 
banks  of  mud  which  Southampton  water  uncoversat 
low  tide. 

NETTOYERLESMAGAZINS.— In  artillery,  a  term 
which  means  lo  remove  Ihe  different  pieces  of  ord- 
nance, for  the  purpose  of  having  them  carefully  ex- 
amined, etc..  and  to  have  the  stores  and  ammunition 
so  arranged  as  not  to  receive  damage. 

NEJ'TOYER  LES  TRANCHEES.  -A  term  meaning 
to  scour  or  <lean  the  trenches.  This  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  vigorous  sally  which  the  garrison  of  a 
besieged  place  make  upon  the  besiegers;  when  they 
beat  in  the  guijrd,  drive  off  the  workmen,  level  Ihe 
parapet,  break  up  and  choke  the  line  of  circumval- 
lation,  and  spike  or  nail  the  cannon. 

NEUTRAL  AXIS.— The  name  given  to  an  imaginary 
line  to  any  body  which  is  being  subjected  to  a  trans- 
verse strain,  and  separating  the  forces  of  extension 
from  those  of  compression.  If  the  ratio  of  the  resist- 
ances to  extension  and  compression  were  the  same 
for  all  substances,  and  depended  merely  on  the  form 
of  the  body,  then  in  all  bodies  of  Ihe  same  form  the 
neutrals  axiwould  have  a  detinite  geometrical  posi- 
tion; but  it  has  been  satisfactorily  proved  by  3Ir. 
Eaton  Hodgkiuson.  that  this  ratio  has  a  separate 
value  for  each  substance.  In  wood,  Avherethe  ratio 
is  one  of  equality,  the  neutral  axis  in  a  beam  sup- 
ported al  both  ends,  whose  section  is  rectangular, 
passes  lengthwise  through  the  center  of  the  beam; 
while  in  cast-iron,  in  which  Ihe  resistance  to  com- 
pression is  greater  than  tluil  to  extension,  it  is  a  lit- 
tle above,  and  in  wrouglil-iron.  in  which  Ihe  con- 
trary is  Ihe  case,  it  is  a  little  lielow,  the  center. 

NEUTRALS.- Nations  who.  when  a  war  is  being 
carried  on,  take  no  part  in  the  contest,  and  evince 
no  particular  friendship  for  or  hostility  to  any  of  the 
belligerents.  As  a  general  rule  Neutrals  should  con 
duel  "themselves  with  perfect  impartiality,  and  do 
nothing  which  can  be  considered  as  favoring  one 


SETTBATJEK  SYSTEM  OF  FOETIFICATIOW. 


412 


NIGHT-FIEINa. 


■belligerent  more  than  another.  The  duties  and  ob- 
ligations of  Neutrals  at  sea  have  given  rise  to  many 
complicated  questions.  It  is  allowed  on  all  hands 
that  a  Neutral  State  forfeits  lier  character  of  neu- 
trality by  furnishing  to  eitlier  belligerent  any  of  the 
articles  that  come  under  the  denomination  of  con- 
traband of  war.  If  she  does  so,  tlie  other  belligerent 
is  warranted  in  intercepting  the  succors,  and  contis- 
cating  tliem  as  lawful  prize.  Contraband  of  war, 
besides  warlike  stores,  has  sometimes  been  held  to 
include  various  other  articles,  a  supplj'  of  which  is 
necessary  for  tlie  prosecution  of  the  war:  and  it 
has  been  doubted  liow  far,  in  some  cirrumstances, 
com,  hay,  and  coal  may  not  come  under  that  cate- 
gory- 

An  important  question  regarding  the  rights  of 
Neutrals  is,  wliether  enemies'  goods  not  contraband 
of  war  may  be  lawfuUv  conveyed  in  neutral  bot- 
toms. The  principle  tliat  free  sliips  make  free  goods 
was  long  resisted  by  England  and  other  maritime 
countries  :  and  the  general  understanding  has  been 
that  belligerents  have  a  right  of  visiting  and  search- 
ing neutral  vessels  for  tlie  purpose  of  ascertaining — 
First,  whether  the  sliip  is  really  neutral,  as  the 
hoisting  of  a  neutral  flag  affords  no  absolute  secu- 
rity that  it  is  so :  Second,  whether  it  has  contra- 
band of  war  or  enemies'  property  on  board.  Neu- 
tral ships  have  therefore  Ijeeu  held  bound  to  pro- 
vide themselves  with  passports  from  their  Govern- 
ment, and  sucli  papers  as  are  necessary  to  prove 
the  property  of  the  ship  and  cargo  ;  and  it  is  their 
duty  to  heave  to  when  summoned  by  the  cruisers 
of  either  belligerent.  It  lias  been  considered  that 
a  neutral  sliip  which  seeks  to  avoid  search  by  crowd- 
ing sail,  or  by  open  force,  may  be  captured  and  con- 
fiscated. When  a  merchant-ship  is  sailing  under 
convoy  of  a  vessel  of  war  it  has  been  said  that  the 
declaration  of  the  officer  in  command  of  the  con- 
voy that  there  is  no  contraband  of  war  or  belli- 
gerent property  on  board  is  sufficient  to  bar  the  e.x- 
ercise  of  tlie  right  of  search. 

A  declaration  having  important  bearings  on  the 
rights  of  Neutrals  was  adopted  by  the  Plenipoten- 
tiaries of  Great  Britain,  Austria,  France,  Prussia, 
Eussia,  Sardinia,  and  Turkey,  assembled  in  Con- 
gress at  Paris  on  April  10,  1856.  By  its  provisions, 
1.  Privateering  is  abolished.  2.  A  neutral  flag 
covers  enemies'  goods,  with  the  exception  of  contra- 
band of  war.  3.  Neutral  goods,  with  the  exception 
of  contraband  of  war,  are  not  liable  to  capture 
under  the  enemy's  flag.  4.  Blockades,  in  order  to 
be  binding,  must  be  effective— that  is,  maintained 
by  a  force  sufficient  really  to  prevent  access  to  the 
coast  of  the  enemy.  It  has  sometimes  been  pro- 
posed to  exempt  private  jiroperty  at  sea  from  attack 
during  war.  Such  a  project,  however,  seems  inex- 
pedient. There  may  be  a  propriety  in  respecting 
the  property  of  individuals  on  land  in  a  time  of  war, 
because  its  destruction,  however  injurious  to  the 
persons  immediately  concerned,  can  liave  little  in- 
fluence on  the  decision  of  the  contest.  But  at  sea 
private  property  is  destroyed,  because  those  from 
wliom  it  is  taken,  being  purveyors  or  carriers  for 
the  eoniniunity  at  large,  its  loss  must  seriously 
affect  the  public,  and  have  no  small  influence  in 
bringing  the  contest  to  an  end.  See  Hlockarle,  and 
Cmtrahiind  of  War. 

HEUBAUER  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— This 
system  is  distinguished  by  a  rc<iiiit  in  the  re-enter- 
ing places  of  armcs,  imitated  by  C'ormontaingne. 
It  also  proposes  six  fold  flanks. 

NEW  MATTER.— It  is  not  proper  that  the  Prose- 
cutor shoulil  be  all()W<'d  to  introduce  iiein  matter, 
neither  should  it  lie  ailmilled  on  the  defense.  There 
is  a  great  difTereuce  between  new  matter  of  accusa- 
tion and  facts  proved  by  evidence  to  mitigate  the 
sentence.  The  latter  are  not  new  matter  in  its  strict 
sense.  ShouM  cillier  party,  in  the  course  of  their 
examination  of  witnesses,  or  by  bringing  forward 
ncTV  ones  for  that   purpose,    introducenew   matter. 


the  opposite  one  has  the  right  of  calling  other  wit- 
]  nesses  to  rebut  such  new  matter.  The  Court-Martial 
'  should  be  very  circumspect  to  see  and  prevent  new 
matter  from  being  introduced,  either  in  the  prosecu. 
lion  or  defense.  But  the  Accused  may  urge  in  his 
defense  mitigating  circumstances,  or  examine  wit- 
nesses as  to  character  or  service,  and  produce  testi- 
monials of  such  facts,  without  its  being  considered 
new  matter ;  and  if  any  point  of  law  be  raised,  or 
any  matter  requiring  explanation,  the  Judge-Advo- 
cate may  explain  ;  no  other  reply  is  admitted. 

NEW'MODEL.- In  the  United  States,  all  cannon 
made  since  1861  are  on  the  New  Model.  This  is 
characterized  by  the  absence  of  all  ornament  on  the 
exterior, — the  outline  is  made  up  of  gentle  curves 
as  far  as  possible, — and  on  the  inside  the  bottom  of 
the  bore  is  a  semi-ellipsoid. 

NEW  TRIAL.— In  Court-Martial,  the  privilege  of  a 
new  trial  is  not  denied.  The  provisions  therefore 
are  borro"wc(l  from  common  law,  and  are  not  held, 
in  either  civil  or  military  tribunals,  to  preclude  the 
accused  from  having  a  second  trial  on  his  own  mo- 
tion. Officers  who  sat  on  the  first  trial  should  not 
be  detailed  for  the  new  trial ;  they  have  formed  and 
expressed  opinions.  New,  or  second  trial,  can  only 
be  authorized  where  the  sentence  adjudged  upon  the 
first  trial  has  been  disapproved.  After  a  sentence 
has  been  duly  approved  and  has  taken  effect,  the 
granting  of  a  new  trial  is  beyond  the  power  of  a  Mil- 
itarv  ('ommander,  or  the  President. 

NEW  ZEALAND  CROSS.— A  decoration  instituted  in 
the  year  liSU'J.  The  New  Zealand  Cross  was  provided 
in  the  year  1869,  b}'  the  Government  of  the  Colony, 
with  the  sanction  of  the  Crown,  as  a  reward  for  acts 
of  distinguished  valor  similar  to  those  recognized  by 
the  Victoria  Cross.  The  fourth  clause  of  the  Order 
in  Council,  which  subsequently  received  her  Majes- 
ty's special  sanction,  as  "Fountain  of  Honor,"  pro- 
vides that  "The  distinction  shall  only  be  conferred 
upon  those  officers  or  men  who,  when  serving  in  the 
presence  of  the  enemy,  shall  have  performed  some 
signal  act  of  valor  or  devotion  to  their  duty,  or  who 
shall  have  performed  any  very  intrepid  action  in  the 
public  service :  and  neither  rank  nor  long  service, 
nor  wounds,  nor  any  other  circumstance  or  condi- 
tion whatever,  save  merit  or  conspicuous  braverj-, 
sliall  be  held  to  establish  a  sufficient  claim  to  the 
honor." 

NIELLO-WORK.— A  method  of  ornamenting  metal 
plates  by  engraving  the  surface,  and  rubbing  a  black 
or  colored  composition,  so  as  to  fill  the  incised  lines, 
and  give  effect  to  the  intaglio  picture.  It  is  by  no 
means  quite  certain  when  this  art  was  originated  : 
Byzantine  works  of  the  13th  century  still  exist  to  at- 
test its  early  employment.  The  finest  works  of  this 
kind  belong  to  the  former  half  of  the  ISth  century, 
when  remarkable  excellence  in  drawing  and  group- 
ing minute  figures  in  these  metal  pictures  was  at- 
tained by  Maso  di  Finiguerra,  an  eminent  painter, 
and  student  of  Ghiberti  and  Massacio.  In  his  hands 
it  gave  rise  to  copper-plate  engraving,  and  hence 
much  interest  attaches  to  the  art  of  niello-cut- 
ting. Genuine  specimens  of  this  art  are  rare, 
some  of  those  by  Finiguerra  are  very  beautiful  and 
effective,  tlie  black  pigment  in  the  lines  giving  a 
pleasing  effect  to  the  surface  of  the  metal,  which  is 
usually  silver.  Tho.se  of  his  works  best  known  are 
some  elaborately  beautiful  [lattines  wrought  by  him 
for  the  church  of  San  Giovanni  at  Florence,  one  of 
which  is  in  the  Uffizia.  and  some  are  in  various  pri- 
vate collections.  In  the  collection  of  ornamental  art 
at  South  Kensington,  there  are  no  less  than  17  spec- 
imens of  this  art. 

NIOHER. — An  Indian  term  for  any  fortified  city 
measuring  at  least  Scoss.or  y  English  miles, in  length 
and  breadth. 

NIGHT-FIRING.  — Canncin  arc  pointed  at  night  by 
means  of  certain  marks,  or  measurements,  on  the 
carriage  and  ])l;ilform,  which  are  accurately  deter- 
mined during   thi'   day.     In  the  case  of  guns  and 


3J.  _.- 


|?fFi.P. 


"tit,  ' 


NIGHTLY  CORDON. 


413 


NITRATE  OF  SODA. 


liowitzcrs,  the  clcvatifni  iiiiiy  be  (Iftcrmiiicd  by  mark- 
iiit;  the  clcvaliiig  screw  where  it  eiitcrH  llie  nut,  (ir 
by  meaniiriiii;  llie  diHlaiiee  lielweeii  the  head  (it  the 
gcrew  and  stuck.  In  the  case  of  mortars,  the  [)Osition 
of  the  <|iiiiin  may  lie  di'termined  liy  marking;,  or  ]>y 
nailiiit;  a  eleul  cm  llie  hiplster.  'I'lie  direetidri  of  a 
(■arriai;e  or  mortar-lied  is  (h-lerndned  hy  nailinf;Htri|is 
of  lioards  alom;  the  jilalforni,  as  i,'uich's  to  tlie  trail 
and  vvlieels;  to  ])revent  tlie  strips  from  lieintf  injured 
by  tlie  recoil,  they  should  hv  nailed  at  a  i-ertain  dis- 
tance from  the  carriaiie,  or  bed,  and  the  space  lilli'd 
uj)  with  a  stick  of  pro]ier  wiillli,  which  should  l»^ 
removed  before  tirini:.  The  chassis  of  a  sea-coast 
rarriafc  can  be  secured  in  a  particular  direction  by 
lirndv  chorkini,'  the  traverse  wheels.      See  J''iiiitii:t/, 

NI(3HTLY  CORDON.  In  the  operation  of  a  sie{;'e, 
the  investment  of  the  iiosition  is  usually  jierformecl 
by  a  stroni;  body  of  troops  detached  from  theattack- 
inff  force,  which  body  moves  quickly  and  suddenly, 
siirroumlinu;  the  position,  andseizinujallthe  avenues 
of  approach.  A  chain  of  outposts  and  sentinels 
placed  just  outside  of  the  raiii;<'  of  lire  of  llie  difence, 
but  close  enouirh  to  watch  all  the  avenues  leading  to 
the  position,  is  established  by  the  investing  force. 
This  chain  is  drawn  iniiearer  to  the  position  at  nifiht, 
and  moveil  back  a  short  distance  in  day  time.  The 
terms  nightly  cordon  and  daily  cordon  are  frequent- 
ly used  to  desi;;iiate  this  chain.     See  ('ordiiii. 

NIGHT  SIGNALLING.— An  important  branch  of  sig- 
nalling. It  may  be  elfected  in  various  ways.  Inor- 
dinary service  two  torches  are  used.— one  on  the 
ground  and  the  other  attached  to  a  staiT,  which  is 
used  precisely  as  the  Hag  for  day  signals.  Lanterns 
held  in  the  hands  can  also  be  used.  For  long  dis- 
tances and  when  stations  cannot  be  seen  on  account 
of  intervening  obstacles,  such  as  woods,  signal-roc- 
kets, candle-bombs,  and  other  pyrotechnic  devices 
are  used. 

NIHILISTS. — A  revolutionary  organization  in  Rus- 
sia, aiming  at  the  destruction  of  all  existing  laws, 
religions,  and  politi<al  and  social  systems,  while 
preparing  to  replace  them  with  nothing.  It  is  stated 
that  the  term  was  first  employed  by  the  Russian 
novelist,  Ivan  Turgenieff,  in  his  stories  of  Russian 
society.  It  was,  however  accepted  by  the  organiza- 
tion itself,  as  will  apjjear  in  the  following  quotation 
from  a  speech  by  a  member,  and  which  may  be  ac- 
cepted as  fairly  significant  of  the  doctrines  with 
■which  the  minds  of  the  advanced  Radicals  of  Rus- 
sia have  become  imbued.  "  Nothing,  in  the  present 
state  of  social  organization  can  be  worth  much,  for 
the  simple  reason  that  our  ancestors  instituted  it. 
If  we  are  still  obliged  to  confess  ourselves  ignorant 
of  the  e.xact  medium  between  good  and  evil,  how- 
could  our  ancestors,  less  enlightened  than  we,  know 
it  ?  A  German  Philosopher  has  said :  '  Every  law 
is  of  use.  It  rules  the  conduct  of  individuals  who 
feel  for  one  another  and  appreciate  their  respective 
wants.  Every  religion,  on  the  other  hand,  is  use- 
less ;  for  ruling,  as  it  does,  our  relations  with  an 
incommensurable  and  indefinite  Being,  it  can  be  the 
residt  only  of  a  areat  terror  or  else  of  a  fantastic 
imagination.'  ISow,  we  Xihilists  say,  no  law,  no 
religion — Nihil !  The  very  men  who  instituted 
these  laws  ruling  their  fellow-creatures  have  lived 
and  died  iu  complete  ignorance  of  the  value  of  their 
own  acts,  and  without  knowing  iu  the  least  how 
they  liad  accomplished  the  mission  traced  for  them 
by  destiny  at  the  moment  of  their  birth.  Even 
taking  it  for  granted  that  our  ancestors  were  com- 
petent to  order  the  acts  of  their  fellow-creatures, 
does  it  necessarily  follow  that  the  re(|uirements  of 
their  time  are  similar  to  those  of  to-day?  Evidently 
not.  Let  us,  then,  cast  ofT  this  garment  of  law,  for 
it  has  not  been  made  according  to  our  measure,  and 
it  impedes  our  free  movements.  Hither  with  the  axe 
and  let  us  demolish  everything.  Those  who  come 
after  us  will  know  how  to  rebuild  au  edifice  quite 
as  solid  as  that  which  we  now  feel  trembling  over 
our  heads."    Two  points  will  be  observed  iu  this 


manifesto  :  the  one  being  its  positive  unlugoniHrn  to 
all  existing  things  —  because  ,lliey  exist ;  the  (■Iher 
the  sophistry  with  which  the  accepted  position  is 
reasoned  out  to  a  logical  conclusion.  And  lliin 
brings  us  naturally  to  the-  starting  points  of  Russian 
Nihilism:  iu  tin:  inlluence  of  the  Russian  history; 
in  the  nature  of  the  Russian  people;  and  in  the  ex- 
(■e])tional  character  of  the  Russian  Political  System. 

NIP. — A  term  used  in  artillery,  meaning  to  stop 
ropes  with  a  gasket,  or  with  several  turns  of  spun 
yarn  round  each,  and  the  ends  made  fast, 

NIPPLE. — The  passage  of  communication  in  per- 
cussion  arms  between  thi;  cap  an(l  the  charge;  the 
ixreussion  cap  is  jjlaced  on  the  nipple  when  the  tire 
lock  is  iirimed,  and  by  the  action  of  the  lock  the 
piece  is  discharged.  In  breech-loading  arms,  except 
in  the  Snider,  there  is  a  different  arrangement  for 
igniting  the  charge,  which  renders  the  nipple  un- 
necessary; these  are  fired  by  means  of  a  needle  or 
some  similar  method. 

NIPPLE  WRENCH.-  The  spanner  with  sides  which 
tit  the  scjuare  of  the  ni|iple,  and  which  is  used  for 
screwini;  it  to  and  unscrewing  it  from  the  barrel. 

NIQUIBS. — An  Indian  term  for  men  whose  mill- 
tary  functions  anumg  the  Sepoys,  correspond  with 
th(ise  of  Curporals  in  other  services. 

NITEE— NITRE.— Niter  occurs  as  a  natural  pro- 
duct iu  the  East  Indies,  Egypt  Persia,  where  it  is 
found  sometimes  as  an  eftlore.scence  upon  the  soil, 
and  sometimes  disseminated  through  its  upper  strat- 
um. Tlie  crude  salt  is  obtained  bj'  lixiviating  the 
soil,  and  allowing  the  solution  to  crystallize.  A  large 
([uantity  of  niter  is  artificially  formed  in  many  coun- 
tries of  f^urope,  by  imitating  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  naturally  produced.  The  most  essential 
of  these  conditions  seems  to  be  the  presence  of  de- 
caying organic  matter  whose  nitrogen  is  oxidized  by 
the  aeti<iii  of  the  atmosphere  into  nitric  acid,  which 
combines  with  the  bases  (potash  and  lime)  contained 
in  the  soil.  The  method  employed  in  the  artificial 
production  of  niter  consists  in  placing  animal  mat- 
ters, mingled  with  ashes  and  lime  rubbish,  in  loosely 
aggregated  heaps,  exposed  to  the  air,  but  sheltered 
from  rain.  The  heaps  are  watered  from  time  to  time 
with  urine  or  stable  runnings  ;  at  suitable  intervals 
the  earth  is  lixiviated,  and  the  salt  crystallized.  Three 
years  usually  elapse  before  the  niter  bed  is  washed ; 
after  this  interval  a  cubic  foot  of  the  debris  should 
yield  between  4  and  5  ounces  of  niter.  As  there  is 
always  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  nitrates  of  lime 
and  "magnesia  present,  which  will  not  crystallize, 
carbimate  of  potash,  in  the  shape  of  wood-ashes,  is 
added  so  long  as  any  precipitate  occurs.  The  nitrate 
of  lime  is  decomposed,  and  the  insoluble  carbonate 
of  lime  separated : 

Carbonate  of    Nitrate  of    Carbonate  of     Nitrate  of 
Potash.  Lime.  Lime.  Potash. 

K0,C02  -f  CaON'Oj  =  CaCCO^  +  K0,N05 
The  clear  liquor  is  then  evaporated  and  crj'stallized. 
It  has  been  found  that  the  earth  in  which  niter  has 
once  been  formed  furnishes  fresh  niter  more  readily 
than  on  the  first  occasion.  Care  is  taken  that  the  niter 
pill  lit  it'onx.  as  they  are  termed,  shall  rest  upon  an 
impervious  flooring  of  clay,  so  that  the  liquid  which 
drains  away  fromlhem  may  be  collected  and  pre- 
served.    See  NitrnU'n  and  •Saltpeter. 

NITHING. — An  old  term  for  coward  or  poltroon. 
Also  written  yidiiir;. 

NITRATE  OF  SODA.— An  extensive  deposit  in  the 
soils  of  some  jiortiniis  of  Peru  and  northern  Mexico. 
It  is  cheaper  than  nitrate  of  potassa.andforthe  same 
weight  affords  a  greater  amount  of  nitric  acid,  or 
oxysen.  Its  affinity  for  moisture  constitutes  a 
serious  objection  to  its  use  in  the  manufacture  of  a 
gunpowder  for  war  purposes,  or  one  that  is  to  be 
preserved  for  [any  length  of  time.  The  nitrate  of 
soda  may  be  used  in  obtaining  the  nitrate  of  potassa 
by  decomposing  it  with  carbonate  of  potassa — the 
]iotash  of  commerce.  See  Chlorate  of  Potassa  and 
JS'iter. 


NITKATES. 


414 


NITROGLYCERINE. 


NITRATES.— Salts  formed  by  the  union  of  nitric 
acid  with  bases.  Some  are  found  in  a  natural  min- 
eral condition,  as  saltpeter  and  cubic  niter.  The}- 
are  distinguished  for  their  solubility  in  water.  On 
being  heated,  they  undergo  decomposition,  being 
converted  either  into  free  nitric  acid  and  a  base,  or 
into  oxygen  and  a  nitrite.  In  many  respects  one  of 
the  most  important  nitrates  is  the  nitrate  of  silver, 
or  lunar  caustic.  It  is  of  great  use  in  surgery  and 
the  arts.  As  a  caustic  it  acts  powerfully,  but  rather 
superficially,  producing  a  white  slough,  whichblack- 
ens  soon  on  exposure  to  the  light.  It  is  used  in  a 
solid  state,  or  in  solutions  of  all  strengths.  If  dis- 
solved in  pure  water,  it  remains  colorless  ;  but  the 
smallest  particle  of  organic  matter  will  cause  the 
solution  to  turn  dark.  On  this  account  it  is  em- 
ployed for  making  marking-fluids  for  linen.  Indeli- 
ble ink  is  usually  made  by  dissolving  1  part  of  nitrate 
of  silver  and  4  parts  of  gum-arabic  in  4  parts  of 
water,  and  adding  a  little  India  ink  to  give  it  color, 
so  that  it  may  be  seen  when  the  mixture  is  applied. 
The  place  which  is  to  receive  the  impression  is  first 
moistened  with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  and 
dried.  After  the  application  of  the  ink.  the  writing 
is  exposed  to  the  sunlight.  Lunar  caustic  markings 
may  be  readily  removed  by  applying  a  few  drops  of 
tincture  of  iodine,  iind  dissolving  out  the  io('ide  of 
silver  thus  formed  by  a  solution  of  hyposulpiiite  of 
soda,  or  a  dilute  solution  of  caustic  potash.  Nitrate 
of  silver  is  used  in  photography.  Nitrate  of  am- 
monia, or  ammonic  nitrate  (according  to  modern 
nomenclature,  ammonium  nitrate),  NHjO.NOj,  or, 
according  to  later  views,  NO3NH4,  may  be  formed 
by  the  action  of  the  galvanic  current  on  a  mixture  of 
nitrogen  and  oxj'gen  with  an  excess  of  hydrogen ; 
but  the  common  method  is  to  add  a  slight  excess  of 
aqua  ammonia  to  nitric  acid.  If  crystallization  is 
conducted  slowly,  six-sided  prisms,  like  those  of  ni- 
trate of  potash,  will  be  formed,  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.035.  It  melts  at  226°  F.,  and  at  482" 
decomposes  into  water  and  nitrous  oxide,  or  laugh- 
ing-gas. Nitrate  of  baryta,  or  baryta  saltpeter,  is 
made  by  treating  the  native  carbonate  of  baryta  with 
nitric  acid.  It  crystallizes  in  anh3-drous  regular 
octahedrons,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  3.184. 
When  heated  strongly  it  is  converted  into  baryta,  or 
baric  oxide,  with  evolution  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 
Nitrate  of  bismuth  and  also  sub-nitrate  are  important 
salts  in  the  arts  and  medicine.  Nitrate  of  cobalt, 
prepared  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  the  oxide, 
crystallizes  from  solutions  in  beautiful  pink-red  deli- 
quescent crystals,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.83. 
It  is  much  used  in  the  chemical  laboratory,  particu- 
larly as  a  blow-pipe  reagent.  With  magnesium  com- 
pounds, it  yields  a  pink  color ;  with  those  of  zinc, 
green ;  and  with  aluminum  compounds  a  beautiful 
blue ;  for  this  reason  it  is  much  used  in  coloring 
porcelain  and  earthenware  Nitrate  of  copper  is 
made  by  the  action  of  diluted  nitric  acid  on  copper 
turnings.  Nitric  oxide  gas  is  given  otf  during  the 
operation.  It  crystallizes  from  cold  solutions  in 
beautiful  blue,  deliquescent,  rhomboidal  prisms, 
containing  four  molecules  of  water.  From  solutions 
above  r>d"  it  crystallizes  with  three  molecules  of 
water  in  needles,  liaving  a  specific  gravity  of  2.047, 
soluble  in  alcohol.  Nitrate  of  copper  is'converted, 
by  moderate  heat,  into  an  in>olul)le  basic  nitrate. 
By  raising  the  lieat,  the  acid  is  comjiletely  driven 
off,  leaving  only  the  black  oxide  of  the  metal.  Ni- 
trate  of  copper  is  sometimes  useful  in  surgery,  as  an 
application  to  certain  ill-conditioned  ulcers.  The 
nitrates  of  iron  are  important  salts.  The  protonitrate 
or  ferrous  nitrate,  is  formed  by  digesting  iron-turn- 
ings in  very  dilute  nitric  acid.  It  crystallizes  in  pale 
treen  rhombohedrons, having  the  formida  Fe(N()J.,, 
H„0._  It  is  much  used  in  dyeing.  The  peniitriit(\ 
or  ferric  nitrate,  is  made  by  di.ssolving  iron-turnings 
in  nitric  acid  of  sp.  gr.  between  1.2  and  1.3.  It  is 
used  in  surgery.  Nitric  acidfonns  several  salts  with 
lead,  the  principal  of  whicli  is  the  common  nitrate, 


or  plumbl  nitrate,  PbCNOj)^.  It  crystallizes  in  an- 
hydrous regular  octahedrons,  usually  milk-white 
and  opaque.  It  dissolves  in  7i  parts  of  cold  water. 
Is  is  decomposed  by  heat,  with  evolution  of  peroxide 
of  nitrogen.  Nitric  acid  forms  a  greater  number  of 
salts  with  mercury  than  with  any  other  metal,  one 
of  which  is  used  in  medicine,  and  the  other  for  the 
manufacture  of  corrosive  sublimate.     See  Niter. 

NITRO-CELLULOSE.- During  the  last  few  years 
great  improvements  have  been  effected  in  the  manu- 
facture and  application  of  this  material,  and  in  con- 
sequence, its  use  is  rapidly  extending,  especially  in 
Great  Britain,  where  it  is  found  of  great  advantage 
in  mining  operations,  owing  to  its  not  producing 
smoke  when  exploded.  For  the  improvements  as 
well  as  the  invention  of  gun-cotton,  we  are  indeljted 
to  Germany  and  Austria,  the  most  important  im- 
provement being  that  of  Baron  Lenk,  consisting 
chiefl}'  in  the  following  precaiitions  in  the  manufac- 
ture: 1.  A  perfect  cleansing  and  drying  of  the  cot- 
ton. 2.  The  u.se  of  the  most  concentrated  and  purest 
acids  procurable  commercially.  3.  Steeping  the  cot- 
ton a  second  time  in  a  mixture  of  the  strong  acids. 
4.  Continuance  of  this  steep  for  48  hours.  5.  A 
thorough  purification  of  the  gun-cotton  from  free  acid 
by  washing  in  a  running  stream  for  several  weeks. 
This  may  be  supplemented  by  washing  in  a  weak 
solution  of  potash,  but  is  not  absolutely  necessarj'. 
The  following  are  the  important  advantages  insured 
by  the  new  method  of  making  nitro-cellulose :  1. 
The  same  initial  velocity  of  the  projectile  can  be  ob- 
tained by  a  charge  of  nitro-cellulose  one-fourth  of 
the  weight  of  gunpowder.  3.  There  is  no  smoke 
from  the  explosion  of  nitro-cellulose.  3.  Nitro-cel- 
lulose does  not  foul  the  gun.  4.  Nitro-cellulose 
does  not  heat  the  gun  to  the  injurious  degree  of 
gunpowder.  .5.  Nitro-cellulose  gives  the  same  vel- 
ocity to  the  projectile  with  much  smaller  recoil  of 
the  gun.  6.  Nitro-cellulose  will  produce  the  same 
initial  velocity  of  projectile  with  a  shorter  length  of 
barrel.  7.  In  projectiles  of  the  nature  of  explosive 
shells,  nitro-cellulose  has  the  advantage  of  breaking 
the  shell  more  equally  into  much  more  numerous 
pieces  than  gunpowder.  8.  When  nitro-cellulose  is 
used  in  shells  instead  of  gunpowder,  a  quantity  equal 
in'weight  to  one-third  of  the  latter  produces  double 
the  explosive  force. 

NITRO-GLTCERINE.— An  explosive  agent  formed 
by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  glycerine  at  a  low 
temperature.     The  following  reaction  occurs  : 

When  freshly  made  it  is  a  white,  opaque,  heavy  oil, 
but  becomes  transparent  and  nearly  colorlessj  on 


standing  for  a  sufficient  lime.  Above  .1"  (41"^  F.)  it 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  1  .C,is  odorless  and  of  a  sweet 
taste.     It  is  poisonous,  and  if  placed  in  contact  with 


NITBO  OLYCEBINE. 


415 


NITBO  GLYCERINE. 


the  skin,  oven  in  Hinall  fiuiintitii'S,  Ijcforo  tlio  syHtem 
has  hcconie  ucciislomcd  to  its  uclion,  ]iri)iiiU!cH  vio- 
Iciil,  lic'iuliiclic.  If  iiicoriiplcli'ly  freed  from  acids,  it 
uiiderf;iieB  .M)ioiiUmeoiiH  ilecdiiipoHiliuii,  is  dani;<rrous 
t(i  liuiidlc.  and  iilliiiialely  iiiuy  lose  its  ex|)losivc  proj)- 
crlies;  when  piir<'  il  eon^ceals  heh)W  0''  (41"  F.J 
into  a  white,  crystalline  solid,  which  is  nearly  inca- 
pable! of  explosion  ;  it  may  readily  he  thawed  hy  in- 
troducing the  vessel  (■ontainini;  il  into  warm  water, 
which  restores  its  full  explosive  power.  Milro- 
glycerine,  ignited  in  small  quantities  hy  a  Ihune, 
anil  uneonlined,  burns  with  ditlieulty;  at  217.2" 
(42^!"  i'\)  it  dellaijrates  vi<ilently  ;  if  ignited  contined, 
or  if  sul)ii'eted  to  the  exphision  of  l.'i  grains  of  ful- 
minating mercury,  it  detonates  with  tremendous 
force  ;  fully  exploded  it  gives  oil  no  injurious  gases. 
It  is  not  ordinarily  sensitive  to  friction  or  moderate 
percussion,  but  is  very  much  so  when  in  a  state  of 
decomposition. 

In  th('  numufacture,  nitric  acid  is  niixed  with 
twi<-e  its  weight  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  to  take  up 
the  water  formed  during  the  reaction,  and  prevent 
the  dilution  of  the  nitric  acid.  The  process  consists 
t'8.scntially  in  the  conversion  of  glycerine  into  nitro- 
glycerine, and  the  separation  and  washing  of  the 
iiitro-glycerine.  The  apparatus  is  shown  in  the 
drawing.  A,  -4,  arc  wooden  troughs  placed  around 
the  brick  <'hinmey,  /',  J>.  In  these  troughs  are  the 
earthenware  pitchers,  ",  ",  which  contain  the  acid 
mixture.  On  the  shelf,  Ji,  above  the  pilc:lier,  are 
the  bottles,  /i,  h,  which  contain  the  glycerine.  The 
bottles  arc  loosely  closed  by  wooden  stojipers  with 
broad,  rounded  tops.  Through  holes  in  these  stop- 
pers pass  loo.sely  the  rubber  tubes,  c,  c,  which  reach 
to  the  bottom  of  the  bottles  and  carry  small  glass 
jets  at  their  outer  ends.  C^onical  wooden  plugs,  e, 
e,  are  placed  in  the  holes  through  the  stojipers 
alongside  the  rubber  tubes.  The  steam-|iipe,  O, 
passes  along  the  shelves,  Ji,  B,  iust  behind  the  gly- 
cerine bottles.  The  air-main,  F,  passes  under  the 
shelf,  Ji,  and  carries  on  its  under  auU'  a  number  of 
small,  short  pipes  or  jets  (two  for  etich  pitcher),  to 
which  are  attached  the  rubber  tubes,  d,  d,  wliicii 
hang  over  the  jiitchers.  In  these  rubber  tubes  are 
inserted  glass  tubes,  long  enough  to  extend  to  the 
bottom  of  the  acid  pitchers.  The  troughs  are  mad(! 
tight  to  hold  the  ice-water  with  which  the  pitchers 
are  surrounded  Partitions,  with  openings  at  the 
bottoms,  cut  off  the  corners  of  the  troughs  forming 
clear  spaces.  These  spaces  contain  water  only,  as 
the  partitions  keep  out  the  ice.  These  water  spaces 
are  convenient  as  affording  opportunities  for  quickly 
emptying  a  pitcher  into  water  if  it  becomes  neces- 
sarj'.  In  one  corner  of  each  tro\igh  is  j)laced  a  pipe, 
through  whicli  the  water  may  be  drawn  off  into  the 
escape,  E,  when  the  operation  is  tinished.  The 
pitchers  stand  on  narrow  strips,  which  raise  them 
off  the  bottom  about  two  inches,  thus  giving  the 
cold  water  free  antl  perfect  access  all  about  them, 
and  when  set  in  proper  position  are  well  imder 
the  overhanging  hoods,  (\,  V,.  These  hoods  are 
flat  wooden  boxes,  wide  at  the  bottoms  and  drawn 
in  at  the  tops,  where  they  lit  against  openings  in  the 
chimneys,  J)L>.  In  the  lower  part  of  thc^  chinmc}', 
on  the  floor  below,  is  placed  a  grate  and  Hre-door. 
Each  pitcher  receives  18  to  20  lbs.  of  the  aciil  mix- 
ture according  to  the  strength  of  the  latter.  All  are 
then  set  in  place  in  the  troughs,  covered  with  glass 
plates,  surrounded  with  ice  and  water,  and  allowed 
to  stand  until  completely  cooled.  Into  each  bottle 
is  put  2  lbs.  of  glycerine,  When  the  acid  in  the 
pitchers  has  fallen  to  the  temperature  of  the  sur- 
rounding ice  water,  the  covers  are  removed  from 
the  pitchers,  and  the  air-tubes  passed  through  holes 
in  the  hoods  down  into  them.  Through  these  air- 
tiibes  a  strong  current  of  air  is  forced  by  means  of 
a  pump  driven  by  steam.  This  current  of  air  keeps 
the  contents  of  tlie  pitchers  in  continual  agitation. 
The  air  for  the  pump  is  drawn  through  sulphuric 
acid  to  render  it  perfectly  drj-,  and  just  before  it 


enters  the  air-main  over  the  troughs  it  is  thoroughly 
(!Ooled.  The  cooling  arrangement  is  made  of  10  coim 
of  small  tin  pipe,  which  are  surroundid  hy  ice.  ThcHf! 
coils  are  so  arranged  as  to  give  an  extcnHive  cool- 
ing surface'  without  impeding  the  current.  As  soon 
as  the  air  current  has  been  turned  on,  the  flow  of 
glycerine  is  begun.  Kach  rubber  lube,  <•,  is  a  syphon 
which  is  started  by  suction  through  a  glass  tube  iii- 
Hcrted  in  the  outer  end.  As  soon  as  the  glycerine 
runs  freely,  the  suction  tube  is  witliilrawn  anil  a  (in(!- 
pointe<l  glass  jet  i)Ut  in  its  place.  The  glycerine  runs 
from  this  jet  in  a  fine  stream  directly  into  the  pitcher 
under  it.  In  cold  weather  the  glycerine  may  become 
too  thick  to  How  easily.  To  overcome  this  the  bot- 
tles of  glycerine  are  warmed  by  passingsteam  llirongli 
the  pipe  behind  them  until  the  glycerine  is  Kuflicient- 
ly  thin.  The  glycerine  dropping  into  the  acid  mix- 
ture is  rapidly  acted  on  and  converted  into  nitro- 
glycerine. The  reac-tion  is  accompanied  b.v  a  con- 
siderable evolution  of  heat.  This  heat  must  be  re- 
moved, for  if  the  temperature  be  allowed  to  rise  loo 
liigh  the  glycerine  is  not  converted  into  nitro-glyc(;r- 
ine,  but  is  oxydized  or  burned,  with  formation  of 
other  substances.  The  limits  of  temperature  are 
very  narrow.  Starting  at  32",  the  temperature  must 
never  go  beyond  48"  ;  at  ■'50"  to  ijO",  there  is  grcat_ 
danger  of  "firing"  taking  place.  The  liquid  in' 
the  pitchers  is  kejit  colil  by  surroimding  them  with 
ice-cold  water  and  by  the  stream  of  cold  air  passing 
into  the  acid.  The  most  important  work  of  the  air- 
current  is  to  keep  the  acid  mixture  in  constant  agi- 
tation. In  this  way  the  heat  generated  is  quickly 
diffused  through  the  whole,  preventing  an.y  sudden 
local  rise  of  temperature.  The  glycerine  is  much 
lighter  than  the  acid  mixture,  and  would  be  apt  to 
collect  in  little  pools  above  it.  and  when  these  were 
broken  \q)  and  a  (piantily  of  glycerine  suddenly 
brought  into  contact  with  the  acid,  the  ac'tion  would 
be  so  rapid  that  it  could  not  be  controlled.  While 
the  glycerine  is  running  into  the  pitchers,  observa- 
tions with  the  thermometer  are  con.stantly  made  of 
the  temperature  attained  in  them.  If  in  a  pitcher 
the  temperature  is  found  to  be  rising  too  rapidly  and 
to  be  approaching  the  higher  limit,  the  glycerini^  is 
evidently  running  in  too  fast,  and  its  flow  must  be 
checked,  which  is  done  liy  pressing  down  the  coni- 
cal wooden  plugiu  the  stf>pperof  the  glycerine  bottle. 
This  plug  passes  through  the  same  opening  as  the 
rubber  glycerine  tube  ;  therefore,  when  it  is  pressed 
down,  it  compresses  the  latter  so  that  less  liquid  can 
pass  through.  If  the  temperature  is  too  high  or  con- 
tinues to  rtse,  the  plug  is  forced  hard  down,  closing 
tlie  glycerine  tube  altogether.  The  flow  of  glycerine 
being  "checked  or  stopped,  the  pitcher  rapidly  cools 
down  again.  As  Jsoon  as  the  thermometer  shows 
this  to  be  the  case, the  plug  is  loosened  and  the  flow 
again  set  up.  Constant  care  is  therefore  necessarj', 
but  the  operation  is  a  simple  one,  easily  learned  and 
performed  by  orilinary  workmen.  If  the  limit  of 
temperature  "is  exceeded,  "firing"  takes  place,  in- 
dicated by  the  copious  evolution  of  red,  nitrous 
fumes,  and  in  extreme  cases  by  flame.  Usually  when 
this  occurs  it  is  easily  controlled  by  stopping  the 
glycerine  stream  and  stirring  vigorously  the  contents 
of  the  pitcher,  but  if  it  is  violent  the  pitcher  nmst 
be  emptied  as  quickly  as  possible.  During  the  op- 
eration of  conversion!  acid  and  irritating  fumes  are 
given  off  in  large  quantities,  greatly  to  the  injurj-  of 
those  compelled  to  breatlie  tliem.  In  the  apparatus 
here  described  these  are  entirely  removed  through 
the  hoods  and  chimney.  K  fire  in  the  ^rate  at  the 
bottom  of  the  chimney  causes  a  powerful  draught  in 
the  hoods,  which  overhang  the  pitchers,  drawing  up- 
wards all  the  fumes  and  dis<harging  them  into  the 
open  air.  Generally  a  small  fire  at  "first  is  found  to 
be  suflicient,  and  quite  frequently  no  fire  at  all  is 
ncressarv. 

It  does  not  mix  with  and  is  unaffected  by  water. 
It  has  a  sweet,  pungent,  aromatic  taste,  and  pro- 
duces a  violent  headache  if  placed  on  the  tongue,  or 


NITRO-MANNITE. 


416 


NOBILITY. 


even  if  allowed  to  touch  the  skin  at  any  point. 
Those  constantly  iisina;  it  soon  loose  their  suscepti- 
bility to  this  action.  Freshly  made,  opaque  nitro- 
glycerine does  not  freeze  until  the  temperature  is 
Towered  to  S°-5°  below  0"  Fah.,  but  the  transparent 
or  cleared  nitro-glycerine  freezes  at  39''-40''  F.  Ni- 
tro-jjlycerine  freezes  to  a  white  crystalline  mass. 
When  frozen  it  can  be  thawed  by  placing  the  vessel 
containing  it  iu  water  at  a  temperature  not  over  100"^ 
Fah.  Pure  nitro-glj'cerine  does  not  spontaneously 
decompose  at  an  ordinary  temperature:  but  if  it  con- 
tains free  acid,  decomposition  is  apt  to  occur.  It  is, 
therefore,  very  important  tliat  all  acid  should  be  re- 
moved by  thorough  washing  when  it  is  made.  No 
Instance  has  yet  been  noticed  of  the  spontaneous 
decomposition  of  properly  made  and  purified  nitro- 
glycerine. Pure  nitro-giycerine  is  not  sensitive  to 
friction  or  moderate  percussion.  If  placed  upon  an 
anvil  and  struck  with  a  hammer,  only  the  particle 
receiving  the  blow  explodes,  scattering  the  remain- 
der. Nitro-glycerine  in  a  state  of  decomposition  be- 
comes very  sensitive,  exploding  violently  when  it  is 
struck,  even  when  uncoufined. 

Nitro-glycerine  may  be  conveniently  kept  in  large 
earthen  jars,  with  a  layer  of  water  over  the  explo- 
sive. If  it  is  to  be  transported,  the  liquid  form  is 
very  inconvenient,  especially  from  the  danger  of 
leakage.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  freeze  it,  and 
carrj'  it  in  a  frozen  state,  when  it  is  perfectly  safe. 
For  transportation  it  should  be  put  in  strong  tin  cans 
holding  about  45  or  .50  lbs.  Each  can  should  be  para- 
ffined on  the  inside,  and  have  passing  vertically 
through  its  center  a  tin  tube,  so  that  freezing  or 
thawing  maybe  more  easily  accomplished.  All  ves- 
sels in  which  nitro-glycerine  has  been  kept  should 
be  destroyed  when  not  wanted  for  the  same  vfse,  as 
the  nitro-glj'cerine  cannot  be  easily  washed  off. 

Nitro-glycerine  is  the  most  powerful  explosive  in 
use.  In  difficult  blasting,  where  very  violent  effects 
are  required,  it  surpasses  all  others.  In  spite  of  the 
many  accidents  that  have  occurred  with  it,  it  has 
been  found  to  be  so  valuable  that  its  use  has  steadily 
and  largely  increased.  Its  liquid  form  is  a  disad- 
vantage except  under  favorable  circumstances,  as 
when  made  at  the  place  where  it  is  to  be  employed. 
It,  however,  forms  the  essential  ingredient  in  a 
number  of  solid  mixtures.  When  used  iu  blasting- 
work  it  is  usually  put  iu  tin  cans  or  cartridge-cases. 
If  the  bore-holes  are  tight,  it  may  be  poured  direct- 
ly in ;  but  it  is  rarely  safe  to  do  this,  as  there  is 
great  danger  that  some  of  it  will  escape  through 
Beams  in  the  rock,  and  not  be  exploded,  remaining 
to  cause  accident  at  a  future  time.  Since  nitro-gly- 
cerine is  so  readily  detonated,  it  has  the  advantage 
of  not  requiring  strong  confinement.  Even  when 
freely  exposed  it  will  exert  violent  effects,  such  as 
breaking  masses  of  rock  or  blocks  of  iron.  So,  in 
blasting,  it  requires  but  little  tamping.  Loose  sand 
or  water  is  entirely  sufficient.  The  relative  force  of 
nitro-glycerine  is  not  easily  estimated,  since  the  ef- 
fect produced  depends  greall.v  on  the  circumstauces. 
Thus,  a  charge  of  nitro-glycerine  iu  wet  sand  or  any 
soft  material  will  exercise  but  a  slight  effect,  while 
the  same  charge  will  .shatter  nuuiy  tons  of  the  hard- 
est rock.  In  tiie  former  case  much  more  sand  would 
be  thrown  out  by  a  slower  e.\plosiim,  wliich  would 
gradually  move  it,  than  by  the  sudden,  violent  shock 
of  tlie  nitro-glycerine,  whicli  would  only  compress 
the  material  immediately  about  it.  But  in  the  hard 
rock  the  sudden  explosion  is  much  more  effective 
than  the  same  amouiU  of  force  more  slowly  applied. 
Koughly,  it  may  be  said  that  nitro-glycerine  is  eight 
times  as  powerful  as  gunpowder.wheu  taken  weight 
for  weight. 

On  ('xplosion,  nitro-glycerine  is  resolved  entirely 
into  the  gases — carbonic,  anhydride,  water,  nitro- 
gen, and  o.xygen  (Nobel;,  the  last  named  a|)pearing 
onl}'  in  small  (piantity.  If  explosion  is  imperfectly 
accomplished,  oxides  of  nitrogen  are  formed,  and 
the  total  quantity  of  gas  is  lessened.    If  fully  exi>lod- 


ed,  no  disagreeable  or  poisonous  gases  are  given  off. 
See  Duaiin,  Dynamite,  Gun-cotton,  Gunpowder,  and 
LiUtofrartni  r. 

NITEO-MANNITE.— A  high  explosive  resembling 
nitro-glycerine  in  its  properties,  and  made  in  an  anal- 
ogous manner  by  the  action  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  ac- 
ids upon  Mannite;  a  peculier  saccharine  matter  which 
forms  the  principal  constituent  of  manna;  it  is  also 
found  in  several  kinds  of  fungi,  in  asparagus,  celery, 
I  onions,  etc.  It  is  most  readily  obtained  by  digesting 
manna  in  hot  alcohol.  On  cooling  the  filtered  solu- 
tion, the  mannite  is  deposited  in  crystals,  which  are 
very  solu'ljle  in  water,  and  possess  a  sweet  taste. 

NOBILITY.— That  distinction  of  rank  in  civil  so- 
ciety whieli  raises  a  man  above  the  condition  of  the 
mass  of  the  people.  Society  has  a  tendency  to  in- 
equality of  condition,  arising  from  the  natural  in- 
equality, physical,  moral,  and  intellectual,  of  those 
who  compose  it,  aided  by  the  diversity  of  external 
advantages,  and  of  the  principles  and  habits  imbibed 
at  an  early  age.  This  inequality  is  apt  to  increase  ; 
the  son,  inheriting  the  faculties  of  his  father,  is 
more  favorably  situated  than  his  father  was  for 
making  use  of  them  ;  and  hence,  in  almost  every  na- 
tion, in  even  the  very  early  stages  of  civilization,  we 
find  something  like  a  hereditary  nobility.  Privileges 
originally  acquired  by  wealth  or  political  power  are 
secured  to  the  family  of  the  possessor  of  them  ;  and 
the  privileged  class  come  to  constitute  an  Order,  ad- 
mission into  which  requires  the  consent  of  society 
or  of  the  order  itself.  The  military  tenant  who  held 
but  a  portion  of  a  knight's  fee  participated  in  all  the 
privileges  of  nobility,  and  an  impassable  barrier  ex- 
isted between  his  Order  and  the  people.  Over 
Continental  E\irope  in  general,  the  Nobles,  greater 
and  lesser,  were  in  use,  after  the  10th  century,  to  as- 
sume a  territorial  name  from  their  castles  or  the 
principal  town  or  village  on  their  demesne  ;  hence, 
the  prefix  "Pe,"or  its  German  equivalent  "Von," 
still  considered  over  a  great  part  of  the  continent  as 
the  criterion  of  nobility  or  gentility.  Britain  was, 
to  a  great  extent,  an  exception  to  lliis  rule,  many  of 
the  most  distinguished  family  names  of  the  aristo- 
cracy not  having  a  territorial  origin. 

After  the  introduction  of  HeraTdrj',  and  its  reduc- 
tion to  a  system, the  possession  of  a  coat  of  arms  was 
a  recognized  distinction  between  the  Noble  and  the 
Plebeian.  In  the  words  of  Sir  James  Lawrence  : 
"Any  individual  who  distinguishes  himself  may  be 
said  to  ennoble  himself.  A  Prince  judging  an  in- 
dividual worthy  of  notice  gave  him  patent  letters  of 
nobility.  In  these  letters  were  blazoned  the  arms 
that  were  to  distinguish  his  shield.  By  this  shield-he 
was  to  be  known  or  nobilin.  A  Plebeian  had  no  blazon- 
ry on  his  shield  because  he  was  ignobilis.oT  unworthy 
of  notice.  Hence  arms  are  the  criterion  of  nobility. 
Every  Nobleman  must  have  a  shield  of  arms.  Who- 
ever has  a  shield  of  arms  is  a  Nobleman.  In  every 
country  iu  Europe,  without  exception,  a  grant  of 
arms,  or  letters  of  nobility,  is  conferred  on  all  the 
descendants."  On  the  Continent  the  term  Noble  is 
still  generally  used  in  this  sense ;  in  England  it  is 
now  more  common  to  restrict  the  words  noble  and 
nobility  to  the  five  ranks  of  the  peerage  constituting 
the  greater  nobility,  and  to  the  head  of  the  family, 
to  whom  alone  the  title  behmgs.  Gentility,  in  its 
more  strict  sense,  corresponds  to  the  nobility  of  Sir 
J.  Lawrence  and  of  Continental  Countries.  This 
dilTerence  of  usage  is  a  frequent  source  of  misappre- 
heusion  on  both  sides  of  the  channel ;  at  some  of  the 
minor  German  Courts  the  untitled  member  of  au  Eu- 
glisli  family  of  ancient  distinguislied  blood  and  line- 
age has  sometimes  been  posliioned  to  a  recently 
created  Baro.i  or"HerrVon,"  who  has  received 
that  title,  anil  the  gentility  accompanying  it  along 
with  his  commission  in  the  army.  It  has  been  taken 
for  granted  that  the  latter  belongs  to  the  "Add"  or 
nol)ilitj',  and  not  the  former. 

The  nobilil  ,■  of  Spain  boasts  of  a  special  antiquity 
and  purity  of  blood,  a  descent  from  warriors  and 


HOBLE  CHRONOSCOFE. 


417 


NOBLE  CHRONOSCOFE. 


conquerors  aloiii',  without  tlu;  infusion  of  imy  of  tlit 
clenu^nts  dcrivcil  from  tlu^  oliurcli,  hiw,  and  com- 
merce thai  arc  to  be  founil  in  olhcr  countries.  "  Hi- 
dalgo"(A<7"'''"'.'/".**on  of  HOMiclioily.nol./iV/M.i  )iiilliiin) 
is  a  Icriu  which  implies  nciitilily  or  nol)ilily.  TIk; 
]Ii(lid?;o  aloMc  ii.'is  in  strictness  a  ri'.;lil  to  the  title 
"Don,"  which,  like  "Sir"  of  Kni;lish  Kniirhls  and 
15aronels,r<M(Mires  the  adjimctt  of  the  Cliristian  name. 
When  the  Cliristian  name  is  omitted,  Ihi'  titU^  "Se- 
nor"  instead  is  prelixed  willi  the  addition  of  "  I)e." 
"Don"  has  latterly  been  used  by  persons  who  have 
no  proper  claim  to  it  about  as  extensively  as  "  Es- 
quire "  in  Miiu'lanil.  lliiliilnuia,  till  recently, conferred 
important  privileges  and  immunilies.  The  higher 
nobility  arc  stylcil  (Irandees;  formerly  the  lille  was 
"  l{icohombrc,"and  the  ceremonial  of  creation  con- 
sisted in  granting  the  right  of  assuming  the  pennon 
and  caldron  {penon  y  cdidcra) — the  one  the  rallying 
ensign  of  command,  the  olhcr  of  maintenance  of  fol- 
lowers. In  conlradislinclion  from  the  Grandees,  the 
class  of  nobility  below  Ibem  are  called  "  Los  Titula- 
dos  de  (lastilla."  Hcil  lilood  is  said  to  How  in  the 
veins  of  the  Hidalgo,  blue  in  that  of  the  Grandee. 
Formerly  there  were  three  classes  of  Grandees, who.se 
mark  of  tlistinction  was  this  -that  a  Grandee  of  the 
lirst  class  was  entitled  to  put  on  his  hat  in  the  royal 
presence  before  the  King  spoke  to  him;  the  second, 
after  the  King  spoke  to  him  :  the  third,  after  the 
King  had  spoken  and  he  had  replied.  The  secoud 
and  third  classes  arc  now  absorbed  into  the  first. 


of  this  shaft  can  be  recorded  wilh  uecurary  to  the 
onc-tenlh  part  of  a  second.  The  speed  usually  at- 
tained in  working  this  instrument  is  about  l.OfJO 
inches  per  secon<l.  linear  velocity,  at  the  circumfer- 
encr'  of  lh(^  revolving  discs  so  that  each  inch  trav- 
ellcil  at  that  sjiccd  ri'prcsents  the  one-thousandth 
part  C)f  a  second;  and  as  thc'  inch  is  Kulxlivided  by 
j  the  vernier,  V.,  into  a  thousand  parts,  alinearreprc- 
sentation  at  the  cin-urnfercnce  is  thus  obtained  of 
intervals  of  time  as  minute  as  the  onc-ruiHionth  part 
of  a  second. 

As  a  small  variation  in  speed  would  afTect  thc  re- 
lation betwi'cn  thc  sevend  records  obtained,  the 
uniformity  of  rolalicjn  is  ascerlained  on  each  occa- 
sion of  experiment  by  Ihree  observations:  one  im- 
mediately l)efore,  one  during,  and  one  immediately 
after  the  experiment,  the  mean  of  the  three  observa- 
tions being  taken  for  thc  average  speed.  With  a 
liltle  ])rnclice  there  is  no  difficulty  in  arranging  the 
instrument  so  that  thc  discs  may  rotate  either  imi- 
formly  or  at  a  rate  very  slowly  increasing  or  decreas- 
ing. The  arrangements  for  obtaining  the  tlertrical 
/•(crrf.i  arc  as  follows :  the  revolving  discs  are  cov- 
ered on  the  edge  witli  a  strip  of  white  caper,  and 
are  connected  with  one  of  tlie  secondary  wires,  G, 
of  an  induction  coil.  The  other  secondary  wire,  H, 
carcfidly  insulated,  is  brought  to  a  discharger,  I,  op- 
posite tiie  edge  of  ils  corri's]ionding  disc,  and  is  fix- 
ed so  as  to  bi'  just  clear  of  I  he  latter.  When  a  spark 
passes  from  the  discharger  to  the  disc,  a  minute  hole 


NOBLE  CHBONOSCOPE.— The  principle  of  action 
of  this  instrument  consists  in  registering,  by  means 
of  electric  currents  upon  a  recording  surface,  travel- 
ing at  a  uniform  and  very  high  speed,  the  precise 
instant  at  whicli  a  projectile  passes  certain  delined 
points  in  the  bore.  It  consists  of  two  portions  : 
first,  the  mechaiiii-al  arrangemtnt  for  obtaining  the 
necessary  speed,  and  keeping  that  speed  uniform; 
secondly,  the  dectrii'itl  recording  arrimgement.  The 
first  part  of  the  instrument  consists  of  a  series  of 
thin  metal  discs,  A,  A,  each  80  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence, fixed  at  intervals  upon  a  horizontal  shaft,  SS, 
whicli  is  driven  at  a  high  speed  by  a  heavy  descend- 
ing weight,  B,  through  a  train  of  gearing,  multply- 
ing  62>5  times.  The  driving-weight  is,  during  thc  ex- 
periment continually  moved  up  by  means  of  the 
handle  II.  If  the  requisite  speed  of  rotation  were 
got  up  by  the  action  of  thc  falling  weiglit  alone,  a 
considerable  waste  of  time  would  ensue.  To  obviate 
this  inconvenience,  the  required  velocity  can  be  ob- 
tained with  great  ra])idity  by  means  of  the  handle  C. 
The  precise  rale  of  the  discs  is  obtained  by  nieansof 
the  stop-clock  D,  which  can  at  pleasure  be  connect- 
ed or  disconnected  with  the  revolving  .shaft.  E; 
and  the  time  of  making   any  number  of  revolutions 


is  perforated  in  the  paper  covering  upon  that  part  of 
the  disc  which  was  opposite  the  discharger  at  the 
inslant  of  the  passage  of  the  spark:  but.  as  the  situ- 
ation of  this  hole  in  the  jiiipcr  would  be  very  difficult 
to  find,  on  account  of  its  extreme  minuteness,  the 
paper  is  previously  coaled  willi  lamp-black,  and  the 
position  of  the  hole  is  thus  readily  seen:  a  di-^tinct 
white  spot  is  left  on  the  blackened  paper,  the  lamp- 
black at  that  point  having  been  burnt  awa\-  by  the 
spark, so  that  the  white  paper  is  shown  beneath.  By 
nieansof  thc  micrometer  the  distance  between  the 
sparks  on  thc  disc  is  reail  olT. 

In  order  to  connect  the  primary  wires  of  the  in- 
duction coils  with  the  bore  of  t!ie  gun,  so  thai  they 
may  be  cut  by  the  projectile  in  its  passage,  the  gun 
is  lapped  in  a  number  Of  pl;ices  for  the  reception  of 
hollow  steel  plugs  carrying  at  the  end  next  the  bore 
a  cutter  which  projects  slightly  into  the  bore.  This 
cutter  is  held  in  position  liy  the  primary  wire,  which 
is  carefully  insulated  and  passed  down  the  plug, 
through  the  cutter,  and  b:ick  out  of  the  plug,  the 
ends  being  connected  to  tlie  main  wires  leading.to 
the  induction  coils.  When  the  projectile  reaches  the 
point  where  the  plug  is  screwed  in,  it  presses  the 
cutter  in  flush  with  tlie  bore,  and,  by  so  doing,  cuts 


NOISY. 


418 


NOIZET  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. 


the  primary  circuit.  As  each  plug  is  reached  a  spark 
is  clelivered,  and  thus  tlie  passage  of  the  projectile 
along  the  bore  is  recorded  at  regular  intervals.  Some 
idea  may  be  conveyed  of  the  minute  intervals  of  time 
which  can  be  measured  by  this  means,  from  the  fact 
that  the  distances  between  the  parts  of  a  X-lnch  gun 
at  which  tlie  time-records  have  been  obtained  are  in 
some  instances  only  3.4  inches,  while  tlie  total  lime 
the  projectile  takes  to  reach  the  muzzle  of  the  gun — a 
distance  of  100  inches — when  tired  with  a  full  charge, 
is  about  the  one-hundreth  part  of  a  second.  By  this 
means  the  time  may  be  recorded  which  the  projec- 
tile occupies,  from  the  commencement  of  motion,  in 
reaching  ditferent  parts  of  the  bore,  and  from  these 
time-records  may  be  deduced  tlie  velocit}'  with  whicli 
the  projectile  is  passing  through  the  different  parts 
of  the  bore,  and  the  pressures  in  the  gun  which  cor- 
respond to  these  velocities.     See  Chrvnoscupe. 

NOISY. — A  term  applied  to  projectiles  in  flight.  The 
passage  of  a  rifled  projectile  through  the  air  causes 
a  shrill,  tearing  sound.  An  experienced  ear  at  exper- 
imental practice  can  detect  from  this  sound  whether 
the  projectile  is  properly  centered;  if  not,it  is  said  to 
be  noixij  in  flight. 

NOIZET  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— The  School 
of  Application  for  engineer  and  artillerv  officers, 
flrst  established  at  Mi^zieres  and  sulisequently  at 
Metz,  has  given  to  France,  from  about  the  period  of 
the  French  Revolution  down  to  the  present  day, 
nianv  able  officers  who  have  gained  universal  and 
deserved  celebrity  for  these  two  corps.  In  these 
schools  the  precepts  of  Vauban  and  CornKmtaigne 
have  been  jealously  regarded  as  the  highest  authori- 
ty,and  their  manuscripts  and  works  have  formed  the 
basis  of  the  instruction  given  in  them.  Some  slight 
modifications  were  proposed  in  the  front  of  Cormon- 
taigue  by  two  engineers.  IhatiUnn  and  Dvrigneau, 
and  taught  by  them  in  the  course  of  permanent  for- 
tification given  in  the  school.  These  changes  chiefly 
consisted  m  enlarging  the  demi-lune  and  making  it 
more  salient  ;  and  in  placing  casemates  for  cannon 
in  the  flanks  of  its  redoubt,  with  reverse  views  on 
the  breaches  that  miglit  be  made  in  the  bastion  faces. 
The  teaching  of  the  school  of  Metz  has  received  its 
principal  impress  in  later  years  from  General  Noizet. 
For  nearly  fifty  years.  General  Noizet  was  engaged 
in  tlie  study  and  practice  of  his  profession,  serving 
for  many  years  as  professor  of  the  art  of  fortification 
in  the  school  at  Metz.  He  had  the  good  fortune  to 
applv  practically  on  a  large  scale  the  principles 
taught  by  him  in  the  school.  He  was  for  ten  years 
a  member  of  what  we  would  call  the  Board  of  En- 
gineers for  France,  and  has  visited  ever\'  fortifica- 
tion in  France.  He  is  regarded  as  first  among  tlie 
successors  of  Vauban  and  Cormontaigne.  The  front 
planned  bj-  him  has  been  taken  as  an  elementary 
exercise  for  instruction  in  the  art  of  fortification  for 
the  cadets  of  the  U.  S.  Militar)-  Academy  at  West 
Point,  N.  Y.  In  it,  there  is  no  sensible  departure 
from  the  views  and  method  of  Cormontaigne,  except- 
ing to  introduce  such  modifications  as  would  remedy 
some  of  the  acknowledged  defects  of  his  method. 
This  front  combines  the  principles  of  the  science  of 
fortification  to  as  great  an  extent  as  any  one  sys- 
tem or  method  that  can  be  given  to  the  student.  An- 
other object  has  been  kept  in  view  in  using  this 
front.  That  is,  to  present  in  its  combinations,  uproh- 
Inn.  in  the  solution  of  which  the  iiupil  would  have 
to  apply  to  a  special  case,  both  the  cli'iiuiitary  piin- 
ciples  of  fortifications,  and  the  geometrical  methods 
used  by  the  military  cgineer  in  the  practice  of  his 
profession.  Noizet,  in  the  jilaii  of  his  enceinte,  has 
adopted  dimensions  and  constructions  which  gives 
results  for  the  most  part,  the  same  as  those  of  Vau- 
lian  and  Cormontaigne,  making  the  defensive  pro- 
perties of  tlies«  different  iiietliods  about  ec|iia].  The 
Client  of  tlie  exterior  side,  the  lengtli  of  the  curtain, 
the  diiiiinished  angle,  and  the  direction  assumed  for 
the  flanks,  produce  a  combination  giving  an  etflcicnt 
flanking,  both  as  to  direction  and  amount  of  fire,  for 


the  >5ntire  scarp,  and  a  powerful  cross-fire  upon  the 
covered-way  and  its  glacis  in  advance  of  the  bastion 

'salient.  The  lines  of  defense,  by  this  combination, 
are  within  the  eflfective  range  of  the  most  improved 
small-arms,  and  the  flanks  are  capable  of  receiving 
a  battery  superior  to  the  counter  batteries  that  can  be 
brought  against  them  from  the  glacis  crest  of  tlie  op- 
posite covered-way.  The  dimensions  and  form  of 
the  profile  are  such  as  experience  has  shown  will 
give  durability  and  stability  to  the  masonry  from  the 
pressure  of  the  embankments, and  the  ordinary  causes 
of  destructibility  to  which  it  is  liable  when  exposed 

'  to  the  weather.  The  rampart  and  jjarapet  have  suf- 
ficient strength  to  resi.st  the  action  of  the  heaviest 
siege  artillery  in  ordinary  use.  whilst  they  offer  to 

I  the  assailed  every  convenience  for  their  prompt  ac- 
tion, and  the  use  of  their  arms.  The  width  and  slopes 
of  the  ramps  are  regulated  for  the  passage  of   artil- 

I  lery.  Where  the  height  to  be  overcome  is  slight,  as 
that  between  the  terre-plein  and  barbette,  l\xv  slope 
of  the  ramp  may  be  as  great  as  J,  and  its  width  be 
3.30  yards.  Where  the  height  is  greater,  the  decliv- 
ity of  the  ramp  should  be  proportionally  less  steep, 
and  its  width  be  4.30  yards  at  least.  The  position  of 
the  terre-plein  with  respect  to  the  interior  crests  is 
that  usually  considered  necessarj*  to  give  shelter  to 
the  troops  and  materiel  on  it.  By  inclining  that  of 
the  bastion,  the  guns  and  troops  on  the  faces  and 
flanks  are  better  covered  from  the  enfilading  and  ri- 
cochet fire  than  they  would  be  if  the  terre-plain  was 
horizontal;  as  a  ball  passing  over  the  salient  will 
of  necessity  reach  an  inclined  terre-plein  at  a  point 
much  farther  from  the  salient  than  one  which  is 
horizontal.  The  following  is  the  summary  of  the 
principles,  anil  es.sential  details  involved  in  this  sys- 
tem. 1st.  The  enceinte  of  every  permanent  work 
should  present  an  uninterrupted  line  of  scarp  wall, 
which,  when  the  ditch  is  dry,  should  beat  least  30 
feet  high  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  2d.  All  the 
approaches  to  the  work,  beyond  the  ditcii  within  the 
effective  range  of  its  fire,  as  well  as  the  ditch  itself 
shouldbe  completelj-sweptby  thisfire.  3d.  All  scarp 
walls  should  be  sheltered  from  the  fire  of  the  enemy's 
artillerj-,  to  the  latest  moment,  by  earthen  masks. 
4th.  AH  parapets  should  be  proof  against  the  heav- 
iest projectiles,  to  which  they  may  be  exposed.  .5th. 
The  terre-plein  of  the  rampart  sliould  be  masked  by 
the  parapet  from  the  enemy's  view  :  it  should  be 
wide  enough  for  the  infantry  and  artillery  service  ; 
should  have  convenient  communications  for  these 
between  all  its  parts:  and  lietweenit  and  the  parade. 
6th.  All  outworks,  except  the  covered-ways,  should 
be  regarded  as  accessories  rather  than  indispensable 
additions  to  the  main  work.  When  properly  placed, 
they  strengthen  weak  points  and  delay  the  enemy's 
progress,  by  forcing  him  to  gain  possession  of  them 
before  he  can  advance  beyond  the  points  they  oc- 
cupy. Their  scarps,  and  the  gorges  liable  to  be 
turned  by  the  enemy,  should  be  of  masonry,  not  less 
than  12  feet  in  height.  The  more  retired  of  these 
works  should  command  the  more  advanced,  and 
where  this  rule  is  violated,  the  retired  work  should 
be  defiled  from  an_v  establishments  that  the  enemy 
might  be  able  to  make  on  the  advanced  one  by 
which  it  is  commanded.  They  should  be  command- 
ed by  the  enceinte,  and  as  far  as  practicable  Hanked 
by  I'ne  fire  of  its  small-arms,  7th.  The  covered- 
ways  are  regarded  as  indisiiensable.  Without  Ihcm 
the  commimicaticms  between  the  main  work  and  tlie 
exterior  would  not  be  secure.  Their  enibaiiUnieiits 
form, in  a  great  majority  of  cases, the  only  masks  for 
the  scarps  of  the  works  in  their  rear,  and  by  alTord- 
ing  advanced  cover  for  the  garrison,  give  the  means 
of  annoying  the  enemy  by  sharpshooters,  and  re- 
tarding hisapproacli  by  sorties  in  small  |iarties.  They 
should  be  Ihoroughly  swept  liy  the  tire  of  small-arms 
of  all  the  works  in  their  rear,  anil  have  tlicir  terre- 
plcins  delileil  from  all  conimaiidiiig  points  liable  to 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  eneiiiy.  Htli.  The  glacis 
should  be  thoroughly  swept  by  the  fire  of   ariillery 


NOLAN  RANGE-FINSEB. 


419 


NOLLE  PROSEQUI, 


anil   sinall-nrms   of   tlic   main  work  and   outworks 
where  a  fire  can  lio  liroiif;!)!,  to  liear  upon   il.     For 
this  purpose,  the  surfaees  shouhl  he  soarrani;erl  that 
their  interseelions  shall  not  form   liollows  or  ridi^es, 
wliieh  niii^lit  he  of  ailvantafji;  to  llie  enemy  in   ad- 
vaueimj;  upon  the  work.     i)tli.  The  ti'naijle  is  an  es- 
Benlial  achlilion  to  all  fronts  of  attack.     Without  it, 
the  postern  in  the  curlaiji  would  he  not  only  insecure 
but  absolutely  unserviceable  as  soon  as  the   enemy 
couhl  in  any  manner  j;ain  a  position  where  Ids  (ire 
could    l)e    broui;ht  to    bear  on   its   outlet.      It   also 
enables  the  <lefense  to  form  retrenchments  reslinp 
either  on  the   thinks  or  curtain  of  the  enceinte,  that 
cannot  bi^  turned  l)y  thi'   enemy,  and  also  olTers  a 
sheltered  place-of-amis,  in  the  ditch,  between  it  and 
the  curtain,  whidi  can  be  used  for  assemliling  troops 
against  the  enemy  in  the  ditches.     Its  relief  is  so  de- 
ternnned  that  it  shall  not  mask  the  tire  of  tlie  Hanks 
on  the  bastion-faces,  whilst  at   the  same  tinu' it  af- 
fords cover  to  the  scarp  of  the   curtain  and   Hanks. 
10th.  The  demi-huie,  when  properly  arraui^ed,  forms 
an  imiiortant  addition   to  tlu' defense.     It  covers  tlie 
curtain   and  portions  of  the  bastion-faces  near  the 
shoulder  angle  from  the  lire  of  the  enemy's  artillery, 
ami  secures  the  main  outlet  from  the  enceinte  from 
surprise.     The  arrangenu'Ut  of  thedemi-lunes  places 
the  l)astions  in  strong  re-enterings,  thus  forcing  the 
enemy  to  take  them  before  he  can   attempt  the  as- 
sault of  thcenceinte  ;  and  when  the  faces  of  the  bas- 
tions prolonged  fall  within  the  demi-lunes,  they  mask 
tliem  from  enfilading  views.     These  advantages  are 
the  more  decided  as  the  demi-lune  is  the  larger  and 
more  advanced.     Its  scarp  is  taken  23.50  feel  high  to 
afford  the  necessary  security  against  an  open  ssault, 
and  to  obtain  a  ver}'  cHicient    cut  across    its    face. 
11th.  The  denu-lune  redoulit  adds  to  the  strength  of 
the   demi-lune.     Its   arrangement    with  Hanks  adds 
directly  to  the   strength  of   the    enceinte,   as  the    re- 
verse tire  from   the  tianks  on  the  breach  in  the  bas- 
tion-face will  force   the  enemy  to  carry  the   redoubt 
before  he  can  risk  an  assault  on  the  breach.     12th. 
The  redoubt  of  the  re-entering  placc-of-arms,   adds 
greatly  to   the]  xtrength  and  M'curltii  of  the  covered 
way.     From  its  retired  jiosition,  it  can  be  occupied 
after  the  dimi-lune  has  fallen,  provided  there  is  an 
efficient  cut  in  the  demi-lune  face,  and   the  redoidjt 
has  bcendetiled  from  the  establishments  of  the  ene- 
my on  the  parapet  of  the  demi-lune.     It  also,  in  con- 
nection with   the  demi-lune,  covers  that  portion   of 
the  curtain  which  is  exposed  through  the  ditch   be- 
tween the  tenaille  and  enceinte  flank.    Its  crest  should 
mask  as  little  as  practicable  the  lire  of  the   bastion- 
face  on  the  glacis  in  advance  of  it.     Kith.  The   cut 
in  the  demi-lune  face  is  an  important  addition,  as   it 
secures  the  redoubt  of  the  re-entering  place  of  arms 
from  being  turned.     Its  position  should  be  so  chosen 
that  the  face  of  the  redoubt  may  be  Hanked  through 
it  by  the  fire  from  the  demi-lune   redoubt.     A  para- 
pet is  thrown  up  behind  the  cut  to  ilefend  it   after 
the  enemy  has  gained  possession  of  the  demi-lune 
salient.      It    should   command   the  salient  and  its 
tcrre-plein  should  be   defiled  from  the   same  point. 
14th.  The  ditches  should  furnish  the  earth  required 
for  the  embankments.     Their  dimensions,  therefore, 
will  depend  upon  the  amount  necessary  for  this  pur- 
pose.    When  water  can  be  used,  it  is  more  advan- 
tageous to  increase  the  width  at  the  expense  of  the 
depth.     The  ditches  of  the  different  works  should 
afford  no  communications  through  which  an  enemy 
might  penetrate  from  one  into  that  of  another,  anil 
thus  as.sault  the  works  by  the  rear,     l.lth.  The  com- 
munications, in  accordance  with  our  general   prin- 
ciples already  stated,  should  be  of  convenient   di- 
mensions, and  of  easy  access;  be  swept  by  the  fire 
of  the  works  in  their  rear;  be  covered  from  the  fire 
from  all  points  that  the  enemy  can  occupy  whilst 
they  are  needed;  be  secure  from  surprise,  and  from 
being  approached   in  the  rear  by  the  enemy;  anil 
not   compromise   the  safety  of  any  work   through 
■which  they  may  lead. 


A  fortification  constructed  in  keeping  with  tlie.se 
principlis,  possesHes  the  advantage  of  having  its 
dilches  thoroughly  swept  from  the  main  work  itself; 
of  bringing  a  cross  and  Hank  lint  to  bear  upon  the 
approaches  on  thesalienis  of  the  enceinte  ;  and  fur- 
iMshing  a  strong  direct  and  cross  Hre  upon  the  site 
in  advance  of  tli<^  curtains  and  the  faces  of  the  bas- 
tions. The  principal  objections  urged  against  lliiH 
particular  system  are:  1.  That  its  chief  character- 
istic, a  perfect  Hanking  disposition  for  the  entire  line 
of  the  scarp,  is  attainable  only  under  certain  relations 
between  the  n^quisite  relief  for  a  lirTUianenl  work 
and  the  lengths  of  the  exterior  hide  and  curtain, 
which  therefore  restricts  it  in  its  application  to  for. 
tifications  of  a  i)ermanent  character.  2.  That,  in  or-  . 
der  to  secure  a  suHicient  length  of  flank  for  an  ef- 
fective  flanking  disposition,  the  angle  between  the 
face  of  the  bastion  and  the  exterior  side,  termed  the 
ilirniiiinhnl  irnr/li'  of  the  [lolygon,  has  to  be  made  so 
great  as  to  decrease  considerably  the  space  inclosed 
within  the  polygon,  whilst  the  development  of  the 
lineof  the  encefnte  is  greatly  increased  by  it.  '.i.  That 
the  direction  necessarily  given  to  the  faces  from  this 
cause  throws  their  prolongations  in  positions  very 
favorable  to  the  erection  of  all  the  enfilading  batteries 
against  them.  4.  That  the  flanks,  upon  which  the 
wliole  .sj'stem  is  based,  lie  in  positions  in  which, like 
the  faces,  they  can  be  not  only  easily  enfiladed,  but 
are  further  exposed  to  a  reverse  firclrom  shot  which 
may  jiass  over  the  parapet  of  the  faces  as  well  as  the 
opposite  flank.  5.  And  that  these  objections  are 
much  the  stronger  as  the  salient  angles  of  the  poly- 
gon are  .^mailer  or  as  the  nun  ber  of  the  sides  is 
decreased.  See  Cdrmanla'gne  System  of  Fortijica- 
tiiiii.  Fiirlifii-dtnin,  and  Sifitem  i>f  Furtifimtion. 

NOLAN  RANGE  FINDER.— The  principal  parts  of 
this  instrument  are  ;  1.  Two  instruments  for  meas- 
uring angles.  2.  One  tape-line.  8.  One  reckoning 
cylinder.  Kach  of  the  two  instruments  consists  of 
two  telescopes,  which  lie  crosswise  one  above  the 
other  under  an  angle  of  about  90";  the  smaller  of  the 
two  has  a  long  arm,  with  a  vernier  at  one  end;  to 
the  other  a  sector  is  fastened,  which  is  divided  up 
into  degrees.  By  means  of  a  screw,  an  angle  of 
about  30"  can  be  described  by  the  upper  or  smaller 
telescope.  The  reekimiug  cylinder  consists  of  a 
solid  body  and  two  rotating  rings.  The  lower  ring 
and  the  lower  edge  of  the  body  are  divided  into  100 
equal  parts.  On  the  upper  ring  are  the  logarithms 
of  the  figures,  and  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  body  are 
the  logarithms  of  the  signs,  from  tj"  up  to  2"  15'. 

To  find  the  range,  the  instruments  on  their  tripods 
are  arranged  at  the  end  of  the  assumed  base-line, 
which  is  perpendicular  to  the  range;  or  the  instru- 
ments may  be  attached  to  the  right  and  left  guns  of 
a  battery.  The  long  telescopes"  are  turned  loward 
the  object  whose  distance  is  to  be  found  ;  the  smaller 
ones  upon  each  other,  and  the  cross-threads  of  each 
made  to  cover  the  cross-lines  on  the  leather  disc 
through  which  each  small  telescope  points.  The 
coincidence  obtained  by  directing  the  longer  tele- 
scope on  ,tlie  object,  the  two  angles  at  the  tiasc  are 
determined ;  the  base-line  being  measured,  one  side 
and  two  angles  of  the  triangle  arc  obtained.  With 
this  data  recourse  is  then  had  to  the  reckoning  cyl- 
inder. The  arrow  marked  "  band  "  is  set  on  the  fig- 
ure that  corresponds  with  the  distance  between  the 
instruments  or  base-line — say  34  yards;  then  set  the 
arrow  on  the  lower  ring  on  the  figure  correspond- 
ing with  the  angle  found  through  the  instrument — 
say  18"^;  then  find  the  figure  for  the  number  of  de- 
grees of  the  other  angle — say  42'^,  on  the  lower  ring. 
Just  above  that  is  the  figures  60  on  the  other  division 
of  the  lower  ring ;  coinciding  with  this  on  the  lower 
edge  of  the  upper  ring  is  the  distance,  1,320  yards. 
The  bases  used  are  conveniently  taken  from  30  to 
40  yards  for  a  range  of  3,000  yjirds  and  over.  See 
I'rutt  Rnng'-fiindfr. 

NOLLE  PROSEQUI.— An  entry  upon  the  records  of 
a  Court-Martial  by  the  plaintitf  or  the  prosecutor, 


MOMBHIL  POINT. 


420 


NORDENFELT  MACHINE  GUN. 


declaring  that  the  proceedings  against  the  defend- 
ant shall  be  discontinued.  A  NoLe  Proxequi  is  not 
equivalent  to  an  acquittal,  but  acts  merely  as  a  stay 
of  proceedings,  and  the  defendant  is  liable  at  any 
time  to  be  re-indicted.  It  may  be  entered  as  to  one 
of  several  defendants,  and  is  often  done  so  to  allow 
his  testimony  to  be  introduced  against  the  others. 
It  is  generally  in  the  discretion  of  the  prosecuting 
ofBcer  to  enter  a  nolle  prosequi,  but  in  some  cases 
leave  must  be  obtained  from  the  Court. 

NOMBRtL  POINT.— A  term  in  Heraldry.  See 
Escuti-lie'in. 

NOMENCLATURE.— Technical  designation.  Tlie 
term,  as  applied  to  military  stores,  signities  a  sys- 
'tematic  classilication  of  words  pertaining  to  each 
article  used  in  the  service.  For  nomenclature  of 
ordnance,  etc.,  see  appropriate  headings  in  this 
work. 

NON  COMBATANT.— Any  person  connected  with 
an  army,  or  within  the  lines  of  an  army,  who  does 
not  make  it  his  business  to  fight,  as  any  one  of  the 
Medical  Officers  and  their  assistants.  Chaplains,  and 
others;  also,  any  of  the  citizens  of  a  place  occupied 
by  an  army.  In  the  English  Army,  the  duties  of 
all  non-combatants  are  restricted  to  the  Civil  De- 
partment. 

NON-COMMISSIONED  OFFICERS.— Subordinate  offi- 
cers of  the  tieniTal  Staff,  Regiments  and  Compan- 
ies who  are  appointed,  not  by  commission,  but  by 
the  Secretary  of  War  or  Commanding  Officers  of 
Regiments:  The}'  are  usually  selected  on  account 
of  good  conduct  or  superior  abilities.  In  the  British 
Army,  the  Non-commissioned  Officers  constitute  a 
numerous  and  very  important  class  in  the  regimen- 
tal system  between  the  Commissioned  Officers  and 
the  men.  As  the  former  are  not  permitted  to  mix  with 
the  private  soldiers,  lest  familiarity  sliould  diminish 
tlie  sway  of  absolute  discipline,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  an  intermediate  class  to  overlook  the  men  in 
their  barracks  and  at  all  times  when  off  the  parade. 
None  are  so  suited  for  this  duty  as  the  best  conduc- 
ted of  the  men  themselves,  who  are  promoted  by 
selection  to  Non-commissioned  rank,  and  hold  many 


Fig.  1. 

privileges  and  powers  unallainable  by  the  privates. 
The  Non-commissioned  Officers  comprise  the  Ser- 
geants-Major, and  all  the  S<'rgeanls,  i\w.  'I'ruuqtcters, 
DruMimcrs,  and  liuglcrs,  and,  in  the  Life  Guards, 
and  Royal  Horse  (iuanls  only  the  Corporals.  Tliey 
can  be  reduced  to  the  ranks  by  sentence  of  a  Court 
Martial,  or  by  thci'  Colonel  Commandant;  but  not 


by  a  Lieutenant  Colonel  nor  by  any  Junior  Officer. 

Non-commissioned  Officers  are  entitled  to  quarters 
for  their  wives,  or  lodging  mouey  in  lieu  of  quarters. 
Accustomed  themselves  to  obey,  the  Non-coranus- 
ioued  Officers  are  admirable  assistants  in  preserv- 
ing discipline;  veterans,  to  whom  military  life  is  a 
second  nature,  they  are  looked  up  to  b}'  their  cf)m- 
rades  as  examples,  to  lead  in  battle  or  to  teaeli  in 
drill.  The  Non-commissioned  Officers  have  a  mess 
to  themselves.  In  a  battalion  of  infantry  at  home, 
there  were,  in  1874.  58  Non-commissioned  Officers 
to  530  rank  and  file:  in  India,  66  to  830;  but  the 
rank  and  file  may  be  greatly  augmented  withoiit 
affecting  the  number  of  Non-commissioned  Officers. 
In  the  whole  British  army  (European)  for  the  year 
1874-75,  there  were  30,  U49  Non-commissioned  Offi- 
cers. This  rank  is  a  necessity  in  all  armies;  in 
France,  the  Non-commissioned  Officers  are  termed 
Sinia-Offiferii;  in  Germany,  Vinter-Offizieren. 

NON-EFFECTIVE.— The  term  applied  to  the  por- 
tion of  the  personnel  of  the  army  or  navy  not  on  ac- 
tive service  or  in  immediate  readiness  for  active  ser- 
vice. It  thus  comprises  all  officers  on  retired  or 
half-pay,  pensioners,  and  superannuated  officers. 
In  a  force  liable  to  frequent  augmentations  and  re- 
ductions,the  non-eft'ective  charge  must  be  considera- 
ble, and  a  large  retirement  is  necessar_y,  in  order 
to  rapid  promotion.  The  great  French  war,  also, 
with  the  reductions  following  it,  bequeathed  to  the 
British  an  annual  non-effective  charge  of  several  mil- 
lions, which  is  not  yet  wholly  expunged.  In  1878-79, 
the  non-effective  charges  were  £3,344.912  for  the 
the  army,  and  £1,887,571  for  the  navy,  being  up- 
wards of  16  per  cent  on  the  gross  cost  of  the  two  ser- 
vices. 

NOOSE. — A  rinming  knot,  which  binds  the  closer 
the  more  it  is  drawn.    See  Cordage,  Knots,  and  Lasso. 

NON-POLAR  PROJICTILES.— A  designation  ap- 
plied to  projectiles  which  do  not  keep  the  same  end 
or  aspect  foremost  throughout  their  courses. 

NORDENFELT  MACHINE  GUN.— In  addition  to  the 
older  mechanism  devised  by  Mr.  Nordenfelt  for  his 
well-known  four-barrel  1-inch  gun,  he  has  lately  in- 


FiL,'.  •-', 

troduced  modifications  more  suitable  for  two  or  three 
barrels,  and  as  several  of  these  new  guns  liiive  been 
recently  tried  with  great  success  at  Portsmouth  and 
elsewhere,  we  give  a  complete  description  of  :ill  the 
Nordenfelt  vcilley  guns  now  miide.  In  order  In  ex- 
plain the  differences  in  the  meeluinism  used  for  the 
several  guns,   we  will  commence  our   description 


BOBDEBFELT  MACHINE  OUN. 


421 


HOaDEHFELT  MACHINE  GCN. 


with  two  of  the  1-inch  guns  as  representatives  of  the 

two  Hj'stcins. 

Tilt!  fiiur-harrH  X.inch  gun,  AdmiriiUy  jinWrn. — 
When  tlic  u.S(?  of  the  torpedo  Ijoiil  luiaiiii'  fir'ncnil, 
it  foUowud  as  a  iicccuHiiry  (■oii.si'(|Uciici'  tluil  a  iiicaiiM 
of  defence  must  be  provided  afj;ainst  llie.se  swift  and 
destructive  little  vessels,  and  the  Hrilisli  Adiniralty 
searched  for  a  weapon  haviiii;  suMi<ient  penetrating 
power  to  dain»i;(-  the  l)oiler  of  a  torpeilo  boat  at  a 
distance  of  from  liOO  to  . '>()()  yards.  Otiier  essential 
conditions  required  were  that  I  he  f;un  could  l)e 
fired  so  rapidly  that  it  would  almost  certainly  score 
asuHii'ient  mimber  of  hits  on  an  approacliinjj;  tor- 
pedo boat  to  insure  its  bcini;  disabled  during  its  run 
at  fidl  speed  from  the  distance  named,  before  it 
could  reach  the  vessel  attacked,  or  which  could  l)e 
flred  so  rapidly  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  the 
boat  to  discharge  a  Whitehead  torpedo  at  such  a 
range  that  the  missile  would  have  any  reasonable 
chanci'  of  hilling  ils  mark.  After  various  I'oinpeli- 
lions  the  Adiniralty  deciiled  iu  fuvor  of  the  Morden- 
felt  gun. 

The  four-barrel  gun,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  consists  of 
a  rectangular  framework  of  wrought  iron,  the  sides 
of  wliicli  art!  connected  by  three  jilales  or  transoms. 
The  four  barrels  are  placed  sid('  by  si<li'  in  the  fraiix', 
their  muzzle  ends  passing  through  the  front  cross- 
pie<'e.  while  the  breech  ends  are  screwed  into  the 
middle  transom.  In  the  rear  of  the  middle  cross- 
piece  is  the  action  block,  which  is  capable  of  move- 
ment backwards  and  forwards.  In  front  of  this 
action  block  are  four  breech  plugs,  corresponding  to 
the  barrels.  These  are  of  steel  pierced  with  a  tdian- 
nel,  iu  which  a  tiring  pin  or  striker  moves  freely, 
and  they  are  furnished  with  an  extractor  on  the 
right  side.  Behind  each  plunger  is  a  hiininu'r,  with 
a  projecting  t<'non,  and  behind  the  hammer  is  a 
strong  s])iral  siiring. 

The  trunnions  til  into  a  cross-head  pivoting  on  a 
cone,  which  is  tirmly  fixed  to  the  side  or  other  part 
of  the  ship,  where  the  gun  is  to.be  tired.  The  train- 
ing is  given  by  a  hand-wheel,  which  works  a  worm 
gearing  into  a  horizontal  tootlied  rack  attached  to  the 
top  of  the  cone.  The  elevation  is  produced  liy  a 
wheel  working  a  dilTerential  screw.  One  turn  of  the 
training  wheel  gives  (i  degrees  of  training,  and  one  of 
the  elevating  wheel  12  degrees  of  elevation  or  depress- 
ion. The  action  of  the  mechanism  is  as  follows. 
Supposing  the  discharge  to  have  been  just  completed, 
that  the  lock  closes  the  breech  end  of  the  barrels,  and 
is  still  secured  in  its  place  by  the  two  bolts  ;  1.  The 
handle  begins  to  move  to  the  rear  ;  the  friction  rol- 
ler traverses  the  concentric  part  of  the  action  i)late. 
and  the  action  block  remains  steady.  The  spring 
and  the  heel  of  I  he  lever,  acting  on  the  trigger  comb, 
drive  It  from  right  to  left.  2.  As  the  movement  con- 
tinues, the  action  lever  acts  on  the  locking-bolt  plate, 
and  withdraws  the  bolts  leaving  the  action  block  free. 
3.  At  the  moment  these  bolts  are  withdrawn  the 
friction  roHer  engages  in  the  straight  part  of  the 
action  plate,  and  the  action  block  begins  to  move 
back,  drawing  with  it  the  breech  plugs,  which  ex- 
tract the  cartridge  cases  4.  When  the  breech  plugs 
are  clear  the  friction  roller  on  the  action  block  bears 
against  the  forked  arm  and  so  pushes  the  carrier  to 
the  left.  At  the  same  time  the  cocking  cam  begins 
to  press  against  the  tooth  of  the  trigger  comb,  carry- 
ing the  hitter  to  the  right.  The  empty  cartridge 
cases  fall  to  the  ground  and  are  readily  replaced 
by  filled  ones.  The  tenons  of  the  hammers  pass  be- 
hind the  teeth  of  the  trigger  comb,  which  is  driven 
to  the  left  by  the  spring,  or  by  tlie  cocking  cam,  as 
the  action  block  moves  forward.  The  handle  moves 
forward  with  the  following  effects  :  1.  The  fric- 
tion roller  on  the  action  lever  acts  on  the  director, 
and  moves  the  action  block  to  the  front.  The  action 
block,  pressing  against  the  fork,  drives  the  carrier 
to  the  right,  thus  placing  the  cartridges  in  line  with 
the  barrels.  2.  The  action  block  advances  to  the  front 
and  the   spiral  springs  are  compressed   by  the  ham- 


mers, which  are  kept  bark  by  the  trigger  comb.  The 
plungers  push  the  cartridges  into  Die  barrels,  a. 
When  till-  carlriilges  an-  qiiile  homer,  the  action 
block  stops,  and  the  stud  on  the  action  lever  causes 
the  closinj'  cam  to  drive  the  bolls  into  the  lioles  in 
the  gun  frame,  so  that  the  breech  dosing  is  <!om- 
lilete.  4.  The  action  lever  now  bi-gins  to  carry  the 
trigger  comb  to  the  right.  Kacli  hammer  is  released 
in  turn  from  the  toriih  which  retains  it,  and  the 
striker  pertaining  lo  it  is  ilriven  forward  in  consc- 
()uence.  The  action  of  the  drill  slop  is  this:  The 
hand  lever  is  brought  up  by  it  before  it  has  com- 
pleted the  back  stroke,  so  that  the  hammers  cannot 
pass  behind  the  trigger  comb.  Thus,  the  gun  is  not 
iull  cocked,  l)ecause  the  springs  are  not  compressed 
whi'ii  the  action  block  moves  forward.  The  gun  is 
sighted  up  to  1,800  yards,  and  the  sight  is  so  litted 
that  it  can  be  moved  nji  and  down  by  means  of  a 
rack  and  pinion.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
prhicipal  advaiilages  claimed  for  guns  made  on  the 
Nordeiifelt  system:  They  are  strong  and  simple, and 
the  whole  mechanism,  as  well  as  the  springs  and 
tiring  pins,  can  be  taken  out  without  the  use  of  any 
tools  ;  they  lire  either  single  shots  or  volleys  of  four 
shots  each  as  desired.  The  cartridges  are  fed  to  each 
iKirrel  from  its  own  comiiiirlnient,  iind  imlependent 
of  the  otlii'i's,  so  that  if  one  or  more  barrels  become 
damaged  the  lire  can  be  continued  from  the  remain- 
ing barrels.  The  gun  is  free  from  any  jKissihle 
llaliility  to  jam,  more  es])ecially  after  some  of  the 
ini|)rovements  recently  adopted  by  the  Admiralty. 
In  order  to  test  these  improvements,  2.000  rounds 
were  tired  very  rapidly  without  any  hitch  or  jam 
whatever  and  most  of  the  vessels  at  the  bombard- 
ment of  Alexandria  were  armed  with  these  guns, 
lirhig  m:iny  thousands  of  rounds  without  any  failure 
or  dilliculty.  Uesides  their  principid  obj.-ct  as  de- 
fense against  torpedo  boats,  these  guns  are  especially 
useful  for  firing  against  the  guns  ami  rifiemen  in  the 
enemy's  tops,  even  if  iirotected  by  shields — against 
conning  towers  and  gun-ports— and  in  Egypt  they 
have  been  recently  used  for  firing  through  the  port- 
holes of  forts,  and  mounted  on  railway  trucks,  they 
have  served  forking  range  firing  against  troops.  The 
cajiacity  of  the  system  for  verv  nipid  firing  of  steel 
projectiles  of  larger  caliber  tlian  rifie  bullets,  makes 
it  a  very  valuable  weapon,  even  for  purposes  where, 
perhaps,  strictly  speaking,  small  shells  might  be  more 
suitable,  because  with  the  modem  swift  vessels  a 
slow-firing  machine  gun  has  really  very  little  chance 
against  a  quick-volley  gun  for  purposes  where  the 
latter  has  sufficient  penetrating  power. 

llie  double-barrel  \-inch  guii — This  double-barrel 
1-inch  gun,  shown  in  Fig.  2,  has  been  made  for  the 
purpose  of  being  mounted  on  torpedo  boats,  where 
the  four-barrel  1-inch  gun  has  been  considered  too 
heavy.  The  gun  weighs  only  li  cwt.,  and  its  naval 
carriage  and  stand  weigh  together  IGH  pounds. 
Counting  345  pounds  for  SOOrounds  of  amnuinilion, 
80  pounds  for  hoppers,  and  132  pounds  for  the  gun- 
ner, the  weapon,  with  mounting  ammunition  and 
gunner  complete,  weighs  8  cwt.,  which  is  well  with- 
in the  limits  that  can  conveniently  be  carried  on  a 
torpedo  boat.  When  not  in  action,  >.  e,  when  the 
gunner  and  ammunition  arc  below,  the  weight  of  gun 
and  mounting  is  only  one-third  of  the  weight  of  the 
Nordenfelt  four-barrel  gun.  It  fires  the  same  l-inch 
steel-shot  cartridges  aslhe  four-barrel  gun.  and  with 
exactly  the  same'initial  velocity  of  1,500  feet.  Its 
penetrating  power  is  consciiuenlly  the  same  as  that 
of  the  four-barrel  1-inch  gun  already  described.  The 
accuracy  of  fire  is  also  the  same  when  firing  very 
slowly,  and  is  somewhat  higher  when  firing  more 
rapidly,  because  its  volley  of  two  shots  causes  less 
vibrationto  the  weapon  from  accumulated  recoil  than 
the  volley  of  four  shots.  The  rai)idity  of  fire  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  barrels  is  somewhat  great- 
er than  that  of  the  four-barrel  gun. because  the  stroke 
of  the  lever  is  shorter.  The  four-barrel  gun  fires  ten 
volleys  in  eight  to  ten  seconds ,  this  two-barrel  gun 


NOEDENFELT  MACHINE-GUN. 


422 


NOEDENFELT  MACHINE-GUN. 


fires  ten  volleys  in  six  to  seven  seconds.  This  gun 
thus  fires  twenty  shots  in  six  to  seven  seconds,  and  it 
fires  sixty  shots  in  the  half  minute.  As  will  be  seen, 
the  rectangular  frame  is  made  in  one  piece,  with  the 
center  cross-bar  dovetailed  into  it,  and  the  front 
cross-piece  bolted  on  to  its  fore  end.  Tlie  barrels 
are  screwed  into  the  center  cross-piece  and  pass 
throiigh  the  front  cross-piece.  The  action  cam  is  cut 
into  the  cam  plate  and  is  driven  by  the  friction  roller 
on  the  action  lever,  which  again  is  moved  by  the  firing 
handle,  keyed  on  to  the  axis  pin.  The  breech  plugs 
are  made  in  one  piece  with  the  cam  plate, and  contain 
the  firing  pins.  On  the  upper  face  of  the  cam  plate 
are  two  studs  which  pull  back  the  hammers.  The 
action  block  is  moved  right  and  left  by  the  rear  end 
of  the  action  lever.  In  the  action  block  there  are 
four  grooves,  two  of  which  receive  the  breech  plugs 
when  drawn  back,  the  other  two  contain  the  ham- 
mers and  spiral  springs,  which  are  held  within  them 
by  the  back  plate,  which  carries  the  pressure  of  the 
action  block  on  to  the  rear  of  the  frame  itself.  Tlie 
cartridge  receiver  is  moved  right  and  left  in  front  of 
the  action  block  by  two  lugs  or  cams  on  the  cam 
plate.  The  trigger  comb  is  inserted  into  the  action 
block,  and  is  held  by  a  spring  ;  '.he  sloping  surfaces 
of  the  hammer  studs  move  it  to  the  one  side  to  catch 
the  hammers, and  the  trigger  comb  is  pushed  against 
the  side  of  the  frame  in  order  to  release  the  hammers 
when  the  shots  are  to  be  fired,  showing  the  parts 
separately.  The  operation  of  the  mechanism  of  the 
Nordenfelt  machine-gun  may  be  described  briefly  as 
follows,  supposing  a  discharge  to  have  just  taken 
place  :    1.  The  tiring  handle  travels  to   the  rear, 


supports  the  rear  of  the  breech  plugs,  the  back  plate 
of  the  action  block  resting  firmly  against  the  rear  of 
the  frame.  4.  The  movement  of  the  action  block 
to  the  riglii  pushes  the  trigger  comb  against  the 
inner  side  of  the  frame  until  the  hammers  are  re- 
leased and  the  shots  fired.  The  principal  advantages 
claimed  for  this  system,  in  addition  to  those  men- 
tioned above  for  the  four-barrel  gun,  and  which  also 
apply  to  this  weapon,  arc  the  great  simplicity  of  the 
mechanism, in  which  the  number  of  parts  is  16  in  all, or 
only  8  parts  per  barrel.  Tlie  movemeuts  of  the 
parts  of  the  mechanism  are  all  inside  the  frame,  so 
that  the  action  block  does  not  move  beyond  the  rear 
part  of  the  frame.  When  the  firing  handle  is  held 
for^vard  in  the  position  in  which  the  gun  would 
travel,  the  entire  mechanism  is  inclosed,  so  that  not 
even  the  slots  for  the  extraction  of  fired  cartridge 
cases  are  open.  This  makes  this  system  especially 
suitable  for  guns  which  are  exposed  to  dust  and 
storms  of  sand. 

In  the  following  article  are  described  all  the  Nor- 
denfelt  volley -tiring  guns  which  are  at  present 
manufactured  :  No.  1.  2 ico-barrellh  iiich gun — This 
tj'pe  weighs  4 J  cwt.,  and  fires  steel  shot  and  shell 
weighing  23  ounces,  with  an  initial  velocity  of  1,600 
feet,  giving  a  penetration  of  li  inches  into  an  iron 
plate  at  300  yards ;  the  shells  iiave  580  grains  burst- 
ing charge.  This  gun  is  made  to  compete  with  re- 
volving cannon  of  the  same  caliber  which  fire  16 
ounce  shells  with  337  grains  bursting  charge  and 
1,390  feet  initial  velocity,  giving  a  penetration  of  \\ 
inches  at  300  yards  range.  The  rapidity  of  fire  is 
about  40  shots  per  half  minute.  Both  guns  are  about 


Fig.  3. 


while  the  friction  roller  moves  along  the  concentric 
part  of  the  action  cam,  the  plungers  remaining  steady 
in  order  to  give  sulticient  support  to  the  cartridge 
case  after  the  discharge.  The  rear  end  of  the  action 
lever  during  this  movement  brings  the  action  block 
over  to  the  left  and  allows  the  spring  to  pusli  the 
of  trigger  comb  into  position.  2.  The  continued 
rearward  movement  causes  the  cam  plate  to  draw 
back  the  breech  plugs  into  their  grooves  in  the  ac- 
ti<m  block,  after  which  the  lugs  upon  it  move  the 
cartridge  receiver  over  to  the  left  to  take  a  fresh 
layer  oif  cartridges.  3.  .lust  before  the  rearward 
movement  is  completed  the  hauuners  are  caught  by 
the  studs  on  the  trigger  comb.  The  forward  move- 
nu-nl  of  the  tiring  handle  has  the  following  effect : 
1.  It  forces  the  lugs  on  the  cam  plate  against  the 
cartridge  receiver  and  inishes  it  to  the  right  so  that 
the  cartridges  are  in  a  line  with  the  chambers  in  the 
barrels.  2.  The  cam  plate  is  driven  forward,  and 
the  breech  plugs  enter  the  grooves  in  the  cartridge 
n-ceiver,  pusliing  the  earlridgcs  into  the  clianibers. 
3.  When  the  lirecch  plugs  have  closed  the  lireech, 
thi!  rear  end  of  the  action  lever  jiuslies  llic  action 
block  over  to  tin-  right  imlil  tin-  hammers  couic  in  a 
line  with  the  tiring  pins,  when  the  action  block  fully 


the  same  weight ;  the  Nordenfelt  is,  however,  the 
more  rapid  of  the  two,  as  it  tires  a  volley  of  two  shots 
for  every  single  shot  fired  by  the  revolving  gun. 
No.  2.  Two-barrel  \\  inch  gun.  This  weighs  3J  cwt., 
and  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  No.  1,  and  for  the 
same  purposes.  Its  shell  weighs  14L  ounces,  with 
460  grains  bursting  charge,  but  its  greater  initial 
velocity  of  1,500  feet  gives  to  this  gun  the  same 
penetrating  power  as  the  \\  inch  revolving  gun, 
with  its  rapidity  of  fire  and  slightly  less  weight  of  gun. 
No.  3.  Two-barrel  1-inch  {heary)  gun. — Is  made  to 
No.  3  pattern,  with  exceptionally  l<mg  barrels.  The 
weight  is 4  cwt, and  it  fires  solid  steel  shot  of  9^  ounces 
(shells  are  not  allowed  for  this  weight  of  projectile). 
This  steel  shot  gave  at  Porlsmouth  an  initial  velocity 
of  2,009  feet  jjer  second  and  penetrated  a  2-inch  sol- 
id iron  jilale  at  300  yards  range.  This  gun  has  been 
made  for  defense  against  torpedo  boats  if  in  future 
any  cnuutry  should  carry  out  the  idea  to  arm  such 
vulnerable  parts  as  boiler  and  engines  with  1-incli 
steel  plates.  No.  4,  Ftnir-lmrrcl  X-im-h  (midium') 
gun— TUt'  type  of  this  gun  is  illustrated  liy  Fig.  1. 
It  tires  8.9-o"unces  solid  steel  bullets,  with  1,6.50  feet 
initial  velocity,  and  gives  greater  penetration  than 
the   four-barrel    1-inch   English  Admiralty   gun;  it 


NORDENFELT  MACHINE  GUN. 


423 


HOEDENFELT  MACHINE  OUH. 


weightB  about  ^  cwt.  more,  and  i»  rnoiint  to  be  ugfd 
for  tlic  siinic  imrpDHCM  and  in  the  hhiiic  iiianucras  tlit.' 
ordinary  four-tiarrc!  1-inch  j;un  No.  (1,  l)y  any  Navy 
tliul  may  desire  to  liave  ^^rcatiT  iicnctratiiit;  power 
at  till!  cost  of  more  expensive  aniniiiiiilinn  and  vvilli- 
oiil  redneini^  llie  rapidity  of  (ire.     No.  !j.   /<'iur-/i(irrii 


\-iiirJi  (/'III  'I'lds  unn  is  sijniliir  to  No.  0  and  I'restli 
Haine  arnjunnilion  ;  it  coMsecinently  lias  I  lie  same  jjen- 
etratintf  power  but  lires  30  per  cenl.  nion-  rapidlj' 
and  weii;lis  k  ewt.  more  liian  the  four-barrel  ^iin. 
No.  (i.  Fiiur-harrel  l-inrh  i/i/m— Tliis  gun  has  been 
already  fully  described  as  representing  Hie  Norden- 
felt  volley  guns  with  more  (ban  three  tiarrels.  No. 
7.  Tinii-hiii-rii  \-inch  r/ii.ii  -This  gun  has  also  been 
noticed  (  Fig.  2),  as  represeiitativit  of  the  [latlorn  of 
volley  guns  with  less  than  four  barrels,  and  is  prcp- 
poseil  for  arming  torpedo  l)oats,  as  being  the  lightest 
volley  gun  made  with  siiflicient  penetrating  power 
for  this  purpose,  the  only  other  guu  of  less  weight  of 
any  other  system  with  sulHcient  jienetrating  power, 
being  the  Nordenfelt  s' 


,  single-barrel  IJ  inch  shell-gun. 
No.  8.  Ticeliv-hnrrii  rijlr-crilihtr  gun;  and  No.  'J. 
Ten.harrel  rifle  caliber  guii.  fully  illustrated  in  Fig. 
'A.  These  machine-guns  weigh  about  2.',  cwt.  and 
3  cwt.,  re.=ipectively,  and  Hre  1,200  "and  1,000 
rounds  per  minute.  Thej'  are  constructed  after 
the  same  pattern  as  the  four-barrel  English  gun, 
and  are  especially  designed  for  naval  as  well  as  for 
land  service,  in  competition  with  the  tive-barrel 
Gardner  gun.  At  the  Slioeburyness  trials  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1H81,  the  ten-barrel  Nordenfelt  did  not  act 
(|uile  so  well  as  it  shonlil  have  done  in  cousecjuence 
of  it  having  been  adjusted  to  incorrect  ammunition, 
but  after  the  extraciing  and  feeding  gear  had  been 
[Hit  in  order,  the  gun  worked  to  perfection  at  all 
the  Portsmouth  trials  in  July,  1H82.  On  that  occa- 
sion it  tired  3.000  rounds  in  three  minutes  three 
seconds  without  any  hitch  or  jam  wliatever,  and  it 
worked  so  easily  that  the  same  man  tireil  the  whole 
of  the  3,000  rounds  without  any  relief ;  immediately 
after  the  tiring  ceased,  the  officers  ascertained  that 
the  gun  was  in  perfect  order  and  worked  quite  as 
easily  as  at  the  commencement. 

For  laud  service  they  have  been  recommended 
more  especially  for  two  purposes.  First,  for  acting 
on  the  thinks  of  artillery  for  the  protection  of  artil- 
lery against  infantry  lire.  The  enemy's  infantry 
could  never  advance  so  close  up  to  a  battery  of  artil- 
lery as  to  force  it  to  retire  if  the  battery  had  on  each 
flank  a  ten-barrel  gun  firing  ritle  cartridges,  and  ca- 
valry w(>uld  never  charge,  or  could  never  reach  a 
battery  protected  thus  by  two  guns  capalile  of  a  very 
rapid  tire  continuously  poured  out  of  it,  wliile  the 
gimner  who  aims  the  guu  wovdd  all  the  time  follow 
the  movements  of  the  advancing  cavalry.  The  ten- 
barrel  guns  are  mounted  on  an  ordinary  light  field 
carriage  with  its  limber  which  holds  4,000  rounds 
(Fig.  3).  Four  horses  easily  manage  the  gun  and 
Umber,  three  men  ride  on  the  limber,  and  the  Cap- 
tain of  the  guu  is  separately  mounted.  The  second 
purpose  for  which  this  t_ype  is  adapted  is  especially 
for  position  defense.  Wherever  machine-guns  can 
be  used  in  such  positions  that  there  is  little  or  no  dif- 
ficulty to  provide  ammunition,  and  where  it  is  not 
required  to  lift  the  gun  about  too  often,  the  ten-bar- 
rel Nordenfelt  is  to  be  recommended.  Even  with  its 
great  rapidity  of  fire  it  does  not  require  any  greater 
number  of  gunners  to  serve  it  than  the  five-barrel 
guns. 

It  has  been  stated  that  a  machine-gun  wastes  am- 
munition, but  this  is  not  tlie  ease,  because  it  must 
score  a  nuich  greater  percentage  of  hits  than  has 
been  recorded  in  recent  wars  from  rifle  fire.  This  is 
quite  natural,  because  the  gun  has  no  nerves  and  is 
not  fired  from  the  unsteady  shoulder  of  a  man  pant- 
ing with  fatigue  or  excitement— and  a  soldier  would 
commence  to  fire  his  rifle  at  long  range  (where  he 
wastes  Ills  shots)  for  fear  tliat  he  might  not  be  able 
to  stop  in  time  an  enemy  who  outnumbers  him.  If 
he  has  a  gun  that  fires  1,000  rounds  a  minute,  he, 


would   keep  cool  and  aim  carefully,  well  knowing 
that  when  he  does  commence  lire  at  short  range  no 
enemy  can  face  il .     The  No.  10.  Sc-ceii-harrel  rifli-i-ali. 
her  fjan;  and   \\u- 'Hit.  W.  Fice-lmrrel  riJleuuiUlier yun 
are  each  made  to  the  jiatleni  of  tlie  four-barrel  gun. 
with  such  alterations  in  llii'  inner  mechanism  as  are, 
nei  fssary.in  conse(|ueiice  of  the  gun  being  narrower. 
They  weigh  \\  cwt.  and  1  cwt.  res|)eclively,  and  lire 
with  a  rajiidily  of  7.'")0  and  000    rouiuls  pir  minute. 
The  llvi'-barri'l   gun    has    lintd    3,000    rounds    in    5 
minutes  ,5  seconds  without  any  hitch   or  jam  ;   the 
same  man  firing  tlie  whole  of  tlie  3,0(XJ  rounds  with- 
out relief.     It  has  also  fired  at  30  degrees  elevation, 
and  at 30  degrees  depression,  tlie  feeding  andexlrao 
tion  giving  iierfect  satisf.ution.     For  the  very  rapid 
movements  of  mounled  infantry, and  to  save  "lime  In 
dismounting  the  gun  for  tiring,  and  mounting  it  again 
when  it  has  to  be  moved,  a  very  light  carriage  has 
been  made  at  the  suggestion  of  Lord  Charles  IJeres- 
ford,  on   four  wheels,  to  be  drawn  by   two  horses 
driven  by  a  man  sitting  on  his  box  on  the  two  front 
wheels.     The  gun  is  mounted  at  the  rear  of  the  car- 
riage, and  is  fired  fnjin   it  without  taking  out  the 
horses;  3,000  rounds  of  ammunition  are  carried  on 
the  same  carriage,  as  well  as  the  gunner  wlio  fires 
(he  gun,  and  .a  second   man  who  looks   after  and 
supplies  the  ammunition.  'Hie  remainder  of  the  ser- 
vice for  the  gun  are  mounted  on  spare  horses,  liar- 
nessed  so  as  to  replace  quickly  any  of  the  driven 
horses  that  become  disabled      'I'lie  carriage  itself  is 
so  light  that  it  carries  a  shield  to  protect  the  gun  and 
the  gunners,  and  also  to  prot(,'ct  'he  horses  against 
direct  lire  from  the  enemy's  rifles  during  the  time  the 
gun  is  fired.    This  shiehl  enables  the  giin  to  advance 
within  shorter  distance  of  the  enemy's  rifle  fire  than 
could  otherwise  be  done,  and  allows  the  gun  to  be 
kept  at  shorter  and  more  effective  ranges  when  re- 
tiring before  infantry.     The  essential   idea  of  this 
mode  of  using  the  gun  is  of  course  to  make  all  pos- 
sible use  of  its  exceedingly  rapid  movements,  to  rush 
forward  to  a  comparatively  close  range  against  in- 
fantry or  artillery,  taking  t"he  risk  of  being  disabled 
while  galloping  forwanis  (much  in  the  same  way  as 
the  men  in  a  torpedo  boat  take  the  risk  when  ap- 
proaching a  vessel).     In  infantry  service  the  gun  is 
mounted  on  its  own  limber  (Fig.  4), from  which  it  is 
fired;  the   limber,   as   represented  in  th,e   drawing, 
is   on  two  wheels,  the  pole  acting  as   a   trail  wdien 
the  gun  is  to  be  fired.     In  this  case,  as  well  as  in  the 
previous  one,  the  gun  can  be  trained  nearly  all  round 
by  means  of  a  traversing  screw  without  shifting  the 
position  of  the  carriage.     When  mounted  for  infantry 
on  the  two-wheel  limber  carriage  it  can  be  served 
with  six  men  with  drag-ropes.  "  If  desirable,  there 
can  be  four  men  dragging,  the  other  two  acting  as 
reliefs  when  changing  the  men  at  the  ropes,  or  as 
spare  men  if  any  of  tlie  others   are  di.sabled.     With 
the  Captain  of  the  gun  there  would  thus  be  only  seven 
men  required.     The  five-barrel  gun  can  also  be  used 
for  mountain  service  with  advantage,  the  gun  and 
the  trail  being  quite  light  enough  to  be  carried  each 
on  a  mule,  a  third  mule  taking  the  wheels  and  axle, 
and  a  fourth  the  ammunition,  hoppers,  and  imple- 
ments, with  other  mules  for  spare  ammunition — the 
only  difference  from  .the  three-barrel  gun  being  that 
this  would  require  an  additional  mule  for  the   gun 
and  carriage  and  more  ammunition.     On  the  other 
hand  its  fire  w-ould  be  more  effective,  and  only  the 
same  luimber  of  men  are  required  to  serve  it."      It 
could  also  be  placed  in  an  ammunition  wagon  for  the 
use  of  infantry,  though  only  four   five-barrel  guns 
could  be  carried,  if  cTosely  packed,   by  the  wagon 
within    the  same   weight   as   si.x   live-barrel   guns. 
No.  12.   2'lirec-harri'l  rifle-caliber  gun  ;  and  No.  13,* 
Tiro-biirrel  rifle-caliber  gun.     These  are  made  to  the 
pattern  of  the  two-barrel  volley  gun.     They  weigh 
respectively  riS  pounds  and  40  i)ounds,  and  fire  at 
the  rate  of  400  and  300  rounds  per  minute.     For  na- 
val service  they  are  not  used  at    present,  because  tlie 
five-barrel  Norileiifelt  is  quite  light  enough  for  all  na- 


NORMAL  PROFILE. 


424 


flORHAL  PROFILE. 


val  purposes,  but  for  land  service  tbey  are  very  use- 
ful, in  consequence  of  tin  ir  lishtnessand  simplicity. 
The  three-barrel  gun  does  not  weigh  more  than  tlie 
Gardner  one-barrel,  and  the  Nordenfelt  three-barrel 
gun  consists  of  thirty-tive  pieces  compared  to  thirty- 
three  pieces  in  the  Gardner  one-barrel..  All  these  light 
Nordenfelt  guns  are,  like  those  of  larger  calibers, 
made  almost  entirely  of  best  wrought  steel  instead  of 
the  gun-metal  so  freely  used  in  some  other  types  of 
machine-guns.  In  order  not  to  be  exposed  to  rust, 
these  light  Nordenfelt  steel  guns  are  carefully  and 
completely  covered  over  in  a  galvanic  bath  with  a 
coating  of  copper  which  protects  the  guns  as  well 
as  all  the  various  parts  of  the  mechanism  except  the 
actual  wearing  surfaces.  These  types  are  designed 
especially  for  the  following  purposes:  1.  Fur  cnv- 
alry. — The  gun  is  so  light  and  so  convenient  in  shape 
that  it  can  be  carried  on  a  led  horse  at  the  same 
speed  as  the  cavalry  advances  without  disabling  the 
horse.  One  led  horse  would  then  be  required  fur 
the  gun  and  implements,  one  led  horse  for  the  stand 
from  which  it  is  to  be  tired  when  the  gun  is  dis- 
mounted, and  one  led  horse  for  the  cartridge  hop- 
pers or  feed  cases  tilled  with  ammunition.  Other 
horses  or  baggage  wagons  would  carry  the  e.xtra 
supply  of  ammunition.  2.  Fur  mounta'n  sire'cs. — 
A  gun  nmle  which  can  carry  2  cwt.,  including  sad- 


— except,  perhaps,  as  a  wall  piece — when  it  is  proved 
that  I  ven  a  tliree-barrel  gun  can  be  made  light  enough 
to  be  carried  by  a  man  on  his  shoulder.  A  General 
would  probably  not  submit  to  the  expense  and  incon- 
venience of  a  macliine-guu  eiiuipnient  and  service  of 
men  and  mules  for  gun  and  ammunition,  when  the 
efficiency  of  the  gun  is  entirely  dependent  on  one 
single  ritlc  barrel.     See  Machitn'-rjun. 

NORMAL  PROFILE.— Profile  which  would  be  con- 
structed for  a  work  located  upon  a  level  site,  and 
when  there  is  time  to  build  it.  It  is  evident  that 
great  variations  must  occur,  influenced  largely  liy 
the  hind  of  eartli  and  the  surrounding  circumstances 
at  the  time  of  the  construction.  Slopes  which  are 
practicable  in  one  kind  of  earth  will  not  retain  their 
shapes  in  other  kinds.  Parapets  placed  on  sites  com- 
manding all  ground  in  common  range  need  not  be 
so  high  as  those  on  lower  ground  commanded  by 
neighboring  heights.  The  principles  laid  down  and 
the  reasons  expressed  for  the  normal  profile  apply 
equally  well  to  all  its  variations.  A  consideration 
of  the  following  jirinciples  will  lead  to  the  construc- 
tion of  a  strong  profile  which  is  essential  to  a  vigor- 
ous defense.  Men  of  the  greatest  ordinary  stature, 
in  bringing  their  muskets  lo  an  aim,  do  not  fire  at  a 
higher  level  than  about  five  feet ;  therefore  any 
mass  of  this  height  in  front  of  them  will  just   inter- 


Fig.  4. 


die,  would  carrj-  the  gun  and  stand.  A  second 
mule  would  carry  the  wheels,  axle,  and  cartridge 
hoppers  filled,  and  other  mules  would  carry  the 
extra  supply  of  ammunition  wanted  for  the  gun.  3. 
For  infiintry. — Six  of  these  guns,  with  tlieir  stands, 
wheels  and  hoppers  can  be  stowed  away  in  one  bag- 
gage wagon  or  extra  ammunition  wagon,  and  follow 
the  ammunition  train  which  is  nearest  to  the  front. 
"Whenever  a  comparatively  small  force  of  infantr}'  is 
hard  pressed, or  when  it  has  to  protect  a  threatened 
point,  a  larger  cantonment,  or  temporary  mtrench- 
ment,  the  six  guns  can  be  lifted  otT  the  wagon  and  be 
ready  to  commence  fire  in  a  few  minutes.  Two  men 
can  drag  each  gun  on  its  wheels  for  considerable  dis- 
ances.  and  one  man  can  carry  the  gun  with  two  men 
carrying  the  stand,  if  such  difficult  ground  is  met 
with  that  such  a  light  gim  cannot  conveniently  be 
dragged  over  on  its  wheels.  No.  14.  Single-barrel 
rifie-rnliher  gun. — This  gini  is  made  wifli  a  ditTerent 
mechanism  from  the  two  patterns  ibove  named.  It 
•veighs  in  pounds,  and  it  fires  at  the  rale  of  180 
rounds  per  minute;  it  has  often  fired  successive 
spurts  of  30  shots  each  in  eight  to  ten  seconds.  This 
gun  has  been  made  in  order  to  show  that  a  single- 
barred  machine-gun  need  not  be  more  than  4  pounds 
lieavier  than  an  ordinary  rifle  ;  at  the  same  time  no 
single-barrel  rille-caliber  would  really  be  used  in  war 


cept  their  fire :  but  this  mass  would  not  shelter  a 
man  standing  behind  it ;  to  effect  this,  in  the  case  of 
the  tallest  men  usually  found  in  the  ranks,  the  in- 
terior crest  should  be  at  least  six  feet  six  inches 
above  the  terre-plein.  The  command  must  then  be 
regulated  by  these  two  facts,  and  this  principle  may 
belaid  down.  The  command  of  a  field  work  over 
the  ground  occupied  by  the  assailant,  should  be  at 
least  five  feet;  and  six  feet  six  inches  over  that  oc- 
cupied by  the  a.ssailed.  In  following  this  rule  for 
the  command,  we  deprive  the  assailant  of  a  plunging 
fire  upon  the  parade  ;  but  as  a  breast-height  of  five 
feet  is  too  high  for  men  of  ordinary  stature  to  tiro 
over  it  and  give  their  pieces  any  sensible  depression, 
as  is  very  often  requisite,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
throw  lip  a  sufficient  banquette  for  this  purpose 
behind  the  parapet,  which  would  add  to  the  time 
and  labor  of  constructing  the  work.  On  this  ac- 
count it  is  best  to  give  the  parapet  only  the  height 
to  admit  effective  firing  over  it,  which  is  about  four 
and  a  ipiarter  feet.  But  this  minimum  command 
would  give  the  assailed  cuily  a  sliglit  advantage,  as 
the  men,  when  on  the  banquette,  would  be  still 
much  exposed;  and  in  an  assault  the  height  of  the 
parapet  would  present  an  inconsiderable  obstacle. 
These  defects  of  low  works  have  led  Engineers  to 
adopt  eight  feet  as  the  lemt  height  of  parapet  which 


KOBTON  LIQUID  FIKE. 


42: 


NOTABLES. 


•will  admit  of  any  rcspcftablo  defcnao.  Tlic  greateU 
heiykl  liiiH  Ik-cm  IixcmJ  iit  tiDiliv  fr.rt,  owing  to  tlic  <lif- 
ficully  of  Ihrowiiif;  up  a  work  willi  \\w.  ordinary 
means  at  liand,  wliicli  arc  usually  only  llic  |iick  and 
Bliovil. 

Tlic  thickness  of  tlie  parapet,  wlilcli  is  iilways esti- 
mated by  tlie  iHirizcJMlai  ilisiancc  hclwecn  tin-  interi- 
or and  exterior  crests,  is  rci^ulated  by  the  niaterlid 
lisi'd  for  the  [)arapcl;  the  kind  of  allaek:  and  its  pro- 
bahle  duraliou.  'I'he  rule  adnptcd  for  this  is  to  add 
to  the  dei)tli  of  penetration  of  the  projectile,  given 
by  experiment,  one-half  for  this  thickness.  In  fol- 
lowing lliis  ride  there  will  always  he  a  Ihickness  of 
earth  between  the  extreme  penetration  of  a  projectile, 
at  any  point  below  the  exterior  crest  and  tli<' interior  of 
the  work,  ureal  er  than  one- third  the  Ihickjiess  of  I  he 
parapet.  The  su|}i!rior  slope  is  arrangeil  to  defend  the 
crt^st  of  the  coimti'rscar|);  to  ellect  which  the  tire 
slioidd  not  strike  below  the  crest,  nor  pass  more  than 
three  feet  over  it;  otlierwise,  cither  the  counlerscarp 
would  be  damaged,  or  the  assailed  by  stooping  when 
near  the  crest,  would  lind  a  shelter.  The  inclination 
of  the  superior  slope,  however,  sliouldnot  be  greater 
than  ouc-fourth,  niir  less  than  one-sixth.  If  greater 
than  nnc-fourlh,  it  would  make  tli<^  portion  of  Ilie 
j)arapel,  about  tlic  interior  crest,  too  weak;  and  if 
less  than  one-si.\tli  the  ground  <lirectl3'  in  front  of 
the  work  woiiUl  not  be  so  well  (Ufended;  moreover, 
as  artillery  cannot  be  lired  at  a  greater  depression 
than  one-sixth,  without  injuring  the  carriage,  this 
inclination  of  the  superior  slope  serves  as  a  check  in 
rapid  tiring. 

The  exterior  slope  i»  the  same  that  the  earth  natu- 
rallij  ainiiinen.  An}'  means  used  to  make  it  steeper 
would  be  injurious;  because  they  would  be  soon 
destroyed  by  the  enemy's  lire,  and  the  earth  giving 
way,  the  necessary  thickness  of  the  parapet  would 
be  diminished. 

riie  interior  slope  receives  a  base  equal  to  one-third 
itn  fieiyht.  This  is  a  residt  of  experience,  which  has 
shown  that  it  is  the  most  convenient  fur  the  soldier 
in  leaning  forward  to  deliver  his  tire  over  a  parapet. 

The  tread  of  the  banquette  is  placed  four  Jeet  iitree 
inches  beliiin  the  interior  crest ;  this  will  admit  men  of 
the  lowest  ordinary  stature,  to  tire  conveniently  over 
the  parapet.  Its  width  is  tiro  feet,  J  or  a  defense  with 
one  ran/t-;  andfnirfict  for  two  or  three  ranks;  be- 
cause the  third  rank  does  not  tire,  and  i.s  therefore 
placed  on  the  banquette  slope,  the  hase  of  which  is 
twice  the  altitude,  to  render  the  ascent  convenient. 
Wlien  the  tread  of  the  bancpiette  is  very  high,  and 
particularly  in  enclosed  works,  wIutc  interior  space 
is  wanted,  steps  may  be  substituted  for  a  slope. 

The  berm  is  a  defect  in  Held  works,  because  it 
yie'ids  the  enemy  a  foothold  to  breathe  a  moment,  be- 
fore attempting  to  ascend  the  exterior  slope.  It  is 
useful  in  tlie  construction  of  the  work  for  the  work- 
man to  stand  on;  and  it  throws  the  weigiit  of  the 
parapet  back  on  the  scarp,  which  might  be  crushed 
out  by  this  pressure.  In  tirin  soils,  the  berm  may  be 
only  from  eighteen  incites  to  two  feet  wide;  in  other 
cases,  as  in  marshy  soils,  it  may  require  a  width  of 
six  feet.  In  all  cases,  it  should  be  six  feet  below  the 
exterior  crest — to  prevent  the  enemy,  should  he  form 
on  it,  from  firing  on  the  troops  on  the  banquette. 

The  dill  u  should  be  regulated  to  furnish  the  earth 
for  the  parapet.  To  determine  its  tlimensions,  the 
following  points  require  attention:  its  depth  should 
not  be  less  than  six  feet,  nor  lis  width  less  than 
twelve  feet,  to  present  a  respectable  obstacle  to  the 
enemy.  It  cannot,  with  convenience,  be  made  deeper 
than  twelve  feet;  and  ils  greatest  width  is  regulated 
by  the  inclination  of  the  superior  sloiie.  which,  pro- 
duced, should  not  pass  below  tlie  crest  of  the  coun- 
terscarp. The  slopes  of  the  scarp  and  counterscarp 
will  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  action 
on  it  ot  frost  and  rain.  The  sc;irp  is  less  steep  than 
the  counterscarp,  because  it  has  to  sustain  the  weight 
of  the  ))arapet.  It  is  usual  to  give  the  slope  of  the 
scarp  a  base  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  base  of  the 


natural  slopo  of  a  mound  of  fresh  oarth  whose  altU 
lude  is  equal  tolhcdejilh  of  theditch;  the  baseof  the 
coiinterscarji  slope  is  made  cipial  loone-lialf  tlie  same; 
base.  In  excavating  the  dileh  it  will  be  found  that 
more  earth  will  lie  furnished  at  the  salients  than  is 
re()uired  then-  for  the  p:irapet;  and  that  the  re-enter- 
ings  will  not  always  turnish  enough.  On  this  ac- 
counl,  the'  widlli  oif  the  dil(;li  should  not  bi^  uniform, 
but  narrower  at  the  salients  than  the  re-enterings. 
Tlie  salients  of  the  jiarapel  on  horizontal  sites,  are 
sometimes  mad(^  higher  than  the  re^'nterings,a  grad- 
Uid  slope  being  given  to  the  interior  crest  from  the 
salieiils  to  the  ri'-enterings,  with  a  view  to  cover  bet- 
ter the  terrc-plein,  towards  these  last  jioints,  from 
tli(^  plunge  of  an  enlilailing  fire  on  tlie  faces.  The 
elTcct  of  this,  however,  is  but  trilling, as  the  descend- 
ing |ilunge  of  the  projectile  is  the  greater,  as  the  sa- 
lient is  higher  over  which  it  passes.  On  such  sites, 
therefore,  the  jirolilc  of  the  parapet  is  usually  uni- 
form throughout.  See  Field  Pvrtificati'm  and  Profll. 
inq. 

NORTON  LIQUID  FIRE.— In  the  character  of  its 
efl'ccls,  Ibis  rivals  all  tli;it  has  been  recorded  of  the 
old  (Imli  Jir( .  The  composilion  henr  used  consists 
of  a  chemical  combimition  of  sulphur,  carbon,  and 
phosphorus.  The  compo.sition  is  enclosed  in  a  shell, 
and  is  instantly  ignited  upon  the  shell  striking  any 
object. 

NORWEGIAN  ARMY.— By  the  terms  of  the  laws 
of  I8(ili  and  1^7(1,  the  ;irmy  of  Norway  is  composed 
of  Troops  of  iIk'  Line,  the  Miiilary  Train,  the  Mili- 
tia or  Landevaern,  the  Civic  (Juards,  and  the  I.and- 
storm,  or  liiial  war  levy,  In  1HT8  the  Troops  of  the 
Line  numbered  18,000  men  and  7/50  ollicers.  All 
young  men  above  twenty-one  years  of  age  are  liable 
to  serve,  with  the  exception  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
three  northern  amis  of  the  kingdom.  The  only  for- 
titied  spots  are  Fredericksteen  at  Frederickshald, 
Frcderickslad,  Akersliuus,  Bergenshuus,  Jlunkholni, 
;iiid  Vardohuus. 

NOSE  BAG.  A  biig  of  stout  canvas  with  a  leather 
bcltcnn,  and  having  straps  at  its  upper,  open  end.  by 


which  it  may  be  fastened  to  a  horse's  head  while  he 
is  eating  the  contained  provender.  It  is  generally 
used  for  feeding  the  grain  out  of  the  stables.  The 
drawing  represents  a  nose-bag  properly  provided 
with  means  for  ventilation,  llorses  suffer  much 
when  their  noses  are  confined  in  a  close  nose-bag, 
where  the  jaws  cannot  be  opened  without  compress- 
ing the  nostrils  and  preventing  the  ingress  of  suffi- 
cient air. 

NOSE-BAND.— The  lower  band  of  a  military  bridle, 
passing  over  in  front  and  attached  to  the  cheek- 
str;ips. 

NOTABLES.— The  name  formerly  given  in  France 
to  persons  of  distinction  and  political  importance. 
As  the  States  General  were  inconvenient  to  the  des- 
potism of  the  Monarchv.  the  Kings  of  the  House  of 
Valois  adopted  the  expedient  of  calling  in  their  stead 
Assemblies  of  the  jXotabU-s.  the  time  of  calling  them 
and  the  composition  of  them  being  entirely  depend- 
ent on  the  pleasure  of  the  Crown,  by  which  also 
their  whole  proceedings  were  guided,  so  that  they 
seuerally  consented  at  once  to  whatever  was  pro- 
posed to  them.  Thev  showed  a  particular  readiness 
in  granting  subsidies,  to  which  they  themselves,  as 


NOTE. 


426 


NTTNCUPATIVE  WILLS. 


belonging  to  the  privileged  classes,  were  not  to  con- 
tribute. An  Assembly  of  Notables,  convened  in 
Paris  by  Richelieu  in  1636,  and  presided  over  by 
Gaston,  brother  of  Louis  VIII.,  consisted  of  only  35 
members.  For  more  than  a  century  and  a  half  even 
this  poor  acknowledgment  of  any  other  mind  or 
will  in  the  nation  tlian  that  of  the  Sovereign  ceased  to 
be  made ;  but  when  the  state  of  the  finances  brought 
the  monarchy  into  difficulties  and  perils,  Louis 
XVI., at  the  instigation  of  the  Minister  C'alonne,  had 
recourse  again  to  an  Assembly  of  Notables,  whicli 
met  Feb.  22,  1787,  and  was  dissolved  May  25.  It 
consisted  of  137  members,  among  whom  were  7 
Princes  of  the  Blood,  9  Dukes  and  Peers,  8  Mar- 
shals, 11  Archbishops,  22  Nobles.  8  Councilors  of 
State,  4  Masters  of  Requests,  37  Judges,  12  Depu- 
ties of  the  Pays  d'Etats,  the  Civil  Lieutenant,  and  25 
persons  belonging  to  the  Magistracy  of  diflerent 
cities  of  the  kingdom.  Calonne's  representations 
of  the  state  of  the  finances  induced  the  Notables 
to  adopt  many  reforms  in  the  matter  of  taxation; 
but  no  sooner  was  the  assembly  dissolved,  than 
many  of  them  joined  the  Parliaments  in  opposition 
to  resolutions  adverse  to  their  private  interests,  so 
that  the  King  was  compelled  to  determine  upon 
assembling  the  States  General.  Necker,  who  had 
meanwhile  been  placed  at  the  head  of  affairs,  assem- 
bled the  Notables  again,  Nov.  6,  1788,  to  consult 
them  concerning  the  form  in  which  the  States 
General  should  be  convened.  The  Notables  de- 
clared against  every  innovation,  and  so  compelled 
tlie  court  to  half  measures  which  helped  to  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  Revolution.  The  Parliament 
of  the  new  principality  of  Bulgaria  is  spoken  of  as 
the  Assembly  of  the  Notables. 

NOTE. — A  brief  writing  intended  to  assist  the 
memory.  Members  of  Courts-Martial  sometimes 
take  notes.  They  are  frequently  necessary  to  enable 
a  member  to  bring  the  whole  body  of  evidence  into 
a  connected  view,  where  the  case  is  complex. 

NOT  GUILTY. — The  form  of  verdict  in  a  criminal 
prosecution,  and  also  in  some  civil  actions,  when  the 
Court  find  in  favor  of  thj  defendant  or  accused  party. 
The  verdict  is  conclusive,  and  the  accused  cannot, in 
criminal  cases,  be  tried  a  second  lime. 

NOT  PROVEN. — A  form  of  verdict  used  in  criminal 
prosecutions  when  the  Court  thinks  there  is  some 
foundation  for  the  charge,  but  tlie  evidence  is  not 
strong  enough  against  the  prisoner  to  warrant  a  ver- 
dict of  guilty.  In  such  a  case,  a  verdict  of  '•  Not 
Proven  "  is  substantially  a  verdict  of  acquittal.  Tlie 
prisoner  cannot  be  tried  afterward,  even  though  new 
and  conclusive  evidence  come  to  light  after  the  ver- 
dict. 

NOYADES. — The  execution  of  political  offenders  in 
irreat  numbers  at  once  by  drowning  them,  one  of  tlie 
atrocities  of  the  French  Revolution,  practiced  at 
Nantes  by  Carrier,  the  deputy  of  the  Convention. 
This  mode  of  execution  was  also  called, in  cruel  sport, 
V<rtieiil  DrpiirtntioH. 

NOYAN. — 1 .  The  whole  of  the  vacant  space  or  bore 
of  a  cannon,  under  which  are  compreliended  the  di- 
ameter of  the  mouth, the  vacant  cylinder,  the  breech, 
and  the  vent.  2.  With  respect  to  bombs,  grenades, 
and  hollow  balls, that  which  is  called  yoyan  consists 
of  a  globular  piece  of  earth,  upon  which  the  cover  is 
cast.  The  metal  is  poured  in  between  the  cover  and 
the  Noyan,  after  which  the  Noyan,orcore,  is  broken 
ami  the  eiirtli  taken  out. 

NtJGGAR,     A  term  in  the  East  Indies  for  a  fort. 

NUMEROS.  Uoiuid  pieces  of  brass  or  other  metal, 
wliii  h  wire  niHiibcred  and  used  in  the  old  French 
service  ill  tlie  detail  of  guards. 

NUNCIO.  The  name  given  to  the  superior  grade 
of  the  Ambassadors  sent  by  the  Pope  to  Foreign 
Courts,  who  are  all  calledby  the  general  name  of  Le- 
gate. ANuncioisan  Ambassador  to  the  CViurt  of 
an  Kmperor  or  King.  The  Ambassador  to  a  Repub- 
lic, or  to  \\\v.  Court  of  a  Minor  Sovereign,  is  t'alled 
Internuncio. 


NUNCUPATIVE  WILLS.— A  nuncupative  will,  so 
termed  from  naming  an  executor  by  word  of  mouth, 
is  a  verbal  testamentary  declaration  or  disposition. 
By  the  common  law,  it  was  as  valid  in  respect  to 
personal  estate  as  a  written  testament.  A  will  could 
not  only  be  made  by  word  of  mouth,  but  the  most 
solemn  instrument  in  writing  might  be  revoked  oral- 
ly. In  a  rude  and  uncul'ivated  age,  to  have  required 
a  written  will  would  have  been  a  great  hardship,  but 
with  the  growth  and  progress  of  letters,  the  reason 
forpermitting  averbal  testament  diminished  in  force, 
until  an  effort  to  establish  such  a  will  by  means  of 
gross  fraud  and  perjury  gave  rise  to  the  provisions  of 
the  Statute  of  Frauds.  Nuncupative  wills,  not  being 
regulated  by  statute  as  to  their  mode  of  celebration 
or  execution,  the  single  question  for  the  judgment  of 
the  Court  is,  whether  the  nuncupation  was  made  by 
a  person  entitled  to  that  privilege.  The  restrictions 
of  the  Statute  of  Frauds  were  not  applied  to  wills 
made  by  "any  soldier  being  in  actual  military  ser- 
vice, or  any  mariner  or  seaman  being  at  sea."  By 
the  revised  staLUtes  of  New  York  it  was  provided 
that  nuncupative  wills  should  not  be  valid,  "unless 
made  by  a  soldier  while  in  actual  military  service, 
or  by  a  mariner  while  at  sea."  The  terms  of  the  ex- 
ception in  the  statute  are  briefly  stated  as  follows : — 
"  Any  soldier  being  in  actual  military  service,  or  any 
mariner  or  seaman  being  at  sea."  The  phrase- 
ology is  slightly  different  in  these  statutes  ;  but  the 
rule  is  substantially  the  same  in  all-  that  the  nuncu- 
pation is  only  valid  when  made  by  a  soldier  in  ac- 
tual military  service,  or  a  mariner  at  sea,  at  the  time 
of  the  testamentary  act.  It  is  not  enough  to  be  a 
soldier  or  a  sailor,  but  there  must  be  actual  service. 
The  military  testament  was  lirst  conceded  by  Julius 
CiEsar  to  all  soldiers,  but  it  was  subsequentl_v  limited 
by  Justinian  to  those  engaged  in  an  expedition — solis 
qui  in  expeditiunibus  oc^vpati  aunt.  The  exception 
was  borrowed  with  the  rule  from  the  civil  law,  and 
the  courts  have  invariably  adhered  to  the  principle 
that  there  cannot  be  actual  warfare  and  the  soldier 
not  be  engaged  in  txpeditione.  So  also  the  nuncu- 
pation of  a  mariner  to  be  valid  must  be  made  at 
sea.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  when  the 
mariner  is  to  be  considered  at  sea.  For  example. 
Lord  Hugh  Seymour,  the  Admiral  of  the  station  at 
Jamaica,  made  a  codicil  by  nuncupation  while  stay- 
ing at  the  house  on  shore  appropriated  to  the  ad- 
miral of  the  station.  The  codicil  was  rejected  on 
the  ground  that  he  only  visited  his  ship  occasionally, 
while  his  family  establishment  and  place  of  abode 
were  on  land  at  the  official  residence.  But  when  a 
mariner  belonging  to  a  vessel  lying  in  the  harbor  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  met  with  an  accident  when  on  shore 
by  leave,  made  a  nuncupative  will,  and  died  there, 
probate  was  granted  for  the  reason  that  he  was  only 
casually  absent  from  his  ship.  The  will  of  a  ship- 
master made  off  Otaheite  has  also  been  allowed. 
The  principle  upon  which  the  privilege  of  nuncupa- 
tion is  conceded  applies  to  all  persons  of  whatso- 
ever classes  engaged  in  the  marine  service,  wliat- 
ever  may  be  their  special  duty  or  their  occupation  on 
the  vessel.  As  in  the  army,  the  term  "  soldier"  em- 
braces every  grade,  from  the  private  to  the  highest 
officer,  and  includes  the  gunner,  the  surgeon,  or  the 
general;  so  in  the  marine,  the  term  "  mariner"  ap- 
plies to  every  person  in  the  naval  or  mercantile  ser- 
vice, from  the  common  seaman  lo  the  captain  or  ad- 
miral. It  is  not  limited  or  restricted  to  any  sjiecial 
occupation  on  shipboard,  but  a  pur.ser,  or  any  other 
person  whose  particular  vocation  does  not  relate  to 
the  sailing  of  the  vessel,  possesses  the  same  right  as 
the  sailor.  A  cook  is  certainly  as  mucli  a  necessary 
jiart  of  the  eil'eclive  service  of  a  vessel  as  the  purser 
or  the  sailor;  and  there  would  seem  to  be  no  ri'ason 
why  he  should  be  ex<'luded  from  the  advantage  of  a 
rule  designed  for  the  benefit  of  men  engaged  in  the 
marine,  without  reference  to  the  particular  branch 
of  duty  performed  in  the  vessel.  As  well  because  the 
wills  of  sokliers  and   mariners  were   excepted  from 


NUBSE. 


427 


OBEDIENCE. 


the  oporationsof  the  proviHinns  of  tlin  Statute  of 
Frauds,  as  for  the  niifioii  ami  irnniiiil  of  the  excep- 
tion.  ami  tlu:  ])cciiliar  charai'tcr  of  tlic  military  IcHta- 
nu'iit,  it  was  never  licld  rciinisili-  lliat  llicir  nuncu- 

Siitions  Hlioiild  be  made  liiiriii;.;  I  lie  last  sickness, 
'or  has  any  ])arti<iilar  mode  lieen  iirescriljcd  in  re- 
spect to  the  niiiniier  of  makin'.^  the  leslanient.  The 
very  essence  of  the  privilejie,  however,  consists  in 
the  iil)SeIi<:e  of  all  c<Temonies  as  lejral  re(|iiisiles  -or, 
us  Merlin  stales  the  pro])ositioii,  "Iheir  f<irin  was 
properly  to  have  no  form."  It  is  true  the  Roman  law 
prescribes  two  witnesses;  l)iit  this,  however,  did  not 
relate  to  the  essence  of  the  act,  hut  only  to  the  proof. 
In  respect  to  evidence,  we  do  not  follow  the  civil  or 
canon  law;  no  particular  number  of  witnesses  is  re- 
(|uired  lo  verify  an  ad  jiidiciiUly,  and  ;dl  the  court 
(ieni:uids  is  lobe  s;itislicd  l)y  siiHicienl  evidence  as 
to  the  substance  of  th<' last  leslanii'ntary  requestor 
declaration  of  the  deceased.  This  ascerliiined,  the 
law  holds  it  sacred,  and  carries  it  into  elTect  with  as 
much  favor  and  regard  as  would  be  paid  to  the  most 
formal  instrument  executed  with  every  Ici^id  solem- 
nity. And  so,  according  to  numerous  decisions, 
made  in  (Jrcat  Bril;iin,  quoted  t)y  I'rendergasI, 
"whenever  ii  military  ollicer  on  full  p;iy  m;ikes  an  in- 
formal will  its  validity  can  only  be  supportcil  by 
showing  the  testator  to  have  been  on  actu;d  military 
service  at  tlic  time  the  will  was  made.  And  the  re- 
sult of  tlie  decisions  ajipears  to  be,  thiit  an  officer 
serving  with  his  regiment,  or  in  command  of  troops 
in  garrison  or  quarters,  either  in  the  United  King- 
dom or  the  Colonies,  is  not  deemed  ondi-lmil  military 
service.  To  satisfy  the  meaning  of  the  Act  of  Par- 
liatnent  in  that  respect,  he  must  be  on  an  expedition, 
or  on  some  duly  associated  with  positive  danger." 


HUB8E. — A  person  whose  whole  buBineflB  is  to 
attend  tin-  sick  in  hospital.  In  the  L'nilr'rl  Stutc-H 
service,  nurses  are  dclailed  in  post  hospitals  from 
the  companies  who  ari'  serving  at  the  post.  Ordi- 
narily one  nurse  is  allowed  to  every  ten  persons  sick 
in  hospital.  In  ('ontinental  Armies  the  "Sisters  of 
Charilv"  usually  carry  their  mission  of  niercy  into 
the  military  hosjiilals.  Protestant  Knghinil  having 
no  such  organization  to  f;ill  back  upon,  the  soldierH 
have  l)een  dependent  on  the  regular  male  hospital 
attendants  for  their  care  during  sickness,  or  whea 
sidfering  from  wounds.  Th<;  Crimean  campaign, 
however,  disclosed  so  melancholy  ii  picture  of  the 
want  of  women's  co-operation,  thai  a  liand  of  self- 
sacrificing  ladies,  headed  by  .Miss  Nightingale,  pro- 
ceeded to  Turkey,  an<l  were  soon  acknowledged  as 
messengers  of  health  and  life  l)y  the  unfortunate 
wounded.  The  example  thus  set  has  not  been 
without  effect.  In  th<'  Franco-German  war  of  1870- 
71  lady  luirses  in  large  nund)crs  and  of  various  na- 
tion«  ministered  in  all  tin-  mililarv  hospitals,  and  the 
like  took  plat-e  again  during  tlie  Uusso-Turkish  war 
of  1H77-7H. 

NUTHALL  RIFLE.— In  the  ordinary  mode  of  groov- 
ing rillcs,  sharp  iingles  are  left  between  the  groove 
and  "land  "  (those  parts  of  the  smooth-bore  left  in 
their  original  state  after  the  process  of  grooving  has 
been  completed).  These  create  great  friction  with 
the  projectile,  both  in  loading  and  discharging.  Ma- 
jor Nut  hall  removes  these  objections  liy  rounding 
off  the  "lands"  into  the  grooves,  that  "is,  making 
them  a  series  of  convex  and  concave  curves,  the  bore 
assuming  a  beautiful  ajipearance  to  the  eye,  for  the 
smoothness  and  evenness  with  which  the  lands  and 
grooves  blend  into  each  other. 


o 


OAKUM. — A  tangled  mass  of  tarred  hempen  fibers. 

ni:iilc  from  old  rope  by  untwisting  the  stniiids  and 
rubbing  the  fibers  free  from  each  other.  Its  princi- 
pal use  is  in  caulking  the  seams  between  planks,  the 
space  round  rivets,  bolts,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  water  from  penetrating.  It  is  much  used 
in  artillery  for  packing  shot  and  shell,  wiping  the 
vents  of  guns  after  tiring,  cleaning  elevating  screws 
and  implements,  and  in  making  washing  sponges. 

OATHS. —The  taking  of  the  oath  of  lid'elity  to  Gov- 
ernment and  obedience  to  Superior  Officers,  was, 
among  ancient  armies,  a  very  solemn  atlair.  A  whole 
corps  took  the  oath  together,  sometimes  ;ui  entire 
army.  In  modern  times,  when  so  many  other  checks 
are  used  for  maintaining  discipline,  the  oath  has  be- 
come little  more  than  a  form.  In  the  United  King- 
dom a  recruit  enlisting  into  the  armj'  or  militia,  or 
a  volunteer  enrolling  himself,  swears  to  be  faithful 
to  the  Sovereign,  and  obedient  to  all  or  any  of  his 
Superior  Officers;  also  to  divulge  any  facts  coming 
to  his  knowledge  whicli  might  atfeet  the  safety  of 
his  Sovereign,  or  the  stability  of  that  Sovereign's 
Government.  The  Members  of  a  Court-Martial  take 
oath  to  try  the  cases  brought  before  them  justly,  ac- 
cording to  the  evidence,  to  keep  secret  the  finding 
until  ooutirmed  b}-  the  proper  authority,  and  to 
keep  secret  always  the  opinions  given  by  the  mem- 
bers iudividualTy.  The  only  other  military  oath  is 
the  common  oath  of  a  witness  before  ;i  Court-Mar- 
tial to  tell  the  truth  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but 
the  truth.     See  .lrt(Wf«  «/ U'rt;-. 

OBEDIENCE.— Submission  to  the  lawful  orders  of 
a  Superior.  Two  questions  arise  under  this  article  ; 
AVho  is  to  judge  of  the  legality  of  the  command,  and 


who  may  constitute  a  Snperior  OJfiferf  It  is  evident 
that  if  all  officers  and  soldiers  are  to  judge  when 
an  order  is  Imrful  and  when  not,  the  captious  and 
the  mutinous  would  never  be  at  a  loss  for  a  plea  to 
justify  their  insubordination.  It  is,  therefore,  an  es- 
tablished principle,  that,  unless  an  order  is  so  mani- 
festly against  law  that  the  (|Uestion  does  not  admit 
of  dispute,  the  order  must  first  be  obeyed  by  the  In- 
ferior, and  he  must  subsequently  seek  such  redress 
against  his  Superior  as  the  laws  allow.  If  the  In- 
ferior disputes  the  legality  before  obedience,  error 
of  judgment  is  never  admitted  in  mitigation  of  the 
offense.  The  redress  now  afforded  by  the  laws  to 
Inferiors  is  not.  however,  sufficient ;  for  doubtful 
questions  of  construction  of  Statutes,  instead  of 
being  referred  to  the  Federal  Courts  of  Law  for  their 
true  exposition,  have  received  variable  expositions 
from  the  E.xecutive,  and  left  the  army  in  an  unfortu- 
nate state  of  uncertainty  as  to  the  true  meaning  of 
certain  laws,  and  this  uncertainty  has  been  most  un- 
favorable to  discipline.  Again, wliilethe  punishment 
of  death  is  meted  to  officers  and  soldiers  for  dis- 
obedience of  Imrful  commands,  the  law  does  not 
protert,  officers  and  soldiers  for  obeying  unlatrful 
commands.  Instances  have  occurred  in  our  country, 
where  officers  and  soldiers  have  been  subjected  to 
vexatious  prosecutions,  simply  for  obeying  orders, 
according  to  their  oath  of  office.  Would  it  not  be 
just  if  the  law,  instead  of  requiring  otlicers  and  sol- 
diers thus  nicely  to  steer  between  Scylla  andChaiyb- 
dis.  should  hold  the  Superior  who  gives  an  illegal 
order,  alone  responsible  for  its  execution?  By  Sit.. 
perhr  Officer  in  tlie  Articles  of  War,  is  meant  an  offi- 
cer who  has  the  risrht  lo  command  his  inferiors  in 


OBEBEB. 


428 


OBLIQUE. 


the  military  hierarchy.  The  word  superior,  there- 
fore, embraces,  within  their  appropriate  circle  of 
of  cominand.  Commanding  Generals,  Superior  Regi- 
mental and  Company  Officers,  Superior  Officers  of 
Corps  or  Departments,  and  the  Commanding  Officer 
en  guards,  marches,  or  in  quarters  of  whatever 
corps  of  the  line  of  the  army,  marine  corps  or  mil- 
itia authorized  to  command  the  whole,  whenever 
different  corps  come  together.  This  construction  of 
the  words  ''officers  appointed  over  me,  according  to 
to  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War,"  is  manifest  by 
an  attentive  examination  of  those  articles.  See  for 
e.xample,  Abt.  34,  which  gives  authority  to  "all 
officers  of  what  condition  soever  to  part  and  quell 
all  quarrels,  frays,  and  disorders,  though  the  permmx 
cimc'rned  should  belong  to  anMher  regiment,  troop,  or 
company:'  Here  it  is  seen  that  the  ordinary  subor- 
dination, by  grades,  is  found  only  in  the  same  "  rrgi- 
inent,  troop,  or  company:'  Tl^e  power  to  part  and 
quell  quarrels,  is,  however,  made  an  exceptional 
case,  in  favor  not  only  of  officers  of  different  fegi- 
ments,  but  the  power  is  even  extended  to  those  of  an 
"  inferior  rank."  In  a  company,  regiment, or  corps, 
subordination  by  grades  is  established  by  the  terms 
of  the  c(3mmission  held  in  such  regiment  or  corps. 
So,  also,  where  officers  hold  commissions  in  the  arm)' 
at  large,  their  right  to  command  when  on  duty  is 
co-extensive  with  their  commissions.  Within  regi- 
ments and  corps  the  muster-roll,  then,  at  once  deter- 
mines the  question  of  superiorly  of  officers  on  duty. 

OBEKEE.— One  of  the  three  parts  of  which  the  en- 
ciente  is  formed,  in  the  German  system  of  fortifica- 
tion. 

OBJECT-GLASS.— The  glass  in  a  telescope  or  micro- 
scope, which  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the  tube  nearest 
the  object, and  first  receives  theraj-s  of  light  retlected 
from  it.  The  office  of  the  object-glass  will  be  clearly 
understood  by  an  examination  of  the  common  opera- 
glass,  shown  in  the  drawing.    This  is  a  double  tele- 


scope, constructed  optically  on  the  same  principle 
as  the  telescope  invented  by  Galileo,  and  is  used  for 
looking  at  objects  that  require  to  be  clearly  seen 
rather  than  greatly  magnified— such  as  scenery  and 
performances  in  theaters  and  pulilic  halls.  Each 
tube  contains  a  convex  achromatic  object  lens  and  a 
double  concave  eye  lens,  which  are  placed  at  neatly 
the  difference  of  their  focal  length  apart.  Thus,  if 
the  object-glass  is  five  inches  focus, and  the  eye-piece 
one  inch  negative  focus,  the  length  of  the  bodies  will 
be  about  four  inches,  and  the  power  will  be  nearly 
live  times — that  is,  the  objects  looked  at  through  the 
opera-glass  will  be  seen  as  distinctly  as  they  would 
be  with  tlie  naked  eye  if  brouglit  four  times  nearer 
the  observer.  Opera-glasses,  are  short  and  light,  and 
can  l)e  easily  managed  with  one  hand;  they  have 
small  maguifying  power,  say  from  two  to  four  times. 
The  two  object-glasses  or  large  lenses  are  the  most 
important  ones,  and  upon  their  perfection  the  qual- 
ity of  the  opera-glass  depends. 

With  the  opera-glass  a  low  magnifying  power  and 
large  and  clear  field  of  vi(^w  are  the  great  objects  to 
be  desired,  on  account  of  the  comparative  nearness 
of  the  objects  looked  at;  l)ut  when  Ihe  objects  are 
one  or  more  miles  distant,  power  becomes  a  more 


important  quality  than  field  of  view.  To  obtain  a 
greater  magnifying  power  with  glasses  constructed 
upon  the  principle  of  the  opera-glass,  the  distance 
between  the  object-glasses  and  cj'e-pieces  must  be 
increased,  and  the  greater  that  distance  the  higlier 
the  power.  In  order  to  keep  up  fair  proportion  of 
light  with  the  increase  of  power,  the  object-gla.sses 
must  increase  in  diameter.  Such  glasses,  as  they 
are  only  intended  for  outdoor  use,  are  called  Field 
or  Marine-glasses,  have  shades  to  extend  beyond  the 
object-glasses  to  keep  off  the  sun  or  rain,  and  are 
made  throughout  very  substantially, in  order  to  bear 
rough  handling  of  field  or  sea  service.  They  are  put 
up  in  strong  leather  cases,  with  strap  to  sling  over 
the  shoulder.  The  power  of  field-glasses  varies  from 
five  to  eight  times,  and  their  cfearness  and  efficiency 
depend  upon  the  accuracy  of  finish  of  the  object- 
glasses,  and  their  durability  to  the  strength  and  good 
workmanship  of  the  body.     See  Spy-glass. 

OBJECTIVE  POINT.— The  point  to  be  reached  or 
gained  by  an  army  in  executing  a  movement,  has 
been  termed  the  objective  poi7it.  There  are  two 
classes  of  objectives,  viz  :  natural  and  a-ridental. 
The  term  geographical  is  frequently  used  to  designate 
the  first  of  these.  A  natural  objectice  may  be  an 
important  position,  strong  naturally,  or  made  so  by 
fortifications,  the  possession  of  which  gives  control 
over  a  tract  of  co\mtrv,  and  furnishes  good  point  of 
support  or  good  lines  of  defense  for  other  military 
operations.  Or,  it  may  be  a  great  business  center, 
or  a  capital  of  the  country,  the  possession  of  which 
has  the  effect  of  discouraging  the  enemy  and  mak- 
ing him  willing  to  sue  for  peace.  Acridentnl  objec- 
tives are  dependent  upon  the  militarj'  operations 
which  have  for  their  object  the  destruction  or  dis- 
integration of  the  enemy's  forces.  These  objectives 
are  sometimes  called  "  objective  points  ofmanfuver.  " 
The  position  of  the  enemy  determines  their  location. 
Thus,  if  the  enemy's  forces  are  greath*  scattered,  or 
his  front  much  extended,  the  central  point  of  his 
position  would  be  a  good  objective  point,  since  the 
possession  of  it  would  divide  the  enemy's  forces, 
and  allow  his  detachments  to  be  attacked  separately. 
Or.  if  the  enemy  has  his  forces  well  supported,  a 
good  objective  would  be  on  that  flank,  the  possession 
of  which  would  allow  his  communications  with  uis 
base  to  be  threatened.  It  is  well  to  remark  that  the 
term  "point"  used  in  this  connection  is  not  to  be 
considered  merely  in  its  geometrical  sense,  but  is 
used  to  apply  to  the  object  which  the  army  desires  to 
attain,  whether  it  be  a  position,  a  place,  a  line,  or 
even  a  section  of  country.  See  Base  of  Operations 
and  Line  of  Operations. 

OBLAT. — A  disabled  soldier  formerly-  maintained 
by  alilieys. 

OBLIQUE. — This  term,  in  tactics,  indicates  a  direc- 
tion which  is  neither  parallel  nor  perpendicular  to 
the  front,  but  more  or  less  diagonal.  It  is  a  com- 
mand of  warning  in  the  tactics  for  the  movenu-nt. 
It  is  used  when  referring  to  diagonal  alignments, 
attacks,  orders  of  battle,  squares  against  cavalry, 
changes  of  front,  fires,  etc.  The  oblique  step  is  a 
step  or  movement  in  marching,  in  which  the  soldier, 
while  advancing,  gradually  takes  ground  to  the 
right  or  left  at  an  angle  of  about  25".  It  is  not  now 
practiced. 

As  soon  as  recruits  are  well  established  in  the 
principles  of  the  direct  tnarch,  they  should  be  exer- 
cised in  luiirehlng  obliquely.  The  squad  marching 
in  line,  tlie  Instructor  commands:  1 .  Right  (or  left)  ob. 
liqiie,  3.  Makch.  At  the  command  oiarrh,  each  man 
makes  a  half  face  to  the  right,  and  I  hen  marches 
.straight  in  the  new  direction.  As  the  men  no  longer 
touch  elbows,  they  glance  along  the  shoiddersof  the 
nearest  files,  toward  the  side  to  which  they  are  ob- 
li(iuing,  and  regulate  their  steps  so  that  their  shoul- 
ders are  always  behind  those  of  the  next  man  on  that 
siile,  and  Ihat  his  headconceals  the  heads  of  the  other 
men  In  the  rank.  The  men  preserve  the  same  length 
of  pace  and  the  sanu'  (U'gree  of  ol)li(iuily,  the  line  of 


OBLIQUE  EMBBASURE. 


429 


OBSTACLES. 


the  milk  ntiiminiiii!;  piinillcl  to  its  orifrinal  position. 
To  rcHiiiiic  ilic  orli;iiiiil  ilircftioii,  tint  iiislriictor  coiii- 
niiUKis:  1.  Forward,  'i.  Maiich.  At  the  coiiiinaMil 
miirch,  ciicli  iimii  imiiUcn  ii  liiilf  fac(-'  to  Ihr  left  in 
nmrfliini;,  mill  llicn  imovch  slniiujlit  to  the  front.  If 
the  s(|ii;i(i  lie  at  a  Ijall,  llic  men  half  face  to  tlic  riijlit 
at  llic  coniinaiid /vV//(/"W/V/«^',  anil  slrp  olT  at  (he  corn- 
niaiid  iiKirrh.  M  lialtcd  while  ol)lii|iiinLr,  ""'.V  will, 
after  halting,  face  to  the  front  willioiil  fiirllier  eoiii- 
mand.  In  the  oblitiue  inareh  in  line,  the  fjuard  is 
always  on  the  side  toward  which  Iheoliliijue  is  made, 
withoutany  indiealion  toihat  elleet  lieinjx  ;xiven:  and. 
when  tile  direet  iiiareh  is  resumed,  the  irnide  is, 
equally  without  indication,  on  the  side  where  it  was 
previous  to  the  ol)lii|ue.  Tliis  rule  /.<  gfinriil.  The 
squad  in  colunin  of  tiles  otiliques  by  the  sanic?  foni- 
mands  and  means  as  when  in  line,  the  leading  file 
beiiiL'  the  ^;uiile. 

OBLIQUE  EMBRASURE.— A  direct  emlirasure  is 
one  in  which  the  directrix  is  perpendicular  to  the 
interior  crest  at  the  point  of  intersection  with  the 
(Test  ;  an  iihliiiiir  eiiihrnimrc  is  one  in  wliicli  the 
dircctri.x  makes  an  ansile  with  the  interior  crest. 
When  possible,  direct  embrasures  are  the  ones  which 
are  made.  If  oblique  embrasures  are  to  be  made, 
their  method  of  eonstruetiou  is  practically  the  same 
as  that  fjiven  for  direet  embrasures.  Obliipie  em- 
brasures do  not  admit  of  the  muzzle  of  the  nun  beinir 
inserted  so  far  as  the  direct  ones,  and  they  weaken 
the  parapets  more.  Oblique  embrasures  are  not 
used,  as  a  rule,  if  the  directrix  makes  with  the  nor- 
mal to  the  crest  an  angle  exceeding  ten  desrees.  In 
case  the  anfjle  is  greater,  the  embrasure  is  provided 
for,  in  field  works,  by  modifying  the  interior  crest. 
The  manner  of  laying  out  an  oblique  embrasure  is 
similar  to  the  direct ;  the  month  is  of  a  rectangular 
form,  but  is  made  wider  in  ])roportion  to  the  ob- 
liquity, in  order  that  the  part  of  the  embrasure 
which  correspcmds  to  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  may  be 
nearly  of  the  same  width  in  both  the  direct  and  ob- 
licpie  embrasures.  The  exterior  width  of  the  sole  is 
made  equal  to  one-half  the  length  of  the  directrix, 
measured  on  the  sole.  The  cheeks  are  laid  out  as  in 
the  last  case.  The  muzzle  of  a  gun  should  enter  at 
least  six  inches  into  the  embrasure,  to  prevent  the 
blast  from  injuring  the  checks  ;  this  limits  the  oli- 
liquity  of  the  dirertrix  to  about  sixty  for  long  guns. 
The  height  of  the  cheeks  must  not  lie  more  than  four 
feet  forlhe  same  reason ;  it  will,  therefore,  in  most 
cases,  be  necessary  to  raise  the  ground  on  which 
the  wheels  rest,  giving  to  the  toj)  surface  the  same 
dimensions  as  for  a  barbette,  and  forming  (he  side 
slo]ies  and  ramjis  in  like  manner.     See  Eml.raxure. 

OBLIQUE  FIRE.-  When  two  b.itteries  bring  their 
fire  obliquely  upon  one  point  of  the  enemy's  line, 
they  make,  what  is  called,  a  cross  or  concentrated 
fire,  which  is  very  destructive  upon  columns, though 
not  so  efTective  as  enfilade  fire.  If  a  pointed  pro- 
jectile strike  an  iron  plate  at  a  less  angle  than  that 
formed  by  a  tangent  to  the  curve  of  the  bead,  it  will 
probably  glance  off,  as  the  tendency  of  the  shoulder 
will  be  to  slide  along  the  plate,  and  the  point  will  find 
a  difficulty  in  "biting."  If  theanglebe  greater  than 
about  .00  degrees,  the  resistance  will  approximately 
be  increased  in  the  proportion  of  the  extra  thickness 
to  be  traversed.  In  this  case  the  sharp  point  of  the 
projectile  '"bites"  the  plate  on  striking,  and  the 
shot  has  a  tendency  tobring  its  axis  perpendicular  to 
the  face  of  the  target ;  perforation  then  depends  upon 
the  energy  with  which  the  projectile  may  be  anima- 
ted. Tlius  the  side  of  the  Mnnnrrh  (T-inch  plates) 
could  be  perforated  "directly"  by  a  projectile  having  ; 
a  zone-energy  of  90  foot-tons, but  it  would  require  lib  I 
foot-tons  to  send  the  same  projectile  through  at  an  ' 
angle  of  (50  degrees.  The  defense,  therefore,  should  | 
not  rely  too  much  on  the  chance  of  shot  striking  "ob- 
liquely" ;  for  the  projectiles  fired  from  large  modern 
rified  ordnance  would  probably  perforate  all  thinly 
armored  ironehidsat  all  fighting  angles  and    ranges. 

OBLIQUE  FLANK.— In  fortification,  that  part  of  the  \ 


curtain  from  whence  the  face  of  the  opposite  bastion 
may  be  discovered;  and  is  the  dislanee  between  thr; 
lines  r««/7i<  nni\Ji'/iant,  which  an-  rejected  by  some 
engineers,  us  being  liable  to  be  ruined  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  siege,  esjiecially  when  made  of  sandy  earth. 
This  olilique  or  second  Hank  defends  very  obliquely 
the  opposite  face,  and  is  lo  he  used  only  in  a  place 
attacked  bv  an  anov  witlmnr  arlillerv. 

OBLIQUE  order"  OF  BATTLE.  Military  writers 
describe  this  order  of  battle  us  one  in  whi<!h  the 
[irimitive  jiarallel  order  has  been  departed  from,  with 
the  design  of  giving  the  one  force,  liy  maneuvering, 
a  superiority  over  the  other,  or,  in  otlier  words,  if  an 
army  attacks  its  enemy  in  Hank,  say  the  right,  its 
own  right  must  be  refused,  and  lience.  when  it  ar- 
rives on  the  enemy's  line,  the  army  will  be  in  oblique 
order.  In  order  to  make  use  of  the  obliipK-  order 
with  success,  the  enemy  must  be  deceived  as  to  the 
intention  to  attempt  it,  otherwise  it  may  be  in  his 
power  to  frustrate  its  execution  by  reinforcing  tlie 
menaced  Hank  ;  extreme  caution,  therefore,  in  the 
preparation  for  such  a  maneuver,  and  the  utmost 
rapidity  in  its  execution,  are  indispensalily  reipiisitc. 
The  aim  of  using  tliis  order  of  battle  is  to  turn  or 
outflank  the  enemy.     See  Order  i if  liattk. 

OBLIQUE  STEP.— A  step  or  movement  in  march- 
ing, in  which  the  soldier, while  advancing,  gradually 
takes  ground  to  the  right  or  left  at  an  angle  of  about 
25"^.     It  is  not  now  |)racliced. 

OBLONG  BULLET.-  This  form  of  bullet  at  present 
used  in  the  United  States'  service,  is  composed  of  a 
cylinder  surmounted  by  a  conoid — the  conoid  being 


formed  of  the  arcs  of  three  circles.  The  cylinder 
has  three  grooves  cut  in  it,  in  a  direction  perpendic- 
ular to  its  axis,  to  hold  the  grease  necessary  for  lu- 
bricating the  bore  of  the  piece  in  loading,  and  possi- 
bly to  guide  the  bullet  in  its  flight,  after  the  manner 
of  the  feathers  of  an  arrow.  A  conical  cavity  is  form- 
ed in  the  bottom,  in  which  the  gas  of  the  charge  ex- 
pands, and  forces  the  sides  of  the  bullet  into  the 
grooves  or  rifies  of  the  gun.  From  these  grooves  it 
receives  a  rotary  motion  around  its  long  axis,  which 
prevents  it  from  turning  over  in  its  flight.  See  Bui- 
let.  Pr'ijirtilis   and  Rmind  Bullet. 

OBSERVATORY.— For  the  purpose  of  observing 
the  flight  and  effect  of  the  projectiles,  a  look-out 
termed  an  observatory,  is  arranged  on  one  of  the 
flanks  of  the  batterj' ;  in  most  cases  the  end  of  an 
cpaulement  will  afford  a  safe  point,  where  a  secure 
shelter  of  sand-bags  can  be  made  so  as  to  enable  an 
officer  with  a  field-glass  to  note  the  range  and  effect 
of  the  fire,  so  as  to  regulate  it  and  give  the  greatest 
ethcienev. 

OBSERVER  SERGEANTS.— In  the  United  States, 
Sergeants  in  the  Signal  Service,  stationed  in  large 
towns  and  important  commercial  centers  to  give 
timely  warning  of  the  approach  of  storms,  rise  of 
rivers,  and  all  other  important  weather  news  for  the 
guidance  of  niercliants  and  others. 

OBSISIONAL  CROWN.— A  crown  so  called- among 
the  ancients,  which  was  bestowed  upon  a  Governor 
or  General,  who  by  his  skill  and  exertions,  either 
held  out  or  caused  the  seige  to  be  raised  of  any  town 
belonging  to  the  Republic.  It  was  made  from  the 
grass  which  grew  on  the  spot,  and  was  therefore 
called  r/rniiiinenji. 

OBSTACLES. — No  obstacle  is  insurmountable.  Ob- 
stacles may  hinder,  and  even  slop  for  a  while,  an 


OBSTRUCTIONS. 


430 


OBSTRUCTIONS. 


euemy's  approach,  but  they  can  be  overcome.  Their 
passive  resistance  must  be  aided  by  tlie  active  re- 
sistance of  the  defense.  These  obstacles,  in  order 
that  tliey  should  be  accemory  means  of  defense, 
should  detain  the  enemy  in  a  position  where  he  will 
be  under  the  fire  of  the  defenders  at  close  range. 
Hence,  the  following  conditions  should  be  observed 
in  arranging  the  obstacles  in  front  of  a  field  work. 
1.  The  obstacles  should  be  placed  within  close 
musketry  range  of  the  defense.  3.  They  should  be 
arranged  so  as  not  to  afford  shelter  to  the  enemy. 
3.  Tliey  should,  as  a  rule,  be  protected  from  the  fire 
of  the  enemy's  artillerj'.  4.  They  should  be  ar- 
ranged so  as  not  to  interfere  with  an  active  defense 
of  the  work.  Their  uses  as  obstacles  wUl  depend 
upon  the  degree  of  resistance  which  they  offer  in 
harmony  with  the  foregoing  conditions.  Abatis 
placed  in  the  ditch  will,  in  one  case,  be  in  the  best 
position ;  in  another,  it  should  be  placed  some 
distance  in  front  of  the  work.  A  fraise  placed  in 
tlie  scarp,  when  the  ditch  is  swept  b_v  a  fire  from 
the  work  or  from  ditch  defenses,  will  be  better  than 
if  along  the  counterscarp.  Torpedoes,  military  pits, 
entanglements,  etc.,  may  all  be  combined.  In  some 
cases  The  grotmd  in  front  of  the  work  will  be  the 
better  position;  in  others,  the  crest  of  the  counter- 
.scarp  and  the  ditclies  offer  the  best  conditions  for 
their  use.  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  advisable  to  place 
the  obstacles  not  nearer  than  fifty  yards  to  the  in- 
terior crest,  if  the  profile  is  a  weak  one.  When  the 
profile  is  strong,  it  is  not  a  matter  of  so  much  im- 
portance, so  long  as  the  assaulting  columns  are 
exposed  to  the  fire  of  the  defense.  It  is  well  to 
remark  with  respect  to  inundations,  that  they  should 
not  be  used  until  tlie  last  moment.  The  unliealthi- 
ness  due  to  the  presence  of  stagnant  water  is  apt  to 
produce  more  casualties  than  are  to  be  feared  from 
the  enemy's  attacks.  If  the  dams  can  not  be  pro- 
tected or  hidden  from  the  enemy's  artillery  fire, 
they  should  be  built,  as  far  as  possible,  so  that  the 
enemy  can  bring  his  fire  to  bear  only  upon  the 
upper  side.  The  amount  of  the  dam  exposed  to  his 
fire  will  then  only  be  the  portion  between  the  top 
and  the  surface  of  the  water.  See  Accessory  Means 
of  Defense. 

OBSTRUCTIONS.— Water  may  be  made  a  very  im- 
portant accessary  means  of  defense  in  many  localities, 
as  in  a  fiat,  marshy  country  where  the  level  of  the 
natural  surface  lies  but  at  a  slight  elevation  above 
the  water-level;  or  as,  in  the  case  of  an  undulating 
surface,  where  small  streams  running  through  val- 
leys, can  be  dammed  back,  so  as  to  produce  an  in- 
undation of  some  extent. 

In  the  former  case,  the  defensive  works  can  be 
easily  girdled  by  a  zone  of  marsliy  ground,  which 
will  give  an  assailant  great  trouble  to  construct  his 
trenches  and  other  siege-works  upon,  whilst  the 
work  itself  can  be  secured  from  attempts  at  surprise, 
by  keeping  its  ditches  filled  with  water  to  the  depth 
of  six  feet  at  least.  In  such  a  locality — moreover,  if 
in  a  climate  where  the  winters  are  mild — revetted 
scarps  and  counterscarps,  the  chief  use  of  which  is 
to  prevent  an  attempt  at  an  open  assault,  may  be 
replaced  by  earthen  ones,  a  strong  stockade  being 
formed  along  a  wide  berm,  answering  as  a  corridor, 
to  give  greater  securitj'  on  the  more  exposed  fronts 
of  the  work. 

In  the  latter  case,  portions  of  the  ground,  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  works,  may  be  covered  by 
a  sheet  of  water,  of  sulHcient  depth  to  prevent  their 
being  us('d  by  the  assailant  in  his  approaches;  and 
within  the  inundation  thus  artificially  produced  de- 
tached works  may  be  erected,  wliieli,  bj'  taking 
flank  and  reverse  views  over  other  lines  of  approach 
of  the  assailant,  may  force  him  to  make  his  approach 
upon  other  points  which  will  have  been  strongly 
fortified  to  mc'ct  this  condition  of  things. 

To  form  these  artificial  inundations  the  locality 
must  lend  itself  to  the  construction  of  dams,  in  such 
a  position  that   they  cannot    be  reached  by  the 


assail&at's  missiles,  and  will  be  secure  from  any  other 
means  he  may  take  to  destroy  them.  This  supposes, 
then,  that  the  stream  should  either  run  through  the 
works,  so  that  the  dam  could  be  erected  within  them 
or  so  near  to  them  that,  in  combination  with  some 
advanced  work,  the  dam  may  be  made  secure. 

In  a  locality  having  these  features,  the  inundation 
would,  as  a  general  rule,  have  to  be  formed  on  the 
upstream  side  of  the  work,  since,  if  made  below  it, 
the  dam  would  have  to  be  placed  further  from  the 
work,  and  the  inundation  itself  might  spread  up  too 
far  within.  Besides  these  objections  to  this  position, 
an  assailant  would  evidently  have  greater  facilities 
for  tapping  the  inundation  and  running  the  water  off 
than  when  it  occupies  the  upstream  position.  The 
position  and  extent  of  the  dams,  and  the  other  neces- 
sary constructions  connected  with  them,  as  sluices, 
waste  weirs,  etc.,  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  lo- 
cal features  of  the  site,  and  will  form  a  particular 
study  in  each  case  for  the  engineer. 

Besides  these  uses  of  water  as  a  passive  obstruc- 
tion, arrangements  may  be  made,  when  the  locality 
is  favorable  to  it,  for  producing  a  powerful  current 
to  sweep  away  the  assailant's  works  in  the  ditches  by 
letting  loose  a  large  body  of  water,  which  has  been 
dammed  back  for  the  purpose,  with  a  rush  into  the 
ditches.  This,  in  like  manner,  will  require  the  same 
constructions  as  in  the  preceding  ease,  and  Hash 
gates  which  can  be  suddenly  turned  about  a  hori- 
zontal or  a  vertical  axis,  so  as  to  give  an  outlet  to 
the  water  in  considerable  volume"  and  with  great 
velocity.  These  gates  have  to  be  placed  in  some 
secure  point  of  the  ditches,  inaccessible  to  the  assail- 
ant and  covered  from  his  missiles,  and,  if  effectively 
used,  may  prove  a  source  of  great  annoyance  to  him 
by  frequentl}-  frustrating  his  attempts  to  make  a  pas- 
sage of  the  ditch. 

Solid  hard  rock,  or  even  thin  layers  of  soft  rock 
alternating  with  layers  of  soil,  as  was  the  case  at 
Sebastopol,  are  great  obstructions  to  an  assailant's 
siege  works,  as  the  rock  has,  in  many  cases  to  be 
blasted  out  to  gain  partial  cover,  and  a  large  amount 
of  earth,  with  trench  materials,  has  to  be  brought 
forward  at  great  risk  of  life  to  form  the  parapets. 
In  constructing  a  work,  nothing  should  be  omitted 
which,  if  placed  on  the  line  of  the  assailant's  ap- 
proaches, will  delay  his  operations  and  force  him  to 
greater  efforts  and  exposure.  To  this  end,  where 
fragments  of  rock  can  be  readily  had  in  sutticient 
quantities,  it  should  be  used  in  forming  the  embank- 
ment of  the  glacis,  and  also  be  thrown  in  upon 
other  points,  over  which  important  lines  of  trenches 
must  necessarily  run. 

Besides  these  accessory  means  of  delaying  the  pro- 
gress of  the  besieger's  works,  a  site  of  solid  rock,  of- 
fers the  farther  advantage  of  giving  natural  scarps 
and  counterscarps,  where  the  ditches  are  excavated 
out  of  the  rocks,  of  far  greater  resistance  to  the  as- 
sailant's means  of  destruction  than  any  masonry, 
however  solidly  and  carefully  constructed,  can  offer; 
besides  forcing  the  assailant  to  construct  galleries 
through  the  rock  to  attain  the  level  of  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch  where  his  passage  of  it  is  to  be  constructed. 
With  a  similar  purpose,  the  stumps  of  large  trees 
may  be  left  in  like  positions,  and  trees  may  be  plant- 
ed when  the  work  is  constructed  with  the  object  of 
cutting  them  down  and  leaving  their  stumps  when 
the  work  is  threatened  with  a  siege. 

Mines,  when  properly,  arranged  and  well  planned, 
are  so  important  a  defensive  means  that  they  should 
constitute  a  part  of  the  permanent  dispositions  of 
defense  of  every  work  wliere  the  eliaracter  of  the 
soil  will  admit  of  it,  at  least  on  those  points  which 
are  otherwise  weakest,  and  therefore  most  liable  to 
be  assailed.  The  general  arrangement  of  a  combina- 
tion of  galleries  and  mine  chambers,  as  well  as  the 
details  fortheir  construction, are  given  in  the  articles, 
Mines, and  CJountekmines;  therefore,  nothing  further 
is  called  for  here  than  to  state  that  li>e  jirincipal  gal- 
leries of  the  combination  should  be  constructed  with 


OBTUEATEUE. 


ODOKETZK. 


the  work,  and  of  durablo  malprials,  Ifavini;  llicf)tli<T 
parts  to  bi!  done  when  I  lie  i-xi'icncy  calliri'^  for  tliciii 
iniiv  liiippi'Il.      Si'C,  AraxxDiy/  Mrii.uH  oj   Ihfi  iiac, 

OBTUEATEUE.-  A  kiiiil  of  slnppcr,  wliiili  is  usual- 
ly iiiaili'  (if  uriKiglil  iron,  anil  umucI  with  the  Mailcn, 
and  similar  fuses.  The  i>hltir<itcur  is  screwed  into 
tlic  Ial)le,  and  assists  in  preventing  the  soft  metal  of 
the  fuse  from  being  driven  into  the  shell  by  tlie  force 
of  tlie  eliars;e. 

OBTUEATION.  — The'eseape  of  i;as  at  tlie  junction 
of  the  brceeli  block  and  tlie  end  of  tiic  bore  must  be 
preveiitccl;  the  sj'stem  of  «/'^«/'a<'«rtemployed  by  tlie 
Enijlish  i]i  tlieir  iiu)dern  IS.  I;.,  (interrupted  screw; 
oninance  was  a  carefully  made  steel  cup  attached  to 
the  breech-block ;  when  the  gun  was  fired  tlie  ex- 
panding gases  pressed  the  sides  of  the  steel  cup 
against  the  bore  and  over  the  junction  with  the 
block,  thus  closing  all  small  orifices.  Iinnicdiati'ly 
afterwards  the  elasticity  of  the  steel  caus<Ml  the  cup 
to  regain  its  former  shape,  and  the  breech  could  be 
opc^ned  again.  Th<'  French  have  obtained  good 
results  from  tlu;  lateral  expansion  of  a  wad  of  asbes- 
tos and  tallow  acted  on  by  a  hemispherical  steel 
block  at  the  end  of  the  bore.  With  15.  L.  small  arms 
the  oMuratiini.,  is  elTec:ted  by  the  use  of  a  nielallic 
cartridge-case. 

OBUS-  OBUSIEE.— A  species  of  small  mortar,  re- 
sembling a  mortar  in  everything  but  the  carriage, 
■which  was  made  in  the  furm  of  that  belonging  to  a 
gun,  onl}'  shorter.  It  has  been  frequently  used  at 
sieges;  and  was  well  calculated  to  sweep  the  cover- 
ed-way and  to  lire  ricochet  .shots.  They  wen'  usual- 
ly loaded  with  cartouches.  A  howitzer,  called  Ohiis. 
icr,  was  known  under  the  name  of  lluHcnicze,  in 
1434. 

OC. — An  arrow  used  by  Turkish  archers  and  bow- 
men. 

OCCUPATION  AEMY.— An  army  that  remains  in 
possession  of  a  newly  conquered  country,  retaining  it 
as  a  kind  of  hostage,  until  peace  is  signed  and  the 
■war  indemnity  paid.  Armies  of  Occupation  are  gen- 
erally fed  at  liie  expense  of  the  defeated  nation. 

OCTAGON.  A  plane  closed  tigure  of  8  sides.  When 
the  sides  are  e(jual,  anil  also  tlie  angles,  the  figure  is 
called  a  "regular  octagon";  in  this  case,  each  angle 
is  135",  or  equal  to  three  half  right  angles.  If  the 
alternate  corners  of  a  regular  octagon  be  joined,  a 
square  is  constructed ;  and  as  the  angle  contained 
between  the  sides  of  the  square  and  of  the  octagon 
is  one-fourth  of  a  right  angle,  the  octagon  may  easily 
be  constructed  from  the  square  as  a  basis.  The  oc- 
t.agon  in  fortitication  is  well  calculated  in  its  ground 
for  the  construction  of  large  towns,  or  for  such  as 
have  the  advantage  of  neighboring  rivers,  especially 
if  the  engineer  can  so  place  the  bastions,  that  the  en- 
trances and  outlets  of  the  rivers  may  be  in  some  of 
the  curtains.  By  means  of  this  disposition,  no  per- 
son could  come  in  or  go  out  of  the  garrison  without 
the  Commandant's  permission,  as  the  sentinels  must 
have  a  full  view  from  the  flanks  of  the  neighboring 
bastions. 

ODA. — A  name  given  to  the  different  corps  or  com- 
panies into  which  the  Janissaires  were  divided.  The 
■word  Oda  means  a  room,  and  the  companies  were 
so  called  from  messing  separately. 

ODA-BACHI.— A  termapplied  to  a  Captain  super- 
intending the  gunners  at  Constantinople. 

ODIUS. — A  herald  in  the  camp  of  the  Greeks  be- 
fore Troy. 

OBOMETEB. — An  instrument  attached  to  a  carriage 
or  other  vehicle,  for  the  purpose  of  registering  the 
distance  it  has  traveled.  Such  machines  have  been 
in  use  from  an  early  period,  and  one  is  described  by 
Vitruvius  in  that  part  of  his  work  De  ArchiUxtura, 
■which  is  devoted  to  machines.  The  instrument,  as 
commonly  employed,  consists  of  a  train  of  wheel- 
work,  which  communicates  motion  from  the  axle  of 
the  carriage  wheel  to  an  index  which  moves  round 
the  circumference  of  a  dial  fixed  in  one  side  of  the 
carriage  over  the  axle.   The  wheel-work  is  arranged 


so  as  to  produce  a  great  diminution  of  the  velocity 
impressed  by  the  axle  of  the  vehicle,  and  the  dial  m 
so  graduated  that  llie  index  can  show  the  niimbirof 
miles,  furloii'.'s,  yards,  etc.,  traversed.  The  instru- 
mi'iit  is  also  constructed  to  work  independently,  lie- 
ing  in  this  case  provided  with  wheels  and  an  axle  of 
its  own;  when  this  is  done  the  wheel  is  made  of 
such  a  size  that  its  circumference  is  an  aliquot  part 
of  a  mile,  an  arrangement  which  greatly  siniplifieg 
tilt;  calculation  of  the  distance  traversed.  The 
complete  Odometer  can  then  be  drawn  along  by  a 
man  on  foot,  or  attached  behind  a  carriage. 

The  Odometer,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  .s(|uare  brass  weight  or  pendulum,  hung 
within  a  rectangular  frame  which  revolves  with  the 
wlieel,  while  the  pendulum  remains  vertical.  Upon 
the  front  face  of  the  pendulum  are  fwo  brass  ■wlieels, 


two  inches  in  diameter,  the  inner  surfaces  of  which 
are  in  contact,  the  edges  of  both  uniting  to  make  a 
groove  corresponding  to  a  worm  cut  in  the  middle 
of  a  shaft  fastened  to  the  sides  of  the  frame.  The 
front  wheel  has  one  hundred  teeth,  the  rear  one 
ninety-nine,  and  both  pitch  into  and  are  moved  by 
the  revolving  worm  of  the  frame.  There  are  also 
the  same  number  of  divisions  as  of  teeth  on  eacli 
wheel,  and  they  are  figured,  tlie  front  wheel  from  0 
to  100,  the  rear  one  from  0  to  0000.  The  front  wheel 
has  three  spokes,  an  index  being  also  cut  down  on 
its  perimeter  to  read  the  divisions  of  the  rear  wheel, 
the  front  wheel  itself  being  read  by  a  slender  steel 
wire  fastened  to  the  brass  weight  and  curving  over 
the  worm,  so  as  to  be  immedia>'  .y  over  the  divisions 
of  the  wheel.  Now  when  t)'^  frame  is  made  to  re- 
volve by  the  revolution  o*"  the  wagon  wheel,  the 
worm  will  turn  both  wheel  ,  and  each  will  be  moved 
forward  one  tooth  by  evei^  turn,  and  when  one  hun- 
dred turns  are  made,  the  front  wheel  wUl  have  moved 
completelj- around,  and  the  index  of  its  zero  division 
will  liave  been  carried  over  one  division  of  the  inner 
wheel.  And  thus  by  noting  the  positions  of  the  in- 
dices of  both  wheels,  the  number  of  revolutions  of 
the  wagon  wheel  can  be  easily  obtained  up  to  9900, 
when  both  wheels  will  be  at  zero  again.  The  wagon 
wheel  being  of  a  given  size,  the  number  of  feet 
traveled  can  be  at  ^nce  ascertained  by  noting  the 
readings  of  the  wheels,  at  the  beginning  and  end  of 
the  journey,  subtracting  one  from  the  other,  and  mul- 
tiplying tlie  perimeter  of  the  wagon  wheel  by  the 
number  of  turns  made. 

An  excellent  form  of  Odometer  devised  by  Messrs 
Gurley,  United  States,  is  represented  in  Fig.  2.  The 
pendulum  is  fastened  to  a  shaft  turning  in  tlie  center 
of  a  strong  circular  metal  box  on  this  shaft,  and  turn- 
ing ■nitli  it  is  a  pinion  giving  motion  to  a  train  of 
wheels,  each  of  which  has  also  a  shaft  to  the  end 
of  which  an  index  is  fastened.  There  are  dials  for 
each  index  as  shown,  and  the  number  of  turns  of  the 
wagon  wheel  can  thus  be  counted  up  to  100,000.     A 


(EIL  DE  B(EUF. 


432 


OFFENSIVE  BATTIE. 


strona:  bezel  ring  with  thick  glass  covers  the  dials 
and  allows  them  to  be  easily  read.  The  Odometer  is 
securely  fastened  to  the  spokes  of  the  wheel  by 
three  carriage-bolts,  there  being  also  a  thick  leather 
washer  on  each  side  confined  between  the  bottom  of 
the  projectmg  arms, and  a  metal  washer  of  same  shaue 
on  the  other  "side  of  the  spokes.    In  using  this  Odo- 


Fig.  2. 

meter  the  reading  of  the  dials  must  be  taken  at  both 
ends  of  the  journey,  the  one  subtracted  from  the 
other,  and  the  remainder  showing  the  number  of 
turns  of  the  wagon  wheel,  multiplied  into  its  peri- 
meter.    See  PedomeUr. 

CEIL  DE  BCEDF.— A  French  term  literally  signify- 
ing ox's  eye,  applied  in  architecture  to  those  small 
round  or  oval  openings  in  the  frieze  or  roof  of  large 
buildings,  which  serve  to  give  light  to  spaces  other- 
wise dark.  The  most  famous  is  that  in  the  ante- 
room (where  the  courtiers  waited)  of  the  Royal  Cham- 
ber at  Versailles,  which  gave  name  to  the  apartment. 
Hence  the  expression,  Les  Fnstes  de  V  (Eil-de-Batif 
—\.  e.,  the  history  of  the  courtiers  of  the  Grand  Jlon- 
arque,  and  by  extension,  of  courtiers  in  general. 

OFF. — Most  distant ;  a  term  commonly  used  in 
speaking  of  horses  harnessed  to  a  carriage,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  near.  It  means  the  animal  which 
is  harnessed  on  the  right  hand  facing  the  front  of  a 
team.  The  tennis  variouslj'  compounded,  as  in  the 
expressions,  tn  march  off,  to  sound  off\  to  tell  off',  etc. 

OFFENSE. — A  crime  committed  by  an  officer  or 
soldier  for  which  he  deserves  punishment.  All  acts 
that  are  contrary  to  good  order  and  iliscipline.  omis- 
sions of  duty,  etc.,  may  be  called  military  oflenses, 
and  subject  the  olTeudcr  to  be  tried  by  Court-^AIar- 
tial.  The  principal  oflenses  are  specified  in  the  Ar- 
ticles of  \V:ir. 

OFFENSIVE  BATTLE.— In  a  purely  Offensive  Bat- 
tle, an  army  seeks  file  enemy  and  attacks  him  wher- 
ever he  is  to  be  found.  To  know  wiiat  we  are  going 
to  encounter  is  half  the  battle  in  almost  all  affairs  of 
life ;  for  we  are,  thus  far,  secure  from  the  siirprise 
of  finding  something  in  our  way  that  we  had  not 
counted  upon.  In  no  transaction  is  lliis  beforeliaud 
knowledge  more  important  tlian  in  jirepaiing  for 
a  battle.  Tliere  is  hardly  any  labor,  any  ]iers<inal  risk 
to  which  a  General  should  not  subject  himself  to  gain 
precise  and  accurate  information  on  this  head.  Here 
he  must  see  for  himself,  at  llie  risk  of  finding  his 
orders  misconstrued,  and  his  jilaus  (Ufeated  by  tlie 
carelessness  or  stupidity  of  his  sul)ordinafes. 

A  personal  reconnoissance  therefore  of  the  enemy's 


position  is  indispensable,  and  if  this  is  made  on  the 
eve  of  the  attack  the  General  should  take  another 
last  look  in  the  morning,  before  moving,  to  see  that 
the  enemy  has  not  anticipated  him,  and  taken  steps 
that  call  for  changes  on  his  part.  Of  course,  what- 
ever is  advantageous  to  the  defensive  will  particular- 
ly engage  his  attention  ;  but,  as  his  great  object  is, 
iiot  only  to  drive  back  the  enemy,  but  to 
bring  on  him  a  great  disaster,  the  chief  point 
to  which  he  will  bend  his  thoughts,  will  be 
to  see  by  what  mode  and  by  what  point  of 
attack  he  can  secure  the  greatest  strategical 
results. 

Considerations  therefore  both  of  tactical 
and  strategical  character  must  receive  the 
careful  examination  of  the  Commanding  Gen- 
eral, in  deciding  upon  iiis  plan  of  attack. 
The  first,  as  carrying  with  it  the  most  im- 
portant advantage,  is  the  strategical  result ; 
the  two  principal  of  which  are,  first,  either  to 
direct  the  main  effort  upon  that  wing  of  the 
enemy  which,  if  overthrown,  will  naturally 
bring  us  on  the  line  of  retreat  of  his  forces, 
or,  second,  upon  some  point  between  his  two 
wings  which,  if  pierced,  may  force  his  dis- 
connected forces  ondivergent  lines  of  retreat, 
and  thus  expose  them  to  the  disaster  of  being 
beaten  in  detail,  or  to  the  capture  or  de- 
struction of  one  of  the  fractions.  In  the  bat- 
tle of  Austerlitz,  for  example,  in  which  the 
Allies  at  first  acted  offensively,  their  plan 
was  made  subservient  wholly  to  the  strategi- 
cal result.  The  right  of  the  French  position 
was  nearest  to  their  line  of  retreat  on  Vien- 
na; by  forcing  this  point,  the  Allies  would 
have  been  brought  between  the  French  and 
Vienna,  thus  throwing  them  further  from 
their  base.  It  repulsed  in  this  attempt,  which  was 
possible,  the  Allies  still  covered  their  own  line 
of  retreat,  so  long  as  their  center  and  right  held  firm. 
The  strategical  object  of  Kapoleon,  on  the  contrar3', 
was  to  pierce  the  Allied  center,  and  thus  secure  the 
advantages  of  a  successful  operation  of  this  kind. 
Next  in  importance  come  what  may  be  termed  the 
grand  tactical  considerations ;  that  is,  the  means 
of  doing  most  damage  to  the  enemy  on  the  field 
of  battle  itself.  For  example,  if  the  enemy's  position 
is  such  that  he  has  an  impassable  obstacle  on  one  of 
his  wings,  as  a  river,  lake,  or  a  narrow  defile,  tac- 
tical considerations  alone  would  suggest  to  direct  our 
main  attack  on  the  opposite  wing,  since  it  is  evident 
that  by  defeating  this,  the  center  and  the  remaining 
wing  may  be  very  easily  thrown  upon  the  ob- 
struction which  it  either  cannot  pass,  or  must 
pass  with  difficulty,  and  thus  be  captured  or  great- 
ly cut  up.  In  like  maimer,  tactical  considerations 
would  engage  us  to  attack  a  height  on  the  ene- 
my's position  which,  if  gained,  would  give  our 
forces  a  decided  advantage ;  or,  if  his  line  of  bat- 
tle presents  a  very  salient  point,  upon  which  our 
efforts  can  be  concentrated  to  attack  this  point; 
or  if  his  line  at  any  point  presents  a  wide  break, 
into  which  we  can  force  our  way,  to  do  so  ;  any 
one  of  these  pointsi,  if  gained,  would  give  decided 
tactical  advantage. 

Though  not  necessarily  leading  to  the  same  de- 
cisive results  as  the  two  preceding,  a  third  consid- 
eration, in  choosing  the  point  of  attack,  is  the  fa- 
cility which  the  natural  features  of  the  ground, 
over  which  we  nuist  move  tipon  it,  afford  for  the 
combined  operatiim  of  the  troops  of  the  different 
arms  that  are  to  make  the  attack.  Too  much 
weight,  however,  is  not  to  be  given  to  this,  in  se- 
lecting the  point  of  attack;  as  ground,  hbwever 
dillicult,  may  almost  always  be  got  over  by  troops  of 
all  arms,  and  very  often  it  more  tlian  compensates 
for  tlie  labor  of  doing  so,  by  the  cover  and  other  ad- 
vantages it  may  afford  in  advancing. 

In  tiie  liattle  of  Austerlitz  the  laclica!  advantages 
were  greatly  against   the   Allied  point  of  attack,  as 


OFFENSIVE  PATROLS. 


OFFICER  IN  CHARGE. 


they,  in  the  first  place,  had  to  advance  againHt  the 
villafjfH  nccupii'cl  liy  the  Frciicli  and  1liroiii;h  nar- 
row, lioMovv  riiuds,  in  which  llicir  ccilurniiH  l)i'canic 
confuHcd  and  disnrdiTcd  ;  and  tlicy  haii,  iiiorrovcr. 
on  the  (lank  and  rear  .'iiviral  pniids,  wilh  only 
narrow  cause  way  w  ijcl  wccn  tlicin,ori  which.if  thrown, 
tlicnt  was  no  onllcl  of  cscap<:  cxcciit  over  these  nar- 
row defdes.  all  (jf  which  were  exposed  to  llic  artil- 
lery of  the  French.  The  rcsidt,  as  we  know,  was  a 
frightful  disaster.  Prudence  c<iunsels,  in  all  such 
cases, to  fon'f;olhe  teniptinf;  ohjcct  of  a  ^rand  result 
if  to  gain  it  we  ccjiosc  o\irselves,  if  iinsuccessful,  to 
a  f;r<'at  disaster.  The  (lencral  who  looks  forward 
alone,  not  proviilini;  for  his  own  n'ar  or  flanks,  or 
who.  intent  only  upon  some  strikinj;  success,  rushes 
recklessly  in  the  purstdt  of  it.  within  the  jaws  of 
destruction,  has  learned  hut  half  his  trade,  and  that 
the  most  easily  ac(|uired  and  the  most  dangerous  in 
its  ap[)lication  in  such  hands.  It  is  in  nicely  weii;h- 
inn  these  <'onsidcrations  and  selectinj^  the  l)est,  that 
the  fireat  (Jencral  shows  his  powers.  Kccoi^nizin;; 
scttleil  principles  as  his  guides,  he  does  not  apply 
them  hlindly. 

Althou);h  hut  one  point,  known  as  the  kf.y-ipnmt,  is 
usually  selected  for  the  main  effort  of  the  assailant, 
still  the  whole  line  of  the  assaile<i  is  more  or  less 
menaced,  to  prevent  the  key-point  from  receiving 
reinforcements.  A  difTerent  course,  one  hy  which 
we  endeavor,  so  to  speak,  to  envelop  the  a.ssailed, 
can  only  be  attempted  with  a  prospect  of  success, 
when  we  are  greatly  superior  in  force.  Had  the  Al- 
lies at  Austcrlitz, instead  of  pressing  with  such  vigor 
the  French  left  whilst  they  weakened  their  center  in 
moving  on  the  French  right,  thus  leaving  the  pla- 
teau of  Pratzen  a  comparatively  easy  prey  to  the 
French, simply  menaced  the  left  and  held  the  plateau 
with  a  strong  force,  not  succeeded  in  their  main  at- 
tack,they  would  at  least  have  avoided  the  sub.sequent 
disaster.  Connected  with  enveloping  attacks  is  that 
of  sending  a  strong  detachment,  hy  a  circuiloi:s 
route,  to  fall  cm  the  enemy's  rear,  wddlst  an  attack  is 
made  on  him  in  front.  Such  maneuvers  are  wrong  in 
principle,  and  nulitary  history  presents  stiking  in- 
stances of  their  failure  in  practice.  The  topograph- 
ical features  of  the  immediate  theater  of  operations 
can  alone  determine  whether  to  risk  turning  opera- 
tions. When  this  is  in  a  very  broken  or  obstructed 
country  so  that  such  a  movement  may  be  concealed 
for  the  time  necessary  to  perform  it,  the  risk  will  he 
less,  but  the  chances  are  still  against  it. 

An  attack  on  the  center  is  the  obvious  operation 
when  the  enemy's  line  is  too  extended  for  the  num- 
ber of  his  forces.  It  may  also  be  the  best  course 
when  the  enemy's  line  of  retreat  is  through  a  detile 
in  the  rear  of  his  center,  as,  in  case  of  success,  each 
wing  is  cut  off  from  the  line  of  retreat,  and  the  troops 
of  the  center,  if  forced  upon  the  detile,  cannot  escape 
from  a  serious  disaster.  Where  both  flanks  of  the 
enemy's  position  are  secure,  and  it  becomes  a  case  of 
necessity  to  attack  some  point  of  the  front  must  be 
selected  for  the  main  effort,  which,  if  gained,  will 
give  a  decided  advantage.  For  example,  if  there  is 
a  commanding  eminence  on  his  front,  every  efTort 
sliould  he  made  to  carry  it,  as,  from  there,  the  field 
of  battle  being  overlooked  the  enemy  would  be  ob- 
liged to  fall  back.  In  this  case  the  order  of  battle 
would  necessarily  become  (wnixat;  the  divisions  of  the 
center,  to  make  the  assault, .being  in  advance  whilst 
their  flanks  and  rear  wotild  be  secured  hy  the  divi- 
sions of  the  wings  advancing  in  echelon,  those  near- 
est the  center  being  most  advanced.  P-liminating  all 
exceptional  local  features,  the  general  case  which 
presents  itself  is  that,  where  the  entire  line  of  the 
enemy  is  equally  exposed,  and  where  success  there- 
fore depends  upon  the  ability  of  the  assailant  to  keep 
the  wh(de  line  so  threatened  that  its  reserve  alone 
can  be  moved  with  safety  from  one  point  to  another, 
whilst  a  powerful  effort  with  concentrated  forces  is 
made  on  some  one  point,  usually  one  of  the  wings. 
In  this  case  the  assailing  wing  will  be  strongly  rein- 


forced, particularly  with  artillery;  the  center  alBO 

strengthened,  whilst  the  opposite  wing  will  be  re- 
fused, thedivisions  receding  from  towards  the  center, 
in  echelon,  so  as  to  parry  any  attempt  at  turning 
tliiiii.  or  at  making  a  Hank  attack  on  tliispart.  The 
only  geiHTal  rules  that  can  he  well  laid  down  for  the 
distribution  of  tliedilTerent  arms  on  thc-tli-ld  of  battle 
have  already  been  given.  Detailson  this  point  must 
be  necessarily  left  to  the  subordinates,  wiio,  if  well 
ac(piainled  with  the  true  functions  and  resources  of 
their  respective  arms,  will  seldom  fail  to  post  them 
so  as  to  do  as  much  injury  to  the  enemy  and  be  ex- 
posed to  as  little  danger  to  llK'niselves  as  the  natural 
features  of  the  lield  of  battle  will  admit  of.  The 
plan  of  thi^  battle  having  been  decided  on,  the  maneu- 
vers to  carry  it  out  shoidd  be  as  simple  as  possible, 
so  as  to  guard  against  the  failures  that  almost  in- 
variably attend  any  attempt  at  complex  movements, 
within  striking  distance  of  the  enemy.  All  di.-ilribu- 
tions  for  what  are  termed  passages  of  lines  .'■hoidd 
be  avoided,  even  in  the  case  of  thoroughly  drilled 
troops.  The  distril)ution  of  infantry  in  echelons, 
wherever  it  can  hea<lopted,  is  onei,f  thi-  best,  as  each 
division  has  its  sujiport  at  hand  on  its  flank,  wddlst 
the  interval  left  between  the  flank  of  the  one  in  ad- 
vance and  that  <jf  the  one  next  it  in  rear,  should  of- 
fer sulHcient  space  for  cavalry  or  artillery  to  move 
forward  to  the  front  if  wanted.  See  liattlcK,  Defen- 
sire  Htittli',  and  Mired  liattlr. 

OFFENSIVE  PATROLS.-  That  class  of  patrols  made 
exterior  to  the  line  of  out-posts,  with  a  view  of  gain- 
ing intelligence  of  the  enemy's  whereabouts.  'They 
are  composed  of  larger  bodies  of  men  than  defen- 
sive patrols,  the  number  being  proportioned  both  to 
the  distance  to  be  gone  over,  and  the  extent  of  front 
to  be  examined.  In  a  position,  presenting  but  few 
cross-roads,  and  sparsely  settled,  a  patrol  of  ten  or 
twenty  horsemen  may  be  found  ample,  to  search, 
with  all  desirable  thoroughness,  from  twenty  to 
forty  miles  in  advance  of  the  position,  along  the 
principal  avenues  to  it  ;  whereas,  with  a  more  ex- 
tended front,  presenting  many  lateral  avenues, 
double  this  number  might  be  required  for  the  same 
duty.  From  the  information  obtained,  through  the 
ordinary  channels  of  maps,  and  by  questioning  the 
inhabitants  at  hand,  the  commanding-oflicer  can 
usually  settle,  with  sufficient  accuracy,  the  strength 
of  a  patrol. 

OFFENSIVE  WAR.— Military  acts  of  aggression 
constitute  what  is  called  an  Offennite  War.  Those 
who  assail  an  opposite  or  adverse  army,  or  invade 
the  dominions  of  another  power,  are  said  to  wage  an 
Offennive  War.     See   War. 

OFFENSIVE  WEAPONS.— All  arms  of  the  present 
day,  such  as  cannon,  small-arms,  swords,  and  other 
weapons  which  would  be  used  on  an  army  taking 
the  field  for  offensive  operations.  See  Ordiuince  and 
Smnll-firms. 

OYTICER.— Military  Offif^s  are  combatant  and 
non-combatant,  the  latter  term  including  Paymasters, 
Medical  Officers,  Commissariat,  and  other  Civil 
Officers.  Commissioned  Officers  in  the  English 
army  are  those  holding  commissions  from  the 
Crown,  or  a  Lord-Lieutenant,  and  comprise  all 
holding  the  rank  of  ensign,  or  corresponding  or 
superior  rank.  Divided  by  duties,  they  are  Staff 
Officers  (see  Staff),  or  Regimental  Officers  (see 
Regiment)  ;  divided  by  rank.  General  Officers, 
Field  Officers,  and  Troop  or  Company  Officers. 
The  last  are  Captains,  Lieutenants,  and  Sub- 
Lieutenants,  and,  except  in  the  cavalry,  are  un- 
mounted. The  only  Warrant  Officers  in  the  army 
are  Master  Gunners  and  Schoolmasters.  Non-com- 
missioned Officers  are  described  under  that  heading. 

OFFICER  IN  CHARGE.— An  officer,  at  the  United 
States  Military  A(  adeiny,  charged  with  the  enforce- 
f  ment  of  all  regulations  governing  the  Corps  of  Ca- 
dets. Each  of  the  Assistant  Instructors  of  Tactics 
are  in  turn  detailed  as  Officer  in  Charge  ;  his  tour  of 
duty  to  commence  at  guard-mounting,  at  which  time 


OFFICER  IN  WAITING. 


434 


OFFICIAL  CODETESIES. 


he  reports  for  orders  to  the  Commandant  of  CndHs, 

Between  tliirly  minutes  after  receille  roll-call  and 
tap:<  he  stations  himself  in,  or  near  his  office,  and 
at  no  time  durins;  his  tour  absents  liimself  from  it, 
except  on  duty  or  at  meals,  witliout  the  sanction  of 
the  Cummandant  of  C'adetn.  He  is  in  tlie  Cadets' 
mess-hall  at  their  meals,  is  present  at  every  parade 
and  roll-call  during  his  tour,  and  sees  that  all  duty 
during  the  day  which  does  not  require  the  presence 
of  the  Commandant  of  Cadets  is  performed  in  a  sol- 
dier-like manner,  and  according  to  regulations  and 
orders.  He  sees  that  all  signaTs  are  sounded  at  the 
proper  time,  and  takes  effectual  measures  to  sup- 
press all  irregularties  and  disturbances  that  may  oc- 
cur in  the  quarters  or  their  vicinity,  and  corrects 
all  violations  of  orders  or  regulations  coming  to  his 
knowledge.  He  visits  the  sentinels  at  his  discretion 
during  his  tour,  to  see  that  they  are  well  acquainted 
with  their  duties.  On  being  relieved,  he  embraces 
in  his  report  all  suggestions  that  maj'  be  of  service 
to  the  Commandant  for  the  preservation  and  pro- 
motion of  health,  police  and  discipline,  and  reports 
all  offenses  against  discipline,  coming  to  his  knowl- 
ediie.  which  have  nccurred  during  his  tour  of  duty. 

OFFICER  IN  WAITING.— In  the  British  service, 
the  Officer  next  for  duty.  He  is  mentioned  in  orders, 
and  ought  to  be  ready  for  the  service  specified  at  a 
minutes  warning.  He  must  not  on  this  account  quit 
the  camp,  garrison,  or  cantonment. 

OFFICER  OF  THE  DAY.— An  ofticer  whose  immed- 
iate duty  is  to  attend  to  the  interior  economy  of  the 
corps  or  garrison  to  which  he  belongs,  or  of  those 
with  which  he  ma)'  be  doing  duty.  The  Officer  of 
the  Day  has  charge  of  the  guard,  prisoners,  and  po- 
lice of  the  garrison;  and  inspects  the  soldiers  bar- 
racks, messes,  etc.  Both  the  old  and  the  new  Officer 
of  the  Day  are  present  at  guard-mounting.  While 
the  old  guard  is  being  relieved,  they  inspect  the 
guard-house,  orients,  and  verify  the  number  of  pris- 
oners. Theyj  then  proceed  to  report  to  the  Com- 
manding Officer,  when  the  Officer  relieved  presents 
the  report  of 'the  Officer  of  the  Guard,  upon  which  he 
previou.sly  makes  such  remarks  as  circumstances  re- 
quire. At  the  same  time,  the  new  Officer  of  the  Day 
receives  his  instructions.  The  Officer  of  the  Day  is 
responsible  for  the  enforcement  of  the  police  regvila- 
tions,  and  the  cleanliness  of  the  post  or  camp.  "  Fa- 
tigue parties  are  furnished  him  when  the  number  of 
prisoners  is  insufficient  for  police  purposes.  The  | 
Officer  of  the  Day  visits  the  guards  during  the  day  at 
such  times  as  ne  may  deem  necessary,  and  makes  I 
his  rounds  at  night  at  least  once  after  12  o'clock.  I 
The  Officer  of  the  Day  sees  that  the  Officer  of  the 
Guard  is  furnished  with  the  parole  and  countersign 
before  retreat.  In  war  time,  the  Officer  of  the  Day 
satisfies  himself  frequently  during  the  night  of  the 
vigilance  of  the  police  guard  and  advanced  posts. 
He  prescribes  patrols  and  rounds  to  be  made  by  the 
Officer  and  Non-commissioned  Officers  of  the  Guard. 
The  Officer  of  the  Guard  orders  them  when  he  thinks 
necessarv.     He  visits  the  sentinels  frequently. — 

OFFICER  OF  THE  GUARD.— An  officer  "detailed 
daily  for  service  with  the  guard.  It  is  his  duty, 
imder  the  Ofiicer  of  the  Day,  to  see  that  the  Non- 
commissioned Officers  and  men  of  his  guard  are  well 
instructed  in  all  their  duties;  he  inspects  the  reliefs, 
visits  the  sentinels,  and  is  responsible  for  the  pris- 
oners and  the  property  used  by  them  and  the  guard. 
He  is  also  responsible  for  good  order,  alertness,  and 
discipline.  ( )fficers  remain  constantly  at  their  guards, 
except  while  visiting  their  sentinels,  or  necessarily 
engaged  elsewhere  on  their  proper  duty.  The  Of- 
ficer of  the  (iuard  insi)ects  his  guard  at  reveille  and 
retreat,  and  sees  that  the  (-ountersign  is  duly  rom- 
miniicated  to  the  sentinels  at  the  prliper  time  before 
twilight.      See  (hiard  Ilipurt. 

OFFICIAL  COURTESIES.  The  interchange  of  offi. 
cial  ei)mj)liincnts  and  visits  between  foreign  military 
or  naval  otliicrs,  and  the  authorities  of  a  military 
post,  urc  international  in  character.     In  all  cases  it 


I  is  the  dutj'  of  the  Commandant  of  a  military  post, 
without  regard  to  his  rank,  to  send  a  suitable  officer 
to  offer  civilities  and  assistance  to  a  vessel-of-war 
(foreign  or  otherwise)  recently  arrived.  After  such 
offer  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Commanding  Officer  of  the 
vessel  to  send  a  suitable  officer  to  acknowledge  such 
civilities,  and  request  that  a  time  be  specified  forliis 
reception  by  the  Conmianding  Officer  of  the  post. 
The  Commanding  Officerof  a  military  post,  after  the 
usual  offer  of  civilities,  is  always  to  receive  the  first 
visit  without  regard  to  rank.  The  return  visit  by 
the  Commanding  Officer  of  the  military  post  is  made 
the  following  day, or  as  soon  thereafter  as  practicable. 

When  a  Military  Commander  officially  visits  a 
vessel-of-war  he  gives  notice  of  his  visit  to  the  vessel 
previously  thereto,  or  sends  a  suitable  officer  (or  an 
orderly)  to  the  gangway  to  announce  his  presence, 
if  such  notice  has  not  been  given.  He  is  then  received 
at  the  gangway  by  the  Commander  of  the  vessel,  and 
is  accompanied  there  on  leaving  by  the  same  officer. 
The  officer  who  is  sent  with  the  customary  offer  of 
civilities  is  met  at  the  gangwaj'  of  a  vessel-of-war  bj' 
the  Officer-of-the-Deck  ;  through  the  latter  he  is  pre- 
sented to  the  Commander  of  the  vessel,  with  whom 
it  is  his  duty  to  commimicate.  A  vessel-of-war  is 
approached  and  boarded,  by  commissioned  officers, 
bj'  the  star-board  side  and  gangway,  when  there  are 
gangways  on  each  side.  In  entering  a  boat,  the 
junior  goes  first  and  other  officers  according  to 
rank;  in  leaving  a  boat,  the  senior  goes  first.  The 
latter  is  to  acknowledge  the  sahites  which  arc  given 
at  the  gangwa)'  of  naval  vessels.  Naval  vessels  fire 
personal  salutes  to  officers  entitled  to  them  when  the 
l)oat  containing  the  officer  to  be  saluted  has  cleared 
the  ship.  It  is  an  acknowledgment  for  his  boat  to 
"lie  on  her  oars"  from  the  first  until  the  last  gun  of 
the  salute,  and  for  the  officer  saluted  to  uncover, 
then  at  the  conclusion  to  "give  way."  The  exchange 
of  official  visits  between  the  Commanding  Officers  of 
a  post  and  vessel,  opens  the  door  to  both  official  and 
social  courtesies  among  the  other  officers 

To  a  boat  with  the  Hag  of  an  Admiral,  Vice-Admiral, 
or  Rear-Admiral,  or  the  broad  pennant  of  a  Commo- 
dore, boats  with  narrow  pennants  "lie  on  their 
oars"  or  "let  fly  their  sheets,"  and  boats  without 
pennants  "toss  their  oars."  In  both  cases  officers 
in  them  salute.  In  the  case  of  two  boats  meeting  or 
passing  each  other,  each  with  the  same  insignia  of  a 
Commanding  Officer,  the  jimior  is  the  first  to  salute. 
Officers  of  inferior  grade  to  a  Commanding  Officer 
passing  him  in  a  boat,  "lie  on  their  oars"  or  "let 
fly  their  sheets,"  and  salute.  All  other  officers  pass- 
ing each  other  in  boats  are  to  exchange  salutes,  the 
junior  saluting  first.  Cockswains  steering  boats  are, 
whenever  commissioned  officers  are  saluted,  to  stand 
up  and  raise  their  caps,  and  whenever  warrant  of- 
ficers are  saluted  they  raise  their  caps  onlj  .  The  of- 
ficer or  Cockswain  of  a  loaded  boat,  or  of  boats  en- 
gaged in  towing,  salute  a  boat  with  the  flag  of  an 
Admiral,  Vice-Admiral,  or  Rear-Admiral,  or  the  broad 
pennant  of  a  Commodore,  by  standing  and  raising 
their  caps.  When  boats  are  rowing  in  tlie  same  di- 
rection, an  inferior  is  not  to  pass  a  superior  in  grade 
unless  he  is  on  urgent  duty,  or  authorized  by  the 
superior.  When  boats  are  pursuing  opposite  direc- 
tions, the  rule  of  the  road  to  prevent  fouling  is,  that 
both  shall  "put  their  helms  to  port" — /.  e.,  to  pass 
to  the  right,  circumstances  permitting.  When  boats 
are  approaching  the  same  landing  or  vessel,  an  in- 
ferior is  always  to  give  way  to  a  superior  in  rank. 
Boats  about  leaving  a  ship's  side  or  landing  are  to 
give  way  in  anq)le  time  to  others  approaching.  It 
is  not  projicr  to  land  over  another  boat  without  per- 
mission, and  only  when  it  cannot  be  avoided  is  per- 
mission to  be  asked.  Boats  display  their  ensigns 
when  they  shove  off.andkeep  them  dying  until  llieir 
return. 

To  distinguish  ofllcers  in  boats,  Commanding  Offi- 
cers of  fleets,  s(|uadrous,  or  divisions  carry  the  dis- 
tinguishing marks  of  their  rank  on  the  bow  of  their 


OinCIAL  ENTEL0FE8. 


435 


OIUIS  LAW. 


bar^fx.  Flii}?s  and  piiiiiants  (iislint;iii«liinK  rank  arc. 
also  worn  at  the.  hows  of  lioals.  An  AdniiraPH  tlajr  ifl 
a  liliic  llai;  licarin;;  four  vvliilc  stars  ;  llial  of  a  Vii'c- 
Admiral  liiars  llircc^  stars;  a  Ut-ar-Adniiral.two  slaiw- 
a  Coinniodorc's  pennant,  one  slar,  and  is  a  swallow- 
laili-d  Ma;;.  'I'lic  narrow  pennant  is  worn  liy  (loni- 
niandinn  OlUc'crs  of  lesser  ranli.  In  addition,  (Cap- 
tains in  tlic  Navy  wear  a  );ilt  ball  on  tlic  end  of  tlii'ir 
boat  staffs,  and  Commanders  a  |,'ilt  star.  To  tlie 
HJiips,  l)()ats,  and  ollieers  of  llie  Uniled  Slates  Navy, 
as  well  as  foreif^n  olticers,  llie  foreLfoini:  is  due;  and 
courtesy  between  the  land  and  naval  services  is  in- 
ilispensable  to  j;ood  order  and  diseiplini*,  as  well  as 
necessary  to  tlur  national  dignity  and  honor.  Mili- 
lary  ollieers  of  assimilative  rank  are  entitled  to 
and  should  carry  the  above  boat  insignia.  Navy 
rei^ulations  require  ollieers  and  men  never  to  omit, 
on  any  occasion,  to  extend  the  same  complimi'iits 
toolllcers  of  the  Army  us  are  paid  by  them  to  ollieers 
of  the  Navy. 

When  a  civil  functionary  entitled  to  a  salute  ar- 
rives at  a  military  post,  the  Commanding  Ollicer 
meets  or  calls  upon  him  as  soon  as  practicable.  The 
Commanding  Otiicer  will  tender  him  a  review,  pro- 
viding the  garrison  of  the  place  is  not  less  than  four 
batteries  of  artillery,  or  their  e(|uivalent  of  other 
troops.  When  an  officer  entitled  to  a  salute  visits  a 
post  within  his  own  command,  the  troops  are  para<l- 
ed  and  he  receives  the  honor  of  a  review,  unless  he 
directs  otherwise.  When  a  salute  is  to  be  given  an 
officer  junior  to  another  present-  at  a  post,  the  senior 
will  be  notified  to  that  effect  by  the  Commanding  Of- 
ficer. Military  or  naval  officers  of  whatever  rank, 
arriving  at  a  military  post  or  station,  are  expected  lo 
call  upon  the  Commanding  Officer.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances is  the  flag  of  a  military  post  dipped  by 
wav  of  salute  or  compliment. 

OFFICIAL  ENVELOPES.— In  the  United  States,  it 
is  lawful  to  transmit  through  the  mail,  free  of  post- 
age, any  letters,  packiiges,  or  other  matters  relating 
exclusively  to  the  business  of  the  Government  of 
the  United  States :  Provided,  That  every  such  letter 
or  package  to  entitle  it  to  pass  free  bears  over  the 
words  "Official  business"  an  indorsement  showing 
also  the  name  of  the  Department,  and,  if  from  a 
bureau  or  office,  the  names  of  the  Department  and 
bureau  or  office,  as  the  case  may  be,  whence  trans- 
mitted. And  if  any  person  makes  iLse  of  any  such 
official  envelope  to  avoid  the  payment  of  postage 
on  his  private  letter,  package  or  other  matter  in  the 
mail,  the  person  so  offending  is  deemed  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanor,  and  subject  to  a  fine  of.three  hundred 
dollars,  to  be  prosecuted  in  any  court  of  competent 
jurisdiction.  For  the  purpose  of  carrying  this  act 
into  effect,  it  is  the  duty  of  each  of  the  Executive 
Departments  of  the  United  States  to  provide  for  it- 
self and  its  subordinate  offices  the  necessary  enve- 
lopes ;  and  in  addition  to  the  indorsement  designat- 
ing the  Department  in  which  they  are  to  be  used, 
the  penalty  for  the  unlawful  use  of  these  envelopes 
is  stated  thereon.  These  Envelopes,  with  the  pen- 
alty clause  printed  thereon,  are  confined  to  the  War 
Department  and  its  bureaus  and  offices  in  Washing- 
ton City.  For  small  packages  of  public  property, 
weigliing  not  more  than  four  pounds,  the  mails  may 
be  used,  as  authorized  by  law,  provided  the  cost  of 
freight  is  not  less  than  the  postage  at  legal  rates. 
Such  packages  may  be  prepaid  with  official  postage 
stamps  at  the  rates  required  by  law  for  the  matter 
inclosed ;  and  by  authority  of  the  Post  Office  De- 
partment packages  containing  public  property  may 
he  sealed,  provided  a  written  certificate  is  affixed, 
signed  by  the  officer  mailing  the  same,  that  they 
contain  no  matter  subject  to  a  higher  rate  of  postage 
than  has  been  prepaid  thereon.  Under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Universal  Postal  Union  Convention, 
concluded  at  Paris  on  the  1st  of  June,  1878,  the 
prepayment  of  postage  on  every  kind  of  correspond- 
ence exchanged  in  the  mails  between  countries  of 
the  Postal  tfnion  can  only  be  effected  by  means  of 


postage  stamps  valid  in  the  country  of  origin  for 
the  correspoiKhrnce  iif  private  individuabi.  Tlie  only 
correspondence  exern|)ted  from  this  reipiirement  is 
ollleiid  correspondence  relative  to  the  [joslal  hervice 
and  exchanged  directly  between  Postal  Administra- 
tions. Correspondence  a<ldressed  lo  Postal  Union 
countries  and  colonies  can  only  be  prepaid  by  means 
of  the  ordinary  United  Slates  postage  stamps  which 
are  furnished  lo  the  public.     See  I' ranking  IMt/rn. 

OFF  RECKONINGS.  An  allowance  formerly  given 
to  the  Commanding  Officers  of  regiments  and  Cap- 
tains of  (,'on]paiiies.  out  of  the  annual  clothing 
money  set  aside  for  their  men  The  allowance  was 
subsequently  paid  only  to  the  Colonels  of  regiments, 
and  was  a  fluctuating  sum,  depending  on  the  amount 
of  the  surplus  left  after  the  clothing  was  made  up. 
About  twenty-five  years  ago.  an  average  of  thirty 
years  was  struck,  and  a  fixed  sum  from  that  period 
allowed  yearly  to  Colonels,  termeii  dolonrfx  All'/ir. 
««'•(',  amounting  to  about  i'GOO  a  year  inline  regi- 
ments, in  aildition  to  the  regular  pay.  Tiie  term  uff. 
reehiningn  is  th<Teforc  now  obsolete. 

OGEE.— A  molding  Consisting  of  two  curves,  one 
concave  and  the  other  convex.  It  Is  called  (in  clas- 
sic architecture)  cymaliiim  or  ryma  reterivi.  The 
ogee  is  also  mucli  used  in  Gothic  architecture.  An 
arch  having  each  siile  formed  with  two  contrasted 
curves  is  called  an  ogee  arch.  The  ogee,  sometimes 
written  ogive,  frequently  constituted  the  ornamental 
molding  on  guns,  mortars,  and  howitzers. 

OGIVAL. — The  form  usually  given  the  head  of  ob- 
long ])rojectiles.  It  was  found  by  Borda  that  this 
shape  experienced  less  resistance  from  the  air  than 
any  other.     See  Oblong  Bullet,  and  Projectiles. 

OHM'S  LAW. — This  law  is  singularly  in  accordance 
witli  experimental  results.  It  assumes  that  the  elec- 
tro-motive force  for  a  particular  galvanic  pair  is  con- 
stant,and  that  the  strength  of  the  curent  it  produces  is 
the  quotient  which  results  from  dividing  it  by  the  re- 
sistance of  the  circuit.  This  resistance  arises  from  two 
sources,  the  first  being  the  resistance  within  the  cell 
offered  by  the  exciting  liquid,  and  the  second  the 
interpolar resistance.  He  represent  the  electromotive 
force;  I,  the  resistance  within  the  cell;  «c,  the  inter- 
polar resistance;  and  S,  the  strength  of  the  current, 
or  the  quantity  of  electricity  actually  transmitted, 
the  statement  of  the  law  for  one  couple  stands  thus: 
e 

S= •.    The  application  of  the  law  in  a  few  partic- 

l-\-w 
ular  cases  will  best  illustrate  its  meaning.     If  we  in- 
crease the  number  of  cells  to  n,  we  increase  the  elec- 
tromotive force  n  times,  and  at  the  same  time  we  in- 
crease the  liquid  resistance  «  times, for  the  current  has 

ne 
Titimesasmuchof  it  totravel,thenS=— — ^.  If  w  be 

nl-^w 

small  compared  with  nl — that  is,  if  the  external  con- 
nection be  made  by  a  short,  thick  wire — it  may  be 

ne       e 
neglected,  and  so  S  =  --  =  — .  This  shows  that  one 

nl       I 
cell  gives  in  these  circvtmstances  as  powerful  a  cur. 
rent  as  a  large  battery.     But  if  nl  be  small  with  re- 
spect to  ic— as  in  the  interpolar  circuit  of  an  electric 

nt 
telegraph  batter)'— ?»;  may  be  neglected.and  S  =  — . 

w 

Here  we  learn  that  the  strength  of  the  current  in- 
creases directly  as  the  number  of  cells.  We  may  learn 
from  the  same  that  the  introduciion  of  the  coil  of 
long,thin  wire  of  a  galvanometer  into  such  a  circuit, 
introducing  but  a  comparatively  small  increase  of 
resistance, causes  a  very  slight  diminution  of  the  cur- 
rent strength.  If.  again,  we  increase  the  size  of  the 
plates  of  a  galvanic  "pair  n  times,  the  section  of  the 
liquid  is  proportionately  increased,  so  that  whilst  the 
electromotive  force  remains  the  same,  the  cell  re- 


OIL-BATH. 


43(j 


OLEOMETEH. 


sistance  diminishes  n  times;  therefore  S  =  - 


l+w 


ne 


If  the  exterior  resistance  is  small,  nl 


l-\-nii! 
may  be  neglected,  and  S  = 


I 


and  the  strcnffth  is 


.  thus  shown  to'increase  n  times.  These  are  only  a 
verj'  few  of  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  this  law. 
With  the  aid  of  a  tangent  galvanometer,  which  gives 
the  value  of  S  expressed  in  absolute  magnetic  units, 
or  centimeters  of  voltameter  gas,  we  ascertain  e  and 
I  for  an}'  pair.  By  making  two  observations  with 
two  wires  of  known  resistance  separately  included 
in  the  circuit,  we  have  two  simple  equations  with 
two  unknown  quantities,  from  which  e  and  I  can  be 
easily  found.  In  doing  so,  we  must  adopt  a  unit  of 
resistance.  The  unit  proposed  and  determined  by  the 
British  Association,  the  B.  A.  unit,  or  the  ohm, is  the 
only  one  now  used  in  this  countrj'.  The  resistance 
of  the  liquid  of  the  pair  would  be  expressed  in  units 
of  this,  and  the  electromotive  force  in  absolute  imits 
or  centimeters  of  gas,  with  a  circuit  offering  a  unit 
of  resistance.     See  Galnanism. 

OIL-BATH. — A  bath  employed  in  tempering  steel. 
The  tube  of  steel  is  drawn  out  of  the  furnace  and 
sunk  into  a  large  iron  tank  about  twenty  feet  deep, 
containing  several  hundred  gallons  of  oil.  The  heated 
steel  in  passing  into  oil  will  sometimes  cause  the  sur- 
face-oil to  take  fire,  which  is  extinguished  by  closing 
the  top  of  the  tank.  A  covering  of  coal  is  also  form- 
ed round  the  steel  by  the  burned  oil,  which  greatly 
retards  transmission  of  heat.  The  tank  has  a  water- 
space  surrounding  it,  and  as  the  steel  parts  with  its 
heat,  raising  the  temperature  of  the  oil,  the  temper- 
ature of  the  water  is  also  raised.  The  water,  as  it  is 
heated,  is  drawn  off  by  an  escape-pipe,  and  a  sup- 
ply of  cold  water  is  continually  running  in,  thus  the 
heat  is  gradually  taken  from  the  mass.  Exceeding 
toughness  is  the  result  of  the  operation  ;  the  tensile 
strength  of  the  steel  is  made  higher,  and  it  is  harder 
and  more  elastic.     See   Tempering. 

OnXETS. — Small  openings  often  circular,  used  in 
mediieval  buildings  for  discharging  arrows,  etc., 
through.     Also  written  Oeillets. 

OIL  TEMPEEING.— In  English  gun  construction, all 
tubes  being  procured  by  contract  with  the  different 
steel  producers  in  great  Britain,  are  delivered  at 
Woolwich  as  solid  ingots,  and,  of  course,  untem- 
pered.  The  facilities  at  that  place  are  ample  for  all 
needs  for  tempering  in  oil.  The  general  details  of 
this  process  as  practiced  at  Woolwich  have  been  pub- 
lished in  the  English  text-books,  and  need  not  he  in 
consequence  described  in  this  work.  The  effects  of 
Oil-tempering  are  to  increase  the  hardness,  tensile 
strength,  and  elastic  limit  of  the  metal,  but  some- 
what at  the  expense  of  its  ductility.  It  is  a  process, 
however,  which  is  applied  to  all  steel  products  for 
heavy  ordnance  in  England,  and  also  in  France,  and 
has  been  so  long  practised,  with  confidence  in  it  re- 
maining so  long  unshaken,  and,  in  fact,  increasing, 
that  it  must  be  recognized  as  probably  an  important 
process  to  be  employed  iti  constnictions  where  steel 
tubes  of  about  equal  diameters  throughout  their  en- 
tire length  are  designed  for  use  in  built-up  guns. 
For  ingots,  however,  wherein  uneciual  diiuneters  find 
place,  the  process  becomes  one  of  dcnduful  benefit  in 
its  application,  as  it  evidently  disturbs  the  molecular 
conditions  of  the  metal ;  secticms  of  different  dianu'- 
ters  lieing  une(|ually  acted  upon  by  the  tempering 
process,  injurious  strains  are  introduced  similar  to 
those  produced  by  uneciual  cooling  in  iiuiss<'S  of  cast 
iron  where  the  areas  of  adjacent  cross-sections  are 
sensibly  and   abrujily  different. 

The  increased  hardness  and  diminution  of  the 
percentage  of  elongation  in  the  metal  introduced  hy 


the  amplication  of  the  process  are  subjectB  for  consi- 
deration, and  should  leave  the  question  of  tempering 
one  for  consideration  and  further  experiment.  The 
increased  tenacity  and  hardness  secured  by  the 
process  was  a  matter  of  great  moment  to  the  En- 
glish constructors  when  the  Palliser  stud  system  of 
projectiles  was  standard  in  the  British  service,  as 
the  enormous  strains  brought  to  bear  on  the  bearing 
edges  of  a  few  deep  rifle  grooves  required  these 
qualities  to  be  present  in  the  highest  degree  attain- 
able; but  now,  when  the  Palliser  stud  sj'stem  for 
securing  rotation  is  a  thing  of  the  past,  it  remains  to 
be  considered  if  the  merits  of  the  oil-tempering 
process  should  not  be  further  inquired  into,  both 
theoretically  and  experimentally,  if  praticable,  and 
the  result  may  be  that  a  modification  of  the  process, 
securing  an  increase  in  toughness  and  tenacity  to  a 
more  limited  extent,  may  be  attained  without  .sacri- 
ficing too  much  the  extensibility  of  the  metal,  which, 
by  permitting  a  yielding  at  the  critical  period  in  gun 
practice  with  high  pressures,  instantaneously  pro- 
duced, adds  largely  to  the  ability  of  the  construction 
to  withstand  the  effects  of  those  powerful,  danger- 
ous, and  suddenly  applied  strains. 

The  steels  used  have  not  changed  m  qualities 
since  1872,  and  about  the  same  physical  properties 
obtain  now  as  then,  as  exhibited  by  their  tests.  A 
soft  steel  of  31  tons  per  square  inch  at  the  breaking 
point,  and  when  tempered  in  oil  raising  to  47  tons, 
is  now,  from  the  latest  information  in  print,  about 
the  standard  required  at  the  Woolwich  arsenal.  The 
untempered  steel  reaches  its  elastic  limit,  at,  say  13 
tons  per  square  inch. and  the  tempered  at  31  tons  per 
square  inch.  It  is  thus  apparent  that  the  oil-temper- 
ing not  only  increases  the  tensile  strength  of  the 
metal,  btit  also  increases  in  much  greater  ratio  its 
elasticity.  It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  no 
standard  of  heat  required  for  tempering  has  been  es- 
tablished— different  specimens  requiring  different 
heats — and  hence  tests  for  the  required  temperatures 
are  made  for  each  tube  from  specimens  taken  from 
their  ends.  The  more  hammered  steels  require  less 
heating  than  the  less  denser  or  softer  ones,  and  hence 
the  degree  of  heat  required  varies  in  every  case  depend- 
ing on  the  grade  of  the  steel  under  treatment  as  to  its 
physical  properties  as  determined  by  tests.  See 
Tempering. 

OIL  TESTER. — A  machine  used  for  ascertaining  the 
relative  value  of  lubricants,  giving  the  co-efficient  of 
friction,  and  pressure  per  square-inch  of  journal;  also 
the  temperature  at  the  .same  time.  The  drawing 
on  the  opposite  page  shows  such  a  contrivance  with 
the  following: 


Extreme  height 
Extreme  length 
Extreme  width 

Weight     . 


DISTENSIONS 


21   inches. 
46      •' 
28      " 
3S0  pounds. 


ADAPTATION. 

Provided  with  three  sizes  of  journals,  viz,  2  inches, 

2f  inches,  and  3  inches,  also  a  cone-pulley  to   run 

at  3  different  speeds. 
Capacity 2.200  jioiuids. 

In  using  the  machine,  a  small  and  determinate 
(juantity  of  the  oil  to  be  tested  is  placed  on  the  jour- 
nal, the  pressure  is  adjusted  to  that  at  which  the 
oil  is  desired  to  run  muler  test:  and  the  machine  is 
started  at  a  speed  whicli  will  give  the  desired  rela- 
tive velocity  of  rubbing  surfaces.  Observations  are 
made  at  short  intervals,  and  recorded,  until  the  test 
is  closed  by  rapid  heating,  as  shown  by  the  ther- 
mometer, and  ('xcessive  increase  of  friction  is  indi- 
cated. Competing  oils  are  similarly  tried,  an<l  the 
records  afford  a  perfect  me;ins  of  comparison.  The 
relative  jiiiwcr  of  resisting  high  temperatures  with- 
out dccciinpcisilicin  is  another  ini|)ortant  point  which 
may  be  ti'^lid.     See  Testing-vim'/iine. 

OLEOMETER. — An  instrument  for  ascertaining  the 
densities  of  fixed  oils.    It  consists  of  a  very  delicate 


OLITAHT. 


437 


OLTUFIC  0AHZ8. 


thcriiioinctcr-tiibc  tlic  t)iilh  ticine:  liirirc  in  prnpnr- 
tidii  li>  llic    Hloiii.      It   in  (iividcil   inid   lifly  di-i^rccH, 

and  IJuatH  ul  zi-ro   in  [iiirc    oil  (jf  puppy.H i.  al  !W 

to  liH.J'^  ill  pure  oil  of  iilriioiidM,  :iiid  iit  RO*-'  in  pnrc 
olive  oil.     Also  wriltcii  I'jIiiiiiiiKi.i r. 

OLIFANT.  A  lioru  wliicli  .i  I'iiliidiii  or  Knif^lit 
sounded  in  token  of  deHuMce,  or  iiH  ii  cliiillcnjie. 
C'oiMiMoiily  written  (Hiji}i<tnt . 

OLINDE.  A  term  iipplied  to  iin  eiirly  fcjrin  of 
sword-blnde. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES.— The  most  splendid  National 
Festival  of  the  Ancient  Oreeks,  celebrated  every 
fiftli  year  iu  liouor  of  Zeus,  the  father  of  the  gods, 


In  1)0  present,  on  pain  of  Ixtinj?  tlirown  headlong; 
from  the  'I'yp.'ean  rock.  'I'lie  panics  wene  lii-ld  from 
the  11th  to  the  LOlii  of  the  Attic  inonlli  Ifika'^mi. 
4(/",«  (our.) Illy  Aiii;iiHt;,diiriiiL'  whic'lj,  lirsl  lhroii{rh. 
out  Klirt,  and  then  throiij;hoiil  the  rent  of  (Jrcece, 
lierald.T  ])roclainied  the  cessation  of  all  intestine  hoH- 
lililies  ;  while  the  territory  of  Elis  itself  was  de- 
elariil  invi<ilal)le.  Tlur  eoiiihatants  wiTc  reipiired 
to  iiiideru;o  a  preparatory  traiiiinj;  for  10  months  in 
th<'  (iyiiiiiaHiiim  at  Klis,  and  diirini;  the  last  of  these 
months  the  K.vninasium  was  almost  as  numerously 
atlcnd(-d  as  were  the  games  themselves.  Much  un- 
certaiuty  prevaila  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  con- 


Oil  Tester. 


on  the  Plain  of  Olympia.  Their  orisrin  goes  back 
into  Trehistoric  Ages.  According  to  the  myth  elab- 
orated or  preserved  by  the  Elcan  Priests,  tiiey  were 
instituted  by  the  Idccan  Herakles  in  the  time  of 
Kronos,  father  of  Zeus  ;  according  to  others,  by  the 
later  Herakles,  son  of  Zeus  ami  Alkmene  ;  while 
Strabo,  rejecting  the  older  and  more  incredible  le- 
gends, attributes  their  origin  to  the  Heraklcidse  after 
their  Conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus.  But  the  first 
glimpse  of  anything  approaching  to  historic  fact  in 
connection  with  the  games  is  their  so-called  revival 
by  Iphitos,  King  of  Elis,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Spartan  lawgiver,  Lycurgus,  about  884  b.  c;  or,  ac- 
cording to  others,  about  828  b.  c,  an  event  com- 
memorated by  an  inscription  on  a  disc  kept  in  the 
Heroium  at  Olympia,  which  Pausanias  saw.  That 
festive  games  were  celebrated  here — in  other  words, 
that  Olympia  was  a  sacred  spot  long  before  the  time 
of  Iphitos,  can  indeed  hardly  be  doubted  :  the  uni- 
versal tradition  that  the  Elean  King  had  only  "  re- 
vived" the  games  proves  this;  but  nothing  what- 
ever can  be  historically  ascertained  concerning  their 
origin,  character,  or  frequency,  in  this  remoter  time. 
Iphitos  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  their  founder, 
yet  the  reckoning  of  time  by  Olympiads — the  real 
dawn  of  the  historical  period  in  (Jrcek  history — did 
not  begin  till  more  than  a  century  later.  At  first,  it 
is  conjectured,  only  Peloponnesians  resorted  to  the 
Olympic  Gaines,  but  gradually  the  other  Greek 
States  were  attracted  to  them,  and  the  Festival  be- 
came Panhflknic.  Originally,  and  for  a  long  time, 
none  were  allowed  to  contend  except  those  of  pure 
Hellenic  blood  ;  but  after  the  Conquest  of  Greece  by 
the  Romans,  the  latter  sought  and  obtained  this 
honor,  and  both  Tiberius  and  Nero  figure  in  the  list 
of  Roman  victors.  Women— with  one  exception, 
the  Priestess  of  Demeter  Chamyne — were  forbidden 


tests  were  distributed  over  the  different  days.  Krause 
suggests  the  following  order:  (.)n  the  fir.st  day  the 
great  initiatory  sacrifices  were  ofl'ered,  after  which 
the  competitors  were  properly  das.sed  and  arranged 
by  the  Judges,  and  the  contests  of  the  trumpeters 
took  place;  the  second  day  was  set  apart  for  the  boys 
who  competed  with  each  other  in  foot-races,  wrest- 
ling, boxing,  i\\e  pentathlon .  Ihe  p'inkrntiun,  horse- 
races; the  third  and  principal  day  was  devoted  to  the 
contests  of  men  in  foot-races  of  different  kinds  (as, 
for  example,  the  simple  race,  once  over  the  course: 
the  dinulds,  in  which  the  competitors  had  to  run  the 
distance  twice;  and  the  dolic/ion,  in  which  they  had 
to  run  it  seven  or  twelve  times);  wrestling,  boxing, 
the  pankratioii,  (in  which  all  the  power  and  skill  of 
the  combatants  were  exhibited),  and  the  race  of  /lop- 
litfx,  or  men  in  heavy  armor;  on  the  fourth  daj-  came 
oft  the pfiitnthlon,  (contest  of  five  games — viz:  leap- 
ing, running,  throwing  the  discus,  throwing  the 
spear,  and  wrestling),  the  chariot  and  horse  races, 
and  perhaps  the  contests  of  the  heralds;  the  fifth  day 
was  set  apart  for  processions,  sacrifices,  and  ban- 
quets to  the  victors  (called  Olympinnikm  ),  who  were 
crowned  with  a  garland  of  wild  olive  twigs  cut  from 
a  sacred  tree  which  grew  in  the  Altis,  and  presented 
to  the  assembled  people,  each  with  a  palm  branch  in 
his  hand,  while  the  heralds  proclaimed  hisname.  and 
that  of  his  father  and  country.  On  his  return  home; 
he  was  received  with  extraordinary  distinction; 
songs  were  sung  iu  his  praise,  statues  were  erected 
to  him,  both  in  the  Altis  and  in  his  native  city;  a 
place  of  honor  was  given  him  at  all  public  spectacles; 
he  was  in  general  exempted  from  public  taxes,  and 
at  Athens  was  boarded  at  the  expense  of  the  Slate 
in  the  Prytaneion.  The  regulation  of  the  games  be- 
longed to  the  Elcans,  from  whom  were  chosen  the 
Heilanodikal,  or  Judges,  whose  number  varied.    At 


ONAGER. 


43« 


OPENING  OF  THE  TBENCHE8. 


first  there  were  only  two,  but  as  the  games  became 
more  and  more  national,  and  consequently  more  nu- 
merous, they  were  gradually  increased  to  ten.  some- 
times even  to  twelve.  They  were  instructed  in  their 
duties  for  ten  months  beforehand  at  Elis,  and  held 
their  office  onh'  for  one  year.  The  officers  who  exe- 
cuted their  commands  were  called  Alytioe.  and  were 
imder  the  presidency  of  an  Alytarcli. 

ONAGER. — A  warlike  machine,  which  was  used 
by  the  ancients  to  throw  stones  of  diflerent  sizes.  It 
is  mentioned  bv  Vesetins.     See  Ballsta. 

ONE-HORSE  "litter.— A  litter  intended  to  be 
dragged  by  one  horse  or  mule.  It  is  variously  ex- 
temporized from  such  material  as  may  be  at  hand. 
The  drawing,  from  a  photograph   of   one   of  these 


to  wa'ls  not  more  than  2i  feet  thick,  the  others  to 
heavier  walls ;  the  object  being  to  lessen,  as  far  as 
practicable,  the  weakness  which  loop-holes  neces- 
sarily cause  to  the  wall ;  this  defect  increasing  as 
the  exterior  or  interior  opening  is  greater. 

For  thin  walls,  where  the  plan  of  the  loop-hole  is 
trapezoidal,  the  width  of  the  exterior  opening  may 
be  from  3  to  4  inches,  and  that  of  the  interior  from 
15  to  18  inches.  These  dimensions,  however,  may 
vary  according  to  the  field  of  fire  to  be  brouglit 
within  tlie  range  of  the  loop-hole,  the  more  or  less 
cover  to  be  given  to  the  troops,  and  the  strength  of 
the  masonry  of  which  the  wall  is  formed.  The  ver- 
tical dimensions  of  the  loop-hole,  both  on  the  inter- 
ior and  the  exterior,  will  depend   upon   the  field   of 


contrivances,  used  in  the  Powder  River  Indian  Cam- 
paign, in  1876,  shows  the  manner  of  its  construction 
and  use.  When  two  animals  can  be  spared,  or  when 
the  country  to  be  passed  over  is  exceedingly  rough, 
the  tiroJiorse  litter  will  usually  give  better  satisfac- 
tion.    See  Litter,  Stretcher  and   I'ravee. 

ONEIN. — An  offensive  weapon  of  mediaeval  times, 
consisting  of  a  staff  with  a  hooked  iron  head. 

OPEN.— A  term  frequently  used  in  military  move- 
ments and  dispositions,  in  contradistinction  to  close; 
as  open  column,  open  distance,  open  order,  etc.  It 
also  constitutes  part  of  a  word  of  command ;  as, 
rear  open  order.  By  open  distance  in  aihimn  is  meant 
that  the  intervals  are  always  equal  in  depth  to  the 
extent  in  front  of  the  different  component  parts  of 
the  column. 

OPEN  DEFENSES.— To  this  class  belong  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  parapet  which  has  already  been 
described  ;  simple  loiyp-holed  loalls  for  musketry  used 
as  inclosurcs  of  gorges,  etc. ;  exterior  corridors 
which  are  covered  either  bj'  a  wall  or  an  earthen 
parapet;  unA  barbettes  and  emf/rasures  for  artillery. 
Walls  of  this  class,  when  used  as  the  inclosures  of 
the  gorges  of  lunettes  or  other  isolated  works,  placed 
in  advance  of  the  eneiente,  but  within  the  reach  of 
its  artillery  fire,  should  be  high  enough  to  secure 
tlie  work  from  an  open  assault,  and  sufficiently 
thick  to  resist  the  occasional  shot  which  may  reach 
them  over  the  parapet  by  which  they  are  covered. 
Tor  these  purposes  tlie  height  sliould  be  from  12  to 
1.5  feet,  and  the  thickness  from  4  to  5  feet.  The 
loop-holes  are  not  placed  nearer  to  each  other  than 
from  3  to  4  feet,  estimated  between  their  axes.  They 
should  be  at  least  G  feet  above  the  exterior  foot  of 
the  wall,  and  4J  feet  above  the  ground  or  banquette 
within.  The  loop-holes  are  usually  placed  at  regu- 
lar intervals  along  llie  line  of  tlie  wall  ;  or  only  op- 
posite that  portion  of  the  exterior  ground  upon 
which  a  tire  is  to  he  brought  to  bear. 

The  form  and  dimensions  of  the  loop-hole  will  de- 
pend upon  the  thickness  of  the  wall  and  the  field  of 
view,  both  vertically  and  horizontally,  which  istobe 
covered  by  its  fire.  The  plan  is  either  trapezoidal,  wid- 
ening from  file  front  of  the  wall  inwards,  or  else  it 
widens  from  the  center  each  way  to  the  front  and 
back;  or,  as  is  the  more  usual  form  in  our  works, 
the  interior  portion  from  the  center  widens  inwards, 
whilst  the;  exterior  part  is  rectangular  in  plan,  and 
of  the  same  width  as  the  width  on  the  interior  or  the 
back  of  the  wall.     The   first   form   is  best  adajrted 


fire  to  be  embraced  in  this  last  direction,  and  they 
will  be  regulated  accordingly  ;  the  top  and  sole  of 
the  loop-hole  receiving  a  suitable  slope  or  direction 
for  this  purpose. 

The  foregoing  details  can  only  be  determined  upon 
from  the  special  object  to  which  the  loop-holed  de- 
fenses are  to  be  applied.  Care  only  is  to  be  taken 
that  in  attempting  to  give  cover  to  the  troops  their 
field  of  view  be  not  too  restricted  by  too  narrow  an 
opening  for  the  use  of  the  firearms.  Where  the  throat 
or  narrowest  part  of  the  loop-hole  is  within  the  wall, 
the  exterior  opening  leaves  a  wider  mark  for  the 
missiles  of  the  assailed,  and  when  the  sides  of  the 
loop-hole  gradually  widen  outwards,  a  shot  striking 
one  of  them  may  glance  inward  and  do  injury.  To 
prevent  this  accident,  the  sides  and  sometimes  the 
sole  are  made  in  offsets.  A  more  convenient  form 
for  construction,  and  one  better  adapted  to  arresting 
the  enemy's  balls,  is  to  make  the  exterior  portion 
rectangular  in  plan  for  half  the  width  of  the  wall, as 
already  descriljed. 

In  open  exterior  corridors  the  troops  covered  in 
front  either  by  an  earthen  parapet,  which  is  usually 
only  musket-proof,  the  scarp  wall  being  run  up  to  the 
superior  slope ;  or  else  the  scarp  wall  serves  as  the 
cover,  in  which  case  it  is  pierced  either  throughout 
its  length  or  at  suitable  points  with  loop-holes.  The 
floor  of  the  corridor  serves  as  abamiuefte  tread  for 
the  loop-holes,  and  is  therefore  placed  with  reference 
to  the  direction  of  the  fire  from  the  loop-holes.  Tlie 
height  at  which  the  scarp  wall  rises  above  the  floor 
of  the  corridor  will  depend  upon  the  level  of  the 
floor  and  that  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  ;  this  height, 
however,  should  not  be  less  than  6i  feet  to  afford  a 
Bufliicient  cover  to  the  troops.  See  Barbette  Battery, 
Covered.  Defenses,  EmbraMtre  Battery,  and  Machicou- 
lis. 

OPEN  FLANK.— In  fortification,  that  part  of  the 
flank  which  is  covered  bv  the  orillon. 

OPENING  OF  THE  TRENCHES  —This  operation,  in 
the  progress  of  a  siege,  supposes  that  all  the  meas- 
ures preparatory  to  it  have  been  taken  ;  the  depots 
of  trench  materials  estalilished  and  well  provided; 
careful  reconnaissances  of  the  site  and  the  defenses 
made;  an  accurate  map  made  from  sueh  instru- 
mental surveys  as  were  practic;ible,  and  other  infor- 
mation gained  ;  the  positions  of  the  defenses  marked 
out  upon  the  map  giving  the  directions  of  the  faces 
and  cajiitals  of  the  principiil  works;  the  distances 
and  heights  of  their  salient  points  from  that  of  the 


OPEN  ORDEE. 


430 


OPTICAL  ILLUBION. 


lirHl  imnillcl,  c\c.;  nnil  tlic  fipproximalc  positions  of 
tlic  lirst  piinillcl  and  of  llic  iippromlics  to  il  from  tli(- 
(l('pi)tH  in  its  rear,  and  of  tiiosi'  Iciidini;  from  il  npon 
tlio  (i(!f('nH<:s.  Willi  till'  i/iif'i  furnished  from  these 
Boiirccs  tliecnijineers  can  proceed  lo  staUe  out  nj)o]i 
llie  i^roiiiid  Uie  direcliuns  of  tlie  purlions  of  tlie 
trenches  npon  which  i^rimnd  is  to  he  lirst  broken, 
either  on  tlie  sanieniuhl,  or  a  nif^lil  or  two  before,  as 
oiipcirtiinity  may  serve.  'Pliis  duty  is  readily  per- 
formed with  the  aid  of  roiiLjh  ski'tclies,  dark  lanterns, 
Hinall  pockel  compasses,  and  jiiekcts  painted  white, 
with  all  of  which  tlie  oMicers  are  provided,  and  with 
llie  aid  of  several  intelligent  n(in-cominissioucd  olll- 
cers  or  suldiers  of  the  engineer  troojjs. 

Kverythiii!;  beini;  in  readiness,  the  workmen  are 
assembled  in  detachments,  at  the  projjer  momenl 
towards  nighl-fall,  at  the  depots  of  the  trenches, 
wliere  they  receive  their  trenchini;  tools,  and  what- 
ever else  is  necessary  to  carry  on  the  work  with. 
They  are  then  led,  in  sins;le  tile,  to  the  positions  tliey 
arc  lo  occujiy  in  breakim;  ti;rcjund,  by  an  otlicer  or 
engineer  soldier;  sometimes  each  man  grasping  with 
tlie  right  or  left  hand  a  tracing  rojie  or  tape,  on 
which  his  position  is  marked  in  the  usual  way,  or 
else  the  traeing-tape  is  tirst  stretclie<l  and  the  men 
placed  in  their  position  near  il.  When  once  in 
position,  the  working  parlies  are  commanded  to 
lie  down  and  keep  perfectly  quiet  until  ordered  to 
rise  and  commence  work;  to  give  time  to  the  engi- 
ncer  otlicers  to  rectify  any  mistakes  of  direction  in 
the  lines.  So  soon  as  this  is  done,  the  order  is  given 
to  rise  and  break  ground.  This  will  be  done  by 
each  man  digging  a  hole  as  speedily  as  posssible,  and 
llirowing  the  earth  towards  the  defenses,  bo  as  lo 
give  cover  for  himself,  and  from  which  he  can 
gradually,  and  with  security,  work  forward  in  the 
ilirettifm  of  the  trench  he  is  to  e.\cavate.  This  ope- 
ration is  supervised  by  the  engineers  on  <luty.  who 
sec  that  any  mistakes  made  by  the  men  digging  are 
corrected  at  the  proper  moment.  In  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  works  <iuriDg  this  period,  the  simple 
trench,  Hying  sap.  or  full  sap  will  be  used,  as  op- 
portunity may  offer,  and  as  the  fire  of  the  defenses 


T-leides  have  sometirnCH  been  used  in  large orcheHtraH, 
but  the  amount  of  breath  which  is  recpiired  to  play 
them  has  prevented  lh-:ir  coming  into  general  use. 
OPINION.  I.  Decision,  deti-rminalion,  and  judge- 
ment formed  upon  matters  that  havi- bi-en  laid  before 
a  Court-.Marliid  or  Court  of  Intpiiry.  2.  The  lecli- 
nical  name  for  tlur  advice;  given  by  an  Advocate. 
Till!  Attorney  orSolicitor  writes  astali-iiient  of  facts, 
called  "a  ease"  in  Kngland,  and  "a  memorial"  in 
Scotland,  which  ends  by  asking  certain  ipiiries,  and 
till'  answer  written  by  the  (/'ounsel  is  his  opinion.  A 
Counsel  is  not  liable  for  any  damages  caused  by  his 
giving  a  wrong  opinion, though  the  result  of  gross  ig. 
noraiice,  this  being  one  of  the  [irivileges  of  Counsd. 
OPLITAI,-  A  (Jrecian  army,  at  the  period  when 
the  military  art  was  in  the  greatest pc-rfect ion  among 
them,  was  composed  of  infantry  and  cavalry.  The 
former  was  made  up  of  three  different  orders  of 
soldiers;  termed,  1.  The  O/ilitai,  or  heavily  armed, 
who  wore  a  very  complete  defensive  armor,  and  bore 
the.iam.vrt,  or  Macedcjuian  pike,  a  formidable  weapon 
either  for  the  attack  or  defense,  .'iboiit  24  feet  ia 
length.  3.  The  l'iiiln\  or  light  infantry,  who  were 
without  defeiLsivc  armor,  and  carried  the  javelin, 
bow,  and  sling.  3.  The  I'liUmtir,  who  were  inter- 
mediate between  the  other  two,  carrying  a  lighter 
defensive  armor,  as  well  as  a  shorter  pike  than  the 
opiitai. 

The  opiitai,  when  formed  for  exercise  or  parade, 
were  drawn  up  in  open  order;  leaving  an  eijual  in- 
terval between  the  men  of  each  rank  and  between 
the  ranks.  When  ready  to  charge,  each  man  occu- 
pied a  square  of  8  feet,  and  the  six  leading  ranks 
brought  their  pikes  to  a  level  ;  thus  presenting  an 
array  in  which  the  pikes  of  the  sixth  rank  extended 
3  feet  in  advance  of  \\w  front  one.  In  attacks  on 
intrenchments,  or  fortified  cities,  the  men  of  caeli 
rank  closed  shoulder  to  shoulder,  asufflcient  interval 
being  left  between  the  ranks  to  move  with  celerity  ; 
the  leading  rank  kept  their  shields  overlajiped  lo 
cover  their  front ;  the  others  held  them  above  their 
heads  for  shelter  against  the  weapons  of  the  enemy. 
OPTICAL  ILLUSION.— Of  all  the  senses  none  is  more 


is  more  or  less  certain  and  destructive.  As  the  flying  j  deceptive  than  the  sense  of  sight;  il  often  deceives 
sap  will  afford  the  most  speedy  cover  against  case  [  us  as  to  the  distance,  size,  shape,  and  color  of  objects; 


shot,  it  will  be  employed  geuer.ally  so  soon  as  the 
trenches  have  been  advanced  within  destructive 
range  of  this;  using,  however,  the  simple  trench  at 
night,  or  at  any  other  opportune  momenl.  The  full 
sap  must  be  used  when  within  the  certain  range  of 
small-arms,  and  when  the  cannon  fire  of  the  defenses 
is  very  deadly;  resorting,  however,  to  the  flying  eap 
whenever  the  risk  is  but  slight.     See  Siege. 

OPEN  ORDER. — In  taclics,anintervalof  about  three 
yards  between  each  rank.  See  Hear  Opt /i  (Jrder. 

OPERATIONS.— Under  the  term  Slilitary  Opera- 
tions are  included ;  field  operations ;  offensive  and 
defensive  operations;  underground  operations;  siege 
operations,  etc.  All  consist  in  the  resolute  applica- 
tion of  preconcerted  measures  in  secrecy,  dispatch, 
tegular  movements,  occasional  encampments,  and 
desultory  combats  or  pitched  battles. 

OPHICLEIDE. — A  musical  wind-instrument  of  brass 
or  copper,  invented  to  supersede  the  serpent  in  mili- 
tary bands.  It  consists  of  a  concial  tube,  terminat- 
ing in  a  bell  like  that  of  the  horn,  with  a  mouth- 
piece similar  to  that  of  the  serpent,  and  ten  ventages 
or  holes,  all  stopped  by  keys  like  those  of  the  bas- 
son,  but  of  larger  size.  Opliicleides  are  of  two  kinds, 
the  bass  and  the  alto.  The  bass  ophicleide  offers 
great  resources  for  maintaining  the  low  part  of  masses 
of  liarmon}'.  JMusic  for  it  is  written  in  the  bass  clef, 
and  the   compass  of  the  instrument  is  from  B,  flu 


it  frequently  makes  them  appear  as  if  in  situations 
where  their  existence  is  impossible  ;  and  often  makes 
us  think  them  movable  when  they  are  not  so,  and 
vice  versa.  An  object  appears  to  us  as  large,  near  or 
distant,  according  as  the  rays  from  its  opposite  bor- 
ders meeting  at  the  eye  form  a  large  or  a  small  angle: 
when  the  angle  is  large,  the  object  is  either  large C.r 
near  ;  when  small  the  object  must  be  small  or  distant. 
Practice  alone  enables  us  to  decide  whether  an  ob- 
ject of  large  apparent  size  is  so  (m  account  of  its 
real  size,  or  of  its  proximity  ;  and  our  decision  is  ar- 
rived at  by  a  comparison  of  the  object  in  jumtiun, 
with  other  common  objects,  such  as  trees,  houses, 
etc.,  which  may  chance  to  be  near  it,  and  of  which 
we  have  by  experience  come  to  form  a  correct  idea. 
The  same  is,  of  course,  true  of  apparently  small  ob- 
jects. But  when  all  means  for  comparison  are  re- 
moved, as  when  we  see  a  distant  object  floating  ou 
an  extensive  sheet  of  water,  or  erect  in  an  apparently 
boundless  sandy  plain,  where  no  other  object  meets 
the  eye,  then  our  judgment  is  completely  at  fault. 
Imperfection  in  the  acquired  perceptions  of  siglit,  as 
it  is  called,  produces  inanj' other  illusions;  il  leads 
us  lo  consider  spherical  solids  at  a  distance  as  flat 
discs,  and  deceives  us  regarding  the  size  of  objects, 
by  their  color  ;  the  sun  appears  larger  than  he  would 
if  illumined  by  a  fainter  light,  and  a  man  in  a  white 
habit  seems  larger  than  he  would  if  he  wore  a  dark 


third  space  below  the  bass  staff  to  C,  the  fifth  added  \  dress.  Illusions  are  also  produced  by  external  causes, 
space  above  il,  including  all  the  intervening  chrom-  I  The  property  which  the  eye  possesses  of  retainingan 
alic  intervals.  The  alto  ophicleide  is  an  instrument  I  impression  for  a  very  brief,  though  sensible  period 
of  very  inferior  quality,  and  less  used.  Its  compass  \  of  time  (about  one-quarter  of  a  second),  after  the  ob- 
is also  three  octaves  and  one  note.  The  music  for  it  I  jecl  which  produced  the  impression  has  been  re- 
is  written  in  the  treble  clefT,  and  an  octave  higher  I  moved,  produces  a  third  chiss  of  illusions.  Common 
than   it  is  played.     Double   bass   or   monster   ophi-  I  examples  of  this  are  the  illuminated  circle  formed  by 


OPTTMATES  AND  POPULAEES. 


440 


ORDER  OF  BATTLE. 


the  rapid  revolution  of  an  ignited  carbon  point,  piece 
of  red-liot  iron,  or  other  luminous  body,  and  the 
fiery  cvirve  produced  by  a  red-hot  shot  projected 
from  a  cannon. 

OPTIMATES  AND  POPULARES.— In  the  politics  of 
republican  Rome,  the  conservative  or  aristocratic, 
and  the  democratic  or  progressive  parties  respective- 
ly. The  Popjilnres  comprised  the  great  body  of  the 
people,  including  not  only  the  proletariat  but  many 
men  of  wealth,  but  without  personal  influence.  The 
Optimates  were  the  aristocracy,  the  great  oftlcial 
bouses,  and  their  followers.  The  two"  parties  per- 
petuated the  old  contests  between  the  patricians  and 
plebians.  The  Popularea  triumplied  under  the  leader- 
ship of  C.  Gracchus,  and  were  crushed  by  Sulla. 

OR. — In  Heraldry,  the  metal  gold 
represented  in  heraldic  engravings 
b_v  an  unlimited  number  of  dots. 

ORB.— In  tactics,  tlie  disposing 
of  a  number  of  soldiers  in  circular 
form.  The  orb  is  a  good  forma- 
tion for  a  bod_y  of  infantry  in  an 
open  country  when  resisting  caval- 
Q  ry,  or  a  superior  force  of  infantry, 

inasmuch  as  it  is  regular  and  equal- 
ly strong,  and  gives  an  enemy  no  reason  to  expect 
better  success  by  attacking  one  place  than  anotlier. 
Caesar  drew  up  his  whole  army  in  this  form  wlien 
he  fought  against  Latiienus.  The  whole  army  of 
the  Gauls  wal^  formed  into  an  orb,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Sabinus  and  Cotto,  when  fighting  against 
the  Romans.  The  orb  was  generally  formed  six 
deep. 

ORDER. — Tins  word  is  applied  to  an  aggregate  of 
conventual  communities  comprehended  under  one 
rule,  or  the  societies,  half  military  half  religious, 
out  of  which  the  institution  of  Knii:hthood  sprang. 
Religious  Orders  are  generally  classified  as  Monastic, 
Military,  and  Mendicant. 

The  earliest  comprehension  of  Monastic  Societies 
under  one  rule  was  effected  by  St .  Bazil,  Archbishop 
of  Cfesarea,  who  united  the  hermits  and  cenohites, 
in  his  diocese,  and  prescribed  for  them  a  uniform 
constitution,  recommending  at  the  same  time  a  vow 
of  celibacy.  The  Basilian  rule  subsists  to  the  pres- 
ent day  in  the  Eastern  Church.  Next  in  order  of 
time  was  the  Benedictine  Order,  founded  by  St. 
Benedict  of  Nursia,  who  considered  a  mild  discip- 
line preferable  to  excessive  austerity.  The  offshoots 
from  the  Benedictine  Order  include  some  of  the 
most  important  Orders  in  ecclesiastical  bistorj-, 
among  others  the  Carthusians,  Cistercians,  and  Prse- 
monstrants.  The  order  of  Augustinians  professed 
to  draw  their  rule  from  the  writings  of  St.  Augustine; 
they  were  the  first  Order  who  were  not  entirely  com- 
posed of  laymen,  but  ol  ordained  priests,  or  persons 
destined  to  the  clerical  profession. 

The  Military  orders,  of  which  the  members  united 
the  military  with  the  religious  profession,  arose  from 
the  necessity  under  which  the  monks  lay  of  defend- 
ing the  possessions  which  they  had  accumulated, 
and  the  supposed  duty  of  recovering  Palestine  from 
the  Saracens,  and  retaining  possession  of  it.  The 
most  famous  Orders  of  this  kind  were  the  Hospital- 
lers or  Knights  of  St.  .John  of  Jerusalem,  the  Knights 
Tcmi>lars.  and  the  Teutonic  Order.  Many  other 
Military  Orders  existed,  and  nut  a  few  continue  to 
exist, particularly  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  phrase- 
ology of  the  old  .Military  Orders  is  preserved  in  the 
Orders  of  Knlglithood  of  modern  times,  into  which 
individuals  are  admitted  in  reward  for  merit  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  military  and  civil. 

The  three  .Mendicant  Orders  of  Franciscans,  Do- 
minicans, and  Carmelites  were  instituted  in  the  ISth 
century.  Their  ]irin<ipal  i)iirpose  was  to  put  down 
the  oi)posilii>n  to  the  Churcli,  which  had  bct;nn  to 
show  itself,  and  also  to  reform  the  Church  liy  ex- 
ample and  precept.  At  a  later  period  theOrderof 
Jesuits  was  founded,  with  the  object  of  increasing 
the  power  of  the  Church,  and  putting  down  heresy. 


— NotiGes  of  the  more  Important  Orders,  Monastic, 
Military,  and  Mendicant,  will  be  found  under  separate 

articles.     Sei'  Ordfrn. 

ORDER  ARMS.— A  position  in  the  Manual  of  Arms, 
executed  as  follows:  The  Instructor  commands  1, 
Order.  2.  Arms.  Grasp  the  piece  with  the  left  hand, 
the  forearm  horizontal,  let  go  with  the  right  hand  ; 
lower  the  piece  quickly  with  the  left ;  regrasping  it 
with  the  right  above  the  lower  band,  the  little  finger 
in  rear  of  the  barrel,  the  hand  near  the  thigli,  the 
butt  about  three  inches  from  the  ground,  the  left 
hand  steadying  the  piece  near  the  right,  the  fingers 
extended  and  joined.  (Two.)  Lower  the  piece  gent- 
ly to  the  ground  with  the  right  hand,  drop  the  left 
hand  by  the  side,  and  take  the  position  to  be  de- 
described.  The  position  of  Order  Arms  has  the  arm 
hanging  naturally,  elbow  close  to  the  body,  the  back 
of  the  hand  to  tlie  right,  the  fingers  extended  and 
joined:  the  barrel  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger 
extended  along  the  stock  ;  the  butt  against  tiie  toe 
of  the  right  foot,  tlie  barrel  to  the  rear  and  verti- 
cal.    See  Manvdl  nf  Arms,  Fig.  4. 

ORDER  BOOK.— A  book  kept  at  all  military  head- 
quarters, in  which  orders  are  written  for  the  infor- 
mation of  officers  and  men.  Every  order  in  this 
book  sliould  be  signed  by  the  Officer  whose  signature 
was  attached  to  the  originals  sent  from  the  office,  and 
each  order  should  be  separated  from  the  one  follow- 
ing b}'  a  red  line.  The  mode  of  numbering,  distri- 
bution, and  general  form  of  orders  are  prescribed  Ijy 
the  regulations  ;  but  the  distribution  in  each  particu- 
lar case  should  be  noted  in  red  ink  in  the  margin  to 
show  that  the  regulations  have  been  complied  with  ; 
and  where  orders,  are  sent  to  one  officer,  under  cover 
to  his  Commander  (which  course  ought  always  to  be 
pursued),  or  furnished  at  a  date  subsequent  to  that 
of  their  issue — these  facts  should  likewise  be  added: 
where  the  order  has  been  printed,  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  write  the  word  "  printed"  in  red  ink  in  the  mar- 
gin, to  indicate  that  the  widest  circulation  has  been 
given  to  it.  There  are  two  indexes  attached  to  the 
iKiok — one  of  nam^s,  the  other  of  subjects — every  or- 
der will  be  indexed  in  the  ^'«M(T  immediately  after  lie- 
ing  copied.  For  names,  a  deta-lied  index  will  first  be 
used  until  the  record  book  is  full,  when  they  will  be 
arranged  under  each  letter  as  in  City  Directories,  and 
tlms  classified,  transferred  to  the  permanent  alphabet- 
ical index  attached  to  the  record  book.  Every  proper 
name  will  be  indexed  anda  red  line  drawn  in  the  bo  ly 
of  the  order  under  it,  to  facilitate  a  reference  to  it. 

ORDER  OF  BATTLE.— The  combination  which  is 
made  to  attack  one  or  more  points  of  an  army  in 
position.  Is  called  the  order  af  battle.  The  four  prin- 
cipal orders  of  battle  are  the  parallel,  oblique,  eon. 
cave,  and  convex.  The  lines  of  battle  of  the  opposing 
forces  being  sensibly  parallel  to  each  other  is  an  ex- 
ample of  the  parallel  order  of  battle.  This  order  of 
battle  naturally  results  when  a  simultaneous  attack 
is  made  along  the  whole  front  of  an  enemy's  posi- 
tion. The  results  will  usually  be  very  decisive  for 
the  army  whicli  gains  the  advantage,  but  the  price 
paid  for  success  will  also  be  very  dear.  When  the 
line  of  battle  of  the  assailant  makes  an  angle  witii 
that  of  the  assailed,  the  order  of  batt.e  is  said  to 
be  oblique.  Tiiis  order  of  battle  results  when  the 
attack  is  made  with  one  wing,  the  other  wing  at  the 
same  time  being  lu-ld  back,  or  refused.  When  the 
attack  is  made  by  both  wings,  the  center  being  >¥- 
/w.scf/,  tlie  order  of  battle  iaeoneai'e  ;  and,  when  made 
by  the  center,  with  the  wings  refused,  coiirej-.  The 
order  of  battle  then  results  from  the  dispositions 
made  to  atttack  the  enemy's  position  ;  so  it  naturally 
follows,  that  when  the  enemy  is  found,  the  first 
point,  to  be  decided  is,  hoin  to  make  the  attark  with  the 
grea,tf.it  duinage  to  the  enemy  and  witli  the  l-east  to  the 
attacking  force.  Owing  to  the  great  loss  which  usual- 
ly follows  attacks  along  the  whole  lin<%  even  when 
successful,  they  should  seldom  be  made,  except  when 
the  chances  of  success  and  the  probalile  results  of 
victory  are  very  great. 


ORDERLIES. 


441 


OBSmART  OF  ARH8. 


ORDERLIES.  — Non-fomm'msionril  ciflii-crs  ami  kmI- 
dicrs  iiiipiiiiilcii  to  wiiil  Mpnii  (Jnicral  unit  otlirr  Coiii- 
maiiiling  Olliccrs,  In  coiniiiimifiili'  iliiir  urilcrH,  ami 
to  curry  iiii^s  pes.  'l"Mc  OnUil/  Ojjinr.  or  Officer  of 
the  Day,  iH  the  otHecr  of  a  corjiH  or  regiinenl,  wliow 
turn  it  is  to  superintend  its  inlericjr  economy,  as 
cleanliness  llu'  goodness  of  the  food,  etc.  (yriltrli/ 
Non.rirmiitisniiiiir(l  0£irATS  are  tlie  Ser^^^eants  in  each 
company  who  are  "  orderly,'  or  an  <luty  for  the 
week.  On  the  drum  heatini;  for  orders,  they  pro- 
ceed to  the  f)rdcrly  Hoom  taUe  down  the  j;eneral  or 
reginuMital  orilers  afl'eclinjr  Ihi'ir  respective  com- 
panies, show  them  to  the  Company  OHicers.  and 
warn  the  necessary  men  for  any  duties  siiecitied  in 
those  orders  An  Ordirlil  Hunk  is  provided  by  the 
('aptain  of  each  troop  or  comi)any  in  a  rej^iment  for 
the  insertion  of  i;eneral  or  regimental  orders  from 
lime  lo  lime  issued. 

ORDERLY  DRUMMER.  -  The  drummer  that  beats 
the  orders,  and  gives  notic'c  of  the  hour  for  messing, 
etc. 

ORDERLY  ROOM.— The  court  of  the  Commanding 
Officer,  where  charges  brought  against  the  men  of 
his  regiment  are  investigated,  and  s<'nle!ice  ]«issed. 
It  is  also  the  ollice  of  the  Commanding  Ollicer. usually 
in  Ihe  barracks,  from  winch  all  orders  emanate. 

ORDERLY  SERGEANTS.— The  First  Sergeant  of  a 
company  is  commonly  so  called.  ( )n  hearing  the  drum 
beat  for  orders.  Orderly  Sergeants  repair  to  the  Adju- 
tant's Office,  and,  having  taken  down  the  orders  in 
writing,  they  are  inunediately  to  show  them  to  the 
otlicers  of  their  com|)any.  and  to  warn  the  men  for 
duly. 

ORDER  OF  MARCH.  -The  formation  assumed  by 
troops  on  the  march,  and  which  <lepends  on  the  na- 
ture of  the  country  they  are  moving  in,  the  object  to 
be  attained,  and  the  characteristic  of  the  enemy,  as 
well  as  the  mimber  of  Iroops  composing  the  force. 
If  at  any  distance  from  Ihe  enemy,  the  comfort  of 
the  men,  as  well  as  the  means  of  giving  them  the 
necessary  supplies,  must  be  studied.  \Vhen  in  the 
proximity  of  the  opposinjj  force,  tactical  consider- 
ations must  alone  weigh  in  disposing  of  the  order  of 
march.  In  all  cases  an  army  is  preceded  by  an  a<l- 
vance  guard,  covered  by  the  main  force,  the  rear 
of  whicli  is  followed  by  a  rear  guard. 

ORDER  OF  MERIT.-  A  military  distinction  given 
to  officers  or  soldiers  for  some  signal  service,  the 
badge  of  which  is  generally  expressive  of  the  ser- 
vice. Such  was  the  Medal  or  Order  of  Merit,  pre- 
sented by  the  Austrian  Emperor  to  tlie  Officers  of 
the  15th  British  Light  Dragoons  for  their  bravery  in 
the  affair  of  Villers  en  Couche  iu  1794.     x 

ORDERS.— The  intructions,  injimctions,  or  com- 
mands issued  by  superior  officers.  The  orders  of  Com- 
manders of  Armies,  Divisions,  Brigades,  and  Kegi- 
ments  are  denominated  orders  of  such  Army,  Division 
etc.,  and  are  either  General  or  Special.  Orders  are 
numbered. General  and  Special  in  separate  series. each 
beginning  with  the  year.  Those  issued  by  Command- 
ers of  Posts, Battalions,Companies  or  Detachments  are 
simply  denominated  "Orders,"  and  mimbertd  in  one 
series,  beginning  with  the  year.  In  the  British  service, 
orders  are  General,  Divisional,  Brigade,  or  Regimen- 
tal. General  Orders  are  issuedby  the  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  an  army,  and  affect  the  whole  of  his  force. 
The  others  emanate  from  Generals  of  Division  or 
Brigade,  or  from  officers  commanding  Regiments.and 
severally  affect  their  respective  commands.  In  the 
United  States,  a  General  Order  or  an  important  Spec- 
ial Order,  is  read  and  ajiproved  by  the  officer  whose 
Order  it  is  before  it  is  issued  by  the  Staff  Officer.  An 
Order  states  at  its  head  whether  it  is  Special  or  Gen- 
eral;  its  number,  date,  and  place  of  issue  :  and  at 
its  foot,  the  name  of  the  Commander  by  whose  au- 
thority it  is  issued.  An  Order  may  l)e  put  iu  the 
form  of  a  letter  addressed  to  the  individual  concern- 
ed, through  the  proper  channel.  Such  Orders  should 
be  in  strict  military — not  semi-official— forms.  Every 
Commander  who  gives  an  Order  involving  an  ex- 


penditure of  pidilic  money  Hcnds  a  copy,  without 
dilay,  to  the  Bureau  of  Ihe  War  Oepartmeiit  to  wliich 
llie  expendiluri'  appcrlains.  and  if  Kuch  (Commander 
be  serving  in  a  .Military  Deparlment,  lie  wids  a 
copy  of  the  order  lo  Ihe  llcadi|i]arters  of  the  De- 
parlmenl.  If  a  Military  Commander  gives  to  a  di»- 
bursiiig  olUcer  any  onler  in  conflict  with  orders  re- 
ceived by  him  from  the  officer  in  charge  of  hJH 
I)e|>artment  at  any  superior  headcjiiarlers,  such 
Comnumder  forthwith  transmits  the  order  lo  such 
headquarters,  with  explanation  of  Ihe  newssily 
which  justifies  it.  Commaiiiling  officers  of  Mili- 
lary  Divisions,  Departments.  an<i  DislrictH  forward, 
direct,  co|iies  of  all  Ihe  orders  afrectin'.;  tlie  ofliccrH 
of  the  (Jencral  .SlatT  under  Ihcir  comMjandto  llir-  l)e- 
partmenls  at  Washington  to  which  Ihe  duties  of  (he 
officer  pertain.  It  is  important  that  advices  of  leaves 
of  absence,  clianges  of  locality,  duties,  etc.,  of  sub- 
ordinate officers  of  the  General  Staff  l)e  early  com- 
municated to  tlie  heads  of  their  respective  Depart- 
ments. Orders  and  inslrurtions  are  transmitted 
through  intermediate  Commanders,  in  the  order  of 
rank,  except  when  they  are  of  such  a  character  as 
lo  leave  the  intermediate  Commanders  no  discre- 
tionary power  lo  modify  or  suspend  them.  In  such 
exceptional  cases,  the  (Orders  or  instructions  will  lie 
sent  direct  to  the  officer  unrler  whose  aulhority  tliey 
are  to  be  executed,  copies  being  furnished  to  ihe  in- 
termediate Commanders.  Orders  for  any  body  of 
j  troops  are  addressed  to  its  Commander,  are  opened 
and  executed  by  the  Conunander  present,  and  are 
publisiied  and  distributed  tiy  him  when  necessary. 
Copies  of  all  orders  of  the  Commanders  of  Armies, 
Departments.  Divisions,  and  detached  Brigades,  and 
of  the  Superintendents  of  the  Recruiting  J^ervice,  are 
forwanleil  at  their  dates,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as 
practicable,  in  separate  series  (m  full  slieets  of  letter- 
paper,  or  as  printed,  tothe  Adjutant  General's  Office. 
A  tile  of  the  printed  orders  is  kept  with  the  head- 
<iuarters  of  each  Regiment,  with  each  Company,  and 
at  each  Military  Post,  and  is  regularly  turned  over 
fiy  the  Commander,  when  relieved,  to  his  successor. 
The  orderly  hours  being  fixed  at  each  headquarters, 
the  Staff  Officers  and  chiefs  of  the  special  services 
either  attend  in  person  or  send  their  assistants  to 
obtain  the  orders  of  the  day;  and  the  1st  Sergeants 
of  companies  repair  for  that  purpose  to  the  Adju- 
tant's office.  During  marches  and  active  operations, 
and  wiien  the  regular  orderly  hours  cannot  be  ob- 
served, all  orders  are  either  sent  direct  to  the  troops, 
or  the  respective  Commanders  of  Regiments  or  Corps 
are  informed  wlien  to  send  to  headquarters  forthem. 
Under  the  same  circumstances,  orders  are  read  to  the 
troops  during  a  halt,  without  waiting  for  tlie  regular 
parades.     See  General  Orderx,  and  Special  Ord^m, 

ORDINAIRE.— The  common  French  term  for  the 
soldiers'  mess. 

ORDINARIES. — In  Heraldry,  certain  cliarges  com- 
posed of  straight  lines,  and  in  very  common  use,  to 
which  writers  on  Heraldry  had  assigned  abstruse 
symbolical  meanings,  but  whose  real  chief  peculiari- 
ty seems  to  be  that  they  originally  represented  the 
wooden  or  metal  fastenings  of  the  shields  in  use  in 
actual  warfare.  The  Ordinarii-s  are  usualh-  accounted 
nine — the  chief,  pale,  fess,  bar,  bend,  bend  sinister, 
chevron,  saltire,  and  cross.  Heralds  vary  a  little  in 
their  enumeration,  some  taking  in  the  pile  in  place 
of  the  bar.  Each  is  noticed  under  a  separate  article. 
See  JTernMry. 

ORDINARY  OF  ARMS.  In  Heraldry,  an  index  or 
dictionary  of  armorial  coats,  arranged,  not  accord- 
ing to  names,  like  an  armory,  but  according  to  the 
leading  charges  in  the  resjiective  shields,  so  as  to 
enable  any  one  conversant  with  lieraldic  language, 
on  seeing  a  shield  of  arms,  to  tell  to  whom  it  be- 
longed. A  very  imperfect  Ordinary  for  England  is 
appended  to  Edmonson's  Heraldry:  a  far  more  com- 
plete and  elaborate  work  of  the  same  kind.  Pap- 
worth's  Ordiniiry  of  Jhitinh  Armnriah.  partly  edited 
by  Alfred  Morant,  was  published  in  1874. 


ORDNANCE. 


442 


ORDNANCE. 


ORDNANCE. — The  term  ordnance  includes  cannon 
of  all  kinds  tired  from  carriages,  slides,  beds,  tripods, 
etc.  Cannon  are  classified  according  to  their  nature, 
as  guns,  howitzers,  mortars,  and  machine-guns,  and 
according  to  their  uses  as  field,  mountain,  siege,  and 
sea-coast.  Guns  are  further  classified  as  to  their  con- 
struction, as  smooth-bore  and  rifle ;  as  muzzle-load- 
ing and  breech-loading ;  and  as  east  and  built  up 
cannon.  All  ordnance  for  land  service  in  the  United 
States  is  made  by  private  Contractors,  under  the  di- 
rection of  otficers  of  the  Ordnance  Department.  Ri- 
fled howitzers  and  mortars,  and  guns  with  chambers 
for  large  charges,  are  now  under  consideration.  Ri- 
fled breech-loading  field-guns  are  also  under  trial. 
For  the  present,  until  superior  armament  can  be  pro- 
vided, guns  of  obsolete  patterns  and  kinds  are  re- 
tained "in  service.  Standard  guns,  howitzers,  and 
mortars  take  their  denomination  from  the  caliber  in 
inches. 

Heavy  modern  ordnance  dates  properlj-  from  the 
casting  of  the  great  Rodman  smooth-bores  in  the 
United  States.  "To  the  impetus  thus  given  may  be 
ascribed  the  origin  of  the  powerful  guns  of  the  pres- 
ent day.  In  Rodman's  study  of  gunpowder  and  the 
improvements  introduced  by  him,  lay  the  germ  of 
all  subsequent  progress  in  ordnance.  His  most  im- 
portant invention,  perjtyrated  cake  powder,  was  trans- 
planted bodily  to  the  Continent  of  Europe,  where, 
under  the  name  oiprhmatic  powder,  it  has  been  used 
ever  since.  So  perfect  is  the  theory  of  this  powder, 
that  invention  and  science  toiling  over  the  subject 
for  twenty  years  has  produced  nothing  better.  Since 
the  first  half  of  the  decade— 1860-70— the  United 
States  has  fallen  behind  the  nations  of  Europe  in  the 


ordnauce  in  the  present  stage  of  its  development. 
Large-grained  powder,  the  first  of  these  requisites, 
is  universally  used.  Great  length  of  bore,  to  utilize 
the  whole  force  of  the  powder,  is  another  character- 
istic. Great  power  is  secured  by  immense  charges 
of  powder  and  weight  of  shot.  A  caliber  of  at  least 
12  inches,  giving  an  obloag  shot  of  about  700  pounds, 
seems  to  be  regarded  as  a  sine  qiia  non  for  all  arma- 
ments. England  has  taken  the  lead  in  all  these  im- 
provements, and  though  it  would  appear  from  re- 
cent events  that  her  choice  of  gun  systems  is  unfortu- 
nate, there  is  no  question  that  all  great  advances 
since  Rodman's  day  have  been  based  upon  her  ex- 
pensive experiments.  The  work  of  the  celebrated 
"Committee  on  Explosives,"  1875,  of  which  Col. 
Younghusband  and  Capt.  Noble  (now  a  member  of 
SirWm.  Armstrong's  firm),  were  members,  did  more 
to  this  end  than  any  other  investigation  since  General 
Rodman's  experiments  in  gunpowder.  Acting  upon 
the  obvious  idea  that  the  peril  to  the  life  of  the  gun 
is  relieved  by  air-space, the  Committee  recommended 
the  enlargement  of  the  bore  at  the  seat  of  the  charge, 
or  the  use  of  a  chamber  larger  than  the  bore.  This 
simple  expedient  led  at  once  to  an  increase  in  the 
power  of  guns  while  the  pressure  endangering  them 
was  kept  at  a  point  lower  than  before.  Every  good 
thing  can  be  pushed  too  far.  The  immense  charges 
made  possible  by  the  English  chamber  have  been 
continually  added  to  by  the  Italians  in  their  100-ton 
Armstrong  monsters  and  the  vital  air-space  greatly 
reduced  till  a  charge  of  about  5.52  pounds  of  pow- 
der has  recently  (1880)  burst  one  of  these  magnificent 
guns. 
The  following  table  gives  an  interesting  compari- 


Type  of  Gun. 


Krupp,  35-cal.  30.5  p.  m... 
Krupp,  35-cal.  35.5  c.  m... 
German,  30.5  c.  m.  mar.... 

Russian,  12  in.  (long) 

French,  pat.  1870,  32  c.  m. 

English,  80-ton  m.  1 

English,  63-ton  b.  1 

Italian,  100-ton  b.  1 

French,  pat.  1875,  34  c.  m., 
Bange,  34  c.  m 


d 
Q 


c 


305 
355 
305 
305 
320 
406 
343 
432 
340 
340 


a 

3 

so 


a 


■*? 


Weight. 


Gun. 


O 


Kilogrammes. 


10.70 

12.40 

6.70 

9.14 

6.70 

8.15 

10.97 

11.89 

6.7 

11.20 


48,550  455 

81,350  735 

36,600   325 

43,3411  344 

39,000,  341 

82,300 

771 

64,000 

567 

103,100 

908 

48,340 

420 

37,500 

450 

141 
225 

72 
128 

86 
204 
2H3 
300 
117 
180 


530 
530 
488 
597 
470 
498 
624 
558 
480 
600 


Total 
energy  at 
the 
muzzle 
per  kilo- 
gramme 
of  the 
weight 
of  gun. 


.104 
.103 
.103 
.14 
.104 
.114 
.175 
.118 
.101 
.221 


power  of  her  armament.  Having  been  committed 
by  her  two  great  inventors,  Rodman  and  Dahlgren, 
to  cast-iron  smooth-bores,  which  were  fabricated  in 
great  numbers,  her  attitude  has  been  that  of  Micaw- 
ber — "waiting  for  something  to  turn  up."  England 
occupies  the  other  extreme. — of  all  the  powers  she 
has  ventured  the  greatest  sums  upon  the  theories  of 
her  gun-makers.  Her  private  manufacturers  have 
received  such  encouragement  at  home  or  abroad  that 
they  are  now  able  to  supply  tlie  whole  world.  Their 
only  great  rival  on  tlie  Continent  is  Krupp, wlio  finds 
hismarkct  priucii)ally  in  Germany,  Russia  and  Tur- 
key. 

■The  early  adoption  of  the  rifle  principle  by  all 
European  powers  placed  them  at  once  on  a  jjlane  of 
advancement.  The  vexed  questions  of  breech  and 
muzzle-loading  and  of  gun  construction  have  been 
decided  by  each  nation  in  tlie  manner  most  satisfac- 
tory to  itself.  Opinions  dilTer  widely,  and  it  is  i)rob- 
able  that  many  clianges  may  be  made  iii  tliesc  mat- 
ters. Still  they  all  possess  powerful  guns  whicli 
have  certain  feiilures  in  common,  essenthil  to  heavy 


son  between  the  largest  suns  at  present  existent : 

Tables  I,  II,  III,  andlV,  on  pages  443,  444,  445, 
and446,emi50dythe  principal  dimensions  and  weights 
of  ordnance  and  ammunition  of  the  United  States 
Land  Service.  The  tables,  pages  447-456,  together 
with  the  descriptions  of  ordnance  referred  to  in  this 
Encyclopedia,  at  the  clo.se  of  this  article,  will  enable 
the  reader  to  trace  the  history  of  ordnance,  ancient 
and  modern,  and  at  the  same  time,  to  make  compar- 
isons of  that  pertaining  to  the  various  military  ser- 
vices. See  Armstrong  Ouiut,  Artillery.  BlnkelyGun, 
Breich-initertion,  Bronze  Guns,  Built-up  (f-uris.  (Gan- 
non, Cannon  MHaU,  Cust-iron  Guiih,  Cast-xteel  Ouns, 
Converted  Ouns,  Cooling  of  ('Ustings,  Ihthlgren  Qun, 
EUiriek  Gun  Work,H,  Fabrication  of  Ttilies,  Fifteen- 
inch  Gun,  Fraser  Gun,  French  Army  Ordnance,  Gun 
('onxtructioH,  Inspection  of  Ordnance.  Mann  Gun, 
Moffntt  Gun,  Mortar,  J'alliser  Gun,  Parrott  Gun, 
Parsons  Gun.  Rifled  Hoicilzers,  Hodman  Gun,  Schulti 
Wire  Gun, Sutclijfe  Gun.  Systt^ms  of  Artillery,  Thnmp. 
son  Gvn,Uchatius  Gun,  Whitwort'h  Guns,  Wire  Guns, 
and  Woobcich  Gun. 


ORDNANCE. 


443 


OBDNANCZ. 


*~ 

o  o 

I-* 

!-•  05  OS  *. 

Cn  OO  1- 

00 

it" 

►-  ■-•      ►-  ►-  —  to  » 

,_, ,_, 

*-* 

rf^  it^ 

1^ 

Ol  S-  in  Ol 
OI  g     '  .  lO 

faotP 

Ol 

OS  -1      OS  CI  c;i  o  ;.. 

i.   i.        .1.  .L.  i.  i.  B 

B   B         B   C    S   3   O 

0  *o 

*o 

»o 

m  oi 

en 

5' 

S   3 

3 

o  o  :{^ 

p1 

O    r/i    ^ 

rn 

O  'S        O  o   C  c  B- 
B-p-        B-B-B-B-^ 

B-B- 

S- 

■y, 

3  Ti 

n 

o      ' 

g 

S 

p- 
O 

5' 
-1 

1 

^  : 
5': 

n 
a 
0 
0 

§ 

k 
1 

o, 

■< 

0) 

o 

3 

5' 

O 

tr 
5" 

ED 

a. 
3 

FIELD  PIECES. 

'12-pounder)smooth  bo 
rifle 

3 
o 
o 

cr 
o 

? 
S- 

o 

o 
o 

to 

a 
S 

if 
S3 

3 

o 

O 

o 
3 

2 

3  3 

III 

ifle  (converted) 

smooth  bore 

smooth  horn  (model  187 
smooth  bon- (model  186 
smooth  bore 

1  "1 

0 

0 

5  p 

a 
pi 

B- 

B* 

i  s 

y 

; 

:    I-  rf*  :    : 

w 

w 

i  «? 

w 

:    O 

o 

o 

:    O 

:    :    :    O: 

^  ^Si 

3o 

:    » 

e 

tc 

:    to 

1  o»  — 

^ 

5 

o 

D 
N 

:    b. 

:    o 

2^ 

^ 

O 

3 

c  o.  o.  _.  s.  g  =  s  „  c  5  - 
o  o  o  g  o  3,"i.     5-  a.''i 

*      I  '   . 

:  B 

B 

:   B 

:   :   :   B  i 

r.3  e 

-.  0 

1            '^ 

i  s: 

:   :   :   :   : 

3§ 

30 

i 

:    B  : 

:    I    r    ^    r 

B 

B 

1 

H^ 

H-t  H^            H-»   1—  (-•   to 

t-*  »-• 

»-* 

»■ 

3  O  I-* 

»-* 

09  OS  |C> 

cn  OOO 

00 

*. 

u  cn       CO  cn  cn  o  00 

0  to 

"S 

Oi 

rf>.  rf^  rf^ 

e> 

en  OS 

00 

en 

? 

Caliber. 

lO 

oi  cn  cn 

on 

CO 

KO 

1 

*.  » 

*:? 

f 

t-*  )-» 

»-»  t-» 

ro 

OS 

-a  CO       00  o  O'  cn  ci 

c  to 

to 

H-*   lO 

Ku 

00  'h-»  "to 

H-  O  CD 

OS 

ift. 

«l 

rs 

/K' 

O  OS  o 

rf-  O  O 

o 

o 

O  cn        O  CD  00  OO 

►-00 

"Z. 

en  05 

00 

on 

1        ~ 

CO 

w- 

o 

tM 

Preponderance. 

-3 

o 

OO  en 

OOO 

o 

o 

OO      o  o:    o  o 

00 

0" 

o 

ooo 

ooo 

o 

o 

o  o      o  o  o  o  o 

h^ 

ooo 

o 

OOK^ 

I-* 

o 

>-   ^            ^   H-   ^   H*  O 

0  0 

Windage 

<Ti 

o 

en  en  o 

rf^  toco 

to 

en 

CO  CO       rf^  cn  ci  CD  cn 

00  CO 

s 

t-» 

^   ^  to  tOH- 

■^ 

ee 

1^  03 

& 

-q-a-q 

-^  to  bD 

m 

OS 

:»  <i      <i  CD  i->  »^  CO 

00  >c> 

0  s 

Of  entire 

-a 

CO  Oi 

ca  CO  CO 

o 

OS 

oscn       -3  o  cn  CO  05 

00 

Ss^ 

1 

ts 

'-i'-^ 

OS 

ojooen 

CO  to  to 

cn            OS            cn  05 

00  §. 

piece. 

7) 

H* 

en  )f^  en 

tsvxvt 

I-'                       05 

V-* 

t-*  t—  t--  to  t-» 

H-  to 

to 

CO 

OS  c;i 

*. 

-.  >--  bS 

*>. 

CO 

ono 

Of  bore  in 
inches. 

ri 

o 

to 

CO 

CO 

OT  en  OS 

b 

CO  Od  o 

b      cn 

OS 

en 

o 

cn  H*       cn  cn  o  o  <i 
to       CO                  to 

00  CO 

en 

-] 

B- 

9. 
p 

2. 

cn       cn                cn 

>s 

"-l 

to  OS  OS 

to  &3  OS 

en 

*i. 

tfk.cn       *k  rf*.  rf^  ci  CO 

K^en 

o»S^ 

io 

<I 

00  to  to 

cn  to  to 

cn            cn  cn  cn  cn  to 

en 

Of  trunnions. 

en 

-a 

cn 

0 

:    "-^ 

^  to 

I-* 

t_l 

rf^  ►f-  cn  Oi  CO 

if^  en 

a^ 

*i 

-4 

cn 

cn  00  I--  hf«.  to 

cn  *. 

a. 

s 
p 

to; 

cn 

CS 

g. 

At  base  line. 

>—  to 

■^  cn       bo  CO  to  CO  ^ 

to  to 

o> 

ct: 

OS  c»  ^ 

-a  C5  O 

« 

CO 

wo       ►-  cn  rf».  rf»  oi 

H-  00 

3 

V 

<o 

oo: 

en 

*4  en 

C5 

*a      to 

At  muzzle. 

n 

ts 

c;f 

o.** 

3 

t-^  ►-^ 

1—  bO 

t-* 

^? 

-J 

oi: 

en 

CO  H*  I-* 

X  Ci  o 

-q 

OS 

j5  to        cn  00  1-^  rfk.  to 

cn*. 

OS 

c!i: 

o 

-a  to 

S5 

yt 

Maximum. 

tn 

(-*>-^ . 

::;>*»■ 

en  00 

-q 

>^ 

o  to : 

cn 

:    :    :    0 

00 

0 

05  ^ 

t-* 

: 

Twist  in  feet. 

1 

t-» 

I    I    '.    t-* 

Number  of 

Oi 

o 

<i-a : 

CO          : 

:    :    :    cn 

-J  ►- 

^ 

grooves. 

o  o 

o 

o  1-': 

o          : 

.    :    :    0 

o^- 

0 

»-•  03 

03 

CO  o : 

CO          : 

:    :   :    bo 

CO  0 

sr 

Width  of 

..V 

to  »^ 

05 

to 

:    :    :    *a 
:    :    :    *3 

<t-a 

c:s . 

grooves. 

5' 

tri 

O  O 

bb 

o 
b 

o  o: 

b  b : 

o          : 
9         : 

:    :    :    0 
:    :    :    b 

0  0 
b>- 

OS 

Depth  of 

O  CD 

to 

cnoi  • 

^        : 

:  :  :  a 

00 

cog. 

grooves. 

o  o 

o 

o  o: 

o          : 

:    :    :    0 

00 

e. 

1-'  *. 

(-* 

en  en: 

OS          : 

:    :    :    00 

to  <l 

boS^ 

Width  of 

■q 

...      OS 

:    :    :    -J 

^" 

S§. 

lands. 

CO 

• 

OS- 

o 

o 

= 

c 

o          o : 

0^    '< 

Diameter  of 

t 

O  I 

o  to 

■c  tc  to 

o 

to            t 

c  to      to  to  :    to  to 

tc  to 

to  :^ 

vent. 

o 

o 

t 

-»  h-* 

)-A  to 

NO 

^ 

-S  CO         CO  rf*.:      <I  00 

CO  h^ 

'='5' 

Dis.f  rom  bot- 

lf> 

tOOtl-' 

en      en 

*» 

s 

J    cncn 

ing. 

tom  of  bore. 

B 

S 

Dis.  fr'm  ver. 

o 

ooo 

brcn 

o 

o 

NO  CO 

cn 

OS  :    *.  to 

:        cn 

to  CO 

o- 

plane  thro' 
a.\is  of  bore. 
Height  of 

b' 

o 

o 

ooo  o  o 

0  0 

°^ 

CO 

Ci 

<I  -^  *:i  ^  *3 

■^  -a 

-:■  ^ 

head. 

00 

cn  oi  c?  Cn  cn 

Cn  cn 

en- 

o 

*"*             '. 

t-A  t-^  »->  t—t  i-t 

h-  ^- 

.-N 

Diameter  of 

*:i 

to 

-iS> 

head. 

o 

cn  oi  cn  cn  cn 

Cn  cn 

en- 

OBDMANCE. 


444 


OBDNAKCI. 


l^Oi        O  p  H^  (**■  ^  I-*  CO  CO  CO         OtOOI-^ 

Mi.      C7I  i.  g  ti  Si  en  5  g  i.      »» S  «■ 


C3 
O 

s 

o 
o 


C  O    05 


2.  t«  re  C 


en   o 


CO 


ip  o 

a.. 

•S3 
2  o 

Eg 


a  ►fl 


ii5 


•5-p 

p-a 

2  c 

3  o 


■     P 

o 


-J  5 
i°§ 

I  ^^ ^ 

I     ?3     3 


Or  00 

bo  5* 

2-  a 

m   O 

3   C 

P 


i^j^        H-^  k-t.  1-^        GO  1-*  •-*•-*»-*  to  ffi 


OCOO?       ^.  ocooro? 


o   o         — • 


2    !=■ 


o 

o  g 
°  o 
So 


r;    C   D   3   D 
Cr  O   O   o   O 


tS  OS  -^  C5  00  i — 

9  i^ :..  V  i.  o 


»-*  OO  ^^  H-i 


01  am 

B  SB 

o  o  o 

B-  - 

o" 

o 


0  B 

o  o 
o  o 


-co"! 

o  o  < 


qs 


BB 


^-.  .  ^B■r. 

3  3'  r;  g-  n  D 
O  g  p-°  3-0 
3"  -L  —  B* 
•^    B^  t-l    B^  M    "^ 

3  2. 3t  2.  a  •-■ 

re  g^  -     S  -     S 
to  ^■='  -  o  g 

^  c-L  o-a 

e  Bo  =  ° 
B  S.C  g  g 
£.''  3  r-g 


O  h-^  to 

o  b'b'b' 
B-o  o  o 

B-C-B- 

a  S.  2. 3. 

re  ^  pj  a 

■    a  a  o 

2  •  "b"?  „ 

B     .       I-'     P    CD 

^  :    o  o  w 
^^  o 

00  00  M 
C  *^ 


a. 

3 


tr5' 
gin 


P  P 
oo 


oo  o      pp 
t^to  CO      1^  ta 


o      opp 


pppp  pp 

CO  CO  CO        CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO 


ooo  oa 


^3 


[r;    •     o 
c   :    -1 

•.   ?;^P 


gs 


O  O  n>  £ 


•  B  a 


»(P3 


to 
^? 

Sp 


g  = 

p  o 
=  3 
"5.3 
<  = 
a  a 
OS  o' 


o  o  g 


CI-  P-  a 
o  - 


o 


C    ► 


?  B 


o  o  . 


oo 

p  p 

3  B 

3  3 

O  O 

B  3 

o 


gorq 

c.*  B 
3"  P 

o  : 


O: 
p  : 


ccg  C&C,P 


O-  CI* 

2  o 


Olio 


CO        00 
<?  -1  to         CT 

■-«    1    "-J    ^-^  ■-) 
w   M   w         t» 


o  to  rf^ 
in  to 


>-^>-'tOCOGOOi-'c; 
OOSOTOiOOO;^ 


.>•  re 
B(j5' 

C   B* 

B-" 


9^ 
p  p 

3   S 


fCO. 


»^  »^  c;? 

O  C?T  o 
OlO  o 

aq(RCR    j^ 

X    m    X    ^ 


oo  05 


t-^  o  ***■  ►^  o 
C5  to  ...  c;i  c;i  00 
ooooSBooo 


•"-i  tS  CO  i-J  *.  OS -I 

ooooc  ooo 
oo  oo  o  oo 


p  p 


H-iM  CO 
►-*-00         I-"*.        MM         Oi-'CO 


H^  to  CO  CO  <l 
^O  to  CO  CO  to 
5  O  i**-0  O  Ol 


r*    >-*  to  ^^  CO 
O    0»  CJI  CJT  OS 

oooo 


O  H'CO 

~ibo 


Ol-" 


>-i  CO  <I  ^  <1 


— rd 


T3  re 


o 

W 

rrc 

p 
*-* 

frq 

a 

re 

3 

TO 

to  -7 

err  cs 


to  ^  CO 
CO  ^  '-' 
to  GC  rf^ 


to*- 
?c  to 

CO  o 


o»  a?  -J 

O  itO  CO 

o  -^  c;t 


V  rfi- CO  CO  !^ 


-a 
o  5. 


KJ.  in  J© 
"co  co"iu 
tcco^^ 


to  en  -^jco  r 


■-'  M 

b'co 


oto  o 

888 


>->  to  JO 

io  to  o 


►-■to 

CO  io 


O  to  OS       to  Oo 
O  Sn  *■       to  o 


en  OS 
coco 

OS  OS 


00 

"o 


V  to  to 
Or  ^J  M 


.^ 


w 

p 
3 


OBDNA 

NCE. 

445 

OBDNANCX 

a 

CO 

Or 

»U 

t-"               OC  >-'  5V  -1  0>  00         1— 

V'B'd 

00 

to 

k 

p* 

"uia. 

CO 

B 
o 
o 

c- 
o 

O" 

!^ 

i 

^  ft 

"to         2 
:    q    ^   6 

'^.    -I     s:     h(j 

?  3  g  a 

8 

?    2 

t° 

■  -z'  P 

■6 
o 

c 

:          i.o,=g4-'gS     8 
:           B  S-'o  °  -a  -i     -a 
:          B  =  =  S  °  2      2 
:              c  a  o-B  B      B 

Is 

B 

<» 

o- 

:    D-s  o-o-      "■ 

i 

"-1 

:    3,^5.5,     5, 

bd 

:    CBO 

O 

o 

O         : 

:    :    o: 

■      9 

3 

;  ss 

^-& 

g 

T    to 

e      = 

:    :    ai  '. 

:    q'»i 

: 

^■ 

§?• 

r.         b.b.a.r.b.s.2  .^. 

1          oooioo":? 

:    o 

:    B 

s 

■S-§ 

§    i 

o 

e  : 

g 

• 
• 

s 

• 

^ 

:        33 

s< 

• 
• 

o 

i    g 

Oq 

:       M 

C 

:      r 

^^ 

(_» 

• 

O  M  05 

en 

X 
to 

O             0 

c  o 

:    -]  osoo     Oi,^ 
:    b"*.             S* 

.      00 

Caliber. 

^ 

^_. 

K-           to  , 

C 

cc'ooo 

rfk 

-q            o 

w         'it 

D  OI 

;      to  CS         CS  t*1 

Weight. 

« 

K) 

g 

o           c 

5  0I 

O 

Or 

»o 

Oi 

o         c 

>  to 

:    o  o      o 

s 

O 

s 

o         c 

5  O 

t-i 
oo     o? 

Preponderance. 

't 

p 

oo 

o 

©         c 

50 

i  S' 

Windage. 

» 

en 

It" 

M              fc 

SCO 

ft 

^_ 

'  C  t— *  k^  t— *  t-^          »— i 

s 

ggs 

en 

00 

§ 

g       £gS§§l?    fc;:< 

Of  bore. 

3 
ft 

en 

Ol 

to 

■     f*  l-i 

;  Ie:^ 

;  ^ 

Of  rifled  part  of  bore. 

f 

0 

;    OI 

a 

•1 

:    to 

0, 

H* 

to 

-4          a- 

-J : 

OS*-        OI 

a 

Cl 

I-* 

Si 

« : 

60                     ^ 

Of  semi-axis  of  ellipse, 

X 

9 
3 

ft 

2 

s 

•   I 

^    1         -i    S 

bottom  of  bore. 

B. 

a. 

p.  C^       (^ 

9 

CO 

«o 

•«1 

to 

u          cc 

CO  OS  Jl  OI  *.        1^  k« 

jo      en      en      Ol  ?^ 

Ol 

00 

g 

■o          tc 

Of  trunnions. 

OI 

Ji            c;! 

Ol 

1^" 

fe 

^ 

IS 

»                 1 

o          tc 

-JOOO^-OS        p  ,^ 

From  axis  of  trunnions 

g        : 

t-* 

oc 
cc 

-JOI  le-  00                     S 

OS  to  to 

OI  1- 

to  face  of  muzzle. 

t^ 

^           lo 

gjsggg    §^ 

(8        : 

to 

^0 

05                           < 

=               Ol 

Between  rimbases. 

B 

2 

OI                        < 

» 

00                           f 

[»■         -J 

1-1 

s 

From  base  line  to  face 

o 

o: 

^ 

of  muzzle. 

. 

_i 

►-  ►-  k^H^I_i        63 

f^ 

Cl 

-^ 

00                         < 

5              CO 

OS  ►-  to  coos      OS 

At  muzzle. 

to         : 

00 

-q 

CT> 

ts 

to  -1  *•     to        r 

or 

a 

I-*                      » 

_i 

CO  63  to  63  CO        l(>i 

CO 

»  C5  H-* 

n 

00                           1 

s         o 

63  Ol  Ol  OT  to        O  s 

to  toto               S 

00           < 

SCOCO                           ( 

■» 

CO 

OS 

Maximum. 

d 

63 

3 

_1 

,—1                                  i_L             l_l 

K*-        : 

o          a 

OOS-JOOO        o,^ 

o         : 

03 

■:% 

CO 

Of  trunnions. 

10         : 

-J               ) 

■o 

00 

CO05 

OS                                 • 

;                           i 

i    §g: 

^    1 

Twist. 

:                          >-- 

Number  of  grooves. 

:          <: 

» C503                : 

Ol                  : 

:      COOI ten-'        OI- 

;      H-*                          ; 

H-i                      ; 

:    o  o-'^     ^ 

:          : 

:    cr?                 : 

CO                 : 

:    to  Gci-«  -i      b  b* 
:    t^  c-.  ^  *t^      •**■  ^ 

Width  of  grooves. 

3 

:   3                : 

:    OS  to  -J  to      ^  • 

• 

:   CD                : 

:          < 

:>o  o                 : 

o                : 

:    OO" o      o 

1 

•          1- 

JO-'                : 

•-*                 : 

:    oioi 

Depth  of  grooves. 

OBDNANCE. 

446 

OKDNANCE 

rf>.  v\ 

CO*.                    00i-« 

00 

v;ik.p  p 

l-it-              O01-' 

05-500  le 

to  to 

bsoi              B-"p 
T'^               g  b" 

b' 

OS  CO  bo 

O-m 
-inc 

3-iu 
O-iu 

0-inch 
-inch  s 
inch  s 
.4-inch 

S'5" 

o  ra 

B" 

5'o  5* 

2-5.        ^2- 

B-p- 

p-p-        gg 

CD    »                        O    » 

B 

t=^«,  =^ 

BS         i§ 

smoot 

mooth 

mooth 

smoo 

2  S2 

o 

»    3   £ 

B  B 
2  ° 

ii        s§ 

o 

B53 

o  o  5 

So            CO 
o  o          so 

^ 

o  o 

o  o         p;-,- 

o* 

s&s 

S'^     S-? 

tJ-h-i^V 

p-  p- 

=-~              ?ir 

o 

SIEGE   PIECES. 

li-bore24-pounder,  model 
-bore  18-pounder,  model 
h-bore  12-pounder,  mode 

c-  =•          o  a" 

SEA-OOi 

Gu 
bore  col 
ore  colli 
ore  43-p 
-bore  32 

fi.  a.  2 
I-*  to  9. 

ore,  m 
ire,  mo 

FIELD  : 

Gu 
-bore,  1 
-bore  6 

ore,  m( 
re,  mo 

Mor, 
ore,  m 
ore,  mi 

B 
a> 

0 

tters. 

4-pounder,  mode 
3-pounder,  mode 

PIECES. 

l2-pounder,  mode 
-pounder,  model 

iO   ST- 
^00 

-  *. 

II 

00 
1^ 

tzers. 

adcll841 

del  1841 

odel  1841 

odel  1841 

iST   PIECES. 

umbiad,  model  1 
mbiad,  model  18 
ounder,  model  1: 
-pounder,  model 

0 
"I 
£1. 
B 
SJ 
B 

<xia> 

S5            • 

sii 

^  OD   Jl  CE 

t¥ 

"-^  "^             : 

gfp 

1^ '    '■    I 

w 

O.S              a 

o 

s= 

9 

so 

X 

03 

CO 

cc 

Co 

p.ca.r. 

Material. 

o  :" 

o  .                o 

-1* 

•-J" 

3    0*^ 

o  ^          o 

5' 

o  o  o  5 

O 

o 

•    .    o 

•    o           • 

O, 

.    .    •    o 

•  • 

; 

B 

B 

:    :    P 

.  ?         : 

P* 

:    :    :    B 

h-' 

y^ 

to 

CO  »^  OI 

CTf-'           5Tp 

<I  OOp  Ol  j>, 

to  rfk  to"*rf*-  ^ 

O  CO 

00  Vl                       t£ 

GO 

C5 

OT  CO^ 

"^  Cn            'Vi'bi 

Weicfht. 

00  »-. 

00  or               a 

OI 

1-.! 

CO  i-'tO 

-30           ^o 

O  O!  .f^  o  .» 

QOOD 

It'-J                   c 

to 

*. 

oeoo 

OIO            o  o 

ooi  oo 

g 

o*. 

*-o             : 

*■ 

to 

toco  CO 
<l  o  o 

0:0  OJ-3  fcl 

Preponderance. 

» 

CHOI 

-300              : 

o 

OC1  OI 

tc  Or 

OT  0  Ol  0  . 

3 

I-*  >-i 

I-*  Hi             : 

t-' 

H-i  t-'t-' 

:    :   H-'  (-'  0 

oo 

o  o             : 

o 

COCOCO 

i    :    to  to   ~ 

Natural  angle  of  sight. 

oo 

oo             : 

o 

ooo 

:    :    C01-'   ^ 

k 

*-cn 

c;t  <l                t- 

H-i 

CO 

ooo 

to  to          oo 

O 

Oi->  OCO  s 

Of  bore,  exclusive 

S 

OOJ 

-3  *.                to 

OT 

00 

05GC  30 

OI  Oi              OI 

OS 

-3  0  0  CO  ^ 

of  chamber. 

t-" 

isi^ 

bi 

bi 

ifbi 

bi 

OS                 ."^ 

2^ 

CR 

» 

t-'  h-' 

i    :    ►--'S 

B 

it...<^ 

■    :                *. 

OI 

oo 

oco              <! 

p 

:    ;    '-'to  S 

Of  chamber. 

CD 

0 

is  <i 

bi 

bi 

:    1            >* 

CJI  en 

ft 

^  I-.  I-" 

t-' 

s 

From  rear  base- 

B 
P 

a 

sa 

ooo              : 

Ol 

to 

X  i^l? 

§ 

to 

I-*  »-'  ^  to  S 
*.  -3  0  0  S" 

ring  to  muzzle. 

»0  05 

gfc          5 

to 

to 

5!  OOJ 

<■.*-                  OT 

o 

0  -3  -3  -S  S 

From  axis  of  tnm- 

2 

r*  9^ 

l«>- 

OI 

15-100 

l-»-J         <l 

-a 

ooppp  S 

nions  to  face  of 

» 

- 

£0                    C?T 

§ 

ig§ 

bi               *. 

bj  CO  bi  bi  p. 

muzzle. 

B 
0 
0) 

t-.^ 

t-^                     1— t 

to 

^ 

^^^ 

to              to 

to 

to  to  toco  S 

Between  rim- 

tot-' 

»to               p 

p 

00 

f^OOO 

-I             p 

C!I 

OtOOIl-'  S 

OI  br 

bi 

»bo 

bi              1-j 

^               §. 

bases. 

l-L  t-' 

_1. 1_^                 »-i 

§ 

l-L            I 

-'-'to 

to  CO            to 

to 

ts  to  toco  l>l 

10*-O5  to  g 

o  ts 

oco               p 

00 

-150>-' 

-QOS             to 

o 

Maximum. 

- 

W                          bl 

S 

js 

c;i 

bi              to 

OT 

*-*.         s< 

(-1               l-l 

to 

l_^ 

-J  t-i  k-* 

to  CO             •-' 

to 

h-'  !-'  l-i  to  . 

00  to 

X  o              oa 

o 

Oi 

-■COOT 

-3  OT              O 

o 

OI  05-3  t-*  ^ 

'^S 

sk       ^ 

s 

^      ; 

»  00  bi 

bibi          bi 

to 

OT 

1(^00      bi  § 

At  swell  of  muzzle. 

g 

ft 

H-i 

■^b 

cc*. 

»t&.                       05 

00 

OI              \ 

^Oipi 

CO  to           o 

oo 

35-3  00  0  g 

Of  trunnions. 

i»  to 

3S  O 

bo          < 

31CO00 

>;>■ 

C                    §. 

1 

»J 

-^»a 

to           ) 

o      to 

w 

Utt>- 
35  C> 

:               o» 
:             o 

-» 

<» 

-:i  p          p 

^  br          rf^ 

-3 

ojoob' 
*■      5, 

Maximum. 

0 

>qt9 

:              00 

to 

OI 

^s- 

B 

:             ''^ 

^ 

p<i          • 

i:^ 

o  to         : 

Minimum. 

^ 

rS- 

SO           < 

3p              o 

p 

p         t 

*-*         1 

PP         P 

D            < 

0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
ft  1 

Windage. 

Oit>-            < 

DO                    <0 

CO 

tc         c 

3CCl(>' 

coco         to 

W 

■n  05  CO  CO  r^        I 

— 

ORDNANCE. 


447 


O&DNANCE. 


t**  ^  ^  W  W 
?  a- =^  2.§  » 


(Tl  ti  S 

•n  rj  N 

2  S  o 

2  ■>  !» 


o   (^    <) 
2fl    <T^    -^ 


CI? 


8 


lui        I--.        to  I-*. 
00         OS         i-t  GO 

o      en      a^  o 


tfik.         »^         00  ^ 

>— '        00         CD  •— ^ 
>(».        cs        ►**  w 


CO 


to      ^bi 


S.t  E.  B  ■ 

r-3  =; 

B  : 

-1  '5  't  2 

3 : 

1)    O    ^    N 

O 

r  s-N 

N    * 

i-rri  1 

i£.i 

'Z 

o 

5  -<  -"  ~ 

» 

1^,^  S 

a. 

SS  2  ^ 

-1 

«) 

-  ^-1 

/.-\ 

o 

S 

-I  o  ■ 
0  B  : 

3  ' 

^ 

3 

0 

??  3. : 

= 

1 

c  - 

3 

'S 

o 

1. 

M 

P 

^ 

■1 

» 

"W 

3 

0 

B 

a. 

; 

O 

.s 

.coo 

4.. 

fc 

JS 

X 

_^ 

-iH*  h- 

<x> 

» 

-4  to  00 

X 

ifc 

^ 

-L 

h.*  H-*  1-^ 

35 

i1  05  >>- 

!5 

ts 

o  to  cn 

1 

ts 

:;t 

ai  05  en 

00 

1 

*s 

yr 

i 

-1 

a 

05C5--I 

o 

-^ 

3500 

tn 

*j 

q 

f 

M 

r/3 

>(>- 

lO  u  »^ 

-A 

o 

-J 

O'lf^  o 

^^^ 

>«>. 

>^>l^  CO 

00 

>:* 

to  W  05 

-I 

00 

CO 

»^ 

ts 

to 

-J 

Si 

o 

*. 

o 

" 

:    o 

1 

CT 

en   05  05 

& 

o 

^  ^  rf^ 

>(>. 

tOM 

t-^  t-^  \-t- 

I-* 

to  CO  OS 

c^ 

-1 

CO  tots 

02 

-J-ltO 

H.1  I-' 

to 

oo  o 

.-^ 

to 

to  ^  to 

'X 

X 

05  on-J 

o 

<! 

ooooeo 

03 

oa 

(0  00(9 

OD 

00 

K^OStO 

<I 

» 

05  -1 -J 

to 

ii>- 

to  *.  00 

-1 

to 

a.^     1 

«  ^  -1  o 


--  g  -  li"  ^'  &' 

=  o  =  b£U 

er^  g 

-1  /^  ^ 

2  "^  S 

2    "     N 

m    _    .^ 


^  CO  ^■^ 

»  o  3 
X  ,—  o 

'3. 


1-1       O       •-  ►- 


I-*  l-»  to  H- 

w      CO      -J  cn 


lt>.  VI 
to  CO 
CIOI 


>(>.  CO 

o  en 


to 

00 


1-       o 
to       J-" 


I 

^ti-WMt;. 

1 

_  -    K    -1    3    3 

i=?|3| 

:    Bolder 

:  SLi-f? 

i  iT^^i 

7\ 

:    t  o  — ---  T 

;^f?r3 

2. 

:    2  =?■ :  ,= 

tn 

:    5  2  :   'i. 

:    o  I  :    3 

:  ?  a  i  S 

Nlil 

:    c  2  :    r. 

:  a?  c? :    c 

:    s-Y :    o- 

•   •p  :    :   « 

:   o  :   :   ■• 

■   D  :   :   : 

H-„,-«t:* 

9 

tCi       tc  tc  tc  to  ^ 

to        C5                     ^ 

? 

Jl 

g  ssgggy 

2.^ 

TO  » 

CO        OD  5 

O        5C  ie 

5w 

^H 

CO         to  to  >-•  to  ks^ 

5^   ■ 

to        en  to  Si  C5  s^ 

<I         to  --1  to  *.  ri 

1 

■-b,     ? 

on 

I 

-1        • 

2 

^     --=^^ 

-,§ 

W 

W 

*!. 

hH 

5t 

r"  o 

•^ 

-1         -1  C5  -1 

CO 

'^ 

7f 

O         -i  05  O  ^  2 

O         O  IJ-  O  -1  2 

If 

«■§' 

2.S 
o  c 

o      to  to  o  ^  ^ 

CO        o  -.c  O  *"  S. 

><  5" 

»-i      to  —  to  •—  ;^ 

-q        00  •-  X  CT  s 

en      *.  o  C5  X  S 

'^    -c 

o        en  05  *-  ~3  iT 

as 

to        bStO  to        S'  !»( 

s 

w 

'S 

N 

-l 

■*.      bo  X  ^ 

^ 

Ft., 
tons 

184 
180 
171. 

205 

n 

■-1 

00        t*. 

cr 

^ 

Ft., 
tout 

157. 
152. 
147. 

173 

V,   (0 

0.0 

09 

1 

?*  S 

to      to  S5  en      •     ■ 

5 

^      CO  eo  eo      i  ^ 

•<>= 

3.0 

3 

-]      oo»      g  r- 

Cfi  O 

to      totoi^      •    ' 

s 

Ft 
ton 

124 
lU! 
113 

127 

"5  -"^ 

1          _]         It-  05  to         • 

1 

OBDNANCE. 


448 


OEDNANCE. 


1         „_.f^ 

a  a  a 

o3^ 

Armstr 
pound 
loadin 
ing    tl 
meclia 

Woolw 
pound 
loadin 
ing  stt 

1 

ited 
.  mu 
grifl 

»  c  c 

,5  3^ 

ft  N  GO 

a  ?5"^  S  3 

ai'=l   So 

3 

"■  ^^  .-"•  —era 

?  £  ELS 

o 
•o. 

S 

^— ,• — ' 

I. ^ 1 

' . ' 

>F>. 

ir» 

=^     S' 

Caliber. 

» 

en 

3       ?• 

. 

00 

M 
^ 

CO          t~i 

Weight. 

g 

;g 

g 

§          • 

>~-L 

(-* 

I-* 

1— »■ 

GO 

CTT 

K) 

Nominal  exterior  length. 

1—1. 

h-^ 

l-L 

H-i 

f* 

§ 

g 

S 

2 

Inches. 

en 

en 

OCR 

^ 

^^ 

63 

OT 

h-* 

to 

ta 

Caliber. 

□ 

OS 

C7» 

<-H 

Nunmber     of 

::? 

to 

00 

<i 

CO 

grooves. 

£ 

h-4 

l-H 

A 

oc! 

a 

osi 

CO 

Caliber. 

s 

□Q 

to 

5" 
TO 

g 

o 

13 

B 

o" 

CK5 

^tr? 

• 

*> 

g^ 

^^ 

coS 

Feet. 

O 

en 

'^O 

00  o 

00 

O 
B 

§. 

QD 

o 
0 

1 

H.D.No 

H.D.No 
H.D.No 

.<=  '-d  o  ;;■  '-d 

en  ™  ■    -  ,  2. 

Ot:^-     o  3 

3^ 

4 

is 

Kind. 

13 
o 

*.     *.        CO 

g™^s!i 

t-l 

2 

n 

\^-  ■■  J,  ^^/ 

'W -V— ' 

^ 

-  1= 

-?  *^  OS  -4  *^ 

oogo  .-3 

Weight. 

0 

a 

t. 

V , ' 

w  ,^^ 

so 

' 

(0    ^  O* 

se  o 

o-O 
to  o 
B"0 

B 

Kind. 

I 

S5  5 

O-tJ 

rti  a 

00 

0,1 

p.1 

3 

g 

to 

» 

ts 

J£ 

2 

CO 

en 

00 

.§ 

Length. 

3. 

§ 

CO 

CO         (S       to 

en        en      en 

coco 

QO  OS 

g 

w 

otco 

SS 

Weight. 

•« 

^—.*— ..—*—. 

/"^  '-  — \ 

1-1          H.L  t-L  H-i  h-l 

l-»  »-* 

t-t.    t-t.    ,-L 

1-1 

B 

o      o  o  o  o 

o  o 

o  o  o 

o 

Of  charge  to  weight 

w 

€ 

en      co*^  CO  CO 

en  en 

CO  >f^  »;k. 

en 

of  projectile. 

p 

en  I-*  CO  en 

h^ 

CD  I— '  to 

-:j 

-JOi  CO-I 

GO  H-i  Crt 

a 

> ^ ' 

^-^   1  — ^ 

in 

t-^            (_i 

t-l  I-* 

1-1 

i 

cfq 

^V 

o  o 
00  oo 

1-^ 

5 

s 

CO 

Of  weight  of  pro- 
jectile to  weight 

3. 

§          fe 

^^-s 

■  3 

00 

of  piece. 

&• 

GO 

-H.          ^ 

>F^cn    »fk.  cnen 
ocn    o  &i  o 

en  en 

en  b?  *.. 

"coco      S. 

Initial  velocity. 

r<^  »;^ 

^  ^  ^ 

00  CO 

fcl  K> 

OC  t^  o 

c  to 

^T^ 

s---,-^-/ 

^r~- 

CO  to     M  CO  lO 

^^  Gc    CO  c;  .-* 

: 

1-*. 
^ 

en        t-i 

Pressure  per  square  inch  of 

»  o    oo  en 

i 

'cr 

tf^ 

bore. 

rf^ 

oo    o  oo 

! 

O 

o 

oS 

en 

to 

Or 

en 
1*^ 

Total. 

to 

to 

io  ►-> 

CO 

CD 

-7 

CO 

g 

g 

§ 

Per  square  inch  of 
shot's  cross-sec- 

OS 

IO 

OS 

OB 

tion 

S3 

ORDNANCE. 


449 


ORDNANCE. 


»— 1 

I-* 

^ 

^ 

^ 

— 

>^ 

I-*  ^o 

»-* 

H^ 

^ 

o            ^ 

6'        B' 

00  o  ^:o  c* 

iw  x  p  w  cn  p  05  w  ►*»  "fC  p  *o  ;o 

5' 5' 5'  5' 

i/^ 

■g  5'  5'  5'  5'  5'  5'  r'  f;  5'  5*  5*  'if 

g  3-3- 3- 3-3- 3-=  ^  3- 3- 3-3 

o          o 

n  ft  rs  1 

p 

o-         p-tb.     o-s-a-s-  ^ 

1 

CO          w 

a         B-  3  =-  3   ^^ 

^ '/.  w  t/i  rfl  w  -(  ^  ~  -1  ,„,  i-(  O 

553B3SHii S^S- 

^      2  o  2  o<S 

a       N  T  N  T  ?• 
5!       a  .    rt  . 

o 

^  o  o  o  o  o 

2  o  o  o  o  o 

■5 

3.31 

T> 

"'  7 

Q 

■S 

o          o 

T* 

^ 

^ 

o  o'c-e-3-o* 

Q« 

rtar 
rtar 

!° 

3^  1    1   *1   -^   ^ 

g 

1^  O   r5   '^   '^   o 

,_4 

O  75  75  W  '1-  '(5 
3  3   3   C   3   C 
'-33333 
r^q   .     .     .     .     . 

X 

3 

0>             CI 

en          M 

OS  CI  -3  o 
H^  10  p>  o 

Weight  in 

-i 

(-•              00 

(O 

cwts. 

S 

-1 

(I 

■^            en 

3 

C 

M               H^ 

»— ^        »-^ 

Caliber  in 

O               U 

00  O  CD  Od 

inflies. 

"2. 

fe              g 

OJ  *--1  CI 
CI  C5  CS  CO 

Of  piece 

re 

k              "• 

io 

in  inches 

3 
Oq 

B' 
1 

g              S 

feSSgg 

Of  bore 

cn           f-i 

in  inches 

1 

O 

, ^^^^_ 

-\ 

5      -JO 

O       OS  4^  OO 

Charge  in 

i 

CI 

^ 

pounds. 

5' 
(n 

_/                CT 

I-*            to 

l-»        lO  to  "^ 

2       s; 

w  to  o  p  ^ 

"Weight  of 

?r 

03 

1 

projectiles. 

rf>.OOCl(»CI005CC*-OOOlOlOS_ 

-J 

o 

! 

Diameter. 

to           -4 

cn  cn  -J  •-*  g 

Bursting 

ts 

0 

as     1 

charge. 

Ctl 

(-.^h_i>_*i_i^(Oi-'tOH-''-^"-'N-iSi 

■1 

i 

1 

05Cn         OO         OCS-^'-JCS-T—CO-^ 

Length. 

S       ft 

(O  w  :d  cn   ^ 

Elevation. 

jfk.      CO  ^»;*- 

Range, 

s:  :  2SS 

29 

1— ( 

bi       rf^  cs 

^         CtVilio 

yards. 

<j" 

0  .    .   »  2  2 

2  § 

rs 

M_;ig_ 

3   segs§ 

»  S-?-^-.-  i  ?--  §  a-a-c-J 

Nature. 

o 

r*  ? 

111^ 

3-»  3-:    S 

3 

.;> 

-> 

3 

to  O  ^  UT 
O  O  O  CJl 

Lateral. 

1 

:    :   :   :   r* 

0 

3' 

3 

^ 

•-'CO                                 •-''—'  L 
l"-!*-^*©©                    CO  00  O  >-*  O 

tootnocnobow-jcnooos?* 

Weight. 

P 

' 

p 

5' 

-^ 

cn''  "^               v^v^          ^     -^  ^^  .-* 

cn  -3  w  a> 

In  range 

a. 

1 

OO    bob    bob      b 

CO      CO      CO  CO  CO     CO      coco         CO         1^ 

o    rf^    cn  GD  en    wi    c:  CD      oo       t^ 

Weight  per  cubic 

-J  00  CO  CO 

o 

ca           cn'-'Cnco*-'*-'       os       S^ 

CD                          GO        to        . 

inch. 

A 

'      , 

t-»  CO  tfk.                             ^  ►&.  Ci  <l 
►-*05tOOCrii-'i-^COXOOOK- 

cocnoooooocscnoooo^ 

N 
TO 

Weight  of  projectil 

:    5'  °°  —  3  T- 

P 

CO                          00-1                                 .* 

o      cn 

1— 1  k- •  1— •  (— •      1— * 

1          ^ 

:      B 

g. 

C0G0l0OC0^X<ICDOC5OO 

b--iODi*>'b-icn-aoorf>hO'-'CO 

rfi-H-OODO^Ci-i^WOCOtO 

Total  volume  in 
bore. 

0 
§ 

CO 

S' 

td 

CO       coi—o       ciOto*^o;nco 

H.^,-^^_^_^,-':g 

r       M 

:     "o 
:      w 
:       i*^ 

O 
3> 

i  "H:^.. 

a 

4».  rf».*:n  cn^ 

Voj  *.V'h;>.  ij  *-  S 

Actual. 

o 

o  o  o  cn  CO 

■:    S3o§S 

cno 

S-l  Cl 

00  *^o  rf^  O  O  CO  * 

-^ 

:     '■< 

? 

1 

'qo'o  --1  b  o 

-3  cn  -.3  c^  o  cn  cn  ch 

Calculated. 

:      ci- 

w  <j ::;  oco 

i.-.O'*^'-'— '-Jrf^r*- 

.      IP 

:    ■  crq  o  (t.  ^ 

.    u^  -5  3  _  re 

tD  -*  cn  -1  o 

00  Ci  00  o  to  o  --■ 

«< 

B 
-I 

GO  GO  00  00  00 

I-*  CO  CO  H-.  Cn 

00  CO  CD  X  00  00  o 
to  to  ^  ^J  X  to  t-» 

cn  CO  to  X  -J  o  -^ 

Percentage  realized 

CO  CO  CO  CO  '-*  C5  X 

c 
re 
•-J 

•    3;S= 

-1  00  -q  <l  *3 

o 

Tg.3 

•    f-'  rD 

OS  00  O  C35  Cn 

to  CO  CD  to  cn 

OSJi-i-OH-Csr' 

<iaaoo^ooooao^ 

Actual. 

2? 

:       ^ 

_:_  ^  » 

-3  " 

a:   P  1-5 

j^tOtP-*-  o 

OOOl-'-q  to  W  S 

o 

i  g-^1 

•   r*  'T)  -I  J  :3 

•> 

"3 

: 

g?i- 

H^tOwOO'-'OOOlSOOpT* 

Calculated  maxi- 

5 

:       00 

:           ""'*  9° 

#i-Cn4*GOCO^t.OODCllCiOCOff-^ 

mum. 

■— * 

1 

;        33^" 

cn^i4^'---cncirfa'0'-'*>'»-'Cocoi: 

00                                                                        Wl                     5« 

0 

:         1 

0 

:         (. 

O-'ISS-^*^*     OSOCS-~5-JCSCO 

go^oco:    -^T^T^r^pcoto 

Percentage  realized 

1    ft)  • 

cn  to  b  cn  b  :    b  *-  -i  b  ca  —  oo 

P 

OD»-'OJoco:    oorf^      — -jtT 

H 

IT 

a 

5" 

S' 

» 

c; 


!  ■« 

o 

e 

3 

a. 


•a 
a. 


3" 
DO 


s 

B 


OBDNANCE. 


450 


OHDNANCE. 


Cd     2 

Ills  ^i 
-i?i  ii 


03 


c  O. 


=  °  En  SS." 

n-  o  o  ffi  2     —  L-j     r*  •  - 

;>  ^  c  ■''  t-i  o  >:^ 

a" 


:  3  3 

•     B  3 
-     O   O 

:  _B  3 

i  SS-2 
Saw 

o  o  O 

3  o  a 


3 


3   3 


32 


-4.  » s. 


3   > 


-3 

r 
12 


ca 


o  K 

S  " 


•'3        2,3 
O  3        „  B 

go     go 


o  B 

S   O 

71  a 


2.S 
o2 


W 
2! 


£  J5 


B  A 


bs; 


1^ 


: — ^n 


Bg. 


o 

o 
d 
S! 


a- 
o 

B' 
en 


i«   »co   or 


Caliber. 


CO  >-t 


Weight. 


Total  length. 


cocc 
ctbi 


Length  of  bore. 


Twiet  in  number 
of  calibers. 


oi  o 
■   5 


i^i^ 


j  Number  of 
:      eroovcs. 


.  !c.    is  CO   CO 

4-  -1     tZi 


»-4  cn 

CO-l 


c 

"4 


€al|. 


•^       "^       "^  '     — "^    "^ 

_  c3  _  BiB  a    't3&'^3    2. 


'  o 

1  TJ 


re  X 


ca  to  K)  til  n- tZ/     tZ-KUCK-KrH) 


Length. 


i  i   §   I 


ti,      ■—  _  M  CO  o;  ci 

Sk-i  o»  O  c  o:  oi 
K.  OS  X  cc  •&-  o 


-1  _  *j  ^j  _.  I-.  i_*        o 

gOl—'OCSOi     OOCCOO        —I 


^JCD 


8SS8S    S:' 


»13 


2  3 


'io 

H 

CTQ  t^ 

g'S 

"1  ■-* 

c^S: 

a  CJ 

^5 

•c-s 

tr-c 


c  P 

D  = 


DS2  n-oooo;  : 

-=■3  »  ^-s-c-o-a  .  . 

■Q-3  p.  C-'C'C-CT!  &  a 
'^-  n              oorDfXOO 

c-o-o  £  crcro-cr:  : 

-»2-  "»pp». 

a,  ^  3  3Dj&.CjD.'  * 


S  p  ^  p 


^3  3^  5.3 

ft   N  N   P         N 

•^  n  a  '^'  ft  fi 

P  ?.  S.  3*^  2L 
»  =  =  !?«  = 

nn  JE  TO  pr  "-  - 


^P^c^S- 


Weight. 


Means   of 
rotation. 


ai  II  II 


MM-';-'     -H-lh 
*;M        CO        C;ViS"^^      S?S 


o'o^vS'b^    'SS    Initial  velocity. 

gg2g£_8r 


3    3 


KWWOCO    oco 

7  tSS  «     O 

*--05CO      I- 


2:J2 


9SSgg 


M     C5  Oi  toe 
0>    CO  1^  !:oc 


(0  4.j-'/0  0       J^*/ 

l:S?i82    Sb 


Muzzle  energy. 
Total. 


r,S      gg 


:5^i5J 


,<£>    OC  ^  ol 


S8!: 


8S 


gS   SS   :i   SSSigg  fezas^g:^  jg^sa 


COKiM  COCO  W^ 

Ol  >i^  OCOK>  00  3 

CO  -^  1-'  ^  ■-'  OS  ts- 

to  J-  O  S  ~T  to  ■ 


88 


8Sio    fejgfeSjS  gJS^gSS  gggK    8 


At  muz- 
zle. 


At  1,000 
yards. 


c 


3  3  g 


ORDNANCE. 

45 

1 

ORDNANCE. 

B>i-i  2. 

t 

3. 

5d     0 

CD    J    » 

1" 

■0 

05 :    en 

s 

.0  -5  .0 

01 

« 

2.  .3 

en 

1  ^1  -^^ 

p 

' :    o 

-1 

S-vv=" 

0 

CO 

p 

-1S-.21" 

B 

to 

P 

B 

•^ 

S 

3 

td 

3 

B«2g 

0 

tr' 

K) 

r 

"m 

n 

p 

g- 

c-i 

t3r~ 

a 

n 

i 

2.-    o 

t-' 

3  . 

0  : 

t-' 

B 

0 

2.: 

B 

0 

r' 

5 

B 

«  : 

cr 

1 

N  : 

0 
-1 

3  s 

CO 

3;  5 

o 
3 

p  : 

0 
3. 

1 

OS  : 

1? 

0 
1 

X     ■      ,— , 

p 

^^ 

£ 

:     ;    TS 

■i 

N 

ta 

■< 

•     •     -1 

fD 

■-1 

N 

:    :    o 

<-* 

0 

:    n 

00 

§  I 

c 
a 

■a 
p 

1? 

;?  0 

"=3 

3 

'9' 

3 

3 

'9^ 

IF 

2^ 

tl 

1 

B 

^ 

rn    *-•» 

:    :    't> 

2, 

^ 

o- 

s 

■g^ 

2 

CO 

■22^2 

i-? 

a" 
0 

o 

o      : 

o 

0        OB^ 

8S 

ft 
w  0 

3 

3'  3  -1  3' 

in      : 

i 

S 

re    a 

3-S 
p  2 

i'o 

2. 

i^' 

s 

^^ 

^ 

i^i  i 

^  ^^ 

& 

p 

o      : 

o 

CO 

CO       -ip 

•     0 

a 

f  a]    f 

s 

0 

CO 

CO 

cno      CO  2 

2-0 

Us 

s. 

o 

o      : 

o 

S 

0        OS 

0      b  §. 

3? 

CD    0 

-a               «• 

g 

M 

1 

SI 

Ci 

CD  !« 

CO 

2 

g 

»>-'      0  g- 

f 

H 

»(>^ 

0 

■^^ 

r 

s 

^ 

•^ 

-> 

o 

3     S 

g 

§  «.>^ 

CO 

en 

lb. 

CO 

OS  en       .-3  S: 
-jco      05, 

a? 

i 
9 

CO 

to      o 

C3 

°    2Sa 

s- 

Ift* 

F^ 

B 

U  CO      bo's 
00      -3  .=» 

a 

3' 

a 

VI 

:       i  .2 

P   _ 

0 

2S 

i? 

Preponc 

ier- 

: 

•M 

00 

l~ 

r 

00 

ance 

"I 

1 

<5 

»- 

:    * 

0 
b 

wio      :    S^ 
.-fO       •     g, 

is 

TO 

H 

c* 

2 

Is-     2. 

-  a  TO 

0 

■I 

5' 
era 

Nature 
chec 

of  gas 
k. 

en 

3 -J      :    00 

§■■ 

»             ti 

e>. 

eo 

s 

CO      OS 

i 

«D              1 

ji 

CO 

CO         to  CI 

0  p 

to 

3 

00 

3     ^2 

1  — 

?  0 

Sera 
3.      ■ 

if 

D       :    2. 

— 3q   O 

1-1  00 
0  0  -.  5 

s  B.    2. 

1 

1 

to 

0 
n 

CO 

bo 

ft  X 

§.B 

1     ' 

»■      :    p' 

p    0 

s  !| 

B 

^     : 

^    : 

g. 

i^    ^ 

00             J 

5 

ca 

•-I      >■ 

■J 

b         c 

3 

bo 

—       ■     § 

o       c 

2      : 

ft) 
0 

0 

S-  0        0 

rf^ 

;      «o 

0 

1   : 

p 

0 

> 

3 

f 

3     c 

i    \ 

T 

8r.  r. 

g-3     3 

0 
p] 

•   s" 

(0 

p  ■• 

B 

a. 

> 

B        j 

a?      = 

:    a- 

:  2 

n 

53 

^ 

c 

jo      : 

K)         to  2 

« 

^ 

B    "-^ 

CO         < 

"0     'n  5 

>p.          c 
en           t 

n 

GO 

•       -1 

:    &- 

:  .2 

i'i 

p  »  s 

r^ 

.o 

a      : 
o 

CO       c» 
0         0 

—  rj    P 
0    <    K 

^  g.5' 

CSC 
■    Bg 

»          : 

§    i 

-5 

b 

r 

1^ 

ORDNANCE. 


452 


OBDNANCE. 


<=5^ 


•a 

c 

2  ."" 

'='g^  = 

CO  jj    5    ^ 

5*  T  ^  X 

"-I    K    tl  H 


p  ^ 


re  o 


5 

P 

CO 

B 

re 

f^ 

n 

B 

O 

P 

c- 
o 

o 
c 

P 

3 

<• 

re 

n 

-- 

^» 

r/j 

*-< 

re 

3* 
re 

re 

^ 

p 

s 

1 

n 

f^ 

B 
o 

p. 

-1 

p 

3::jq 

o 

p 

cc 

^ 

3 

o 

re' 

:a 

o 

o 

§ 

p 
-1 

rn 

o 

"I 

D- 

^ 

rn 

o 

W 

c5 

to 

1 

S 

r: 

CfH 

^ 

P 

c 

;^ 

& 

Cl 

J5 

p 

•-» 

, , 

2"2. 

p-p 

; 

p 

p 
< 

ri 

iz: 

re 

o 

*"*, 

Qj 

n 

3 

—. 

^ 

ft) 

E3 

« 

?r 

!75   W   M   t>    W 


O  re  -1  ' 
a  S.re^ 

2  S-c  ? 


g^re  re  g 
„  P  p  <= 

re  o  o  2 
era  <i  c  =. 
re  re  g  a, 

f  H» 

g-re  a 
Is  " 

?S3 


?1: 


OI     C5     ►-»    -         P 


3 
ta 

3 


3 

o 


CO 


o  o 

CO  to 


3 

133 


►^  -^      to 


==:? 


GO 


C    O    O    O    O    O    O 


to  cc  to  CO  tc  to  ^ 

)--■  ^3  X  •-'  iri  ■— -  to 

00  -I  O  C".  O  »J  CO 

-^  CO  >—  H-  o  CI  !:c 


too 


CO  bo 


0:: 


^^ 

re 

o 

re 

iq 

^ 

uq 

n 

o 

ri 

T-! 

P 

3 

^ 

si 

xi 

^ 

re 

re 

re  era    1 

re 

o 

^ 

si 

o 

re 

M 

•I 

^ 

re 

o 

•-h 

tsl 


-"•5  re 

r--  C    CO 

S  »  ^" 


re 


^  c 


re 


g-5 


W 


tra 


'1=  ^ 


w 

H 

to 

> 

w 

0 

V       Q     re     c 

-^  re 

c      tra   era    S 

l^B 

?       &  1     g 

p  2  p= 

CT       ca     H-i    " 

'c-y^'^ 

z:       i  c?  "-^ 

.     m   H-i 

o                        -^ 

"'^  ^*  Cn 

1.   «    - 

P  o: 

CO     -        o 

re  '-ri  o 

0     g  3    g 
"    r  w  a 

eg  3 

i 

3 

O 
P 

L  mortar, 
1.  mortar  . 
owilzer .. 

5 

o 
71 

0 

3. 

N 

re 

-1 

0 

p 

pi       oi     cn     ci 

C5         CI 

t^ 

CD           CO       CO      CT 

b      b 

S" 

^ 

^ 

o      p    o    to 

t^    :^i<i 

:^ 

a 

CO       00     cn     o 

or       1-^0,- 

re 

J— 1 

Of        CO     00     o 

*■       *=  S 

^2.' 

'1 

,;>.        -q     CO     to 

C        CO  S 

1 

VI        CO     oo     -^ 

*-^       *^. 

s 

0 

^ 

0 

^ 

3 
•0 

oi     r*   5^    : 

0     S| 

3 

2 

w 
0 

i 

g      c.| 

re 

0 

t-3 
t4 

p 

!   S> 

f 

0^ 
re 

•        a    w    tf>- 

CO 

5 

z 

0 

i         to    CO    <i 

X 

2 

era 

0 

:             '^ 

w 

S 

.« 

01 

re 

1  'S 

»-»      ^    r^    a 

>(*.         bS 

0 
p 

H 

^ 

0 

c 
•1 

Ul       g     o     — 

0      0 

i" 

S 

il     to 

"1 

H 

0 

o    ^ 

CO 

0 

p 

B 

>^ 

S) 

a  a 

M 

CS 

*2 

^ 

p  p 

E 

0 

0 

B 

Ol       to 

°'5' 

3 

0 

Ox         CO 

B  0, 

P 

B* 

-^  i 

"1 

s 

re 

oo 

QD 

r^<^''o 

II  s 

E     g-^3 

D. 

c 
: 

m 

5' 

B- 
0 

p  . 

p. 

0 

:    o    O 

i^ 

re 

:    CO    ■ 

re 

5 

2 

.     CO 

re  0 

-1 

« 

p 

-■-. 

^3 

^ 

0 

a. 

J-*  CO  to  »p»- ^  rf»-  ;^ 

■^       Oil 

re 

3 

COCO  '      *      ^  CO  CO 
00                     OJ        CO 

-^       or  ^ 

0      s- 

f 

0 
p 

:    OWHOt-^f    t 

-1    0 

3 

:    o  X  >!  o  '^  ™    ' 

■a        0 

:  'a-5'd'a  £  g    ' 

^      -d 

:  -3  p  S  •o  CP-   ( 

i.     -a 

:    5  g,S  3  g  re     [ 

,        re 

CO 

3        ■■ 

■<! 

i  I 

re 

a 

:    c^  TTi  ri^  c:,  r^  Cl- 

P' 

;      ixi    ^    ^    rxi 

CO 

•    •    crcr- 

:    :    o  o  : 

'u 

Q 

tri 

toS. 

re 

lOlO 

M  W 

^.2 

0      .St: 

B 

i 

»-,«*■,« 

(*,-K)- 

H         C5  0- 

tra 

p 
p 

- 

-       ^ 

0^ 

CiCSC^CinOOOCGO 

-I     CSK 

S  '^ 

*4i.  rf..  CO  CO  Ci  ?0  CO  * 

0     ~.  S 

cncTf               ^o^^ 

.    c* 

55 

0  W 

•-1  h-t 

05  0)  CO 

ooceco 

00 

i 

2 

p  "^ 

era  p. 

re  E 

^>(^ 

^ 

,,- 

3c 

•  tra 

OBDNANCE. 


453 


0SDRANC2. 


c 
•a 

T3 


B 


f 
a 

a- 


5^ 


>    w 


•a 
o 
c 


a 

00 

o 

tJ- 

« 


? 


S 
W 

3 
o 

a 


w 
as, 

o  to 

S  =^ 


re 


CD 
re 
■-f 

5- 

crq 


^  re 


Cf? 


B' 
B- 


en 

3 

'"2  S 
.3  g 


re  re  a  o  o 
o      2  D.  o 

1-  ^g:5  ^ 

S  BS.E- 

B        re  o 

jir-  5"  ?i*  re" 
^cnj  CO, 


"     Q 


B 

o 


^     — •  O     M 

£•  B  B  - 

(to    r**  w   l:^' 


re  p  re  D 

o-y.  -t  re  o- 

M  O        B 

B  Hhp  S 


11.  "-1     ■ 

»  re  fB 


U3        c/i  m 

B  2  Bg^SB 
o  o  o  S  2  2 

B  E.B  ;2  w  5. 
re  fo  re^  S5  re 

(=■■'  £"6  grg" 

ra  3  2  o        2 
m   S  "   "   "■" 

B  »  5  5  t"  B 


c  — 5^ 
res™ 

o  ='o 

T    3    1 

^  re   r^ 

■^  B  a 

tc    -JJ    g 

B  ;;■  B 

o  f  o 
•-«      ^ 


'<  P 

re  2 
B   ^ 


c    ■ 
3  :j 

3   p 
§'| 


g        re  -^ 


•I 
O 

B 
TO 
B- 


O 

B 
(J? 
B" 

r. 

o 

B 


O 


:^     ^ 


on     m 

O-       B- 


O 

o 

a. 


i 


•"  ."^  S" 

00  C5  '>-' 

O  O?  tfr- 

ts  o  o 


1^2 
2iu 


Si 


TO 

p 

If 


p 


s 


re  £  B 
■^o'B 
.^B  3 


TO 


S 

•a 
•a 


W 


^      5"      ^ 


7 

c 


•a 
o 


B- 
O 


B- 
O 


to 

f      ■ 


a  B 

3  r' 
o 

S  3 


CO       2j       o 

2.13  5  1 
°  =  5^o-B 

ft   re   B         .r* 
D-Cbo         " 

:    •    D       2. 


O  CO  tB 

»  re  a 

Si        2.  re  O 

^      r*  2*  B 


o 
o 


5)  K 

re  H 
O-  a- 
TO   T 

"    O 


O 


^  b;=3  =:=■  o 

re   H   '^   S   '^   C 


ci^    -  - .    -  - . 

re  o  re  c  re 


B     3 
p     p 


O      -J      «o 

O        00        (M 
CO        00 


C:>       ,b       ^ 
rfi.        O        '-' 


CD 

O) 

to 

oo 

oo 

00  K| 

*^ 

«5 

o 

50 

Nominal 

§ 

1-^ 

o 

00 

o 

§ 

exterior. 

i_i 

w 

ts 

::;bi 

to 

C5 

a 

C5 

c? 

Ct 

CO 

CO  5. 

Of  chamber. 

»— t 

a 

00 

00 

«s 

re 
a 
TO 

CO 

00 

CO 

rf^ 

<t-  ■^ 

en 

o 

CO 

00? 

g 

o 
o 

Of  rifling. 

00 

ft 

o 

a 

^ 

C5     k-N, 

o 

to 

o 

o 

t-^ 

l-i 

b5. 

Total  of  bore. 

o 

OI 

§ 

^■'5. 

CD 

B| 
"»  2 

ZB 

5  o 


Caliber  of  piece. 


TO 


re 
o 

•o 

3' 


W 


w  §     Maximum   exterior^ 
o5  ^  I  diameter. 

co^ 


.5^1 


or 


po     CO     ?«  §,    Diameter  at  muzzle   5 


g     g     g        No.  of  grooves, 


g 


o 
o 


p 

00 


to      b      ■    g 


Width  of 

grooves. 


O.S 

?5 


Depth  of 

grooves. 


Preponderance. 


OBDNANCE. 


454 


0£DMANC£. 


80  §  s  5'»  g  r  3  3  S 
►^S-  ^  »  -  „  »  o  ii"g. 

f^.J5 '•-?■'■'  =  =>«  S  ^& 

s.g.2's.2-;.<i:--5-||s 


ss  ^3  o  J 


f^fR 


2.-3 


P-''? 


-■^03  g'^ 

5^  »  :i  o  p;-^ 


2.3 


t^  re-' 


o  o 


N    N 


c 


O 
CO 
QD 


•a  2  ra 


pgooSTo 


a'lS'O; 


=  Q  i 


»  s-o  »  ! 


sO^  I 


|Si|l;?|i2|l 

*  Sc  c-3  5:2  "^  S-5  "  S 
j;  ■^x  3>"  <'3  Sr^re  <  „ 

C  S  5  T  "  :  C3.=^     p  - 

g'a2."  =  =  s^B  J-*'" 

i?5'-'5K  '^■flo  5  3-~S 
R-Sg  3.a<i>n5=^g. 
|2.g.|.5-o|     15.3VS 
«Sgp8g5^533'< 

TO  3  o  E.S  ..  3  s-=i--  a 

|s.i"?!ip|-:l 

3     f^  3'^  =^  "r*  o  :!  >■ 

s  tc  ^^  K  -  _  - 


a  E5  : 


CD  ^5     CO 
CO  O     f^ 


CO  OT     CO 

03  Ci     00 


Oq 


osg- 


COS. 


C5  .» 


:■  o  S  "  "  a 


1  =  5  o  !5  =  2 

3  "^  ^  •=»  -X 


3-5; 


(t  3  ••  3  •>(»  2  ;5  "  pM  3 

• -■  1  3-  3  s  o  «  =■  "■a 

5  p  <:cn3  *■-!  a  =,•'  » 

— ^-.g  2, £-3  ~^- 

»  "  o  3        P       *<  . —  3  ^ 
g-''S2jlC1.3^CJ3  3^ 

S  O  «  «   ffl  '''  3  =-"■  ^-  ?  P 

ES'Sop'J^q  £■»■§ 

^3<r.B2.--53-     p 

og-r?3  a;!E'o|!^ 


1== 


ils§1 


=  2.3 


S,3'i5  5B 


as  ss|g 

I'p  op's-- 

3  ?  in  S-§ 
s  "  33.5™ 

wg  ^'".•a 

S  E  ooS  a  s 

K  »  -t^  5  g 


IS 


t-p  ' 


>o 


i  as 


;» 


■|J_5_ 


Initial 
velocity. 


.t?d 


X  a  ">  H 
■      ■2  c 

o  p  f^ 


RecoU. 


Range. 


tKk    J 


p 


BOC! 


5  Z^  C.  f^ 


■     P 


p^    tsi'^t>toU 


c 
•a 
•a 


Cd 


m  S-  2-  »■  2. 

0.3  o  2.P 

^  s  -  S  3 

fv  5.  s  p  o 

N  G  °  ">  S 

-,  5  -.  » 


00  00  OC  00  30  00  ^ 

ti  b  ^  M  o  io  S. 

CS  o  0&  Oi  O  Cw  ^ 

55  CO  00      00 .» 


CO  b  b?  w  CO  (J- 
o  CO  -3  ►-■  -J  :> 

CT  CO  ^  --I  >;;  e^ 
C5  CO  CO  rf^-O  . 


C5 


O  O  -^  00  00  ? 


it..  CO  it.,  en  en  ; 


O 

P 


o 


B  •"•» 


Q 
p 


0-0    *^ 


O     O  iTJ » '13  O  f  O 

rr  ii'l-O'^P'l 


•^ 


O    "-1    S»    T 


•1  11      -I     •        O 


S"  p 


•■   "5  B 


-   R  " 
»   "   P 


o  :    Co"    o 
S^:    f^c  :    B 


C5         05 


o  CO  to  H-  -q  ?: 
b  to  CO  b  ^  S 


^ 


*TJ 


B 
TO 


B- 


o 

B- 
P 


o 

o 
B 

'X3 
P 


? 


c 

H 

o 

13 


P 

B 

a. 


0    t 

c 

p 
B 
p. 

f 

2 

i 

£ 

Lead  coated 
Lead  coated 
Lead  coated 

StiiHa ... 

CO 

re 

3 

to 

to 

CO  to  w  to  to  g 

B 

'5 

00 

00 

to  CT  b  o»  a 

c"             2 

r 

to 

0 
p 

i 

Pounds. 
176.0 
175.83 
191.4 
175.56 
180.0 

IS 

p-B' 

0 

0 

it^OO  00O5I-'  S 

0  ca 
c-c 
S3 

CI 

01 

gooocoo| 

crq  pr. 
re  p 
'  era 

OBSNANCZ. 


455 


0£DNANC£. 


1 

3 

11 

B 
■5 

2 

^- 

5* 

■a 
V 

si 

0^ 

p" 

B 

F 

3 

t-^ 

& 

»-* 

_^ 

e 

9 

I-' 

n 

o 

— 

■5 

5' 

a 

i" 

3' 

-3 

3 

o- 

D- 

B" 

fei 

W 

a 

&i 

3 

33 

r 

j_l 

r^ 

T) 

f 

ri 

^ 

*V 

o 

1- 

B 

1 

o 

• 

1 

2 

i, 

4 

re 

N 

n 

-1 

n 

■5 

j^ 

4 

/—N 

re 

1 

■a 

re 

3. 

3. 

B 

B 

s 

E. 

£ 

^-^ 

CO 

re 

c 

-^ 

f 

3 

3  B 

1  . 

1 

5 
-1 

•S.re 
?  5' 

§ 

^1^ 

^  2. 

s*!"      "S 

•a 

re 

(7  .^ 

o 

^-' 

p-g 

3. 

— 

s, 

4 

3=^ 

§5: 

»-l 

o 

^■ 

O 

CD 

s 

2 

if 

CO    O 

» 

i 

S' 

3 

3-    "I 

C    3 

s 

-^ 

fa 

o 

pg 

B  a 

s 

S" 

^ 

ot-g 

f- 

» 

b 

^  2 

to   ^ 

a 

0 

c 

0 

5- 5- 

-a  f* 

*     O 

3 

3 

s  re 

Ml 

p 

5* 

r  re 
o 

o 

o 

is 

^ 

g 

o              o 

=     o  3. 

Caliber  of  piece. 

•        Hh 

o 

= 

to       Ut  a 

p 

0   SSh 

t--^ 

^ 

b» 

O    M  *? 

CO 

a> 

g§~ 

UJ 

o 

3. 

^) 

_^ 

-s' 

Preponderance 

-3 

at 

o 

'X) 

o 

SI. 

b2 

Nominal  exterior 

-^ 

o 

s 

oo- 

1-^ 

p 

j3 

Of  chamber. 

CO 

CO 

n 

s 

o 

=> 

SI        6»  ?^ 

O  it 

f 

o  c 

o 

=> 

re 

►i 

•-I 

B-S 

cn  • 

B 

|- 

cp- 

re  re 

en 

o 

8 

OS? 

Of  rifling. 

"X 

To 
and  c 
draul 

To] 
and  c 
draul 

a  o 

E.O  o 

:z! 

^ 

_.H 

c-g  g 
C  2.  T 

2  "-r» 

s'g-v 

p  2.S 
tS?  3. 

1 
^ 

2    2» 

<i       to" 

-1  p 
re  ^- 

■    o 

r  to 

Maximum 

exterior. 

^ 

^ 

f 

^ 

o 
c 

o 
1= 
era 

o 
B 
crq 

1 

t—k 

_^ 

^-^ 

&■ 

£3* 

•i 

CO 

a 

C»S 

At  muzzle. 

c;- 

■1 

1 
't' 

g] 

p' 

t9 

si* 

a 

5' 

o 

B 

O 
0 

o 

B 

? 

» 

«^ 

^ 

§5^ 

lO  ^ 

^1 

cog* 

Over  breech-band 

re 
re 

00 

= 

•^." 

^ 

is. 

N 

° 

ifS* 

o 

>5 

=> 

Of  tninnions. 

1 

^ 

OI 

re  zT.  — 

» 

:ir 

»* 

Of  chamber. 

• 

O-O    3 
•     B  => 

g 

g 

«:k.<;^ 

B 
O 


OBDNANCE. 


456 


OBDNANCE. 


m        C 
£2.      t3 


t-A         ^         *^ 

o      n      '^ 


^ 


c 
o 


a 


3        C- 

S      3 


o 
o 


o  o      o 

O  05        O 


Weight  of  projectile 
to  weight  of  piece. 


O     CT     o    o    o 


Initial  velocity. 


w 

w 

f^ 

D 

c 

•-1 

w 

■a 

C3 

•o 

^       oc 


t-' 
o 


3 

a 


Elevation. 


Pressure  per  square 
inch  of  bore. 


mo  to  'r]  I 
oc  c*  '>-'  S    i 


p 
0 


o   ^^   -     a 


C 


c:    cc  to    «£>■ 


Time  of  flight. 


*>.   to  *>.  cji  a 

CT     O  '3  Ci  'S 
.      .      .      gi. 


to    co-ito  y 

CO     00  CT  to  ^ 


D 
Cf5 


D 

re  n 

c  o 

O  3 

X    P 

5' 
5' 


o 
to 


w 

B 

era 


Deflection. 


3  C- 

I  5) 


3 

tra 


—■a 

3   2 

era  c. 
•   » 


o 

o 

9 
•a 


a 
p 


b 


Mean  reduced  de- 
flection. 


Derivation. 


Final  inclination. 


^ 
^ 


§   II     HjJ 

tTi    _.    r* 


fc 


CD       O 


C 

a. 


o 

00 


^ 


era 

3* 


o 

3* 
P 


^ 


Weight  loaded. 


B 

o 
■a 


a 
a 
3- 


Hi 
3" 

o 


Bursting  charge. 


Weight  of  charge  to 
weight  of  projectile. 


o  W 


OSDNANCE  AND  OBDNANCE  STOBES. 


457 


OBDKANCE  BEBOEANTS. 


OBDNANCE  AND  OBDNANCE  STOBES.— Tlin  pr-no-  I  oliolition  nf  tlic  wliolc.  In  1(104  JamcH  I.  'liirnificd 
nil  (IriiiHiiiiiiiliiin  ■■OrWiiiuii  I-  .■iinl  I  )ril:tiK'(:  HtoreH "  j  tli<;  iMu>*i(T  iin'l  Lii'iui-nunt  with  llur  respeclivo  lilli_-H 
comprcliciKl.s  ull  chmmom  iiml  nrlilliTy  liirriiififs  iinii  of  .MuMlcr-rJi'iuTuI  uiiil  I.iciilciiant-Ocricral.  Tlio  liin- 
oi|iiii)iMciils;  nil  iiii|mr;iluM  iiDil  iMiicliiiiiH  for  tlio  tory  of  the  Onliiaiicc  Ollicc  in  of  iiiipurtiinrc  in  IJrit- 
SLTvicf  andmiinc-uviT  of  arlillcry;  all  Mtiiall-arms,  ac-  isli  liJKtory,  as  in  all  warn  it  lias  hccn  rcsponsiblo  not 
ooutcrmcnts   and  liorsc  ciiiiIihikiiIs;  all  anmiunil ion    only  for  llii' nianagcmicnt   of  tin;   maliriel  of  the  ar- 


and  all  tools,  machinery,  and  nialcrials  for  the  Ord- 
nance Hervicc;  and  all  horse  eiiiiipnienls  and  harness 
for  the  artillery;  and,  in  general,  all  property  of 
whatever  nature  supplied  to  the  military  establish- 
nienl  liy  the  Ordnance  l)e[>arliiient . 

It  is  a  duty  of  the  Cliief  of  Ordiianc(;  to  furnish  es- 
timates, and,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 
War,  to   make  contracts  and  purchases,  for  procur- 


mies,  but  also  for  the  direction  of  the  j>eri<imn'l  of  the 
artillery  anil  <n);ineirs.  IJy  an  (Jrder  in  Council  of 
June  2;J.  1H70.  the  Department  of  Ordnancu  in  a  very 
modilied  form  was  reviv(;d  under  the  Hurveyor-Geu- 
eral  of  the  Onhiancc,  as  a  section  of  the  War  Office, 
respoiisilil<-  for  ull  supplies  and  vuiU-rielol  War.  See 
liiitird  ,'f  Orihiiiiur. 
OBDNANCE  OFFICE.— Before  the  invention  of  kudb, 


ing  the  necessary  supplies  of  Ordnance  and  Ordnance  '  this  ottice  was  supplied  by  oHicers  under  the  follow- 
Htores;  to  direct  the  inspeclion  and  ijrovini;  of  the  inj;  names :  the  Howyer,  tlie  Cross-Uowy<'r,  the  (ial- 
same,  and  to  direct  tlii'  construction  of  all  cannon  eater,  or  Purveyor  of  Helmets,  the  Armorer,  and 
and  carriai^es,  ammunition-wai^ons.  travelins;  forges,    the  Keeper  of  the  Tents.     Henry  VIH.  i)laced  it  un- 


arlilicers'  wagons,  and  of  every  iini)lemeiil  and  a] 
])aralus  for  onlnance,  and  the  ]ireparalion  of  all 
kiu<ls  of  anununil  ion  and  ( )rdnauce  Stores  construct- 
ed or  prepared  fcir  the  service. 

OBDNANCE  BOAED.  -In  the  United  States  Army, 
a  Hoard  composed  of  such  oflicers  of  the  Ordnance 
Department  as  the  Secretary  of  War  may  designate, 
and  which  is  advisory  to  the  Cluef  of  Ordnance  and 
is  charged  willi  the  invesligati<m  of  such  subjects 
and  the  performance  of  such  duties,  and  at  such 
times  and  places  as  the  Uiiief  of  Ordnance  nuiy  di- 


der  the  management  of  a  Master-G(;neral,  a  Lieu- 
t<-nanl  .Surveyor, etc.  Tli<-  .Master-General  was  cho.sen 
from  among  the  lirst  Generals  in  the  service  of  the 
Sovereign.  The  appointment  was  formerly  for  life; 
but  since  the  restoration,  was  held  diintnte  beue  pUi- 
cito,  and  not  unfrequently  by  a  Cabinet  Minister. 
The  letters  patent  for  tliis  ollice  were  revoked  May 
3J).  18.5.5,  and  its  duties  vesteil  in  the  Minister  of  War. 
The  last  Master-General  was  Lord  Fitzroy  Somer- 
set, afterwarils  Lord  Kaglan. 

OBDNANCE  PBOJECTILE.— A  projectile   having  a 


rect.     No  changes  are  made  in  the  established  mod-  \  cast-iron  body,  wilh  a  sabot  composed  of  an  alloy  of 
els  or  patterns  of  (Jrduance  and  Ordnance  Stores  for  j  lead  and  tin,  which  is  cast  on  the  base  of  the  projec- 


the  service  of  the  United  Stales  except  on  the  recom 
mendation  of  I  he  Ordnance  Hoard,  approved  by  the 
Secretary  of  War.     Sec  Ihmrd  of  Ordnance. 

OBDNANCE  DEPABTMENT.-  In  the  I'nitert  States 
Service,  the  OrdiiHnce  Deparlment  of  the  Army  con- 
sists of  one  Chief  of  (/rdiiance,  wilh  Ihe  rank  t>f 
Brigadier-General,  three  Colonels,  four  Lieutenant - 
colonels,  ten  Majors,  twenty  Captains,  sixteen  First 


tile,  and  held  in  position  by  undercuts  and  dove- 
tails ;  the  action  of  the  charge  being  to  force  the  sa- 
bot on  the  cast-iron  body  and  to  make  it  take  the 
grooves. 

OBDNANCE  SELECT  COMMITTEE.— A  Committee 
composed  ot  scicniilic  ollii  ers.  to  advise  the  Secre- 
tary of  Slate  for  War  on  all  invtntionsin  war  mate- 
riel.    It  had  its  officers  at  Woolwich,  in  the  midst 


Lieutenants,  ten  Second  Lieutenants,  and  thirteen  i  of  the  manufactories  of  the  Koyal  Arsenal,  and  near 
Ordnance  Store-keepers.  The  Ordnance  Slore-keeper  \  the  head-quarters  of   the  Royal  Artillery,  l)y  whom 


at  Springfield  Armory  has  the  rank  of  Major  of  Cav 
airy.  All  oilier  Ordnance  Store-keepers  have  the 
rank  of  Captain  of  Cavalry.  No  Officer  of  Ihe  Army- 
is  commissioned  as  an  Ordnance  Ofiicer  until  he  shall 
have  been  examined  and  approved  by  a  Board  of  not 
less  tliau  three  Ordnance  Officers,  senior  to  him  in 
rank.  If  an  Officer  of  the  Army  fail  on  such  exam- 
ination he  is  suspended  from  appointment  for  one 
year,  when  he  may  be  re-examined  tjefore  a  like 
Board.  In  case  of  failure  on  such  re-examination  he 
can  not  be  commissioned  as  an  Ordnance  Ofiicer. 
Any  number,  not  exceeding  six.  of  the  Ordnance 
Store-keepers  may  be  authorized  to  act  as  Paymas- 
ters at  armories  and  arsenals.  The  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment was  first  established  in  the  United  States  in 
1812.  It  was  not  provided  tor  in  the  reduction  of 
the  army  in  181.5,  but  continued  in  the  service.  In 
1831.  the  Department  was  merged  info  the  Artillery, 
attaching  to  each  regiment  of  Artillery  one  super- 
ntmierary  Captain, and  giving  to  each  Company  four 
subaltern  officers.  The  Ordnance  Corps  was  re-es- 
tablished April  5,  1832. 

In  the  British  service,  the  Ordnance  Department 
was  abolished  by  an  Order  in  Council  of  May  2.5, 
1855, after  an  existence  of  at  least  400  years.  Its  con- 
stitution, its  important  functions,  and  the  causes 
which  led  to  its  dissolution,  will  be  found  under 
Board  of  Oud^.^nce.  The  early  history  of  the 
Department  is  lost  in  the  Middle  Ages ;  but  it  ap- 
pears to  have  risen  gradually  under  the  Lancas- 
trian  kings.     A  Master  of    the   Ordnance    is  men- 


most  of  the  designs  had  to  be  practically  tested.  The 
President  of  tlie  Comnuttee  was  usually  a  General 
Officer  of  xVrtillery  :  and  a  Captain  in  the  Royal  Navy 
served  as  Vice-President.  Since  1870  these  functions 
have  been  fulfilled  by  officers  of  the  Department  of 
the  Director  of  Artillery  and  Stores,  who  has  his 
head-quarters  at  the  War  office. 

OBDNANCE  SEBGEANTS.  —Non-commissioned 
Stall  Ofiicers  appointed,  by  the  Secretary  of  War, 
from  Sergeants  who  have  faithfully  served  eight 
years  in  the  Line,  four  of  which  shall  have  tieen  In 
the  grade  of  Non-commissioned  Officers.  Sergeants 
receiving  these  appointments  are  dropped  from  the 
rolls  of  the  regiment  or  company  in  which  they  have 
been  serving.  Captains  report  to  their  Colonels  such 
Sergeants  as,  by  their  conduct  and  service,  merit  ap- 
pointments as  Ordnance  Sergeants,  setting  forth  the 
description  and  length  of  service  of  the  Sergeant  ; 
the  portion  of  his  .service  he  was  a  Non-commissioned 
Officer  ;  his  general  character  as  to  fidelity  and  sobri- 
ety ;  his  qualifications  as  a  clerk,  and  his  fitness  for 
the  duties  of  the  position  for  which  he  is  recom- 
mended. 

The  duties  of  Ordnance  Sergeants  relate  to  the 
care  of  the  ordnance,  arms,  ammunition,  and  other 
ndlitary  stores  at  the  post,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Commanding  Officer.  Should  the  post  be  evacuated, 
he  remains  at  the  station,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Chief  of  Ordnance,  in  charge  of  Ordnance  and  Ord- 
nance Stores,  and  of  such  other  public  property  as 
is  not  in  charge  of  some  Officer  or  agent  of  other  De- 


tioned  in  the  time  of  Richard  111. ;  but  we  read  I  partments ;  and  for  this  property  he  accounts  to  the 
of  John  Louth  being  Clerk  of  the  Onlnance  as  ear-  Chief  of  the  Department  to  which  it  belongs.  If  in 
ly  as  1418.  Henry  VII.  constituted  the  Board,  '  charge  of  stores  at  a  post  where  there  is  no  Corn- 
adding  a  Lieutenant,  aSurveyor,  and  a  Slore-keeper.  I  missioned  Officer,  he  is  responsible  forthe  safe  keep- 
to  whom  a  Clerk  of  the  Cheque,  was  subsequently  ing  of  the  property,  and  is  governed  by  the  Regula- 
joined.  With  the  exception  of  the  last,  whose  office  I  lions  of  the  Ordnance  Department  in  issuing  andao- 
was  abolished  in   tlie  beginning  of  the  present  cen-  i  counting  forthe  same.     If  the  means  at  his  disposal 

-     -    :[1  '  -  -  - 


tury,   this   organization   was   mamlained   until   the  [be  insufficient  for  the  preservation  of  such  property. 


OBSNANCE  STOKE  K££F£R. 


458 


ORDNANCE  8DEVEY. 


he  reports  the  circmnstancea  to  the  Chief  of  Ord- 
nance. 

OEDNANCE  STORE  KEEPEE.— An  Officer  of  the 
Ordnance  Department  who  holds  the  rank  of  Cap- 
tain of  Cavalry,  excepting  the  Ordnance  Store-keeper 
at  Springfield  Armory  who,  by  law,  has  the  rank  of 
Major  of  Cavalry.  There  are,  at  present,  five  Ord- 
nance Store-keepers  in  the  service ;  but  the  grade 
has  been  abolished  by  a  recent  Act  of  Congress,  and 
henceforth  the  duties  appertaining  to  the  office  will 
be  performed  by  other  officers  of  the  Ordnance  De- 
partment. 

In  the  British  service,  the  Ordnance  Store-keeper 
is  a  civil  officer  in  the  Artillery  who  has  charge  of  all 
the  stores,  for  which  he  is  accountable  to  the  Ord- 
nance Office.     See  Ordnance  Department. 

ORDNANCE  SURVEY.— By  this  term  is  understood 
the  various  operations  undertaken  by  the  Ordnance 
Department  of  the  British  government  for  preparing 
maps  and  plans  of  the  whole  kingdom  and  its  parts. 
The  idea  of  a  general  map  of  the  country  to  be  exe- 
cuted by  the  government  was  first  proposed  after 
the  Rebellion  in  1745,  when  the  want  of  any  reliable 
map  of  the  northern  parts  of  Scotland  was  much  felt 
by  the  officers  in  command  of  the  Royal  troops.  A 
drawing,  on  a  scale  of  one  inch  and  three-fourths  to 
the  mile,  was  completed  in  1755;  but  inconsequence 
of  the  war  which  broke  out  in  that  year,  was  never 
published.  In  1763  it  was  proposed  to  extend  the 
survey  to  the  whole  kingdom  ;  but  the  first  steps  to 
effect  this  were  taken  only  in  1784,  when  Major- 
General  Roy  commenced  measuring  a  base-line  on 
Hounslow  Heath,  near  London,  This  principal  tri- 
angulation  was  designed  partly  for  astronomical 
purposes,  and  partly  as  a  basis  for  a  map  on  a  small 
scale.  The  base-line  was  remeasured  with  great 
care  in  1791;  and  detailed  plans  were  commenced  by 
officers  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  partly  for  practicing 
them  in  military  drawing,  and  parti}'  for  the  purpose 
of  forming  plans  of  some  portions  of  Kent  for  the 
use  of  the  Ordnance.  The  principal  object  was, 
however,  the  instruction  of  a  Corps  of  MUitary  Sur- 
veyors and  Draughtsmen,  the  plans  themselves  be- 
ing regarded  as  of  secondary  importance.  In  1794 
the  survey  for  the  one-inch  map  was  begun,  and 
some  sheets  were  published  in  1796.  As  the  series 
of  principal  triangles  were  extended  westward  to- 
wards the  Land's  End,  it  was  thought  right  to 
measure  another  base,  for  fortification,  on  Salisbury 
plaiQ  in  1704;  and  two  other  base-lines  were  subse- 
qu'eutly  measured— one  in  1801  at  Misterton  Carr, 
and  the  other  in  1806  on  Ruddlan  ;Marsh.  Though 
first  intended  chiefly  as  a  military  map,  the  publica- 
tion of  the  survey  soon  created  a  desire  on  the  part 
of  the  public  for  better  maps,  and  surveyors  were 
then  hired  to  hasten  its  progress.  This,  however, 
was  very  slow,  the  map  being  at  one  time  entirely 
suspended  during  the  war  in  the  beginning  of  this 
century,  and  even  the  parts  which  were  executed, 
having  been  done  by  contract,  were  found  very  in- 
accurate. In  this  condition  the  survey  of  England 
continued  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  present 
century,  sometimes  delayed  by  the  government  from 
motives  of  economy,  at  other  times  urged  on  by  the 
county  gentlemen,  who  wished  the  map  either  as  a 
hunting-map  or  for  local  improvements. 

In  Scotland,  the  principal  triangulation  was  begun 
in  1809,  but  was  discontinued  in  the  following  year, 
to  enable  the  persons  who  had  been  employed  there  to 
carry  forward  the  subordinate  triangulation  required 
for  constructing  the  detail  maps  in  Eiiirland.  In 
18i;j  it  was  resumed,  and  continued  steadily  up  to 
1819;  a  new  base  line  having  been  measured  on  Bel- 
helvie  Links,  near  Aberdeen,  in  1817,  and  the  great 
sector  used  at  various  stations,  both  on  the  main- 
land and  in  the  islands.  It  1820  it  wasagaij  suspend- 
ed, was  resumed  in  1H21  anp  1822,  and  anew  broken 
off  in  182:i,  the  large  theodolite  being  wanted  in  or- 
der to  proceed  with  the  princi|)al  triangulation  in 
South  Britain.     In  1824  the  survey  of  Ireland  was 


begun,  and  nothing  more  was  done  in  Scotland  till 
1888,  except  that  some  detail  surveying  for  a  one- 
inch  map  was  continued  for  a  few  years  in  the  south- 
ern Counties.  The  chief  strength  of  the  surveying 
corps  was  now  transferred  to  Ireland.  A  map  of 
that  country  was  required  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing a  valuation  which  should  form  the  basis  of  cer- 
tain fiscal  arrangements  and  other  improvements 
which  the  social  evils  and  anomalies  of  Ireland  ur- 
gently demanded.  For  this  map  a  scale  of  6  inches 
to  the  mile  was  adoped,  as  best  suited  for  the  pur- 
poses in  view.  On  this  scale  the  whole  map  was 
completed,  and  published  in  1845,  though  the  first 
portions  were  in  an  imperfect  form,  and  needed  re- 
vision which  was  proceeded  with  in  1873. 

This  great  national  undertaking  has  been  conduct- 
ed at  different  times  on  different  scales  and  plans, 
and  the  system  now  pursued  was  only  adopted  after 
much  discussion  both  in  Parliament  and  out  of 
doors.  The  map  was  originally  begun  as  a  military 
map,  and  the  scale  of  one  inch  to  the  mile  chosen, 
without  considering  whether  some  other  scale  would 
not  offer  greater  advantages.  Many  now  think  that 
a  scale  a  little  larger,  and  an  aliquot  part  of  na- 
ture such  as  1-50,000,  or  about  1^  inch  to  the  mile, 
would  have  been  preferable  for  the  small  map;  in 
which  case  a  scale  of  1-10,000  of  nature,  or  about  6^ 
inches,  might  have  been  chosen  for  the  intermediate, 
instead  of  the  six-inch  scale  selected  at  first  for 
mere  local  purposes  in  Ireland.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
the  arguments  in  favor  of  the  one-inch  map  are  that 
it  is  the  most  convenient  both  as  a  general  and  tra- 
veling map.  For  general  views  of  the  structure  of 
the  country,  the  distribution  and  relations  of  its 
mountains,  plains,  valleys,  and  rivers,  the  one-inch 
is  admitted  to  be  superior  to  the  six-inch,  and  thus 
better  adapted  in  the  first  instance  for  laying  roads, 
railways,  or  other  extensive  public  works,  or  for  the 
publication  of  a  general  geological  survey.  Such  a 
map. on  the  other  hand, is  on  too  small  a  scale  to  admit 
of  correct  measurement  of  small  distances  ;  it  is  in 
some  respects  a  generalized  picture, and  not  a  correct 
plan.  The  six-inchmaps  were  at  first  selected  in  Ire- 
land as  the  smallest  size  on  which  correct  measure- 
ments of  distances  and  areas  could  l)e  made.  On 
them  every  house  and  field,  and  almost  every  tree 
and  bush  might  be  laid  down.  Hence  they  are  su- 
perior for  working  out  details,  as  in  minute  surveys 
of  railways  and  roads,  or  the  complex  geological 
structure  of  rich  mineral  districts.  On  such  sheets, 
too,  a  proprietor  or  farmer  may  find  every  field  laid 
down,  and  the  relative  heights  indicated  by  contour 
lines,  and  may  therefore  use  them  for  drainage  and 
other  improvements.  It  has  also  been  proposed  to 
use  these  six-inch  maps  as  a  record  of  sales  or,encum- 
brances  of  laud,  thus  lessening  the  cost  and  simplify- 
ing the  transfer  of  property.  On  the  other  hand, 
their  size  unfits  them  for  most  of  the  purposes  for 
which  the  one-inch  map  is  useful,  and  the  contour 
lines  give  a  far  less  vivid  and  correct  impression  of 
the  pliysical  features  of  a  country  than  the  hill  sketch- 
ing of  the  one-inch  map.  Most  of  the  purposes  of 
the  six-inch  plans  are  attained  in  a  still  more  perfect 
manner  from  the  25-inch  plans  or  cadastral  survey. 
The  last  name  is  taken  from  the  French  cmlustre  (a 
register  of  lands),  and  is  defined  as  a  plan  from  which 
the  area  of  land  may  be  computed,  and  from  which 
its  revenue  may  be  valued.  The  purposes  to  which 
these  large  plans  may  be  applieil  are. as  estate  plans, 
for  managing. draining, and  othewise  improving  land, 
for  farilialiiig  its  transfer  by  registering  sales  or  en- 
cumbrances ;  and  as  publii^  maps  according  to  which 
local  or  general  taxes  may  be  raised,  roads,  railways, 
canals,  and  other  public  works,  laid  out  and  executed. 

Nearly  all  the  States  of  Etirope  have  produced  trig- 
onometrical surveys,  many  of  them  of  great  excel- 
lence as  scientific  works.  All  of  these  have  been 
published,  or  are  in  course  of  publication,  on  con- 
venient scales  ;  generally  smaller  than  one  inch  to  a 
statute  mile. 


ORDNANCE  TIMBER. 


459 


ORDNANCE  TIUBEK. 


The  greatest  extra  European  work  of  tliis  kind  is 
the  Trigononiclriciil  Survey  nf  liiili;i,  wliii  li  w;is  be- 
gun over  Heventy  years  ai;i),  iiiid  lias  t)eeii  eoiiducted 
with  ftn'at  al)ilily.  The  work  is  drawing  to  a  eloHe, 
but  will  still  occupy  several  years.  TluMnapH  are 
published  on  a  scale  of  srin'ooo  "^  1  "f  ""  ''"•''  •"  l'"' 
mile.  In'Ameriea,  the  Coast  Survey  of  the  Unite<l 
States,  a  map  of  iitimI  accuracy  and  niiinile  iletail, 
has  been  f^oiiifi;  on  for  many  years.  The  f;eneral 
charts  are  jiublislied  on  a  scale  of  |,„Jo(i  or  J  of  an 
inch  to  a  mile;  the  hiniiors  and  ports  if,Jorj  '"^  '^i  "f 
an  inch  to  a  mile.  Ko  systemalic  survey  has  yet 
been  nnilerlaUen  for  the  inlerior  of  the  (country, 

ORDNANCE  TIMBER.  -Timber  and  wrought  iron 
are  the  principal  materials  used  in  the  construction 
of  artillery  carria/;jes  and  machines.  Timber  forthe 
arsenal  is  usually  purchased  in  pieces  of  the  size  re- 
(piired  to  make  each  i)arl.  A  list  of  the  pieces  for  a 
certain  kind  of  carriage,  includinf;  the  contents  of 
each  piece,  in  Imard-measure,  is  called  a  lull  of  Um- 
ber. None  but  the  best  wrought  iron  should  be  em- 
ployed in  ordnance  constructions.  Large  and  pe- 
culiar-shaped pieces,  as  axle-treen,  trunnian-platen, 
etc.,  as  well  as  those  requiring  great  strength,  are 
made  from  Iminmered  n/iapix,  furnished  by  the  iron 
manufacturer,  according  to  preseril)c(i  patterns  ; 
other  parts  are  ma<le  of  rolled  iron.  Tlie  following 
varieties  of  timber  are  Ijrietiy  noticeii  as  being  most 
frequently  required  in  the  vprious  ordnance  con- 
structions :  W/iite  oak — The  bark  of  white  oak  is 
white,  the  leaf  long,  narrow,  and  deeply  indented  ; 
tlie  wood  is  of  a  straw-color,  with  a  somewhat  red- 
dish tinge,  tough,  and  pliable.  It  is  the  principal 
timber  used  for  ordnance  purposes,  being  emi)loyed 
for  all  khuis  of  artillery-carriages.  Beech — The 
white  and  red  beeches  are  used  for  fuzes,  mallets, 
plane-stocks,  and  other  tools.  An/t — White  ash  is 
straight-grained,  tough,  and  elastic,  and  is  therefore 
suitable  for  light  carriage-shafts ;  in  artillery,  it  is 
chiefly  used  for  sponge  and  rammer  staves,  some- 
limes  for  handspikes,  and  for  sabots  and  tool-hand- 
les. JSlm — Elm  is  used  for  felloes  and  for  snnill 
naves.  Hickory — Hickory  is  ver}'  tough  and  flexi- 
ble ;  the  most  suitable  wood  for  handspikes,  tool- 
handles,  and  wooden  axle-trees.  /Hack,  walnut. — 
Black  walnut  is  hard  and  tine-grained  ;  it  is  some- 
times used  for  naves,  and  the  sides  and  ends  of  am- 
munition-chests :  it  is  exclusively  used  for  stocks  of 
small  arms.  Po/dar — White  poplar,  or  tulip  -wood, 
is  a  soft,  light,  tine-grained  wood,  which  grows  to  a 
great  size ;  it  is  used  for  sabots,  cartridge-blocks, 
etc.,  and  for  the  lining  of  ammunition-chests.  Pine. 
White  pine  is  used  for  arm-chests  and  packing-boxes 
generally,  and  for  building  purposes.  Cypress — Cy- 
press is  a  soft,  light,  straight-grained  wood  which 
grows  to  a  very  large  size.  On  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  procuring  oak  wood  of  a  suitable  kind  in 
the. Southern  States,  cypress  has  been  used  for  sea- 
coast  and  garrison  carriages.  It  resists  better  than 
oak  the  alternate  action  of  the  heat  and  moisture  to 
which  sea-coast  carriages  are  particularly  exposed 
in  casemates  ;  but  being  of  inferior  strength,  a  larger 
scantling  of  cj-press  than  oak  is  required  for  the  same 
purpose  ;  and"  on  account  of  its  softness,  it  does  not 
resist  sufficiently  the  friction  and  shocks  to  which 
such  carriages  are  liable.  Bassieood. — Basswood  is 
very  light, not  easily  split,  and  is  an  excellent  mater- 
ial for  sabots  and  cartridge-blocks.  Dogwood. — Dog- 
wood is  hard  and  tine-grained,  suitable  for  mallets, 
drifts,  etc. 

The  principal  circumstances  which  affect  the  qual- 
ity of  growing  trees  are  soil,  climate,  and  aspect.  In 
a  moist  soil,  timber  grows  to  a  larger  size,  but  is  less 
firm  and  decays  sooner,  than  in  a  dry,  sandy  soil ; 
the  best  is  that  which  grows  in  a  dark  soil,  mixed 
with  stones  and  gravel ;  this  remark  does  not  apply 
to  the  poplar,  willow,  cypress,  and  other  light  woods 
w^hich  grow  best  in  wet  situations.  In  the  United 
States  the  climate  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States 
is  most  favorable  to  the  growth  of  limber  used  for 


ordnance  purposes,  except  the  cypress.  Trees  grow- 
ing in  the  center  of  a  fonst.  or  on  a  plain,  are  gener. 
ally  Htraighter  ami  freer  from  limbs  than  those  grow- 
ing on  lh(-  edge  <jf  a  forest,  in  open  ground, or  on  the 
sides  of  hills, but  the  former  are.at  the  same  time,  less 
hard.  The  as|iect  most  sheltered  from  prevalent 
winds  is  generally  most  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
timber.  'I'hc:  vicinity  of  salt  water  is  favorable  to  the 
strength  and  harilness  of  wliiteoak.  The  selection 
of  timber  trees  should  be  made  before  the  fall  of  the 
leaf.  A  healthy  tree  is  indicated  by  the  top  branches 
being  vigorous  and  well  covered  with  leaves ;  the 
bark  is  clear  and  smooth,  and  of  uniform  color.  If 
the  top  has  a  regular,  roumled  form  ;  if  the  bark  ia 
dull,  scabby,  and  covered  with  while  and  red  spots, 
caused  by  running  water  or  sap,  the  tree  is  unsound. 
The  decay  of  the  topmost  branches,  and  the  separa- 
tion of  the  bark  from  the  wood,  are  infallible  signs 
of  the  decline  of  the  tree. 

The  most  suitable  season  for  felling  timber  is  that 
in  which  vegetation  is  at  rest,  which  is  the  case  in 
midwinter  and  midsummer.  Kecent  experiments  in- 
cline to  give  preference  to  the  latter  season,  say  the 
month  of  July;  but  the  usual  practice  is  to  fell  trees 
for  timber  between  the  first  of  December  and  the 
middle  of  March.  The  tree  should  be  allowed  to  at- 
tain full  maturity  before  being  felled ;  this  period, 
in  oak  timber,  is  generally  at  the  age  of  seventy-five 
to  one  hundred  years,  or  upward,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. The  age  of  the  hard  wood  is  deter- 
mined by  the  number  of  rings  which  may  be  counted 
in  a  section  of  a  tree.  The  tree  should  be  cut  as 
near  the  ground  as  possible,  the  lower  part  being 
the  best  timber  ;  the  quality  of  the  wood  is,  in  some 
degree  indicated  by  the  color,which  should  be  near- 
ly uniform  in  the  heart-wood,  a  little  deeper  toward 
the  center,  and  without  any  sudden  transitions. 
Felled  timber  should,  as  a  rule,  be  immediately 
stripped  of  its  bark,  and  raised  from  the  ground. 
The  white  wood  next  to  the  bark,  which  very  soon 
rots,  should  never  be  used,  except  that  of  hickory. 
There  are  sometimes  found  rings  of  light-colored 
wood  surrounded  by  good  hard  wood ;  this  may  be 
called  {he  second  sap;  it  should  cause  the  rejection 
of  the  tree  in  which  it  occurs.  Brashuood  is  a  de- 
fect generally  consequent  on  the  decline  of  the  tree 
from  age ;  the  pores  of  the  wood  are  open,  the  wood 
is  reddish-colored,  it  breaks  short,  without  splinters, 
and  the  chips  crumble  to  pieces.  This  wood  is  en- 
tirely unfit  for  artillery  carriages.  Wood  which 
died"  before  felling  should,  generally,  be  rejected  ;  so 
should  knotty  trees,  and  those  which  are  covered 
with  tubercles  and  excrescences.  Wood  in  which 
the  grain  ascends  in  a  spiral  form  is  unfit  for  use  in 
large  scantlings ;  but  if  the  defect  is  not  very  de- 
cided, the  wood  may  be  used  for  naves  and  for 
some  light  pieces.  Splits,  checks  and  cracks  ex- 
tending toward  the  center,  if  deep  and  strongly 
marked,  make  wood  unfit  for  use,  unless  it  is  in- 
tended to  be  split.  Wind-shakes  are  cracks  separat- 
ing the  concentric  layers  of  wood  from  each  other ; 
if  the  shake  extends  through  the  entire  circle,  it  is  a 
serious  defect.  The  center-Zi^art  is  also  to  be  rejected, 
except  in  timber  of  very  large  size,  which  cannot, 
generally,  be  procured  free  from  it.  As  soon  as 
practicable,  after  the  tree  is  felled,  the  sapwood 
should  be  taken  off,  and  the  timber  reduced,  either 
by  sawing  or  splitting,  nearly  to  the  dimensions  re- 
quired for  use.  Pieces  of  thickness,  or  of  peculiar 
I  form,  such  as  those  for  the  bodies  of  gun-carriages 
and  for  |chassis,  are  got  out  with  a  saw ;  smaller 
pieces,  as  spokes,  are  split  with  wedges.  Naves 
I  should  be  cut  to  the  right  length,  and  bored  out,  to 
I  facilitate  seasoning  and  to  prevent  cracking.  Tim- 
ber of  large  dimensions  is  improved  by  imjnersio.i 
in  icater  for  some  weeks,  according  to  size,  after 
which  it  is  less  subject  to  warp  and  crack  in  season- 
ing. To  season  or  dry  timber,  it  should  be  piled 
under  shelter,  in  such  manner  as  to  allow  a  free  cir- 
culation, but   not  a  strong  current   of  air,   around 


OBDNANCE  TIUBEB. 


460 


OBDNANCE  TIMBEB. 


each  piece.  The  piles  should  be  taken  down  and 
put  up  again  at  intervals,  varj-ing  with  the  length  of 
time  the  timber  has  been  cut.  The  seasoning  of 
timber  requires  from  two  to  eight  3'ears,  according 
to  size.  Oak  timber  loses  a  little  more  than  ow- 
fifth  of  its  weight  in  seasoning,  and  about  one-third 
of  its  weight  in  becoming  perfectlj'  dry. 

From  the  fact  that  certain  blowers  are  used  with  [ 
equal  facility  either  for  forcing  or  exhausting  air,  or 
producing  a  continuous  current,  which  can  be  re- 
versed at  will  by  simply  changing  the  motion  of  the 
blower  without  any  other  alteration  whatever,  they 
are  peculiarly  adapted  to  drying  lumber.  It  is  owing 
to  the  fact  that  air  has  the  capacitj'  to  take  up  moist- 
ure and  hold  it  in  solution,  that  the  process  called  ' 
drying  is  possible.    The  water  thus  taken  up  is,  in  this  1 


rangement  a  nearly  uniform  temperature  is  secured 
between  the  air  at  the  ceiling  and  the  floor,  sea- 
soning all  tlie  lumber  alike.  Lumber  seasoned  in 
this  way  is  not  nearly  so  liable  to  crack  and  check 
as  when  seasoned  with  unequal  heat. 

Timber  for  gun-carriages  is  now,  almost  entirely, 
worked  into  shape  by  machinery ;  the  operations 
are  sawing,  plani/ig,  tui-ning,  nicfrtisino  tmd  tenrnu 
ing,  dove-tailing,  etc.,  and  are  described  in  detail, 
under  the  various  machines,  in  this  work.  In  join- 
ing together  the  different  pieces  of  a  carriage,  regard 
should  be  had  to  the  character  of  the  fiber  of  the, 
wood,  and  the  effect  of  drying  in  changing  the  form 
of  the  piece.  If  a  piece  be  supported  at  both  ends, 
as  in  the  cases  of  carriage-stocks,  chassis-rails,  etc., 
the  greatest  convexity  of  the  fiber  should  be  placed 


condition,  invisible.  At  a  low  temperature,  this  ca- 
pacity is  very  small ;  at  33°  Fahrenheit,  a  cubic  foot 
of  air  will  only  hold  in  solution  two  grains  of  water. 
This  capacity  is  rapidly  increased  as  the  temperature 
is  elevated,  in  the  ratio  of  about  three  grains  per  foot 
for  every  ten  degrees  of  heat ;  so  that  at  200°  Fahr- 
enheit, a  cubic  foot  of  air  would  take  up  about  fif- 
ty grains  of  water.  For  rapid  drying,  therefore,  it  is 
necessary  to  liave  an  elevated  temperature.  But  at 
any  temperature,  the  air  can  be  saturated  with  moist- 
ure, that  is  so  loaded  that  it  can  hold  no  more,  even 
though  it  be  very  hot.  Hence  it  is  necessary  for  rapid 
drying,  not  only  to  have  heated  air,  but  also  to  have 
a  constant  change,  so  that  as  fast  as  the  air  becomes 
saturated  with  moisture,  it  may  pass  off,  carrying  its 
load  with  it,  and  a  fresh  supply  presented  that  may, 
in  its  turn,  carry  off  its  quantum.  In  simple  lan- 
guage, this  is  the  process  of  drying.  The  drawing 
shows  Root's  Blower  as  arranged  for  seasoning  tim- 
ber or  lumber.  A  notice  of  the  drawing  will  explain 
the  operation.  The  dry  air  is  taken  in  at  the  inlet  of 
the  Blower  and  forced  tlirough  the  heating  apparatus, 
which  may  be  a  hot-air  furnace,  or  coils  of  pijjc  heat- 
ed by  steam,  as  shown  ifl  the  cut,  or  any  otlu-r  device 
for  heating  air.  Afterpassing  through  tli<'  heater  the 
rarified  air  rises  to  the  ceiling  of  the  ilry-liouse,  l)ut 
being  positive!}'  forced  into  the  room,  it  dis|)laces  an 
equal  quantity  of  the  air  already  there,  which  is 
forced  out  at  the  bottom  of  the  flue,  as  shown  by  the 
arrows.  By  this  means  a  constant  and  regular 
change  of  air  in  the  dry-house  is  secured,  thi'  air 
passing  out  being  loaded  with  moisture.     By  this  ar- 


uppermost ;  if  in  the  middle,  as  in  cases  of  hounds 
of  limbers,  side-rails  of  caissons,  etc.,  it  should  be 
placed  downward.  When  the  pieces  are  to  be  united 
in  pairs,  as  cheeks,  side-rails,  etc.,  use  such  pieces 
as  have  nearly  the  same  curvature  of  fiber.  In  dry- 
ing a  piece  of  timber,  the  sapwood  shrinks  more 
than  the  heart,  and  the  effect  will  be  to  warp  in  the 
direction  of  the  sap  ;  therefore  to  prevent  the  joint, 
formed  by  the  two  pieces  which  constitute  a  car- 
riage-stock, from  opening,  the  heart-wood  should  be 
placed  on  the  outside.  To  prevent  the  cheeks  from 
warping  inward,  place  the  heart-wood  on  the  inside. 
In  hounds  and  side-rails,  the  heart  side  should  be 
placed  on  the  outside,  as  this  will  have  a  tendency 
to  tighten  the  joints.  When  pieces  are  to  be  joined, 
the  surfaces  of  contact  and  the  dowels  should  be 
covered  with  a  good  coat  of  white-lead.  Bolts  and 
bolt-holes  should  be  well  covered  with  tallow  moist- 
ened with  neat's-foot  oil.  The  surface  of  holes  for 
elevating  screws  and  pintles  should  be  always  well 
painted.  If  woodwork  is  to  be  painted  immedi- 
ately, it  should  luive  a  good  priming  coat  of  lead 
before  the  irons  are  put  on  ;  if  not,  it  should  receive 
a  good  co.at  of  linseed  oil.  For  service,  the  wood- 
work of  carriages  and  machines  is  painted,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  priming  of  lead-color,  with  two  coats 
of  olive  paint;  the  iron-work,  with  one  coat  of  lead, 
and  one  coat  black  paint.  Great  care  should  be  ob- 
serveil  to  protect  iron  fortress-carriages  against  the 
corroding  influence  of  the  sea-coast  atmosphere  ;  the 
best  means  remains  to  be  determined  by  e.xperience  ; 
at  present  they  arc  covered  with  one  coat  of  hot  lin- 


OB£ILLERE. 


461 


OBOARIZATIOH. 


seed  oil  siiid  three  coats  of  a  reddish  brown  paint. 

Mudiin.  itc. — The  modclH,  etc.,  of  nil  orilnance 
'^materiil"  arc  dclcriiiiiicd  tiy  the  Onlniint  (!  Bimrd, 
siibji'ct  to  the  rcvisidii  of  Ihc  ('hicf  of  Onliiaiicc,  and 
the  final  approval  of  tlic  HctTclary  of  War.  When 
a  niodil  has  hccii  duly  approvcil,  copies,  or  draw- 
inffs  of  it,  are  sent  to  the  diircrciit  arsenals  of  con- 
Btrnclion,  and  from  these.  i)alteriis  and  ;j:aiii;eH  arc 
made  for  I  he  ijuidance  of  the  workmen.  I'utterns 
are  f;ener:illy  m,-ide  of  well-seasoned  mahoi;any,  and 
bound  with  strips  of  brass;  K""f?''^  iir(.'  made  of 
slieet  iron  or  steel.  To  secure  uniformity  of  work 
at  the  dilTerent  arspnals,  it  is  made  a  part  of  the  duty 
of  the  inspector  of  arsenals  to  see  that  the  patterns 
correspond  with  the  oriirinals  ;  and  it  is  always  the 
duty  of  the  oflicers  stationed  at  an  arse.ial,  to  see 
thai  the  work,  as  it  proi;resses,  corresponds  with  the 
patterns,  and  tliat  none  but  suitable  materials  are 
used. 

OREILLERE.— The  ear-piece  of  an  ancient  helmet, 
shaped  like  an  oyster  shell,  employed  to  protect  the 
ear  and  cheek. 

OREILLON.— The  ear  of  a  sword,  lani;uet,  or  small 
slip  of  metal  on  the  hilt,  which,  when  the  sword  is 
sheathed,  extends  alone  the  scabbard. 

O'REILLY  COMBINATION-FUSE  This  -fuse  con- 
sists of  a  metal  stock,  A,  open  at  the  rear,  but  closed 


at  the  front  end  by  a  screw-cap,  B,  from  which  pro- 
jects two  studs,  C  C,  for  screwing  and  unscrewing 
the  caps.  There  are  also  two  holes,  D  D,  in  the 
screw-cap  through  which  is  passed  and  secured  a 
strand  of  quickmatch,  E. 

The  fuse,  F,  is  tightly  pressed  into  a  conical  shap- 
ed, snug-fitting  plunger,  G,  held  in  place  by  a  wire, 
H,  which  passes  thro'ugh  a  hole,  I,  in  the  side  of  the 
stock  and  enters  a  cannelure  on  the  plunger. 

The  operation  of  the  fuse  is  as  follows  :  At  tlie 
instant  of  discharge  the  quick-match  is  ignited  by 
the  flame  from  the  charge  of  powder ;  this  ignites 
the  fuse,  which  continues  to  burn  as  an  ordinary 
time-fuse ;  when  the  Hight  of  the  projectile  is  arrest- 
ed, the  plunger,  by  its  inertia,  is  driven  forward, 
sheering  off  tlie  pin  which  holds  it,  and,  being  fol- 
lowed by  loose  powder  in  the  shell,  ignition  and  ex- 
plosion follow,     iee  Fuse. 

ORGAN  GUN. — A  gnu  consisting  of  a  number  of 
tubes  or  barrels  placed  in  arrow  like  the  pipes  of  an 
organ.     See  Orrjiif  a  SerpenUn. 

ORGANIZATION.— For  the  pnrpose  of  supply,  disci- 
pline, rapidity  and  precision  of  movement,  an  army 
is  divided  into  corps;  corps  into  divisions;  divisions 
into  brigades;  brigades  into  regiments;  regiments 
into  battalions,  and  battalions  into  companies.  For 
the  purpose  of  employing  to  advantage  the  different 
weapons  and  of  providing  for  that  mutual  support 


an<i  aid  so  essential  to  succcHS,  an  army  is  organized 
into  different  arms  of  service,  viz.:  Infantry,  Ca- 
valry, Artillery  and  Engineers.  These  four  arms  of 
the  service  are  called  'I' niojiH of  the.  I,ine.  A  battalion 
is  the  tactical  unit  of  infantry,  but  the  company 
should  undoubtedly  be  considered  th(;  lighting  unit, 
for  it  is  the  only  organization  that  will  in  future 
wars  fulllll  all  the  re(iuirements  of  a  unit,  viz:  All 
tlie  men  be  known  to,  overlooked  by.  and  within 
reach  of  the  voice  of  the  olHcer  commanding i!.  The 
s(iuadron  of  two  troops  is  the  unit  of  cavalry.  The 
battery  of  si.\  guns  is  the  unit  of  artillery.  An  army 
corps  usually  c<jnsists  of  about  thirty  thousand  men, 
divided  into  two  or  more  divisions,  depending  upon 
the  strength  of  the  corps.  Each  division  is  jjenerally 
composed  of  the  four  arms  of  the  service — infantry, 
cavalry,  artillery,  and  engineers— the  artillery  being 
assigned  to  the  corps  by  battery,  and  the  engineers 
by  company.  The  corps  is,  as  a  rule,  provided  with 
a  renerne  of  artillerj',  which,  with  the  artillery  as- 
signed to  the  different  divisions,  is  under  the  orderg 
of  one  commander.  The  organization  of  an  army 
into  corps  was  introduced  by  Kapoleon  about  the 
year  1804,  while  i)reparing  his  army  for  the  contem- 
plated invasion  of  England.  The  idea  is  to  make 
each  corps  a  complete  army  in  itself,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  detached  at  any  time  from  the  main  army 
when  the  necessity  arises,  and  be  ready  to  act  as  an 
independent  force.  The  division  is  composed  of  two 
or  more  brigades,  and  rarely  of  more  than  four. 
Brigades  are  composed  of  two  or  more  regiments, 
and  regiments  of  two  or  more  battalions,  each  con- 
sisting of  two  or  more  companies,  generally  four. 
T.ie  battalion  organization  is  for  administrative 
purposes,  and  for  instruction  in  the  movements 
prescribed  in  tactics.  As  all  the  duties  devolving 
upon  the  General  in  command  of  an  army  cannot 
well  be  performed  by  one  man,  he  is  assisted  in  his 
duties  by  the  officers  who  corhpose  his  Staff.  The 
duties  of  Staff-officers  are  :  to  transmit  the  Geneial's 
orders;  to  procure  information,  both  of  the  enemy, 
and  of  the  condition  of  his  own  forces;  to  prepare 
reports,  obtain  guides,  spies,  etc.;  to  inspect  the 
troops  to  see  that  they  are  properly  supplied  and 
in  good  condition  of  drill  and  discipline;  to  preserve 
the  correspondence  and  records;  in  fact,  to  perform 
all  those  duties  required  of  the  General  in  command, 
which  will  enable  him  to  have  his  army  at  all  times 
prepared  in  every  respect  to  meet  the  enemy. 
The  principle  of  Staff  organization  is  also  extended 
to  the  divisions,  brigades,  and  regiments,  compo- 
sing the  army;  the  duties  being  less  important  and 
arduous  as  the  body  of  troops  is  smaller. 

The  necessity  for  a  body  of  officers  specially 
trained  in  staff  duties  has  been  greatly  increased  in 
consequence  of  the  fact  that  wars  are  now  waged 
by  much  larger  armies  than  formerly.  Therefore 
every  army  should  be  provided  with  a  body  of  offi- 
cers who  in  time  of  peace  should  be  thoroughly  in- 
structed in  all  duties  pertaining  to  the  staff,  so 
when  war  is  declared  they  will  be  fully  competent 
to  enter  upon  the  active  and  efficient  discharge  of 
their  duties.  Nearly  all  European  armies  have  such 
an  organization,  which  is  commonly  known  as  the 
Gerieral  Staff. 

Jomini  lays  down  the  following  general  condi- 
tions, as  essential  to  the  perfect  organization  of  an 
army: — 1.  A  good  system  of  recruiting.  2.  An 
efficient  formation,  'i.  A  well  organized  system  of 
national  reserves.  4.  That  officers  should  be  well 
instructed  in  drill  and  maneuvers,  and  in  all  the 
duties  of  a  camp  and  in  the  field,  and  that  there 
should  be  a  good  system  of  interior  economy.  5.  A 
discipline  strict,  but  not  humiliating;  a  spirit  of  sub- 
ordination as  far  as  possible  on  a  conviction  pervad- 
ing all  ranks  of  its  importance,  rather  than  on  the 
mere  orders  of  the  service.  0.  A  well  regulated  sys- 
tem of  rewards  and  a  spirit  of  emulation.  7.  A 
special  corps,  engineers  and  artillery,  well  instruct- 
ed.   S.  An  armament  well  understood,  and,  if  pos- 


OaOITE  &  S£BF£NTIN. 


4G2 


OUTOUAEDS. 


sible,  superior  to  that  of  the  enemy,  comprising 
arms  defensive  a3  well  as  offensive.  9.  A  staff  cap- 
able of  applying  all  these  elements  to  the  greatest 
advantages  and  with  an  organization  adapted  to  the 
theoretical  and  practical  instruction  of  its  members. 
10.  Well  organized  commissariat  and  medical  de- 
partments. 11.  The  command  of  armies  and  the 
supreme  direction  of  operations  by  a  sound  practi- 
cal system.  18.  The  maintenance  of  a  high  military 
spirit. 

OKOUE  A  SERPENTIN.— A  machine  composed  of 
a  great  number  of  guns  of  small  bore  loaded  either 
from  the  muzzle  or  at  the  breech.  Each  separate 
chamber  was  encased,  as  far  as  the  muzzle  in  wood 
or  metal,  and  they  were  fired  in  succession  or  all  at 
once.  The  term  orgue  was  applied  to  .several  pat- 
terns of  ordnance,  composed  of  a  number  of  musket 
barrels,  all  so  joined  on  the  same  carriage,  and  the 
touch-holes  corresponding  with  each  other,  that  they 
could  be  discharged  simultaneously.  This  weapon 
may  be  said  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the  Mitrail- 
leur. 

ORCrUES. — Thick  and  long  wooden  beams,  pointed 
and  shod  with  iron,  hung  vertically  by  separate 
ropes  in  the  gateway  of  and  over  the  entrance  to  a 
fortified  place.  They  answer  the  purpose  of  a  port- 
cullis or  door,  and  are  dropped  into  position  by  cut- 
ting the  ropes  from  which  they  hang.  Their  de- 
scent is  inevitable,  in  which  they  possess  an  advan- 
tage over  the  portcullis,  which  may  be  held  up  bj' 
the  enemy  or  blown  in  by  petards,  whereas  petards 
have  little  effect  on  orgues,  for  if  one  beam  be  des- 
trovcd  another  can  be  dropped  to  fill  up  the  gap. 

ORIENTAL  POWDER. — A  variety  of  gunpowder 
made  at  the  Oriental  Powder  Mills  at  South  Wind- 
ham. Me.,  on  the  Presumpscot  Eiver,  where  every 
facility  is  at  hand  for  making  powder  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage. The  following  brands  are  well  known  and 
are  regarded  as  excellent : 

Falcon  Ducking — Especially  adapted  for  breech- 
loading  guns  and  target  practice  Its  sizes  are  No. 
1  (fine).  No.  2,  No.  3,  and  No.  4  (coarse).  Packed  in 
kegs  of  6|  lbs.,  and  in  canisters  of  1  lb.  each. 

Western  Sporting — A  clean  and  moist  burning  pow- 
der, and  used  for  ordinary  purposes  m  the  field.  Its 
sizes  are  Fo  (coarse),  FFo  and  FFFo  (fine).  Packed 
in  wood  or  metalkegs  of  251bs.,  IS^lbs.,  and 6;^ lbs., 
and  in  canisters  of  1  lb.  each. 

Wild  Fowl  Shooting  —  Of  a  coarser  grain  than 
"Western  Sporting,"  and  especially  prepared  for 
use  in  very  damp  places,  and  for  muzzle  or  breech- 
loading  guns.  Its  sizes  are  No.  1  (fine).  No.  3,  No. 
3,  No.  4.  (coarse).  Packed  in  wood  or  metal  kegs 
of  25  lbs.,  12J  lbs.,  and  6i  lbs.,  and  in  canisters  of 
6  lbs.  and  1  lb.  each. 

Blasting  —  A  superior  grade,  and  especially 
adapted  for  military  and  mineral  mining,  also  for 
railroad  work.  Its  sizes  are  C  (coarse),  T,  Tpo,  F, 
FF,  FFF  (fine).  Packed  in  wood  or  metal  kegs  of  25 
lbs. 

ORrFLAMME. — A  banner  which  originally  belong- 
ed to  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis, and  which  was  borne  by 
the  Counts  of  Ve.xin,  patrons  of  that  church,  but 
which,  after  the  county  of  Vexin  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  French  crown,  became  the  principal  banner 
of  the  Kingdom.  It  was  charged  with  a  saltire 
wavy  or,  witli  rays  Issuing  from  the  center  cross- 
ways.  In  later  times  the  oriflamme  became  the 
insignia  of  the  French  infantry.  The  name  seems 
also  to  have  been  given  to  other  flags ;  according  to 
Sir  N.  II.  Nicolas,  the  oriflamme  borne  at  Agincourt 
was  an  oblong  red  flag  split  into  five  parts.  Also 
written  Aurijlainme. 

ORILLON.— In  fortification,  and  especially  in  the 
earlier  systcans,  tlie  orillon  is  a  semicircular  projec- 
tion at  the  sliouhlcr  of  a  bastion,  intended  to  cover 
from  the  ol)serva1ion  of  the  enemy  the  guns  and 
defenders  on  the  flank,  which,  with  such  a  construc- 
tion, is  somewliat  retired  or  thrown  back.  Tlie 
flank  thus  protected  is  held  by  many  distinguished 


engineers  to  be  most  valuable  in  the  defense  of  the 
ditch,  when  clearing  it  from  an  attacking  party,  or 
from  hostile  miners.     The  retired  flank  is  sometimes 


Orillon : 

a,  a,  orillons ;   b,  h,  retired  flanks  (the  dotted 

lines  show  the  original  bastion). 

straight,  at  others  curved.  The  orillon  is  as  old  as 
the  bastion,  and  is  found  in  the  works  of  Pagan  and 
Speckle. 

OBLE. — In  Heraldry,  one  of  the  charges  known  un- 
der the  name  of  sub-ordinaries,  said  to  be  the  dimin- 
utive  of  a  Bordure,  but  differing  from  it  in  being  de- 
tached  from  the  sides  of  the  shield.  It  may  be  the 
sole  charge  in  a  shield.     Or,  an  orle  gules  was  the 


Orle, 


coat  borne  by  John  Baliol.  An  orle  of  heraldric 
charges  of  any  kind  denotes  a  certain  number  (gen- 
erallj'  eight)  of  tliese  charges  placed  in  orle,  as  in  the 
coat  of  the  old  Scottish  family  of  Gladstanes  of  that 
Ilk  ;  argent,  a  savage's  head  couped,  distilling  drops 
of  blood  proper,  thereon  a  bonnet  composed  of  bay 
and  holly  leaves  all  proper,  within  an  orle  of  eight 
martlets  sable. 

ORMOLU. — A  variety  of  brass,  consisting  of  zinc 
25  parts,  and  copper  75  parts,  which  has  a  nearer  re- 
semblance in  color  to  gold  than  ordinary  brass.  It 
is  extensively  used  for  castings  of  ornaments.  When 
the  casting  is  made,  its  color  is  brought  out  by  a 
pickle  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  after  which  the  acid 
is  remeved  by  water,  and  a  liquor  varnish  is  put  on 
to  keep  it  from  tarnishing. 

ORNAMENTS.— Those  parts  of  the  dress  of  a  sol- 
dier which  are  more  for  appearance  or  distinction 
than  for  absolute  use  ;  as  belt-plates,  shoulder  straps, 
trimmings,  etc. 

ORPIMENT.— A  sulphuret  of  arsenic.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  orpiment,  one  in  fine  golden  col- 
ored scales,  another  in  dense  yellow  stony  lumps,  a 
third  in  earth}'-looking  masses,  called  King's  Yellow, 
a  familiar  paint ;  but  the  orpiment  required  in  the 
laboratory  for  blue  lights,  signal-lights,  and  para- 
chute light-balls,  is  the  red proto-sulphiiret  or  realgar. 

OUTER. — A  term  applied  to  a  portion  of  the  target. 
On  the  regulation  targets  it  is  all  the  space  outside 
of  the  larger  circle,  of  the  space  outside  the  vertical 
lines.     See  Inner 

OUTFIT  ALLOWANCE.— In  the  British  army,  a  sum 
of  £150  for  the  cavalry  and,  £100  for  the  infantry, 
granted  to  Non-commissi(mcd  Officers  promoted  to 
Commissions,  to  enable  them  to  meet  the  heavy 
charges  for  uniform  and  equipments.  The  larger 
sum  is  given  in  tlie  cavalry  because  the  newly  Com- 
missioned OIHcer  has  to  purchase  his  charger. 

ODTFLANK.— To  turn  the  flank  or  flanks'  of  an  ene- 
my.    See  Flank  Mintrmfnt. 

0UTGUARD8.-  Small  bodies  of  troops  stationed  at 
a  greater  or  less  distance  beyond  the  limits  of  a  camp 
or  main  army,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  an  ene- 


OUTLET. 


463 


OUTEANCZ. 


my  npiiroacli'mj;  willioul  noliof,  and  also  to  ofTiT  op- 
poniliiiPi  lo  Ills  prof^rcss,  wliilc  till:  iiiiiin  fiinc:  prc- 
parcM  for  rcsiHlaiicc.  OiilijuardH  iiiarcli  olT  to  their 
position  silciilly,  and  pay  no  coiMpliniciiU  (jf  any 
kind  to  olllccrnor  citliiTM.  Assoon  as  tlii!  ollicer  coni- 
inanding  an  outmiard  arrivcM  on  liiM  (ground,  ho  pro- 
ceeds to  carefully  examine  the  environs,  noting  all 
heights  within  rille-rant^e,  roads  and  paths  liy  vvhieli 
aneneiny  may  approach,  etc.  Il(!  also  takes  Buch  im- 
promptu means  of  8trenf;theiiing  his  position  as  oc- 
cur to  liim — felling  a  tree  here,  cuttinj;  brushwood 
there,  liloeicinK  a  path  in  another  place,  and  resort- 
iiV!^  lo  any  expedient  which  may  serve  to  delay  the 
foe  at  point-blaidi  rani,'( — an  ol)jecl  of  importance, 
as  a  stoppajje  at  such  a  point  is  known  lo  act  as  a 
great  discoura>;ement  lo  advancing  Iroopa.     See  Out- 

OniLET. — CUitlet8,in  fortification,  are  the  passages 
made  through  a  parapet,  or  an  enclosure  of  a  gorge, 
for  Ihc  services  of  the  work,  'riiey  should  in  all 
cases  be  made  in  tlic  least  e.\])<)s<'d  jiart  of  the  work. 
Their  width  need  not  be  more  tlian  six  and  a  half 
feet,  when  tised  only  for  tlie  service  of  the  work  ; 
but  when  they  serve  as  a  common  passage  for 
wagons,  etc.,  intlie  case  of  the  intreuchmenl  cross- 
ing a  roud,  they  sliould  be  at  least  ten  feet  wide. 
Vi  hen  cut  through  a  parapet,  tlie  sides  receive  a 
slope  of  three  perpendiiuilar  to  one  base,  and  are 
revetted  witli  sods,  etc.  A  gate,  termed  a  /xirrur, 
serves  as  an  enclosure  to  tlie  outlet.  'Plit;  framework 
of  the  barrier  is  iiuide  like  an  ordinary  gate,  consist- 
ing of  two  uprights,  or  xtilrK,  a  cross-piece,  or  rail, 
at  top  and  lioltom,  and  a  siringiiig  bur,  or  a  diagonal 
brace.  Upright  palisades,  about  seven  feet  long  and 
four  inches  thick,  are  spiked  to  Ihe  frame  about 
four  inches  apart;  they  are  tinislied  at  top  with 
spikes,  A  barrier  thus  constructed  will  not  offer  a 
slielter  to  the  enemy  should  he  attempt  to  cut  it 
away.  The  barrier  is  hung  on  hinges  like  an  ordin- 
ary gate.     See  Hnrge. 

OUTLINE. — In  fortificatiou,  the  succession  of  lines 
that  show  the  figure  of  the  works,  and  indicate  the 
direction  in  which  the  defensive  masses  are  laid  out, 
in  order  to  obtaiu  a  proper  defense. 

OUTLYEKS.— A  term  formerly  applied,  in  the  Brit- 
ish service,  to  men  who  were  permitted  to  work,  on 
condition  that  the  whole  of  their  pay  was  left  in  the 
hands  of  their  Captain  for  the  time  they  were  so  em- 
ployed. This  sum  the  officer  appropriated  to  his 
own  use.  to  enable  him  to  increase  his  pay  and  keep 
a  handsome  table  when  he  mounted  guard.  It  was 
also  a  common  practice  to  place  on  the  muster-rolls 
the  names  of  ortieers'  children,  and  instances  have 
occurred  of  girls  receiving  men's  pay  as  outlyers. 

OUT-LYING  PICKETS.— Detachments  of  cavalry 
and  infantry,  accompanied  sometimes  with  light 
guns,  and  posted  on  the  front  and  Hanks  of  an  army 
in  the  field,  in  order  to  guard  against  surprise,  and 
to  keep  reeonnoitering  parties  at  a  distance.  See 
Ont~pi>!<t!<. 

OUT  OF  GEAE.— For  most  heavy  guns,  the  motion 
of  the  top  carriage  to  and  from  battery  is  regulated 
by  a  pair  of  truck-wheels,  one  on  each  side,  which 
work  on  an  eccentric  axle  placed  underneath  and  a 
little  in  front  of  the  axis  of  the  trunnions.  The 
wheels  are  thrown  out  of  gear  by  means  of  hand- 
spikes inserted  into  sockets  upon  the  ends  of  the  ec- 
centric axle.     See  Into  Gear. 

OUT-PENSIONEE.— A  pensioner  attached  to  a  hos- 
pital, as  Greenwich  or  Chelsea,  England,  who  has 
liberty  to  live  where  he  pleases. 

OUT-POSTS.— The  detachments  of  troops  and  the 
method  of  arranging  them,  by  means  of  which  an 
Army  when  in  bivouac,  in  camp,  or  in  cantonment, 
is  protected  from  surprise  by  an  enemy.  The  duties 
of  the  out-posts, and  of  the  grand-guards  which  form 
their  supports,  are  strictly  those  of  observation.  If 
attacked,  they  offer  no  resistance  farther  than  to  en- 
able them  to  feel  the  enemy  perfectly,  and  never  lose 
sight  of  him.      The  task  of   holding  the  enemy  in 


check  by  a  vigorous  resistance,  so  as  to  procure  suf- 
lieienl  time  for  Ihe  main-body  to  make  its  dispositions 
forballle,  is  <-onsigned  to  the  pickets.  The  position 
of  llie  outposts,  with  respect  to  the  main-body,  will 
Ijk  regulated  by  the  more  or  less  broken  character  of 
the  country.  As  a  gi-neral  rule  the  mean  distance 
may  be  taken  at  about  two  miles.  The  line  occupied 
by  these  posts  should  take  in  all  the  approaches  to 
the  front  and  flanks  of  the  |main  position.  When 
a  position  is  to  be  held  for  a  considerable  time,  the 
out-posts  may  be  thrown  farther  in  advance  :  to  pro- 
cure greater  repose  and  security  for  the  main-body. 
The  ground  on  which  the  line  of  out-posts  is  estali- 
lishecl  should  be  carefully  examined  ;  with  a  view 
both  to  observation  and  defense.  As  far  as  practic- 
able, those  points  should  be  selected  for  posts  which 
present  some  natural  advantages  for  the  defense; 
will  screen  the  troops  from  the  enemy's  view;  and  en- 
able them  to  watch  all  his  movements.  Whenever 
the  features  of  the  ground  do  not  offer  natural  ob- 
stacles to  cover  tlie  jjosts,  artificial  means  of  a  slight 
character  sIkjuIiI  be  resorted  to.  The  Hanks  of  the 
line  should  rest  upon  sirong  natural  obstacles;  when 
such  cannot  be  found,  witliout  giving  the  line  too 
great  an  extent,  these  points  must  be  secured  by 
strong  pickets  of  cavalry  or  infantry,  thrown  back  to 
form  crotchets  ;  from  which  ])alroles  must  be  ('on- 
stantly  kept  up  on  the  flanks  in  the  presumed  di- 
rection of  the  enemy. 

The  strength  of  each  out-post,  and  the  distance 
from  one  to  the  other,  will  be  regulated  by  the  feat- 
ures of  the  ground,  and  the  number  of  sentinels,  or 
vedettes  that  each  post  must  throw  out.  The  posts 
should,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  within  sight  of  the 
grand-guards  to  which  they  belong ;  and  the  sen- 
tinels of  their  respective  posts.  When  the  ground 
does  not  permit  tills  arrangement, sentinels  should 
be  placed  at  intermediate  points,  to  communicate 
promptly  whatever  may  happen  at  the  line  of  posts, 
or  of  sentinels  to  the  rear.  Posts  of  infantry  should 
not,  as  a  general  rule,  be  placed  farther  apart  than 
(iOO  paces  ;  nor  their  .=eutinels  more  than  300  paces 
in  advance  of  the  posts.  Those  of  cavalry  may  be 
some  1,.500  paces  apart ;  and  their  vedettes  from  600 
to  800  paces  in  advance.  The  strengti.  of  each  post 
should  be  calculated  at  the  rate  of  four  men  for  each 
sentinel,  or  vedette.  An  officer  in  command  of  any 
of  the  out-posts  must  be  capable  of  untiring  vigilance 
and  activity  ;  to  perform  the  various  duties  that  de- 
volve upon  him.  He  should  be  provided  with  a  good 
map  of  the  country,  a  telescope  and  writing  mater- 
ials. He  will  thoroughly  reconnoiter  the  ground 
upon  w-hich  he  is  to  dispose  his  command ;  and  also  as 
far  in  advance  as  circumstances  admit  questioning 
closely  any  inhabitant  he  may  find.  After  tak- 
ing up  his  position,  he  should  go  forward  with  the 
half  of  his  command ;  and  post  each  sentinel  him- 
self. If  however,  he  relieves  another  in  the  com- 
mand, and  deems  it  advisable  to  make  any  changes 
in  the  dispositions  of  his  predecessors,  he  should 
promptly  report  the  facts  to  the  Commanding  ( )fficer 
in  his  rear.  When  the  officer  finds  that  the  enemy 
is  not  in  his  immediate  neighborhood,  he  should  en- 
deavor to  feel  his  way  cautiously  towards  liim  by- 
patrols  ;  and  when  in  immediate  presence,  he  should 
omit  no  means  to  watch  the  enemy's  movements  ; 
and  from  the  occurrences  of  the  moment,  such  as 
noises,  the  motion  of  the  clouds  of  dust,  camp  fires, 
conflagrations,  etc..  endeavor  to  divine  what  is 
passing  in  his  camp,  and  his  probable  intentions. 
Accurate  written  reports  should  be  promptly  sent  to 
the  officer  in  command,  in  the  rear,  on  all  these 
points.  The  reports  should  be  legibly  written,  and 
should  clearly  but  coru-isely,  state  what  has  fallen 
under  the  officer's  eye;  what  he  has  learned  from 
others  ;  and  the  character  of  the  sources  from  which 
his  information  is  drawn.     See  Adtanced  Posts. 

OUTRANGE.— To  the  utmost ;  to  the  last  extremity. 
Thus  the  French  say,  Se  battre  A  mUrance,  to  fight  to 
the  last  extremity. 


OUT-SENTKY. 


464 


OVEECOAT. 


OUT-SENTEY. — A  sentry  posted  to  guard  the  ( n- 
trance  or  approach  to  a  place.    See  Omguards. 

OUTSIDE.- In  fencing,  that  part  which  is  to  the 
right  of  the  line  of  defense.  The  Outside  Guard  is 
used  with  the  broadsword  and  saber,  to  defend  the 
outside  of  the  position. 

OUTWABD  FACE. — A  word  of  commfod  for  troops 
to  face  to  the  right  and  left  from  their  center. 

OUTWARD  FLANK.— The  extreme  tile  on  the  right 
or  left  of  a  division,  subdivision,  or  section,  accord- 
ing to  the  given  front,  when  the  battalion  is  at  close 
or  open  column,  and  which  is  the  farthest  wheeling 
point  from  line  into  column,  or  from  column  into 
line.     It  is  likewise  called  the  reverse  flank. 

OUTWOKKS.— A  work  consisting  of  an  enceinte 
alone  is  more  or  less  exposed  to  surprise,  as  it  must 
have  outlets  of  some  description  to  keep  up  a  com- 
munication with  the  exterior,  and  a  bridge,  or  other 
means  for  crossing  the  ditch.  This  is  not  the  only 
defect  of  a  fortification  of  this  simple  character  ;  for 
having  no  covers  beyond  the  ditch  for  its  garrison, 
their  action  must  'be  restricted  to  what  may  be 
termed  a  passive  resistance  alone  ;  in  any  attempt  to 
operate  on  the  exterior,  they  are  exposed  to  fire  as 
soon  as  they  emerge  from  the  ditch,  and  in  a  retreat 
towards  the  work,  if  closely  pursued  by  the  assail- 
ant, they  will  not  only  run  the  risk  of  being  cut  off, 
but  a  retreat  under  such  circumstances  may  lead  to 
the  capture  of  the  work  itself,  by  the  assailant  being 
enabled  to  enter  it  with  the  retreating  force.  To 
provide  against  dangers  of  so  grave  a  character,  en- 
gineers have  devised  other  defenses  beyond  the 
ditch,  and  which  they  have  placed  in  immediate  de- 
fensive relations  with  the  enceinte,  being  under  its 
fire,  and  in  positions  where,  if  assaulted,  they  can 
be  readily  succored  by  the  garrison.  To  this  class 
of  exterior  defenses  the  term  outicorks  has  been  ap- 
plied. 

The  outworks  should  satisfy  the  following  condi- 
tions to  render  them  very  effective  and  secure:  1. 
They  should  have  revetted  scarps  of  a  sufiicient 
height  to  secure  them  from  any  ordinary  open  as- 
sault. 2.  As  far  as  practicable  their  scarps  should  be 
flanked  by  the  enceinte  and  be  masked  from  the 
positions  of  the  assailant's  batteries.  3.  Their  para- 
pets and  covered  shelters  should  be  shot-proof.  4. 
Those  which  are  most  retired  should  command 
those  in  advance ;  and  whenever  this  cannot  be 
done  the  retired  work  should  be  defiled  from  the 
one  in  advance  by  which  it  is  commanded.  5.  In 
any  combination  of  outworks  the  dispositions  should 
be  such  that  the  more  advanced  ones  shall  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  assailant  before  he  will  be  able  to 
gain  possession  of  the  more  retired.  6.  The  com- 
munications should  be  ample,  and  satisfy  the  general 
conditions  for  these  elements.  See  Counter-guard, 
Cmered-wny,  Demx-lune.  Redoubt,  and  Tenaille. 

OVATION.— A  lesser  triumph  allowed  to  a  Com- 
mander for  any  victory  not  deserving  a  triumph,  in 
the  strict  sense  ;  hence,  an  expression  of  popular 
homage.     See  Triumph. 

OVEN.— A  very  necessary  apparatus  in  military 
economy  to  preserve  the  health  of  troops,  by  enab- 
ling them,  at  a  comparatively  small  expenditure  of 


tfrg*^^.^:':*''"* 


wa'ds  Lord  Herbert)  brought  to  light  the  excessive 

mortality  among  soldiers,  which  was  partly— and, 
as  the  event  has  shown,  justly— attributed  to  the  bad 
cookery  of  their  food.  Captain  Grant  has  bestowed 
much  attention  to  army  cookery,  and  has  invented 
ovens  for  barrack  use  and  for  the  field.  While  great 
improvements  on  the  system — or  want  of  8}'stem — 
wliich  preceded  them,  these  ovens  are  still  admitted 
to  be  far  from  perfect  in  their  arrangements.  For 
boiling  meat,  etc.,  in  the  field,  he  employs  detached 
cylinders,  which,  when  empty,  he  proposes  to  join 
and  floor  over  for  use  as  pontoons  ;  when  in  use 
they  are  united  crosswise,  one  in  the  middle  serving 
for  a  chimney,  One  or  more  empty  barrels  can  be 
attached  for  steaming  potatoes,  and  the  roasting  of 
coffee  is  performed,  though  not  altogether  success- 
fully, in  another  cylinder  made  to  revolve  over  the 


OVEIf  or  GABIONS,  DIOTNSIOTfB  IN  MITXM. 

fuel,  to  cook  many  rations  together.  In  the  British 
army  little  allcutinn  was  jiaid  to  such  subjects,  until, 
in  ia08,  the  inuuiries  of  Mr.  Sidney  Herbert  (after- 


Fig.  2. 
chimney.  Up  to  the  present  time  other  systema 
have  been  partially  resorted  to  ;  but  none  has  as  yet 
been  definitively  adopted  to  the  exclusion  of  others. 
Cylindrical  ovens  are  preferable  for  field  service,  and 
tlie  want  of  brick  for  the  arch  and  fireplace  may  be 
supplied  by  two  gabions  of  semi-circular  or  semi- 
elliptical  form  Im.  44  in  diameter;  the  basket  work 
is  not  go  close  as  the  ordinary  gabion,  and  is  Im.  32 
in  height.  The  two  gabions,  resting  one  over  the 
other  upon  tlie  flat  s'de,  make  a  cradle  2m.  64  long, 
Im.  44  broad,  and  Om.  72  high.  (Fig.  1).  The  interior 
and  exterior  is  then  plastered  with  clay,  which  must 
penetrate  the  interstices  of  the  basket  work.  The 
front  and  back  part  is  shut  in  the  same  manner,  or 
with  sods.  The  cradle  is  then  covered  with  earth  to 
retain  theheat,  and  in  order  that  the  superincumbent 
weight  may  not  cause  it  to  give  way.  Withes  are 
attached  to  the  top  of  the  basket  work,  and  passed 
vertically  through  the  embankment,  and  then 
fastened  to  the  longitudinal  beam  of  a  wooden  horse 
straddled  against  the  exterior  curve.  Eight  of  these 
furnaces  may  be  made  in  24  hours.  The  wooden 
oven  (Fig.  2j  is  made  by  digging  an  excavation  of 
3m.  20  in  length  by  2m.  40  in  breadth,  and  Om.  50  in 
depth,  making  the  fireplace  slightly  descending 
towards  the  mouth.  This  trench  is  covered  with 
pieces  of  wood  of  Om.  15  to  Om.  25  square,  placed 
close  together  ;  the  wood  is  covered  with  earth 
carefully  packed,  the  chimneyplace  is  sodded.  The 
fireplace  is  dried  by  lieating  for  7  or  8  hours,  and 
subsequent  heatings  require  two  hours.  Such  ovens 
resist  verv  well  five  or  six  bakings. 

OVERCHAEGED  MINE.— A  uiine  whose  crater  is 
wider  at  the  top  than  it  is  deep.     See  CraUr. 

OVERCOAT. — A  part  of  the  uniform,  worn  in  cold 
weather  and  when  specialh'  ordered.  In  the  United 
States  army  it  is  prescribed  as  follows  :— 

Fur  Gnuriii  Ojfirirs. — Of  dark  blue  cloth,  closing 
t)_y  means  of  four  frog  buttons  of  black  silk  and 
loops  of  black  silk  cord;  cord  down  the  breast,  and 
at  the  throat  by  a  long  loop  "(/  I'echeUi ."  without 
tassel  or  plate,  on  the  left  side,  and  a  black  silk  frog 
button  on  the  right;  cord  for  the  loops  fifteen  liund- 
redths  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  back,  a  single  piece, 
slit  up  from  the  liottcmi  from  fifteen  to  seventeen 
inches,  according  to  the  height   of  the  wearer,  ajid. 


OTEBHAUL. 


465 


OXYHYDEOGEN  BLOV/   PIPE. 


cloHini;  at,  will  by  billions,  iind  button-liolcs  cut  in  a 
concealed  Ihip;  cnUar  of  the  Hunie  eolur  and  material 
us  the  coal,  roiindcil  at  the  edfjes,  and  to  stand  or 
fall;  when  standing  t.-)  be  about  live  incbes  liiL'h  ; 
sleeves  loose,  cjf  a  sinfjlc  piec(!  and  rownd  at  tb(t  bot- 
tom, witliont  eiilT  or  slit;  linin;^  woolen,  and,  with 
the  facings,  to  correspond  in  color  with  the  trim- 
mings of  the  uniform;  around  the  front  and  lower 
borders,  the  edges  of  the  pockets,  the  edges  of  the 
sleeves,  collar,  and  slil,  in  the  back,  a  Hat  braid  of 
black  silk  one-half  an  inch  wide;  ami  arouml  each 
frog  button  on  the  breast  a  knot  two  and  onenuarter 
inches  in  diameter,  of  black  silk  conl,  seven  hund- 
rcdtlis  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  cape  of  the  siime  color 
and  material  as  the  coal,  removaljle  at  the  pleasure 
of  tlie  wearer,  and  reaching  to  the  cult  of  the  coal 
sleeve  when  the  arm  is  extended;  coat  to  extend 
down  the  leg  from  six  to  eight  inches  below  the 
knee,  according  to  hi'ight.  To  indicate  rank,  there 
is  on  both  sleeves,  near  the  lower  edge,  a  knot  of 
flat  black  silk  braid,  not  exceeding  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  in  width,  and  composed  of  live  braiils,  double 
knot. 

For  all  other  Offiars — Dark  blue,  close-litling  don 


ment  of  the  Ifouschold  lirigade.  It  was  raisetl  in 
Kifil,  and  took  part  in  .Marlborough's  campaigns;  it 
also  served  under  VVellinglon  in  the  Peninsula  and 
at,  Waterloo.  'I'bis  rcgiuK^nl, like  the  two  regiments  of 
Life  Guards,  wears  a  steel  cuirass,  but  over  a  blue 
coatee,  whereas  the  coatee  of  the  two  latter  regi- 
ments is  red.    jSee  Ilt/me-duardn. 

OXIDES.-  .Metallic  oxides  are  the  most  important 
of  all  the  compounds  of  the  metals,  and  in  many 
cases  occur  naturally  as  abundant  and  valuable  ores. 
They  are  divided  by  chemists  into  lliree  classes — 
viz.,  (1)  basil!  oxides  or  bases,  C2;  saline  or  indif- 
ferent oxides,  and  C-i)  acid  oxides  or  metallic  acids. 
The  dillercnt  oxiiles  of  the  .same  metal  usuallv  af- 
ford illustrations  of  two,  and  not  unfnijuently  of  all 
three  of  these  classes.  Thus  (to  take  the  case  of 
manganese)  the  protoxide  (MnO;  is  a  powerful  base, 
the  red  oxide  (Mn,(J , )  is  a  saline  or  indilferent  oxide, 
showing'  little  tendency  to  comtjine  either  with  acids 
or  alkalies,  while  permanganic  acid  (Mn^O,;  presents 
all  the  properties  of  an  acid.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
greater  the  number  of  atoms  of  oxygen  which  an 
oxide  contains,  the  less  is  it  disposed  to  unite  with 
the  acids  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  frequently   possesses 


ble-breasted  surtoul-coat,   having  a  cape,   made  to  i  acid  properties,  and  then  unites  with  bases  to  form 


det;i<'h  from  the  coat  and  fall  tothi'  tips  of  tlie  lingers 
when  the  arm  and  hand  are  extended;  \\u:  skirl  of 
the  coat  for  mounted  officers  to  reach  iialf  way  be- 
tween tlie  knee  and  the  sole  of  the  fool;  for  dis- 
mounted officers,  three  inches  below  the  knee. 

The  coat  has  seven  buttons  on  each  breast,  of  the 
same  pattern  as  those  on  the  imifortji  coal.  Tiie 
insignia  of  rank  is  on  the  sleeve,  as  follows,  viz: 
Colonel,  live  braids,  single  knot.  Lieutenant-colonel, 
four  braids,  single  knot.  Major,  tliree  braids,  single 
knot.  Caiitaiu,  two  braids,  single  knot.  1st  Lieu- 
tenant, one  braid,  single  knot.  3d  Lieutenant  and 
Additional  3d  Lieutenant,  without  braid.  Military 
Storekeepers,  same  as  officers  of  the  General  Stall  of 
like  rank.     Chaplains,  without  braid. 

On  the  frontier  and  campaign,  officers  may  wear 


sails.  Protoxides  generally  are  strong  salifiable 
bases  ;  they  require  one  equivalent  of  a  monobasic 
acid  to  form  neutral  salts.  Sesquioxides  are  weaker 
bases;  their  salts  are  usually  unstable:  they  re- 
quire three  atoms  or  equivalents  of  a  monobasic 
acid  to  form  a  salt  which  is  neutral  in  coiniw;- 
silion.  though  it  may  not  be  neutral  to  test-paper: 
and  in  general,  all  oxides  require  as  many  equiv- 
alents  of  acid  as  Ihey  contain  atoms  of  oxygen 
in  their  composition.  Some  of  the  metallic  aVfds. 
like  the  stannic  and  titanic,  contain  two  atoms 
of  oxygen  to  one  atom  of  metal,  but  most  or 
them  contain  three  atoms  of  o.xygen-  such,  for  ex- 
ample, as  the  manganic,  ferric,  chromic,  tungstic, 
molybdic,  and  vanadie  acids;  whilst  in  a  few  cases, 
such  as  the  arsenic,  antimonic,  and  permanganic,  the 


the  soldier's  great-coat,  with  the  insignia  of  rank  on  i  proportion  of  o.xygen  is  still  higher.     Of  tlie  basic 
Hut  sleeve.     See  Great-coat.  I  oxides,  which  form  by  far  the  most  important  cla.ss, 

OVERHAUL. — A  term  used  in  artillery  appliances  '  it  may  be  observed  llial  they  are   devoid  of  all  me- 
tallic appearance,  and  present  the  characters  of  i  art  liy 


in  "overhauling"  a  tackle,  that,  is,  in  separaling  the 
blocks.  This  should  invariably  be  clone  from  the 
standing,  and  not  from  tlie  movalile  block. 

OVERLAP. — In  marching  by  echelon  tor  tlie  pur- 
pose of  forming  upon  any  given  point,  and  particu- 
larly in  wheeling  from  column  into  line,  troops  may 
lose  their  relative  distances  by  not  taking  ground  e- 
nough;  when  this  occurs, the  rear  division,  company, 
or  section,  unavoidably  crowds  upon  its  preceding 
one,  and  is  th?nsaid  to  overlap. 

OVERSEER.— An  officer  in  the  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment, who  superintends  the  artificers  in  the  construc- 
tion of  works,  etc.     He  is  called  Superintendent. 

OVERSLAUGH.— To  hinder  or  stop  by  an  unex- 
pected iinpediment;  as  to  overslaugh  a  military  offi- 
cer, that  is  to  hinder  or  stop  his  promotion  or  em- 
ployment by  the  appointment  of  another  to  his  rank 
or  duties. 

OWN. — A  term  wliich  has  been  attached  to  some 
British  regiments  since  the  Kevolution  in  l(i8M.  Thus 
the  4lli  Fool,  which  landed  with  William  III.,  was 
called  the  4lli  Kings  Own. 

OX. — A  ruminant  quadruped  of  tlie  family  hon'dtp, 
much  used  as  a  draught  animal  in  military  trains. 
The  ox  is  more  frequently  employed  as  a  beast  of 
draught  in  some  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe 
than  in  Britain.  From  llie  earliest  historic  times  the 
horse  has  been  more  generally  thus  employed,  and 
has  now  almost  entirely  superseded  the  ox.  The 
gait  of  the  ox  is  slow  and  plodding,  but  its  strength 
enables  it  to  perform  a  great  amount  of  work,  and  it 
is  not  easily  exhausted.  It  needs,  however,  intervals 
of  rest  inconvenient  for  the  marches ;  and  it  is  not 
capable  of  exertion  at  all  equal  to  that  of  the  liorse 
on  any  occasion  of  emergt'ucv.  See  Bullock. 
OXFORD  BLUES.— The  third  heavy  cavalry  regi- 


matters,  and  that  six  <jnly  of  them  are  soluble  in 
water  to  any  considerable  "extent,  viz,  the  three  al- 
kalies and  baryta,  stronlia,  and  lime.  All  the  oxides 
are  solid  at  ordinarv  temperatures,  and  as  a  general 
rule,  the  addition  of  oxygen  to  a  metal  renders  it. 
much  less  fusible  and  soluble;  the  protoxide  of  iron, 
the  sesquioxide  of  chromium,  and  molybdic  acid  be- 
ing the  only  oxides  that  melt  more  readily  tlian  the 
metal. 

OXYHYDEOGEN  BLOW  PIPE.— An  mstrument  for 
the  purpose  of  burning  o.xygen  and  hydrogen  gases 
in  their   equivalent   proportions,   so  as   to  get   tlie 
greatest  heat  from  the  combination.     Two  volumes 
of  hydrogen  and  one  of  oxygen  form  an  exceedingly 
powerful  explosive  mixture,  in  consequence  ot  tireir 
instantaneous   union  upon  tlie  application  of  suffi- 
eiinl  heat,  as  the  ejectric  spark  or  a  taper,  the  result 
being   the   formation  of  water.     It  was,  therefore, 
early  known  to  be  dangerous  to  experiment  with  the 
mi.xed  gases.     In   some   instances,  when   the  gases 
were  contained  in  separate  reservoirs  and  connected 
by  tubes  at  their  extremities,   they  have   become 
mingled  in  one  of  the  reservoirs  in  consequence  of  a 
backward  flow  of  the  mixture,  and  serious  accidents 
have  resulted.     Tliis  led  to  the  early  use  of  concen- 
tric tubes  for  the   delivery  of  the  gases,  the  hydro- 
gen tip  usually  surrounding  the  one  discharging  the 
oxygen.     By  properly  regulating  the  pressure  in  the 
gas-liolders  the  two  gases  may  be  mingled   without 
danger,  near  the  end  of  the  tubes,  at  the  entrance  of 
the  burner,     llemming's  .safety  jet  is  used  for  burn- 
ing the  gases  mixed  in  the  same  reservoir;  but  it  is 
not  thought  safe  to  have  this  of  metal,  but  of  a  mem- 
brane.    The   ordinary  burner,    which   mingles  the 
two  gases  for  some  iuclies  before  llieir  exit,  is  all  that 


PACE. 


466 


PACK  ANIMALS. 


is  sutBcient  to  produce  thorough  admixture  previous 
to  ignition,  and  will  furnish  as  "solid"  a  tlame  as 
may  be  desired.     The  chief  uses  of  the  osyhydrogen 


hlow-pipe  are  to  readily  fuse  metals,  and  to  render 
lime  incandescent  in  the  Drummond  light.  See 
Drummvnd  Light. 


P 


PACE. — In  its  modern  acceptation,  the  distance, 
when  the  legs  are  extended  in  walking,  between  the 
heel  of  one  foot  and  that  of  the  other.  Among  dis- 
ciplined men  the  pace  becomes  of  constant  length, 
and  as  such  is  of  the  utmost  value  in  determining 
military  movements,  the  relative  distances  of  corps 
and  men  being  tixed  by  the  number  of  paces  marched, 
and  so  on.  The  pace  in  the  British  army  is  3i  feet 
for  ordinary  marching,  and  3  feet  for  "double 
quick"  or  running  time.  "With  the  Romans  the  pace 
had  a  different  signification,  and  it  is  important  to 
bear  the  distinction  in  mind,  when  reading  of  dis- 
tances in  Latin  works ;  the  single  extension  of  the 
legs  w;is  not  with  them  a  pace  (paamis),  but  a  step 
(gradux):  their  pace  {panKus)  being  the  interval  be- 
tween the  mark  of  a  heel  and  the  next  mark  of  the 
same  heel,  or  a  double  step.  This  pace  was  equiva- 
lent to  4.84  English  feet.  The  pace  was  the  Roman 
unit  in  itinerary  measure;  the  mile  being  1.000  paces, 
or  .5,000  Roman  feet,  equal  to  .917  of  an  English 
mile.  Whether  measurements  were  effected  b}-  ac- 
tually counting  the  paces,  or  by  the  time  occupied,  is 
not  clear;  but  either  method  woidd,  with  disciplined 
troops,  give  a  safe  result.  In  the  Middle  Ages, 
writers  confuse  accounts  of  distances  by  allusion  to 
a  geometrical  pace,  a  measure  which  varied  with 
different  authors. 

PACING  DRILL.— In  the  United  States  Army,  be- 
fore teaching  the  soldier  to  estimate  distances  sim- 
pl_y  by  sight,  he  is  first  instructed  to  measure  them 
))}■  walking  over  them  and  carefully  counting  the 
number  of  equal  paces  thus  taken.  The  Instructor 
causes  a  distance  of  one  hundred  yards  to  be 
measured  off  on  smooth,  level  ground,  and  marked 
by  a  stake  and  small  flag  at  each  end.  The  squad  is 
marched  to  the  ground  under  arms,  and  formed  in 
single  rank,  in  a  line  passing  through  the  first  stake 
and  at  right  angles  to  the  measured  line.  The  In- 
structor directs  each  man  to  march  straight  forward 
nntil  he  comes  opposite  to  the  flag  planted  at  the 
100-yard  stake,  and  to  carefullj-  preserve  his  natural 
step  without  either  increasing  or  diminishing  its 
length,  at  the  same  time  coimting  the  number  of 
steps  taken.  This  is  repeated  three  times.  From 
the  mean  of  the  three  trials  the  Instructor  will  give 
to  each  man  a  number  of  steps  that  he  will  lake 
in  measuring  10  yards  and  100  yards,  so  that  if  he 
march  with  equal  paces  he  can  step  100  yards  with 
somedegree  of  accuracj*.  When  the  men  have  learned 
to  measure  distances  on  smooth  and  level  ground, 
they  are  next  practiced  on  that  whicli  is  more  or  less 
broken.  The  Instructor  reminds  them  that  in  ascend- 
ing, a  shorter  step  is  always  taken,  and  the  reverse 
in  descending.  Wlicre  it  is  possible,  he  selects  dif- 
ferent practice  grounds,  which  will  give  the  luen  the 
opportunity  of  dclcrMiining  the  number  of  steps 
taken  in  a  given  distance  in  .going  up  or  down  hill, 
and  also  that  which  is  more  or  less  broken  by  ruts 
and  furrows.  The  number  of  steps  taken  under 
these  circumstances  are  recorded  by  each  man,  giv- 
ing the  inrlinati(m  of  the  ground  and  other  irrciiu- 
larities  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  men  are  then  ex- 
ercised in  measuring  unknown  distances,  embnicing 
as  great  a  variety  of  surf:ice  as  convenient,  ;ind  con- 
tinued until  they  are  al)le  tf)  reduce  the  error  made 
to  within  live  per  cent,  of  the  distance  measureil. 
The  ditliculty  of  correctly  estimaling  anv  L'iven  dis- 
tance without  the  aid  of  proper  instruments  for  the 


purijose  increases  rapidly  as  the  distance  becomes 
greater.  The  exercises  for  the  instruction  of  the 
men  are  for  this  reason  divided  into  three  parts,  and 
the  men  are  assigned  to  one  of  three  classes  accord- 
ing to  their  proficiency  in  the  drill.  The  third  sec- 
tion of  the  course  has  reference  only  to  distances 
varying  from  100  to  300  yards;  the  second  section  to 
those  from  300  to  COO  yards,  and  the  first  from  600 
to  900  yards.  Beginners  form  the  third  class;  those 
who  become  e.xpert  in  estimating  the  distances  of 
the  third  section  are  advanced  to  the  second;  and 
:  when  the  drill  has  been  mastered  as  regards  the  dis- 
tances of  the  second  section,  the  pupiHs  passed  into 
the  first  class,  and  practices  estimating  all  distances 
j  up  to  900  yards. 

PACK-ANIMALS.  —Pack-animals  may  be  advanta- 
geously employed  in  sections  of  country  not  permit- 
ting the  use  of  wheeled  carriages.  Horses,  ponies, 
mules,  oxen,  elephants,  camels,  goats  and  degs  are 
more  or  less  used  as  pack-animals  in  different  coun- 
tries, and  the  variet}'  of  packing  gear  is  very  great. 
The  nature  of  the  country  to  be  traversed  and  of  the 
load  to  be  transported,  will  in  a  great  measure  de- 
termine the  form  and  adjustment  of  the  gear.  The 
wwteisa  favorite  pack-animal  in  many  countries, but' 
the  ox  is  far  superior,  and  would  be  in  greater  de- 
mand, were  it  only  fashionable  to  use  him  as  a  pack 
and  saddle  animal.  Oxen  hold  out  much  better  than 
mules  over  long  marches,  are  much  cheaper,  are  less 
liable  to  be  stampeded  by  the  enemy,  are  easily 
caught  when  needed,  and  in  case  of  emergency  may 
be  used  for  beef .  In  some  respects  the  mule  is  a 
superior  pack-animal  to  the  horse.  His  peculiar 
build  gives  him,  in  proportion  to  his  weight,  a  great, 
er  power  to  transport  a  load  on  his  back  ;  besides 
this,  the  mule  eats  less  than  the  horse,  and  is  more 
sure-footed. 

The  load,  gait,  journey,  forage,  intervalB  of  rest, 
etc.,  of  a  pack-animal  shotdd  be  so  proportioned 
that  he  will  be  no  more  fatigued  one  day  than  an- 
other. It  has  been  determined  by  experience  that  a 
pack-animal,  traveling  at  a  walk,  over  a  good  road, 
can  carry  from  230  to  300  lbs. .  30  miles  in  10  hours  ; 
or  if  he  moves  at  a  trot,  175  lbs.  over  the  same  dis- 
tance :  and  the  daily  work  of  a  pack-animal  is  equal 
to  that  of  five  men,  under  the  same  circumstances. 
If  the  road  be  hilly  the  advantage  will  be  in  favor  of 
the  men.  The  above  data  supposes  that  the  animal 
is  regularly  fed  on  the  service-ration.  If  he  be  fed 
on  grass  alone,  an  allowance  must  be  made  for  its 
quality  and  abundance.  Over  difficult  and  long- 
continued  journeys,  with  pastures  seldom  good,  the 
net  weight  of  the  packs  should  not  exceed  the  half 
of  those  readily  transported  over  a  level  country, 
furnishing  a  sufficiency  of  grain  and  camps  at  regu- 
lar intervals.  The  qu<'stion  lioic  must  the  (inimiil  be 
lixuled  and  urged  to  uhtiiin  the  innxiinum  work  or  tinr- 
ful  effect,  is  an  important  one.  If  he  transports  a 
light  weight,  he  may  make  a  Icmg  day's  journey;  if 
he  transports  an  excessive  weight,  he  may  soon  come 
to  a  standstill,  and  in  either  case  the  "  useful  effect" 
is  little  or  nothing.  Let  l)=the  disliince  an  animal 
could  travel  daily  if  mdoadcd.  W^tlie  weight  under 
which  he  could  not  travel  at  idl.  W':=some  weight 
less  than  W,  under  uliirh  he  could  travel  D'  miles 
per  day.  Then,  thire  obtains  \\V>'  ="W  (I>— D/-. 
Now  the  work  or  •  ti3.;ful  elTect"  will  be  a  maxi- 
nmmwhenW'D'  is  auuixinmm,  orwhen  W''=:  jW, 


PACKFONG. 


467 


PACKING. 


mid  I)'^<1D,  or  in  otlicr  words,  the  animal  •will 
ucconiplisli  the  most  work  when  lie  triinK])oi'lH  Jtlin 
of  the  load  iindtT  which  he  would  HtUfjficr.  and 
li<!  will  travel  just  i  th(!  disliini-e  he  eoulil  if  he 
carri(Ml  no  load  al  all.  For  example:  Suppose 
an  auinial  Ib  ahle  to  travel  20  miles  |)er  day,  liearinj; 
u  load  of  300  Ihs.,  and  40  miles  per  day,  when  he 
carrieH  nolhinf^ ;  then, from  lh<-  e()UUliou  WD"  =W 

(D—iry,  wc  lind  \V="      -       =648  lbs.,  the  load 

(;2r, 

under  which  he  would  l)e  hroufjht  to  a  standstill,  and 
from  \V'=  J  W  and  I)'  =  /,]),we  lind  the  best  load  to 
be  28Hlbs.,  earri<'d  If)  miles  per  day. 

An  army  reipiires  to  be  accompanied  by  several 
thousand  piick-aiiimals.  Homelinu'S  horses,  hut  pre- 
feralily  mules;  and  in  Asia, cummnnly  camels, or  even 
elephants.  I'ack-saddlcs  are  variously  titled,  accord- 
ing  to  the  objects  to  be  carried;  some  for  provisicms 
or  amnuunlicin;  others  for  carryins  wounded  men, 
tents,  and, in  mountain  warfare,  even  small  cannon. 
In  battle,  the  immediate  reserves  of  small-arm  am- 
numilion  are  borne  in  the  rear  of  divisidiis  by  ])ack 
animals;  tlie  heavy  reserves  beinsj;  in  wagons  between 
the  army  and  its  baai;  of  operations.  See  Buffalo, 
(!<tiitel.  Elephant,  Llama,  Mule,  Packing,  and  Pack- 
miiille. 

PACKFONG.— A  Chinese  alloy  or  white  metal, con- 
sisting of  arsenic  and  copper.  It  is  formed  by  put- 
ling  two  parts  of  arsenic  in  a  crucible  with  live  parts 
of  copper  turnings,  or  lincly  divided  copper;  the  ar- 
senic and  copper  require  to  be  placed  in  alternate 
layers,  and  the  whole  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  com- 
mon salt,  and  pressed  down.  When  melted,  tlu^  al- 
loy contains  nearly  the  whole  of  the  arsenic,  and  is 
yellowish-white  in  color  when  in  therougli  stale, but 
takes  a  tine  white  |)olish  resembling  silver.  It  is  not 
very  ductile, and  cannot  be  fu.sed  without  decompo- 
sition,as  the  arsenic  is  easily  dissipated.  It  is  seldom 
imported  now,  the  nickel  alloys  of  Europe  having 
quite  super.seded  its  use;  in  China,  however,  it  is  ex- 
tensively employed  in  the  laboratory.  Also  written 
I'rtnnfi. 

PACKING. — The  art  of  making  up  and  adjusting 
the  load  of  a  pack-animal.  The  mode  of  packing 
varies  with  the  pack-saddle  and  gear.  \\  ilh  the 
aparejo,  used  in  the  United  States  Army,  the  pack- 
ing process  is  very  simple.     It  requires  two  men  to 


justs  the  saddle  blanket  and  corona.  CTwo).  No.  1 
seizes  the  aparejo,  the  left  hand  near  the  center  of 
its  front,  the  right  hand  near  the  off  and  rear  eiirner, 
and  ])laces  it  will  to  the  rear  on  the  back  of  the  ani- 
mal, when  Is'o.  2  immeiliately  adjusts  the  crupjjer, 
and  assists  No.  1  in  moving  the  aparejo  as  far  for- 
ward as  jicissilile.  fThreej.  No.  1  jiasses  the  aparejo 
cinch  to  ihe  nil  side,  till  the  sliilc-r  end  readies  di- 
rectly under  the  animal,  and  assisted  by  No.  2, passes 
th(^  laligo  strap  downwards  over  the  slider  and  in- 
wariis  through  the  ring,  and  again  over  tin;  slider. 
While  No.  1  is  drawing  the  laligo  strap  moderately 
tight.  No.  2  reaches  over  the  animal,  in  front  of  the 
aparejo,  seizes  its  front  corners  and  draws  them 
upward  and  forward,  placing  the  aparejo  squarely 
over  the  animal.  This  being  done  and  the  aparejo 
Hi.l,  No.  1  places  bis  left  knee  against  the  aparejo,  ami 
seizes  the  laligo  strap  as  far  down  as  possible,  the 
left  hand  in  advance.  (Fourj.  The  laligo  strap  is 
drawn  until  the  cinch  is  surticieutly  tight,  when  No. 
1  doubles  it,  and  passes  it  through  the  loop  on  the 
cinch,  drawing  it  tight.  No.  2  removes  the  blind, 
and  ties  the  animal  al  or  near  his  cargo.  If  No.  1 
is  not  sufficiently  strong.  No.  2  passes  around  to  tlie 
near  .side,  faces  No.  1  and  assists  him  in  drawing  the 
latigo  strap. 

1.  Sling.  3.  The  Pack. 
At  this  command.  No.  2  unties  the  animal,  places 
the  blind,  and  lakes  his  position  near  the  cargo.  No. 
1  seizes  the  sling  rope,  doubles  it  and  throws  the  loop 
well  over  on  the  off  side.  (Two).  No.  2  quietly 
raises  his  side  of  the  pack  high  up  on  the  aparejo, 
and  holding  it  there  with  his  left  hand  passes,  with 
his  right  hand,  the  loop  of  the  sling-rope  over  the 
cargo  to  No.  l,who  pas.scs  the  ends  of  the  sling-rope 
through  the  loop,  drawing  them  tight.  (Three). 
No.  1  quickly  places  his  side  of  the  pack  on  the  apa- 
rejo against  that  of  No.  2,  holds  it  tliere  with  his  left 
hand,  and  passes  one  end  of  the  sling-rope  to  No.  2, 
who  passes  it  under  a  branch  of  the  sling  rope  al- 
ready on  his  side,  and  back  to  No.  1.  No  1,  resting 
Ills  left  arm  against  the  pack,  quickly  brings  the 
ends  of  the  sling-rope  together  and  ties  them  in  a 
square  knot,  after  drawing  tight.  (Four).  Nos.  1 
and  2  seize  the  pack  at  the  lower  and  inner  edges, 
settle  it  to  the  full  extent  of  the  sling-rope,  and  care- 
fully balance  it.  No.  2  removing  the  blind, and  gently 
leading  the  mule  a  few  steps  forward,  while  No.  1 


properly  pack  the  animal.     Designating  the  packers 
as  No.  1  and  No.  2,  their  duties  are  as  follows: 

No.  1  is  habitually  on  the  near  or  left  side,  and  No. 
2  on  the  off  or  right  side  of  the  animal.  To  leach 
the  art,  the  Instructor  commands : 

1.  Prepare.     2.  To  Pack. 

At  this  command.  No.  2  places  the  hackamore 
upon  the  animal,  leads  him  on  the  off  side  of  and 
near  the  rigging,  places  the  blind  and  assumes  his 
position  on  the  off  side.  No.  1,  assisted  by  No. 
2,  on   the   off  side,  then  places  and  carefully  ad- 


observes  the  pack  from  the  rear.  No.  1  then  places 
tlie  pack  cover,  and  is  assisted  by  No.  2  in  adjusting 
it.  When  the  manias  are  not  in  use,  they  are  folded 
and  carried  on  the  aparejos  under  the  oinches. 
1.  La.<,h.  2.  The  Pack. 
At  this  command. No. 1  takes  the  lash-rope, and  hold- 
ing it  coiled  in  his  right,  seizes  it  with  his  left  hand 
near  the  cinch,  and  throws  it  to  its  full  e.xtent  to  the 
right;  whereupon  he  passes  the  cinch  hook  from  him, 
under  the  mule,  and  holding  it  steady,  he  places  the 
rope  lengthwise  on  the  center  of  the  pack  (Fie  1.) 


PACKING-BOX. 


4G8 


PACKING  SMALL  ARMS. 


(Two.)  No.  1  now  moves  forward  to  the  animal's 
shoulder,  draws  the  lash  rope  forwards  two-tliirds 
of  its  length,  seizes  it  .'5  or  6  feet  from  the  cinch, 
and  passes  it  doubled  to  No.  3  (Fig.  2j,  who  takes 
the  double  in  his  right  hand,  and  the  hook  of  the 
cinch  in  his  left.  No.  2  then  moves  his  hands, 
until  he  feels  the  rope  tight,  when  he  passes  the  rear 
branch  of  the  rope  from  above  into  the  hook  and 
the  slack  back  to  No.  1,  who  draws  it  tight  with  his 
left  hand.  He  then  passes  his  right  band  under  his 
left,  seizes  the  rope  in  front  of  the  pack  and  passes 
It  to  the  rear  (Fig.  3).  (Three.)  No.  1  passes  the 
rope  in  his  left  hand  under  the  standing  branch  from 
rear  to  front,  pulls  it  well  up  on  the  pack  (Fig.  4) 
and  forces  tlie  bight  thus  formed  below  the  aparejo. 
In  the  meanwhile.  No.  2  grasps  the  end  of  the  rope, 
passes  it  under  the  front  standing  branch  on  his  side 
(from  front  to  rear  or  from  rear  to  front),  pushes  it 
to  the  top  rf  the  pack,  and  throws  the  end  in  front 
of  the  .pack  on  the  side  of  No.  1 ;  No.  2  then  seizes 
the  front  standing  l)ranch  with  both  hands,  well 
down,  and  places  his  left  knee  against  the  aparejo. 
No.  1  seizes  the  front  branch  on"  his  side,  placing 
his  left  shoulder  against  the  pack.  No.  2  pulls 
while  No.  1  takes  in  the  .slack.  When  all  is  suffi- 
ciently tight.  No.  1  says  "good,"  and  seeing  the 
pack  well  balanced  passes  to  the  rear  and  tightly 
pulls  the  branch  under  the  aparejo.  (Fig"  5). 
(Four.)  No.  2  goes  to  the  rear,  pulls  the  branch  on 
his  right  and  passes  it  forward  imder  the  points  of 
the  aparejo.  No.  1  moves  forward,  on  his  own  side, 
takes  the  end  of  the  rope,  tightens  it,  passes  it  down 
under  the  points  of  the  aparejo,  back  to  the  center 
of  the  pack  and  there  fastens  it  by  drawing  it  under 
the  standing  branches  (Fig.  G).  If  the  lash  roi>e  is 
very  long.  No.  1  passes  the  end  to  No.  2.  who  makes 
it  fast  as  stated.  All  set,  No.  2  removes  the  blind, 
ties  up  the  hackamore  strap  and  drives  off  the  animal. 
1.   Unsling.     2.  The  Pack. 

At  this  command.  No.  2  loosens  tlie  end  of  the 
lash  ropo,  goes  to  irlie  animal's  shoulderaiid  pulls  out 
the  Ijrancli  on  his  side.  (Two.)  No.  1  slackens  the 
rear  and  front  branches  on  his  side  in  succession, 
passes  the  front  branch  under  the  standing  branch 
from  front  to  rear,  withdraws  it  and  passes  the  slack 
to  No.  2,  who  tmhooks  it,  whereupon  Nos.  1  and  2 
throw  the  lash  rope  to  the  rear.  (Three.)  No.  1 
unties  the  sling  rope  quickly.  (Four.)  Nos.  1  and 
2  take  down  the  portions  of  the  pack  on  their  sides. 

The  aparejo  is  taken  off  in  the  inverse  order  in 
which  it  is  put  on.  This  being  done,  No.l  arranges 
the  cargoes  while  No.  3  collects  and  assorts  the  rig- 
ging, placing  the  aparejos  in  line,  resting  on  the  low- 
er ends  of  the  pads.  As  tlie  train  moves  out,  each 
animal  should  be  carefully  noticed.  Raising  the 
hips  and  twiching  the  mouth  or  noseindicates  ^'(7i- 
ing,  and.  should  lead  to  immediate  examination. 
The  hackamores  should  fit  very  closely.  Nothing  is  so 
liable  to  irritate  an  animal  and  give  him  "fits  of  fury" 
as  sore  ears.  If  possible,  the  cargo  should  be  made 
into  two  packages  of  equal  weight  and  bulk,  of  about 
100  or  125  pounds,  and  the  highest  loads  should  be 
the  bulkiest  and  most  valuable  stores.  All  ratlliuir 
pins  camp  kettles,  buckets,  etc,  sliould  be  closely 
packed  in  sacks  and  securely  lashrd  on  top  between 
the  side  [jacks.  If  carelessly  packed  and  allowed  to 
rattle,  the  animals  will  frequently  bcciime  alarnu-d 
and  as  frc((uenllv  succeed  in  dropping  Iheir  jiacks. 

PACKING-BOX.  A  box  used  for  keeping  fixed  shot 
or  sliell  ill  si  ore,  or  in  transit  from  place  to  place,  or 
on  the  march  with  siege  trains.  The  name  is  given 
to  anv  bdx  or  case  containing  mililarv  stores. 

PACKING  OF  POWDER,  -(ioverniueiit  powder  is 
packed  in  barrels  of  101)  pounds  eacli,  I 'owcUt  bar- 
rels are  made  of  well  seasoned  white  oak,  and  hoop- 
eil  with  hickory  or  cedar  hoops,  which  sliould  be  de- 
prived of  their  bark  ;  the  cedar  is  not  so  liable  as 
hickory  or  white  oak  to  be  attacked  by  worms,  and 
it  should  therefore  be  used  in  prefc'rcnce:  or  the 
hoops  may  be  prepared   by  immersion   in  a  soluti(m 


of  corrosive  sublimate.  The  hoops  should  cover 
two-thirds  of  the  barrel.  The  grain  powders  may 
be  packed  in  canvas  liags  before  being  barreled.  In- 
stead of  a  bung  on  the  side,  a  screw-bole  1.5  inches 
in  diameter  is'made  in  the  head  of  the  barrel,- for 
mortar  and  musket  powder;  it  is  closed  by  a  wood- 
screw  with  an  octagonal  bead,  which  must  not  pro- 
ject beyond  the  ends  of  the  staves  ;  under  the  head 
of  the  screw  is  a  washer  of  thin  leather,  steeped  in 
a  solution  of  beeswax  in  spirits  of  turpentine.  This 
screw-plug  renders  it  unnecessary  to  take  out  the 
head  of  the  barrel,  and  the  hoops  may  therefore  be 
secured  with  copper  nails  ;  frjr  transportation,  a  piece 
of  cloth  should  be  glued  over  the  head  of  the  plug. 
Some  barrels  have  been  made  with  six  copper  hoops, 
and  others  with  four  copper  and  eight  or  ten  cedar 
hoops  ;  the  copper  hoops  are  one  inch  wide  and  one- 
eighth  of  an  ineli  thick,  fastened  with  two  rivets  and 
nailed  each  with  three  copper  nails  O.I52o  inch  long. 
Average  weight  of  a  hoop  2,^  pounds.  Powder  boxes 
lined  with  galvanized  iron  and  cooper  with  large 
screw  lids  are  now  on  trial,  holding  100  pounds.  It 
has  been  found  that  lining  pomler  barrels  with 
India-rubber  cloth  has  an  injurious  effect  on  the 
powder  in  consequence  of  the  affinity  of  the  caout- 
cliouc  for  sulphur.  The  heads  of  powder  barrels  are 
painted  bUick  in  order  to  show  the  marks  more  plain- 
ly in  dark  magazines.  The  following  are  the  dimen- 
sions of  powder  barrels  : — 

Whole  length 20.5  inches. 

Length,  interior,  in  the  clear     ....  18     inches. 

Interior  diameter  of  head 14     inches. 

Interior  diameter  of  bilge 16     inches. 

Thickness  of  the  staves  and  heads    .     .     0.5  inch. 
Weight  of  the  barrel ,    .  25  pimnds. 

The  barrels  have  generally  12  hoops,  14  to  16 
staves,  and  two  or  three  pieces  in  each  head.  T.ie 
dimensions  are  such  that  with  100  pounds  of  powiler 
there  shall  be  a  vacant  space  on  the  barrel  to  allow 
for  shaking  to  prevent  caking.  The  barrel  will  hold 
120  pounds  settled  by  shaking.     See  h'unpimde  ■. 

PACKING  SMALL-ARMS.— When  small-arms  are 
to  be  sent  on  a  long  sea  voyage  the  arm-chests  are 
provided  with  tin  linings,  securely  soldered,  so  as  to 
exclude  all  ilanipness.  The  clamps  for  the  bayonets 
are  screwed  down  precisely  as  in  the  unlined  chest. 
The  tenons  of  the  packings  (muzzle,  butt,  top,  and 
middle)  are  cut  off,  as  tlie  dn  does  not  e.xtend  in  the 
grooves  ordinarily  tilled  by  them.  In  a  chest  in- 
tended to  be  lined  the  grooves  are  omitted.  A 
leather  strip  is  placed  under  each  bottom  muzzle- 
clamp  to  prevent  the  butt-plate  rubbing  on  the  lin- 
ing. Two  strips  of  wood  ^  inch  wide  and  1  inch 
thick  are  placed  lengthwise  with  the  box,  oiij'  on 
each  side,  their  ends  resting  in  notches  cut  in  \..e 
ends  of  the  top  clamps.  The  edges  of  the  lining  are 
about  one  inch  above  the  level  of  the  chest.  Tiiey 
are  bent  inward,  and  hammered  down  on  the  strips 
of  wood  before  mentioned.  The  edges  are  then  care- 
fully soldered  to  the  cover.  To  open  the  box  asol- 
dcriug-iron  and  thin  knife  are  required  to  ouen  the 
soldered  joint. 

In  the  field,  or  under  other  circumstances,  when 
the  proper  arm-chests  are  not  on  baud, it  may  some- 
times be  necessary  to  pack  arms  with  straw.  The 
interior  dimensions  of  a  box  for  twenty  muskets 
may  be  the  same  as  for  the  regular  packing-box. 
The  straw  should  b"  long,  perfectly  dry,  and  tree 
from  dust;  ri/c  straii^  is  the  best;  /laj/  should  not  be 
used;  aliout  twenty-five  pounds  of  straw  are  required 
to  a  box.  To  prepare  the  mwikrt  for  packing — Oil  it; 
let  down  the  hammer,  pass  the  bayonet  up  to  the 
socket  into  the  guard-bow,  on  the  rigid  side,  in  front 
of  the  trigger.  Alake  a  rope  of  about  forty  straws, 
slightly  twisted,  and  forty  inches  long;  wrap  it 
about  the  musket , commencing  on  top  of  tlie  hammer 
going  round  the  baycmel  below,  again  over  the  ham- 
mer an  1  round  the  pii'ce  in  front  of  the  guard,  then 
f  ver  the  socket  of  the  bayonet  near  tlii^  neck,  and 
wrapping  the  rest  around  the  handle  of  the  stuck. 


FACE-SASDUE. 


469 


PADDOCK  INTEEPOLATEa 


Lay  a  bed  of  straw  2  inches  thick  in  thcbulloni  of 
the  box  ;  in  the  ini(hllc  and  at  (i  inc  lies  from  the 
ends,  iiluce  three  cusliions  of  Htraw  (>  inciies  thicl< 
and  i;i  in<  lies  wi(h'.  I'lil  in  a  tier  of  10  niiisl<els, 
crossinfi  each  other,  the  butts  resliiiif  allcriiati'ly 
against  the  ends  of  the  box,  the  i,niards  iipperiMosl 
and  the-  lianiiiK-rs  licarinfr  on  the  ensliii'iis.  I'lit 
Hiiiidl  trusses  of  sliaw  iindir  Ihe  U|i])er  and  iidrlille 
bands  l)y  raising  Ihe  nuiskels  at  one  end  and  Ihcn 
pressiiiii;  them  down  between  the  oIlK'rs.  I'uek  l)c- 
tween  the  butts  wads  of  straw  8  inches  long, 
made  of  a  liandfnl  of  straws  folded  in  three  ;  cover 
the  i^uards  ami  ^nard-bows  wilh  thi;  ends  of  the 
straw  that  form  these  wads,  which  will  be  still  about 
12  inches  loni;.  I'ut  in  another  tier  of  10  iniiskctM 
in  Ihe  same  manner,  m  diini;  the  cushions  4  inches 
thick.  I'ack  llic  implciucnls  in  straw  in  the  vacant 
spaces.  Fill  the  b'l.x  with  stiaw,  so  that  the  cover 
shall  re(niire  stroiu;  pressure  to  keep  it  down.  Put 
two  hoops  round  the  box,  at  18  inches  from  the 
ends.  (Jther  arms,  swords,  etc.,  are  packed  in  a 
similar  manner.  Arms  should  not  be  wrapped  in 
paper,  unless  it  be  oiled,  as  it  attracts  moisture  more 
readily  tliiin  straw  does.     See  Smnll-annx. 

PACK  SADDLE.  — I'ack-saddles  are  variously  fitted, 
according;  to  the  n.'ilure  of  the  loads  to  be  carried  : 
some  for  provisions  or  ammunilion  ;  others  for  car- 
ryini^  wounded  men,  tents,  and,  in  mountain  war- 
fare, even  small  cannon.  'J'he  cmna-triv  saddle  and 
gear,  repri'senlcd  in  the  ilrawini;,  is  used  to  a  great 
extent  by  the  Indians  and  traders  in  Northwestern 
America.  This  description  of  saddle  is  very  well 
adapted  for  smooth  roads  and  evenly  formed  packs, 
but  for  scout ing  trains  or  the  professional  packer, 
where  objects  of  every  imajinahle  shape  and  vari- 
ous weights  are  to  be  transported,  notliing  has  yet 
been  invented  so  suitable  as  the  aparejn,  composed 
entirely  of  hide. 

In  very  early  times  the  sad  lie  to  which  the  bun- 
dles were  fastened  consist)  d  of  two  pieces  of  wood, 


been  substituted  for  tlie  Iiorse.     8ce  Aparejo  and 
I'liekinr/. 

I      PACK  THAIN  — A  troop  of  patk-animals.     When 

littiMLT  out  a  train,  as  few  riilTercnt  kinds  of  animalii 

sliould  be  taken  as  jiossible,  as  thi'V  will  run  in  dif- 

ferenl  herds  and  rcquiri'  much  more  attintion. 

PADDLING.     The  removal,  by  means  of  a  copper 

'  spud,  of  such  lumps  of  gunpowtler  as  adhere  to  the 
face:'  of  the  rollers  during  liie  incorprjraling  process 
in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  The  operation 
recpiires  j^reat  care,  and  should   oidy  be  resorlefl  to 

I  under  exceptional  circumstances.  Generally  water 
poured  on  the  face  of  a  roller  will,  to  some  extent, 
loosen  (he  powdr-r. 

PADDOCK  INTERPOLATEH.— When,  owing  to  the 
inlerpiisllion  of  an  iiilirmediate  obstacle,  the  object 
to  be  (ired  at  cannot  be  s<'en  from  the  mortar,  a  point 
must  be  interiiolatcd  on  the  reijuired  line  in  such 
position  that  it  can  be  seen  from  the  mortar.  This 
is  most  readily  effected  by  this  most  simple  and  con- 
venient instrument,  consistijig  of  two  small  mirrors 
attached  to  a  metallic  frame.  One  of  these,  termed 
the  upper  mirror,  revolves  on  a  horizontal  axis;  the 
other  is  calli-il  the  lower  mirror,  and  toil  is  attached 
a  small  spirit  level,  «.  Hair-lines  are  marked  on 
these  mirrors,  representing  the  trace  of  a  plane  aor- 


cttrved  so  as  to  fit  the  horse's  back,  and  joined  to- 
gether at  the  ends  by  two  other  straight  pieces. 
This  frame  was  well  padded  iinderneath,  to  prevent 
injury  to  the  horse's  back,  and  was  firmly  fastened 
by  a  girth.  To  each  side  of  the  saddle  a  strong 
hook  was  attached,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
packages,  panniers,  etc.  Panniers  were  sometimes 
simply  slung  across  the  liorse's  back  with  a  pad 
under  the  band.  The  panniers  were  wicker  Ijaskets, 
and  of  various  shapes,  according  to  the  nature  of 
their  usual  contents,  being  sometimes  long  and  nar- 
row, but  most  generally  having  a  length  of  three 
feet  or  upwards,  a  depth  of  about  two-thirds  of  the 
length,  and  a  width  of  from  one  to  two  feet.  The 
pack-horse  with  panniers  was  at  one  time  in  general 
use  for  carrying  merchandise,  and  for  those  agricul- 
tural operations  for  which  the  horse  and  cart  are 
now  employed  ;  and  in  the  mountainous  regions  of 
Spain  and  Austria,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 
it  still  forms  the  sole  medium  for  transport  :  though 
the  mule  has,  especially  in  Europe  and  America, 


mal  to  the  axis  of  the  level  at  its  center,  and  also  to 
the  axis  of  the  upper  mirrfjr.  To  use  the  instrument, 
the  observer  places  himself  approximatel}'  on  the 
line  from  the  mortar  to  the  object  to  be  fired  at. 
Keeping  the  bubble  in  the  center  of  the  level,  lie 
turns  the  instrument  so  that  the  mortar  will  be  re- 
flected from  the  upper  mirror  onto  the  hair-line  of 
the  lower  mirror.  He  then  revolves  the  upper  mir- 
ror, and,  catcliing  the  retlection  of  the  object,  ob- 
serves on  which  side  of  the  hair-line  of  the  lower 
mirror  it  falls.  He  moves  in  that  direction  until  iSoth 
images— that  of  the  mortar  and  of  the  object — fall 
upon  the  lower  hair-line,  the  two  hair-lines  being  co- 
incident. A  pin  or  plummet  is  placed  in  prolonga- 
tion of  this  line  to  mark  the  required  point.  To 
make  the  last  part  of  the  observation  with  accuracy, 
the  instrument  should  be  rested  on  some  convenient 
object. 

When  the  foregoing  instrument  is  not  to  be  liad, 
a  point  may  be  interpolated  by  two  persons,  each 
using  a  light,  slender  stake.  They  place  them.selvts 
as  near  as  practicable  on  the  required  line,  one  fac- 
ing towards  the  mortar,  where  he  can  see  it.  and  the 
other  towards  the  object,  where  he  can  see  it,  and 
both  within  view  of  each  other.  Holding  their  stakes 
vertical,  they  sight  and  move  them  alternately,  until 
finally  they  liave  them  in  s  ich  po.sition  that  they 
range  both  upon  the  mortar  and  the  object.  The 
stakes  or,  belter,  plummets  are  then  adjusted  at 
these  points,  and  sighting  by  them  back  to  the 
mortar,  a  plummet  is  suspended  in  the  usual  manner 
behind  the  platform.  The  plummets  thus  established 
mark  the  desired  plane  of  sight.  This  operation  is 
more  conveniently  performed  by  using  a  strip  of 
board,  ten  or  twelve  feet  long,  in  which  is  set  at 
each  end  a  priming-wire.  The  board  is  placed  at 
the  intermediate  point  in  a  position  approximately  in 
the  plane  of  sight,  and  where  the  mortar  can  bessen 
by  sighting  past  both  wires  back  upon  it,  and  the 
object  can  be  seen  by  sighting  forward  in  the  same 
manner.  Two  persons,  one  at  each  end,  by 
alternately  sighting  and  moving  the  board,  readily 


FADS. 


470 


FAISIS. 


establish  the  wires  in  the  required  line.  A  phiramet 
is  then  suspended,  at  some  convenient  point  in  front 
of  the  mortar,  in  line  witli  the  two  wires  on  the 
board.  Tlie  plummet  in  rear  of  the  mortar  is  sus- 
pended on  the  same  line.  The  two  plummets  thus 
established  determine  the  plane  of  siglit. — See 
Plummet. 

PADS. — In  the  artillery  and  cavalry  service,  pads 
are  used  to  protect  saddle  and  draught  liorses  from 
galls.  The  pad  recommended  is  in  the  form  of  a 
folded  blaulvet,  or  pad  made  of  sheep  or  liid's  skin, 
stuffed  with  hair,  6  inches  by  4  inches.  When  placed 
above  and  below  tlie  gall  considerable  relief  will  be 
afforded.  If  a  piece  of  harness  is  seen  to  be  com- 
mencing to  rub  a  horse,  besides  altering  the  fitting, 
friction  may  be  prevented  by  rubbing  in  any  lubri- 
cant (tallow  will  do  on  an  emergency).  To  cure  a 
gall  or  sore  while  tlie  horse  continues  liis  work,  pads 
must  be  judiciously  applied.  Sheep  skin  is  the  fav- 
orite specific  of  many  collar-makers ;  it  sometimes 
effects  more  tlian  would  be  e.xpected;  it  enables  the 
harness  and  skin  side  of  tlie  sheep  skin  to  move, 
while  the  ends  of  tlie  liair  remain  without  motion  on 
the  tender  part  of  tlie  horse.  The  rubbing  of  a  trace 
is  sometimes  difficult  to  prevent ;  we  have  seen  the 
pressure  completely  removed  by  attaching  a  short, 
flat  piece  of  wood  along  a  hip  or  bearing  strap,  with 
the  ends  extending  2  inches  past  the  trace,  small  pads 
being  fixed  on  it  above  and  below  the  trace.  It  looks 
ugly,  but  it  works  well.  Elastic  pads  constructed 
of  a  certain  number  of  tubes  of  vulcanized  caout- 
cliouc  united  together, and  invented,  some  years  ago, 
by  General  Angelini,  of  the  Italian  army,  are  stated 
to  liave  been  very  successful  in  the  Italian  cavalry 
in  preventing  galls. 

PAGAN  SYSTEM  OF  FORTITICATION.— This  system  j 
paved  tlie  way  for  Vaubau.  It  included  tliree  kinds 
of  Fortification,  tlie  great,  the  mean,  and  the  small, 
with  fronts  of  390  yards,  3.50  yards,  and  312  yards 
respcctivelj';  and  was  the  first  to  employ  the  perpen- 
dicular (whicli  equaled  58  yards)  to  draw  the  line  of 
defense.  The  faces  of  the  bastion  were  equal  to  y'^ 
of  the  front.  The  flanks  were  perpendicular  to  the 
lines  of  defense,  the  ditch  30  yards  wide  at  the  sa- 
lient, and  its  counterscarp  directed  on  the  shoulder- 
angle  of  the  bastion.  Inside  the  bastions  were  con- 
structed interior  retrenchments.with  magistrals  par- 
allel to,  and  32  yards  from  the  enceinte.  The  flank 
was  triple;  the  first  retired  and  level  with  the  ground, 
the  third  level  with  the  inner  bastion,  and  the  sec- 
ond of  intermediate  command.  The  ravelin  had  a 
90  yards'  face,  and  occasionally  received  a  reduit, 
while  a  counterguard  sometimes  covered  the  has- 
tions.  In  another  method,  called  "  re-inforced,"  the 
enceinte  was  preceded  by  a  continuous  envelope. 
The  weak  point  of  this  S3'stcm  was  the  possibility  of 
breaching  the  curtain  from  the  re-entering  place  of 
arms,  thereby  turning  the  interior  bastion.  The  tri- 
ple flanks  were  also  defective,  the  defenders  being  too 
much  exjiosed  to  the  splinters  of  the  upper  scarijs 

PAGEANT. — In  ancient  military  history,  a  tri- 
umphal car,  chariot,  or  arch, variously,  adorned  with 
colors,  flags,  etc.,  carried  about  in  public  shows,  pro- 
cessions, etc.     Also  a  gorgeous  show  or  spectacle. 

PAGEANT  SHIELDS.— Richly  embossed  shields  of 
the  null  centur}-.  Although  they  were  pieces  of  de- 
fensive armor,  they  were  rather  intended  to  be  worn 
on  gala  days,  when  the  Nobles  rivalled  one  another 
in  the  magnificence  and  artistic  richness  of  their 
equipments. 

PAH  — The  name  of  the  stockaded  intrenchments 
of  the  New  Zealanders. 

PAILLEE.—  An  ant-ient  body  of  French  Militia. 
The  soldiers  belonging  to  it  were  probably  so  called 
eilhi-r  from  the  circumstance  of  their  wearing  straw 
in  their  helmets,  in  order  to  , know  one  unolher  in 
action,  or  because  they  were  accuslinned  to  set  fire 
to  the  habitations  of  tlieir  enemies  with  bundles  of 
straw,  which  they  always  carried  with  lliem  forlhat 
purpose. 


PAINTS. — Prepared  or  unprepared  compositions  by 
which  wood,  iron  and  other  materials  are  coated 
with  a  preservative  surface  of  oil,  mixed  with  an 
earthy  matter  to  give  it  color  and  consistency  The 
art  of  painting  in  its  primitive  state  consisted  merely 
in  applying  such  natural,  mineral,  and  vegetable 
colors  as  were  spontaneous'iy  yielded,  witliout  any 
vehicle  to  render  them  permanent,  consequently  they 
had  to  be  renewed  as  often  as  tliey  were  rubbed  or 
washed  off  from  the  surfaces  to  which  they  were 
applied.  The  paints  now  in  use  are  nearly  all  mixed 
with  a  liquid  vehicle,  and  are  applied  in  the  liquid 
state.  The  mixing  materials  are  varied  according  to 
the  requirements  of  the  work.  Thus  for  some  kinds 
of  decorative  work,  and  for  water-color  di'awings, 
gum,  glue,  size,  or  other  adhesive  materials  dissolved 
in  water,  are  employed;  whilst  for  the  painting  of 
buildings,  etc.,  oils  of  various  kinds  are  used  for 
mixing  and  thinning  the  colors.  Thus,  for  painted 
work  exposed  to  the  weather,  it  is  found  that  linseed 
oil  boiled  with  the  sulphates  of  lead  (litharge)  or  zinc, 
or  witli  acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead),  is  the  best. 
The  preparation  of  boiled  oil  is  one  requiring  par- 
ticular care,  as  it  is  desirable  to  have  it  bright  and 
clear.  Hence  the  proportions  of  the  metallic  salts 
are  much  varied  by  different  manufacturers,  and  by 
some  various  other  ingredients  are  added.  The  time 
of  boiling  and  the  method  of  filtering  are  also  much 
varied.  For  indoor  work,  plain  linseed  oil  and  oil 
(spirit)  of  turpentine  are  used;  if  a  glossy  surface  is 
wished,  the  linseed  oil  must  be  in  excess;  if  a  (!ull,OT 
flattened  surface,  then  the  quantity  of  turpentine,  or 
turps,  as  it  is  often  technically  called,  must  be  in- 
creased; and  it  is  usual  to  add  a  small  quantity  of 
ground  litharge  and  sugar  |of  lead,  which  are  pre- 
pared for  this  purpose,  and  sold  under  the  name  of 
driers.  For  artists'  colors,  very  fine  linseed  or  nut 
oil  is  used,  unboiled,  and  in  small  quantity,  and 
turpentine  is  employed  to  dilute  them.  Paints  for 
very  rougli  purposes,  such  as  ordnance  work,  stone 
walls,  etc.,  are  often  mixed  with  whale  oil  boiled 
with  white  vitriol  (acetate  of  zinc),  litharge,  and 
vinegar,  and  they  are  diluted  with  common  linseed 
oil  and  turpentine. 

Most  of  the  paints  used  for  ordinarj'  purposes  are 
composed  first  of  the  coloring  matter,  then  of  a  quan- 
tity of  white-lead,  w-ith  which  and  the  oil  they  are 
worked  into  a  paste  of  the  shade  required,  and  after- 
ward thinned  down  with  oil  and  turpentine  when 
used.  The  white-lead  which  thus  forms  the  basis  of 
most  paints,  and  by  itself  a  color,  is  a  carbonate  and 
oxide  of  the  metal,  produced  by  exposing  pieces  of 
lead  to  the  action  of  the  steam  of  acetic  acid  in  beds 
of  fermenting  tan.  It  is  the  principal  whhe  paint 
used,  but  is  liable  to  discoloration  from  the  gases 
contained  in  impure  atmospheres.  Other  white  pig- 
ments are  prepared  from  the  oxide  of  zinc,  and  the 
carbonate  and  sulphate  of  barytes.  Olires.  for  car- 
riages, are  produced  by  mixtures  of  yellow  ochre, 
boiled  oil,  litharge,  lampblack,  spirits  of  turpentine, 
and  Japiin  varnish.  Meds  are  either  purely  mineral, 
or  they  are  lakes,  i.  e., organic  colors  precipitated  on 
alumina  bases.  Of  tlie  latter  there  are  madder-lakes, 
prepared  from  madder-roots,  and  carmine-lakes,  pre- 
pared from  cochineal ;  of  the  former,  vermilion  (bisul- 
yiliuret  of  mercurj-), Indian  red(a  native  oxiileof  iron), 
Venetian  red  (an  oxide  of  iron),  red  lead  (red  oxide 
of  lead  or  minium,).  Blues  consist  of  the  artificial 
ultramarine,  and  for  artists'  purposes  of  the  real  ul- 
tramarine, also  the  silicate  of  cobalt,  and  foi  water- 
colors,  indigo  and  Prvissian  blue.  (Ireens  are  either 
prochiced  by  mixtures  of  yelUnrs  a.r\A  blues,  or  they 
are  m;iiU'  directly  from  the  phosphates,  carbonates, 
acetates,  and  arsenitea  of  copper,  also  from  the  ses- 
quioxide  of  chromium  and  from  tcrre  terte,  a  native 
mineral,  consisting  of  iron,  silica,  potassa,  and  mag- 
nesia. Broiriis  are  numerous,  and  various  in  their 
composili(m.  Decomposed  peat,  burned  madder, 
burned  Prussian  blue,  burned  terre  verte,  asphalt, 
manganese  brown, catechu. umber(which  is  au  oxide 


PAIEIHO. 


171 


PALANQUIH. 


of  iron  with  miij;ancHc).  ami  mummy,  or  tlic  uspliall 
inixi'd  witli  otliiTmiitliTHlnki-ii  Irotji  Kf^ypliim  miim- 
iiiii'S,  lire  niiionirst  Ilic  bi'st  known  iiiiii  most  iiscil. 
JIIwIls  lire  made  of  lampliliick  unil  lionc-liliick,  i>cr- 
oxiilc  ol  nian?;anc.si-,  anil  lihic-tilack,  wliifli  is  made 
of  tli<'  cliarcoal  of  Imrncd  vine  twigs.  In  all  cascB 
tlic  colorinj;  mal<Tials  of  paints  reipiire  to  be  very 
finely  uroiirid,  and  as  very  many  are  poisonous,  great 
eare  is  reipiired  in  their  pre|)aration,  and  several 
forms  of  mill  have  lieen  invenled  for  the  purposl^ 
The  prineiplc  upon  wliich  all  are  made  is  lo  seeure 
the  operatorfrom  the  pciisonousdusl  and  exhalations, 
and  to  reduee  the  eolorinjj;  material,  if  ground  dry, 
lo  an  impalpable  powder,  ov,  if  mixed  with  the  oil, 
to  a  perfectly  smooth  paste. 

The  following  table  shows  the  quantity  of  ])aints 
reipiired  for  carriages: 


eideril  or  ilisastcT.  Kuch  parts  should  be  carefully 
ixandned  by  means  of  punches  and  hanimirs,  and 
no  such  material  be  sultered  lo  remain  wlicre  it  is 
dangerous.     .Sec  l,<icktrii. 

PAIHING.  When  the  web  of  a  gabion  is  made 
with  two  rod-  at  a  time,  tlieprocess  is  called /;«/mio. 

PAIXHANS  GUN.  -  This  gun,  intended  for  Hhipsof 
war  or  coast  fortresses,  and  adapted  lo  throwing 
shells  and  hollow  shot,  was  adopted  in  France  about 
1824,  and  afterwards  in  England.  It  was  used  by 
the  HuHsian  Meet  wliich  destroyed  the  Turkish  forts 
and  ships  in  the  harborof  .Sinope.  I'aixlians  recom- 
mended cylindro-conieal  projectiles  as  going  more 
directly  and  striking  more  powerfully  than  round 
balls,  and  exposed  to  less  resistance  from  the  air. 
lie  believed  in  small  ships  carrying  lieavier  gun.sfor 
firing  shell  and  hollow  shot.    The  original  Paixhans 


Kind  of  carriage. 


Field  gun-carriage  and  limber  with  implements..     . 

(;aisson  with  limber  and  implements 

Forge  with  limber 

Battery-wagon  with  limber 

Siege-carriage,  limber,  and   implements 

Mortar-wagon 

Carriages  and  chassis,  iron. 

8-inch  casemate 

8-inch  barbette 

10-inch  casemate 

lO-inch  barbette 

LO-inch  barbette 

20-inch  barbette 

A  priming  of  lead  color  and  two  coats  of  olive 
color  are  applied  to  new  wood-work,  and  one  coat 
of  lead  color  and  one  of  black,  to  the  iron-work  of 
field-carriages.  Two  coats  of  metallic  paint  are  re- 
quired for  the  iron  carriages.  Add  60  per  {'cnt.  for 
10''  and  40  per  cent,  for  1.5"  carriages  with  imeu- 
matic  buflfcrs,  and  30  and  20  per  cent,  for  these  car- 
riages with  hydraulic  buffers.  One  coat  will  last  a 
year.  Oriental  red  is  the  best  for  iron-work,  most 
durable,  and  retains  its  full,  rich,  red  color  better 
than  other  metallic  paints.  For  use  mix  100  pounds 
of  oriental  red  paint  (in  a  dry  state)  with  .5  gallons 
of  raw  linseed-oil  to  prepare  it  for  grinding  ;  for  use, 
add  10  gallons  boiled  linseed-oil,  1  gallon  spirits  of 
turpentine,  i  gallon  Japan  dryer;  mix  thoroughly. 
This  mixture  will  make  about  230  pounds.  Brown 
metallic  paint  requires  about  the  same  quantity  of 
oils,  etc.  The  oriental  red  has  a  good  body,  spreads, 
and  adheres  well  to  iron.  Vermilion  red  and  red  ochre 
are  good  substitutes  when  the  oriental  is  not  avail- 
able ;  their  color  may  be  moderated  by  yellow  ochre. 
Spanish  brown  is  also  a  good  substitute  for  oriental 
red.  Mix  as  follows  :  100  pounds  of  Spanish  brown, 
with  2-5  pounds  of  red  lead  ;  grind  each  in  raw  lin- 
seed-oil before  mixing.  Mix  as  for  oriental  red  ;  the 
red  lead  makes  this  paint  dry  harder  and  firmer,  and 
stands  exposure  well.  It  requires  about  2  gallons 
more  oil  than  the  oriental  red. 

Before  painting,  all  blisters,  rust,  or  accumulation 
of  old  paint  should  be  removed  with  a  scraper.  The 
top  of  the  chassis  rails  should  neither  be  painted  nor 
oiled,  but  kept  clean  by  dry  scraping.  All  iron 
handspikes,  elevating-bars,  and  similar  implements, 
are  painted  black,  using  for  this  purpose  common 
black  paint.  Heads  of  bolts  and  edges  of  rails  may 
likewise  be  painted  black.  The  damp  location  of 
most  artillery  posts  is  particularly  favorable  to  the 
rapid  decay  of  material.  Rust  gradually  eats  away 
iron  parts  of  carriages  and  machines.  These  defects 
are  frequently  hidden  by  repeated  coats  of  paint  or 
lacquer,  making  them  extremelj' liable  to  lead  to  ac- , 


Lead 
color. 


Olive.     Black. 


Pound*, 
6 
8 
6 


Pounds. 
10 
15 
10 
13 
11 


PoundJi. 
0.75 
0.80 
l.CO 
0.90 
1.00 
0.75 


Metallic. 


Pound*. 


:iL 


10 

11 

10 

11 

14 
20 


gun  was  9J  feet  long,  with  a  bore  of  8|  inches,  and  a 
weight  of  about  7,400  pounds.  The  charge  was  be- 
tween lOi  and  18  pounds  of  powder.  It  would  bear 
hollow  shot  of  60  pounds,  or  solid  shot  of  K6  to  8« 
pounds.  The  chell  was  mostly  employed  for  incen- 
diary purposes,  and  was  either  charged  with  gun 
powder  alone,  or,  as  in  the  French  service,  with  gun 
powder  and  carcass  composition.     See  Ordnance. 

FALASIN. — A  term  originally  derived  from  the 
Counts  Palatine  or  of  the  Palace,  who  were  the 
highest  dignitaries  in  the  Byzantine  Court,  and 
thence  used  generally  for  a  Lord  or  Chiefiain,  and 
by  the  Italian  romantic  poets  for  a  Knight-Errant. 

PALAESTRA.  — In  Grecian  antiquity,  apublic  build- 
ing where  the  youth  exercised  themselves  in  the 
military  art,  wrestling,  running,  etc. 

PALANKA. — A  species  of  permanent  intrenched 
camp  attached  to  Turkish  frontier  fortresses,  in 
which  the  ramparts  are  revetted  with  large  beams. 
rising  7  or  8  feet  above  the  eartlswork,  so  as  to  form 
a  stronu'  palisade  above. 

PALANQUIN— PALKI.— A  vehicle  commonly  used 
in  Hindustan  by  travelers,  and  for  the  transport  of 
sick  and  wounded.  It  is  usually  a  wooden  box, 
about  8ft.  long  4ft.  wide, and  4ft.  high. with  wooden 
shutters  which  can  be  opened  or  .shut  at  pleasure, 
and  constructed  like  Venetian  blinds  for  the  purpose 
of  admitting  fresh  air.  while  at  the  same  time  they 
exclude  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  and  the  heavy 
showers  of  rain  so  common  in  that  country.  The 
furniture  of  the  interior  consists  of  a  cocoa  mattress 
well  stuffed  and  covered  with  morocco  leather,  on 
which  the  traveler  reclines  :  two  small  bolsters  are 
placed  under  his  he.ad,  and  one  under  his  thighs,  to 
render  his  position  as  comfortable  as  possible.  At 
the  upper  end  is  a  shelf  and  drawer,  and  at  the  sides 
are  nettings  of  larger  dimensions  than  the  ordinary 
pockets  in  carriages,  for  containing  those  articles 
which  may  be  nece.s.sary  during  the  journey.  At 
each  end  of  the  palanquin,  on  the  outside,  two  iron 
rings  are  fixed,  and  the  fianunais,  or  palanquin-bear- 


PALE. 


472 


FAILISEB  GUH. 


crs,  of  whom  there  are  four,  two  at  each  end,  sup- 
port the  palanquin  by  a  pole  passing  through  these 
rings.  Traveling  in  this  mode  is  continued  both  by 
day  and  night.  The  palanquia  is  also  used  at  the 
present  day  in  Brazil,  with  the  prominent  exception 
of  Rio  Janeiro. 

Similar  modes  of  traveling  have  been  at  various 
times  in  use  in  western  Europe,  but  only  for  short 
distances.  The  Roman  '•litter,"  the  French  "chaise 
a  porteurs,"  and  the  "  sedau-chair  "  were  the  forms 
of  vehicle  most  in  use,  and  the  two  latter  were  in 
general  use  till  they  were  superseded  by  hackney 
coaches.  The  Roman  "  litter"  was  one  of  the  criteria 
of  its  owner's  wealth,  the  rich  man  generallj-  exhibit- 
ing the  prosperous  condition  of  his  affairs  by  the 
mulitude  of  the  bearers  and  other  attendants  accom- 
panying him.     See  Stretcher  and  Tico-harse  Litter. 

FAL£.  1.  In  Heraldry,  one  of  the  figures  known 
as  ordinaries,  consisting  of  a  perpendicular  band  in 


the  middle  of  the  shield,  of  which  it  is  said  to  occu- 
py one-third  (No.  1).  Several  charges  of  any  kind 
aie  said  to  be  "in  pale"  when  they  stand  overeach 
other  perpendicularly,  as  do  the  three  lions  of  En- 
gland. A  sliield  divided  through  the  middle  by  a 
perpendicular  line  is  said  to  be  "parted  per  pale."  The 
Pallet  is  the  diminutive  of  the  pale,  and  is 
most  generally  not  borne  singly.  Three 
pallets  gules  (No.  2),  were  the  arms  of  Ray- 
mond, Count  of  Provence.  When  the  field 
Is  divided  into  an  even  number  of  parts 
by  perpendicular  lines,  it  is  called  "paly 
of"  so  many  pieces  as  the  (No.  3),  Paly 
of  six  argent  and  gules,  the  arms  of  the 
family  of  Ituthven.  When  divided  bylines 
perpendicular  and  bendways  crossing,  it  is 
called  pa!  bend_v  (No.  4).  An  Endorse  is  a 
further  diminutive  of  the  pallet,  and  a 
pale  placed  between  two  endorses  is  said 
to  be  endorsed  (No.  5).  2.  In  Irish 
histor}',  pale  means  that  portion  of  the 
Kingdom  over  which  the  English  rule  and  English 
law  was  acknowledged.  There  is  so  much  vague- 
ness in  the  meaning  of  the  term  that  a  few  words  of 
explanation  appear  necessary.  The  vagueness  arises 
from  the  great  tiuctuations  which  the  English  author- 
ity underwent  in  Ireland  at  various  periods, and  from 
the  consequent  fluctuation  of  the  actual  territorial 
limits  of  the  pale.  The  designation  dates  from  the 
reign  of  John,  who  distributed  the  portion  of  Ireland 
then  nominally  subject  to  England  into  twelve  coun- 
ties palatine,  Dublin,  Meath,Kildare,  Louth,  Oarlow, 
Kilkenny,  Wexford, Waterford,  Cork,  Kerry,  Tipper- 
arv  and  Limerick.  To  this  entire  district,  in  a  gen- 
eral waj',  was  afterwards  given  the  designati(m  of 
tlie  Pale.  But,  as  it  may  be  said  that  the  term  is 
commonly  applied  by  the  writers  of  each  age  to  the 
actual  English  territory  of  the  jieriod,  ami  as  this 
varied  very  much,  care  must  be  taken  lo  allude  to 
the  age  of  which  the  name  Pale  is  used.  Thus, 
very  soon  after  the  important  date  of  the  statute  of 
Kilkenny,  at  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Edward  111., 
the  English  law  extended  only  to  tlw  four  comities 
of  Dublin,  Carlow.  Mea'li,  and  Louth.  In  the  reign 
of  Henry  VI.  the  limits  were  still  further  restricted. 
In  a  general  way,  however,  the  Pale  may  be  con- 
sidered as  ctmiprising  the  Counties  of  Dulilin,  Meatli, 
Carlow,  Kilkenny,  and  Louth.  This,  altliough  not 
quite  cxiKi,  will  he.  sullicienl  for  most  purposes. 

PALEAGAS.  -Chiefs  of  mountainous  and  woody 
districts  in  the  peninsula  if  India,  who  pay  only  a 
temporary  liomaL'e.    Also  written  I'l'tyrinrK. 

PALETTES.  — The  imrt  of  the  armor  protecting  the 


arm-pits.  Pnlettes  date  back  to  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  disappear  at  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth. 

PALINTONE. — An  ancient  machine  of  war,  de- 
scribed by  Heron,  Philon  and  Vitruvius.  It  was  a 
varietv  of   the  catapult. 

PALISADES.— A  palisade  is  a  stake  about  ten  feet 
long,  and  of  triangular  form,  each  side  of  the  tri- 
angle being  eight  inches.  The  trunks  of  straight 
trees  should  be  s  "lected  for  palisades.  The  diameter 
j  of  the  trunk  should  be  from  sixteen  to  twenty  inches. 
:  The  trunk  is  sawed  into  lengths  of  ten  and  a  half 
}  feet,  and  is  split  up  into  rails,  each  length  furnishing 
from  five  to  seven  rails.  The  palisade  is  pointed  at 
top  ;  the  other  extremity  ma^'  be  charred  if  the  wood 
is  seasoned,  otherwise  the  charring  will  be  cf  no  ser- 
vice. A.  pnlisadin/j  is  a  TOW  of  palisades  set  in  the 
ground,  either  vertically,  or  slightly  inclined  towards 
the  enemy.  To  plant  ihe  palisades,  a  trench  is  dug 
three  feet  deep;  they  are  then  placed  about  three 
inches  asunder,  with  an  edge  towards  the  enemy. 
Each  palisade  is  nailed  to  a  strip  of  thick  plank, 
termed  a  riband,  placed  horizontally  about  one  foot 
below  the  ground;  another  riband  is  placed  eighteen 
inches  below  the  top.  The  earth  is  firmly  packed  in 
the  trench.  A  palisading  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
priinar}'  means  of  defence,  particularly  for  low  works. 
A  banquette  is  tlirown  up  for  this  purpose  against 
it;  the  tread  of  the  banquette  being  six  feet  below 
the  top  of  the  palisading,  and  four  feet  three  inches 
below  the  upper  riband.  As  an  obstacle  in  flanked 
works,  it  is  best  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  counter- 
scarp ;  the  points  being  twelve  inches  below  its  crest, 


or  else  covered  by  a  small  glacis.  In  this  position 
the  palisading  fulfills  all  the  conditions  of  an  efficient 
obstacle ;  it  is  under  the  fire  of  the  work ;  covered 
from  the  enemy's  fire ;  will  not  afford  a  shelter  to 
the  enemy  ;  and  cannot  be  cut  down  without  great 
difficulty.  An  inclined  palisading, [as  shown  in  the 
drawing,  is  sometimes  placed  in  an  advanced  posi- 
tion in  front  of  an  ordinary  trench  to  secure  it  from 
surprise.  This  was  done  to  secure  a  line  of  trench 
at  the  seige  of  Fort  Wagner.  The  palisading  was 
made  at  the  depot  in  panels  of  four  or  five  palisades, 
cut  from  pine  saplings  Tar3'ing  from  four  to  eight 
inches  in  diameter,  those  above  five  inches  being 
split  in  two,  and  placed  with  the  bark  side  upwards. 
The  spaces  between  the  palisades  were  left  onl)'  small 
enough  to  prevent  a  man  forcing  his  bodj'  through 
them.  See  AcreMnry  Means  nf  Defence,  and  Stockade. 
PALL.— In  Heraldry,  the  upper 
part  of  a  saltire  conjoined  to  the 
lower  part  of  a  pale.  It  appears 
much  in  the  arms  of  ecclesiastical 
sees. 

PALLISERBOLT.— A  screw  bolt 
for  .securing  armor-plates.      The 
end  upon  which  the  screw-thread 
is  cut  is  larger  than  the  sh;ink.     See  Units. 

PALLISER  GUN.— Major  Palliser,  of  the  British 
Service,  describes  his  manner  of  making  a  gun  to 
consist  in  introducing  into  a  cast-iron  gun  a  barrel 
or  hollow  cylinder  of  coiled  wrought-iron,  of  such 
thickness  in  ])ro|)ortioii  to  its  calilicr,  that  the  resi- 
duiil  strain  borne  by  the  tube  shall  have  a  relation 


PalL 


■^      E 


N 


.1  Ss) 


[ 


\. 


3      C. 


PALLIBEK  PROJECTILES. 


473 


PALM. 


to  the  fltrain  it  transinits  to  llic  surroiimJini;  cast- 1 
iron,  wlii<-li  sliiill  be  most  suiUtbly  pr(i|)i)rti(iiii-il  to 
their  respective  elastieitiefl.     Tlie  |)reeiH(^  proportionH  • 
will  (lejiend  on  various   ('irciinistunccs,   viz:   the   ex-  j 
cessive  expansion  of  wroufjlit-iron  ducr  to  heat,  also 
the  t;reater  rani^e  lietween  tlie  limits  of  eUislieily  and  j 
rupture  of  this  metal,  anil  that  the  eastinm  will  have 
to  do  nearly  all  the  l(in;;itudinal  worU.     liy  varying 
the  thiekniss  of   the  tube,    the    transmitted  strains 
ran  be  n'i;ulated  with  the'  greatest  nieety. 

The  mi'lhod  of  construction  is  very  simple.  The 
gun  having  bei-n  bored,  a  coiled  wrought-iron  tube 
is  inserted,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  tube  con- 
sists of  two  thin  wrought-iron  liarnOs,  the  outer  one 
being  much  shorter  tlian  the  inner  one.  and  shrunk 
to  it  at  the  breech-c'nd.  Two  are  used  tor  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  the  benelit  of  the  tension,  and  also 
to  break  the  contiauity  of  any  internal  fracture.  The 


from  the  center  of  gravity,  and  llin  Rame  diRtance 
apart  on  all  projectilen  for  the  same  gun.  The  bear- 
ing of  the  projectile  i»on  the  Htiids  alone.  The  solid 
shot  are  constructed  on  the  plan  of  .Major  Palliser, 
formerly  of  the  Hoyal  Artilliry,  and  are  designed 
especiafly  for  the  penetration  of  armor.  They  con- 
sist, as  shown  in  th(^  drawing,  of  the  /wdy  IJ,  from 
(/))  to  (/>'):  of  the  /laid  II,  fro.Ti  (//)  to  C//;;  the  fatit// 
C;  the  stneh  S;  the  ncreir.plhf/l\  with  its  //uii/iing(p); 
and  two  rxtr'irl'tr-hidiH,  one  shown  at  E.  The  es- 
sential feature  of  this  [irojcctile  is  that  the  body  is 
east  in  a  sand  mold  and  the  head  in  one  of  metal. 
J$y  this  means,  the  head  is  chilled  white  nearly  to 
the  center,  and  acipiircs  the  pro[irrties  iii  intense 
hardness,  crushing  strength,  brittleness,  and  hi'.rh 
dc-nsity.  Hardness  here  relates  to  the  rigidity  of 
actual  particles,  and  crushing  strength  to  the  rigid 
conneclion  or  building  up  of  particles  so  as  to  resist 


tube  is  made  to  slightly  taper,  and  the  bore  of  the 
gun  is  tapered  correspondingly;  the  tube  is  jjlaced 
in  the  li(}re,  and  as  soon  as  it  comes  m  contact 
throughout  its  length,  a  screw-locking  ring.  A,  which 
lakes  against  a  shoulder  on  the  tube,  is  screwed  into 
the  muzzle,  and  sets  the  tube  home ;  and  since  in 
praeties  it  has  been  found  that  the  elasticity  of  tlie 
wrought-iron  inner  lube  is  not  proportioned  to  its 
greater  elongation,  the  deticiency  is  supjilied  by 
putting  the  tube  under  slight  compression,  which  is 
elTi-cled  by  permanenlly  stretching  the  wrought-iron 
in  the  gun  by  heavy  proof-charges.  The  tube  is 
further  secured  in  the  gun  by  means  of  a  screw  which 
passes  through  the  cast-iron  shell  a  short  distance  be- 
fore the  trunnions  at  right  angles  to  the  bore,  and 
screws  into  the  tube. 

In  the  larger  guns  Captain  Palliscr  proposes  to  use 
two  or  more  concentric  tubes.  In  the  very  largest 
guns  he  proposes  three  tubes,  the  inner  one  to  be  of 
tlie  softest  and  most  ductile  wrought-iron  ;  the  next 
may  be  of  a  stronger  and  harsher  nature  ;  the  third 
of  steel  for  some  distance  in  front  of  tiie  chamber. 
The  system  is  being  applied  in  the  United  States, 
and  with  most  promising  results,  in  the  conversion 
of  10"  Rodman  guns  into  8"  rifles.  In  these  guns 
the  rifling  consists  of  fifteen  grooves  and  lands  of 
equal  width,  with  a  uniform  twist  of  one  turn  in 
forty  feet.  The  shape  of  the  groove  is  flat.  The 
center  of  gravity  is,  b\'  this  alteration,  thrown  in 
front  of  the  axis  of  the  trunnions.  This  renders  a 
special  elevating  apparatus  necessarj-.  The  rifle 
thus  obtained,  though  giving  to  a  projectile  a  less 
muzzle  velocitj'  than  does  the  10"  smooth-bore,  has, 
on  account  of  the  increased  weight  of  shot,  greater 
penetrating  power  at  all  ranges,  being  doubled  at 
s:mie  and  trebled  at  others.  Its  accuracj'  is  three 
times  greater  and  the  capacity  of  its  shell  twice  that 
of  the  original  gun.  See  Built-up  Guns.  Converted 
(ri/ni,  and  Ordnance. 

PALLISER  PROJECTILES.— The  French  and  Wool- 
wich systems  ilitTer  only  in  the  form  and  position  of 
the  studs. and  the  material  of  whieli  they  are  made; 
in  each  system,  the  number  of  buttons  varies  with 
the  size  of  the  gun,  there  being,  however,  always 
one  set  for  each  groove  in  the  piece.  The  body  of 
these  projectiles  is  made  of  cast-iron :  the  form  is 
cylindro-ogival.  The  studs,  of  an  alloy  of  copper 
and  tin,  are  secured  to  the  projectile  by  beingpressed 
into  undercut  holes;  their  shape  differs  with  the 
kind  of  rifling  employed.  Two  studs  to  each  groove 
are  used  for  all  guns  smaller  than  12  inches  \p  cali- 
ber, and,  except  for  cored  shot,  are  at  equal  distances 


[  their  being  forced  in  upon  each  other.  The  deficien- 
'  cy  of  the  heail  iii  tenacity  is  met  by  the  form  given 
)  to  it.  The  body  of  the  projectile,  being  cast  in  sand, 
has  greater  tenacity  than  the  head;  a  sounder  casting 
is  ensured;  and  the  metal  is  rendered  much  less  sub- 
ject to  the  action  of  the  mf)lecular  forces  which  may 
either  split  it  in  store,  or  crack  it  so  as  to  cause  rup- 
ture intheboreof  the  gun;  the  presence  of  the  cavity 
also  reduces  this  liability,  and 
adds  to  the  strength  of  the  pro- 
jectile, as  it  is  very  diflicult  to 
obtain  a  solid  casting  from  such 
a  metal,  and  any  defect  in  this 
respect  would  be  a  source  of 
weakness.  The  shape  of  the 
cavity  is  especially  adapted  to 
the  work  required.  The  iron  i.s 
cast  aliout  the  bushing  in  the 
base,  which  is  of  wrought-iron, 
as  the  metal  employed. even  wIk  n 
cast  in  sand,  is  too  hard  to  admit 
of  tool  work.  The  Palliscr  Shell  also  is  designed  for 
the  penetration  of  armor,  and  differs  from  the  shot 
in  construction  only,  having  a  larger  cavity  in  order 
that  a  bursting-charge  may  be  used.  No  fuse  is  em- 
ployeil,  the  charge  being  ignited  by  the  heat  pro- 
duced in  the  metal  on  impact.  To  prevent  the  explo- 
sion from  taking  place  before  uenetratiou  is  accom- 
plished, the  interior  of  the  shell  is  covered  with  a 
lacker,  and  the  charge  is  placed  in  a  woolen  bag. 
The  Boxer  shrapnel,  named  from  its  inventor,  em- 
bodies all  the  features  essential  to  such  a  projectile. 
The  charge  being  at  the  base,  the  t<'ndency  is,  on 
explosion,  to  increase  the  forward  velocity  of  the 
bullets  instead  of  their  lateral  spread.  See  SturitUd 
Pri))frt>lfs. 

PALM. — That  measure  of  length,  originally  taken 
from  the  width  of  the  hand,  measured  across  the 
joints  of  the  four  lingers.  In  Greece  it  was  known 
as  palahte.  and  was  reckoned  at  3  in.,  or  J  of  a  cubit, 
which  was  their  standard  unit.  The  Homans-.idopt 
ed  two  measures  of  this  name — the  one  was  th( 
Greek  pal'iixte.  and  was  c:illed  pnlmu.t  minor ;  tli( 
other,  which  was  not  introduced  till  later  times,  wa: 
called  piilmiis  innjr>r,  or  pahna.  and  was  taken  from 
the  length  of  the  hand,  being  therefore  usually  es- 
timated at  three  times  the  length  of  the  other.  .\t 
the  present  day,  this  measure  varies  in  a  most  ar- 
bitrary manner,  being  different  in  each  country,  and 
occasionally  varying  in  the  same.  The  English  palm, 
when  used  at  all.  whirti  is  seldom,  is  considered  to 
be  the   fourth  part  of  an  English  foot  or  3  inches. 


PALMER  EQUIPMENT. 


474 


PAHIC. 


The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most  common  measures 
to  which  the  name  palm  is  given  : 

Value  in  Eng. 
inches. 

Greek  palaiste =     3.03375 

Roman  ^"im'M,  or  lesser  palm       .       =     2.9124 
pnlma,  or  greater  palm  .  =     8.7373 

English  palm  (J-  of  a  foot)      .         .       =     3.0000 
Hamburg  palm  ({  of  a  foot)      .         .  =     3.7633 
Amsterdam  "round"  palm     .         .       =     4.1200 
'•diameter"  palm    .         .  =  11.9687 

EolSbaXaTm}  P-perly  the  ..«V«...^    3.9371 
Spanish  Palm,  or prttoo  OTo/'jr  .         .  =     8.3450 
•'  "      oxpalmo  minor       .       =.     2.7817 

Portuguese  palm, orT^cr/morfc  Craveira^     8.6616 
In  Germany  and  in  the  low  countries  the  palm  is 

feneraUy  confined  to  wood-measurement,  while  in 
'ortugal  it  used  to  be  the  standard  of  linear  meas- 
ure. 

PALMER  EQUIPMENT.— The  Equipment,  invent- 
ed by  Lieutenant  George  H.  Palmer,  of  the  U.  S. 
Army,  consists  of  carrying-braces, coat-straps,  knap- 
sack,and  haversack — the  whole  weighing  'A^  pounds. 
The  haversack,  which  is  a  little  smaller  than  the 
knapsack,  is  carried  on  the  rightside,  th^  knapsack 
on  the  left  side  The  carrying-braces  consist  of  a 
back-pad  and  double  shoulder-straps — two  straps 
for  each  shoulder.  The  shoulder-straps  are  attached 
to  the  back-pad  by  rivets,  so  as  to  be  movable  on 
their  fastenings.  The  back-pad  gives  additional 
bearing-surface  for  the  weight  carried.  Its  shape 
enables  the  shoulder-straps  to  be  attached  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  separate  them  on  the  back  and  should- 
ers. The  back-pad,  in  connection  with  the  should- 
er-straps, prevents  the  weight  carried  from  pulling 
directly  downward  on  the  shoulders,  instead  of 
which  it  tends  to  pull  toward  the  center  of  the  back 
by  means  of  a  pad  supporting  a  portion  of  the  weight. 
Two  straps  are  attached  to  the  front  ends  of  each 
shoulder-strap,  for  supporting  the  front  corners  of 
the  bags,  the  waist-belt,  and  cartridge-boxes.  To 
the  back-pads  are  fastened  rings  which  hold  the 
blanket-straps.  Two  straps  are  attached  to  the  pad 
for  supporting  the  rear  corners  of  the  bags.  On 
these  straps  is  a  double  loop,  which  may  be  moved 
down  or  up,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  the  bags  to- 
gether at  the  back,  or  to  permit  them  to  hang  at  the 
sides.  A  strap  looped  at  each  end  is  on  the  blanket- 
straps  and  passes  underneath  the  straps  supporting 
the  bags,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  blanket 
more  firmly  in  place  when  marching  at  double  time. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  bags  are  straps  with  buckles 
for  diawing  the  bags  together  at  the  back  and  to  re- 
tain them  more  firmly  in  place. 

PALUDAMENTUM.— A  military  mantle,  worn  by 
the  ancient  Romans,  differing  little,  if  at  all,  from 
the  Chlamj-s.  It  was  worn  by  the  otficers  and  prin- 
cipal men  iu  the  time  of  war,  who  were  therefore 
called  Paludiiti,  and  this  distinguished  them  from  the 
common  soldiers, who,  because  they  wore  the  Saguin. 
were  caWvd  the  fSrigat).  The  Paludamtntum,  which 
was  generally  white  or  red. came  down  to  the  knees  or 
lower,  was  open  in  front,  hung  loosely  over  the 
shoulders,  and  was  fastened  across  the  chest  by  a 
clasp.     Also  written  Pnli/r'imditiim. 

PALY. — A  term  used  in  Heraldry,  to  signify  di- 
vision into  four  or  more  e(iual  parts  by  perpendicular 
lines,  and  of  two  different  tinctures  disposed  alter- 
liatcl>.     See  Pale. 

PAN. — 1.  That  part  of  the  lock  of  a  musket,  pis- 
tol, etc.,  which  holds  the  priming  powder,  the  neces- 
sity <if  which  is  sujxTseded  by  the  use  of  percussion- 
caps.  2.  The  distance  wliii^li  is  comprised  between 
the  angle  of  the  cpaule  and  tlie  Hanked  angle  in  a 
fortification.  3.  In  military  history,  one  wlio  was 
Lieutenant  General  to  JlrwcMuK and  his  Indian  ex- 
pedition. He  is  recordc'd  to  have  been  the  first 
author  of  a  general  .shout,  which  tlie  Grecians  prac- 
ticed in  the  beginning  of  their  outsets  in  battle. 


FANACHX. — A  plume  worn  upon  the  crest  of  an 
ancient  helmet.  The  term  is  now  commonly  applied 
to  any  militarj'  plume  or  feather. 

PANCARTE.— An  ancient  exercise  or  tournament, 
which  was  performed  in  the  Roman  Amphitheater, 
when  strong,  athletic  men  were  opposed  to  all  sorts 
of  enraged  animals. 

PAN  COUPE. —The  short  length  of  parapet  by  which 
the  salient  angle  of  a  work  is  sometimes  <-ut  off. 

PANDOURS. — A  people  of  Servian  origin  who  lived 
scattered  among  the  mountains  of  Hungary,  nearthe 
village  of  Pandour  in  the  county  of  Sohl.  The  name 
used  to  be  applied  to  that  portion  of  the  light-armed 
infantry  iu  the  Austrian  service  which  is  raised  in  the 
Slavonian  districts  on  the  Turkish  frontier.  The 
Pandours  originally  fought  under  the  orders  of  their 
own  ])roper  cliief ,  who  was  known  as  Harun-Basha, 
and  rendered  essential  service  to  the  Austriaus  dur- 
ing the  Spanish  war  of  succession,  and  afterward  in 
the  Seven  Years  War.  They  originally  fought  after 
the  fashion  of  the  "free  lances,"  and  were  a  terror 
to  the  enemy  whom  they  annoyed  incessantly.  Their 
appearance  was  exceedingly  picturesque, being  some- 
what oriental  in  character,  and  their  arms  consisted 
of  a  musket,  pistols,  a  Hungarian  saber,  and  two 
Turkish  poniards.  Their  habits  of  brigandage  and 
cruelty  rendered  them,  however,  as  much  a  terror 
to  the  people  they  defended  as  to  the  enemy.  Since 
1750  they  have  been  gradually  put  under  a  stricter 
discipline  and  are  now  incorporated  with  the  Aus- 
trian frontier  regiments. 

PANIC. — A   term  employed  where  fear,   whether 
arising  from  an  adequate  or  inadequate  cause,  obtains 
the  mastery  over  every  other  consideration  and  mo- 
tive, and  urges  to  dastard  extravagance,  or  hurries 
into  danger  or  even  unto  death.       An  inexplicable 
sound  causes  a  rush  from  a  church,  a  vague  report 
in  the  market-place  causes  a  run  on  a  bank,  and  pre- 
cipitate  the   very   events  that   are  dreaded.     This 
emotion  either  differs  from  natural  apprehension,  or 
presents  so  intense  and  uncontrollable  a  form  of  the 
feeling,  that  it  is  propagable  from  one  person  to  an- 
other, and  involves  alike  the  educated  and  ignorant 
— those  who  act  from  judgment  as  well  as  those  who 
act  from  impulse.      There  are,  besides  this  feature, 
several  grounds  for  believing  that  such  manifesta- 
tions of  involimtary  terror  are  of  morbid  origin,  and 
should  be  regarded  as  moral  epidemics.     They  have 
generally  arisen  during,  or  have  followed,   seasons 
of   scarcity  and  of  phj'sical  want   and  disease,  the 
ravages  of  war  or  periods  of  great  religious  fervor 
and  superstition.     The  dancing  mania,  the  retreat  of 
the   French  Army   from  Moscow,   and  recent  and 
familiar  commercial  panics    afford   illustrations  of 
certain  of  these   relations.     The   most  notable  in- 
stance of  universal  panic,   and  that  which  demon- 
strates most  aptly  the  connection  here  indicated,  is 
the  dread  of  the  approacliingend  of  the  world  which 
pervaded  all  minds,  and  almost  broke  up   human 
society,  in  the  10th  century.     The  Empire  of  Charle- 
magne had  fallen  to  pieces  ;  public  misfortune  and 
civil  discord  merged  into  miser}-  and  famine  so  ex- 
treme  that   cannibalism   prevailed   even   in  Paris  ; 
superstitions   and   vague    predictions    became   for- 
malized into  a  prophecy  of  tlie  end  of  all  things  and 
universal  doom  in  the  year  1000-      This  expectation 
suspended  even  vengeance  and  war.      The   "Truce 
of  God"   was  proclaimed.     Enormous  riches  were 
placed  upon  the  altars.      Worship  and  praise  never 
ceased.      The   fields  were   left   uncultivated  ;  serfs 
were  set  free  ;  four  Kings  and  thousanils  of  Nobles 
retired  to  the  cloister  ;  and  all  men,   according  to 
their  tendeiieies,  prepared  to  die.       It  is  worthy  of 
note    that  during  all   iiestilenres   there   have  arisen 
epidemic  terrors,  not  so  much  of  the  devastations  of 
disease,  as  of  plots  and  poisonings  directed  by  the 
rich  against  the  poor.      Even  where  these  epidemic 
terrors    are    legitimately     traceable    to    local    and 
])hysiml    causes,    as   in   the   case  of   the   singular 
affection  timoria,  which  occurs  in  the  marshy  and 


FAItNELS. 


475 


PAF£B  AMMUNITION  FOB  SMALL  ABM8. 


unhcaltliy  districta  in  Saniinin,  thf  tremor  and 
trcpidatinn,  iiiid  iilliir  phciuiiiiena,  arc  asi-ribeil  to 
the  inaixi'al  iiilhiciKM' (if  iTiciiiicH. 

PANNELS.  Ill  arlillcry,  llic  carriagr's  upon  whicli 
mortars  and  their  beds  arc  eonveyed  on  a  march. 

PANNIERS.— 1.  Shields  of -basket  work  formerly 
used  liv  archers, who  set  tlicni  up  in  front  during  bat- 
tle. 2.  Wicker  baskets  of  various  slia|)es. usually  slung 
in  pairs  over  the  back  of  a  pack-animal  to  carry  a 
load.  Also  leather  bags  used  in  the  .tame  way;  and 
especially  the  cases  used  for  carrying  medicines.  See 
J'ai'k-Mi'li/lr. 

PANONCEAU.--An  ancient  name  for  an  ensign  or 
banner. 

PANOPLY. — Complete  armor  or  defense  ;  a  full  suit 
of  defensive  armor. 

PANTAGRAPH  PANTOGRAPH.— An  instrument 
for  copying  maps  and  oIIht  drawings.  Its  invention 
is  ascriiied  to  t'liristophcr  Scheiner,  a  .Jesuit,  in  1003. 
It  has  since  nndergon(^  various  niodilications  and 
improvements.  Jt  usually  consists  (Fig.  Ijof  four 
metallic  rules,  jointed  two  and  two.  and  perforated 
with  holes,  a  tracer,  a  pencil  or  picker ;  and  a  screw 
or  point  which  is  forced  into  the  drawing-board  or 
table  to  hold  the  instrument  in  position.  For  use, 
the  rules  arc  secured  to  each  other  by  inserting 
thumb-screws  through  the  holes  corresjionding  with 
the  scale  to  which  the  drawing  is  to  ije  reduced  or 
enlarged.       The  micropantagraph,U8ed  for  copying 


copy.  To  remedy  tlieRC  defects,  the  pantagraph  liati 
been  constructeil  in  a  variety  of  forms,  all  of  which, 
however,  like  the  one  described,  depend  upon  the 
principle  that  the  two  triangles  which  liave,  for  their 
angular  points,  the  fulcrum  the  pencil-point  and  a 
joint,  and  the  fulcrum,  the  tracer-ixiint,  and  a  joint, 
must  always  preserve  their  similarity. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  instrument  arranged  for  use  as 
an  accessory  to  the  indicator,  to  reduce  the  motion 
between  the  cross-head,  or  any  other  part  of  the 
engine,  iii   I  the  indicator.— See  7,'izi/  TimfjK. 

PANTHER.-  A  term  in  Heraldry.  The  panthtr  iB 
borne  gardant  and  incensed,  i.f.,  with  (ire  issuing 
from  his  mouth  and  ears. 

PANZERBRECKEH.-  An  ancient  small, three-sided 
poiiiiird.  It  ligured  cons])i(uously  at  the  battle  of 
IJouvines.  in  1214. 

PAPEGAI.  A  popinjay  ;  a  bird  made  of  wood  or 
pasteboard,  stuck  upon  a  lance,  and  used  as  a  mark 
when  practicing  with  the  bow,  cross-bow,  musket, 
etc. 

PAPER  AMMUNITION  FOR  SMALL  ARMS.— There 
are  two  kinds  of  paper  cartridges  u^cd  in  the  United 
Slates  Service,  the  ball-cartridge,  made  with  a  single 
elongated  ball,  and  the  blank  cartridge. 

Lead  balls  are  made  by  compression,  by  means  of 
nnichines  for  that  jiurpose.  J'alls  thus  made  are 
more  uniform  in  size  and  weight,  smoother,  more 
solid,  and  give  more  accurate  results  than  cast  balls. 


Fig.  1. 


mieriiscopic  di«patches,  may  be  described  as  a  system 
of  connected  pantagraphic  levers,  the  least  of  which 
carries  a  piece  of  glass  on  which  the  original  is  re- 
duced in  a  proportion  determined  by  the  relation  be- 
tween the  lengths  of  the  longer  and  shorter  arms  of 
the  series.  The  glass  rests  and  moves  upon  a 
diamond-point  while  the  point  remains  stationary. 
The  diamond  may  be  raised  or  lowered  by  ap- 
propriate mechanism,  to  regulate  the  width  and 
depth  of  the  cut,  or  entirely  remove  it  from  the  glass. 
With  an  instrument  of  this  kind  the  Lord's  Prayer 


has   been   written  within  the   space  of 


,  of  a 


square  inch.     In  the  same  ratio  the  whole  o'  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  would  be  contained  within -^V  of 


Fig.  2. 

a  square  inch.  The  defects  of  the  instrument  are  its 
weight  and  the  ditliculty  of  rendering  it  perfectly 
mobile,  both  of  which  prevent  that  steady  motion  of 
the  tracer  which  is  necessary  for  making  an  accurate 


Tiie  lead  is  first  cast  into  round  cylindrical  bars,  .58 
inch  in  diameter  for  the  calber  ..08,  and  21  inches 
long,  and  then  rolled  to  .46  inch  in  diameter  ;  length, 
2.5  i'ncues.  These  bars  are  fed  to  the  machine,  which 
cuts  off  a  part  sufficient  for  one  ball  and  transfers  it 
to  a  die,  in  which  the  ball  is  formed,  with  cavity 
and  rings,  the  surplus  metal  being  forced  out  in 
a  thin  belt  around  the  ball  in  the  direction  of 
its  axis.  The  balls  are  trimmed  by  hand,  with  a 
knife,  and  are  then  passed  tlirough  a  cylinder-gauge 
of  the  proper  size.  One  man  can  make  with  the 
machine  30,000  balls  in  ten  hours,  the  bars  of  lead 
being  prepared  for  him.  One  man  can  cast  1..500 
bars'  in  ten  hours,  and  can  trim  and  roll  2.0t)0  bars 
in  ten  hours.  A  boy  can  trim  and  gauge  .^.OOO 
in  10  hours.  Bullet-molds  are  provided  to 
cast  balls  where  the  pressed  Ijalls  cannot  be 
liad.  The  mold  is  so  constructed  as  to  trim 
the  balls  t)y  a  single  operation  before  they 
are  taken  from  the  mold.  To  grease  the  balls, 
place  them  on  their  bases  on  a  tin  frame 
capable  of  holding  /50  balls,  and  immerse 
it  in  a  melted  mixture  of  one  part  of  tallow 
and  eiffht  of  beeswa.x,  kept  warm,  until  the 
cylindrical  part  of  the  ball  is  covered.  Re- 
move the  frame  and  let  it  stand  till  thegrease 
hardens.  Three  frames  are  required  for  each 
boy. 

The  paper  is  first  cut  into  strips  of  a  width 
equal  to  the  length  of  a  trapezoid,  using  the 
pattern  as  a  gufde.  The  paper  and  ruler  are 
kept  from  moving  by  means  of  a  lever,  one 
end  of  which  is  fixed  and  the  other  is  moved 
by  the  foot  by  means  of  a  cord  and  treadle.  The 
knife  is  held  in  both  hands.  From  six  to  eight  reams 
maybe  cutat  a  time  m  this  way.  A  cutting-machine 
like  that  used  by  book-binders  facilitates  the  operju- 


PAFEB  AMMUNITION  FOE  SMALL  ARMS. 


476 


PAPER  AMMUNinON  FOE  SMALL-AEM8. 


tion  when  many  hands  are  employed.  When  only 
a  knife  and  ruler  are  used,  about  13  sheets  are  cut  at 
a  time. 

The  following  implements  are  required  by  each 
workman  when  making  the  cartridges  : 

Two  biyxex  to  hold  cylinders.  20  inches  long,  8 
inches  wide,  and  4  inches  liigh,  in  the  clear,  made  of 
^-inch  boards,  without  a  cover  ;  they  are  placed  on 
their  sides,  their  backs  inclined  against  the  partition 
in  the  middle  of  the  cartridge-table,  the  front  resting 
on  cleats  nailed  to  the  table  ;  1  former,  cylindrical, 
of  hard  wood,  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  ball,  6  to 
7  inches  long,  one  end  pointed  almost  as  much  as 
the  ball,  and  marked  with  a  shallow  groove  4  inches 
from  the  end  ;  1  xnbot  or  frame,  tacked  to  the  table, 
to  hold  balls,  placed  at  tlie  left  hand  of  the  boy  ;  1 
spool  ofthreiid.  turning  on  a  vertical  spindle  tixed  in 
the  table  near  the  balls  ;  1  choking-slring,  made  of 
four  or  live  cartridge-threads  twisted  together,  abovit 
9  inches  long,  with  a  wooden  toggle  at  \\xe  end,  fas- 
tened to  the  edge  of  the  table  at  the  right  hand  of 
the  boy;  1  knife  blade,  li  inch  long,  hooked,  driven 
into  the  front  of  the  table  below  and  near  the  choke- 
string. 

To  form  the  cylinder,  lay  the  trapezoids  on  the 
table  with  the  sides  perpendicular  to  the  bases,  to- 
ward the  workman,  the  broad  end  to  the  left.  Take 
the  former  in  the  right  hand  and  lay  it  on  a  trape- 
zoid, the  groove  in  flie  former  against  the  right  edge 
of  the  paper,  bringing  the  poinled  end  ^  inch  from 
the  broad  end  of  tfie  paper  ;  envelop  the  former  with 
the  paper  ;  then,  with  the  lingers  of  the  left  hand 
laid  flat  upon  the  paper,  turn  the  former  and  roll 
all  the  paper  upon  it ;  hold  it  firmly  with  the 
left  hand  and,  with  the  choking-stringin  the  right, 
take  one  turn  around  the  cylinder  at  about  \  inch 
from  the  end  ;  hold  the  former  firmly  in  the  left  hand 
and  draw  gently  upon  the  choking-string,  pressing 
at  the  same"  time  with  the  left  forefinger  upon  the 
projecting  end  of  the  cylinder,  thus  folding  it  neatly 


inder  on  it.  on  a  second  trapezoid ;  put  a  ball  over 
the  end  of  the  former  ;  roll  the  paper  on  the  former 
and  the  ball ;  hold  the  cylinder  in  the  left  hand  and 
choke  and  fie  it  as  thus  described  for  the  inner  cylin- 
der; withdraw  the  former,  pressing  the  cylinder  with 
the  left  hand,  and  place  it  in  the  box. 

The  following  implements  are  required  to  fill  the 
cylinder: 

One  charger,  made  of  a  cylinder  of  wood  or  brass 
pierced  with  two  holes  through  its  length,  holding 
the  exact  charge  of  powder ;  a  funnel  attached  to 
one  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  a  discharge  pipe  to  tho 
other.  Tlie  holes  in  the  cylinder  are  inade  to  com- 
nnmicate  and  shut  oft,  alternately,  from  the  funnel 
holding  the  powder,  and  the  discharge-pipe  at  the 
lower  end.  by  a  reciprocating  motion  given  to  the 
cylinder  by  the  hands.  Fill  the  funnel  with  powder, 
insert  the  discharge-pipe  in  a  cartridge,  holding  the 
charger  in  both  hands,  and  turn  the  cylinder  ;  the 
charge  of  powder  is  deposited  in  tlie  cartridge ;  in- 
sert the  pipe  in  the  next,  and  turn  the  cylinder  in  the 
opposite  direction,  and  continue  in  the  same  way 
for  all  the  rest.  Cartridges  may  be  filled  with  a 
copper  charger  made  to  hold  the  exact  charge,  pour- 
ing the  powder  by  means  of  a  small  funnel,  which  is 
inserted  in  the  cartridge. 

To  pinch  the  cartridge,  take  it  in  the  right  hand, 
strike  it  lightly  on  the  table  to  settle  the  powder; 
flatten  the  empty  part  of  the  cylinder  and  bend  it 
flush  with  the  top  of  the  powder  at  right  angles  to 
the  cartridge,  the  oblique  side  of  the  trapezoid  on 
top,  the  cartridge  standing  vertical  on  the  table;  fold 
the  flattened  part  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  with 
two  folds  from  the  exterior,  meeting  in  the  middle ; 
bend  this  folded  end  back  on  itself  and  strike  it  on 
the  table  to  set  the  folds. 

The  following  utensils  are  required  to  bundle  the 
cartridges : — 1  Tiox  without  ends  or  top,  width  equal 
to  five  times  the  diameter  of  the  ball,  height  equal  to 
twice  that  diameter,  and  length  that  of  the  cartridge. 


Cabtkidges  for  Small-arms. 


Kind  of  cartridge  . 


Kind  of  iirni.. 


Caliber inclies . 

_  ,,  (Diameter inches. 

"^" \  Weigllt grains . 

Charge  of  powder do    . 

f  Htinht inches. 

Trapezoid  <  Long  basse do    . 

(short  base do    . 

Number  of  trapezoids  in  one  sheet 

fLength inches. 

,,.  J  Width do    . 

v\  rapper <  Number  in  one  sheet 

(color 


Thread  for  I.UOO ounces. 

Weight  of  10  cartridges do     . 

( Length inches. 

BundlesoflO -^Wirtth do    . 

(I3cpth do    . 

.        ,•       ,  fLength do    . 

f  or  1,6a)  cartridges.  I  wmtn.................    ao    . 

Weight  of  box  packed pounds. 

Color  of  box 

fljength inches. 

Packing-box  for  1,000  1  WiiUh do    . 

balls.  1  Depth do    . 

l^Wiight pounds. 


Expanding-ball. 


.58 
.5775 
500 
60 
4.12 
4.0 
2.5 
16 
9 

6.5 
6 
Ordinary, 
color. 

.5 
13.5 
2.6 
2.9 
1.15 
14.75 
10.75 
6.38 
98 

Olive 

8.25 
8.25 
5 
73 


..58 
.577i 
450 
50 
4.12 
4.0 
2.5 
16 
9 

6.5 
6 
Red.... 


13 
2.5 
2.9 

1  15 


Gray . . . 
8.25 
8.25 
4.25 
59.5 


Blank. 


.58 


60 
3.75 
4.16 
2.2 

24 


Ordinary. 


15.5 
11.0 
6.25 


Olive.. 


Elongated  ball. 


.58 
.5775 
450 
40 
4.1 
4.0 
2.5 

1     • 
f.5 
6 
Blue 


.5 

12.5 

2.4 

2.9 

1.15 


Yellow. 
5.25 
5 

4.25 
59.5 


K 


.44 
.46 
216 
30 
2.75 
3.25 
1.6 
30 
8 

6.5 
6 
Ordinary 

.5 
6 

S.3 

2.0 

.85 

13.1 

4.6 

3.6 

28.5 

Olive  ... 


.38 
.39 
145 
17 
2.4 
2.5 
1.6 
40 
7.5 
4,9 
12 
Blue... 

.5 
5 

2.20 
1.9 
.85 
10.5 
3.8 
3.25 
16.5 
Blue.. . . 


K 


.54 
.56 
475 
50 
3 

3.25 
2.25 
24 
10 
6.8 
4 
Ordinary. 

.6 
13.5 
2.6 
2.5 

1.1 
14.7'5 
8.9 
6.2 

78 


Olive. 


down  upon  the  end  of  the  former.  Having  choked 
the  cylinder  close,  carry  it  to  the  right  side,  and 
with  the  thread  in  tlie  right  hand,  take  two  half- 
hitches  firmly  iiround  the  p:irt  that  has  been  choked  ; 
cut  the  ttirciid  on  the  knifc-lilade  anil  press  thi^  choke 
in  a  cavity  in  the  table;  place  the  former  with  a  cyl- 


It  is  tacked  to  the  table,  the  sides  parallel  to  and 
near  the  edge  of  the  table. 

I'ut  a  wrapi>ir  in  the  box,  the  long  side  perpen- 
diciilar  to  the  edge  of  the  table,  the  middle  of  the 
]iaper  in  the  middle  of  the  box;  parallel  lo  the  side8 
of  the  box,  two  tiers  of  cartridges  of  5  each,  the  baU<t 


PAPER8HELL. 


477 


FABABOLA. 


altcriiiitiiiij;;  briiij;  llxt  short  ends  of  Uu-  paper  to- 
Hi'lliir  1111(1  fold  them  twice  cIoHo  down  on  the  cur- 
tridiri  s;  insert  a  piicUago  of  Ciiprt  in  llic  end  of  the 
ImiidU' next  to  the  ends  of  the  lower  tier;  fold  the 
wrapper  on  the  ends  and  tie  the  bundle,  lirst  in  the 
direction  of  the  lenj^th,  then  its  breadtli,  with  the 
twine  fiLslencd  in  a  single-bow  knot. 

When  niakin;;  blank  carlridi;es,  cut  the  paper  into 
trapezoids,  as  for  llie  ball-carl rid;;es;  roll  the  trape- 
zoid on  tlic  former  one  turn, fold  down  this  much  of 
the  paper  on  the  head  of  tlnr  former  with  the  left 
hand;  roll  the  rest  of  the  papiT;  fold  down  the  rest 
of  tlie  iiaper;  touch  the  fold  with  a  little  paste  on  the 
finLi;cr;  press  the  end  of  the  informer  on  a  ball  im- 
bedded in  the  table  for  the  purpose;  remove  the 
cylinder  from  the  former:  place  ii  in  a  box  lo  dry. 
Fill  lh(^  cylinders,  as  dcscribnl.  for  ball-carlriilL'es. 

Halls  are  packed  in  boxes  with  tow  or  saw-dust, to 
prevent  their  bruising.  The  boxes  arc  made  of  1- 
inch  boards,  and  contain  1,000  balls.  They  arc  mark- 
ed on  both  ends  with  the  number  and  kind  of  balls, 
and  on  the  inside  of  the  cover  with  the  place  and 
dale  of  fabrication.  The  cover  is  fastened  with  six 
2-inch  screws,  and  the  l)oxes  must  be  hooped  with 
iron  for  transportation.     They  are  not  painted. 

TIk' c'lp  for  small-arms  is  made  of  copper.  It  is 
very  slightly  conical,  with  a  rim  or  Han^e  at  the  open 
end:  it  has  four  slits,  cxiendinj;  about  half  the  height 
of  the  cap.  The  cap  is  charg<'d  with  J'lilminate  of 
mercHry,  mixed  with  half  its  weight  of  niter,  the  ob- 
ject of  the  niter  being  to  render  the  fulminate  less 
explosive  and  to  give  body  to  the  11am<'.  To  protect 
the  percussion-]iowdcr  from  miiislurc,  and  alsoto  se- 
cure it  from  falling  out,  it  is  covered  over,  in  each 
cap,  with  a  tlrop  of  pure  shellac  varnish.  'I'hi'  cop- 
per for  making  tfie  cops  is  obtained  in  sheets  48  inches 
long  and  14  inches  wide,  weighing  3  pounds;  a  vari- 
ation of  4  ounces,  more  or  less,  is  allowed.  The  cop- 
per should  be  pure,  free  from  seams,  holes,  or  blis- 
ters, well  annealed,  and  as  evenly  rolled  as  possible, 
with  straight  and  smooth  edges.  The  copper  is 
cleaned  by  immersion  in  a  pickle  made  of  one  part 
.(  by  measure )  of  sulphuric  acid  and  forty  parts  wa- 
ter; it  is  scoured  with  line  sand  and  a  hand-brush, 
and  washed  in  running  water;  after  which  it  is  well 
dried  in  clean  saw-dust  and  rubbed  over  with  a  cloth 
slightly  oiled;  it  is  then  ready  for  the  machine.  See 
Afufnfin''ti(ni. 

PAPERSHELL.— A  species  of  fireworks,  in  the 
shape  of  an  ordinary  shell  made  of  paper,  tilled  with 
decorative  pieces,  and  tired  from  a  mortar.  It  con- 
tains a  small  bursting  charge  of  powder,  and  has  a 
fuse  regulated  to  ignite  itvvhen  tiie  shell  reaches  the 
summit  of  its  trai'ectory.    " 

PAPER- TESTER.— A  machine  for  ascertaining  the 
strength  of  v:irious  papers.  The  drawing  shows 
such  a  contrivance  with  the  following: 

DLMESSIONP.  ADAPTATION. 

Extreme  lieight S  ft.    Tensile  specimens  12  in.  long 

Extreme  lenclli I  ft.        by  1  jii  wide  or  lees. 

Extreme  width 1ft.    Capacity 100  lbs. 

Weight  45  lbs. 

A  weight  balance  indicates  the  strain.  There  are 
no  loose  weights.  A  weighing  beam  can  be  substi- 
tuted for  a  spring  balance  if  desired.  When  the 
specimen  is  secured,  the  wheel  at  the  end  of  the 
machine  being  turned,  causes  the  mandrel  to  turn 
and  apply  the  strain  to  specimens.  The  indicator, 
on  the  face  of  the  dial,  remains  stationary  at  the 
breaking  point.  A  test  can  be  made  with  speed  and 
accuracy.  The  machine  is  cpiite  valuitble  in  testing 
the  qualities,  etc.,  of  papers  for  the  laboratory.  See 
Tfxthif!  Mofiiinr. 

PAPER  TIME  FUSE.— A  fuse  consisting  of  a  cylin- 
dric:d  column  of  burning  composition  packed'in  a 
paper  case,  gradually  increasing  in  thickness  from 
its  lower  to  its  upper  or  outer  extremity  :  to  insure 
ignition,  it  is  primed  with  ritie-powder  at  the  larger 
end.  It  is  inserted  at  the  time  of  loading  the-piece 
into  a  brass  or  wooden  plug  previously  driven  into 


the  fuse-hole  of  the  shell.  The  comprmilion  has  the 
same  ingredients  as  gunjiowder,  the  proportions 
being  varied  to  suit  the  required  rate  of  combustion; 
I  pure  meal,  poirdfr  'ii}\t-»  the  quickest  eomposilif)n;  by 
adding  certain  pro|)orlions  of  sulphur  and  nitir,  the 
composition  burns  more  slowly.  The  rate  of  burn- 
ing also  depends  upon  tlie  density  of  the  composition 


rajuT  ti'ster. 

and  the  purity  and  thorough  mixture  of  the  ingredi- 
ents. These  fuses  vary  in  length,  burning  from  4  to 
40  seconds:  they  are  graduated  in  seconds  on  the 
outside  of  the  case,  ami  can  be  cut  to  a  length  cor- 
respondiuLT  to  any  time  of  Hight.     See  Ftme. 

PAPIER  MACHE.— From  the  extension  of  the  ap- 
plications fif  papier-miiche  in  the  lal)oratory,  modi- 
fications have  taken  place  in  its  composition,  .:ud 
it  is  now  of  three  kinds— 1st,  the  true  kind,  made  of 
paper  pulp;  3d,  sheets  of  paper  pasted  together  after 
the  manner  of  pasteboard,  but  submitted  to  far 
greater  pressure  :  and  3d,  sheets  of  thick  millboard 
cast  from  the  pulp  are  also  heavily  pressed.  The 
terra  papier-mache  is  in  tr:ide  held  to  apph-  rather  to 
the  articles  made  of  the  pulp  tlian  to  the  pulp  itself; 
and  a  vast  manufacture  has  sprung  up  during  the 
present  century,  p;irticularly  in  Birmingham,  in 
which  a  great  variety  of  articles  of  use  and  ornament 
are  made  of  tliis  material.  They  are  coated  with 
successive  layers  of  asphalt  varnish,  which  is  acted 
upon  by  heat  in  ovens  until  its  volatile  pa-'ts  are  dis- 
sipated, and  it  becomes  hard,  and  capable  of  receiv- 
ing a  high  polish.  The  tine  surface  which  can  be 
given  to  the  asphalt  v.arnish  also  permits  of  burnished 
gilding  and  other  decorative  applications  with  excel- 
lent effect. 

PAPILIO. — A  square  Roman  tent  for  eight  men. 

PAPYROGRAPHY.— A  term  applied  to  a  modified 
process  of  photolithography  for  enlarging  copies  of 
maps,  which  is  considered  lo  possess  certain  ad- 
vantages for  use  ill  the  field.  The  process  is  carried 
out  b}-  means  of  an  ink  invented  by  Captain  Abney, 
which  is  not  greasy,  and  drawings  made  with  which 
upon  ordinary  paper  might  be  transferred  to  stone 
or  zinc,  for  the  reproduction  of  topographical  maps 
and  military  sketches.  This  invention  Las  been  in- 
troduced into  the  British  Army. 

PARABOLA. — One  of  the  conic  .sections,  produced 
by  a  plane  not  passing  through  the  vertex,  which 
cuts  the  cone  in  a  direction  parallel  to  that  of  a  plane 
touching  the  convex  surface  of  the  cone.  A  little 
consideration  will  show  that  a  section  so  produced 
cannot  be  a  closed  curve,  but  its  two  branches, 
though  continually  widening  out  from  each  other, 
do  not  diverge  so  rapidly  as  in  the  hyperbola.     The 


PARACHUTE. 


478 


PARACHUTE  LIGHT. 


nearer  the  cutting  plane  is  to  that  toucliLng  the  cone, 
the  less  the  two  "branches  diverge;  and  when  the 
two  planes  coincide,  the  branches  also  coincide, 
forming  a  straight  line,  which  is  therefore  the  limit 
of  the  parabola.  It  may  otherwise  be  considered  as 
a  curve,  every  point  of  which  is  equally  distant  from 
a  fixed  straiglit  line  and  given  point ;  the  fixed 
straight  line  is  tailed  the  direetrix,  and   the   given 


point  Ihefijcun.  Thus  PAP', is  a  parabola,  any  point 
P  iu  which  is  equally  distant  from  the  focus"  S  and 
the  directrix  CB,  or  PS  =  PD.  If,  from  S,  a  per- 
pendicular, SE,  be  drawn  to  the  directrix,  and  pro- 
duced backward,  this  line,  AO,  is  the  axis  or  jtrinci- 
pal  diameter  of  the  parabola,  and  the  curve  is  sym- 
metrical on  both  sides  of  it.  As  A  is  a  point  iu  the 
parabola,  AS  =  AE,  or  the  vertex  of  a  parabola  bi- 
sects the  perpendicular  from  the  focus  to  the  direct- 
rix. All  lines  in  a  parabola  which  are  parallel  to  the 
axis  cut  the  curve  in  only  one  point  and  are  called  dia- 
meters. All  lines,  such  as  PP', which  cut  the  curve  in 
two  points,  are  ordinates,  and  the  diameter  to  which 
they  are  ordinates.  is  that  one  which  bisects  them  ; 
the  portion  of  this  diameter  which  is  intercepted 
between  the  ordinate  and  the  curve,  is  the  corres- 
ponding abscissa.  Prom  the  property  of  the  para- 
bola that  PS  =  PD,  the  equation  to  the  curve  may 
be  at  once  deduced  for  PS  =  PD  =  EN,  therefore 
PS2  (which  =  PN2  -f  NS2  )  =  EN^  ;  hence  PN^ 
=  EN2  —  NS-'  =  (ES  +  SN)2— NSa=ES2+  2  ES. 
SN  =  (since  ES  =  2AS)  iAS^  +  4AS.SN  =  4AS 
(AS  +  SN)  =  4AS.AN ;  and  calling  PN,  the  semi- 
ordinate,  y;  AN,  the  abscissa,  x  ■,  and  AS,  a;  the 
equation  to  the  parabola  becomes  y-  =  4ax,  where 
a  (the  distance  of  the  vertex  from  the  focus)  remains 
the  same  for  all  points  in  the  same  curve.  It  is  evi- 
dent from  the  equation,  as  well  as  from  the  geomet- 
rical derivation  of  the  parabola,  that  it  must  have 
two,  and  only  two  branches,  and  that  the  further  it 
is  extended  the  nearer  its  branches  approach  to  the 
condition  of  straight  lines  parallel  to  the  axis,  though 
they  never  actually  become  so.  The  parabola 
has  no  asymptotes,  like  the  hyperbola,  but  it  pos- 
sesses many  properties  which  are  common  to  it  with 
that  curve  and  tlie  ellipse.  In  fact,  the  parabola  is 
nothing  more  than  an  ellipse,  whose  major  axis  is 
infinitely  long.  If  parallel  rays  of  light  or  heat  fall 
vipon  the  concave  surface  of  a  paraboloidal  mirror, 
they  are  reflected  to  the  focus,  and  conversely,  if  a 
light  be  placed  in  the  focus  of  a  paraboloidal  reflector, 
its  rays  will  be  retlected  in  parallel  directions,  and 
would  appear  e(iually  bright  at  all  distances  did  light 
move  without  deviation,  and  uuabsorbed.  Also,  if  a 
body  be  projected  iu  a  direction  not  vertical,  but 
inclined  to  the  direction  of  gravity,  it  would,  if  un- 
disturbed by  the  resisting  force  of  the  atmos|)here, 
describe  accurately  a  i)arabola  whose  axis  is  vertical, 
and  whose  vertex  is  the  liighesi  point  reached  by  the 
body.  The  term  parabola  is  used  in  analysis  in  a 
general  sense, to  denote  that  class  of  curves  in  which 
some  power  of  the  ordinate   is   proportional   to  a 


lower  power  of  the  abscissa.  Thus  the  curve  we 
have  just  described,  and  which  is  distinguished  as 
the  cummoH  or  Apollonian  parabola,  has  the  square 
of  its  ordinate  proportional  to  its  abscissa ;  the  cubi. 
cut  parabola,  has  the  cube  of  its  ordinate  propor- 
tional to  its  abscissa  ;  and  the  semicuhical  parabola 
has  the  cube  of  its  ordinate  proportional  to  the  square 
of  its  abscissa. — See  Projectiles  and  Trajecti/ry. 

PARACHUTE.— A  machine  invented  for  the  \mx- 
pose  of  retarding  the  velocit}'  of  descent  of  any  body 
througli  the  air,  and  employed  by  aeronauts  as  a 
means  of  descending  from  balloons.  It  is  a  gigantic 
imibrella,  strongly  made,  and  having  the  outer  ex- 
tremities of  the  rods  on  which  the  canvas  is  stretched, 
firmly  connected  by  ropes  or  stays  to  the  lower  part 
of  the  handle.  The  handle  of  the  parachute  is  a 
liollow  iron  tube,  through  which  passes  a  rope  con- 
necting the  balloon  above  with  the  car  (in  which  are 
tlie  aeronauts  and  their  ajiparatus)  beneath,  but  so 
fastened,  that  when  the  balloon  is  cut  loose,  tlie  car 
and  parachute  still  remain  connected.  AVlien  the 
balloon  ascends,  the  parachute  collapses  like  an 
umbrella  ;  but  when  the  balloon  rope  is  severed,  and 
the  car  begins  to  descend,  the  parachute  is  extended 
l)y  the  action  of  the  air,  aud  prevents  the  car  from 
acquiring  a  dangerous  velocity  of  descent ;  the  final 
velocity  in  those  cases  where  the  machine  is  of  a 
size  proportioned  to  the  weight  it  has  to  support, 
being  no  more  than  would  be  acquired  b}'  a  person 
leaping  frcm  aheight  of  between  two  and  three  feet. 
But  the  slightest  derangement  of  the  parachute's 
equilibrium,  such  as  might  be  caused  by  a  breath  of 
wind,  or  the  smallest  deviation  from  perfect  symme- 
try in  the  parachute  itself,  immediately  produces  an 
oscillatory  motion  of  the  car,  having  the  apex  of  the 
parachute  as  a  center,  and  the  oscillations  becoming 
gradually  greater  and  more  rapid,  the  occupants  of 
the  car  are  in  most  cases  either  pitched  out  or  are 
along  with  it  dashed  on  the  grouud  with  frightful 
force.  This  defect  in  the  parachute  has  been  at- 
tempted to  be  remedied  in  various  ways,  but  hither- 
to without  success.  The  first  successful  experiment 
with  the  parachute  was  made  by  Blanchard  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1787,  and  the  experiment  has  been  often  re- 
peated by  Garnerin  and  others ;  very  frequently, 
however,  with  fatal  results.  The  parachute  was 
employed  by  Captain  Boxer,  R.N.,  as  an  essential 
part  of  his  patent  light-ball,  for  discovering  the 
movements  of  an  enemy  at  night,  and  was  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  open  up  when  the  lighted  ball  had  at- 
tained its  greatest  elevation,  so  as  to  keep  it  for  a 
considerable  jjeriod  almost  suspended  in  the  air. 

PARACHUTE  LIGHT.— A  suspended  light  invented 
by  General  Boxer,  It. A.,  and  which  is  used  for  the 
same  purposes  as  ground  light-balls,  viz.:  to  light  up 
the  enemy's  works  and  working  parties.  It  is  pre- 
ferred to  light-balls,  as  they  can  be  extinguished  or 
their  lights  hid  with  a  few  shovels  full  of  earth, 
whereas  the  parachute  has  the  advantage  of  being 
out  of  reach,  so  it  cannot  be  interfered  with. 

The  parachute,  light  consists  of  two  outer  and  two 
inner  tinned  iron  hemispheres ;  the  two  outer  are 
lightl)'  riveted  together,  the  two  upper  hemispheres 
are  connected  by  a  chain;  the  inner  upper  hemisphere 
has  a  depression  at  the  top,  to  admit  the  bursting 
charge  and  fuse.  A  quick-match  leader  conducts 
the  tiash  fri>m  the  bursting  charge  to  the  fuse  com- 
position in  the  lower  inner  hemisphere.  The  inner 
ui)per  hemisphere  contains  the  parachute  tightly 
folded  up.  To  insure  its  opening,  a  cord  is  passed 
between  its  folds,  and  through  a  hole  in  the  top  of 
lh(^  paracthute,  and  is  fastened  to  the  upper  inner 
hemisphere,  so  that,  when  the  lieiuisphere  is  blown 
away,  tlie  cord  is  pulled  and  the  ])arachute  expaniled. 
The  lower  inner  hemispliere  contains  the  compo- 
sition. A  hole  is  bored,  and  driven  with  fuse  com- 
position, and  matched  as  usual :  this  hemisphere  is 
connected  with  the  parachute  by  cords  and  chains  ; 
The  bursting  charge  is  issued  in  the  iiarachule,  the 
fuse  is  bored  to  the  requited  length  and  well  ham- 


FABACHUTE  IiaHT-BALL. 


479 


PABALUEL. 


mered  in ;  tlic  piiriicliuli;  Dhiccil  in  llir  iiuirliir,  and 
fired. 

Tli(^  nction  in  furl liiT  described  iis  follows:  The 
fuMe  ii;iiiles  the  Ijiirslini;  ciiiiri;e,  the  outer  liemi- 
spliereH  are  lilowii  iiway,  and  the  inner  upper  lienn- 
Bphere,  which  is  cliained  (o  the  outer  one.  is  Ijlown 
away  witli  it;  the  panichuti^  is  opened  liy  tlie  cord 
and  e.\|)ands,lhecoiripi]silioM  in  I  he  hiwer  hemisphere 
liein^  ignited  liy  tlie  (|uiek-niateh  leader,  wliicli  ig- 
nites tile  fuse  eoniposilion,  llie  eoiuposiliou  burning 
al)out  three  minutes  when  tired  from  the  10-inch  mor- 
tar. 

PARACHUTE  LIGHT-BALL.— A  thin  shell,  the  up- 
per half  of  whieli  is  blown  oil'  by  the  charge  at  a  cer- 
tain lieight.  The  lower  half,  tilled  wilh  composilion, 
•wliich  is  kindled  by  the  e.xiilosion,  is  ke[)l  floating 
in  the  air  by  means  <if  a  small  iiaraehute.  which  is 
set  free  when  the  ujjper  half  of  the  shell  Hies  off. 

FABADE.  Tliis  word  signified  in  its  original  sense 
a  prepared  ground,  and  was  applied  to  the  court- 
yard of  a  castle,  or  to  any  inclosed  and  h'vel  plain. 
From  the  practice  of  reviewing  troops  al  such  a  sjKit, 
tlie  Review  itself  has  acquired  the  name  of  I'arade. 
In  its  modern  military  acceptation,  a  I'ardde  is  the 
turning  (uit  of  tlu^  garrison  or  of  a  regiment  in  full 
equipment,  for  inspection  or  evolutions  before  some 
superior  officer.  It  is  the  boast  of  IJritish  troops 
that  tlicir  line  and  discipline  are  as  perfect  under  an 
enemy's  fire  as  on  the  jjarade-ground.  Parades  are 
General,  Regimental,  or  Private  (Troop,  Battery,  or 
Company),  according  to  the  strength  of  the  force 
assembled.     See  lln.in  I'arndr.  and  I'lidresn  Parade. 

PARADE  OFFICER.  An  ollicer  who  attends  to  the 
nnnulia'  of  regimental  duty,  but  wdio  is  not  re- 
markable for  nnlitary  science. 

PARADE  ORDER.— When  a  regiment  of  horse  or 
foot,  a  troop  or  cinnpany,  is  drawn  up  with  the  ranks 
open  and  the  officers  in  front,  it  is  said  to  be  in 
Piifiidf  Ordi'r. 

PARADE  REST.— A  position  of  rest  for  soldiers,  in 
which,  iiowi:ver,  they  are  required  to  be  silent  and 
motionless  ;  used  specially  at  parade.  Also, the  coni- 
mand  for  the  position.  When  witlioutarms,  to  give 
the  men  rest,  imposing  both  steadiness  of  position 
and  silence, the  Instructor  commands :  \.  Parade,  3. 
Rest. 

Carry  the  ri^ht  foot  three  inches  directly  to  the 
rear,  the  left  knee  sligbtlj'  bent  ;  clasp  tlie  hands  in 
front  of  the  center  of  the  body,  the  left  hand  uppiT- 
most,  the  left  thumb  clasped  l)y  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger of  the  riglit  hand. 

When  under  arms,  and  at  an  order  arms,  the  In- 
structor commands : 

1.  Parade,  2.  Rest. 

At  last  the  command  rest,  carry  the  muzzle  in 
front  of  the  center  of  the  body,  the  barrel  to  the  left ; 
'grasp  the  piece  with  the  left  hand  just  above,  and 
witli  file  right  hand  at  the  upper  band  ;  carry  the 
right  foot  three  inches  straight  to  the  rear,  the  left 
knee  slightly  bent. 

To  resume  order  arms  the  Instructor  commands  : 
1.   Squad,  3.  Attention. 

1.  Carri/,  3.  Arms.  Raise  tlie  piece  vertically 
witli  the  right  hand,  grasping  it  at  the  same  time 
with  the  left  above  the  right,  resume  the  carry  with 
the  right  liand,  (Two.)  Drop  the  left  hand  by  the 
side.     See  Manual  of  Arms,  Fig.  5. 

PARADOS. — Another  name  for  a  traverse.  It  is  an 
intercepting  mountl,  erected  in  various  parts  of  a 
fortification  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  de- 
fenders from  a  rear  or  ricocliet-fire. 

PARALLEL. — In  siege  operations,  parallels  are 
trenches  cut  in  the  ground  before  a  fortress,  roughl}' 
parallel  to  its  defenses,  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
cover  to  the  besiegers  from  the  guns  of  the  place. 
The  parallels  are  usually  three,  ■^ith  zigzag  trenches 
leading  from  one  to  another.  The  old  rule  used  to 
be  to  dig  the  first  at  (!()()  yards  distance,  but  tlie  im- 
provements in  artillery  have  rendered  a  greater  dis- 
tance necessary;  and  at  Sebastopol,  the  .VUies  made 


tlieir  first  trench  2,000  yards  from   tli<!  walls.     Tho 
tliird  trench  is  very  near  to  tlie  liesieged  works,  and 

i  from  it  saps  and  zigzag  ajiproaches  are  directed  to 
file  C(jvered-way.  The  trenches  of  tlie  parallels  re- 
ceive a  width  at  bottom  of  10  feet ;  tlieir  depth  in 
froiit  is  'i  feet,  ami  in   rear,   ',i  feet  ({  inches.     Two 

I  steps,  each  IH  inches  high  anrl  \H  wide,  lead  from 
the  biiltom  <if  the  trencli,  on  tin;  front  side,  to  the 
natural  ground.  The  reverse  of  the  trench  receives 
a  slope  of  40";  or  else,  i.s  also  cut  into  steps.  The 
steps  in  front  are  alone  revetted  with  fascines.  Vau- 
ban,  in  his  ma.vims,  prescribes  that  there  shall  be  at 
least  three  parallels,  or  places-of-arms  to  be  occupied 
by  the  troops  of  the  besieging  force  immediately  on 
duty,  with  a  view  to  meet  any  sorties  of  the  garri- 
son on  the  besieger's  works;  anil  further,  that  these 
parallels  should  embrace  so  wide  a  front  as  to  con- 
trol all  the  defenses  which  bear  in  any  manner  upon 
the  ground  over  which  the  besiegers  will  have  to  run 
their  trenches. 

In  Vauban's  time,  and  to  within  quite  a  recent 
day,  it  was  considered  that  when  Hie  site  was  eom- 
pletc'ly  exposed  to  the  fire  of  the  besieged,  the  first 
parallel  might  be  l:iid  out  at  about  libO  yards  from 
the  most  advanced  points  of  the  defenses  to  be  em- 
braced  within  it,  and  concentric  with  a  line  Joining 
these  points,  and  extended  so  far  each  way  as  to 
guard  all  the  batteries  thrown  up  along  its  front  to 
silence  the  fire  of  the  defenses  from  assaults  in  front 
and  on  eitlier  flank  of  the  parallel.  The  position  of 
the  1st  parallel,  Vauban  makes  dependent  on  the 
site,  as  affording  more  or  less  of  shelter  from  the 
fire  of  the  defenses  ;  and,  at  the  celebrated  siege  of 
Sebastopol,  the  French  established  their  1st  parallels 
at  two  separate  points,  the  one  at  nearly  1000  yards, 
the  other  at  nearlj'  1800  yards  from  the  defenses; 
and  file  English,  in  their  attack,  also  placed  theirlst 
liarallel  at  nearly  IHOO  yards  from  the  defenses  in 
their  front.  This  departure  from  usaire  was  owing 
to  the  great  caliber  of  the  guns  and  the  large  quantity 
of  fire  of  the  Russian  defenses.  Instead  of  three 
parallels,  the  French  found  it  quite  necessary  to 
tlirow  up  as  manj-  as  seven,  the  nearest  of  which 
to  the  Russian  defenses  was  about  30  yards,  when 
the  final  open  assault  was  made  from  it  upon  the  key 
point  of  the  Russian  position. 

The  greater  range  and  accuracy  of  fire  of  rifled 
guns  will  necessarily  lead  to  establishing  the  first 
batteries  against  the  di-fenses  at  much  greater  dis- 
tances flian  formerly,  when  smooth  bores  were  alone 
used  ;  and  assuming  the  30-pounder,  as  the  protiable 
largest  ordinary  caliber  of  siege  gims  for  the  attack, 
tile  first  batteries  will  probably,  in  futute  sieges,  oc- 
oupy  positions  at  from  2,000  to  3,000  yards  from  the 
defenses.  These  distances  will  secure  for  these  bat- 
teries, what  is  essential  for  all  those  of  the  attack,  a 
good  range  for  destroying  the  artillery  of  the  de- 
fenses, and  security,  if  properly  guarded,  either  tiy 
placing  them  within  strong  inclosed  works,  with 
sufficient  troops  to  defend  the  works,  or  by  troops 
occupying  trenches  so  disposed  as  to  meet  a  front  or 
flank  attack  on  the  batterj'.  Anj'thing  like  a  con- 
tinuous line  of  parallel  would  seldom  be  requisite  at 
this  distance,  as  the  garrison  would  hardly  venture 
sorties  so  far  from  their  defenses.  Besides  which, 
considering  the  great  extent  of  front  that  the  bat- 
teries would  have  to  embrace  at  this  distance,  to  con- 
trol all  the  fire  of  the  defenses,  it  would  require  too 
great  a  length  of  continuous  entrenchment. 

Tactical  considerations  require  that,  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  Hie  successive  parallels,  the  one  most 
advanced  should  be  laid  out  nearer  to  the  one  in  its 
rear,  bj-  which  the  workmen  completing  the  former 
are  protected,  than  to  the  defenses;  so  that  it  can 

1  receive  timely  succor  against  an  assault  upon  it  by 
tlie  besieged.  Considering  the  first  line  of  batteries 
and  trenches  as  a  1st  parallel,  the  position  of  the  2d 
parallel  may  be  safely  placed  at  1 .000  yards  in  ad- 
vance of  it;  that  is,  nearer  to  it  by  100  yards  or 
more  than  to  the  defenses.     As  it   is  usual  to  place 


PARALLEL  FORCES. 


480 


PARALLELOGRAM  OF  FORCES. 


the  3d  parallel  so  near  to  *.he  defenses  as  to  bring  the 
covered  ways,  or  other  juost  advanced  defenses, 
■which  may  be  assaulted  opcv  ly,  within  range  of  stone 
mortars,  placed  in  batteries  either  within  or  in  front 
of  this  parallel ;  its  position,  for  this  object,  should 
be  some  GO  yards  from  the  salient  p(ants  of  the  most 
advanced  portions  of  the  defenses,  or  as  to  bring  their 
interior  within  the  range  of  the  stones  and  othermis- 
siles  thrown  from  the  mortars. 

In  giving  the  3d  parallel  this  position,  there  will 
be  a  %vide  zone  of  ground  between  it  and  the  3d  par- 
allel, over  which  the  approaches  connecting  these 
two  parallels  must  be  run,  which  would  be  very 
much  exposed  to  the  sorties  of  the  besieged,  as  well 
as  the  3d  parallel,  were  its  protection  left  to  troops 
stationed  as  a  guard  in  the  2d  parallel.  To  provide 
protection  for  these  approaches  and  for  the  3d  par- 
allel, whilst  in  process  of  construction,  ends  of 
trenches,  termed  dim /-parallels,  are  run  out,  on  the 
right  and  left  of  the  lines  of  the  approaches,  far 
enough  to  contain  sufficient  bodies  of  troops  to  pro- 
tect all  the  men  working  on  the  trenches  in  advance 
of  them  from  sorties.  The  positions  of  the  demi- 
parallels  will  be  regulated  by  the  same  tactical  con- 
siderations as  those  which  regulate  the  positions  of 
the  parallels.  The  length  to  which  they  should  be 
extended  on  the  flanks  of  the  approach,  will  be  regu- 
lated by  tlie  number  of  troops  that  it  may  be  deemed 
necessary  to  post  within  tliem,  and  also  from  the  con- 
siderations that  they  shall  not  obstruct  or  be  endan- 
gered by  the  fire  of  any  batteries  to  their  rear.  See 
ApprowhcK  and  Siege. 

PARALLEL  FORCES.— Those  forces  which  act  up- 
on a  body  in  directions  parallel  to  each  other.  Every 
body,  being  an  assemblage  of  separate  particles, 
each  of  which  is  acted  upon  by  gravit_y,  may  thus  be 
considered  as  impressed  upon  by  a  system  of  parallel 
forces.      The  following   demonstration  will  exhibit 


the  mode  in  which  the  amount  and  ihe  position  of 
the  resultant  forces  are  found  :  Let  P  and  Q  be  two 
parallel  forces  acting  at  the  points  A  and  B  respect- 
ively, either  in  the  same  (Fig.  1)  or  in  opposite 
(Fig.  2)  directions ;  join  AB,  and  in  this  line,  at  the 
points  A  and  B,  apply  the  equal  and  opposite  forces 
S  and  S,  which  counterbalance  each  other,  and  there- 
fore do  not  affect  the  system.  Find  M  and  N,  the 
resultants  of  P  and  S.  and  Q  and  S  respectively,  and 
produce  their  directionstill  they  meet  in  D,  at  which 
point  let  the  resultants  be  resolved  ])arallel  to  their 
original  directions  ;  then  there  are  two  equal  forces, 
S  and  H,  acting  parallel  to  AB.  Imt  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, and  thus,  as  they  counterbalance  each  other, 
they  may  be  removed.  Then  there  remain  t  wo  forces, 
P  andtj,  acting  at  D,  in  the  line  DC,  iiarallel  to  their 
original  directions,  and  their  sum  (Fig.  1)  or  differ- 
ence (Fig.  2)  represented  by  K,  is  accordingly  the 
resultant  of  the  original  forces  at  A  jind  B.  To  find 
the  position  of  f',  the  point  in  AB,  or  AB  produced, 
through  which  the  resultant  passes,  it  is  necessary  to 
make  use  of  tlie  well-known  property  denominated 
the  triangle  nfforcru,  according  to  which  the  three 
forces  S,  M,  and  P  are  proportional  to  the  lengths 
of  AC,  AD,  DC,  the  sides  of  tlie  triangle  ADC  ;  then 
S  :  P  :;  AC  :  CD,  similarly  Q  :  .S  :.-  DC  :  C15,  there- 
fore Q  :  P  ::  AC  :  V.C,  and  Q  P  or  ]{  :  P  ::  AC  >  BC 
or  AB  :  BC,  from  which  proportions  we  derive  the 


prineiole  of  the  lever,  P  x  AC  =  Q  X  BC,  and  also 

P 

that  K  X  BC  =  P  X  AB,    whence  BC  =  —  X  AB, 

R 

and  the  point  C  is  found.  The  failing  case  of  this 
proposition  is  when  P  and  Q  acting  in  opposite  par- 
allel directions  at  different  points  are  equal,  in  which 
case  the  resultant  K  :=  Q  — P  =  Q  — Q  =  0.  In  all 
other  cases  there  is  a  progressive  motion,  such  as 
would  be  caused  by  the  action  of  a  single  force  R 
(=  Q  i  P)  acting  at  the  point  C  in  the  direction  of 
CR  ;  but  in  the  failing  case,  since  R  =  0,  there  is 


no  progressive  motion  but  a  rotatory  movement 
round  tlie  center  of  AB.  It  is  of  no  consequence 
whether  A  and  B  be  the  true  points  of  application 
of  the  forces  P  and  Q,  provided  their  directions  when 
produced  pass  through  these  points,  and  the  point 
of  application  of  the  resultant  need  not  be  in  the 
line  joining  the  points  of  application  of  the  compo- 
nent forces,  but  its  direction  must,  when  produced, 
pass  through  C.  If  there  be  more  than  two  parallel 
forces,  the  resultant  of  the  whole  is  found  by  com- 
pounding the  resultant  of  the  first  two  with  the  third 
in  the  way  given  above,  thus  obtaining  a  new  resu  t- 
ant,  which  is  similarly  combined  with  the  fourth 
force  ;  and  so  on  till  the  final  resultant  is  found.  The 
center  of  gravity  is  only  a  special  name  for  the  point 
of  application  of  the  final  resultant  of  a  number  of 
parallel  forces.     See  Couple 

PARALLELOGRAM  OF  FORCES.— The  fundamental 
problem  in  statics  is  to  find  the  magnitude  and  di- 
rection of  the  resultant  of  twofoices;  in  other  words, 
to  compound  them  into  a  single  force,  wuich  shall 
be  in  every  respect  their  equivalent.  Intensity  and 
direction  being  the  only  elements  necessary  to  en- 
tirely describe  a  force,  forces  in  statics  are  repre- 
sented by  lines,  which  are  obviously  capable  of 
being  made  to  represent  them  both  in  magnitude 
and  direction.  When  two  forces  act  along  the  same 
straight  line  on  a  particle,  it  is  sufBcientlj'  obvious 
that  if  they  act  in  the  same  direction,  the  resultant 
will  be  their  algebraical  sum;  if  in  opposite  directions, 
their  algebraical  difference.  This  being  premised, 
the  relation  between  two  forces  acting  at  the  same 
point,  but  not  in  the  same  line,  and  their  resultant, 
is  set  forth  in  the  following  theorem,  which  is  known 
as  the  Parallelogram  of  Forces.      If  two  forces,  P, 


Fig.  ]. 

Q,  acting  on  aparticle  A,  be  represented  in  direction 
and  magnitude  by  the  lines  .\/),  \q,  then  the  re- 
sultant will  be  represented  in  direction  and  magni- 
tude by  (he  diagonal  Ar  of  the  parallelogram 
described  upon  A/<,  A7.  The  proof  of  this  depends 
upon  the  simple  princiiiles.  that  a  force  may  lie  sup- 
posed to  act  at  any  point  of  its  direction,  that  ])oint 
being  conceived  to  be  rigidly  attached  to  the  par- 
ticle on  which  the  force  acts  ;  ami  what  may  be  ac- 


PABALLEL  OBDEB  OF  BATTLE. 


481 


PABAUETSa. 


cpptcd  as  ail  axiom  of  univcrHiil  cxpcrir'ncc,  that 
■whi'ii  any  iiuiiibcr  of  foiccH  arc  iiiiprcsmMl  on  a  par- 
tichr  or  body,  each  exerts  itself,  as  if  llie  others  wen; 
not  acting,  to  produce  its  full  (•IT<'cl.  'I'lie  doelriiii^ 
of  th(t  parallelogram  of  fon^es  liast,'iveii  rise  to  nim-h 
controversy,  not  as  to  its  truth,  lint  as  to  ils  deriva- 
tion, some  appearing  to  contend  that  it  is  directly 
deducilile  from  Ihe  axiom  above  stated,  wilhont  the 
necessity  of  fnrth<T  reasoning.  Knowmn  how  to 
compound  two  forces  actinf;  at  a  point,  we  arc  ab  e 
to  componiul  or  determine  the  resultant  of  any  num- 
ber. ]f  the  forces,  thoufjli  in  the  same  plane,  do  not 
act  at  the  same  point  of  a  body,  thosi'of  lliem  whose 
directions  meet  may  be  compounded  by  Ihe  preced- 
in>,'  rule  ;  if  they  are  parallel,  llieir  resullanl  is  a 
force  paralh'l  to  them  and  equal  to  their  alf,'eliraical 
Bum,  coimlinij;  those  acting  in  om^  direction  as 
po.sitive,  and  in  the  oppoHite  direction  as  n<'!;alive. 
The  singidar  case  is  that  of  equal  parallel  forces  act- 
int:  in  opposite  direc'tious.  These  constitute  a  couple, 
and  caimot  be  represented  by  any  simple  force. 

The  resolution  of  forces  is  the  converse  problem. 
To  resolve  a  ;;ivcn  force  K,  wdiosc  direction  and  maf;- 
nitude  is  A;-,  into  two  forces  actiiif;  in  any  directions 
that  may  I »■  chosen,  as  AP,  AtJ,  we  have  only  lu  draw 


Fig.  a. 

parallels  throtigh  r,  which  determine  the  lines  A/), 
Ay.representing  the  magnitude  of  the  forces  required. 
It  is  evident  that  there  is  an  indefinite  number  of 
pairs  of  forces  into  which  Ar  might  be  resolved,  ac- 
cording to  the  direction  in  which  the  new  forces  are 
to  net.  It  is  usual,  however,  to  resolve  a  force  into 
forces  that  arc  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

The  composition  of  motions  is  analogous  in  every 
■way  to  that  of  forces ;  motions  are  the  results  of 
forces,  and  the  analogy  might  be  expected.  If  a 
body  be  actuated  simultancoiisly  by  two  velocities 
having  different  directions,  it  will  evidently  move  in 
a  direction  intermediate  to  the  two,  and  with  a  ve- 
locity wdiich  will  in  some  way  depend  on  each  of 
them,  and  which  is  called  their  resultant.  The 
proposition  wdnch  sets  forth  how  to  find  tlie  resul- 
tant, is  called  the  Parallelogram  of  Velocities.  It  is: 
If  two  velocities,  with  which  a  particle  is  sunultanc- 
ously  impressed,  be  represented  in  direction  and 
magnitude  by  two  straight  lines  drawn  from  the  par- 
ticle, the  resultant  velocity  of  the  particle  will  be 
represented  in  direction  and  magnitude  by  the  di- 
agonal of  the  parallelogram  described  on  those  two 
straight  lines.  The  proof  is  very  simple.  There  is 
no  reason  wliy  the  full  effect  of  both  velocities  sho\dd 
not  be  produced,  as  if  the  body  moved  first  with  one 
of  them,  and  then  with  the  other,  in  their  respective 
directions.  If  in  one  second  the  body  moving  with 
the  one  velocity  would  reach  /),  and  if  we  suppose  it 
then  to  move  on  j^r  for  another  second,  parallel  with 
the  other  velocity,  it  would  at  the  end  of  the  second 
second  be  at  r.  Hence,  under  their  joint  influence, 
it  will  be  at  r  at  the  end  of  one  second.  The  resolu- 
tion of  motions  is  altogether  analogous  to  that  of 
forces.     All  the  principles  of  the  Parallelogram  of 


Forces  may  be  readily  illuslrnlcd  by  the  apparatus 
shown  in  KiL'Ure  2.      Sec  Fullinri  Hodien. 

PABALLEL  OBDEB  OF  BATTLE.     In   tactics,  the 

natural  order  of  liallle  is  when  IroopH  coming  upon 
ordinary  ground  arc  ranged  in  line  of  battle  by  the 
jirescribiMl  tactical  means,  and  when  they  arc  formed 
in  column  right  in  front. 

The  parallel  order  operates  on  the  contrary  against 
lh('  whole  front  of  the  ('nemy.  Turenne  anrl  Condo 
fought  habitually  in  parallel  order,  allbougb  they 
sometinKm  made  a  skillful  use  of  oblique  attacks. 
(liiiht  rl  well  says  that  !i  contiguous  and  regular  par- 
allel  order  can  be  of  no  usi-  in  war. 

The  oblique  order  is  contradistinguished  from  the 
|)arallcl,  and  in  gcnerid  means  every  tactical  com- 
bination the  aim  of  which  is  to  produce  an  effect 
upon  two  points  of  an  enemy's  line  by  bringing  a 
superior  force  to  bear  down  on  those  two  points. 
Such  combinations  constitute  the  oblique  order, 
whatever  maneuvers  nniy  be  used  to  accomplish  the 
object. 

PABALLEL  EETBE AT.— Great  advantages  some- 
times arise  in  conducting  a  retreat  iiarallel  to  our 
frontier,  when  the  topography  lends  itself  to  this 
operation  ;  as,  the  enemy,  in  following  up,  really 
gains  but  little  ground  in  advance.  If  a  retreat  of 
this  kind,  termed  a  parallel  retreat,  is  made  in  the 
enemy's  country,  the  army  subsists  at  the  enemy's 
expense;  the  evils  of  war  fall  on  him;  and  he  is  al- 
most as  badly  off  as  if  he  had  not  the  upper  hand. 
If  this  retreat  takes  place  within  our  own  frontier 
we  draw  after  us  the  victorious  army;  we  force  him 
to  move  onwards  without  gaining  a  foot  of  ground 
towards  the  interior;  we  abandon  to  him  only  our 
borders,  whilst  we  force  him  to  offer  his  flank  to  any 
force  we  may  have  in  the  interior.  But,  with  all 
these  obvious  advantages,  we  must  look  out  how  we 
attempt  anything  of  the  kind  in  a  territory  which  ia 
open,  and  would  give  the  enemy  an  easy  means  of 
cutting  us  off  from  our  base.  Such  a  retreat,  there- 
fore, requires  to  be  covered  by  a  river,  a  mountaia 
chain,  or  some  other  obstacle  that  an  enemy  cannot 
cro.ss  with  safety,  to  interrupt  our  communications 
to  the  interior.  If  the  parallel  retreat  is  covered  by 
a  river,all  bridges  by  wddch  the  enemy  might  intercept 
our  communications,  or  attack  in  flank,  should  be 
timely  destroyed,  the  fords  obstructed  and  guarded. 
Like  precautions  are  to  be  taken,  when  covered  by  a 
mountain  chain,  in  occupying  the  main  defiles,  and 
obstructing  other  less  important  passes.  Our  troops 
should  be  so  disposed  as  to  fall  in  mass  upon  any 
corps  of  the  enemy  that  attempts  to  force  its  way 
through  ;  and  we  shovild  not  show  too  much  anxiety- 
respecting  any  weak  body  of  troops  that  may  have 
risked  a  raid  upon  our  rear,  as  the  peril  is  for  it  and 
not  for  our  troops.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  a 
parallel  retreat  can  only  be  resorted  to  with  effect 
along  a  frontier  of  some  considerable  extent.  Al- 
though a  frontier  of  this  character  is  more  difficult  to 
guard  than  one  more  limited,  it  presents,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  advantages  above  pointed  out,  and 
lends  itself  well  to  the  defemhe—offimo're  on  our  side, 
which  of  itself,  in  the  hands  of  an  able  General,  is 
the  surest  means  of  success  in  a  defensive  war. 

PABALLEL  EULEE.—.V  draughtsman's  instniment 
consisting  of  two  wooden  or  metallic  blades,  so  join- 
ed together  by  jointed  cross-pieces  as  to  open  to 
different  intervals  and  3-et  retain  their  parallelism, 
Fig.  1.  A  still  simpler  form  is  a  rolling  cylinder. 
Fig.  2,  represents  a  rolling  parallel  nder,  consisting 
of  a  flat  ruler,  and  a  roller  rotatmg  in  bearing-posts 
fastened  to  the  ruler.  This  instrument  is  very  useful 
for  constructing  the  plans  and  elevations  of  fortifica- 
tions and  numerous  other  military  subjects.  The 
illustrations  are  on  pase  482.     See  Drairing. 

PAEAMETEE.— This  term,  used  in  conic  sections, 
denotes,  in  the  case  of  parabola,  a  tlurd  proportional 
to  the  abscissa  of  anv  diameterand  its  corresponding 
ordinate:  in  the  ellipse  and  hyperbola,  a  third  pro- 
porticnal  to  a  diameter  and  its  conjugate.    The  par- 


PARAPET. 


482 


PAEBUCZLING. 


ameter  of  any  diameter  is,  in  the  case  of  the  para- 
bola, the  same  as  the  double  ordinate  of  that  diameter 
which  pas5e>i  through  the  focus,  and  is  four  times  as 
long  as  the  distance  between  the  diameter's  vertex 


'1 

1 

1 

1 

m 

''"^IDIRS ' 

"iDlni 

m 

'In 

1 

Jlill'i 

Fig.  1.  Fig.  a. 

and  the  directrix.  The  term  parameter  was  also  at 
one  time  used  to  denote  any  straight  line  about  a 
curve,  upon  which  its  form  could  be  made  to  depend, 
or  any  constant  in  its  equation,  the  value  of  which 
determined  the  individual  curve;  but  its  employ- 
ment in  this  sense  is  now  discontinued,  except  in  the 
theory  of  homogeneous  ditf erential  equations,  where 
the  constants,  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  the  solution, 
are  supposed  to  vary,  and  the  method  is  consequently 
denominated  the  ' '  variation  of  the  parameters." 

PARAPET. — 1.  A  wall  raised  higher  than  the  gut- 
ter of  a  roof  for  protection;  in  domestic  buildings, 
churches,  etc.,  to  prevent  accident  by  falling  from 
the  roof.  Parapets  are  of  very  ancient  date.  The 
Israelites  were  commanded  to  build  "a  battlement" 
round  their  flat  roofs.  In  classic  architecture  balus- 
trades were  used  as  parapets.  In  Gothic  architecture 
parapets  of  all  kinds  are  used.  In  early  work  they 
are  generally  plain,  but  in  later  buildings  they  are 
pierced  and  ornamented  with  tracery,  which  is  fre- 
quently of  elaborate  design,  especially  in  French 
flamboyant  work.     Shields  and  little  arcades  are  also  I 


vised  as  ornaments  to  parapets;  and  the  battlements 
of  castles  are  imitated  in  the  parapets  of  religiou.s 
and  domestic  buildings.  2.  In  field  fortifications  the 
main  features  are  the  covering  masses  of  earth  of 
which  they  are  constructed,  and  which  are  intended 
to  shelter  the  assailed  from  the  view  and  fire  of  the 


ass^dlant.     When  the  covering  mass  is  so  constructed 
as  to  afford  the  assailed  a  view  and   fire  over  the 
assailant's  line  of  approach,  it  is  termed  a  parapet. 
The  rifle  trench  is  the  simplest  form  of  work.      In 
this,  the  parapet  is  formed  by  throwing  the  earth 
from  a  trench  within  to  the  front.     The  earth  thus 
thrown  up,  together  with  the  depth  of  the  trench, 
afl'ords   the   desired   shelter.     The  troops  stand  or 
squat  in  the  trench  and  deliver  their  fire  over  the 
bank  of  earth  in  front.     The  method  of  intrenching 
affords  the  speediest  means  of  obtaining  cover,  and 
is  the  one  resorted  to  when  troops  are  under  fire,  or 
when  they  intrench  their  camp  or  position  for  a  tem- 
porary stay.     Rails,  logs,  in  fact,  almost  anything  at 
hand  may  be  used  as  a  rough  interior  revetment  for 
sustaining  the   earth.     For   artillery,  the  trench   is 
made  somewhat  wider  than  is  necessary  for  infantrj-. 
In  the  more  elaborate  class  of   field  fortifications, 
such  as  the  inclosed  works  of  various  descriptions, 
the  earth  to  form  the  parapet  is  taken  from  the  ex- 
terior, thus  forming  in  front  of  the  parapet  a  ditch 
which  makes  a  formidable  obstacle  in  the  way  of  an 
assailant  attempting  to  enter  the  work  by  escalade. 
Having  fixed  upon  the  profile,  the  pick  commences 
the  construction  of  the  parapet  by  breaking  ground 
so  far  from  the  counterscarp  crest  that,  by  digging 
vertically  three  feet,  he  will  arrive  at  the  positioli  of 
the  counterscarp.     The  excavation  is  carried  on  at 
the  same  depth  of  three  feet,  advancing  toward  the 
scarp,  where  the  same  caution  is  observed  as  at  the 
counterscarp.     The  earth  is  thrown  forward,  and 
evenly  spread  and  rammed,  in  laj'ers  of  about  twelve 
inches,   from   the   banquette   slope  to  the   exterior 
slope.     For  the  facility  of  entering  the  ditch,  whilst 
working,  the  offsets  at  the  scarp  and  counterscarp 
may  be  formed   into  steps  with  a  rise  of  eighteen 
inches  each;  and  if  the  ditch  is  deeper  than  six  feet, 
an  offset,  about  four  feet  broad,  should  be  left  at  the 
scarp,  about  mid-depth  of  the  ditch,  to  place  a  relay 
of  shovels  to  throw  the  earth  on  the  berm.     In  some 
cases,  a  scaffold  of  plank  is  raised  in  the  ditch  for 
the  same  purpose,     ^yhen  the  ditch  has  been  exca- 
vated to  the  bottom,  the  offsets  are  cat  away,  and 
the  proper  slope  given  to  the  sides.     The  earth  fur- 
nished by  the  oft'sets,  if  not  required  to  complete  the 
parapet,  may  be  formed  into  a  small  glacis.      If  the 
soil  is  stony,  the  vegetable    mold   on   the   surface 
should  be  scraped  off,  and  reserved  to  form  the  top 
of  the  parapet,  which  should  be  made  of  earth  of  this 
kind,  to  the  depth  of  at  least  eighteen  inches,  to  pre- 
pent  injury  to  the  troops  from  the  effect  of  a  shot 
striking  the  top,  and  scattering  the  pebbles  in  their 
faces.     In  making  the  parapet,  care  should  be  taken 
to  form  a  drain,  at  some  suitable  point,  to  carry  off 
the  water  from  the  interior  into  the  ditch.     Tlie  wa- 
ter from  the  drain  should  not  be  suffered  to  run 
down  the  scarp,  as  it  would  soon  destroy  it.    A  gut- 
ter formed  of  boards,   should  be  made  to   prevent 
this.     See  Field  Fortifications  and  Normal  Profile. 
PARASAN6. — A  Persian  military  measure,  some 
times  assumed  as  a  league,  but  equal  to  about  four 
English  miles. 
FARAZONIUM. — A  name  given  by  the  early  Greeks, 
to   a  short  sword  or   dagger  worn  in  the 
belt  at  the  right  side. 

PARBUCKLES.— Four-inch  ropes,  13  feet 
long,  with  a  hook  at  one  end  and  a  loop  at 
the  other.  To  parbuckle  a  gun,  is  to  roll 
it  in  either  direction  from  the  spot  in  which 
it  rests.  To  do  this,  place  the  gun  on  skids, 
and  if  it  is  to  be  moved  up  or  down  a  slope, 
two  4i-inch  ropes  are  made  fast  to  some 
place  on  the  upper  part  of  the  slope,  the 
ends  arc  carrieil  under  the  chase  and  breech 
of  the  gun  respectively  round  it,  and  up  the  slope. 
If  the  nmning  ends  of  these  ropes  are  hauled  upon, 
the  gun  ascends ;  if  cased  off,  it  descends.  If  the 
ground  is  horizontal,  handspikes  only  are  necessary 
to  move  the  gun. 
PARBUCKLINO. — A  mode  of  drawing  up  or  lower- 


FABCEL. 


483 


PABKER  OUN. 


ing  down  an  inclined  piano  any  rylinilriciil  objert, 
as  a  barrel  or  a  licavy  gun,  wil  liimt  tlie  aid  of  a  crane 
or  tackle.  It  consiHts  in  passing  a  Htoiit  rope  round 
a  post  or  some  suitable  object  at  tlie  to[)  of  the  in- 
cline, and  then  doubling  the  ends  under  and  over  the 
object  to  be  moved.  This  converts  the  cask  or  gun 
into  a  pulley  in  its  own  IxOialf,  and  limits  Ihi-  [)res- 
Bure  at  each  end  of  Hie  rope  to  one-fourlh  the  weight 
of  the  object  moved,  as  felt  on  the  incline.  JJy  haul- 
ing in  the  (lids  ('{lually,  the  gun  ascends,  or  vice 
ver.iil.     See  Mirliimirdl  S/iiiiiiii'rni. 

PARCEL.  — A  tiTui,  meaningin  the  artillery  service, 
as  applied  to  a  rope,  to  put  around  it  canvas  well 
daubed  with  tar  and  boiuid  with  spun  yam  to  pro- 
tect it  from  chaling. 

PARCHMENT.— There  are  several  kinds  of  parch- 
ment, prepared  from  the  skins  of  dilVerent  animals, 
according  to  their  intended  uses.  The  ordinary 
writing  parchment  is  made  from  those  of  the  sheep 
and  of  the  she-goat  ;  the  tiner  kind,  known  nnvellmii. 
is  made  from  those  of  very  young  calves,  kids,  and 
lambs  ;  the  thick,  common  kinds,  for  drums,  tam- 
bourines, battledores,  etc.,  from  those  of  old  he- 
goats  and  she-goats,  and  in  northern  Europe  from 
wolves  ;  and  a  peculiar  kind  is  made  from  asses' 
skins,  the  surface  of  which  is  enameled.  It  is  used 
for  tablets,  as  black-lead  writing  can  be  readily  re- 
moved from  it  by  moisture.  The  method  of  making 
parchment  is  at  first  the  same  as  in  dressing  skins  for 
leather.  The  skins  are  limed  in  the  lime-pit  until 
the  hair  is  easily  removed.  They  are  then  stretched 
tightly  and  equally,  and  the  flesh  side  is  dressed  as 
in  currying,  until  a  perfectly  smooth  surface  is  ob- 
tained. It  is  ne.\t  ground  by  rubbing  over  it  a  fiat 
piece  of  pumice-stone,  previously  dressing  the  flesh 
side  only  with  powdered  chalk,  and  slaked  lime 
sprinkled  over  it.  It  is  next  allowed  to  dry,  still 
tightly  stretched  on  the  frame.  The  drying  process 
is  an  important  one  and  must  be  rather  slowly  carried 
on,  for  which  purpose  it  must  be  done  in  the  shade. 
Sometimes  these  operations  have  to  be  repeated 
several  times,  in  order  to  insure  an  excellent  quality, 
and  much  depends  upon  the  skill  with  which  the 
pumice-stone  is  used,  and  also  upon  the  fineness  of 
the  pumice  itself.  When  quite  dried,  the  lime  and 
chalk  are  removed  by  rubbing  with  a  soft  lambskin 
with  the  wool  on. 

.  FABCOURIR.— A  term  e.xpressive  of  those  move- 
ments which  are  made  by  General  Oflicers,  OfBcers 
Commanding  Brigades,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  en- 
couraging their  soldiers  in  the  heat  of  an  engage- 
ment. 

PARDON.— An  act  of  grace  emanating  from  that 
power  in  the  State  intrusted  with  the  execution  of  the 
laws,  and  exempting  the  individual  on  whom  it  is 
bestowed  from  the  punishment  to  which  he  has  been 
legally  sentenced  after  conviction  of  crime,  or  to 
which  he  is  by  law  liable  for  an  offence  on  which  he 
has  not  been  tried  and  convicted.  Every  officer 
authorized  to  appoint  a  General  Court-Martial,  has 
the  power  to  pardon  or  mitigate  the  sentence  of 
death ;  or  of  cashiering  an  officer,  which,  in  cases 
where  he  has  no  authority  to  carry  them  into  exe- 
cution, he  may  suspend,  until  the  pleasure  of  the 
President  of  the  United  States  can  be  known,  which 
suspension,  together  with  copies  of  the  proceedings 
of  the  Court-Martial,  ,the  said  officer  immediately 
transmits  to  the  President  for  his  determination. 
And  the  Colonel  or  Commanding  Officer  of  the  regi- 
ment or  garrison  where  any  Regimental  or  Garrison 
Court-Martial  is  held,  may  parclon  or  mitigate  any 
punishment  to  be  inflicted. 

PARK. — An  enclosure,  or  any  place,  where  guns, 
wagons,  animals,  etc.,  can  be  placed  in  safety.  A 
Park  of  Artillery  is  the  whole  train  of  great' guns 
with  equipment,  ammunition,  horses,  and  gunners 
for  an  army  in  the  field.  It  is  placed  in  a  situation 
whence  rapid  access  can  be  had  to  the  line  of  the 
army  in  any  part ;  and  at  the  same  time  where  the 
divisions  of  the  force  can  easily  mass  for  its  protec- 


tion. The  horses  of  the  park  are  picketed  in  lines  in 
its  rear.  Tin;  term  is  also  applied  to  th<-  ground  on 
which  all  guns  stanil  orari'  parked.  During  a  siege 
the  park  must  be  sheltered  and  screencfd  as  much  uh 
possible  from  the  view  anil  fire  of  the  enemy ;  but, 
in  a  position  to  communicate  frer-ly  with  the  besieg- 
er's trenches.  If  possible,  its  locality  should  also  be 
chosen  close  to  some  good  line  of  communication, 
either  a  road  or  river.  Great  care  should  be  given 
to  the  position  of  the  laboratories  ;  tliey  should  be  as 
far  away  from  the  enemy  as  the  jjark  will  permit. 
The  officer  in  charge  of  the  park  should  be  assisled 
by  well, trained  nu.-n  of  the  Ordnance  iJepartment  and 
a  sufficient  number  of  artificers.  Kwhriglwir  Piirk 
comprehends  all  the  materials,  tools,  etc..  attached 
to  that  branch  of  the  service.  A  iiiegf  Piirk  com- 
jiriscs  the  guns  collected  together  at  the  commence- 
ment of  tlie  iiivestiiiint  of  a  fortress,  taken  from  the 
artillery  park,  and  manned  by  artillery,  aided  l)y  tlic 
men  of  the  Ordnance  Department.  The  carriages  of 
a  battery  are  parked  in  two  ranks,  all  the  pieces 
limbered"  and  in  the  front  rank,  the  caissons  cov- 
ering their  pieces ;  the  interval  is  such  as  is  most 
convenient;  the  distance  from  the  rear  part  of  the 
pieces  to  the  end  of  the  poles  of  the  caissons 
is  about  eight  yards.  The  carriages  of  each  section 
are  arranged  from  right  to  left  in  the  order  of  their 
permanent  numbers,  the  1st  section  on  the  right.  In 
home  bntterif!<,  the  distance  is  seventeen  j'ards,  but 
may  be  decreased  to  eight  yards  if  the  nature  of  the 
ground  requires  it. 

To  form  the  park,  the  Captain  directs  the  column 
of  sections  toward  either  flank,  or  in  rear,  of  the 
position  to  be  occupied  by  the  park,  and  establishes 
the  Guidon  near  the  point  where  the  lead-driver  of 
the  leading  carriage  is  to  halt.  lie  then  directs  the 
column  forty-seven  yards  in  rear  of,  and  parallel  to, 
the  line  to  be  occupied  by  the  lead-drivers  of  the 
front-rank  carriages,  and  commands  : 

1.  Right  {or  lejt)  into  park,  2.  At  (so  vaaxiy)  yardif 
interral,  3.  March,  4.  Front.  The  Chief  of  the  lead- 
ing section  commands  :  Right  -irheel,  at  the  first  com- 
mand, and  repeats  the  third.  At  the  command 
march,  given  when  the  leading  section  is  three  and 
one-quarter  yards  from  the  point  opposite  the  posi- 
tion which  it  is  to  occupy,  the  leading  section  wheels 
to  the  right  moves  forward  and  is  halted  by  its  Chief 
when  the  leading  driver  arrives  in  line  with  the 
Guidon.  Each  of  the  other  sections  continues  the 
march  until  three  and  one-quarter  yards  from'  the 
point  opposite  its  place  in  park,  then  wheels  to  the 
right  at  the  command  of  its  Chief,  and  moves  for- 
ward ;  on  arriving  at  three  yards  from  the  line,  the 
Chief  commands:  1.  Section,  2  Haxt,  3.  Left,  4. 
Dress.  The  Chiefs  of  platoon  superintend  the  move- 
ments of  their  sections,  but  do  not  repeat  the  com- 
mands. The  Captain  and  Chief  of  caissons  go  to  the 
left  and  superintend  the  alignment  as  previously  ex- 
plained. The  Captain  commands  right  into  park,  or 
left  into  park,  according  as  the  column  is  left,  or 
right,  in  front.     See  Train. 

'PARKER  GUN.— This  gun  is  a  distinctively  Ameri- 
can production,  and  has  all  the  advantages  of  the 
American  system  of  manufacturing.  The  different 
parts  are  made  bj'  special  machiner}-,  and  by  work- 
men who  make  a  speciality  of  one  thing  onh',  and 
are  subjected  to  rigid  inspection  so  that  no  defective 
or  imperfect  part  can  find  its  way  into  the  finished 
gun.  The  number  of  parts  is  reduced  to  a  minimum, 
and  the  construction  is  so  simple  that  an}"one  with  no 
tool  but  a  screw-driver  can  take  the  gun  apart  for 
cleaning  or  repairs.  No  breech-loader  has  less  to 
get  out  of  order,  and  none  will  stand  better  the 
ordeal  to  which  a  breech-loader  is  subjected.  The 
drawing  shows  the  top  action.  Pressing  the  thumb 
againstthe  lever,  throws  it  to  the  right,  and  acting 
through  the  piece,  16,  forces  the  piece,  18,  to  the 
rear.  "This  piece  being  pivoted  at  the  top  withdraws 
the  bolt,  17,  from  the'mortise  which  is  cut  in  the 
lug,  G,  and  releases  the  barrels.      When  the  gun  is 


PABKZK  GUN. 


484 


PARKEB  6UH. 


closed  the  sides  of  the  extension  rib,  24,  being  upon 
the  arc  of  a  circle,  with  the  hinge  joint,  13,  as  a  center, 
have  a  bearing  along  their  entire  surface,  and  the 
extension  rib  tits  securely  into  its  seat,24,in  the  frame. 
When  the  barrels  are  brought  to  place  for  firing,  the 
bottom  of  the  lug,6,  strikes  the  trip, 21, withdrawing 
it  from  the  bolt, 17,  which  then  enters  the  mortise  in 
the  lug,  6,  and  securely  locks  the  gun.      The  taper- 


portion  of  the  chambers  of  the  barrels,  as  shown  In 
the  drawing  (which  represents  an  end  view  of  the 
breech  of  the  barrels).  When  the  gun  is  closed,  the 
extractor,  14.  extends  from  the  rear  end  of  the  bar- 
rels to  the  projection  on  the  joint,  13,  and  as  the  bar- 
rels swing  on  this  joint,  13,  which  remains  station- 
ary, this  projection  forces  the  extractor,  14,  from 
the  rear  end  of  the  barrels,  ao  that  when  they  ar- 


bolt,17,locks  the  bp.rrcls  positively  firm,  and  the  use 
ot  a  taper-bolt  for  fastening  the  gun  gives  it  a  de- 
cided advantage,  as  it  does  not  allow  a  little  dirt 
(which  is  very  liable  to  get  under  barrels  when  open) 
to  prevent  the  gun  from  locking.  Many  times  when 
shooting,  marksmen  are  balked  in  this  way,  but  this 
pin  closes  with  the  same  ease  and  locks  as  securely 
even  if  there  is  a  little  dirt  in  the  way.  When  the 
gun  is  opened,  the  check-hook.  T.  comes  in  contact 


with  the  pin,  E,  which  avoids  any  strain  on  the  joint, 
13,  and  thus  prevents  the  gun  becoming  shaky  by 
constant  use. 

This  gun  has  an  automatic  extractor  which  draws 
the  shells  or  cartridges  from  tlie  barrels   during  the 


rive  at  the  position  as  shown  above,  the  cartridges 
are  withdrawn  from  them  quite  far  enough  to 
be  entirely  removed  by  hand.  In  connection  with 
the  lock,  which  is  rebounding^  attention  should  be 
called  to  the  direct  blow  of  tlie  flring-pin  exactly  in 
the  center  of  the  cap  and  at  right  angles  with  the 
head  of  the  shell.  By  this  arrangement  the  chance 
of  a  miss-fire  is  very  much  lessened, and  the  efficiency 
of  the  arm  is  increased.  The  locking-bolt  is  held 
back  while  the  gun  is  open,  doing  away  with  the 
wear  on  the  hinge  joint  which  all  breech-loaders  are 
subjected  to  when  the  barrels  are  forced  down 
against  a  strong  spring  in  the  rear  of  the  bolt. 

The  following  drawing  explains  the  b'ftcT  action 
peculiar  to  this  gun  :  Pressing  up  on  the  finger- 
piece,  1,  in  front  of  the  guard. 2. raises  the  lifter,3,  and 
its  beveled  side — coming  in  contact  with  the  screw, 
4 — acts  as  a  wedge  to  draw  the  bolt,  5,  from  the 
mortise  which  is  cut  in  the  lug  6.  and  releases  the 
barrels  ready  for  the  insertion  of  the  cartridges.  It 
will  be  observed  that  when  the  bolt,  5,  is  back  to  the 
position  as  shown,  the  small  hole  which  is  drilled  in 
the  under  side  of  said  bolt  comes  directly  over  the 
trip,  7,  which,  by  the  assistance  of  the  small  spiral 
spring,  8,  is  made  to  enter  this  hole  in  the  bolt,  5,  and 


operation  of  opening  the  gun.  Theextractor,  14, 
is  inserted  in  a  liole drilled  in  the  lug,  34,  with  lis 
rear  end  enlarged  unil  extending  into  and  around  a 


thereby  holds  it  in  position.  The  finger-piece,  1,  is 
soMd  and  a  part  of  lifter,  3.  The  action  of  tlw  liftrr, 
3,  is  pisithe,  not  only  to  withdraw  the  bolt  fmrn,  hut 


PAKKHUEST  BACHIHE  GTJW . 


485 


PA££OTT  OUH. 


toforce  it  forward  into  tlie  mortise  inth<>  ug,  f>.  I  "r 
the  purpose  of  oleaninf;.  it  can  be  very  cHHily  remove. 
l.V  liikiiiL'  olT  th<-  locks  iii.d  removing'  Hie  smiUl 
Jrew  4  from  tl.<-  end  of  l)olt,  5,  Uicn  press  down  on 
trii)  7  whieli  will  iillow  tlx^  lifu,-r  to  be  willidrawu 
without  removin^r  either  stock,  Ruard,  or  triRpr- 
plate.  The  improved  roll,  Hi,  gives  great  stn-nglh  t<, 
tlie  joint  This  gun  has  been  issued  by  the  I  nited 
States  (Jov.Tumenl  for  arming  Paymasters'  escorts, 
etc.,  when  light  shooting  and  rough  usage  were  an- 

'^^p'aBKHURST  machine  gun.  In  machine-guns 
the  heatin.^  <it  llie  Imrrcls  has  limited  the  number  of 
Charges  tlPat  could  be  rapidly  tired  before  I  hey  be- 
come too  hot  for  use,  so  that  after  a  p<-riod  of  rai)id 
firinn-  the  gun  would  become  dangerous  if  not  allowe.l 
to  cool  T'he  I'arkhur.Ht  gun  has  a  devii'e  for  keep- 
ing the  barrelscool  by  surrounding  them  wilh  w.Uer  | 
umler  atmosplxTic  pressure,  thus  prevcutmg  the 
temperature  from  rising  above  the  boiling  point  of 
water.  A  temperature  not  e.\cceding  312"  tahren- 
heit  does  not  impair  the  action  of  the  gun.  The  liar- 
rels  are  inclosed  in  a  metallic  water-tiglit  casing 
having  a  vent  for  the  escape  of  steam.  The  casing 
is  tilled  from  time  to  time  during  the  tiring  as  may 
be  required.  The  mechanism  for  rapidly  loading  and 
firing  is  also  improved. 

PARK1N80NIA.  —  A  shrub  found  comnumly  in 
Bentral  It  has  been  slated  to  yield  a  very  fair  char- 
coal'for  gunpowder  purposes;  but  from  trials  made 
of  it  of  late  years,  at  the  Government  Powder  W  orks 
at  Ishapore,  it  was  not  foumi  to  be  ecpial  to  that 
made  from  urhur  or  dhall  xtdlk.  Nevertheless  it 
mii^ht  be  used  if  the  latter  crop  failed. 

PARK  PALING.— A  very  inferior  gun-material, 
from  which  vast  numbers  of  very  inferior  guns  were 
made  during  the  existence  of  the  slave-trade. 

PARK  PICKETS.— Small  wooden  posts  which  sup- 
port the  rope  line  round  the  artillery  park.  They 
are  carried  either  on  carts  or  camels  in  India  when 
on  the  march.  Dimensions-length  hZ  inches,  and 
diameter  3  inches. 

PARLEY.— In  military  language,  an  oral  conference 
wilh  the  enemy.  It  takes  place  under  a  tlag  of  truce, 
and  usually  at  some  spot-for  the  time  neutral-be- 
tween  the  lines  of  the  two  armies.  To  hmt  a  parley 
is  to  give  a  signal  for  such  conference  by  beat  of 
drurn'or  sound  of  trumpet.  ,  ,      ., 

PARMA.— A  kind  of  round  buckler  used  by  the 
Velites  in  the  Roman  Army.  It  was  3  feet  in  diame- 
ter, made  of  wood,  and  covered  with  leather  Its 
form  was  round,  and  its  substance  strong  ;  but  berv- 
ius  on  the  Aeneid,  and  even  Virgil,  say  that  it  was 
a  light  piece  of  armor  in  comparison  with  the  clyp- 
eust  though  larger  than  the  pelta. 

PAROL— A  stout  wooden  frame  having  long,  sharp- 
pointed  stakes  driven  into  it  horizontally.  It  is 
placed  upon  the  parapet  to  oppose  scaling  parties. 

PAROLE.— 1.  A  watch-word  differing  from  the 
countersign  in  that  it  is  only  communicated  to  Oiii- 
cers  of  Guards,  while  the  countersign  is  given  to  all 
the  members.  The  parole  is  usually  the  name  of  a 
person,  generally  a  distinguished  officer  while  the 
countersign  is  the  name  of  a  place,  as  of  a  battle-held. 
2  A  declaration  made  on  honor  by  an  officer,  in  a 
case  in  which  there  is  no  more  than  his  sense  of  hon- 
or to  restrain  him  from  breaking  his  word.     Ihus 


lU'signatcd  limits  ;  or  he  may  even  be  allowed  to  rfs 
turn  to  his  own  country  on  his //arui;  not  to  fi/jlit 
a"ain,  during  Ihi- existing  war,  against  his  captors.  To 
break/'rtr"/'  is  aicounted  infamous  in  all  civilized  na- 
tions, and  an  olllccr  who  has  bo  far  forgotten  his  po- 
sition as  a  gciilleuian,  ceases  to  liave  any  claim  to 
the  treatment  of  an  hmiorabht  man,  nor  can  he  ex- 
pect (luartiT  should  lie  again  fall  into  the  hands  of 
Ihfi  enemy  he  has  deceived.  The  following  rules  m 
regard  to  pamlen  are  established  by  the  common  law 
and  usages  of  war  :  An  otlicer  who  gives  ti.  parol,  for 
himself  or  his  <'oiiimaiHl  on  the  battle-field  is  deemed 
a  deserter,  and  will  be  punished  accordingly.  For 
the  ofllcer,  the  jiledging  of  U\A  parole  is  an  individu- 
id  act  and  no  wholesale  jjaroling  by  an  otlicer,  for  a 
number  of  inferiors  in  rank,  is  permitted  or  valid. 
No  iirisoner  of  war  can  be  forced  by  the  hostile  Go- 
vernment to  pledge  his  ywrw^;  and  any  threat  or  ill 
treatment  to  force  thegivingof  Iha  parole  is  contrary 
to  the  law  of  war,  and  not  binding. 

No  prisoner  of  war  can  enter  into  engagements  in- 
consistent with  his  character  and  iluties  as  a  citizen 
and  a  subject  of  his  State.  He  can  only  bind  him- 
self not  to  bear  arms  against  his  captor  for  a  limited 
period,  or  until  he  is  exchanged,  and  this  only  with 
1  the  stipulated  or  implied  consent  of  his  own  Govern- 
ment. If  the  engairement  which  he  makes  is  not 
approved  by  his  Government,  he  is  bound  to  return 
:  ami  surrender  himself  as  a  prisoner  of  war.  His 
own  Government  cannot  at  the  same  time  disown  hi3 
engagement  and  refuse  liis  return  as  a  prisf.ner. 

No''  one  <:an  pledge  his  paroU-  that  he  will  never 
bear  arms  against  tlie  Government  of  bis  captors,  nor 
that  he  will  not  bear  arms  against  any  other  enemy 
of  his  Government,  not  at  the  time  the  ally  of  his 
captors.  Such  agreements  have  reference  only  to 
the  existing  enemy  and  his  existing  allies,  and  to  the 
existino-  war,  and  not  to  future  belligerents. 

Whife  the  pledging  of  the  military  pary^e  is  a  vol- 
untary act  of  the  individual,  the  capturing  power  is 
not  obliged  to  grant  it,  nor  is  the  Government  of  the 
individiilxl  paroled  bound  to  approve  or  ratify  it. 
1      I'aroles  not  authorized  by  the  common  law  of  war 
are  not  valid  till  approved  by  the  Government  of  the 
1  individual  so  pledging  his  parole. 
'      The  pled'^ing  of  any  unauthorized  mihlHTy  parole 
is  a  military  offense,  punishable  under  the  common 

law  of  war.  ,     .  ,       .  , 

PAROLE  EVIDENCE.— In  law,  it  is  such  evidence 
as  is  ■'■iven  by  witnesses  by  word  of  mouth  at  a 
trial  or  hearing  of  a  cause.  Parole  agreeinent,  in 
Enn-lish  law,  means  any  agreement  made  either  by 
word  of  mouth  or  bv  writing  not  under  seal.  _  If 
the  a-'reemcnt  is  made  by  writing  under  seal,  it  is 
called  a  deed,  or  indenture,  or  covenant,  according  to 
the  nature  of  its  contents. 

PARRAIN.— In  military  orders,  the  person  who 
introduces  or  presents  a  newl.v-elected  Knight.  The 
term  is  also  used  to  signify  the  comrade  who  is  se- 
lected by  a  soldier  who  is  condemned  to  be  shot  tc 
bind  the  handkerchief  over  his  eyes. 

PARROT  BEAKED.— A  term  apphed  to  a  battle- 
axe  and  the  like  when  very  short  in  the  handle  and 
resemblim:  a  parrot's  beak. 

PARROTTGUN.— The  Parrot t  rifle-.gun  is  a  cast- 
iron  piece  of  about  the  usual  dimensions,  strength- 
ened by  shrinkms  a  coiled  band  or  barrel  of  wrought- 


a  prisoner  of  war  mav   be  released  from  actual  pris- 
on on  his  parole  that  "he  will  not  go  beyond   certain 


iron  over  that  portion  of  the  reinforce  '«-hi^h  sur- 
rounds the  charge.    The  bodies  of  the  larger  Pr.r70tt 


PAEEOTT  LIFE-SAVING  MOETAE. 


486 


PAEEOTT  LIFE  SAVING  MOETAE. 


guns  are  cast  hollow,  and  cooled  from  the  interior 
on  the  Rodman  plan.  The  barrel  is  formed  b}-  bend- 
ing a  rectangular  bar  of  wrought-iron  spirally  around 
a  mandrel  and  then  welding  the  mass  together  by 
hammering  it  in  a  strong  cast-iron  cylinder,  or  tube. 
In  bending  the  bar,  the  outer  side  being  more  elon- 
gated than  the  inner  one,  is  diminished  in  thickness, 
giving  the  cross  section  of  the  bar  a  wedge  shape, 
which  possesses  the  advantage  of  allowing  the  cinder 


the  Parrott  projectiles  were  frequently  broken  at  the 
bottom  by  the  force  of  the  powder  in  such  manner 
as  to  wedge  the  body  against  the  bore.  It  is  quite 
probable  that  this  cause  had  much  to  do  with  the 
bursting  of  the  gims.  The  inventor  thinks  he  has 
corrected  this  evil. 

The  following  table  gives  the  more  important  di- 
mensions, etc.,  of  Parrott  guns;  ranging  from  the 
lO-pounder  to  the  10-inch. 


Gun. 


10-pounder., 

20-pouuder., 

30-poundcr. 

100-pounder. 

8-inch 

10-inch 


o 

o  . 
Q 

.sm 

Q 

Number  of 
Grooves. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Lbs. 

Inches. 

70 

3. 

11.3 

890 

3 

0.1 

79 

3.67 

14.5 

1,750 

5 

0.1 

120 

4.20 

18.3 

4,200 

7 

0.1 

130 

6.4 

25.9 

9,700 

9 

0.1 

136 

8. 

32. 

16,300 

11 

0.1 

144 

10. 

40. 

23.500 

15 

0.1 

1  turn  in  ft. 
at  Muzzle. 

10 

10 

12 

18 

23 

30 


bo 

eS 
5 


Lbs. 
1 
2 
3 

10 

16 

25 


Lbs. 

10 

19 

28 

86 
150 
250 


to  escape  through  the  opening,  thereby  securing  a 
more  perfect  weld.  The  barrel  is  shrunk  on  by  the 
aid  of  heat,  and  for  this  purpose  the  reinforce  of  the 
gun  is  carefully  turned  to  a  cylindrical  shape,  and 
about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  to  the  foot  larger  than 
the  interior  diameter  of  the  barrel  in  a  cold  state. 
To  prevent  the  cast-iron  from  expanding  when  the 
barrel  is  slipped  on  to  its  place  a  stream  of  cold  water 
is  allowed  to  run  through  the  bore.  At  the  same  time 
and  while  the  bands  hang  loosely  upon  it,  the  body 
of  the  gun  is  rotated  around  its  axis  to  render  the 
cooling  uniform  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  bar- 
rel. A  large  number  of  these  guns  were  used  in  the 
late  war,  both  on  sea  and  land;  and  the  amotint  of 


The  proof  of  these  guns  consists  in  tiring  each 
piece  te?!  rounds  with  service  charges.  The  table 
given  below  shows  the  ranges  of  the  100-pounder 
Parrott  gun  ;  charge,  10  pounds  of  cannon  powder ; 
projectile,  Parrott  shell,  tilled,  100  pounds  ;  initial 
velocity  being  1,080  feet.  See  Cast-iron  Guns  and 
Ordnance. 

PAEEOTT  LIFE-SAVING  MONSTEB.  —  A  mortar 
made  of  cast-iron  and  lined  with  a  steel  tube.  The 
piece  is  cylindrical  about  the  seat  of  the  charge, 
gradually  tapering  to  the  face  of  the  muzzle.  The 
breech  is  hemispherical.  The  trunnions  are  placed 
near  the  breech ;  their  projection  upon  a  plane 
through  the  vent  and  axis  of  the  bore,  being  in  front 


.a 

1    . 

.c 

> 

c5 
bo 

g 
PS 

i 

> 

E 

O 

B 

3 

a 
■< 

Remaining 

locity. 

to 

Q 

1 

a 
> 

a- 

o 

a 

o 
"5) 

4 

Remaining 
locity. 

Yards. 

O       ' 

Seconds. 

O   ' 

Ft. -sees. 

Yards. 

O   ' 

Seconds. 

a  ' 

Ft.-secB. 

100 

0  14 

0.28 

0  14 

1066 

1700 

4  36 

5.15 

5  09 

933 

200 

0  29 

0.56 

0  29 

1053 

1800 

4  54 

5.48 

5  24 

916 

300 

0  44 

0.85 

0  44 

1041 

1835 

5  00 

5.50 

5  33 

914 

'  400 

0  59 

1.14 

1  00 

1029 

1900 

5  12 

5.81 

5  47 

910 

405 

1  00 

1.16 

1  01 

1029 

2000 

5  31 

6.14 

6  10 

903 

500 

1  14 

1.44 

1  16 

1019 

2100 

5  50 

6.47 

6  33 

897 

600 

1  30 

1.73 

1  33 

1009 

2158 

6  00 

6.67 

6  45 

893 

700 

1  46 

2.03 

1  50 

1000 

220Q 

6  09 

6.81 

6  56 

891 

788 

2  00 

2.29 

2  06 

992 

2300 

6  28 

7.15 

7  19 

885 

800 

2  02 

2.33 

2  08 

991 

2400 

6  47 

7.49 

7  42 

879 

900 

2  18 

2.63 

2  26 

983 

2470 

7  00 

7.73 

7  59 

875 

1000 

2  34 

2.94 

2  44 

974 

2500 

7  07 

7.83 

8  08 

873 

1100 

2  51 

3.25 

3  03 

966 

2G00 

7  27 

8.18 

8  34 

867 

1151 

3  00 

3.41 

3  13 

962 

2700 

7  47 

8.,53 

9  00 

861 

1200 

3  08 

3.56 

3  22 

959 

2767 

8  00 

8.76 

9  13 

857 

1300 

3  2r. 

3.87 

3  41 

951 

2800 

8  07 

8.88 

9  26 

855 

1400 

3  42 

4.19 

4  00 

944 

2900 

8  27 

9.23 

9  52 

850 

l.-,00 

4  00 

4.51 

4  21 

987 

3000 

8  48 

9.58 

10  18 

844 

1500 

4  00 

4.51 

4  21 

937 

3056 

9  00 

9.78 

10  32 

841 

1600 

4  18 

4.83 

4  42 

930 

3100 

9  09 

9.94 

10  47 

839 

•work  done  by  them,  especially  in  breaching  mason- 
ry, is  probably  not  exceeded  by  the  ritlc-gimsof  any 
o"tlicr  system.  While  a  few  of  them  have  failed  in 
the  service,  others  liave shown  very  great  emlurance. 
The  cause  of  this  failure  has  been  attributed  to  the 
bursting  of  shells  In  the  bore,  the  presence  of  sand 
in  the  bore,  etc.,  but  late  investigations  show  that 


of  and  tangent  to  a  plane  perpendicular  to  that  axis 
and  containing  the  front  end  of  the  chamber.  The 
chamber  has  the  form  of  the  frustum  of  acone.  The 
projectile  is  of  cast-iron,  cylindrical,  with  the  ends 
rounded.  An  eye-bolt  is  screwed  into  the  base  for 
the  attachment  of  the  line.  The  eye  of  this  bolt  is 
close  to  the  base  of  the  shot.   The  cylindrical  portion 


PAKROTT  PROJECTILES. 


487 


PAHET. 


is  liirncil  in  a  liitlic  sous  to  bcitliiioHt  u  pcrfi'd,  (il  for 
Uic  liorc. 

This  iipparatiiR  is  proviilcd  with  a  siifrly  iitlafli- 
mfiit,  coiisislinij  of  a  piccr  of  ruliliiT,  rcctaiiKular  in 
cross-section,  about  1'  loni;,  0".75  wide,  and  O"..") 
thick,  and  of  tlircc  or  four  i;alvani/,cd-iron  wires 
about,  (!'  Inni;,  laiil  iiarallcl  to  each  other,  loosely 
twisted  and  coiled  into  a  helix  of  from  IH  lo  l'.(  turns. 
Tlie  rubbiTstriip  is  sotnetinies  placeil  insiile  the  coil, 
and  at  others  outside  of  it.  This  cond)ine(l  strap 
and  spring  is  interposed  between  the  shot  and  line 
in  lirinfj.  The  object  of  the  combination  is  to  ab- 
Horl)  the  shock  of  the  discharge  and  thns  prevent  the 
breakage  of  the  line,  by  letting  the  lirst  Jerk  come 
upon  tlio  rubber,  which  will  generally  l)reak.  and 
tlien  upon  the  coiled  wire  spring.  The  wires  will  be 
straigliteneil  out  before  the  full  strain  falls  upon  the 
line.     See  /,i/>-.vini/i!/  li'icketn. 

PARROTT  "projectiles.  —  Th<'S(^  projectiles  are 
composed  of  a  cast-iron  body  and  a  brass  ring  cast 


into  a  rabbet  formed  around  the  l)ase.  The  (lame 
presses  against  the  bottom  of  the  ringand  underneath 
it,  so  as  to  expand  it  into  the  grooves  of  the  gun. 
To  prevent  tlie  ring  from  turning  in  the  rabbet  the 
latter  is  recessed  at  several  points  of  its  circumfer- 
ence. 

Parrott's  incendiary  shell  has  two  compartments 
formed  by  a  partition  at  riglit  angles  to  its  length. 
The  lower  and  larger  space  is  filled  with  a  burning 
composition;  the  upper  one  is  filled  with  a  bursting 


charge  of  powder,  which  is  fired  by  a  tirnc  or  con- 
cussion fuse.  Tlie  burning  romposition  is  intro- 
duced through  a  hoh'  in  lUc.  bollom  of  the  gtieU, 
which  is  stoppril  up  willi  a  screw-plug. 

A  more  recent  form  of  the  I'arrott  Projectile  for 
large  calibers  shown  iti  tlie  drawing.  Th('  sabot  in 
cast  on  to  the  projrctile,  anil  is  provided  with  a  lip 
iiiid  cannelure.  It  is  prevented  from  turning  on  the 
projeclile  and  from  stripping  by  means  of  recesses 
and  undercuts  upon  the  basi;  of  the  projeclile,  into 
wliich  the  metal  when  liipiid  enters.  See  Expanding 
J'riijn'tiliH  and   I'mjertiUH. 

PARRY.— A  defensive  movement  in  bayonet  and 
saber  exi;rcises,  executed  as  follows  :  With  the  hay. 
unci  -The  Instructor  commands:  1.  'J'lerr^,  2.  Pabry. 
Move  the  point  of  the  bayonet  five  or  six  inches  lo 
the  right.  1.  Qnnrti ,  2.  I^aiuiy.  Move  the  piece 
(piickly  to  the  left,  the  small  of  the  stock  passing  un- 
der the  left  elbow,  the  piece  covering  the  left  shoul- 
der;  the  liarrel  to  the  left,  bayonet  in  frimt  of,  and 
higher  than  the  shoulder,  the  left  forearm  on  the 
right  of  tlie  i)iece.  theelbow  touching  the  right  wrist, 
the  fingers  on  the  slock.  1.  Heronde,  2.  Paeby. 
Move  the  point  of  the  bayonet  quickly  to  the  left, 
describing  a  semi-circle  from  left  to  right,  the  point 
fif  the  bayonet  at  the  height  of  and  in  front  of  llie 
right  knee,  barrel  to  the  left;  the  left  elbow  in  front 
of  the  body,  the  fiat  of  the  butt  under  tlie  right  fore- 
arm, theelbow  two  or  three  inches  higher  than  the 
right  shoulder.  1.  Ilutt.  2.  Pakky.  Move  the  piece 
quickly  to  the  left,  covering  the  left  knee  and  shoul- 
der ;  the  barrel  to  the  right,  the  butt  tliree  inches 
above,  and  to  the  left  of  the  left  knee  :  the  left  hand 
and  arm  as  in  quarte  parry.  1 .  I'rirroe.  2.  Pakby. 
Lower  the  point  of  the  bayonet  and  describe  a  semi- 
circle to  the  left,  carry  the  piece  to  the  left,  covering 
the  left  shoulder ;  the  barrel  downward,  the  left  fore- 


Fig.  1. 


Big.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


Pig.    6 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  9. 


Fig.  la 


PARSONS  GUN. 


488 


FASnSAH. 


arm  oehind  the  piece,  the  bayonet  at  the  height  of 
and  to  tl\e  left  of  tlie  left  kuee  ;  the  butt  higher  thrn 
the  head,  the  right  forearm  above  the  eyes  and  six 
inches  in  front  of  the  forehead.  The  double  parries 
are  combinations  of  the  simple  parries,  and  are  exe- 
cuted by  the  following  commands:  1.  Tierce, 
2,  Quarte.  1.  Prime,  2.  Seconde.  1.  Quarte.  2. 
Tierce.  1.  Seconde,  2.  Prime.  1.  Tierce,  2.  Se- 
conde. 1.  Tierce,  2.  Butt.  1.  Seconde,  2.  Tierce. 
1.  Butt,  2.  Tierce.  The  U'erre  and  guarte  parrieK  are 
used  against  blows  aimed  above  the  arms ;  seconde 
and  butt  parrie.i,  below  the  arms ;  prime  parry,  for 
blows  either  above  or  belo%v  the  arms.  In  all  par- 
ries, care  must  be  taken  not  to  uncover  the  body,  by 
moving  the  piece  farther  than  necessary  to  parry  the 
blow.  These  positions  are  shown  in  Figures  1,  2,  3, 
4,  and  ,5.  Viith  the  Sabei — The  Instructor  commands: 
1.  Ti-erc€,  2.  Parry.  Carry  the  hand  quickly  a  little 
to  the  right,  point  of  the  saber  as  high  as  the  eyes. 
and  opposite  the  right  shoulder,  edge  to  the  right. 
(Two.)  Resume  the  guard.  1.  Quarte.  2.  Parry. 
Turn  the  hand  in  quarte,  and  carrj'  it  opposite  the 
left  breast,  edge  of  the  blade  to  the  left,  point  to  the 


front,  as  high  as  the  eyes,  and  a  little  to  the  left  of 
the  left  shoulder.  (Two.)  Resume  the  guard.  1. 
-l^f'ft,  2.  Parry.  Raise  the  hand  above  and  six  inches 
in  front  of  the  eyes,  the  elbow  somewhat  bent,  edge 
of  the  blade  to  the  left,  point  downward,  and  parry 
the  blow  aimed  at  the  left  side.  (Two.)  Resume 
the  guard.  1.  Left,  head,  2.  Parry.  Raise  the  saber 
quickly  above  the  head,  the  right  arm  vertical,  edge 
upward,  point  to  the  left  and  about  twelve  inches 
below  the  guard.  (Two.)  Resume  the  guard.  1. 
Jiight  head,  2.  Parry.  Raise  the  saber  quickly 
above  the  head,  edge  up,  point  to  the  left  and  higher 


hanu,  still  in  tierce,  above  the  left  shoulder.  (Three.) 
Resume  the  guard.  1.  Against  infantry, 2.  Right,  3. 
Parry.  Turn  tlie  head  to  the  right,  throwing  back 
the  right  shoulder,  raise  the  saber,  the  arm  extend- 
ing upward  to  the  right  and  rear,  the  hand  in  tierce, 
edge  of  the  blade  to  the  left,  point  upward.  (Two.) 
Describe  a  circle  quickly  on  the  right,  from  rear  to 
front,  the  arm  extended  ;  turn  aside  the  bayonet  with 
the  back  ot  the  blade,  bringing  the  hand  as  high  as 
the  head,  the  point  upward.  (Three.)  Resume  the 
guard.  See  Bayonet  Exercise.  C'aralry  Parr.'ei,  Fenc- 
ing and  Sahfr  Exercise. 

PARSONS  GUN.— The  principle  upon  which  Mr. 
Parsons  makes  his  gun  would  seem  to  be  similar  lu 
that  of  Captain  Palliser's,  /.  e,  by  varying  elasticity. 
As  applied  to  strengthening  a  68-pounder  cast-iron 
gun.  his  method  consists  of  boring  into  the  breech 
of  the  gun,  coincident  with  its  axis,  reaming  out 
the  bore  into  a  slightly  conical  shape  as  far  as  the 
front  of  the  trunnions,  and  then  inserting  into  this 
space  a  reinforced  wrought-iron  tube,  which  is  se- 
cured in  its  place  by  a  breech-plug.  The  exterior 
of  this  compound  tube  is  turned  to  tit  the  conical 
space  easily,  its  length  being  cut  so  that  it  will  be 
compressed  longitudinally  by  screwing  up  the 
breech-plug,  thus  communicating  to  the  outer  cast- 
iron  portion  the  entire  longitudinal  strain  of  the 
powder.  This  method  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
wrought-iron  may  be  stretched  three  times  as  much 
as  cast-iron,  and  will  offer  from  three  and  a  half  to 
six  times  the  resistance  within  the  limit  of  its  elasti- 
city. Mr.  Parsons  has  also  proposed  that  the  tube 
should  be  made  of  steel,  having  a  solid  breech,  A, 
as  shown  in  the  drawing,  the  ingot  not  being  bored 
through  its  entire  length.  He  proposes  to  reinforce 
tlie  tube  with  jackets  of  steel  shrunk  on,  B,  and  to 
insert  the  whole  tube  and  jacket,  from  the  rear  of 
the  iron  casting, the  cast-iron  gun  being  so  bored  out 
as  to  require  force  to  insert  the  tube  in  its  place.  The 
tul)e  being  inserted,  a  steel  plug,  C,  is  to  be  screwed 
on  from  the  rear,  which  presses  against  the  rear  of 
the  tube,  and  the  breech  is  then  closed  by  a  cast-iron 
lug  representing  the  cascabel  of  the  piece.  See  Con- 
eried  Guns,  Ordnance,  and  I'alliser  Gun. 

PARTIALITY. — An  unequal  state  of  judgment  or 
leaning  in  favor  of  one  of  two  parties.  Every  mem- 
ber of  a  Court-Martial  is  sworn  to  do  ju.stice,  with- 
out partiality,  favor  or  affection.  A  previous  opinion 
expressed  by  a  member,  before  the  Court  is  sworn, 
is  deemed  a  good  and  sufficient  cause  of  challenge 
b3'  either  the  prisoner  or  prosecutor,  and  the  indi- 
vidual cannot  sit  on  the  trial  and  judgment  of  the 
case. 

PARTISAN. — 1.  A  name  for  a  halberd  or  pike,  or 
for  a  Marshal's  baton.  Tlie  name  is  also  given  to 
the  leader  of  a  detached  body  of  light  troops,  who 
make  war  by  harassing  the  enemy,  rather  than  com- 
ing to  direct  fighting,  by  cutting  off  stragglers,  inter- 
rupting his  supplies,  and  confusing  him  by  rapid 


than  the  head,  the  right  forearm  nearly  vertical. 
OTwo.)  Resume  the  guard.  1.  Against  infantry.  2. 
Left  3.  Pakry.  Turn  the  Iiead  and  shoulders  to  the 
left,  raise  the  saber,  the  arm  extended  upward  to  the 
front  and  left,  the  hand  in  tierce,  back  of  the  blade 
to  tlie  front,  point  upward.  (Two.)  Describe  a 
circle  quickly  on  the  left,  from  front  to  rear,  parallel 
to  the  horse's  neck,  the  arm  extended  ;  turn  aside 
the  bayonet  with  the  back  of  the  blade,  bringing  the 


strategy.  The  action  of  such  a  corps  is  known  as 
Partisan  Warfare. 

2.  Partisans  are  soldiers  armed  and  wearing  the 
uniform  of  their  army,  but  belonging  to  a  corps 
which  acts  dct;iched  from  llic  main  body  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  inroads  intci  the  territory  occupied 
by  the  enemy.  If  captured,  tliey  are  entitled  to  all 
the  privileges  of  the  prisoner  of  war. 

Partisan  warfare  is  advantageously  pursued  only 


PABTITION  LINES. 


489 


FASeAOE  OF  DITCHES. 


in  monntninnufl  or  tliiokly-wnoilcd  irmtricts.  In  an 
open  couMtry,  lliiM-iiviilry  very  rciiilily  ilcHtroys  them. 
Sec  (Itii rrilliia. 

PARTITION  LINES,  lii  Ilcralilry,  liiiis  dividing; 
the  Hliii'ld  in  (lircftiuns  <'orri'H])(iiiiliiif;  In  llic  onli- 
narii'S.  Arcordinfi;  to  the  dircctidii  <if  Uic  imrtition 
linrH,  II  shield  is  Kiiid  to  he  party  nr  imrlcd  per  fcss, 
per  ])alc,  |)rr  l)cnd,pcr  ch.'vcrnii.pir  siiltin; ;  a  Hlncld 
divi(h'(l  hy  lines  in  the  dirceticin  of  a  orojirt,  is  Haid  to 


Partition  Lines  in  Hcraldir. 

be  quartorod  ;  and  a  shield  parted  at  onee  per  rroas  and 
per  saltirc,  is  said  to  Gironni'  of  eight.  Tiie  parti- 
tion lines  are  not  always  plain  ;  they  may  be  en- 
grailed,inveeted,  embattled,  wavy,  nebuly,  indented, 
daiK-ette  or  ragul)'— forms  which  will  be  found  ex- 
plained under  separate  articles.     See  Heraldry. 

PARTIZAN. — A  species  of  halbird.  Tlie  "iron  is 
long,  broad,  and  double-edged;  there  is  no  a.xe,  but 
barbs  in  the  style  of  the  ranseur.  The  pnrtitnv 
■was  known  in  France  from  the  time  of  I>ouis  XI. 
(1401)  until  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  but  its  in- 
vention was  not,  earlier  than  1400.  Also  written 
Partisan. 

PARTRIDGES.— In  artillery,  very  large  bombards 
formerly  in  use  at  sieges  and  in  defensive  works. 
They  are  mentionetl  in  Froissart. 

PARTY. —  1.  In  Heraldry,  parted  or  divided;  — 
used  in  reference  to  any  division  of  a  field  or  charge. 
2.  Any  small  number  of  soldiers  detached  from  an 
army  or  regiment  on  any  particular  duty  either  in 
peace  or  war  time.  A  party  is  often  sent  out  to 
forage,  reconnoiter,  and  gain  intelligence.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  other  duties  which  small  bodies  of 
men  are  engaged  on  such  as  recruiting  parties,work- 
ing  partiex.  storming  parties,  etc. 

PAS  D'ANE. — The  ring-shaped  sword-guard  below 
the  cross-piece,  on  each  side  of  the  blade.  It  is  not 
generally  met  with  until  the  second  half  of  the  16th 
century. 

PASDE  SODRS.— Steps  leading  from  the  bottom  to 
the  top  of  a  ditch  in  permanent  fortification. 

PASHA, — A  title  used  in  the  Ottoman  Empire,  and 
applied  to  Governors  of  Provinces,  or  Military  and 
Naval  Commanders  of  high  rank.  The  name  is  said 
to  be  derived  from  two  Persian  words — pti,  foot  or 
support,  and  sAaA,  ruler — and  signifies  "The  support 
of  the  Ruler."  The  title  was  limited  in  the  early 
period  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  to  the  Princes  of  the 
Blood,  but  was  subsequently  extended  to  the  Grand- 
Vizier,  the  Members  of  the  Divan,  the  Seraskier, 
Capitan-Pasha,  the  Begler-Begs,  and  other  civil  and 
military  authorities.  The  distinctive  badge  of  a 
Pasha  is  a  horse's  tail,  waving  from  the  end  of  a 
staff,  crowned  with  a  gilt  ball ;  in  war  this  badge  is 
always  carried  before  him  when  he  goes  abroad,  and 
is  at  other  times  planted  in  front  of  his  tent.  The 
three  grades  of  Pashas  are  distinguished  by  the  num- 
ber of  the  horse-tails  on  their  standards ;  those  of 
the  highest  rank  are  Pashas  of  three  tails,  and  in- 
clude, in  general,  the  highest  functionaries,  civil  and 
military.  All  Pashas  of  this  class  have  the  title  of 
Vizier ;  and  the  Grand-Vizier  is,  par  exrellence,  a 
Pasha  of  three  tails.  The  Pashas  of  two  tails  are  the 
Governors  of  Provinces,  who  generally  are  called  by 
the  simple  title  of  "Pasha."  The  lowest  rank  of 
Pasha  is  the  Pasha  of  one  tail ;  the  Sanjaks,  or  low- 


est class  of  I'rovincial  Oovirnors,  are  of  this  rank. 
The  I'asha  of  a  Province  has  authority  over  the  mili- 
tary force,  the  revenue,  and  the  administration  of 
juatico.  His  aulhorily  was  formerly  absoluti:,  but 
recently  a  check  was  imposed  (jii  him  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  local  Councils.  The  I'asha  is  in  his  own 
person  the  military  leader  and  administrator  of  juH- 
liee  for  the  Province  under  his  charge,  and  holds  of- 
fice during  the  pleasure  of  the  Sultan — a  most  pre- 
carious tenure,  as  the  Stdliui  can  at  any  moment,  in 
the  exercise  of  his  despotic  power,  exile,  impri.son, 
or  pirt  him  to  death;  and  tliis  has  frequently  been 
done  in  eases  where  the  Pasha's  power  has  excited 
the  apprehension,  f>r  his  wealth  the  avarice  of  Ids 
Uoyal  .Master.     Also  written  /y<n/(«w  and  I'acha. 

PASS.— 1.  A  straiglit,  difficult,  and  narrow  pass- 
age, which,  well  defended,  shuts  up  the  entrance  to 
a  country.  2.  Permission  granted  by  a  Command- 
ing OHicer  to  a  soldier  to  be  al)sent  from  his  qiiarters, 
recorded  and  signed  by  the  Commanding  Olficer,  so 
that  the  soldier  may  be  able  to  show  to  others,  if 
necessary,  the  authority  for  his  being  absent  from 
his  regiment.  3.  A  road  or  path  leading  from  one 
side  of  a  mountain  to  another.  Jn  latitudes  wher.; 
much  snow  falls,  the  "  passes"  are  only  open  for 
egress  or  ingress  during  the  summer  months.  In 
warfare,  mountain  passes  play  a  very  important  part, 
if  the  operations,  whether  defensive  or  ollensive, 
are  carried  on  in  a  mountainous  country. 

PASSADE. — In  fencing,  a  push  or  thrust  ;  a  sud- 
den movement  to  the  front.    Often  written  I'mtuwid. 

PASSAGE — A  movement  in  the  School  of  the  Sol- 
dier Mounted,  for  gaining  distance  to  the  right  or 
left,  executed  as  follows:  To  passage  to  the  right, 
gather  the  horse  and  incline  him  to  the  right,  by  car- 
rying the  bridle-hand  slightly  to  the  right,  and  clos- 
ing the  right  leg;  then  carry  the  bridle-hand  well  to 
the  right,  close  the  left  leg  "behind  the  girth  without 
leaning  to  the  left,  so  thai  the  haunches  may  move 
last,  and  hold  the  right  leg  near  to  support  the  horse 
and  moderate  his  movement.  The  horse  having 
obeyed,  keep  up  the  passage  by  a  gentle  application 
of  the  same  'means.  To  halt,  replace  the  bridle-hand 
and  left  leg  by  degrees,  and  straighten  the  horse  by 
carrying  the  bridle-hand  slightly  to  the  left  and  cIo.s- 
ing  the  left  leg.  In  passaging,  the  movement  of  the 
horse's  shoulders  always  precedes  that  of  his  haunch- 
es. To  facilitate  this,  the  horse  is  held  inclined  to 
the  side  toward  which  the  passage  is  to  be  made.  If 
the  horse  oblique  too  much,  the  rider  carries  the 
hand  a  little  to  the  left,  and  increases  the  effect  of 
the  left  leg.  If  the  horse  step  too  quickly  to  the  side 
toward  which  he  passages,  diminish  the  effect  of  the 
reins  and  left  leg.  carrying  the  bridle-hand  to  the 
left,  and  holding  the  right"  leg  close.  If  the  horse 
back,  bear  his  shoulders  well  toward  the  side  toward 
which  he  should  passage,  diminish  the  effect  of  the 
reins,  and  increase  that  of  the  legs  ;  a  horse  usually 
backs  on  account  of  the  constraint  he  feels  when  his 
haunches  have  begun  to  move  before  his  shoulders. 

PASSAGE  OF  DITCHES. — In  siege  operations  the 
passage  of  a  dry  ditch  consists  in  the  descent  (which 
is  by  a  blindage,  if  the  ditch  is  not  too  deep,  or  a 
blindage  and  gallery  for  deep  ditches)  and  a  full  sap, 
which  leads  from  the  outlet  of  the  de.m:itXo  the  bot- 
tom of  the  breach.  The  passage  of  a  wet  ditch  is 
more  difficult,  and  specially  perilous  if  the  besieged 
can  produce  sudden  freshets  by  flood-gates  or  other 
contrivances.  The  method  usually  followed  is  to 
build  a  dike  or  bridge  of  fascines  and  hurdles  across 
the  ditch.  The  abutment  for  this  bridge  is  formed 
by  excavating  a  grand  gallery  behind  the  counter- 
scarp and  throwing  the  earth  taken  from  it  into  the 
ditch  through  the  outlet  of  the  descext.  The  dike 
is  carried  forward  from  this  abutment  by  sappers, 
who  work  on  a  raft  carrying  a  musket-proof  mask 
on  the  side  of  the  enemy".  A  gabionade  parapet  on 
the  exposed  side  of  the  dike  serves  to  protect  the 
men  in  bringing  forward  the  fascines,  hurdles,  etc., 
to  extend  the  dike. 


PASSAGE  OF  KIVEES. 


490 


PASSPOHT. 


PASSAGE  OF  KIVEKS.— The  passage  is  effected  by 
surprise  or  by  main  force,  and  detacliments  are 
tlirown  by  one  means  or  the  other  upon  the  enemy's 
bank  of  the  river  before  proceeding  to  tlie  construc- 
tion of  bridges.  The  passage  by  force  ought  always 
to  be  favored  by  diversions  upon  other  points.  In- 
fantry cross  bridges  without  keeping  step.  Cavalry 
dismount  in  crossing,  leading  their  horses.  Wagons 
heavily  loaded,  pass  at  a  gallop.  See  Bridges  and 
Ford. ' 

PASSAGES. — Openings  cut  in  the  parapet  of  the 
covered-way,  close  to  the  traverses  in  order  to  con- 
tinue the  communication  through  all  parts  of  the 
covered- way.     See  Traverses. 

passage'  'WARRANT.  —  One  among  the  numer- 
ous royal  warrants  issued  for  the  guidance  of  the 
army.  It  relates,  as  its  name  implies,  to  tlie  rules 
and  regulations  to  be  observed  in  applying  for  pass- 
ages on  board  troop  and  other  government  ships. 
The  accommodation  granted  to  officers, and  the  quan- 
tity of  baggage  allowed,  as  well  as  messing  costs, 
will  be  found  in  the  copy  of  this  warrant. 

PASSANDEAU. — An  ancient  8  pounder  gun,  which 
was  l.T  feet  long,  and  weighed  about  3,500  pounds. 

PASSANT. — A  heraldic  term  used  to  e.xpress  the 
attitude  of  an  animal  in  a  walking  position,  with  his 


head  straight  before  him,  Fig.  1.  Fig.  2.  represents 
the  attitude,  Pansant  gardaiit ;  Fig.  3.  Pa-miant  re- 
gardant. 

PASS-BOX,— A  wooden  or  metallic  box  with  a  lid 
and  handles,  used  for  carrying  cartridges  from  the 
service  magazine  to  the  piece.  The  boxes  are  of 
various  sizes  to  suit  the  caliber  of  the  piece,  one  cart- 
ridge being  carried  at  a  time.  The  top  is  fastened 
on  with  two  butt  hinges  and  kept  closed  by  strong 
hook  and  staple.  A  wooden  handle  is  fastened  with 
screws  diagonally  on  one  end,  by  which  the  box  is 
carried. 

PASSEGARDES.— In  ancient  armor,  ridges  on  the 
shoulder-pieces  to  turn  the  blow  of  a  lance. 

PASSE-MUH. — An  ancient  16-pounder  gun,  which 
was  18  feet  long,  and  weighed  about  4300  pounds. 

PASSES-  BALLES. — Boards  or  machines  made  of 
iron  or  brass,  used  in  disparting  cannon,  and  fitted 
to  every  species  of  caliber. 

PASS'eVOLANT.— A  light  piece  of  ordnance,  used 
in  France  in  the  l.'jth  century. 

PASSION  CROSS.— A  cross  of  the  form  on  which 
our  Saviour  suffered,  with  a  long  stem  and  a  short 
traverse  near  the  top.   It  is  of  occasional  occurrence 


Passion  Cross. 


as  a  her.ildic  charge,  though  less  frequent  than  many 
other  variclics  of  cross.  A  passion  cross,  when  ele- 
vated on  three  steps  or  degrees  (which  have  been 
said  by  heralds  to  represent  the  virtues  of  Faith, 
Hope,  and  Charity),  is  called  a  Cross  Calvary. 

PASS  OF  ARMS.— In  ancient  chivalry,  a  "bridge, 
road,  etc..  wliicli  the  Knights  iindertook  to  defend, 
and  which  was  not  to  be  passed  without  fighting 
the  person  who  kept  it.  lie  who  was  (lisjxiscd  to 
dispute  the  pass  touched  one  of  the  armories  of  the 
other  Knight  who  held  tlic  pass,  tli;it  were  iiuiisr  on 
pales,  columns,  etc.,  erected  for  the  purpose  ;  and 


this  Tas  a  challenge  whicli  the  other  was  ol)liged  to 
accept.  The  vanquished  gave  the  conqueror  such 
prize  as  was  agreed  upon. 

PASSOMETER.- A  watch-shaped  instrument  car- 
ried about  the  person  to  register  the  steps  taken  in 
walking.  It  consists  of  a  dial  and  two  hands,  which 
are  moved  by  a  ratchet  worked  by  a  weight  which 
the  motion  of  walking  causes  to  vilirate. 

PASS  PAROLE.— An  order  passed  from  front  to 
rear  of  an  army  by  word  of  mouth. 

PASSPORT. — A  warrant  of  protection  and  permis- 
sion to  travel,  granted  by  the  proper  authoritj-,  to 
persons  moving  from  place  to  place.  Every  Inde- 
pendent State  has  the  right  to  exclude  whom  it 
pleases  from  its  territory,  and  may  require  that  all 
strangers  entering  it  be  furnished  with  properly  au- 
thenticated documents,  showing  who  they  are,  and 
for  what  purpose  they  are  visiting  the  countrj'. 
Passports  are  sometimes  issued  by  the  Ministers  and 
Consuls  of  the  country  which  the  traveler  intends  to 
visit,  which  cannot,  however,  be  done  without  the 
consent  or  connivance  of  the  State  of  which  the 
holder  of  the  instrument  is  a  subject ;  thej'  properly 
proceed  from  the  authorities  of  the  State  to  which 
the  traveler  belongs,  and  ought  to  bear  the  tha  or 
countersignature  of  the  Minister  or  Consul  of  the 
country  which  he  is  about  to  visit.  In  some  Euro- 
pean States  no  one  is  allowed  to  go  abroad  without 
a  passport  from  his  Government  authorizing  him  to 
leave  the  countrj' — a  provision  used  as  a  means  of 
detaining  persons  charged  with  crime ;  and  pass- 
ports are  even  required  by  the  natives  to  enable  them 
to  go  from  place  to  place  in  their  own  country.  The 
regulations  of  different  States  have  varied  much  re- 
garding the  use  of  passports ;  and  of  late  j'ears  there 
has  been  a  great  relaxation  of  the  stringency  of  the 
regulations  connected  with  !them.  Since  the  facili- 
ties of  traveling  have  so  greatly  increased,  it  seems 
to  have  become  the  prevalent  opinion  that  the  pass- 
port system  tends  to  obstruct  the  free  intercourse 
that  is  desirable  between  citizens  of  different  coun- 
tries ;  while  it  is  ineffectual  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  dangerous  or  suspicious  cliaracters,  who  can  ob- 
tain passports  on  false  pretences,  or  make  their  way 
in  without  them.  Within  the  United  Kingdom  no 
passports  are  required;  but  for  a  British  subject 
traveling  in  some  parts  of  the  Continent  they  are 
still  requsite.  At  one  time  the  greater  part  of  Brit- 
ish subjects  traveling  abroad  used  to  be  furnished 
with  passports  from  the  Ministers  or  Consuls  of  the 
countries  which  they  purposed  to  visit ;  the  Lord 
Provost  of  Edinburgh  was  also  in  the  way  of  issuing 
passports  to  Scotchmen.  Of  late  years  the  passport 
most  used  by  British  subjects  is  that  of  the  British 
Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs,  which  is  now 
granted  to  any  British  subject  for  a  fee  of  two  shil- 
lings, and  is  good  for  life.  If  the  applicant  be  not 
personally  known  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  he  must 
either  be  recommended  to  him  b.y  some  person  who 
is  known  to  him,  or  produ«!  an  application  in  his 
favor  b}-  some  banking  firm  established  in  London 
or  elsewhere  in  the  United  Kingdom,  or  a  certificate 
of  identity  signed  by  a  jNIayor,  Magistrate,  Justice  of 
the  Peace,  Minister  of  Keligion,  Physician,  Surgeon, 
Solicitor,  or  Notary,  resident  in  the  United  Kingdom. 
In  certain  cases  the  production  of  a  certificate  of 
birth  may  be  required.  If  the  applicant  be  a  nat- 
uralized IBritish  suljject,  his  certificate  of  naturaliza- 
tion must  be  forwarded  to  the  Foreign  Office.  If  it 
he  dated  subsequently  to  Aug.  24, 1850,  and  previous- 
ly to  Aug.  1,  IH.OS,  his  passport  will  be  good  for  (me 
year  only:  if  subsequently  to  Aug.  1,  1858,  for  six 
months  only.  The  passport  of  a  British  subject  nat- 
unili/.ed  by  Act  of  Parliament  is  good  for  life.  Where 
the  ])assport  system  is  in  full  force,  it  is  required 
that  the  pass])ort  be  countersigned  by  the  ^Minister 
or  Consul  of  the  country  which  the  holder  means  to 
visit,  the  visa  being  only  of  force  for  a  year.  The 
French  (government  allows  Hrilish  subjects  to  enter 
and  leave  France,  and  travel  in  it  without  passports  ; 


PASTE. 


491 


PATBOLI. 


f. 


but  tlicy  lire  wiid  to  1)«  Homctimfs  asked  for  when 
France-  is  entered  from  the  Soiitli  iind  Kust.  In  IJel- 
jiuni,  lI()lhuul,(}erniiiny,Hwilz<Tland,  AuHtriii,  Italy, 
Jeninark,  Norway,  and  Hwcden,  passports  are  no 
lonj^er  rcipiired.  For  Greece  and  I'ortiii;al  they  anr 
necessary,  and  (he  visa  is  insisted  on  in  Hnssia,  Tur- 
key, and  Kiiypl.  In  time  of  war,  jiassporls  or  safe- 
conducts  are  ;^ranted  liy  tlie  Supreme  AuHiority  on 
tlie  spot — /.('.,  llie  Ollicer  in  Counnand  to  insure 
safely  to  tlie  holders  wlien  passin;;  from  si)ot  to  spot, 
or  while  occupied  in  the  performance  of  some  act 
specilied  in  and  iiermitted  by  the  passport.  Pass- 
ports  nniy  be  granted  for  goods  as  well  as  individ- 
uals; and  in  iime  of  war,  the  jiassport  of  a  ship  is 
the  formal  vo\icher  of  its  neulral  character.  It  pur- 
ports to  be  a  rc(|uisition  on  the  part  of  the  (Jovern- 
inent  of  a  Stale  to  allow  the  vessel  to  pass  freely 
with  her  company,  passengers,  goods,  and  nuTchan- 
dise,  without  hindrance,  seizure,  or  molestation,  as 
being  owned  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  such  State. 

PASTE. — A  tenacious  mi.xture  of  flour  and  alum 
in  the  proportion  of  2  lbs.  of  Hour  to  1  oz.  of  pounded 
alum  mixed  with  1  gallon  of  boiling  water.  The 
mode  of  preparing  it  is  as  follows:  Heat  it  gently, 
stir  it,  and  let  it  boil  :J  of  an  hour;  when  it  becomes 
ropy,  pour  it  into  bowls,  and  pass  it  thnuigli  a  sieve 
before  it  is  quite  cold.  It  should  be  used  cold,  and 
only  2  or  S  daj-s'  supply  made  at  a  time,  but  it  may 
be  preserved  longer  by  adding  alum  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one-tenth  the  weight  of  flour.  Haste  is  used 
in  the  laboratory  in  case-making,  for  porttires,  rock- 
ets, light-balls,  etc. 

PATAREMO.  —A  sort  of  small  swivel  artillerj-,  hav- 
ing a  movable  chamber. 

PATCH. — 1.  A  greased  piece  of  cloth  wrapped 
around  a  rifle  bullet.  2.  A  block  on  the  muzzle  of 
a  gun  to  do  awaj'  with  the  eft'ect  of  disjjart ;  making 
the  line  of  bore  and  line  of  sight  parallel. 

PATE. — 1.  In  fortification,  a  .sort  of  platform  or 
terre-plein, irregularly  built, yet  generally  constructed 
in  an  oval  form.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  parapet, 
without  anything  to  flank  it,  and  having  no  other 
defense  than  what  is  front  or  fore  right.  Path  are 
usually  erected  in  marshy  grounds  to  cover  the  gate 
of  a  fortified  town  or  place.  2.  An  iron  or  earthen 
pot  filled  with  powder  and  grenades  for  throwing 
against  besiegers;  some  were  used  at  Lille,  in  1708. 
PATEREROS.— Small  pieces  of  ordnance,  now  ob- 
solete, worked  on  swivels;  most  commonly  used  on 
board  ships,  where  they  were  moimted  on  the  gun- 
wale, and  discharged  showers  of  old  nails,  etc.,  into 
hostile  boats.  The  French  called  them  Pierriers 
from  loading  them  with  stones. 

PATONCE.— In  Heraldry,  a  cross 
with  its  terminations  expanding  like 
early  vegetat  ion  or  an  opening  blossom. 
PATOO. — A  very  formidable  weap- 
on with  sharp  edges,  used  by  the  Poly- 
nesian Islanders  and  New  Zealanders 
as  a  sort  of  battle-axe  to  cleave  the 
skulls  of  their  enemies. 
-_____^  PATRIARCHAL    CROSS.  —  A    cross 

^"■^  I  like  tlie  patriarchal  crosier,  having  its 
i-^  t—,  I  upright  part  crossed  by  two  horizon 
^  T"^ J  tal  bars,  the  upper  being  shorter  than 
<  I  y  the  lower.  A  cross  patriarchal  flm- 
\~X  briated  »r  was  a  badge  of  the  Knights 

Templars. 

PATRICK.— The  Order  of  Saint  Pat-  ' 
rick  is  the  national  order  of  knight- 
hood for  Ireland,  established  bj'  George  III.  Feb.  .5, 
1783,  and  enlarged  in  1833.  It  consisted  of  the 
Sovereign,  the  Grand-master  (who  was  the  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland  for  the  time  being),  and  1.5 
Knights.  By  the  statutes  of  1833  the  number  of 
Knights  was  increased  to  23.  The  Collar  of  the  order 
(of  gold)  is  composed  of  roses  alternating  with  harps, 
tied  together  with  a  knot  of  gold,  the  roses  being  en-  j 
ameled  alternately  white  within  red,  and  red  within 
"white,  and  in  the  center  is  an  imperial  crown   sur- , 


mounting  a  harp  of  gold,  from  wliich  the  badge  is 
suHpendid.  The /;«//(/*■  or  tlie  .fn/ifl  is  of  gold,  and 
oval ;  surrounding  it  is  a  wreath  of  sliamrock  proper 


£aicmc& 


fairiarcluiL 
Crosa. 


Older  of  St  Patrick. 

on  a  gold  field  ;  within  this  is  a  band  of  sky-blue  en- 
amel charged  with  the  motto  of  the  order,  Qns  Sep- 
AKABiT  MDCOLXxxiil,  in  goid  letters ;  and  within  this 
band  a  saltire  gules  (the  cross  of  St.  Patrick),  sur- 
mounted by  a  shamrock  or  trefoil  slipped  vert,  hav- 
ing on  each  of  its  leaves  an  imperial  crown  or.  The 
field  of  the  cross  is  either  argent,  or  pierced  and  left 
open.  A  sky-blue  Ribbon,  worn  over  the  right 
shoulder,  sustains  the  badge  when  the  collar  is  not 
worn.  The  Star,  worn  on  the  left  side,  differs  from 
the  badge  only  in  being  circular  in  place  of  oval,  and 
in  substituting  for  the  exterior  wreath  of  shamrocks 
eight  rays  of  silver,  four  of  which  are  larger  than 
the  other  four.'  The  Mantle  is  of  rich  sky-blue  tab- 
inet,  lined  with  white  silk,  and  fastened  In'  a  cordon 
of  blue  silk  and  gold  with  tassels.  On  the  right 
shoulder  is  the  Hood,  of  the  same  material  as  the 
mantle.  The  order  is  indicated  by  the  initials  k.  p. 
PATROLS.— Patrols  are  of  twoclasses,|from  the  dif- 
ferent objects  had  in  view.  The  first  are  those  made 
with  a  view  of  insuring  greater  security  from  the 
enemy's  attempts  to  pass,  or  force  the  line  of  out- 
posts, and  may  therefore  be  termed  defenuhe  patrols. 
They  consist  usually  of  three  or  four  men.  who  go 
the  rounds,  along  the  chain  of  sentinels  and  between 
the  posts;  seldom  venturing  farther  than  a  few  hun- 
dred paces  beyond  the  sentinels  chain;  the  object 
being  to  search  points  which  might  present  a  cover 
to  the  enemy's  scouts,  and  to  keep  the  sentinels  on 
the  alert.  The  second  class  are  those  made  exterior 
to  the  line  of  out-posts,  with  a  view  of  gaining  intel- 
ligence of  the  enemj's  whereabouts;  and  may  there- 
fore be  termed  iiffen,iite  patrul.i.  They  are  composed 
of  larger  bodies  of  men  than  the  first  class,  the  num- 
ber being  proportioned  both  to  the  distance  to  be 
gone  over,  and  the  extent  of  front  to  be  examined. 
In  a  po.sition,  presenting  but  few  cross-roads,  and 
sparsely  settled,  a  patrol  of  ten  or  twenty  horsemen, 
may  be  found  ample,  to  search  with  all  desirable 
thoroughness,  from  twenty  to  forty  miles  in  advance 
of  the  position,  along  the  principal  avenues  to  it  ; 
whereas,  with  a  more  extended  front,  presenting 
many  lateral  avenues,  double  this  number  might  be 
required  for  the  same  duty.  From  the  information 
obtained, through  the  ordinary  channels  of  maps,  and 
by  questioning  the  near  inhabitants,  the  Command- 


PATTE  D'OIE. 


492 


PAVAVA. 


ing-Offlcer  can  usually  settle,  with  sufficient  accuracy, 
the  strength  of  a  patrol. 

From  the  duties  to  be  performed  by  patrols,  cav- 
alry are  usually  employed  alone;  in  cases  of  very 
broken  country,  infantry  may  be  necessary,  but  they 
should  always  be  accompanied  by  some  horse,  if  for 
no  other  purpose  than  to  transmit  intelligeuce  prompt- 
ly to  the  rear.  The  main  duties  of  a  patrol  are  to 
find  the  enemy  if  in  the  neighborhood;  gain  a  good 
idea  of  his  position  and  strength;  to  make  out  his 
movements,  and  to  bring  in  an  accurate  account  of 
his  distance  from  the  out-posts  of  their  own  force; 
and  the  character  of  the  ground  between  the  position 
occupied  by  the  respective  forces.  From  the  nature 
of  these  duties;  it  is  evident  that  both  officers  and 
men,  for  a  patrol,  should  be  selected  with  a  special 
reference  to  their  activity,  intelligence,  and  the  ap- 
titude they  may  possess,  from  previous  habits  of  life, 
for  a  service  requiring  a  union  of  courage,  prudence, 
and  discriminating  observation — usually  to  be  met 
with  only  in  individuals  who  have  been  thrown  very 
much  upon  their  own  resources.  When  the  charac- 
ter of  the  country  admits  of  it,  the  employment  of 
such  individuals,  singly,  or  in  very  small  bodies,  as 
scouts,  is  one  of  the  most  available  means  of  gaining 
intelligence  of  an  enemy,  without  betraying  the  se- 
cret of  our  own  whereabout. 

In  conducting  a  patrol,  the  Commanding  Officer 
should  provide  himself  with  a  good  map,  telescope, 
and  guides;  and  gain  all  the  information  he  can  be- 
fore starting,  by  questioning  persons  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. Nothing  should  escape  his  eye  along  his 
line  of  search;  and  he  should  particularly  note  points 
wJiich  might  be  favorable  to  his  defense,  if  driven 
back  by  the  enemy;  or  by  which  his  retreat  might 
be  endangered.  The  order  of  march  of  the  patrol  will 
be  regulated  by  the  circumstances  of  its  strength, kind 
of  troops  employed,  the  character  of  the  country 
passed  over,  the  hour  of  the  daj'.  and  the  particular 
object  in  view.  Tlie  intelligence  and  judgment  of 
the  officer  in  command  will  have  sufficient  exercise 
on  these  points;  as  he  will  be  continually  called  upon 
to  vary  his  dispositions.  The  general  and  obvious 
rule  of  keeping  a  look-out  on  all  sides,  will  prompt 
the  general  disposition  of  an  advanced-guard,  rear- 
guard, and  flankers,  according  to  the  circumstances 
of  the  case,  however  small  his  command.  The  sole 
object  being  to  carry  back  intelligence  of  the  enemy, 
no  precautions  should  be  omitted  to  cover  and  secure 
his  line  of  march,  without  making,  however,  too 
great  a  subdivision  of  his  force. 

Too  much  circumsiiection  cannot  be  shown  in  ap- 
proaching points  favorable  to  ambuscades;  as  woods, 
ravines.defiles,  inclosures,  farm-houses,  villages,  etc. 
The  main-body  should  alwaj's  be  lialted,  in  a  good 
position  beyond  musket-shot,  or  where  cover  can  be 
obtained,  whilst  a  few  men  proceed  cautiously  for- 
ward, following  at  some  distance  in  the  rear  of,  but 
never  losing  sight  of  each  other,  to  examine  the  sus- 
pected spot.  If  the  officer  deem  it  necessary,  at  any 
point,  to  detach  from  his  command  smaller  patrols, 
to  examine  points  at  some  distance  on  his  flanks,  he 
should  halt  the  rest,  at  the  point  where  they  sepa- 
rate, until  the  detachments  come  in  and  report;  or, 
if  he  decides  to  move  forward,  he  should  leave  three 
or  four  men  at  the  spot,  to  convey  intelligence 
jiromptly  to  the  rear,  if  anything  is  discovered,  as 
well  as  to  himself.  It  may  frequently  be  found  that 
some  eminence  on  the  flanks  may  present  a  good 
view  of  the  surrounding  country,  in  which  case,  if 
it  be  decided  to  use  it,  two  or  three  men  ought  to  be 
detached  for  the  purpose,  with  orders  to  keep  in 
sight  of  each  other,  but  far  enough  apart  to  guard  : 
against  a  surprise  of  the  whole.  When  the  officer  j 
finds  himself  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  he  should 
halt  his  command  at  a  convenient  spot,  wliere  they 
will  be  screened  from  the  enemy's  view;  and,  liaving 
made  his  dispositions  against  a  surprise,  he  will  jiro- 
ceed  with  a  few  picked  men,  to  the  most  favorable 
point  from  which  he  can  obtain  a  good  look-out,  to 


lattfie. 


recounoiter  the  position  occupied,  and  the  other 
points  of  interest.  If  he  deem  it  advisable  to  keep 
liis  position,  or  change  it  for  some  other  point  more 
favorable,  he  will  first  transmit  a  report  to  the  rear 
of  what  he  has  observed. 

When  the  patrol  moves  by  night,  the  ordinary  pre- 
cautions must  be  redoubled.  Signals  must  be  agreed 
upon  to  avoid  danger,  .should  any  of  the  parly  be- 
come separated  from  the  main  body.  Careful  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  everything  passing  around;  as 
the  barking  of  dogs,  noises,  fires,  etc.  On  approach- 
ing any  inhabited  spot,  the  command  should  be 
brought  to  a  halt,  whilst  a  few  picked  men  move 
noiselessly  forward,  and  if  practicable,  by  stealing 
up  to  the  windows,  learn  the  character  of  the  in- 
mates. It  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon 
the  mind  of  the  officer  in  command  of  a  patrol,  that 
he  must  be  all  ears  and  eyes;  that  he  will  be  called 
upon  in  turn,  to  exercise  great  boldness,  caution, 
presence  of  mind,  and  good  judgment,  in  accom- 
plishing a  mission  where  the  enemy  must  be  seen 
but  not  encountered;  and  such  roads  and  halting 
points  be  selected,  both  in  moving  forward  and  re- 
turning, as  shall  be  most  favorable  to  his  move- 
ments," and  least  liable  to  expose  him  to  a  surprise, 
or  a  disadvantageous  collision  with  the  enemy.  See 
Reconnoissanct, 

PATTE  D'OIE.— A  term  used  in 
mining  to  describe  three  small  branch- 
es which  are  run  out  at  the  extremity 
of  a  gallery.  They  are  so  called  from 
their  clo?e  resemblance  to  the  foot  of  a 
goose. 

PATTEE.— Acrossin  Heraldry,  also 
called  Cross  Formee,  a  cross  with  its 
arms  expanding  towards  the  ends,  and 
flat  at  their  outer  edges. 

PATTERN. — The  wooden  model  used  in  easting  is 
technically  called  the  Pattern.  Models  for  casting 
should  be  made  of  one  or  several  pieces,  according 
to  the  form  of  the  mold  required.  When  the  form 
is  such  that  the  whole  model  can  be  withdrawn  from 
the  sand  at  once,  without  injuring  the  mold,  a  single 
piece  will  suffice ;  but  generally  the  model  is  com- 
posed of  several  pieces,  so  fitted  that  they  can  be 
put  together  in  succession  as  the  molding  progresses, 
and  finally  taken  apart  and  removed  by  piecemeal 
when  the  molding  is  complete.     See  Molding. 

PATTISON  PROJECTILE.— This  shot  has  projections 
cast  upon  it  to  fit  the  rounded  grooves  of  the  gun. 
The  windage  is  stopped  by  a  simple  leather  band, 
which  is  driven  upon  the  conical  base  of  the  shot  by 
the  powder-gas. 

PAUL. — The  name  given  to  a  Sepoy's  tent.  It  is 
of  a  different  pattern  to  the  European  soldier's  tents 
being  much  smaller  and  lighter. 

PAULDRONS. — In  ancient  armor,  reinforcing  metal 
plates  covering  the  shoulders. 

PAULIN. — A  kind  of  tarpatdin.  It  is  made  of 
thick,  unpainted  canvas,  and  forms  part  of  the 
equipment  for  each  carriage  of  a  field-battery  of  ar- 
tillery. They  are  of  four  sizes,  viz ; — Alagazine, 
large ;  Magazine,  small  ;  Camel  paulins  ;  Cart  paul- 
ins.  Large  piiuliiu  are  used  on  the  floors  of  labora- 
tory tents.  Small  magmine pmilins  are  used  in  cov- 
ering powder  barrels  and  live  shells  in  the  batteries. 
Camel  pauliii.i,  being  of  small  size,  are  frequently 
very  convenient,  ami  are  used  for  the  .same  purposes 
as  small  magazine  paulins.  Cart  paulins  are  used 
with  tilts  for  artificers'  carts.  With  the  exception 
of  the  camel  and  cart  paulins,  which  are  made  of 
coarse  country  canvas,  all  others  are  made  of  vitry. 

PAVADE.— A  term  formerly  applied  to  a  short 
dagger  in  Scotland. 

iPAVAVA.—  A  conveyance  drawn  by  a  Imffalo, 
and  employed  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  draw- 
ing sliows  the  manner  of  its  construction  and  use. 
The  shafts,  framework,  and  body,  are  of  bamboo  ; 
the  collar  and  nose-band  of  the  buffalo  of  chair  cane, 
ami  the  roof  of  the  paudauus  leaves.     This  arrange^ 


FAVESIEB. 


493 


PAY. 


nicMl  furiiislicM  II  hint  for  iiiiiUiri);  Inivi'fM  itiore  coni- 
furtublc.     L'liliuppily,  tin:  liaTiiljurj,  iKlmimlily  suited 


to  thr  rnnstrurtinn  of  litters  and  strctohers,  is  not 
iivalliihlc  in  lliis   and  iimiiy  iiIImt  countries. 

PAVESIER.  An  ancient  militia  who  lurried  the 
(piinii.^)  shield.     Also  written  I'dvechfur. 

PAVILION. ^1.  IiiHeruldry.acoverinitin  the  form 
of  a  tent,  investini;  the  iinnories  of  Kings.  2.  A 
tent  raised  on  posts;  a  Hag,  colors,  ensign,  or  ban- 
ner. 

PA  VISE. — A  large  shield  covering  the  wliole  bod}', 
having  an  inward   curve,  managed  by  a  Pavisier, 

Pay  of  Offl)XT» 


who  witli  itscreened,  an  ardier.  Also  written  I'limU, 
I'liraji,  I'dvrne  ariri   I'arrKHe. 

PAVI8IER8  Warriors  armed  willi  the  puvise.  In 
ancient  (iKi.unters,  bodies  of  I'amnierH  v:irv  formed 
on  each  side;  and,  doubtless,  these  strong  defenses 
were  opposed,  as  much  as  possible,  to  the  hristije 
ardiers.     ,\lso  written  I'livint/Tii. 

PAV0I8.  -A  small  cuirass  first  worn  by  infantry 
soldiers  aliout  7f)0  u.  c.  It  consisted  of  plates  of 
metal  sewi'il   i.n  to  woven  stuffs  or  skins.  Hea  J'iivi,e. 

PAVOIS  D'ASSAUT.— A  German  shield  of  the  fif. 
teenlh  century,  44  inches  by  73  inches,  composed 
of  wood  covered  over  with  leather.  It  was  al.so 
constructed  in  various  shapes  and  sizes. 

PAVOISIENNE.  -  A  small  hand  shield  of  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fiiiirlcenlh  century.  It  was  one  foot  and 
one  ((uarlir  nf  an  inch  in  diameter. 

PAVON.-  .\n  ancient  military  flag  shaped  like  a 
right-angled  triangle. 

PAY.— The  stipend  or  salary  allowed  for  each  in- 
dividual serving  in  the  army.  The  following  is  a 
table  of  the  monthly  pay  allowed  in  the  United 
States  Army; — 

in  Active  Service. 


GRADE. 


General 

Lieutcnant-Geueral 

Maj  or-General 

Brigad  icr-Ge  neral 

Colonel 

Lieutenant-Colonel 

Major 

Captain,  mounted 

Captain,  not  mounted 

Regimental  Adjutant 

Regimental  (Quartermaster 

First  Lieutenant,  mounted 

First  Lieutenant,  not  mounted 

Second  Lieutenant,  mounted 

Second  Lieutenant,  not  mounted..., 
Chaplain 


PAY    OF    OBADE. 


Yearly. 


ifl3,500  00 
11,000  00 
7,500  00 
5,500  00 
3,500  00 
3,000  00 
2,-500  00 
2,000  00 
1,800  00 
1,800  00 
1,800  00 
1,600  00 
1,500  00 
1..500  90 
1,400  00 
1,500  00 


Monthly. 


.«!l,125  00 
910  67 
625  00 
458  33 
391  67 
250  00 
308  33 
166  67 
150  00 
150  00 
150  00 
133  33 
135  00 
125  00 
116  67 
125  00 


MONTHLY    PAT. 


After 
5  years' 
service. 


10  per  et. 


t320  83 
275  00 
229  17 
183  33 
165  00 
165  00 
165  00 
146  67 
137  50 
137  50 
128  33 
137  50 


After 
10  years' 
service. 


20  per  ct. 


f350  00 
300  00 
250  00 
200  00 
180  00 
180  00 
180  00 
ICO  00 
1.50  00 
150  00 
140  00 
150  00 


After   I   After 
15  years'  20  years' 
service,  i  service. 


30  per  ct.     40  per  ct 


*375  00 
32.5  00 
270  83 
316  67 
195  00 
19.5  00 
195  00 
173  33 
162  .50 
162  50 
151  67 
162  50 


$375  00 
333  33 
291  67 
2:^3  33 
210  00 
210  00 
210  00 
18G  67 
175  00 
175  00 
163  33 
175  00 


Pay  of  Officers  and  Cadets  at  the  Military  Academy. 


Grade. 


Superintendent 

Commandant  of  Cadets. 
Adjutant 


Quartermaster  and  Commissary  of  the  Battalion  of 
Cadets 

Treasurer 

Surgeon 

Assistant  Surgeon 

Professor,  of  more  than  ten  years'  service  at  the 
Academy 

Professor,  of  less  than  ten  years'  service 

Assistant  Professor 


Senior  Assistant  Instructor  of  Tactics 

Assistant  Instructor  of  Tactics,  commanding  a  Com- 
pany of  Cadets 

Acting  Assistant  Professor 

Acting  Assistant  Instructor  of  Tactics 

Instructors  of  Ordnance  and  Science  of  Gunnerj-  and 
of  Practical  Engineering 

Sword  Master 

Cadet 


Grade  or  assimilated  pay. 


Pay  of  Colonel. 

Pay  of  Lieutenant-Colonel. 

Pay  of  Regimental  Adjutant. 


Pay  of  his  grade  in  the  Army. 

do. 

do. 

do. 


Pay  of  Colonel. 

Paj-  of  Licutcnant-Colouel. 

Pay  of  Captain,  mounted. 


.do. 
.do. 


Pay  of  his  grade  in  the  Army. 

do. 

Pay  of  Major. 


$540  per  annum. 


PAT. 


494 


PAT. 


pcaasa 

2  ;3  o  o  o  o 

a   ■— •  »   X    X   X 

!—    -    '"    O    -T    P 

?=  P   o 

2  :3 13 


c-2  C- 


■^  -D  re  5  =  ^5  ~ 

i. f  3 '■•'-^  z'o  a 

o  "*  "^  ^  S  "^  5 

=  =5  5  g  ->  S  c= 

O  re  tt  ;a   rs         I 

O  o  B   -1  ^> 

fs  B  B  c  35  J^  M 


r;C  y^ao>.5!Hg;^>T) 


?3 


8  2^3??='' 

B   "^  o   K    I    B 


^  ^  n 


^1  SsTS.^?:? 


"  3  3-.  I 


I 


CD    fD    tt    nii  : 
2  "^  ."^  '-^    ' 


"^^    W 


■;  ^  K  K 


B   C<-- 

tI5  .^ 


2,r= 

—  -  -1    X  ^  W 
IX     -  J  ~"  X    X    '      fT 

_  <   >^    _  M  „-  B 


E3    2     "^    P 


.S""   =S   B 


^"  p 


c=^ 


-;/i  B  H 

B^  SC3 


TO     . 

TO 


P  >>-► 

?   p   ET  -1   H 
gs  B  r*  rr.  ^ 
;^  &•—.!=:  =:; 

to'oS  o 

•T   BT=   3 

p.;     O- 


J."  < 

s  ?;  p  p 

Hfff 

I   Kto  3 

O  C    TO    ^ 

P  35   2   ? 


<  S  P  o 
•  -  ,i  p 

-•  t?i£. 
5  e  p  £ 

v;  TO  c  e 

I— ITO      P 

sT  p  J 
5  C:^ 


w 


CO 


.'^    TO 


t?3 


><: 

►-< 

M 

» 

t" 

> 

» 

» 

TO 

M 

*3 

^ 

^ 

M 

O 

> 

M 

t< 

M 

n 

Z 

n 

M 

z 

!? 

H 

y 

g 

n 

w 

o 

p 


B       I  " 

o  S)  P- 

B-P     TO 

qq  B  I  T 


2 

3 

CO 

>— I 
t/j 
H 


S 


TO 
P 


Ci 


W 


CO     bO     to     to 
CO    -^    en    to 


QO 


s^ 

2 

» 

^ 

B 

TO 

«» 

P 

• 

• 

m 

( 

*- 

lO 

to 

cc 

to 

lO 

M- 

^ 

^ 

Cn  -J  CJl 

c 

m 

TO 
P 

GO 

g 

*. 

»3 

to 

M 

^s 

to 

^ 

to 

s 

en  -^  c;t 

00 

<l 

B 
1— ' 

TO 
P 

2 
71 

w 

«5 

»;>^ 

m 

p 

B- 

cr 

1^ 

ts 

*s 

u 

^^ 

» 

fS 

S 

h-^ 

TO 

^ 

CO 

en  ^OI 

)-k 

00 

o 

B 

« 

P 

£ 
^ 

SI 
W 

t 

f 
H 

w 


TO 
P 
P" 


PAY  ACCOUNTS. 


495 


PAYNIZINO. 


Thp  Ocncnil  of  thr  Army  has  bcfn  rctirprl,  with- 
out iiiiy  rcdiii'tinn  in  liiM  current  piiy  anil  allowanocH. 
The  Miaxiiniiiii  [)ay  cif  a  ('(iloiicl  is  liy  law  .'{<4,r)(K)  jht 
niiniiMi  ;  lii'iicc  full  41)  piT  cent,  cannot  aecnic.  'Phe 
niaxiniiini  [lay  of  a  Licutenant-(  'ulnnel  is  liy  Iaw.'5i4.0ll0 
jiiT  aiiimin  ;  liiiicc  full  40  ])cr  cent,  cannot  accrui>. 
An  Aiil-(le-('ainp  to  a  Major-deneral  is  allowed  .'Ji2U0 
per  year  in  addition  to  the  pay  of  his  rank,  not  to  he 
included  in  conipulinj;  the  service  increase.  An 
Aid-de-C'anip  to  a  ]{rii;adier-General  is  allowerl  .tlAO 
per  year  in  addition  to  the  pay  of  his  rank,  not  to 
i)e  incltidi'd  in  computing  the  service  inen'ase.  An 
Actin'i;  Cmninissary  of  Sul)sistence  is  allowed  ftlDO 
piT  year  in  addition  to  the  pay  of  his  rank,  not  to  he 
included  in  coinputini;  the  service  increase.  Assist- 
uiit  Surf^eons  are  entitli'd  to  pay  of  Captain  after  live 
years'  service.  Retired  ofllcers  receive  75  per  cent, 
of  pay  (salary  and  increase)  of  their  rank.  A  retired 
Chaplain  receives  three-fourths  of  the  i)ay  ("salary 
and  also  increase)  of  his  rank  (Captain  not  inount- 
cdj.  Tlie  ollicer  havin;;  charije  of  the  jiuhlic  build- 
ings and  grounds  (Washington)  has,  while  so  serv- 
ing, the  rank,  pay,  and  emolunients  of  a  Colonel. 
The  Aides-de-(;anip  and  Military  Secretary  to  the 
Lieutenant-General,  selected  by  him  from  the  Army, 
have,  while  so  serving,  the  rank  and  pay  of  hieii- 
tenant-C'olonel.  The  i)rincipal  assistant  in  tlie  Ord- 
nance IJureau  of  the  War  Department  receives  a  com- 
pensation, including  pay  and  emohuiienls,  not  ex- 
ceeding that  of  a  Major  of  Ordnance.  Only  one  Vet- 
erinary Surgeon,  at  #75  per  month,  is  allowed  each 
of  the  cavalry  regiments,  from  the  Kirst  to  the  Sixth 
Regiment,  inclusive  ;  two,  one  at  $100  and  one  at 
$75  per  month  are  allowed  each  of  the  Seventh, 
Eighth,  Ninth,  and  Tenth  Regintents  ;  the  senior  in 
date  of  appointment  entitled  to  the  higher  grade. 
The  Teacher  of  Music.w  ho  shall  be  leader  of  band  at 
Military  Academy,  receives  $00  per  month.  The 
clothing  account  Is  settled  Jinie  30  and  December  31 
of  each  year.  Balances  founil  due  United  States  are 
charged  soldier  on  muster-rolls  of  tliose  dates.  Ual- 
ances  due  soldier  are  carried  forward  on  company 
books  credited  to  his  current  clothing  account ;  any 
balance  remaining  due  him  at  discharge  is  credited 
on  final  statements.  Enlisted  men  of  Signal  Corps 
have  the  pav  of  Engineer  soldiers  of  a  similar  grade. 

PAY  ACCOUNTS.— The  Paymaster's  vouchers  for 
payments  of  salary  made  to  officers  and  in  final  settle- 
ments with  discharged  soldiers.  The  form  of  the 
account  used  by  officers  is  shown  on  page  496. 

PAY  BILLS — In  the  British  Service,  accounts  re- 
gularly tendered  by  Captains  of  troops  or  companies 
of  the  money  required  by  them  for  the  effectives  of 
such  troops  or  company. 

PAY  DEPARTMENT. —That  department  of  a  govern- 
ment which  takes  charge  of  all  matters  relating  to 
the  pay  of  the  army.  In  the  United  States  Armj', 
the  Pay  Department  consists,  at  present,  of  one  Pay- 
master-General, with  the  rank  of  Brigadier-General  : 
two  Assistant  Paymaster-Generals,  with  the  rank  of 
Colonel  of  Cavalry ;  two  Deputy  Paymaster-Generals, 
with  the  rank  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  of  Cavalry  ;  and 
fortj--eight  Paymasters,  with  the  rank  of  Major  of 
Cavalry.  An  Act  of  Congress,  making  appropria- 
tions for  the  support  of  the  Army  for  the  year  end- 
ing June  30.  1884,  providts  that  vacancies  that  may 
hereafter  occur  in  the  Pay  Corps  of  the  Army  in  the 
grades  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  and  Major,  by  reason 
of  death,  resignation,  dismissal,  or  retirement,  shall 
not  be  tilled  by  original  appointment  until  the  Pay 
Corps  shall,  by  such  vacancies,  be  reduced  to  forty 
Paymasters,  and  the  number  of  the  Pay  Corps  shall 
tlien  be  established  at  forty  and  no  more. 

PAYMASTER.- An  otlicer  appointed  in  the  army 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  its  pay  accounts,  and  the 
disbursing  of  moneys  in  payment  of  troops.  In  tlie 
United  States  Service,  it  is  the  duty  of  Paymasters  to 
pay  all  the  regular  and  other  troops  ;  and  to  insure 
punctuality  and  responsibilitj',  correct  reports  must 
be  made  to  the  Paymaster-General  once  in  every  two 


months,  showing  the  disposition  of  the  funds  pre- 
viously transmitted,  with  accurate  estimates  for  tlie 
next  payment  of  such  regimi'Uts,  garrisons,  or  lie- 
partmenls,  as  may  he  assigned  to  each.  When  vol- 
unteers or  militia  are  calleil  into  service,  the  I^resi- 
dent  may  assign  to  any  officer  of  the  army  the  duty 
of  Paymaster.  Paymasters  are  required  to  give 
bondB. 

In  the  BritiBh  Service,  Military  Paymasters  arc 
eith(tr  "Control"  or  '•Regimental."  Of  the  latter, 
who  constituti-  by  far  the  more  numerous  class, 
there  is  one  to  every  brigade  fjf  artillery,  regiment 
of  cavalry,  and  ballalion  of  infantry.  The  I'aymas- 
ter  holds  no  other  commission,  but  the  appointment 
is  nearly  always  conferred  upon  some  person  who 
has  previously  held  a  combatant  rank  in  the  arm)-. 
The  finictions  of  Paymast(;r  comprise  issuing  and  ac- 
counting for  the  pay  of  officers  and  men,  and  having 
charge  generally  of  all  the  finances  of  the  corps.  ]n 
discipline,  the  Paymaster  is  responsible  to  the  Officer 
Commanding  the  Regiment;  but  in  all  money  mat- 
ters he  looks  for  orilers  to  the  War  Office  alone.  He 
cciinmences  with  a  pay  of  12s.  6d.  a  day,  with  the 
relative  rank  of  Captain  ;  and  after  20  years'  service 
attains  the  pay  of  £1,  2s.  Od.  a  day  and  relative  rank 
as  Major.  Regimenlal  Paymasters  were  first  ap- 
pointed durin";  the  French  war.  Control  Paymasters 
liav<'  financial  charge  in  the  military  districts  or 
sub-districts.  They  form  a  separate  Department 
under  the  Surveyor  General  of  the  Ordnance,  com- 
prising Paymasters,  Deputy  Paymasters,  and  Assist- 
ant Paymasters. 

PAYMASTER-GENERAL.— The  Paymaster-General, 
in  conformity  with  tiie  laws  and  regulations,  is 
charged  with  all  necessary  instructions  to  his  sub- 
ordinates in  reference  to  the  supply  and  distribution 
of  fimds  for  the  payment  of  the  Army,  and  all  other 
things  pertaining  to  the  financial  duties  of  his  De- 
partment, and  the  accountability  of  its  officers.  In 
these  and  all  other  matters  having  relation  specially 
to  the  internal  administration  of  the  Pay  Depart- 
ment, the  correspondence  between  the  Paymaster- 
General  and  his  subordinates,  and  between  the 
Division  and  Department  Chief  Paymaster  and  their 
subordinates,  is  direct.  In  England  the  Paymaster- 
General  is  an  officer  of  the  British  Jlinistry,  but  not 
of  the  Cabinet,  charged  with  superintending  the 
issue  of  all  moneys  voted  by  Parliament,  lie  is 
virtually  the  Paymaster  of  the  public  service,  hav- 
ing no  control  over  the  sums  issued,  paying  merely 
on  the  order  of  the  Department  concerned  and  re- 
ceives A'2,000  a  year  as  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of 
Lancaster.  He  is  always  either  a  Peer  or  a  member 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  changes  with  the 
Ministrj'.  Of  late  years  the  office  has  been  held  in 
conjunction  with  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  Board 
of  Trade.  The  Paymaster-General  is  assisted  by  a 
Deputy  and  a  staff  of  clerks,  the  annual  cost  of  the 
whole  department  amounting  to  about  £25,000.  The 
first  notice  of  this  office  is  in  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  when  the  Paymaster-General 
was  nothing  more  than  the  sole  Paymaster  of  the 
Army.  The  present  extensive  duties  of  the  office 
have  been  added  by  deurees  during  the  19th  centurj'. 

PAYMASTER-SERGEANT. —  A  Json-commissioned 
Officer, in  the  British  Army, whose  duty  it  istoact  as 
clerk  to  the  Paymaster.  He  ranks  with  other  stafT 
sergeants,  and  receives  from  Is.  lid.,  to  2s.  lid.  a 
da3%  according  to  his  corps,  with  an  increase  of  6d. 
after  3  years'  uninterrupted  service  as  Paymaster- 
Sergeant. 

PAYNIZING. — A  process  for  preserving  and  hard- 
ening wood,  invented  by  a  Mr.  Payne.  It  consists 
in  placing  well-seasoned  timber  in  an  air-tight  cham- 
ber, and  then,  when,  by  means  of  a  powerful  air- 
pump,  the  wood  is  deprived  of  its  air.  a  solution  of 
nulpliuret  of  cnlcium,  or  a  sulphuret  of  barium  is  ad- 
mitted, and  readily  fills  up  the  empty  ves.sels  all 
through  the  wood.  The  air-pump  is  again  used,  and 
the  superfluous  moisture  is  drawn  out,  and  a  solution 


PATHIZIHQ. 


49G 


FATinZIHO. 


The  United  States, 


To.. 


.Dr. 


Salary. 


For  over years' 

service. 


Station. 


From. 


the  .. 
18.. 


of 


the  .. 

18., 


To... 


of. 


On  leave  of  absence  from  my  station. 
Since 


Under  S.  O..  No ,  dated  Headquarters 

Extended  by  S.  O.,  No dated  Headquarters., 


Returned  to  duty. 


Months.j^^^^P^"'  I   Amount. 


Deduct   half   pay 

for mouths 

days  leave 

of  absence. 


I  certify  on  honor,  that  the  amounts  charged  in  the  foregoing  account  are  correct  and  just,  as  au. 
thorized  by  law,  and  that  they  are  rightfully  due  me  as  stated  ;  and  that  I  am  not  in  arrears  with  the 
United  States  on  any  account  whatsoever. 

I  was  last  paid  to ,  18...,  by  Paymaster ,  and  I  acknowledge  to  have  received 

this day  of ,  18...,  of  Paymaster ,  U.  S.  A.,  in  full  of  this  account,  the  sum 

of ^j;jj  dollars,  by  check  No ,  on 

(Signed  in  duplicate.) 


The  following  is  the  form  of  account  to  be  used  by  discharged  soldiers  : 


T7ie  United  States, 
Discharged  from.. 


To  . 


Company U.  S.,. 


Dr. 


For  pay  from  1st  of ,  188-.  to of 188-,  being months 

days,  at dollars  per  month 

For  retained  pa}^  due 

For  pay  for  traveling  from the  place  of  my  discharge, 

to the  place  of  my  residence, 

miles,  at  twenty  miles  per  day,  equal  to days,  at dollars 

per  month 

For  deposits, Interest, 

For  subsistence  for  traveling  as  above, days,  at  30  cents  per  ration,  or 

day .' 

For  clothing  due  soldier 


Amount 

Deduct  for  Army  Asylum -.. 

Due  United  States  for  clothing. 
Due  United  States  for  tobacco. , 


Balance., 


Dollars.    Cents, 


Received  of. . 


this  date  and  amount. 
(Signed  in  duplicate.) 


,  Paymaster,  U.  S.  A.,  this day  of ,  188-, 

■imidollars  in  full  of  the  above  account,  by  check  No on 


PAY  BOLL. 


497 


PEAEODY  MAHTINI  RIFLE. 


of  Hiilplialc  of  iron  ih  injcftod;  this  arts  rlifmicnlly 
upon  till'  siilpliiirct  of  hariiiiii  or  of  calcium,  and 
foniiH  all  tliroiii;!!  Ilic  wood  cither  the  insoluble  kiiI- 
|)liat(;  of  liariuriL  riicavy  spar)  or  of  lime  (iiypsiini;. 
Tlie  adrliliciM  of  lliese  mineral  liialcrialH  reniierH  llie 
wool!  very  heavy,  Iml  il  lie>-omeH  also  very  durable, 
and  almost   in(:oml)ii>tilile. 

PAY-ROLL.-  A  roll  or  list  of  jx-rsons  entitled  to 
payment,  with  the  sums  which  are  to  be  paid  on 
them.  In  the  United  States  Army,  at  each  regular 
muflter  of  the  troops,  one  ordinary  muster-roll  and 
three  Muster  luid  I'ay-rolls  are-maile.  The  muster- 
roll  is  transmitted  by  the  muslerini;  ollicer  to  the 
Adjutant  (leneral's  Ollice,  at  \Vashini;ton,  within 
three  days  after  the  muster.  Two  copies  of  the  pay- 
roll arc  for  the  I'aymaster,  IIk^  other  is  kept  with 
the  company  records.  Muster,  and  Muster  and  Pay- 
rolls are  made  on  the  printed  forms  furnished  from 
the  Adjutant  Oeneral's  Ollice;  and  in  making:  the 
rolls  special  attention  must  be  fjiven  to  the  printed 
directions  thereon.  The  caU'ulations  on  the  Pay- 
rolls are  made  liy  the  Paymaster.  They  are  tran- 
scribed by  the  C'ajitain  on  the  copy  retained  with 
the  (•ompany  records,  in  order  that  an  exact  account 
of  each  soldier's  pay  may  be  kept.  If  it  should  be- 
come necessary  to  use  manuscript  forms,  they  slionld 
embrace  all  tlic  data  rei|uired  to  insure  justice  to  the 
soldier,  and  guide  the  Paymaster  in  making  I)ay- 
mcnl.  Companies  are  designated  on  the  Muster,  and 
Muster  and  Pay-rolls  by  the  names  of  their  Captains, 
wliethcr  present  or  absent.  Soldiers  in  hospital, 
patients,  and  nurses,  except  stewards,  are  mustered 
on  the  rolls  of  their  company,  if  it  be  present  at  the 
post. 

PEABODT-MARTINI  KIFLE.— This  rifle  is  a  com- 
bination of  the  IVabody  and  Martini  systems,  the 
fornur  covering  the  mechanism  for  closing  the  breech 
and  extracting  the'  cartridge  shell,  after  the  riHe  has 
been  tired,  ami  the  latter  covering  the  device  for  ig- 
niting the  cartridge.     Tliis  rifle  was  adopted  by  the 


EugliRli  and  Turkish  Goveroments,  after  long  and  ex- 
haustive trials  in  competition  with  all  the  prominent 
breech-loading  rifles  of  the  world.  It  endured  the 
test  of  actual  experience  in  war  during  the  contest 
between  Russia  and  Turkey,  and  obtained  the  high- 
est reputation  for  solidity,  accuracy,  long  range, and 
other  desirable  qualities  of  a  military  weapon.  The 
official  reports  from  the  armies  in  the  field,  and  the 
letters  of  army  correspondents,  unite  in  prai.se  of  the 
Turkish  rifles.  The  parts  composing  the  breech 
mechanism  combine  the  greatest  possible  strength 
with  simplicity  of  construction,  and  the  system^  in 


its  present  perfection,  is  the  result  of  long  and  carp, 
ful  study  to  produce  a  rille  meeting  all  the  require- 
ments of  military  service.  Its  form  is  compact  and 
graceful,  and  the  symnu-try  of  its  lines  is  nowhire  in- 
fringed uiionby  unscc'mly  projr'ctions,  which  Ijesides 
being  iilfeiisive  to  the  eye, are  ofti-n  prr-judicial  to  the 
comfort  of  the  soldiir  on  the  march  or  in  the  perform- 
ance of  its  necessary  mani|)ulalions.  No  movement 
of  the  barrel,  or  any  other  parts,  except  tlifise  im- 
mediately connected  with  the  lilock,  is  reouired  in 
the  performance  of  any  of  its  operations.  Tlie.se  are 
I)erforMied  in  the  simplest  |iossible  maimer,  and  with- 
out in  the  least  infringing  upon  the  strength  and  dur- 
ability of  the  ritle,  whi<h  is  e(|ual,  in  these  res|)ecls, 
to  the  bi'st  inuz/le-loader.  In  the  operation  of  load- 
ing, the  whole  mov<'menl  of  the  block  is  made  with- 
iu  the  breech-frame  or  receiver  the  end  of  the  block- 
lever  falling  but  a  sliort  distance  from  the  slock. 
The  block  itself  is  a  strong,  substantial  piece,  and 
when  in  position  for  firing,  is  so  firndy  secured  as  to 
ensure  its  perfect  safety,  as  has  been  repeatedly 
shown  in  the  severe  tests  to  which  it  has  been  sub- 
jected. 

The  drawing  shows  the  Pcabody-Marlini  breech 
system.  The  imsition  of  the  block,  wlien  it  is  drawn 
down  for  loading,  is   such   as   to  form   an  inclined 
plane,  sloping  toward  the  breech  of  the  barrel,  and 
th('  groove  in  its  upjier   surface  corresponding   with 
the  bore  of  the  barrel,  facilitates  the  entrance  of  the 
cartridge  so  that  it  slides  easily   into   the   chamber, 
without  the  necessityevcn  of  lookingto  see  that  il  is 
properly  inserted.     The  adoption  of  the   coil  main- 
spring in  place  of  the  common  gun-lock  main-spring, 
is  considered  a  great  improvement,  and  this  opinion 
is  confirmed  by  the  exjierience  of  the  Knglish  and 
Turkish    troops   who  have    been   supplied  with   the 
Peabody-Martini  rifles.     It  has  been   found  that,  in 
s<'veral   instances,  where  the  coil  main-springs  were 
broken,  the  defects  were  not  noticed,  and  the  springs 
compressed  in  the   blocks  worked  as  tnisal.     Had 
such  mishaps  occcurred  to  the  old  gim-lock 
mainsprings,  tlie  arm  would  liavc  been  ren- 
dered useless.     The  accuracy  and  range  of 
this  rifle  are  very  remarkable.    The  system 
of  rifling  used  is  that  known  in  England  as 
the  Henry.     There  are   seven   grooves,  of 
jx'culiarshape,  with  a  sharp  twist  (one  turn 
in  twcntj-  inches).     After  a  long  series  of 
experiments,  with  different  kinds  of  rifling, 
the  English  Arms   Commission  finally  de- 
cided upon  this  system  as  giving  the  most 
satisfactorj-  results,   both   with   regard   to 
accuracy  and  range. 

The  manipulations  for  loading  and  firing 
are  of  the  simplest  kind  :  Throw  down  the 
block-lever  with  considerable  force,  press- 
ing with  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand  :  in- 
sert the  cartridge  ;  and  return  the  lever  to 
its  place,  which  raises  the  block  to  its  pro- 
per position  when  the  rifle  is  ready  for  fir- 
ing. 

After  firing,  throw  down  the  block-lever 
with  force,  and  the  empty  cartridge  shell  is 
tlirown  out  clear  from  the  rille,  leaving  the 
chamber  ready  for  the  insertion  of  another 
cartridge.   This  extraction  of  the  cartridge 
shell  is^  effected  by  the  action  of  an  elbow 
lever,   which  throws  it  out  with  unerring 
'  certainty,  the  instant  the  block-lever  is  lowered.  This 
elbow  lever  derives  its  power  simply  from  the  action 
of  the  block  itself,  and  cannot  become  deranged,  as 
its  action  is  not  dependent  upon  any  spring  and  is 
of  such   strength   as  to   prevent   the  possiliility   of 
breakage  or  derangement  by  any  service  to  which 
I  it  can  be  subjected.     If  it  is  desired  to  preserve  the 
cartridge  shell  for  reloading,  throw  down  the  block- 
lever  witli  a  gentle  movement,  and  it  is  drawn  out 
into  the  groove  of  the  block,  from  whence  it  can 
readily  be  taken  by  the  person  firing. 
I      For" rapidity  of  firing,  this  rifle  is  believed  to  be 


PEACE  ESTABLISHMENT. 


498 


PEBBLE  POWDEE. 


equal,  if  not  superior  to  any  other  single  loader,  and 
in  continuous  firing,  to  any  repeater.  It  cannot  be 
fired  until  the  block  is  in  its  proper  position,  so  that 
it  is  impossible  for  accidents  from  premature  explo- 
.sion  to  occur.  Tlie  objection  to  the  excessive  recoil 
of  this  rifle,  wliich  has  been  raised  in  some  quarters, 
has  been  obviated  in  the  arms  manufactured  "by  tlie 
Providence  Tool  Company,  by  the  adoption  of  a  dif- 
ferent form  of  ammunition.  After  the  decision  of 
the  Eni^lisli  Arms  Commission  in  favor  of  the  Pea- 
body-JIartini  rifle,  and  its  subsequent  adoption  as 
the  standard  national  arm,  the  Imperial  Ottoman 
Government  contracted  with  the  Providence  Tool 
Company  to  manufacture  000,000.  The  productive 
capacity"  of  this  Company's  factories  is  1000  rifles 
per  day.  In  conclusion  it  may  be  said, that  wherever 
the  rifle  has  been  introduced,its  superior  qualities  of 
safety,  strength,  simplicity,  easy  manipulation,  ac- 
curacy, and  range,  have  been  fully  conceded.  See 
Jlfartini-Henry  Tiifie. 

PEACE  ESTABLISHMENT.— The  reduced  nimiber 
of  effective  men  of  an  army  during  peace  time ;  reg- 
iments are  raised  to  tlieir  full  complement  in  war 
time,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  to  a  irai'  entablhhment.  In 
Great  Britain  tlie  raising  of  tlie  army  from  a  peace 
to  a  war  establishment  is  effected  by  calling  out  the 
reserve,  the  militia,  enrolled  pensioners,  and  voltm- 
leers :  in  continental  armies,  where  the  compulsory 
service  is  in  force,  by  calling  out  the  men  on  fur- 
lough and  the  reserves. 

PEAN. — One  of  the  furs  borne 

_^ .  — -|     in  Heraldry,  dilTering   from  Er- 

l  *]     mine   only  in  the  tinctures:  the 

ground  being  sable,  and  the  spots 
of  gold.     See  Heraldry. 

PEA-OEE.— A  form  of  compact 
brown  iron  ore  (hydrated  pero.x- 
ide  of  iron),  consisting  of  rotmd. 
smooth  grains,  from  the  size  of 
mustard-seed  to  that  of  small 
pease.  Sometimes  the  grains  are 
still  smaller  and  flattish.  This  iron  ore  is  very  abun- 
dant in  some  places  in  France,  and  is  smelted. 

PEA-EIFLE. — A  rifle  of  small  bore  carrying  a  ball 
of  tlie  size  of  a  pea. 

PEBBLE  POWDEE. — Since  tlie  pellet  powder  was 
first  l)rought  into  use,  another  description  of  large 
grain  powder,  called  "  pebble  powder,"  has  been  in- 
troduced  for  service   with   guns  of  large  caliber. 
This  pebble  powder  is  formed  of  large  grains  rang- 
ing from  j,V  of  an  inch  to  as   much  as  2" cubes  ;  and 
to  manufacture  this  class   of  powder  expeditiously 
and  cheaj)ly,  has  brought  forth  another  description 
of  machine  for  forming  the  pebbles  by  cutting  up 
previously  compressed  cake  into   cubes   of  the  re- 
quired dimensions.     This  is  done   in  the  following 
manner,  by  a  very  simple  self-acting  machine  :    The 
cake  as  brought  from  the   press-house  is,  to  begin 
with,  of  the  thickness  of  the  required  cubes,  aud 
tliis  cake  the  machine  has  to  cut  up— first,  into  long 
strips  of  the  same  widtli  as  the  thickness  of  the  cake; 
and,  secondly,  to  cut  tliese  long  strips  transversely 
into  cubes.   This  is  accomplished  in  the  machine  by 
means  of  two  pairs  of  rollers  in  the   following   man- 
ner :   Tlie  cake  is  fed  into  a  liopper  iila<'c<l  imme- 
diately al)Ove  the  first  pair  of  rollers,  and,  as  these 
are  provided  witli  knives  upon    their  surfaces,  they 
cut  the   cak(^  up  into  long  strips.      These  strips  fall 
upon  an  endless  traveling  band,  wliich  conveys  and 
carries  them  forward  to  the  second   jiair   of  rollers, 
wliere  they  are  cut  transversely  into  culies.     Tliey 
then  drop  into   a   spout,  and   are  delivered  into   a 
revolving  sifter  covered  with    copper  wire,  wliicli 
conveys  the  perfect  cubes  into  a  number  of  wooden 
boxes  contained  in  a  small  gun-melal  Inick  ;  but  the 
dust  and  small  pieces  fall  lliroiigli  the  sifter  into  otlier 
boxes,  and  are  taken  back   to  the  press-house   and 
worked   up  again.     The   framing   of  this   machine 
(like  most  of  llie  other  machines  used  in  tlu^  manu- 
facture of  gunpowder;,  is  composed  entirely  of  giin- 


Pean. 


metal,  and  has  the  requisite  seatings  cast  upon  it 
for  the  reception  of  the  several  brackets  and  pedestals 
which  are  also  of  gun-metal,  as  well  as  the  cutting 
rollers,  each  pair  being  about  7"  in  diameter,  with  a 
number  of  equidistant" teeth  or  knives  formed  upon 
their  surfaces,  cut  out  of  the  solid  metal.  These 
rollers  are  securely  fixed  upon  wrought-iron  shafts, 
wliich  receive  their  motion  from  a  main  driving 
shaft  by  means  of  spur  gearing.  The  underside  of 
the  bearings  of  these  roflers  are  planed  and  faced  so 
as  to  slide  in  their  respective  brackets.  One  of  each 
pair  of  bearings  is  fitted  with  a  spring  box  controlled 
by  a  set-screw,  by  means  of  which  tiie  amount  of  re- 
sistance to  the  openiig  of  the  rollers  is  adjusted. 
Blocks  of  hard  wood  are  also  fitted  between  each 
pair  of  bearings  to  act  as  stops,  and  thus  determine 
the  minimum"  distance  between  the  surface  of  the 
rollers,  and  an  adjustable  gun-metal  scraper  is  fitted 
to  each  roller  for  removing  the  surplus  powder  from 
its  surface.  A  skeleton  carrying  band,  made  of  two 
leather  belts  fitted  with  ash  cross-bars  of  a  triangular 
section  and  at  about  3"  apart,  is  provided.     These 


wooden  cross-bars  are  rivetted  with  cojiper  rivets  to 
the  leather  belts  aud  to  gun-metal  strips  upon  their 
underside,  these  strips  being  of  such  a  form  as  to 
serve  the  purpose  of  teeth  for  driving  the  band.  This 
endless  handworks  upon  two  gun-metal  drums;  the 
one  is  driven  by  gearing  from  the  main  shaft,  and 
the  other  is  fitted  in  adjustable  bearings,  which  can 
be  tiglitcned  by  means  of  a  screw  so  as  to  take  up 
any  slack  in  the  band.  These  drums  are  made  with 
flanges  at  each  end,  and  have  recesses  formed  on 
their  liarrels  to  receive  the  gun-metal  projections  or 
strips  upon  tlie  carrying  band.  A  sliding  table 
made  of  bard  wood  and  provided  with  four  gun- 
metal  grooved  wheels,  which  travel  upon  V  rails, 
also  made  of  gun-metal,  is  fitted  to  work  underneath 
the  carrying  band,  and  travels  at  the  same  uniform 
rate  of  speed.  The  top  surface  of  this  table  is 
covered  witli  leather,  and  made  perfectly  smootli ;  a 
reciprocating  motion  is  given  to  it  by  means  of  an 
endless  chaiiQ  made  of  slieet  copper,  upon  one  link 
of  which  a  stud  is  fitted  and  works  in  a  gun-metal 
block  tliat  slides  in  a  bracket  fixed  upon  the  under- 
side of  the  table.  A  weighted  gun-metai  frame  is 
also  provided,  and  so  ailjusted  that  the  underside  of 
it  rests  upon  tlMvupper  surface  of  the  bars  of  the 
carr3'ing  baud  ;  the  ends  of  this  frame  are  fitted  witli 
gun-metal  stay-rods,  which  project  and  work  in 
slotted  l)rackets  connected  to  the  machine  ;  the  frame 
is  by  this  means  free  to  rise  if  the  pressure  from  any 
causi^  exceeds  that  of  the  weight  by  whicli  it  is  liekl 
down.  The  underside  of  this  frame  is  planed  and 
nia(l(^  perfectly  smooth,  so  as  to  allow  the  carrying 
liand  to  work  freely  between  the  underside  and 
the  upperside  of  the  sliding  table. 

The  feeding  web — which  is  made  of  strong  Dowlas 
canvas — is  driven  by  a  gun-metal  drum  7"  in  dia- 
meter, thefollowing  roller  lieing  Ij"  in  diameter  ;  the 
top  surface  of  this  web  is  supported  by  a  board  to 
prevent  its  sagging,  and.  in  addilioii,  the  bearings 
wherein  the  shaft  of  the  driving  drum  revolves  are 
lirovided  with  slides  made  adjustable  by  means  of 
screw  L'caring.  A  revolving  sifter  is  fitted  under- 
neath the  second  pair  of  rollers,  and  works  in  bear- 


PECTORAL. 


499 


PEEP  SIGHT. 


inRS  boltorl  fn  tho  iinrlcrsidc  of  thr-  fruiniiif;  of  the 
iiuii'liinc ;  tliis  siflcr  is  coMiixiHcd  of  a  number  of 
;;iin-iiioliil  (IruiiiH  kcyc(l  upon  ii  Hliiift,  and  its  peri- 
pliery  is  covered  with  copper  wire,  th(!  wliole  lieinj; 
enclosed  in  a  wooden  caniiit;.  Underneath  the  sifter 
three  Hlidinu;  boxes  are  placed  toreceiveihe  liustand 
small  pieces  which  pass  through  the  copper  wire  cov- 
ering of  the  screen.  At  tlie  end  of  the  sifter  a  K""- 
inetal  Iravelini;  truck  or  carriatre  is  providi'd,  with 
four  wheels  adajited  to  run  on  V  ;;un-iiietal  rails  lix- 
ed  ui)oii  till'  lloor  ;  this  carriajje  is  capable  of  holding 
five  wooden  boxes,  each  about  18"  srpiare,  into  which 
the  finished  |)ebblesfall  from  the  end  of  the  sifter  as 
it  slowly  revolves.  A  wooden  hopper  of  sufllcient 
viridth  to  cover  the  entire  lenfrth  of  Ihi'  rollers  is  pro- 
vided for  feedinu;  the  press-cake  into  the  first  pair, 
and  asheet  cojiper  casini?  islitleil  lo  the  second  pair, 
with  a  s])oul  at  thebottom  for  conveyingthe  pebbles 
into  tlict  sifter.  All  exposed  i>arts,  such  as  the  ends 
of  wrought-iron  shafts,  etc.,  are  covered  with  recess- 
ed gun-metal  washers  securely  fixed  to  them,  and 
any  others  which  may  \h'.  miuU:  of-  iron  or  steel  are 
covered  with  leather.  All  hearings  are  fitted  with 
suitable  lubricators,  and  channels  or  pipes  for  con- 
venienlly  and  efficiently  lubricating  thi^  rubbing  sur- 
faces ;  and,  as  it  is  of  the  utmost  im|)ortance  that  no 
oil  or  grease  be  permitted  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  i)()wdcr,  the  bearings  of  the  cutting  rollers  are 
fitted  with  sheet  copper  casings  made  in  halves  and 
hinged,  so  that  the  upper  part  can  be  lifted  and  the 
bearings  cleaned.  The  copper  casings  at  the  geared 
end  of  the  rollers  are  sufiiciently  large  to  contain  the 
wheels  and  act  as  drip-pans.  The  pebbles  from 
this  machine,  as  well  as  the  pellets  from  the  hy- 
draulic apparatus  are  generally  taken  to  the  glazing 
barrels,  the  treatment  they  there  receive  glazes  them 
and  also  rounds  off  the  sliarp  corners,  thereby  ren- 
dering them  much  better  adapted  for  transport,  stor- 
age etc.     St^e  Gunpowder. 

PECTORAL. — Among  the  Romans,  the  poorer  sol- 
diers,who  were  rated  under  1,000  drachnuis.  Instead 
of  the  li-trica,  or  brigantine  (a  leathern  coat  of  mail) 
they  wore  a  peetorM,  or  breast-plate  of  brass,  about 
twelve  fingers  square.  Some  modern  troops,  such 
as  the  Cuirassiers,  etc.,  wear  pectorals  for  the  direct 
purposes  of  defense  and  bodily  protection  ;  but,  in 
general,  small  ornamental  plates  with  clasps  have 
been  substituted. 

PECULATION. — A  term  used  in  a  military  sense  for 
embezzling  public  moneys,  stores,  arms,  or  ammu- 
nition.    See  Articles  of  iVar,  00. 

PEDDOWK. — A  tree  whicli  grows  in  the  forests  of 
Burmah  and  tlie  Andaman  Islands.  It  resembles 
mahogany  in  its  color.  It  was  formerly  much  used 
by  the  Burmese  for  gun  carriages,  and  was  intro- 
duced, some  years  back,  into  the  gun  carriage  man- 
ufactory at  Madras.  A  cubic  foot  of  unseasoned 
wood  weighs  from  65  to  70  lbs. 

PEDESTALS. — Props  made  of  wood,  and  used  for 
the  support  of  stool  beds  of  carriages  when  the  ele- 
vating screws  are  removed. 

PEDIEUX. — Coverings  for  the  feet, used  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  made  of  thin  plates  of  steel  or 
iron. 

FEBOUETER. — An  instrument  for  measuring  walk- 
ing distances.  A  common  form  consists  of  a  string 
with  a  piece  of  lead  at  the  end,  and  knotted  at  dis- 
tances of  44  feet  apart.  It  is  to  be  used  in  connec- 
tion with  a  seconds  watch.  Forty-four  feet  bears 
the  same  relation  to  an  English  statute  mile  (=5280 
feet)  that  i  minute  does  to  an  hour;  that  is,  the 
knots  are  -^o  of  a  mile  apart.  Drop  the  lead  and 
allow  the  string  to  pass  through  the  hand,  the  num- 
ber of  knots  slipping  through  the  hand  indicate  the 
rate  of  walking  in  the  number  of  miles  per  liour. 
Small  Pedometers,  to  be  worn  on  the  person,  con 
sist  of  a  train  of  wheels  in  a  small  case,  and  a  dial 
which  registers  the  number  of  impulses  derived  from 
a  cord  attached  to  the  foot.  In  this  form  it  becomes 
a  register  of  the  number  of  paten.    In  Payne's  En- 


glish pedometer  there  is  a  npcaiing  watch,  which 
shows  seconds  I7iinutes  and  liours  ;  and  also  the 
day  of  the  month.     See  OilomiUr. 

PEDRO.  An  early  gun  of  large  caliber,  employed 
f(jr  throwing  stone  balls. 

FEEL.  1.  A  small  tower  or  fort.  The  term  /V«i. 
/('<7/«' is  applied  lo  any  small  fortified  place.  3.  To 
strip:  to  iilundcr;  to  pillage. 

PEEL-TOWERS.— The  name  given  to  the  towers 
erected  on  the  Scottish  borders  for  defense.  They 
are  square,  with  turrets  at  the  angles,  and  the  door 
is  sometimes  at  a  height  from  the  ground.  The 
lower  story  is  usually  vaulted,  ami  formed  a  stal)lc 
for  horses,  cattle,  etc.  For  an  account  of  these  old 
towers,  now  mostly  in  ruin,  see  JlixUjry  <}f  Peeblen- 
K/iiri ,  by  W.  Chambers,  1804. 

PEE-MAH.— A  tree  which  grows  in  India  and  Bur- 
mah, and  is  made  use  of  in  the  Madras  gun  carriage 
factory  for  c(?rtain  portions  of  gun  carriages.  It  is  a 
light  and  tough  wood.  There  are  two  descriptions 
of  it,  red  and  white  colored;  the  former  is  the  tou^^'her 
of  the  two.  A  cubic  foot  of  unseasoned  wood  weighs 
from  .50  to  53  lbs. 

PEEP-SIGHT.— The  basis  of  the  sights  used  at  Creed- 
moor  in  the  most  approved  long-range  rifles  is  the 
old-fashioned  "peep  and  globe."  To  insure  accur- 
ate shooting,  the  rear  sight  is  made  with  a  vernier 


scale  operated  by  a  screw,  by  which  an  alteration  of 
one-hundreth  of  an  inch,  and  even  of  half  that 
amount,  can  be  made  in  the  elevation,  the  result  being 
exact,  and  recorded  in  figures— the  only  way  in 
which  a  correct  record  of  elevations  can  be  kept.  On 
the  Remington  rifle  the  divisions  on  the  vernier  are 
termed  degrees  and  minutes,  and  on  the  Sharps 
decimals  of  an  inch.  On  the  former  each  minute  is 
gV  of  an  inch,  and  corresponds  >ipon  a  34-inch  barrel 
with  lyV  of  an  inch,  at  each  100  yards.  On  the 
Sharps  rifle  each'subdivision  is  ,  J ^  of  an  inch,  corres- 
pondins  theoretically  to  li  inch  to  every  one  hun- 
dred yards.  As  no  inan  can  hold  or  sight  a  rifle  at 
1  000  yards  within  ten  inches,  the  elevation  on  both 
rifles  is  practically  the  same,  or  about  two  inches  to 
each  100  yards  for  each  subdivision  on  the  vernier 
that  is,  twenty  inches  at  1.000  yards.  The  elevations 
on  the  Metford  and  Rigby  rifles  is  about  the  same. 
The  subdivisions  upon  the   wind-gauge  of  both  the 


PEETEES  BULLET. 


500 


PELLET  POWDEH. 


Remington  and  Sharps  rifles  are  about  ^^  of  an  inch, 
and  are  equivalent  in  practice  to  two  inches  at  each 
100  j'ards,  or  20  inclies  at  1,000  yards,  on  the  34-inch 
barrel. 

As  the  errors  incident  to  aiming  at  long  range  will, 
in  most  cases,  increase  the  effect  of  any  alteration 
in  the  sights,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  well 
within  the  elevations  which  would  he  malhemaf  icall}' 
correct.  It  must  also  be  recollected  that  the  veloc- 
ity of  a  bullet  decreases  with  the  distance,  and  as  it 
loses  its  velocity  it  becomes  more  likely  to  be  afl'ecte<i 
by  currents  of  air.  Consequently  the  effect  of  any 
change  upon  the  sights  is  greater  proportionately  at 
long  than  at  short  range.  The  effect  of  wind,  etc., 
increases  in  a  still  greater  proportion,  that  which 
would  require  an  alteration  of  2  points  in  the  eleva- 
tion at  800  yards,  requiring  2i  at  900,  and  3  at  1,000. 
The  best  riflemen  prefer  to  have  the  peep-hole  of  the 
rear  sight  of  considerable  size,  as  affording  more 
light,  and  consequently  allowing  a  better  sight  to  be 
taken.  In  the  Metford  rear  sight,  discs  having  dif- 
ferent sized  apertures  may  be  used:  and  it  has  been 
stated  by  some  of  the  Irish  team  of  1874  that  they 
have,  in  foggy  or  dark  weather,  done  good  shooting 
b}'  removing  the  disc  entirely,  so  as  to  leave  an  aper- 
ture of  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch.  Every  rifleman 
should,  therefore,  have  an  extra  disc,  with  a  large 
aperture,  to  use  in  dusky  weather.  The  vernier 
sight  is  usually  placed  upon  the  small  of  the  stock. 
General  Dakin  and  others  who  shoot  on  tlieir  backs, 
have  it  placed  upon  the  heel  of  the  butt.  When  the 
latter  is  the  case,  it  makes  the  distance  between  the 
two  sights  nearly  a  third  greater  than  when  placed 
upon  the  small  of  the  stock,  and  consequently  a  pro- 
portionately greater  allowance  both  for  elevation 
and  wind  will  be  required. 

PEETEHS  BULLET.— A  form  of  bullet  first  used 
with  the  rifled  mu.sket  by  the  Bel- 
gian infantry.  It  has  a  considerable 
cavity  of  a  peculiar  form.  The  metal 
of  the  projectile  is  left  about  the 
axis  and  projects  downward,  filling 
about  one  half  of  the  forward  half 
of  the  cavity.  In  consequence  of  the 
cavity,  this  bullet  is  somewhat  lighter 
than  the  bullet  for  the  rifle  a  tige. 

PEISHWA.— The  title  of  the  per- 
sonage thiril  in  rank  and  authority  at 
the  Court  of  the  Mahratta  Mahara- 
jahs  of  Satara,  there  being  only  the 
Priti-nidhi  (Delegate  of  Rajah),  be- 
tween him  and  his  Sovereign.  How- 
ever, during  the  weak  reigns  of  Sev- 
ajee's  descendants,  the  Minister  in- 
creased in  importance,  till,  about  the 
commencement  of  the  18th  century, 
Balajee  Biswanath,  the  then  Peisli- 
wa,  and  a  man  of  distinguished  ad- 
ministrative ability  and  diplomatic 
talents,  made  himself  virtually  the 
Ruler  of  the  :\Iahrattas. 
PELICAN.  In  Heraldry,  the  pelican  is  drawn  with 
wings  imiorsed,  and  wound- 
ing her  breast  with  her  beak. 
When  represented  in  her  nest 
feeding  her  young  with  her 
blood,  she  is  called  a  pelican 
ill  hrr  pitti/. 

pellet'.— 1.  An  old  word 
for  shot  or  bullet.  2.  In  Kng- 
lish  Heraldry,  a  roundle  sable. 
(kjrecu  has  the  saiiic  significa- 
tion. 

PELLET  POWDER.  -In  con- 
sequence of  the  very  great 
increase  in  the  size  of  modern  rifled  cannon,  and 
the  large  charges  of  gunpfivvder  which  have  now  to 
be  used  (from  300  lbs.  to.lOO  lbs.  being  fre(|uently  em- 
ployed), it  HO(m  became  evident  that  some  modiH(-a- 
tion  would  have  to  be  made   in  the  description   of 


gunpowder  used.  It  was  found  that  the  ordinary 
large-grain  powder  hitherto  adopted  for  small  char- 
ges was  not  suitable  for  guns  of  large  caliber,  owing 
to  the  very  rapid  generation  of  the  gases,  and  the 
inordinate  strain  to  which  the  gun  was  thereby  sub- 
jected. E.xtensive  experiments  were  therefore  car- 
ried out,  with  a  view  to  determine  the  kind  of  pow- 
der that  would  give  to  the  projectile  a  high  initial 
velocity,  and  at  the  same  time  reduce  the  strain 
upon  the  gun  to  a  minimum.  This  resulted  in  the 
adoption  of  a  very  large-grain  powder  called  "pellet 
powder,"  which  upon  trial  was  found  to  give  very 
remarkable  results,  as  high  an  initial  velocity  as  1,600 
per  second  being  obtained,  with  a  low  pressure  in 
the  interior  of  the  gun  of  not  more  than  from  21  to 
23  tons  per  square  inch.  These  pellets  are  formed 
by  compressing  the  powder  meal  into  metal  molds; 
various  shapes  and  sizes  were  tried,  some  were  tlat 
discs,  others  prisms,  but  the  shape  which  found 
most  favor  at  first  was  the  cylindrical  pellet,  3-4"  in 
diameter  by  ^"  in  length,  and  weighing  95  grains. 
Originally,  these  were  made  by  hand,  but  it  waa 
soon  apparent,  that,  if  required  in  large  quantities, 
machinery  would  have  to  be  devised  for  their  pro- 
duction; consequently  a  large  machine  of  somewhat 
novel  description,  and  capable  of  making  400  pellets 
at  one  time,  was  designed  by  Dr.  John  Anderson, 
and  manufactured  at  Birmingham.  This  machine 
is  worked  entirely  by  means  of  hydraulic  power  de- 
rived from  an  accumidator,  which  affords  a  pressure 
equal  to  1,000  lbs.  per  square  inch. 

This  machine — which  has  given  most  excellent  re- 
sults— consists  of  two  hydraulic  cylinders,  with  a 
division  in  the  center  of  each — thus,  in  reality,  mak- 
ing four  cylinders  ;  in  the  two  upper  ones  a  plain  cyl- 
indrical ram  is  fitted,  which  merely  rises  and  falls  as 
the  water  is  admitted  underneath  the  ram  or  is  with- 


Pelican,  in  IIcTiildry. 


drawn.  These  rams  are  used,  first,  for  compressing 
the  pellets,  and  second,  for  ejecting  them,  when  fin- 
ished, out  of  the  molil  plates.  The  two  lower  di- 
visions are  fitted  with  pislim  rams,  securely  atlached 
to  crossheads,  whieli  are  united  together,  and  also 
connected  to  two  other  crossheads  above  the  cylin- 
ders by  means  of  str(mg  wrouglit-iron  side  rods,  pro- 
vided with  collars  working  between  lugs  cast  upon 
tlie  hydraulic  presses,  and  so  adjusted  as  to  allow 
oul}'  a  certain  limited  travel  either  u])  or  down.  The 
upper  crossheads  can  be  adjusted  to  their  exact  ])0- 
sitionsby  lucaiis  of  screwed  threads  and  lock  nuts  cm 
the  ujijier  end  of  the  side  rods.  The  use  of  the  lower 
piston  rams  is  to  close  the  upper  <ip<'niiigs  in  the 
mold  |)lates  by  bringing  the  top  ])imches — which 
are  connected  to  Ihe  upper  crossheads  by  a  gun-metal 
plate,  down  upon  the  mold  ])liite,  and  thus  confine 
the  meal  powder  in  the  molds.  The  upper  rams 
are  now  slowly  raised,  and  these,  acting  upon  the 
lower   punches,  compress  the  powder  in  the  mold 


PELTA. 


501 


PENSABT. 


plate.  After  tlio  projier  (lensity  IiiiH  lieen  Mcriiretl, 
till!  iictioii  of  the  lower  rains  is  reversed,  liy  wliieli 
nieiins  1)1)1  h  tlii'  lower  iiiiil  upper  crosslx'iiils  rer'cive 
an  upwaril  niolioii,  tlierel)y  rai^iiii,'  the  upper  punehi'H 
oli'iir  out  of  the  way,  so  as  lo  ai|ii)itr)f  ll)i'  eoin pressed 
pellets  beiiii;  ejecliMl  out  of  the  Diolil  |)liili\  and  this 
is  (lone  by  f^ivinfj  a  fiirtlier  upward  motion  to  the  two 
plain  eylindrieal  rams.  This  will  he  belter  uniler- 
stood  by  referrinir  to  the  enlarged  view,  where  tin; 
mold  plate  whi<'h  is  double-  n)ay  be  siipposi'd  to 
contain  a  charj;)'  of  meal  powder  in  tlie  mold  ready 
for  eonipressini;  into  a  pellet.  The  lower  i)art  of  the 
niolil  is  closed  by  the  lower  slei'l  punch  tliat  fits  the 
mold  very  accurately,  while  the  point  of  thi'  punch 
rests  upon  the  top  surface  of  the  plain  cylindrical 
mm  in  the  upper  part  of  the  hydraulic  cylinder.  The 
upper  ])unch  is  also  of  steel,  but  much  larger  in  di- 
ameter Ihun  the  lower  one. 

To  compress  the  powiler  in  the  mold,  and  form  a 
pellet,  reipiires  four  distinct  movemi'Uts  of  the  n)a- 
oliine.  First,  the  upper  punch  is  brouj,dit  down  un- 
til it  rests  upon  the  mold  ])lati'  and  closes  the  mold  ; 
this  is  elTected  by  a  downwiird  motion  of  the  two 
lower  piston  rams,  to  which  the  ui)per  and  lower 


orosshcads  are  connected  together  with  the  upper 
punches.  Secondly,  the  lower  punches  arc  raised 
by  the  two  upper  plain  rams,  and  the  powder  is  com- 
pressed in  the  niolil  between  the  two  punches.  Third- 
ly, when  the  pellet  is  sufficiently  compressed,  the  up- 
per punches  are  raised  from  off  the  mold  plate,  this 
being  done  by  reversing  the  action  of  the  two  lower 
piston  rams  until  the  upper  crosshead  and  punches 
are  at  a  sufficient  height  to  admit  of  the  compressed 
pellet  being  ejected  out  of  the  mold  plate.  This 
fourth  and  last  operation  of  ejecting  the  pellet  is  ef- 
fected by  allowing  the  upper  plain  rams  to  rise  still 
further,  and  thus  force  the  finished  pellet  out  of  the 
mold  by  means  of  the  lower  steel  punches.  All  these 
operations  are  simply  and  readily  performed  by  means 
of  a  very  ingenious  arrangement  of  valves,  the  at- 
tendant having  nothing  to  do  beyond  placing  a  han- 
dle in  the  several  positions  indicated  on  a  dial. 
These  valves  are  so  constructed  that  the  water  power 
is  admitted  to  the  two  presses  simultaneously,  whilst, 
by  a  self-acting  arrangement,  the  pressure  is  shut  off 
by  the  press  itself  when  it  has  traveled  the  required 
distance.  A  relief  valve  is  also  provided,  to  allow 
any  e.xce-;sive  pressure  to  escape  should  it  accumu- 
late from  any  cause,  and  this  prevents  damage  hap- 
pening either  to  the  pipes  or  other  parts  of  the  appa- 
ratus. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  a  machine  of  this  descrip- 
tion is  capable  of  easily  making  pellets  of  slraost  any 
shape,  such  as  cyhndrical.  hexagonal,  prismatic,  or 
—what  is  possibly  the  best  oif  all — spherical,  by 
merely  altering  the  form  of  the  mold  and  punches. 
In  the  machine  referred  to.  there  are  (on  a  revolv- 
ing table,  the  framework  of  which  is  made  of  gun- 
metal)  four  mold  plates  fitted  ;  each  contains  200 
holes,  but  as  there  are  only  two  hydraulic  presses 
to  the  machine,  it  follows  that  only  two  sets,  or  400 
molds,  are  under  compression  at  one  time,  so  that 
when  we  number  these  mold  plates  consecutively, 
then  Nos.  1  and  3  will  be  under  pressure  whilst  No. 
2  and  4  are  being  filled.  When  the  powder  in  Nos. 
1  and  3  mold  plate  is  sufficiently  compressed,  and 
the  pellets  formed  therein  have  been  removed,  the 
entire  table  is  turned  one-fourth  of  the  way  round 
by  means  of  a  handle  and  toothed   pinion  working 


into  correHpr)nding  teeth  provided  round  the  jjeri- 
phery  of  thi'  gun  inelal  table,  the  revolving  of  which 
is  n)uch  assisted  by  eighl  small  antifri<-tion  rollers 
li.xeil  to  Ihi'  c;isl-iron  fr.imi-  of  thi'  machine  ;  thesf! 
rolli-rs  support  l\w  gun.n)etal  table  as  it  revolves 
upon  its  own  center.  Nos.  2  and  4  mold  plates, 
which  have  been  wholly  filled  with  meal  i)oW]ler, 
are  now  brought  under  the  crossheads  of  the  machine 
and  ari'  in  position  for  the  powder  contained  there, 
in  to  be  con)pr(ssed  into  pellets,  whilst  Nos.  1  and 
;j  in  turn  take  their  [)laces  lo  be  refilled;  the  r)pera- 
tion,  therefore,  of  pressing  and  refilling  are  continu- 
ous, and  the  n)aihine  is  capable  of  producing  a 
large  (pjimtity  of  i)ibble  powder  per  day,  and  with 
very  little  waste.     Sec  Ounpi/trdtr. 

PELTA.— A  small,  light  shield,  sometimes  attribut- 
ed to  the  Anuizons,  but  used  by  numerous  nations 
of  antitpiity,  such  as  the  inhabitants  of  Thrace,  Spain, 
and  ^Mauritania,  before  its  general  introduction 
among  the  (Irceks.  It  consisted  mainly  of  a  frami- 
of  wood  or  wicker-work  covered  with  skin  or  leather, 
without  the  metallic  rim,  and  of  a  great  variety  of 
shapes.  It  was  sometimes  round,  as  in  the  special 
case  of  the  (Jclra,  sometimes  elliptical,  but  most 
commonly  crescent-shaped  orlunated.  Soldiers  bear- 
ing tbi'  pilta  were  called  I'eltaxtat. 

PELTAST.ffi;.— Grecian  soldiers  who  were  interme- 
diate between  the  '^>//Wrt/ and  the  Pmlii.  The  pel- 
tast  corresponded  to  our  elite  corps  of  infantry,  se- 
lected for  enterprises  recjuiring  both  celerity  and  a 
certain  firmness.  The  formation  of  the  peltasta; 
and  psiloi  was  analogous  to  that  of  the  oplitai,  the 
number  of  files  being  8,  instead  of  IC  as  in  the  last. 
See  Oplitai. 

PEMMICAK.— This  was  originally  a  North  Ameri- 
can Indian  preparation  only,  but  it  was  introduced 
into  the  Jiritish  Navy  victualing-yards,  in  order  to 
supply  the  arctic  expeditions  with  an  easily  pre- 
served food,  containing  the  largest  amount  of  nutri- 
ment in  the  smallest  space.  As  made  by  the  Indians, 
it  consists  of  the  lean  portions  of  venison  dried  by 
the  sun  or  wind,  aud  then  pounded  into  a  paste,  and 
tightly  pressed  into  cakes  ;  sometimes  a  few  fruits  of 
(i)nelani-hier  ovata  are  added,  to  improve  the  flavor. 
It  will  keep  for  a  very  long  time  uninjured.  That 
made  for  the  arctic  voyagers  was  chiefly  of  beef.  In 
making  pemmican,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  fat 
completely. 

PENAXSERVITUDE.— A  pimishment  awarded  by 
the  Articles  of  War  for  certain  crimes  committed  by 
soldiers. 

PENALTY. — A  sum  of  money  declared  by  some 
statute  or  contract  to  be  payable  by  one  who  com- 
mits an  offense  or  breach  of  contract.  It  is  con- 
sidered as  a  kind  of  punishment,  and  constituting 
indirectly  a  motive  to  the  party  to  avoid  the  com- 
mission of  the  act  which  induces  such  a  consequence. 
Many  contracts  executed  between  parties  and  gov- 
ernment contain  a  clause  that  one  or  other  of  them 
who  fails  to  perform  his  part  of  the  contract  will  in- 
cur a  penalty,  i.e.,  will  be  liable  to  pay  a  fixed  sum 
of  money  to  the  other  party.  In  such  cases,  a  dis. 
tinction  is  drawn  between  a  liquidated  and  un- 
liquidated penalty  ;  and  whether  it  is  of  the  one 
kind  or  the  other,  depends  on  the  language  used  in 
the  contract.  If  it  is  a  liquidated  penalty,  then, 
when  the  breach  of  contract  is  committed,  the  party 
in  default  must  pay  that  precise  sum,  neither  more 
nor  less  ;  but  if  it  is  unliquidated,  then  he  is  not  to 
pay  the  whole  sum,  but  merely  such  part  of  it  as 
corresponds  to  the  amount  of  injury  or  damage  done, 
and  of  which  proportion  a  jury  is  the  sole  judge  in 
an  action  of  damages. 

PENCEL. — A  sniall  flag  orstreamer  which  was  for- 
merly carried  at  the  top  of  a  lance.  Also  called 
I'eniuincel. 

PENDANT- PENNANT.— 1.  In  Heraldry,  a  part 
hansins  from  the  label,  resembling  the  drops  in  the 
Doric  frieze.  2.  A  narrow  llag  of  great  length,  taper- 
ing to  a  point,  and  usually  carried  at  the  head  of  the 


PENDULUM. 


502 


PENDULUM. 


principal  mast  in  a  royal  ship,  to  show  that  she  is  in 
commission.  In  the  British  Navy  the  Pendants  are 
borne  of  three  colors — red,  white,  or  blue — according 
fo  the  color  to  which  the  Admiral  commanding  the 
fleet  pertains.  On  shore.  Pendants  are  frequently  em- 
ployed at  rifle  ranges  to  indicate  the  strength  and 
direction  of  the  wind. 

PENDULUM. — In  its  widest  scientific  sense,  a  pen- 
dulum is  a  body  of  any  form  or  material  which,  under 
the  action  of  some  force,  vibrates  about  a  position 
of  stable  equilibrium.  In  its  more  usual  applica- 
tion, however,  this  term  is  restricted,  in  conformity 
with  its  etymology,  to  bodies  suspended  from  a  point, 
or  oscillating  about  an  a.\is,  under  the  action  of 
gravity.  The  simple  pendulum  consists  (in  theory) 
of  a  heavy  point  or  particle,  suspended  by  a  flexible 
string  without  weight,  and  therefore  constrained  to 
move  as  if  it  were  always  on  the  inner  surface  of  a 
smooth  spherical  bowl.  If  such  a  pendulum  be 
drawn  aside  into  a  slightly  inclined  position,  and  al- 
lowed to  fall  back,  it  evidently  will  oscillate  from 
side  to  side  of  its  position  of  equilibrium,  the  motion 
being  confined  to  a  vertical  plane.  If,  instead  of 
being  allowed  to  fall  back,  it  be  projected  horizon- 
tally in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  that  in  which 
gravity  tends  to  move  it,  the  bob  will  revolve  about 
its  lowest  position;  and  there  is  a  particular  ve- 
locity with  which,  if  it  be  projected,  it  describes  a 
circle  about  that  point,  and  is  then  called  a  conical 
pendulum. 

If  the  bob  of  the  simple  pendulum  be  slightly  dis- 
placed in  any  manner,  it  describes  an  ellipse  about 
its  lowest  position  as  center.    This  ellipse  may,  of 


course,  become  a  straight  line  or  a  circle.  The  bob 
does  not  accurately  describe  the  same  curve  in  suc- 
cessive revolution's;  in  fact,  the  elliplie  orbit  just 
mentioned  rotates  in  its  own  plane  about  its  center, 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  bob  moves,  with  an  an- 
gular velotMty  nearly  proportioned  to  tlie  area  of  the 
ellipse.  This  is  an  interesting  case  of  prugrennidii 
(if  Ike  apse,  which  can  be  watched  by  anv  one  who 
will  attacli  a  small  bullet  to  a  line  threall ;  or,  still 
licller,  altacb  to  the  lower  end  <if  a  loiif,'  string,  fixe<l 
to  tlie  ceiling,  a  funnel  full  of  fine  .sand  or  ink  which 
is  allowed  to  escape  from  a  small  orifice.  By  this 
process,  a  more  or  less  ))crnuuient  trace  of  the  motion 
of  the  pi-iiduluni  is  recorded,  by  wliich  the  ellijrtic 
form  of  the  path  and  tlie  phenomena  of  progression 
are  well  shown.  The  very  simple  arrangemeni  of 
appanitus,  shown  in  the  drawing,  will  be  found  con- 
venient for  the  demonstration  of  the  princi])les  of 


pendulums,  as  also  the  laws  of  impact,  both  in  elastic 
and  non-elastic  bodies. 

It  is  readily  seen  that  there  should  be  no  progres- 
sion if  the  pendulum  could  be  made  to  vibrate  sim- 
ply in  a  straight  line, as  then  the  area  of  its  elliptic  or- 
bit vanishes.lt  is, however. found  tobe  almost  impossi- 
ble in  practice  to  render  the  path  absolutely  straight: 
so  that  there  always  is  from  this  cause  a  slight  rate  of 
change  in  the  position  of  the  line  of  oscillation.  But 
as  the  direction  of  this  change  depends  on  the  direc- 
tion of  rotation  in  the  ellipse,  it  is  as  likely  to  effect 
the  motion  in  one  way  as  in  the  opposite,  and  is  thus 
easily  separable  from  the  very  curious  result  obtain- 
ed by  Poucault,  that  on  account  of  the  earth's  rota- 
tion, the  plane  of  vibration  of  the  pendulum  appears 
P-i  turn  in  the  same  direction  as  the  sun, that  is, in  the 
opposite  direction  to  the  earth's  rotation  about  its 
axis.  To  illustrate  this  now  well-known  case,  con- 
sider for  a  moment  a  simple  pendulum  vibrating  at 
the  pole  of  the  earth.  Here,  if  the  pendulum  vibrates 
in  a  straight  Ime,  the  direction  of  that  line  remains 
absolutel}'  fixed  in  space, while  the  earth  turns  round 
below  it  once  in  24  hours.  To  a  spectator  on  the 
earth,  it  appears,  of  course,  as  if  the  plane  of  motion 
of  the  pendulum  were  turning  once  round  in  24 
hours,  but  in  the  opposite  direction.  To  find  the  a- 
mount  of  the  corresponding  phenomenon  in  any  oth- 
er latitude,  all  that  is  required  is  to  know  the  rate  of 
the  earth's  rotation  about  the  vertical  in  that  latitude. 
This  is  easy,  for  velocities  of  rotation  are  resolved 
and  compounded  by  the  same  process  as  forces, hence 
the  rate  at  which  the  earth  rotates  about  the  vertical 
in  latitude  A  is  less  than  that  of  rotation  about  the 
polar  axis  in  the  ratio  of  sin.  X  to  1.  Hence  the  time 
of  the  apparent  rotation  of  the  plane  of  the  pendu- 
24  hours 

lum's  motion  is .  At  the  pole,  this  is  simply 

sin  S. 
24  hours;  at  the  equator, it  is  infinitely  great,  or  there 
is  no  elTect  of  this  kind;  in  the  latitude  of  Edinburgh 
(56®  57'  23.2"),  it  is  28  hr.  37  m.  48  seconds. 

We  have  not  yet  alluded  to  the  obvious  fact,  that 
a  simple  pendulum,  such  as  we  have  described  above, 
exists  in  theory  only,  since  we  cannot  procure  either 
a  single  heavy  particle,  or  a  perfectly  light  and  flex- 
ible string.  But  it  is  easily  shown,  although  the 
process  cannot  be  given  here,  that  a  rigid  body  of 
any  form  whatever  vibrates  about  an  axis  under  the 
action  of  gravity,  according  to  the  same  law  as  the 
hypothetical  simple  pendulum.  The  length  of  the 
equivalent  simple  pendulum  depends  upon  what  is 
called  the  radius  of  gyration  of  the  pendulous  body. 
Its  property  is  simply  this,  that  if  the  whole  mass 
of  the  body  were  collected  at  a  point  whose  distance 
from  the  axis  is  the  radius  of  gyration,  the  moment 
of  Inertia  of  this  heavy  point  (about  the  axis)  would 
be  the  same  as  that  of  the  complex  body  The 
square  of  the  radius  of  gyration  of  a  body  about 
any  axis,  is  greater  than  the  square  of  the  radius  of 
gyration  about  a  parallel  axis  through  the  center  of 
gravity,  by  the  square  of  the  distance  between  those 
lines.  Now,  the  length  of  the  simple  pendulum 
equivalent  to  a  body  oscillating  about  any  axis  ip 
directly  as  the  square  of  the  radius  of  gyration,  and 
inversely  as  the  distance  of  the  center  of  gravity 
from  the  axis.  Hence,  if  k  be  the  radius  of  gyration 
of   a   body   about  au  axis   through   the   center  of 

gravity,  'yk^-\-h'^  is  that  about  a  parallel  axis  whose 
distance  from  the  first  is  h ;  and  the  length,  I,  of 

k°--\-h-^ 

the  ei|uivalent  simjile  pendulum  is  1= .     Thia 

h 

expression  becomes  infinitely  great  if  A  be  very 
large,  and  also  if  h  be  very  small  (that  is  a  body 
vibrates  very  slowly  about  an  axis  either  far  from, 
or  near  to,  its  center  of  gravity).  It  must  therefore 
have  a  mininuuu  value.  By  solving  the  equation 
aliove  as  a  quadratic  in  A,  we  find  that  I  camiot  bo 
less  than  %k,  which  is,  therefore,   the  length  of  the 


PENDnLTTK  HAUSSE. 


503 


PENETRATION  OF  PROJECTILES. 


Bimplo  i)rn<liiluiri  cnrrcspoiHliiij;  to  Ihc  qiiickcHl  vi- 
bratioiiH  wliu'li  tlicr  hculy  <ini  rxcciitc  about  any  axis 
parallel  to  IIk;  j;iv<Ti  mii'. 

An  llu;  Iciif^tli  of  a  rod  or  liar  <if  any  material  (1(n 
peiids  on  its  tcinperatiirc!,  a  eloek  with  an  ordinary 
peiidiiliiiii  goes  faster  in  cold,  and  slower  in  hot, 
weather.  Various  contrivances  have  been  devise<l 
for  the  purpose  of  diniinisliini;,  if  not  destroyinK, 
these  elTccts.  The  most  perfr-ct  in  theory,  tlioufjli 
perhaps  imt  the  most  available  in  pralice,  is  that  of 
Sir  I).  Urevvsler,  founiled  uiion  the  experimental 
discovery  of  Mitscherlich,  that  some  crystals  irpaiid 
by  heat  in  one  direct  ion,  while  c.imtrnrting  in  the 
perpendicular  one;  and  therefore  that  a  roil  iiuiy  be 
out  out  of  the  crystal  in  such  a  direction  as  not  to 
alt<!r  in  lenjith  by  any  rhange  of  lemperalure.  In 
the  method  of  correction  usually  emjilriyed,  and  call- 
ed rompciiMiliiiii,  advantaj;!?  is  taken  of  the  fact  that 
(lilferent  substances  have  diirerent  coellleients  of 
linear  dilatation;  so  thai  if  the  bob  of  the  pendulum 
be  so  suspended  as  to  be  raised  by  the  expansion  of 
one  substance,  and  depressed  by  the  expansion  of 
another,  the  lengths  of  the  effeotive  port  ions  of  these 
substances  may  bt^  so  adjusted  that  tlie  raising  and 
depression,  takini;  place  simultaneously,  may  leave 
the  position  of  the  bol)  unafTecled.  There  are  two 
common  methods  of  elTectini;  this,  dillcring  a  little 
in  construction,  but  ultimately  depending  on  the 
same  principle.  Of  these,  the  mercurial  pendulum 
is  the  more  easily  described.  The  rod  and  frame- 
work are  of  steel.  Inside  the  framework  is  placed 
a  cylindrical  glass  jar,  nearly  full  of  mercury,  which 
can  be  raised  or  depressed  by  turnini;  a  nut.  Hy 
increase  of  temperature,  the  steel  poriiim  is  length- 
ened by  an  amount  proportional  to  its  length,  its 
coefficient  of  linear  dilatation,  and  the  change  of 
temperature,  conjointly — and  thus  the  jar  of  mercury 
is  removed  from  the  axis  of  suspension.  But  neglect- 
ing the  expansion  of  the  glass,  which  is  very  small, 
the  mercury  rises  in  the  jar  by  an  amount  propor- 
tional to  its  bulk,  its  coefficient  of  cubical  dilatation, 
and  the  change  of  temperature,  conjointly.  Now, 
by  increasing  or  diminishing  the  quantity  of  mer- 
cury, it  is  obvious  that  we  may  so  adjust  the  instru- 


ment that  till 


—    I  of  tl 

A/ 


le  equivalent  sim- 


ple pendulum  shall  be  unaltered  by  the  change  of 
temperature,  whatever  be  its  amount,  so  long  as  it 
is  not  great  enough  to  sensibly  change  the  coellicients 
of  dilatation  of  the  two  metals.  The  screw  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  cnmpiii.idtion,  its  use  is  to 
adjust  the  length  of  the  pendulum  so  that  it  shall 
vibrate  in  one  second.  See  Bob,  G^un-pendulum,  and 
Pliimnwt. 

PENDULUM-HAUSSE.  —  A   contrivance   used   to 
point  field-pieces,  and   at  the  same  time  to  obviate 
^  the  error  which  arises  when  the  wheels 

of  the  carriage  stand  on  uneven  ground. 
It  consists  of  a  scale  and  slidtr.  The 
scale  is  made  of  sheet-brass ;  at  the  low- 
er end  is  a  brass  bulb  filled  with  lead. 
The  slider  is  of  thin  brass,  and  is  retained 
in  any  desired  position  on  the  scale  by 
means  of  a  brass  set  screw  with  a  milled 
head.  The  scale  is  passed  through  a 
.slit  in  a  piece  of  steel,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  brass  screw,  forming  a 
pivot  on  which  the  scale  can  vibrate 
laterally  ;  this  slit  is  made  long  enough 
to  allow  the  scale  to  take  a  vertical 
position  in  any  ordinary  inequality  of 
the  ground  on  which  the  wheels  of  the  carriage  are 
required  to  stand;  the  ends  of  this  pie(;e  of  steel  form 
two  journals  by  means  of  which  the  scale  is  supported 
on  tiie  seat  attached  to  the  piece,  and  is  at  liberty  to 
vibrate  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  piece.  The 
neat  for  suspending  the  pendulum-hausse  upon  the 
piece  is  screwed  to  the  base  of   the  breech  in  such 


a  manner  that  the  centers  of  the  two  jour;iul  nolclieK 
shall  be  at  adistancc  from  the  axis  equal  to  the  great- 
,  est  exterior  radius  of  the  base  of  tlie  breech.     The 
height  of  the  front-sight  being  eipial  to  the  dispart 
I  of  the  piece,  a  line  from  the  top  of  the  muz/le-sight 
to  the  zero,  which  is  the  pivot  of  the  scale,    is  par- 
allel to  the  axis  of  tin-  pii'cc  ;  hence  the  vertical  plane 
of  sight  passing  through  th(-  center  linr-  of  the  scale 
and  th<- top  of  the  mu/./.ht-sighl,  will  \>c  |>arallel  to 
the  axis  in  any  position  of  the  piece  ;  the  scale  will 
therefore  always  indicate  correctly  the  angle  which 
;  the  line  of  sight  makes  with  the  axis.     The  hausse, 
i  the  seat,  and  the  muzzle-sight,  vary,  in  their  con- 
I  struction  and  arrangement,  with  the  piet^'  for  which 
they  are    inteniled.     The  graduations  on  the  scale 
are  the  tangents  of  ea(;h   (piarler-dcgree  to  a  radius 
ecpial  to  the  distance  between  the  nuizzlc-sight  and 
the  center  of  the  journal-notches,  which  are  in  all 
cases  one  inch  in  rear  of   the  highest  point  of  the 
base  of  the  bn'c'ch. 

PENETRATION  OF  PROJECTILES.— The  most  com- 
mon substances  encountered  by  projectiles  arc  ar- 
ranged in  the  following  series,  in  the  order  of  their 
resistance  to  penetration:  ai'r,  waUr,  nanif,  trnnd, 
lend, copper,  ■wr<>it(jlit-irun,ni>fl  ute^il,  aint-iron,  cldlUd- 
iroii,  hardened  Kteel,  etc.  All  other  substances  may 
be  arranged  between  these,  or  in  continuation  of  the 
series.  -4ir  opposes  the  motion  of  a  projectile  by 
its  inertia,  elastic  force,  and  the  pressure  due  to  its 
weight.  The  projectile  compresses  the  air  in  its 
front  and  disperses  it  laterally,  while  the  rear  of  the 
projectile  is  relieved  by  its  motion  of  the  normal 
pressure  of  the  air.  A  small  amount  of  resistance 
is  also  met  with  in  the  shape  of  friction.  In  the  case 
of  water  these  resistances  are  increased  by  the  great- 
er density  and  weight  of  this  substance,  and  there 
is  also  a  slight  additional  resistance  due  to  the  co- 
hesion among  the  particles.  Sand,  being  a  solid,  or 
at  least  made  up  of  solid  elements,  presents  the  ad- 
ditional resistance  of  "crushing-strength."  It  can- 
not be  penetrated  at  a  high  velocity  witliout  crushing 
some  of  the  grains,  and  the  higher  the  velocity  the 
greater  the  amount  of  work  expended  in  this  manner. 
This  resistance  to  crushing  implies  a  continuation 
of  the  elastic  force  beyond  the  elastic  limits,  and  in- 
volves indirectly  tensile  strength,  since  a  solid  in  be- 
ing crushed  must  enlarge  laterally  and  finally  yield 
to  a  strain  of  tension.  In  penetrating  icmd,  lead,  or 
any  of  the  other  materials,  "ten.sile  strength"  forms 
the  chief  element  of  the  resistance,  while  inertia  and 
friction  become  of  minor  importance. 

The  office  of  elasticity  in  all  these  cases  is  to  trans- 
mit the  effect  of  the  projectile  from  those  parlicle-s 
first  acted  upon  to  those  more  remote,  and  thus  call- 
ing into  play  their  inertia  or  tensile  strength,  as  the 
ca'se  may  be;  and  were  it  not  for  this  properly,  the 
statical  resistance  of  a  plate  of  any  material  to  per- 
foration would  be  entirely  independent  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  plate;  a  thick  plate  would  offer  no  greater 
resistance  than  a  thin  one,  since  each  layer  or  unit 
of  thickness  would  be  perforated  without  receiving 
any  assistance  from  its  neighbors.  The  irurk  of  pen- 
etration would  then  vary  directly  with  the  distance 
penetrated,  or  the  thickness  of  the  plate  :  elasticity, 
however,  has  its  maximum  point  of  usefulness  in 
resisting  penetration,  and  beyond  this  it  becomes  a 
great  disadvantage.  While  increasing  the  number 
of  fibers  or  elementary  portions  of  the  material  brok- 
en at  once,  thereby  increasing  the  statical  resistance, 
it  diminishes  the  "time  during  which  this  resistance 
opposes  the  motion  of  the  projectile  in  like  ratio:  and 
the  amount  of  motion  destroyed  or  generated  in- 
creases with,  the  time  as  well  as  with  the  force  or  re- 
sistance. For  this  reason  hardened  steel  and  chill- 
ed iron  are  less  efficient  in  stopping  projectiles  than 
soft  iron,  although  tliev  offer  a  much  greater  statical 
resistance  to  penetration.  There  are  many  reasons 
for  believino-  that  a  general  formula  for  the  jx-netra- 
tion  of  projectiles  in  all  materials  may  be  deduced, 
when  experiments  have  been  sufficiently  extended. 


PENETRATIVE  EFFECT. 


504 


PEHETRATITE  EFFECT. 


in  wliich  the  constants  will  simply  require  changing 
to  suit  any  particular  case  under  consideration. 

That  the  penetration  of  an  elongated  projectile  is 
influenced  by  the  form  of  its  head  has  been  shown  by 
experiment,  many  different  forms  of  head  having 
been  tried.  The  flat  head  has  been  strongly  advo- 
cated, because  it  is  asserted  to  be  a  better  form  for 
punching  than  any  of  the  pointed  heads,  and  be- 
cause it  is  also  asserted  that  it  will  bite  into  an  iron 
plate  at  such  an  oblique  angle  as  would  cause  a  point- 
ed head  to  merely  glance.  But  the  truth  of  these 
assertions  lias  not  been  generally  admitted.  The 
flat-headed  projectile  is  objectionable  both  as  regards 
accuracy  and  velocity,  and  it  has  also  a  tendency  to 
upset  or  bulge  at  tlie  head  on  impact,  and  this  result 
is  very  marked.  The  pointed  projectile  is  superior 
in  accuracy  and  range,  and  does  not  upset  on  im- 
pact to  any  thing  like  the  same  extent.  It  is  assert- 
ed that  it  cuts  through  an  iron  plate  to  a  better  ad- 
vantage, or  rather  tears  through,  bending  back  the 
plate. 

Another  point  in  connection  with  the  penetration  of 
elongated  projectiles  is  the  effect  of  different  forms 
of  head  upon  the  rotation  of  the  projectile  when  the 
impact  is  oblique.  If  the  axis  of  the  projectile  is 
tangent  to  the  trajectory  on  impact,  and  at  the  same 


ter,  sa  that  its  axis  becomes  perpendicular,  or  nearly 
so,  to  the  face  of  the  plate,  having  then  only  the 
least  thickness  to  penetrate. 

It  is  diihcult  to  obtain  for  comparison  the  results 
of  practice  with  the  flat  and  pointed  headed  projec- 
tiles of  the  same  material  fired  at  targets  inclined  to 
the  line  of  the  range;  the  former  having  been  so 
little  used,  as  its  form  is  so  objectionable,  both  as 
regards  accuracy  and  velocity.  On  the  whole,  it  may 
be  said  that  in  the  case  when  the  projectile  ought  to 
be  capable  of  piercing  the  plate  or  target,  there  is 
little  difference  between  the  effect  of  a  tiat  head  and 
a  hemispherical  head  ;  but  when  the  target  is  beyond 
the  power  of  tlie  projectUe,  the  hemispherical  head 
makes  the  deepest  indent. 

The  impact  of  a  projectile,  in  addition  to  indent- 
ing or  penetrating  a  target,  produces  more  or  less 
bending,  tearing,  and  other  damage  at  a  distance 
from  the  point  of  impact ;  which  effects  may  be 
classed  under  the  term  "  Concussion."  The  effect  of 
concussion  is  transmitted  from  the  point  of  impact 
in  all  directions,  in  the  same  manner  as  sound- 
waves, and  increases  with  the  elasticity  of  the  ma- 
terial. Whatever  tends  to  diminish  the  elasticity  of 
the  structure,  as  dividing  it  into  many  pieces,  or 
using  soft  ductile  material  to  receive  the  projectile, 


»ii;,    ^\\\\    \^\^\  \N^-^-S^\\^\\  \'    .V\  ^N    .     .^N,       ^  NWW.kxW        \^      \^^ 


time  normal  to  the  target,  there  will  be  no  tendency 
to  rotate  about  any  axis  parallel  with  the  plane  of  the 
target.  In  the  drawing, if  we  suppose  a  projectile  to 
arrive  at  A,  under  tliese  conditions  it  will  undoubt- 
edly penetrate  the  plate  directly.  But  let  one  arrive 
at  D  or  E,  and  there  will  be  a  tendency  to  rotate, 
and  this  tendency  will  depend  upon  the  form  of  the 
projectile  as  well  as  upon  the  angle  between  the  tra- 
jectory and  its  axis. 

It  is  often  asserted,however,  that  the  advantage  in 
the  latter  case  will  be  in  favor  of  the  flat-headed 
projectile,  since  the  moment  of  the  rotating-force 
will  be  the  variable  resistance  of  the  plate  multiplied 
by  the  lever  arm  Dd,  for  the  pointed  projectile,  and 
the  same  multiplied  by  a  much  shorter  lever  arm, 
Ee,  incase  of  the  flat-lieaded  projectile,  and  this  may 
be  negative;  or  in  other  words,  there  may  be  a  ten- 
dency to  rotate  towards  the  normal,  which  would  be 
a  decided  advantage.  This  would  take  place  when 
the  line  of  the  trajectory  passed  within  the  base  of 
the  shot.  In  the  third  case,  represented  at  B  and  C, 
a  projectile  is  moving  with  its  axis  tangent  to  the 
trajectory,  but  oblique  to  the  target;  here  there  is 
also  a  tendency  for  the  flat-headed  projectile  to  ro- 
tate toward  the  normal,  but  it  is  questionable  whether 
such  rotation  would  be  advantageous.  The  pointed 
projectile  would  have  a  less  tendency  to  such  rota- 
tion. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  respective  motions  of  a  flat 
and  pointed  headed  projectile  on  oblique  impact  are 
explained  as  follows :  It  is  asserted  that  the  flat- 
lieaded  ])rojcctile,  on  striking,  cuts  out  a  portion  of 
the  face  (if  the  plate,  which  it  carries  along  in  front, 
thus  increasing  the  thickness  to  be  penetrated;  and. 
remaining  nearly  ])arallel  to  its  original  direction,  it 
lias  to  jiiiss  through  tlie  jilate  obliquely.  While,  if 
the  projectile  has  a  pointed  lieail,  the  [mint  eiuers  at 
first  more  deeply  into  the  plate  than  tlie  Hat  head, 
and  the  center  of  gravity  moving  forward,  the  pro- 
jectile turns  around  more  readily  than  with  the  lat- 


will  diminish  the  effect  of  concussion.  This  effect 
is  expended  in  two  ways — First,  in  giving  motion  to 
the  structure  or  in  developing  inertia;  and,  Seajiid, 
in  overcoming  the  tenacity  of  the  material,  either  in 
bending  or  tearing  those  portions  first  acted  upon 
from  those  more  remote.  Both  of  these  compo- 
nents increase  with  the  whole  amount  of  work  ex- 
pended by  the  projectile,  other  conditions  being 
equal.     See.  Impact  of  Projectiles  &nd  Prujectiles. 

PENETRATIVE  EFFECT.— Generally  speaking,  the 
penetrative  effect  depends  on  the  shape  and  material 
of  the  projectile,  on  its  energy  and  diameter,  and  the 
direction  with  which  it  strikes  the  target.  It  is  quite 
impossible  to  accurately  determine  the  coefficients  of 
resistance  for  the  different  materials  of  projectiles 
and  plates;  but  practically  the  amount  of  penetra- 
tion, whether  for  iron  or  steel  plates,  or  masonry,  or 
earth,  may  be  determined  by  experiment.  Various 
empirical  laws  sufliiee  to  give  approximate  results; 
but  they  do  not  stand  the  test  of  any  general  appli- 
cation. In  consequence  of  the  varying  qualities  of 
resistance  both  in  projectiles  and  targets,  the  varia- 
tion in  shape  of  the  projectile  on  impact,  the  possi- 
bility of  the  projectile  breaking  up,  and  the  amount 
of  heat  developed  on  impact,  strictly  analytical  in- 
vestigations cannot  be  made.  If  V  is  the  velocity 
required  for  a  projectile  to  pierce  an  armor-plate 
with  right-angled  impact,  its  energy  per  inch  of  cir- 

W  V« 

cumference  (  See  Eiurgy)U .     But   if   the 

2g.  n  d. 
projectile  strikes  obliquely  at  an  angle  A,  then,  if  it 
turns  in  on  its  point   and  perforiiti's  wrmally,  it  is 
readily  seen  that  the  velocity  for  perforation  must  be 
V 

,and  consequently  the  energy  per  inch  of  cir- 


Sin  A 
cumference  for  oblique  perforation  will  be 


W  V 


'2g7r  d.sin'A 


FENNATED  DAOOEB. 


505 


PENSIONS. 


that  is  the  number  of  foot-tons  pfr  inrli  of  rirriini- 
fercncf  to  pcrfornli'  iiu  nrnior-pliit(:  ol)li(iii<'ly  i« 
found  by  dividinj^  tlic  iiumiImt  of  foot-tons  n-quired 
for  perforation  by  rinlil-iiiinlcd  iinpiiel  bytlie  H(|uiire 
of  the  8in('  of  the  unfile  of  impact.  If  the  proj<e- 
tile  f;0C8Hlriiif(lit  ihroiiKli  tlie  phile  without  turtiinfr 
in,  the  eneri^v  per  inch  of  eireuinference  for  obliijue 

perforation  will  be 

2g  7Ti\.  Sin  A 

In  this  ease  we  would  hiuc  best  results  for  flat-head- 
ed i)rojeeliles  mid  eoniiiariitively  thin  aruior-plates. 

'I'he  results  of  e.xpcrinu'nt  show  that  the  amount 
of  peni-tration  is  directly  |)r(]poilional  to  the  produet 
of  till'  weif^lif  of  the  projectile,  mulliplied  l)y  its  ve- 
locity raised  to  ]iowers  that  vary  but  lilllc  from  unity 
for  the  ditrereiil  resistiiif;:  Imdics.  'I'lie  iiinelralion 
into  nias.ses,  such  as  earthen  jiarapets  and  thick 
platee,  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  area  of  cro.ss- 
section  of  the  projectile.  From  these  deductions  we 
p  V 

obtain  the  expression   W  = in  which  W  ,  called 

d- 
tlie  penetrative  effect,   is  taken  as  a  measure  of  the 
projectile's  power,  p  =  weight  of  the  projectile  in 
pounds,  V  =  velocity  of  impact  in  feet,  d  -^  diame- 
ter of  shot  in  inches.  Letting  S  =  iienetrationof  the 

1      p  V       W 

sliol  in  inches,  we  have  (1)  S  = ^  — ,  A 

A  d=  A 
being  a  coefficient,  depending  iipon  the  shape  of  the 
projectile  and  the  nature  of  the  resisting  substance, 
to  be  determined  by  experiment.  For  the  best  (puU- 
ity  of  wrought-iron  plates,  subjected  to  the  action 
of  ogiva!  projectiles  of  steel  or  chilled  east-iron,  the 
above  formula  may  be  used.  For  plates  not  exceed- 
ing 3i  ipches  in  thickness  A  =  575,  whence  (2)  S  = 

.   For  plates  of  a  greater  thickness  than  2i  Indies 

575 

W 

(3)  S  = 1.5  inches.    For  plates  not  exceedmg 

360 
20  inches  in  thickness,  this  formula  gives  results 
closely  appro.ximating  those  determined  by  experi- 
ment. The  depth  to  which  a  projectile  will  bury  it- 
self in  a  resisting  body,  which  is  too  thick  to  bo  per- 
forated, is  less  than  the  thickness  of  the  obstacle 
that  it  will  just  pass  through.  For  example,  the 
shells  of  the  2.76  inch  Italian  field-gun,  at  l,Ot>0  yards 
range,  pass  through  a  brick  wall  1.97  feet  thick,  but 
only  penetrate  1.66  feet  into  a  similar  wall  3.94  feet 
thick.  In  speaking  of  the  penetration  Into  masses 
of  earth,  wood,  or  masonry,  the  depth  of  penetra- 
tion is  meant,  and  S  In  formula  (i)  gives  the  number 
of  inches  the  projectile  will  bury  Itself  In  a  resisting 
body  too  thick  to  be  perforated.  The  thickness  of 
plate  that  the  projectile  can  just  pass  through  is 
generally  taken  as  a  measure  of  the  power  of  guns 
against  iron  plates,  and  S  in  formulas  (2)  and  (3)  has 
this  signification.  The  penetration  of  a  projectile 
depends  not  only  on  Its  velocity,  but  also  upon  the 
direction  in  which  it  strikes  the  object,  the  compo- 
nent of  the  velocity  normal  to  the  surface  struck  de- 
termining the  penetration.  In  this  case  the  cosine 
of  tlie  angle  of  Incidence  should  be  Introduced. 

To  find  the  penetrating  power  of  a  projectile,  at 
any  point  of  Its  flight,  "into  armor-plates,  the  em- 
pirical formula  of  Major  Noble,  of  the  Royal  Artillery, 
is  used  • 


i 


in  which,  A  =  penetration  in  feet;  r  ^  velocity  on 
impact.  In  feet  per  seconil ;  W  =  weight  of  shot,  in 
pounds  ;  r  =  ratio  of  diameter  to  circumference  of 
circle.  3.141.59:  Ji  —-  radius  of  shot,  in  feet;  g  = 
force  of  gravity.  32.16  pounds;  *  =  a  co-etflc'ient 
determined  by  experiment,  depending  on  the  nature 


of  the  wrought-iron  in  the  plate,  ami  the  nature  and 
form  of  the  head  of  tlie  shot.  For  a  spherieul  pro. 
jeclile  against  an  unbacked  plate,  CA;  is  5,:)57,200. 
For  an  ogival  lieadr-d  projectile  against  a  backed 
plate  f*),  is  assumed  to  be  4.H'21,4H0.  The  plate  in 
considered  to  be  vertical,  and  the  trajeit<iry  to  be  in 
a  plane  perpenilieular  to  the  plate.  Should  the  shot 
strike  the  pliite  oliliijuely,  the  value  of  (h)  determined 
as  above,  must  be  niulti|)lied  by  the  sine  of  the 
angle;  of  incidence.  Foru  given  projectile  anil  a  plate 
of  known  thickness,  the  work  required  to  produce 
penetration  win  be  found  from  the  equation  placed 

under  the  form, =  2rR  kb*  ;   and  the  velocity 

2k 
needed  at  impact,  from  the  same  equation  solved 
with  reference  to  (r). 

PENNATED  DAGGER  —An  Italian  main  ganehe 
with  three  blades  expanding  by  means  of  a  spring 
when  a  button  was  pressed  in  the  handle,  and  form- 
ing a  guard  of  great  leni;th  and  breadth,  in  which 
the  adversary's  sword  might  be  cauirht  and  sna|)ped. 

PENNETIERE.— A  pocket  or  small  bug  in  which 
slingers  carried  stones  and  leaden  balls.  Also  writ- 
ten Panrtiere. 

PENNON. — 1.  Formerly  a  copper  wing  of  along, 
light  arrow  {Vtrettm)  substituted  for  a  feather.  2.  A 
small,  pointed,  or  swallow-tailed  flag,  carried  by  the 


medincval  knight  on  his  lance.bearing  his  personal  de- 
vice or  badge,  and  sometimes  richly  fringed  with 
gold.  The  device  was  so  placed  as  to  appear  in  its 
proper  position  when  the  weapon  was  laid  for  the 
charge.  Permoncelle  is  a  long  streamer-like  flag,  the 
diminutive  of  the  pennon.   See  Flags. 

PENSIONS. —In  the  United  States  pensions  are 
most  generously  granted  by  Act  of  Congress  In  the 
many  cases  of  persons  who  have  seen  active  service  in 
the  Army  or  Navy,  and  who  have  been  honorably 
discharged.  They  are  also  awarded  to  widows, 
orphans,  or  other  persons  dependent  on  those  in- 
stanced above.  The  existing  pension-list  of  the 
United  States  Includes  those  which  have  been  grant- 
ed for  account  of  services  rendered  In  the  A\  ar  of 
1812  ;  the  Mexican  War,  and  the  War  of  the  Rebel- 
lion. For  the  laws  governing  the  distribution  of 
pensions,  and  their  amounts,  etc.,  see  Eetmd  Sta- 
tutes of  the  United  State.i. 

In  England,  pensions  are  awarded  for  good  service, 
for  mere  faithful  ordlnarj-  service,  for  wounds,  and 
to  representatives  of  deceased  officers.  Oood-xerriee 
Pensions  are  rewards  to  selected  Officers  in  the  Brit- 
ish Navy  for  distlngui.shed  service.  In  1873  they 
were  as  follows  :  12  Admirals  had  £300  each.  25  Cap- 
tains £150,  1  General  of  Marines  £300,  5  do.  £200.  2 
Colonels  £150.  and  5  Medical  Officers  £100:  total 
£9.150.  In  1875-76  the  total  was  £7.500.  The  cor 
responding  pension  in  the  Arm}'  is  called  a  Reward 
for  Distinguished  Service. 

The  Pensions  for  I^ong  Service  are  awarded  in  the 
army  to  Non-commissioned  Officers  and  Soldiers 
who  have  served  21  years  in  the  infantry,  or  24  years 
in  the  cavalrv,  or  earlier  if  disabled  from  further  ser- 


PENSTOCK. 


506 


PEHCUSSION  CAPS. 


vice,  according  to  tlie  wounds,  less  of  Ixealth,  and 
conduct  of  the  pensioner.  Tlie  amount  is  fi.\ed  by 
the  Commissioners  of  Chelsea  Hospital,  and  varies 
from  lid.  to  3s.  6d.  a  day,  the  lower  rates  being  main- 
ly confined  to  Negro  Pensioners  from  the  West  In- 
dia regiments.  Pensioners  are  either  In-Pensioners 
of  Chelsea,  or  Kilmainham  Hospitals,  in  which  case 
they  forego  their  proper  pensions,  andreceive  board, 
lodging,  and  a  small  sum  for  tobacco-money,  or  Out- 
Pensioners  residing  where  they  please,  and  drawing 
their  pensions  from  the  Staff  Officers  of  Pensioners, 
of  whom  there  is  one  in  every  considerable  town. 
These  men  can  follow  other  pursuits,  often  do  so 
with  very  great  success,  as  their  militarj'  habits  of 
regularity  stand  them  in  good  stead  in  civil  life. 

Pensions  for  Wounds  are  common  to  both  services, 
and  are  limited  to  officers.  The}'  are  awarded  res- 
pectively by  the  Secretarj'  of  War  and  Lords  of  the 
Admiralty,  for  serious  bodily  injur)-,  as  the  loss  of  a 
limb  or  eye,  and  vary  according  to  the  rank  of  the 
recipient  and  other  circumstances.  In  cases  of  ser- 
ious injury,  temporary  pensions  are  sometimes  grant- 
ed, or  gratuities.  The  charge  for  Pensions  for 
Wounds  for  1875-76  was — army,  172  recipients,  £16,- 
453  ;  navy,  85  recipients,  £9,036 ;  total;  £25,479.  In 
the  case  of  Common  Soldiers  and  Sailors,  wounds 
may  serve  to  hasten  or  augment  the  pension  for  ser- 
vice, but  they  have  no  distinctive  Pension  for 
Wounds. 

Widows  of  Commissioned  and  Warrant  Officers  in 
the  army  and  navy  receive  pensions  so  long  as  they 
remain  unmarried,  provided  they  have  Ijeen  married 
severally  twelve  months  when  their  husbands  die, 
and  that  the  latter  were  under  60  years  of  age  (50 
for  Warrant  officers)  when  they  married  tlie  Claim- 
ants. Such  pension  is  not  granted  if  the  widow  be 
left  in  wealthy  circumstances,  and  lies  dormant  dur- 
ing a  second  marriage,  though  it  may  be  revived 
should  she  again  become  a  widow.  The  amount  of 
pension  varies  according  to  rank,  and  there  are 
three  distinct  classes  for  each  rank :  1st,  Wlien  the 
husband  was  killed  in  the  battle,  or  died  within  six 
months  of  wounds  received  therein ;  2d,  When  he 
died  from  some  cause  distinctly  falling  within  the 
sphere  of  liis  duty,  but  not  from  wounds  in  action; 
3d.  When  he  died  in  the  course  of  nature. 

In  an  elaborate  opinion  given  by  Mr.  Attorney- 
General  Cushing,  published  by  the  War  Department 
in  General  Orders,  No.  11  of  1855,  he  draws  the  con- 
clusion that  "  the  phrase  "line  of  duty'  is  an  apt  one, 
to  donote  that  an  act  of  duty  performed  must  have 
relation  of  causation,  mediate  or  immediate,  to  the 
wound,  the  casualty,  the  injury,  or  the  disease  pro- 
ducing disability  of  death."  Every  person  (says  Mr. 
Cushing)  who  enters  the  military  service  of  the  coun- 
try— officer,  soldier,  sailor,  or  marine — takes  upon 
himself  certain  moral  and  legal  engagements  of  duty 
wliich  constitute  his  official  or  professional  obliga- 
tions. While  in  the  performance  of  those  things 
which  the  law  requires  of  him  as  military  duty,  he 
is  in  the  line  of  his  duty.  But  at  the  same  time,  though 
a  soldier  or  sailor,  he  is  not  the  less  a  man  and  a  citi- 
zen, with  private  rights  to  e.xercise  and  duties  to  per- 
form ;  ami  while  attending  to  these  things  he  is  not 
in  the  line  of  liis  public  duty.  In  addition  to  this,  a 
Koldier  or  sailor,  like  any  other  man,  has  the  physical 
faculty  of  doing  many  tilings  which  are  in  violation 
of  duties  either  general  or  special;  and  in  doing  these 
things  he  is  not  acting  in  the  line  of  his  duty,  .\round 
all  those  acts  of  tlie  soldier  or  sailor  which  are  offi- 
cial in  their  nature  the  pension  laws  draw  a  legisla- 
tive line,  and  then  they  say  to  tlie  .so]di<'r  or  sailor  : 
If,  while  performing  acts  which  are  within  that  line, 
you  thereby  incur  disability  or  death,  you  or  your 
widow  or  children,  as  the  case  may  be,  shall  receive 
pension  or  allow:inc,<';  but  not  if  the  disaliility  or 
death  arise  from  acts  performed  outside  of  that  line; 
that  is,  absolutely  discniuiecled  from,  and  wliolly  in- 
dependent of,  the  ])rrformancc  of  duly.  Was  llie 
cause  of  disability  or  deatli  u  cause  within  the  Hue  of 


duty  or  outside  of  it?  Wasthatcauseapperlaining  to, 
dependent  upim  or  otherwise  necessarily  and  essential- 
ly connected  with,  duty  within  the  line;  or  was  it  un- 
appertinent,  independent,  and  not  of  necessary  and 
essential  connection  ?  That  is  the  true  test-criterion 
of  the  class  of  pension  cases  under  consideration. 

PENSTOCK. —  A  machine  composed  of  timber, 
which,  by  means  of  a  movable  board,  enables  the 
defenders  of  a  fortress  to  allow  such  a  rush  of  water 
from  the  batardeaux  as  to  inundate  and  destroy  the 
works  which  the  enemy  may  have  constructed  in  the 
ditch. 

PENTAGON.— In  fortification,  a  figure  bounded  by 
five  siiles,  which  form  so  many  angles,  capable  of 
being  fortified  with  an  equal  number  of  bastions, 

PENTATHLON.— The  five  exercises  performed  in 
the  Grecian  games,  namely,  leaping,  running,  quoit- 
ing.  darting,  and  wrestling. 

PENTHOUSE.— 1.  A  shed  hanging  forward  in  a 
sloping  direction  from  the  main  wall  of  a  place.  3. 
A  small  house,  made  of  boards  united  by  hooks  and 
staples,  for  protecting  a  gun  and  its  carriages  mount- 
ed en  hfirbeUe  from  the  weather. 

PEON. — In  India,  a  term  formerly  given  to  a  foot- 
soldier,  but  in  these  days  it  does  not  bear  this  signi- 
fication. Native  servants  or  mes- 
sengers attached  to  the  Govern- 
ment offices  in  India  are  designa- 
ted Peons,  and  wear  a  belt  with  a 
brass  plate  bearing  the  name  of 
the  office  to  distinguish  them  from 
private  servants. 

PERCLOSE.— Pekclose  or  Demi- 
CiETER,  in  Heraldry,  is  the  lower 
Berolosa.  i,,,]f  ,^f  ^  g;arterwith  the  buckle. 

PEHCUSSION  BULLETS.— Percussion  bullets  may 
be  made  by  placing  a  small  quantity  of  percussion 
powder,  enclosed  in  a  copper  en- 
velope, in  the  point  of  an  ordinary 
rifle-musket  bullet,  or  by  casting 
the  bullet  around  a  small  iron 
tube,  which  is  afterward  filled 
with  powder  and  surmounted  with 
a  common  percussion-cap.  The  im- 
pact of  the  bullet  against  a  sub- 
stance no  harder  than  wood  is 
found  to  readily  ignite  the  percus- 
sion charge  or  cap,  and  produce  an 
effective  explosion.  These  projectiles  can  be  used 
to  blow  up  caissons  and  boxes  containing  ammu- 
nition at  very  long  distances.  See  Bullet  and  Pro. 
jecUles. 

FEBCUSSION  CAPS.— Small  coppei  cylinders. closed 
at  one  end,  for  conveniently  holding  the  detonating 
powder  which  is  exploded  by  the  act  of  percussion 
in  percussion-arms.  Caps  were  not  used  with  the 
earliest  percussion-arms,  which  the  Rev.  Mr.  For- 
syth, of  Belhelvie,  Aberdeenshire,  patented  in  1807  ; 
but  they  became  tolerably  general  between  1820  and 
1830,  and  were  adopted  for  the  army  by  1840. 
With  the  adoption  of  breech-loading  arms,  the  use 
of  separate  caps  has  been  discontinued.  Tlie  cap 
now  forms  apart  of  the  cartridge,  and  atone  opera- 
tion is  placed  with  it  in  the  opened  breech  of  the 
gun.  The  manufacture  is  extremely  simple :  A 
sheet  of  thin  copper  is  stamped  into  pieces  of  ap- 
propriate shape,  which  are  bent  into  the  form  of 
caps  by  stamping-apparatus  closing  round  a  man- 
dril, tlie  whole  behig  done  in  one  machine  by  two 
operations.  The  caps  are  then  placed  in  a  tray, 
nioulhs  upward  ;  and  tlie  inside  of  each  is  touched 
with  a  strongly  adiiesive  varnish.  Over  this  is  dusted 
llie  detonating  powder,  all  tlie  jiarticles  which  fail 
to  adhere  being  lilown,  dusted,  or  shaken  out.  A 
stamper  once  more  is  forced  into  the  cap,  to  fix  and 
compress  the  powder,  and  the  operation  is  com- 
pleted. For  muskets,  the  caps  are  charged  with 
ei|ual  parts  of  fulminating  mercury  and  clilorate  of 
potash;  for  ciiniion,  witli  ;i  mixture  coiiipiised  of 
two  parts  of  chlorate  of  potash,  two  parts  of  native 


PERCUSSION  FUSE. 


■y()7 


PEEER. 


sulpliiirct  iif  anliiiiuii_v,  and  one  of  powdered  {;liin»  ; 
the  last  ingredient  taking;  no  part  in  llie  rliendeal 
action,  and  beiiii^  added  merely  to  inerease  llu^  frie- 
tion.       See   Ce.nter-Jiri'  MctdUicciiae    Carlridi/i^  and 

l.ol-k. 

PERCUSSION  FUSE.  — A  percussion-fnse  e.xplodeH 
Ljy  the  striking  ii[  Home  parliculur  ])oint  of  a  pro- 
jectile  afjainnt  an  object,  as  in  llie  case  of  rillc- 
cannon  projectiles.  (Jne  of  the  l)est  and  simplest 
forms  of  this  kind  of  fuse  is  the  ordinary  percussion- 
cap  i)laced  on  a  cone  ullixed  to  the  iioint  of  llie  pro- 
jectile. 'I'he  piece  to  which  the  cone  is  attached 
may  lie  li.\ed  <ir  movalile;  in  eillier  case,  the  appa- 
ratus should  he  covered  with  u  safety-cap  to  prevent 
the  percussion-cap  from  lakiniz;  lire  by  Ihe  dischar!i;e 
of  the  ))ii'ce.  The  drawing  represents  a  fuse  of  Ihe 
percussion  kind,  in  which  b  is  a  movalile  cone-piece, 
bearinix  a  musket-cap  (c);  and  a  is  the  safety-cap 
which  covers  the  fuse-hole.  When  the  jirojectile  is 
set  in  nuilioii,  the  cone-piece,  or  "plunder,"  by  its 
inertia,  presses  against  Ihe  shoulders  of  Ihe  fuse- 
hole;  when  ils  motion  is  arrested,  the  inertia  of  the 
tone-piece  cau.ses  the  percussion-cap  to  nni)i)i<;e 
against  Ihe  safety-cap,  which  ]iro- 
duces  exi)losion.  The  explosion 
of  the  projectile  may  lie  made  to 
take  |)lac(^  at  any  desired  time, 
afler  the  explosion  of  the  cap,  by 
inlcrposini;  strain,  or  meali'd  pow- 
der, iietween  the  cap  and  burstinj; 
chari;e.  Experience  has  shown 
that  the  ])lunger  should  be  en- 
closed in  a  light  metal  case  to  pre- 
vent it  from  being  fouled  by  the 
action  of  the  powder;  and  to  prevent  premature  ex- 
plosions, the  cone-piece  should  be  confined  by  a 
.screw  or  other  device,  to  prevent  it  from  moving 
nntil  the  projectile  sirikcs  ils  object. 

The  essential  rcquiremenls  of  a  good  percussion- 
fuse  are:  that  it  should  not  be  ignited  by  Ihe  shock 
of  discharge  or  on  striking  water ;  that  it  shall  be 
ignited  on  the  impact  of  a  shell  against  the  object, 
and  that  it  may  not  be  liable  to  explode  by  hau(lling 
or  during  transport.  The  percussion-fuse  has  many 
points  in  its  favor :  it  assures  the  bursting  of  the 
projectile  ;  it  can  be  u.sed  for  all  ranges,  be  they 
never  so  great ;  it  admits— a  very  important  desiil- 
eratum  iu  war — of  estimating  distances,  and  of  cor- 
rectiug  the  error  of  the  estimation  ;  it  augments  the 
result  of  tiring  by  adding  great  moral  to  physical 
effect,  due  to  the  explosion  of  the  projectile  in  the 
midst  of  the  enemy.  Its  only  inconvenience  is  its 
inability  to  cause  tlie  bursting  of  tlie  projectile  be- 
fore it  has  touclied  the  object,  thus  rendering  the 
effects  of  tire  dependent  upon  the  nature  and  con- 
formation of  the  target  at  the  point  of  impact.  See 
Fuse. 

PERCUSSION  LOCK.— A  lock  of  a  gun  in  which 
gunpowder  is  exploded  b_v  tire  obtained  from  the 
percussion  of  fulminating  powder.  Before  the  in- 
vention of  friction-tubes,  percussion  caps  or  wafers 
were  used  iu  connection  with  a  lock,  which  was 
screwed  to  the  body  of  tield  pieces,  and  to  the  lock- 
pieces  in  heavier  ordnance.  The  percussion  powder 
was  placed  in  a  thin  layer  between  two  circular 
pieces  of  cartridge-paper,  united  by  glue,  pressed 
firmly  together,  dried  and  varnished  with  any  water- 
proof varnish  forming  the  wafer.  Tlie  caps  were 
made  by  forming  the  wafer  at  the  bottom  ot  .i  paper 
cap  which  tilted  on  the  end  of  the  lock  hammer. 

PERCUSSION  -  POWDER.  —  Powder  composed  of 
such  materials  as  to  ignite  by  slight  percussion;  ful- 
minating powder.     See  Gunpmtider. 

PERCUSSION-PRIMERS.  —  The  percussion-primer 
has  a  wafer  or  tlat-head  attached  to  a  qidll-barrel. 
The  process  usually  observed  iu  selecting  the  ma- 
terial and  manufacturing  the  primers  is  as  follows  : 
Each  rpiill  must  be  clarified  ami  furnish  a  barrel  at 
least  two  and  a  half  inches  long.  The  barrel  is  to 
be  round,  free  from  Haws,  pith,  and  brittleness  oc- 


casioned by  clarifying,  or  uny  other  defect  wliicli 
may  render  it  until  for  the  purpose  refpiired.  It 
must  not  exceeil  in  diameter  nineteen-hundredtlis  of 
aji  inch  at  any  pari,  nor  lie  li'hs  than  seveiiteen- 
hiiuilredlhs  of  an  inch,  wilhin  one  and  one-liulf 
inches  of  the  <ijd  lliat  is  cut  from  the  quill.  The 
small  end  must  not  be  broken  or  bruised.  Cut  the 
barrels  of  the  quills  (tlose  from  the  feather,  and  in- 
sert them  inio  tlie  socket  of  a  wooden  block  made 
two  inches  deeji  and  two-tenths  of  un  inch  in 
diameter.  A  punch,  having  ten  cutters  radiating 
from  the  stem,  is  entered  into  each  quill-barr<-l,  ami 
driven  down  with  a  smart  tap,  so  as  to  slit  the  upper 
end  of  the  barrel  into  ten  jirongs,  and  as  far  as  the 
ujiper  surface  of  the  block  permits.  Turn  back  the 
prongs,  so  that  they  will  lie  on  the  surface  of  the 
block  ;  a  circular  punch  isajiplied  to  each,  and  made 
by  a  blow  to  cut  olT  the  prongs  to  its  own  diameter 
(O.M  inch).  Very  stout  paper,  previously  prepared 
by  two  coats  of  shellac-varnish  (giimlac  dissolved  in 
alcohol),  ispunclK'd  witliholes  0.17inc'h  indiameter, 
and  so  arranged  as  to  correspon<l  with  the  sockets  of 
the  wooden  lilock.  The  (piill-barrcls  are  freed  from 
jiith,  the  punched  iiajicrlaid  on  the  block,  the  holes 
corresponding  and  tint  varnished  side  up,  the  (juill- 
barrels  put  Ihrough  the  paper  into  the  sockets  of  the 
block,  filled  with  grained  powder,  seven  grains  Troy, 
and  pressed  firmly  (hiwn  with  their  prongs  flat  fin  Ihe 
varnished  side  of  the  sheet  of  stout  paper.  iirush 
the  shellac-varnish  over  the  sjiaces  of  paper  between 
the  heads  of  the  (|uill-liarrels,  and  sjiread  a  sheet  of 
good  writing-paper,  slightly  moistened  with  water, 
over  the  entire  surface  of  the  stout  sheet  and  the 
prongs  of  the  quills.  Put  the  block  and  the  sheets 
thus  stuck  together,  with  the  ijuill  prongs  between 
them,  into  a  jiress,  applya  force<if  about  thirly  tons, 
and  keep  tliem  long  euough  to  set  the  prongs  and 
make  the  sheets  of  paper  adhere  firmly.  Kach  (piill  is 
separated  from  the  card  by  means  of  a  circular  punch, 
v.hich  cuts  out  a  disc  0.62  inch  in  diameter,  and  of 
course  includes  the  prongs  enclosed  between  Ihem. 
A  stellated  disc  to  cover  the  head  of  the  primer  is 
punched  out  of  linen-made  paper  of  the  finest  and 
closest  fabric.  This  disc  has  twelve  points — diame- 
ter from  exterior  points,  1.25  inches,  from  interior 
0.7  inch.  Jletal  jilafes  are  at  hand  with  superfi<ial 
recesses  about  0.(5.")  inches  in  diameter.  On  each  of 
these  a  stellated  cover  is  placed,  and  four  grains  of 
fulminate  deposited  on  it.  This  is  composed  of  five 
part.s  of  fulminating  mercury  and  one  of  mealed 
powder,  both  dry.  Place  the  head  of  the  ]irimer 
on  the  charge  of  fulminate,  holding  it  Ijy  the  (piill- 
barrel  and  pressing  it  down  firmly;  brush  good 
wiieat-paste  on  the  points  of  the  cover  and  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  head,  turn  the  points  over,  and 
unite  them  neatly  and  closely  on  the  paper  head. 
The  primer  is  now  made  and  only  recjuires  to 
be  protected  from  moisture.  For  this  purpose, 
shellac  is  dissolved  in  alcohol,  so  as  to  be  thin 
enough  to  be  laid  on  with  a  brush.  This  is  of  a 
lirownish  yellow;  a  portiou  is  prepared  with  lamp- 
black. Coat  over  the  the  quill-barrel  with  shellac, 
then  the  under  side  of  the  wafer  with  the  black 
shellac-varnish.  Then  shellac  the  upper  surface  of 
the  wafer.  Tip  the  end  of  the  quill-barrel  with  black 
varnish,  and  apply  a  second  coat  of  uncolored  shel- 
lac thicklv  about  the  jirimer.   See   Frietiun-primtr^. 

PERCUSSION  WAFER.— The  earliest  percussion- 
primers  iu  use  were  made  iu  the  form  of  wafers. 
The  wafer  was  placed  in  the  vent  of  the  piece,  the 
metal  of  the  gun  being  cut  away  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  form  a  recess  at  the  exterior  orifice  of  the  vent, 
in  w  Inch  the  wafer  was  deposited,  and  exposed  to 
the  direct  action  of  the  hammer. 

PERDU. — A  word  adopted  from  the  French,  signi- 
fying to  lie  tJat  and  closely  in  wait.  It  likewise 
means  employed  on  desperate  purposes  ;  accustomed 
to  desperate  enterprises. 

PERER.  — .\n  old  form  of  gun.  used  mostly  on 
ships,  for  throwing  stone-shot. 


PEKFORATED  DISC  GUNPOWDER. 


508 


PERMANENT  FORTIFICATION. 


PERFORATED    DISC    GUNPOWDER— Compressed 

gunpowder,  perforated  with  a  eertaia  number  of 
holes.  From  the  excessive  pressure  given  to  the 
discs,  the  powder  burns  slowly  ;  it  has  "been,  and  is 
still  used  for  discharging  rifled  ordnance  by  some 
foreign  artilleries.  In  the  British  artillery  it  is  not 
used.     See  Gunpoicder. 

PERJURY. — The  crime  committed  by  one  who, 
■when  giving  evidence  on  oath  as  a  witness  in  a  Court 
of  Justice,  or  before  some  constituted  authority  of 
the  same  kind,  gives  evidence  which  he  knows  to  be 
false.  But  in  order  to  make  the  giving  of  the  false 
evidence  liable  to  criminal  punishment^  it  must  have 
been  not  only  false  to  the  knowledge  of  the  witness, 
but  the  matter  must  have  been  material  to  tlie  issue 
raised.  If  the  falsehood  occurred  as  to  some  trifling 
or  immaterial  fact,  no  crime  is  committed.  More- 
over, it  is  necessarj-,  in  proving  the  crime,  that  at 
least  two  persons  should  be  able  to  testif_y  to  the 
falsehood  of  the  matter,  so  that  there  might  be  a 
majority  of  oaths  on  the  matter — there  being  then 
two  oaths  to  one.  But  this  rule  is  satisfied  though 
both  witnesses  do  not  testify  to  one  point.  The 
perjury  must  also  have  taken  place  before  some 
Court  or  Tribunal  which  had  power  to  administer 
the  oath.  Though  in  some  Courts  aflirmations  are 
allowed  instead  of  oaths,  yet  the  punishment  of  false 
affirmation  is  made  precisely  tlie  same  as  for  false 
swearing.  The  punishment  for  perjury  was,  before 
the  Conquest,  sometimes  death  or  cutting  out  the 
tongue;  but,  latterly,  it  was  confined  to  fiue  and  im- 
prisonment, and  at  present  the  latter  is  the  only 
punishment,  with  the  addition  of  hard  labor.  The 
crime  of  subornation  of  perjurj' — ;'.  e.,  the  persuad- 
ing or  procuring  a  person  to  give  false  evidence,  is 
also  punishable  as  a  distinct  offense. 

PERKERNUCKA.— An  Indian  term  for  Petty  Offi- 
cers. 

PERMANENT  ANGLE.— It  is  always  important  that 
the  gunner  should  be  able  to  aim  directl}'  at  tlie  ob- 
ject, so  as  to  reduce  the  persunul  eqnatiim  to  a  mini- 
mum. But  in  consequence  of  the  deviation  due  to 
the  rifling,  there  is  always  a  deflection  from  the  line 
of  sight.  To  avoid  this,  the  rear  sight  is  set  at  a  per- 
manent angle  of  deflection,  so  that,  no  matter  how 
much  it  is  raised,  the  line  of  sight  will  always  pass 
through  the  object.  The  formula  for  determining 
the  angle  for  each  range  is 
deflection 

tan  A   = X  cosec.  elevation. 

range 
Let  b  c  represent  a  perpendicular  rear  sight,  and/ 
the  front  sight  of  the  gun;  then  bft  represents  the 


angl?  e  is  changed,  the  product  of  the  three  variables 

d 
in  the  expression  -  cosec  e  is  always  very  nearly  con- 

r 
slant.  A  is  always  small  and  never  exceeds  about  38. 
It  varies  for  different  ordnance,  and  is  practically 
found  by  firing  a  scries  of  rounds  at  different  ordin- 
ary elevation  to  find  the  corresponding  mean  ranges 
and  drifts  :  the  value  of  tan  A,  from  the  above  for- 
mula, for  each  elevation  is  then  calculated,  and  the 
mean  o'f  all  the  values  of  A  thus  found  is  called  the 
permanent  angle  cf  drift.  By  this  means  one  adjust- 
ment of  the  scale  is  sufficient  instead  of  two,  and  the 
deflection  leaf  is  only  used  for  occasional  fine  adjust- 
ment and  for  accidental  circumstances,  sucli  as  cross 
wind  or  difference  of  level  of  wheels.  With  howit- 
zers, however,  the  var^-ing  charges  prevent  the  use 
of  this  plan,  and  no  permanent  angle  of  drift  can  be 
found  for  them,  -which  will  do  under  all  circum- 
stances ;  their  tangent  scales  are  therefore  exactly 
perpendicular  to  the  axes  of  the  piece  and  of  the 
trunnions,  and  they  are  provided  with  long  deflection 
bars. 

PERMANENT  FORTIFICATION.— Permanant  fortifi- 
cations are  designed  to  secure  the  possession  of  those 
poir^ts  that  are  of  importance  to  the  safety  of  the 
country,  and  also  those  that  will  or  may  have  an  im- 
portant influence  on  the  operations  of  a  defensive  or 
an  offensive  war,  in  which  the  country  may  be  en- 
gaged. To  secure  them,  they  must  be  made  so  strong 
that  to  gain  possession  of  them,  an  enemy  would 
have  to  resort  to  the  tedious,  laborious,  and  costly 
operations  of  a  siege  or  blockade.  "Whatever  diver- 
sity of  opinion  may  be  found  amongst  engineers  and 
writers  on  permanent  fortification,  as  to  the  best 
mode  of  arranging  the  elements  of  these  defenses  to 
attain  this  end,  most  of  them  agree  on  certain  gener- 
al conditions  as  necessary. 

These  conditions,  thus  generall}'  admitted,  may  be 
enunciated  as  follows  :  1st.  They  should  be  of  sutS- 
cient  strength  to  resist  with  success  all  the  ordinary 
means  resorted  to  by  an  assailant  in  an  open  assault. 
2d.  Have  secure  and  easy  means  of  commimication 
for  the  movement  of  the  troops,  both  within  the  de- 
fenses and  to  the  exterior.  3d.  Be  so  planned  that 
every  point  exterior  to  the  defenses  within  cannon 
range  shall  be  thoroughly  swept  by  their  fire.  4th. 
Be  provided  with  suitable  shelters  to  protect  the 
troops,  the  armament,  and  the  magazines  of  provis- 
ions and  munitions  of  war,  required  for  their  de- 
fense, against  the  destructive  measures  of  the  assail- 
ant of  every  description.  5th.  And,  finally,  be  pro- 
vided with  all  such  accessory  defensive  means  as  the 


line  or  sight,  the  gun  being  laid  on  the  target,  t,  at 
the  angle  of  elevation,  b  f  r  =  e.  Suppose  .i  to  be  the 
point  where  the  shot  falls,  then  <  s  measured  at  right 
angles  to  the  line  of  sight,  represents  the  deflection 
of  the  shot.  Join  ■•<  f,  produce  it  to  a.  draw  i  a  at 
right  angles  to  h  t,  and  join  a  c;  now  a  is  the  point 
at  which  the  head  of  the  rear  sight  should  be  placed 
in  order  to  compensate  for  the  deflection  t  s  ;  and  a 
e  b  =  A  is  the  angle  of  deflection  required.  Let  the 
range/<  cciual  r,  and  the  deflectionta  equals.  Now, 
in  the  similar  triangles, 

ab       st       d 

hf~  tf"  r 
but,       ab  —  be  tan  A,  and  If  =  he  cosec  «, 
d      be,  tan  A  d 

.'.    -  = ;  tan  A  =  -  cosec.  e. 

r      be.  cosec  e  r 

It  is  found  practically  that  for  ordinary  service 
angles  of  (•l('v;ili(iii,  tljc  values  of  the  ranges  and 
lateral  deviations  vary  in  such  a  way  that  when  the 


f  natural  feattires  of  the  position  itself  may  afford,  to 
enable  the  garrison  to  dispute  with  energy  the  occu- 
pancy by  the  assailant  of  everj'  point  both  within  and 
exterior  to  the  defenses.  The  defensive  branch  of 
the  militarj-  engineer's  art  consists  in  a  knowledge  of 
the  means  which  are  employed  to  fulfil  the  above 
conditions,  and  of  their  suitable  adaptation  to  the 
natural  features  of  the  positions  he  may  be  called  up- 
on lo  fortify. 

The  most  simjile  mode  of  fortifying  a  position  in  a 
permanent  manner  consists  in  inclosing  it  with  a 
rampart  surrounded  by  a  jmrapet,  with  a  ditch  the 
Hc;irp  of  which, when  dry, is  reveltcd  with  nuisonry, 
and  so  covered  by  anearllieu  mask  that  it  cannot  be 
breached  except  by  batteries  placed  on  the  border  of 
the  countcr.scrap.  The  general  form  of  the  parapet 
and  ditch  to  fulfil  l\\e  fr.it  of  the  general  condiliona 
given  aliove  will  be  better  nn<lerstood  by  an  e.\ain- 
iiialioii  of  the  ]irofilc  which  is  a  section  m.ade  by  a 
vcrlical  ]iliim'  pcrpciidicuJar  to  (he  gentral  direction 
of  the  principal  bounding  line,  in  plan.     The  rain- 


PERMANENT  FORTIFCATION. 


509 


PERMANENT  FOETIFICATIOH. 


pari  s(  rvrs  to  give  the  troops  and  armament,  whicli 
arc  pliK  rd  1)11  top  of  it  anil  bcliirifl  tlu^  parapet,  a 
cnniMiaiiiliim  view  iiviT  llii'  unjunrl  Id  be  nuanlcd  by 
the  lire  of  tlie  licfciiHcs :  wbilsl  at  tlic  sairic  lime,  it 
inereaues  llie  obstacle  loan  open  assault,  by  tbe  ad- 
ditional lieiglil  it  gives  to  the  Hcarj).     The  top  sur- 


el 


A,  Rnmpart;C  Parapet;  C,  Scarp  wall;  11,  Ditch  O.CouDter- 
icarp  ;  K,  t'overed-wuy  ;  F,  Kiubaiikmcnt  (if  covt-red-way.  u  b, 
rampart  slope  ;  b  c,  terrcplein  ;  c  (I,  haiiiini'tti'  nlope;  (i  e,  ban- 
quette tread;  of,  interior  Hlojie;  f.  interior  crest;  f  g,  superior- 
Biope ;  tj  h,  exterior  nlope ;  h  i,  benn  ;  k  r,  ulueiw. 

face  of  the  rampart,  b,c.  in  rear  of  the  parapet, 
termed  the  terre-plcin,  affords  the  troops  and  arma- 
ment a  convenient  position  for  circulation  from  point 
to  point,  where  they  are  sheltered  from  the  direct 
views  of  the  assailants'  tire.  The  rampart  is  usually 
terminated  on  the  interior,  a,b,  by  allowing  the  earth 
to  assume  its  natural  slope,  or  one  somewhat  less 
Bteep,  and  wliich  is  termed  the  rampart-slipe.  In 
cases  where  this  slope  would  take  up  too  much  of 
the  ground  within  the  defenses  it  is  replaced  by  a 
wall,  termed  the  parnde-wall,  which  rises  from  the 
level  of  the  interior  ground,  termed  the  parade,  to 
the  interior  line  of  the  terre-plein.  Inclined  planes  of 
earth,  termed  rampn,  lead  from  the  parade  to  the 
terre-plein. being  placed  against  the  rampart-slope,  or 
the  parade-wall.  The  ramps  are,  in  some  cases,  ter- 
minated, inwardly,  with  the  same  slope  as  that  of 
the  rampart :  in  others,  this  slope  is  replaced  by  a 
wall,  which  rises  to  the  top  surface  of  the  ramp,  or 
a  little  above  it.  The  essential  properties  of  the  par- 
apet are  to  afford  cover  to  the  troops  and  armament 
from  the  missiles  of  the  enemj-,  and  every  facility 
for  sweeping  his  positions  by  the  fire  of  its  artillery 
and  small-arms.  Its  form  and  dimensions  are  there- 
fore so  adjusted  as  to  fidfil  these  requirements.  The 
exterior  slope,  gh,  is  the  part  of  the  parapet  towards 
the  enemy;  it  is  usually  made  with  the  same  slope 
that  the  earth  when  first  thrown  up  naturally  takes. 
The  top  of  the  parapet,  fg,  called  the  superii/r  slope, 
is  the  line  along  which  the  assailed  fire  on  the  enemy. 
Its  inclination  is  generallj"  taken  at  \  that  is,  six 
base  to  one  perpendicular.  A  greater  slope  than 
this  would  make  tlie  portion  of  the  parapet  about 
the  interior  crest,  weaker,  and  less  would  not  so  well 
defend  the  ground  directly  in  front.  A  greater 
slope  would  be  attended  by  the  inconvenience  of 
firing,  under  a  greater  depression  than  ,!,  which 
would  necessitate  using  very  deep  embrasures  for 
the  guns  or  raising  the  platform  so  high  to  the  rear 
that  the  men  serving  the  guns  would  be  exposed 
to  tire.  The  interior  slope,  ef,  sometimes  called  tlie 
breaat  height,  is  tlie  part  against  which  the  assailed 
naturally  lean  in  the  act  of  tiring.  It  has  usually  a 
slope  of  f ,  three  perpendicular  to  one  base.  This  is 
a  result  of  experience,  being  the  most  convenient 
one   for  a  soldier  leaning  forward  to  fire  over  the 


parapet.  The  baru/uHte  is  a  sniull  terrace  on  which 
the  soldier  stands  wlien  tiring;  the  top  is  called  the 
trend, antX  tin-  inclined  phuii-  bv  which  ills  ascended, 
the  «/"/«.  'VUilrcwl  is  placeil  four  and  one-half  feet 
belo-.v  the  interior  crest  and  is  two  feet  wide.  This 
width  is  increased  when  more  than  one  rank  are  to 
use  it  or  where  other  causes  require  it.  The  ili>pe  of 
the  banquette  may  have  an  inclination  of  \,  or  ),oi 
may  be  replaced  by  steps.  The  Urre.pleiii  is  placed 
geiicTally  from  light  to  twelve  feet  below  the  interior 
crest  with  a  fall  to  the  rear  of  one  foot  to  drain  off 
the  surface-water. 

The  thickness  of  the  parapet,  which  is  estimated  by 
the  horizontal  distance  between  the  interior  and  ex- 
terior crests,  seldom  exceeded  twenty  feet.  Thi.s 
was  the  dimension  usually  given  in  European  con- 
structions of  important  works.  Experience  showed 
that  it  was  sutliciently  great  to  afford  protection 
against  the  fire  of  the  heaviest  guns  then  used.  At 
present,  the  profile  most  generally  adopted  for  this 
part  of  the  parapet  and  rampart  is  one  in  which  the 
portion  of  the  toj)  of  the  rampart,  for  a  distance  of  1.5 
feet  back  from  the  interior  crest,  is  held  on  a  level 
of  G}  feet  l)eIow  the  interior  crest  and  serves  as  a 
general  barbette  for  heavy  guns;  whilst  the  remain- 
ing portion  of  tln^  top  surface  is  placed  at  a  level  of 
eight  feet  below  the  interior  crest,  and  made  wide 
eiiough  to  serve  as  a  roadway  in  rear  of  the  general 
barbette;  the  two  levels  being  connected  by  a  slope 
of  j  or  \-,  and  the  roadway  receiving  a  slight  pitch 
to  the  rear  for  drainage.  In  tbe  later  profile,  the  in- 
terior slope  is  j ,  and  has  a  banquette  tread  of  only  2 
feet,  with  only  a  banquette  slope  of  only  }.  Where 
guns  are  mounted  either  in  barbette  or  embrasure, 
the  interior  slope  isincreased  to  \,  and  the  banquette 
and  its  .slope  removed;  the  earth  taken  off  by  these 
modifications  serving  to  form  the  merlons  between 
the  shallow  embrasures  cut  into  the  parapets.  When 
the  foot  of  the  exterior  slope  rests  on  the  top  of  the 
scarp  wall,  a  berm  of  two  feet  in  breadth  is  left  be- 
tween it  and  the  edge  of  the  coping.  This  breadth 
of  berm  is  objectionable,  as  giving  a  good  landing- 
place  for  a  scaling  party  in  an  open  assault;  and  it  is 
proposed,' when  the  work  is  in  danger  of  an  attack, 
to  reduce  the  berm  to  18  inches  or  one  foot,  by  in- 
creasing the  thickness  of  the  parapet  6  inches  or  one 
foot. 

Circumjacent  totherampart  a  wide  and  deep  ditch 
is  made,  which  from  its  position  and  proximity  to' 
the  parapet,  serves  the  double  purpose  of  increasing 
the  obstacle  which  the  enemy  must  surmount  before 
reaching  the  assailed,  and  of  furnishing  the  earth  to 
form  the  rampart,  parapet  and  glacis.  Its  width  and 
depth  will  depend  mainly  upon  the  amount  of  em- 
bankment required,  and  therefore  will  result  from 
the  calculation  for  equalizing  tbe  excavation  and 
embankment  which  these  demand.  It  has  been  the 
practice  to  make  the  main  ditch  when  dry,  from  20 
to  30  yards  wide,  and  from  30  to  45  yards  when  wet. 
These  dimensions  may  be  reduced  to  within  10  or  12 
yards  where  the  embankments  are  not  great  and  cir- 
cumstances are  unfavorable  to  an  attempt  at  escalade. 
The  bottom  of  the  ditch,  when  dry,  usually  receives 
a  slight  slope  from  the  foot  of  the  scarp  and  counter- 
scarp to  its  center,  where  a  small  drain,  termed  a 
eu7ietie.  is  dug  to  receive  the  surface  water  and  keep 
the  ditch  dry.  In  some  cases,  from  motives  of  econ- 
omy, the  difference  of  level  between  the  cunette 
andthefootof  the  counterscarp  wall  is  increased, 
thus  giving  a  less  height  of  wall. 

To  give  strength  and  durability,  the  faces  of  the 
ditch  arc  revetted  with  walls  of  masonry  which  sus- 
tain the  pressure  of  the  earth,  protect  them  from  the 
effects  of  the  weather,  and  by  their  height  and 
steepness  present  an  additional  obstacle  to  an  open 
assault.  The  wall  of  Inasonry  toward  the  rampart 
rises  to  the  level  of  the  foot  of  the  exterior  slope  of 
the  parapet,  sustaining  the  pressure  of  the  rampart 
and  the  parapet,  and  is  called  the  searp  trail  or  scarp 
revetment;  the  face  of  it  towards  the  ditch,  the  scarp. 


PEHMANENT  KANK. 


510 


PERPKNDICULAK  FORTIFICATION. 


The  line  in  which  the  face  of  the  scarp  wall  if  pro- 
longed would  intersect  the  upper  surface  of  the  cop- 
ing is  termed  Uie  magistral.  Tliis  is  a  very  import- 
ant line  in  drawing  the  plans  of  permanent  works, 
serving  as  the  directing  line  to  tix,  both  upon  the 
drawing  and  upon  the  ground,  in  setting  out  tlie 
work,  tlie  dimensions  and  relative  positions  of  all 
the  bounding  lines.  The  top  portion  of  the  coping, 
from  the  foot  of  the  exterior  slope  outwards,  is  termed 
the  Be>-m.  The  opposite  face  of  the  ditch  is  usually 
revetted  in  the  same  manner.  It  is  called  the  coun- 
terscarp wall,  and  its  face  towards  the  ditch,  the 
cimnUrscnrp. 

The  cmnmand  of  the  parapet  over  the  exterior 
ground  and  any  outworks  of  the  defenses,  its  relief, 
or  height  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  its 
height  above  the  top  of  the  scarp  wall,  are  all  points 
which  call  for  a  careful  consideration  on  the  part  of 
the  engineer  in  any  combination  of  these  that  he 
may  be  called  upon  to  make.  The  fire  over  the 
parapet  should  thoroughly  sweep  all  the  ground 
within  range,  at  least  up  to  the  glacis  crest ;  aud  the 
more  so  as  the  closer  the  assailant's  trenches  ap- 
proach the  work,  the  greater  will  be  the  plunge  ob- 
tained upon  them,  and  the  more  difficult  it  will  be 
for  the  assailant  to  cover  himself  by  his  trenches. 
The  parapet  should  command  all  outworks  within 
range  of  its  fire,  otherwise,  when  seized  by  the  as- 
sailant, these  outworks  would  have  a  plunging  fire 
upon  the  main  work.  The  relief  of  the  parapet  of  the 
fiimking  parts  of  the  work  should  be  sucli  that  every 
point  along  the  foot  of  the  scarp  wall  shall  be  swept 
by  its  fire.  This  supposes  also  a  certaiu  correlation 
between  the  relief  and  the  length  of  the  lines  flanked, 
so  that  this  condition  shall  be  satisfied ;  a  rela- 
tion that  can  always  be  easily  found,  either  by  cal- 
culation, or  by  geometrical  construction. 

The  width  anil  depth  of  tlie  ditch  also  call  for  a 
careful  consideration  on  the  part  of  the  etigineer.  A 
deep  aud  narrow  ditch  offers  the  advantage  of  pre- 
senting more  difficulty  to  the  assailant  in  reaching 
the  bottom  of  it,  either  in  an  open  assault,  or  by  a 
gallery  in  the  attack  by  regular  approaches,  thus  pro- 
longing the  defense.  It  masks  better  the  sally-ports 
from  the  enemy's  fire  by  allowing  them  to  be  placed 
so  low  that  the  projectiles  coming  over  the  counter- 
scarp cannot  reach  them.  In  like  manner  by  draw- 
ing in  the  crest  of  the  glacis  nearer  to  the  scarp  the 
latter  will  be  better  masked  by  it  from  the  plunge  of 
the  distant  fire  of  the  assailant's  batteries  ;  and  can- 
not be  breached  so  low  down  from  his  batteries 
placed  along  the  glacis  crest.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  the  ditch  is  narrow  and  deep  it  may  be  partly 
filled  by  breaching  the  scarp,  and  then  blowing  in 
the  counterscarp  so  as  by  the  united  debris  to  form 
an  easy  roadway  for  an  assaulting  column  to  enter 
the  work.  A  wide  ditch,  on  the  other  hand. requires 
more  labor  to  construct  the  trench  across  it  by  which 
the  assailant  can  reach  the  foot  of  the  breach  under 
cover.  This  is  a  consideration  of  some  importance 
in  wet  ditches,  where  tlie  assailant  is  obliged  to  con- 
struct a  dike  upon  which  the  parapet  of  his  cover  is 
placed. 

These  considerations  suggest  that  nothing  like  ab- 
solute rules  can  be  laid  down  so  as  to  give  a  routine 
character  to  the  practice  of  this  branch  of  the  mili- 
tary art.  The  rules  here  given  witli  respect  to  the 
form  and  dimensions  of  the  general  profile  of  the  en- 
ceinte are  founded  upon  reasons  growing  out  of  the 
nature  of  llie  (|ucstion,  and  as  sucli  bav(r  served  as 
guides  to  engineers  in  the  iiractice  of  tlieir  jirofes- 
sion.  As  they  have  stood  tlie  test  of  long  experience, 
it  is  safe  to  follow  tliem,  whilst  at  the  same  tinier  the 
engineer  should  not  hesitate  to  vary  from  them  wlieii 
satisfied,  after  careful  examination,  that  the  <'ase  be- 
fore him  re(inire8  it.  Fortification,  it  must  be  re- 
membered, is  like  all  other  arts.  It  lias  its  canons, 
which  are  founded  upon  the  nature  of  the  (|iieslion 
and  its  rules  of  practice  based  ujioii  these  and  upon 
experience.    Aa  the  latter  presents  to  the  Engineer 


newfacts,  his  practice  must  be  made  to  conform  to 
them  ;  but  the  general  principles  of  his  art  must  ever 
remain  the  same,  and  be  his  invariable  guide.  See 
Viiunterscarp  Wall,  Firrtification,  Frontier  Defense, 
Interior  Retrenchments,  Irregular  Sites,  and  /Scarp 
Wall. 

PERMANENT  RANK.-  A  rank  in  the  military  ser- 
vice which  does  not  cease  witli  any  particular  ser 
vice,  or  locality  of  circumstances;  in  opposition  to 
local  or  temporary  rank, 

PERMUTATIONS  AND  COMBINATIONS.— A  combi- 
nation, in  mathematics,  is  a  selection  of  a  number  of 
objects  from  a  given  set  of  objects,  without  any  re- 
gard to  the  order  in  which  they  are  placed.  The 
objects  are  called  elements,  and  the  combinations 
are  divided  into  classes,  according  to  the  number  of 
elements  in  each.  Let  the  given  elements  be  the 
four  letters  a,  b.  c,  d;  the  binary  combinations  or  se- 
lections of  two  are  ab,  or,  ad,  be,  bd,  ed — six  in  all; 
the  combinations  of  three  are  abc,  abd,  acd,  bed — four 
in  all;  while  there  is  only  one  combination  of  four, 
namely,  abed. 

Permutation,  again,  has  reference  to  the  order  of 
arrangement ;  thus,  the  two  elements  a  and  b  may 
stand  ab  or  ba,  so  that  every  combination  of  two 
gives  two  permutations;  the  three  elements  a,  b,  and 
c  may  stand  abc,  acb,  bac,  bca,  cab,  cba,  one  combina- 
tion of  three  thus  affording  six  permutations.  The 
combinations  of  any  order  with  all  their  permutations 
are  called  the  variations.  Formulas  are  given  in 
works  of  algebra  for  calculating  the  number  of  per- 
mutations or  combinations  in  any  given  case.  Suppose 
seven  projectiles  marked  1,  2,  3,  to  7,  and  that  two 
are  to  be  drawn;  if  it  is  asked  how  many  possible 
pairs  of  projectiles  there  are  this  is  a  question  of  the 
number  of  combinations  of  seven  elements,  tm>  to- 
gether, which  is  found  to  be  21.  If  we  want  to  know 
how  many  times  the  same  seven  persons  could  serve 
at  a  piece  of  artillery,  with  a  different  arrangement 
each  time,  this  is  to  ask  how  many  permutations 
seven  objects  admit  of,  and  the  formula  gives  7x6x 
5x4x3x8=5,040.  The  theory  of  probabilities  is 
founded  on  the  laws  of  combination.  Thus,  in 
the  case  of  drawing  two  tickets  out  of  seven, 
since  there  are  21  possible  pairs,  the  chance  or 
probability  of  drawing  any  particular  pair  is  1  in 
21,or2\.  In  working  out  questions  in  "combina- 
tions," advantage  is  often  taken  of  the  fact  that 
whatever  number  of  elements  be  taken  from  a  group 
to  form  a  combination,  the  number  left  gives  the 
same  number  of  combinations;  thus  the  number  of 
combinations  of  10  elements  three  together,  is  the 
same  as  that  of  10  elements  seten  together,  etc. 

PERPENDICULAR.— A  straight  line  standing  on  an- 
other straight  line  is  said  to  be  perpendicular  to  that 
other  when  the  angles  it  makes  on  both  sides  are  equal. 
A  line  is  said  to  be  perpendicular  to  a  plane  when  it 
is  at  right  angles  to  any  line  in  that  plane  meeting  it. 
Planes  are  said  to  be  perpendicular  to  each  other 
when  any  line  in  the  one  plane  perpendicular  to  their 
common  line  of  intersection  is  also  perpendicular  to 
all  lines  meeting  it  in  the  other  plane.  The  word 
"perpendicular,"  in  common  usage  refers  to  a  di- 
rection at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of  still  water, 
and  is  synonymous  with  vertical. 

PERPENDICULAR  DIRECTION.— In  the  march  of  a 
line,  the  direction  at  right  angles  to  the  line  which 
each  man  should  take  in  a  direct  movement  to  the 
front.  Without  the  strictest  attention  is  paid  to  this 
essential  principle  in  all  movements,  the  greatest  ir- 
regidarity,  and  ultimately  the  greatest  confusion, 
must  ensue.  Perpendicular  and  parallel  movements 
constitute,  indeed,  the  whole  .system  of  good  march- 
ing. When  several  columns,  divisions,  or  companies 
advance,  the  lines  and  directi;ins  of  marching  must 
be  strictly  perjieiidicular  and  parallel  to  each  oilier, 
otlierwise  llie  dislanci'  will  be  lost,  and  the  ultimate 
object  (if  fiirminn'  a  correct  line  must  be  defeated. 

PERPENDICULAR  FORTIFICATION.-  This  system 
of  fortification  owes  its  origin  to  the  Marquis   do 


PERRIERE. 


511 


PEE80NAL  8EEVICE. 


Monliilcinlxrl,  a  (iislinjiuiMlicd  Frfncli  Ofiicrnl,  who 
publiHiicd  his  work  iipun  llic  subjcci  in  1770.  Viiii- 
bmi  Imd,  it  was  adiniltcd,  rciicli-nci  lljc  art  of  attack 
Bui)(Tior  to  tliat  of  (lcfins<'.  Mimliilc  miIutI  xtrovi'  to 
reverse  tliiH  relation,  and  in  his  endeavorn,  rejecterl 
onlirclv  the  lianlion  sysleni  of  the  older  r-ni;ineers. 
Instead  of  the  occasional  bastions,  with  intervcniiif; 
curtains,  Willi  which  I he_v  surrounded  their  tncrinte, 
}iu  broke  the  whole  polyi^on  into  sali<'nl  and  re-entcr- 
inj;  an;j;Ics,  the  latter  lieinn  ijenerally  rii^ht  an;;les. 
Before  the  connected  reilans  thus  formed  were  coiin- 
ter-!;nards  of  low  elevation  anil  ravelins,  to  which 
the  a|)|iroa<hes  were  throutth  cas<'nialed  w;w«7j/r7'(?«. 
In  the  salient  a  .irle  of  eacji  redan,  he  built  a  l>rick 
tower,  40  feet  in  dianieliT,  twelve-sided,  and  four 
Stories  high.  The  se<-ond  aud  third  tiers  were  l)inlt 
for  heavy  gmis,  and  \\w  upper  loopholed  for  musket- 
ry. In  the  center  of  the  lower  was  a  circular  reduH, 
intended  as  a  last  refuge  for  the  garrison.  Monta- 
lembert  maintained  that  from  these  towers  every 
possible  api)roach  could  be  commanded,  which  to  a 
great  extent  is  true;  but  it  must  be  also  remembered 
that  the  greater  sjiacc  a  gun  commands,  by  so  much 
the  more  is  it  raised  above  the  jilain,  and  rendered 
visible.  These  towers  would  have  little  chance 
against  the  rilled  ordnance  of  the  present  day.  Mon- 
talcmbert's  system  was  violently  attacked  by  tlie 
French  engineers.  hutCaruot  subse((ucntly  adopted 
it,  with  some  modifications,  and  it  enters  largely  into 
the  modern  (ierman  defensive  works.  The  system 
lias  never,  however,  found  favor  with  British  engin- 
eers. 

PERRIERE.— The  early  bombards  being  very  un- 
satisfactory, to  economize  the  ai  tion  of  the  powder, 
and  give  a  more  accurate  direction  to  the  projectile. 


the  interior  space,  or  bore,  was  made  nearly  cylin- 
drical, from  4  to  M  calibers  long;  it  was  terminated 
at  the  bottom  by  a  very  narrow  and  deep  chamber. 
the  object  of  which  was  to  increase  the  effect  of  the 
powder,  by  retarding  the  escape  of  the  gas  before  it 
acted  on  the  projectile.  These  cannon  were  further 
improved  by  making  the  bores  perfectly  cylindrical; 
and  were  called  perrhren,  from  the  fact  "that  they 
fired  stone  balls.  They  were  princiiially  employed 
to  breach  stone  walls,  and  for  this  purpose  were  tired 
horizontally.     See  Bmnhtrd. 

PERSIAN  "WHEEL.— A  contrivance  for  raising 
water  from  a  well  or  stream,  and  used  in  the  coun- 
try from  which  it  takes  its  name.  It  is  also  exten- 
sively used  in  Egypt,  where  it  is  known  as  the  ,««- 
guteh,  in  nothern  India,  in  the  Punjab,  in  Sinde,  and 
also  in  Spain  as  the  ntiria.  It  consists  of  a  wheel, 
about  4  feet  in  diameter,  revolving  on  a  wooden  axle, 
which  is  flush  with  the  mouth  of  the  well,  and  is  .set 
in  motion  by  means  of  a  driving  wheel  turned  by  a 
pair  of  bullocks.  The  wheel  has  on  its  rim  pins"  of 
wood  inserted  into  it,  at  sliort  distances  apart,  to 
which  buckets  or  jars  are  suspended  by  means  of  an 
endless  band  or  double  rope;  the  buckets  descend  on 
one  side  into  the  well  and  ascend  on  the  other  tilled 
with  water,  and  discharge  themselves  into  a  reser- 
voir at,  the  mouth  of  the  well.  The  Persian  wlieel, 
used  for  raising  water  from  a  stream  instead  of  a 
well,  has  the  buckets  somewhat  differently  arranged 
for  lifting  the  water,  but  the  principle  is  the  same. 

PERSONAl  SALUTES.— Civil  and  diplomatic  au- 
thorities receive  salutes  as  follows  :  The  President  of 
the  United  States  receives  a  salute,  to  be  given  both 
on  his  arrival  at  and  final  departure  from  a  military 
post  or  station  provided  with  artillery,  of  21  guns. 
The  Vice  President  of  the  United  States,  19  guns. 
Members   of   the  Cabinet,   the     Chief  Justice^   the 


Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  the  Gov. 
(•mors  within  their  respective  Stales  or  Territories, 
17  guns.  A  Commitli'f!  of  Congress  ottlcially  visiting 
a  mililary  post  or  station,  17  guns.  The  Sovereign 
or  Chief  jMagislrate  of  a  foreign  Stale,  to  be  given 
both  on  arrival  at  and  final  depiirlnnr  from  a  mili- 
tary post  or  station  provided  with  artillery,  21  guns. 
Memliers  of  the  Itoyal  Family,  i.  /-.,  the  Heir-apjiar- 
ent  and  Consort  of  the  reignuig  Sovereign  of  a  for- 
eign Slate,  21  guns.  The  Viceroy,  Governor-Gener- 
al, or  Governors  of  Provinces  belonging  to  foreign 
Slates,  17  guns.  Ambassadors  Extraordinary  and 
Plenipotentiary  17  guns.  Envoys  Extraordinary  and 
.Ministers  I'lenipolentiary,  1.5  guns.  Ministers  I{es- 
ident  accredited  to  the  United  States,  l.'J  guns.  Char- 
ges d'  Affaires,  or  suborrlinale  diplomatic  agents  left 
in  charge  of  missions  in  the  United  States,  11  guns. 
Consuls-General  accredited  to  the  United  Slates.  !» 
guns. 

Military  and  naval  officers  receive  salutes  as  fol- 
lows: The  Gcni-ral-in-Chief,  Field  Marshal,  or  Ad- 
miral, 17  guns.  Lieutenant  General  or  Vice  Admiral, 
\r,  guns.  Major  General  or  Rear  Admiral,  IH  guns! 
Brigadier  General  or  Commodore,  11  guns.  t)(ticers 
of  volunteers  and  militia,  only  wlien  in  the  service  of 
the  United  States,  the  salute  s"pecified  for  their  rank. 
Oltirers  of  foreign  services  visiting  anv  military  post 
or  station  provided  with  artillery,  are"  saluted  "in  ac- 
cordance with  their  rank. 

Ill  addition  to  the  foregoing,  occasions  of  a  public 
nature  frequently  arise  when  salutes  are  both  desir- 
able and  proi)er.  Orders  will  govern  in  such  cases. 
Personal  salutes  are,  however,  strictly  confined  to 
the  foregoing,  and  are  fired  but  once,  unless  other- 
wise specified.  The  President  of  the  United  Slates, 
the  Sovereign  or  Chief  Magistrate  of  a  foreiirn  coun- 
try traveling  in  a  public  capacity,  is  saluted  when 
jKixxing  in  the  vicinity  of  a  military  post.  A  vessel- 
of-war  on  which  the  President  of  the  United  States 
is  traveling  displays  the  nationel  ensign  at  the  main. 
In  the  case  of  foreign  sovereigns,  vessels  diplay  the 
royal  standard  of  the  sovereign  in  like  manner." 

Personal  salutes,  in  compltment  to  foreign  diplo- 
matic authorities, are  to  be  fired  onlvfor  thosewho.se 
nations  pay  the  same  compliments'to  United  Slates 
diplomatic  ministers  in  their  territories.  Personal 
salutes  at  the  same  place  and  in  compliment  to  the 
same  person,  whether  civil,  diplomatic,  mililarv,  or 
naval,  are  never  to  be  tired  oftener  than  on("e'  in 
twelve  months,  unless  such  person  shall  have  been, 
in  the  meantime,  advanced  in  rank.  Olficers  on  the 
retired  list,  whether  military  or  naval,  are  not  to  be 
saluted.  This,  however,  does  not  apply  to  funeral 
ceremonies.  An  officer,  whether  civil,  ofmilitary.or 
naval,  holding  two  or  more  positions,  either  of 
which  entitles  him  to  a  salute,  receives  only  the  sa- 
lute due  to  the  highest  grade.  In  no  event  is"the  same 
person  to  be  saluted  in  more  than  one  capacity. 
When  several  persons,  each  of  whom  is  entitled  lo"a 
salute,  arrive  together  at  a  post,  the  one  hiirhest  in 
rank  or  position  is  alone  saluted.  If  they  arrive  suc- 
cessively, each  is  saluted  in  turn.  An  o"fficer  a.ssimi- 
ed  to  duty  according  to  brevet  rank  receives  lhe"sa- 
lute  due  to  the  full  rank  of  the  grade  to  which  he  has 
been  assigned.  As  a  rule,  a  personal  salute  is  to  be 
fired  when  the  personage  entitled  to  it  enters  the  post. 
When  the  troops  at  a  military  post  are  to  be  review- 
ed by  a  personage  entitled  to"  a  salute,  it  is  most  ap- 
propriate to  tire  the  salute  from  tield  guns  at  the 
place  of  review  ;  and  at  the  time,  just  previous  to 
the  review,  when  the  personage  arrives  on  the 
ground.     See  Sdbttf.s. 

"  PERSONAL  SERVICE.— The  term  "  Permnal  f^.er- 
vi'c€s,"  employed  in  section  3,70.5,  Revised  Statutes, 
means  services  which  are  contracted  for  because  of 
some  special  confidence  reposed  in  the  person  who 
is  to  render  them,  based  upon  his  supposed  peculiar 
fitness  as  an  expert,  and  irrespective  generally  of 
his  pecuniary  or  any  other  resources;  such,  for  in- 
stance, as  the  services  of  a  Civil  Engineer  or  Sur- 


PERSONNEL. 


512 


PEBSPECTIVE. 


veyor,a  Lawyer  or  Surgeon, Telcsraph  Operator,  etc. 

No  person  belongins;  to,  or  employed  in,  tlie  mil- 
itary service  of  the  United  States  shall,  in  behalf  of 
the  United  States,  purchase  from  any  other  such 
person,  or  make  any  contract  with  such  person  to 
furnish  supplies  or  services ;  nor  make  any  purchase 
or  contract  in  which  such  person  shall  be  admitted 
to  any  share  or  part,  or  to  any  benefit  to  arise  there- 
from. 

No  person  belonging  to,  or  employed  in,  the  mili- 
tary service  of  the  United  States  shall  be  pecuniarily 
interested,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  the  purchase  or 
sale,  on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  of  any  article 
appertaining  to  such  service ;  nor  shall  take,  receive, 
or  apply  to  his  own  use  any  gain  or  emolument,  un- 
der the  guise  of  presents  or  otherwise,  for  negotiat- 
ing or  transacting  any  public  business,  other  than 
what  is  or  may  be  allowed  by  law. 

PKESONNEL. — In  speaking  of  an  army,  this  term 
represents  the  officers  and  soldiers,  as  opposed  to  the 
Materiel,  in  which  are  comprised  the  gims,  provis- 
ions, wagons,  and  stores  of  every  description.  The 
Personnel  of  a  Battery  comprises  all  the  off.cers  and 
men  necessary  for  the  maneuvering,  management, 
anil  care  of  a  battery. 

PERSPECTIVE.— The  art  of  representing  natural 
objects  upon  a  plane  surface  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  representation  shall  affect  the  eye  in  the  same 
way  as  the  objects  themselves.  The  distance  and 
position  of  objects  affect  both  their  distinctness  and 
apparent  form,  giving  rise  to  a  subdivision  of  per- 
spective into  linear  peritpective-vih\c\\,&s,  its  name  de- 
notes, considers  exclusively  the  effect  produced  by 
the  position  and  distance  of  the  observer  upon  the 
apparent  form  and  grouping  of  objects  ;  while  eierial 
perspective  confines  itself  to  their  distinctness,  as 
modified  by  distance  and  light.  The  necessity  of  at- 
tending to  the  principles  of  perspective  in  all  pictor- 
ial drawing  is  apparent  when  we  consider,  for  in- 
stance, that  a  circle,  wlien  seen  obliquely,  appears 
to  be  not  a  circle,  but  an  ellipse,  with  its  shortest 
diameter  in  line  with  the  spectator  audits  longest  at 
right  angles  to  this.  A  square,  when  looked  at  from 
a  position  opposite  the  center  of  one  of  its  sides,  ap- 
pears as  a  trapezoid,  the  sides  which  are  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  direction  of  the  vision  appearing  to  be  par- 
allel, while  the  other  two  appear  to  converge  to  a 
point  in  front  of  the  spectator,  etc.  For  the  same 
reason,  two  rows  of  parallel  pillars  of  equal  height, 
seen  from  a  point  between  and  equidistant  from  each 
row,  appear  not  only  to  converge  at  the  further  end, 
but  to  become  gradually  smaller  and  smaller.  An 
excellent  idea  of  a  perspective  plan  can  be  easily  ob- 
tained by  interposing  a  vertical  transparent  plane  (as 


observance  of  which  painters  may  be  enabled  to 
produce  an  effect  true  to  nature.  After  the  "scope" 
(t.  f.,  the  number  of  objects  to  be  introduced,  and 
the  distance  at  which  they  are  to  be  viewed;  of  the 
picture  has  been  determined,  and  before  the  design 
is  commenced,  it  is  necessary  to  draw  upon  the  per- 
spective plan  three  lines:  1.  The  base  line,  ot  ground 
line,  which  limits  the  sketch  towards  the  operator, 
and  is  the  base  line  of  the  picture.  3.  The  lioriziintal 
line,  which  represents  the  ordinary  position  of  the 
sensible  horizon.  The  height  of  the  liorizontal  line 
is  about  one-third  of  the  height  of  the  picture,  when 
the  sketcher  is  placed  at  or  a  little  above  the  level 
of  the  horizon  ;  but  it  may  rise  in  a  degree  corres- 
ponding to  his  increase  of  elevation  till  it  reaches 
near  to  the  top  of  the  perspective  plan.  The  gen- 
eral rule  is  to  have  a  high  horizontal  line  when  the 
view  is  taken,  or  supposed  to  be  taken,  from  an  emi- 
nence; but  when  the  station  is  on  a  level,  either 
actual  or  assumed,  as  is  the  case  when  a  statue  or  a 
mountainous  landscape  is  figured,  the  horizontal 
line  must  be  low.  The  horizontal  line  in  nearly  all 
cases  is  supposed  to  be  level  with  the  spectator's 
cj'e.  3.  The  vertical  line,  which  is  drawn  from  the 
supposed  position  of  the  sketcher,  perpendicular  to 
the  ground  and  liorizontal  lines,  meeting  the  latter  in 
a  point  which  is  called  the  point  of  sight,  or  center 
of  the  picture.  The  vertical  line  has  no  representa- 
tive in  nature,  and  is  merely  a  mechanical  adjunct 
to  the  construction  of  the  picture,  all  vertical  lines 
in  nature  being  parallel  to  it  in  the  picture.  The 
point  of  sight,  being  the  point  directly  opposite  to 
the  observer,  is  properly  placed  in  the  center  of  the 
picture,  for  it  is  most  natural  that  the  view  should 
lie  symmetrically  on  each  side  of  the  principal 
visual  line  ;  but  this  is  not  by  any  means  a  universal 
rule,  for  we  very  frequently  find  it  on  the  right  or 
left  side,  but  always,  of  course,  on  the  horizontal 
line.  All  lines  which  in  nature  are  perpendicular  to 
the  ground  line,  or  to  a  vertical  plane  which  is 
raised  upon  it  as  a  base,  meet  in  the  point  of  sight, 
which  is  thus  their  vanishing  point  (see  the  line  of 
the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  pillars  in  Fig.  1).  The 
points  of  distance  are  two  points  in  the  horizontal 
line  on  each  side  of  the  point  of  sight,  and  in  a 
"direct"  sketch  are  at  a  distance  from  it  equal  to 
the  horizontal  distance  of  the  sketcher's  eye  from 
the  ground  line.  The  equality  of  distance  of  these 
points  from  the  point  of  sight  is  not,  however, 
necessary,  as  it  occurs  only  in  those  cases  where  the 
lines,  of  which  Ibe  points  of  distance  are  the  vanish- 
ing points,  are  inclined  (in  nature)  at  an  angle  of 
45°  to  the  base  line  ;  but,  in  all  cases,  the  two  points 
of   distance  are   about  twice  as  far  apart  as   the 


Fig.  1.— Illustrating  the  more  important  points 

of  glass — a  window,  for  instance)  between  the  ob- 
server and  the  objects  of  his  vision,  and  supposing 
that  the  oljjects  he  sees  are  not  seen  thnnigh  the  glass, 
but  painted  on  it.  A  sketch  made  on  a  glass  plane 
in  this  position,  by  following  with  a  pencil  all  the 
lines  and  shades  of  the  objects  seen  through  it,  the 
eye  being  all  tlie  tinu;  kept  (|uite  steady,  would  form 
a  picture  in  perfect  perspective.  In  practice,  how- 
ever, it  is  found,  unfortunately,  that  the  ghiss  is  not 
a  suitable  material  for  sketching  on,  and  that  tlie 
vertical  position  is  not  tlie  most  convenient ;  it  is 
tlierefore  preferable  to  make  a  careful  study  of  the 
elTects  produced  by  change  of  position  and  distance 
on  the  appearand!  of  olijects  in  nature,  and  from 
the  results  of  this  to  compile  a  body  of  rules,  by  the 


ond  lines;  PVR  ie  ihe  principal  and  visual  rny. 

eye  is  from  the  picture.  One  important  use  of 
the  points  of  distance  is  to  define  the  distance  of 
objects  in  a  row  (Fig.  1)  from  each  other.  For  this 
purpose  two  poiuts  of  distance  are  not  necessary,  as 
when  the  position  of  one  pillar  is  found,  that  of  the 
opposite  is  at  once  obtained  by  drawing  a  line 
parallel  to  the  base  or  ground  line.  We  have  seen 
that  the  point  of  sight  is  the  vanishing  point  of  all 
level  lines  which  meet  tlie  ground  line  or  a  vertical 
plaIl(^  on  it  at  riglit  angles,  and  tliat  the  points  of 
distance  (in a  direct  picture)  arc  the  vanishing  points 
of  all  lines  which  cut  the  ground  line  at  an  angle  of 
Vi'^  ;  but  there  are  many  other  groups  of  parallel 
lines  in  a  picture  wliicli  have  dilTereut  situations, 
and  therefore  different  vanishing  points.     Such  lines 


PETAED. 


5U 


PETTMAH-FUaOE. 


with  tlipir  vani.iliinK  pointH  Cnillccl  for  diHtinction's 
snke,  arcidental  jioinlH)  arc  rrprcsciiicd  in  Fii;.  2.  If 
ihf  lU'cidenliil  point  is  above  tli(^  horizontal  linr-,  It 
is  nillcil  tlic  n^ri(h'iil(il  piiiitt  dcriiil  if  l»'low,  the 
amiltntiil ]ii>liU  lirrentridl;  anil  a  lillli-  consideration 
muki'M  it  evident  that  these  points  may  or  may  not 
be  situated  within  the  plane  of  the  jiieturc.  Such 
are  the  |)oinls  and  lines  necessary  for  th(^  construc- 
tion of  a  plan  in  true  iKTspective;  and  from  the 
above  cxiilanalion,  we  may  deduce  the  two  ujeneral 
principles;  1.  Tlial  all  parallel  straii;ht  lines  in 
nature  are  no  longer  jiarallel  when  ])roje(led  on  the 
pers])ective  plane,  but  nu'ctin  a  i)oint  which  is  called 
the  vanishing  ])oinl,  and  issomeoneof  tli(!  three  above 
described,  unless  these  lines  happen  to  be  also  paralh'l 
to  the  ground  line  or   llie  vertical  line,  in  wlueli 


Milan  ('1440), whose  body  of  rules  was  extended  and 
coiiiplelerl  by  Peruz/.i  and  Ubaldi  about  IfiOO. 

PETARD.  An  instrument  for  blfiwinj;  open  f^nloH, 
dcMiolishinix  [lalisades,  etc.  It  consists  of  a  lialf-cone 
of  thick  iron  tilled  with  jiowderand  ball ;  this  is  (irm- 
ly fastened  to  a  plank,  and  the  latter  is  provided  with 
hooks,  to  allow  of  its  beinn  attached  securely  to  a 
f!;ate,<rtc.  The  Petardii-rs  attaclied  the  petard,  liirhted 
the  slow-match  by  which  it  was  to  be  fired,  and  fled. 
When  the  e\[)losion  took  etrect  a  supportinj?  column 
charijed  tliroii^rh  the  bn-arh,  while  the  defenders 
were  yet  in  consternation.  The  petard  has  been  al- 
most universally  superseded  by  the  use  of  powder- 
bags.  Large  petards  contained  as  much  as  13  lbs. 
of  powder.  Various  curious  devices  were  employed, 
in  ancient  times  for  preventing  the  close  propinquity 


/ 


V  f  ^..-.e- 


H.L.. 


— "W.,U,jj^.j,^.___ 


CL. 


Fig.  2. — The  lines  O  O  converge  to  tlie  accidentnl  point  aerial,  and  P  P  to  the  accidental  point  terreetrial. 


case  they  remain  parallel  wiien  transferred  to  the 
picture  ;  and  2.  That  since  the  bodies  drawn  below 
the  horizontal  line  arc  seen  as  if  from  above,  those 
above  as  if  from  below,  and  those  to  t!ie  right  and 
left  of  the  point  of  sight  as  if  observed  from  the 
left  and  right,  it  follows,  that  straight  lines  which  in 
the  picture  are  above  the  horizontal  line  lower  them- 
selves, and  those  below  raise  themselves  to  it ;  those 
to  the  left,  foUovving  the  same  law,  direct  themselves 
to  the  right,  and  tice  verm.  Aerial  ptrspeftive,  con- 
sists in  a  modulation  of  the  brightness  and  colors  of 
objects  in  accordance  with  the  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere, tiie  depth  of  the  body  in  the  perspective 
plane  {i.e.,  distance  in  nature  from  the  ground  line), 
and  other  accidents  of  place  and  time.  As  the  dis- 
tance of  objects  increases,  their  illuminated  parts 
are  made  less  brilliant,  and  their  shaded  parts  more  j 
feeble.  The  bluish  tint  imparted  by  a  large  mass  of 
the  atmosphere  to  the  bodies  seen  through  it,  is  fre- 
quently imitated  by  the  mixing  of  a  slight  tint  of  [ 
blue  with  the  colors  to  be  applied  :  a  yellow  object  , 
thus  assumes  a  greenish  tint;  a  red  one  a  violet  tint, 
etc.  The  air,  when  charged  with  vapor,  is  repre- 
sented by  a  diminution  of  the  brightness  of  colors, 
and  by  the  grayish  tint  imjiarted  to  them.  But  in  I 
this  part  of  the  subject  rules  are  of  Utile  avail,  for  | 
experience  alone  can  guide  the  painter  in  faithfully  ] 
cop3'ing  the  myriad  aspects  presented  by  nature.  A 
thorough  knowledge  of  perspective  is  a  xine  quanrm 
to  the  painter  or  designer,  and  tliough  many  are  in- 
clined to  tliink  it  a  superfluity,  and  that  the  sketcher 
has  only  to  make  use  of  his  e_vcs,  and  copy  justly, 
the  very  fact  that  such  is  their  opinion  shows  that 
they  have  never  made  the  attempt :  for  it  is  impossi- 
ble for  the  painter,  and  much  more  so  for  the  de- 
signer, to  execute  a  copy  of  nature  with  sufficient 
accuracy  by  the  sole  aid  of  the  eye  and  hand,  a  fact 
that  is  unfortunately  much  too  frequently  proved  b)' . 
mam*  of  the  sketches  exhibited  in  tine-art  collec- 
tions. Perspective  was  known  to  the  ancients,  but 
seems  to  have  become  extinct  during  the  disturb- 
ance"!  that  convulsed  Italy,  and  was  revived  by  Al- 
bert Dri'irer,  Pietro  del  Horgo,   and  Bramantino  of 


between  the  petard  and  the  gate  ;  one  of  the  most 
curious  of  which  was  a  kindof  enormous  rat  gin, set 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  close  at  once  on  the  petard 
and  the  soldiers  apnlying  it. 

PETARDS.—  In  pyrotechny.  small  paper  cases  filled 
with  powder.  One  end  is  entirely  closed,  and  the 
other  has  only  a  small  hole  left  for  a  piece  of  quick- 
match,  to  communicate  tire  to  the  powder.  Petards 
are  placed  at  the  bottom  of  lances:  thej- are  also  used 
to  imitate  the  fire  of  musketrj-.     See  Firein/rk.i. 

PETAUDIEES.— A  name  anciently  given  to  the 
foot-troops  armed  with  Cranequinx. 

PETERERO. — A  term  formerly  applied  to  a  very- 
short  piece  of  chambered  ordnance.  Also  written 
I'eiln  ro. 

PETRONEL. — A  firearm  between  a  carbine  and  a 
pistol  (with  a  wheel-lock),  which  was  used  bv  the 
French  during  the  reign  of  Francis  I.:  it  wasYired 
resting  against  the  breast — hence  its  name.  To  pre- 
vent any  injury  from  its  recoil,  the  soldier  who  used 
it  was  provided  with  a  pad.  Also  written  Petrijial 
and  P'litriiinl. 

PETTAH.— In  southern  India,  a  term  applied  to 
the  Enceinte  of  a  town,  as  distinguished  from  the 
fortress  hv  which  it  is  protected. 

PETTMAN-FUSE.— This  fuse  consists  of  the  fol- 


lowing parts:  A,  body  :  B,  top-plu":  C.  plain  ball; 
D,  steadv'  plug;  E.  detonating  ball:  F,  cone  plug; 
G,  lead  cup :  and  H,  suspending  wire.  The  steaily 
and  top  plugs  are  cupped  in  the  center  to  receive 


PEWTER. 


514 


PHOSPHOR-BEONZE. 


the  small  plain  ball  of  brass  wire  which  hohls  them 
apart ;  and  to  prevent  the  ball  adhering  from  cor- 
rosion, the  cups  are  slightly  larger  in  diameter  than 
the  ball.  Round  the  top  of  the  stead}-  plug  runs  a 
groove  tilled  with  detonating  composition,  and  two 
fire-holes  pass  from  the  composition  down  through 
the  plug. 

The  composition  in  the  annular  groove  is  covered 
with  thin  sheet  brass.  The  detonating  ball,  which 
is  coated  with  composition,  is  covered  with  two  hol- 
low hemispheres  of  sheet-copper,  and  over  these 
with  silk.  The  cone  plug  (not  at  present  coned)  has 
three  fire-holes  and  is  supported  by  a  copper  wire 
which  passes  through  the  tube :  but  the  hollow  of 
the  latter  is  enlarged  below  the  wire  to  prevent  its 
being  choked.  The  lead  cup  (pure  lead)  does  not 
Test  on  the  bottom  of  the  fuse,  but  is  supported  at 
the  top  on  a  shoulder  on  the  cone  plug. 

The  detonating  composition  in  the  steady  plug 
and  on  the  detonating  ball  consists  of — 

Parts. 

Chlorate  of  potash 13 

Sulphide  of  antimonj' 13 

Sulphur 1 

Mealed  powder 1 

On  the  discharge  of  the  gun  the  suspending  wire 
is  broken  and  the  lead  cup  crushed  in  consequence 
of  the  inertia  of  cone  and  steady  plugs  and  of  balls, 
which  do  not  move  instantaneously  with  the  fuse 
and  lead  cup;  sufficient  space  is  therefore  left  for  the 
disengagement  of  the  balls,  and  on  impact  the  fuse 
ignited  by  the  concussion  of  the  detonating  ball  on 
the  inside  of  the  body,  or  by  the  plain  ball  on  the 
composition  in  the  groove  of  the  steady  plug,  which 
continuing  to  move,  after  the  sudden  check  to  the 
motion  of  the  fuse,  presses  the  plain  ball  between 
itself  and  the  top  plug.     See  Fuae. 

PEWTER. — A  common  and  very  useful  alloy  of 
the  metals,  tin  and  lead.  Two  other  kinds  of  pewter 
have  a  more  compound  character.  Common,  or 
ley-peieter,  consists  of  4  parts  of  tin  and  1  part  of 
lead;  plate-peater  is  made  of  100  parts  of  tin,  8  parts 
of  antimony,  2  parts  each  of  bismuth  and  copper; 
another  kind,  called  trifle,  is  composed  of  83  parts 
of  tin  and  17  parts  of  antimony.  Although  these  are 
the  standard  formulas,  each  kind  is  often  much 
varied  to  suit  the  purposes  of  the  manufacturer;  the 
chief  alteration  being  the  addition  of  a  large  propor- 
tion of  lead  to  the  last,  and  a  large  increase  of  the 
same  metal  in  the  other  two. 

PFEIL. — The  German  name  of  the  arrow  for  the 
long  bow. 

PHALANX.— The  ancient  Greek  formation  for 
heavy  infantry,  which  won  for  itself  a  reputation  of 
invincibility,  may  be  described  as  a  line  of  parallel 
columns,  rendered  by  its  depth  and  solidity  capable 
of  penetrating  any  line  of  troops.  The  oldest  pha- 
lanx was  the  Lacedaemonian  or  Spartan,  in  which  the 
soldiers  stood  eight  deep;  the  Athenian  phalanx  had 
been  the  same,  until,  at  the  battle  of  Marathon  (480 
B.C.)  Miltiades  reduced  the  depth  to  four  men  in  or- 
<ier  to  increase  liis  front.  When  Bpaminondas  or- 
jianized  the  Theban  army  against  Sparta,  he  felt  that 
the  Spartan  line  of  battle  would  be  impregnable  to 
troops  organized  in  their  own  manner.  He  there- 
fore increased  the  depth  and  lessened  the  front  of  his 
phalanx,  which  enabled  him  to  burst  through  the 
Spartan  line,  inflicting  the  sanguinarj-  defeat  of  Le- 
uctra  (371  u.c).  Philip  of  Macedon  had  learned  the 
Art  of  War  under  Epaminondas,  and  when  he  re- 
solved to  nuike  his  state  a  military  power,  he  formed 
the  celeliralcd  Mareiionian  |)halanx  (;i5!t  D.r. ),  which 
•enabled  him  to  conquer  Greece,  and  wilh  wliich  his 
son  Alexander  s\ibdued  the  Eastern  World.  The 
Macedonian  phalanx,  as  the  latest  form  tliat  organi- 
zation assumed,  and  as  the  shape  in  which  the  pha- 
lanx encountered  the  military  skill  of  the  West,  is  de- 
serving of  description.  The  line  was  10  deep;  a 
grand-phalanx  (omprising  l<',.;iH4 //"/)i?/te<,  or  heavy- 
armed  soldiers,  subdivided  as  follows:  tlie  granil- 


pha'anx  composed  of  four  phalanxes  or  divisions, 
eacli  under  a  General  Officer,  called  a  I'Jialangarcli ; 
his  command  was  divided  into  two  brigades  or  Mer- 
archien  (sometimes  called  Te!arehie.i),  each  of  these 
comprising  two  regiments,  or  Cliiliarclii-eH,  of  four 
battalions  or  Syntagmata  each.  A  Syntogina  an- 
swered accurately  to  a  modem  battalion,  except  that 
it  was  smaller.  It  was  a  perfect  square,  with  16  men 
each  way,  was  commanded  by  a  Syntiigmatarch  or 
Xenagox;  and  liad  an  Adjutant,  with  one  or  two  oth- 
er Staff  Officers  who  stood  behind.  Eight  files  unit- 
ed were  under  a  Taxinrch,  four  under  a  Tetrari-h, 
corresponding  probably  to  a  modem  Captain,  two 
files  were  under  a  Ihluehite  or  Subaltern.  A  single 
file  of  Ifi  men  was  called  a  Lochn.i  and  the  best  man 
was  placed  at  its  head;  a  picked  man,  the  Otiraguti, 
also  marching  in  the  rear.  The  arms  of  all  these 
phalanx-men  were  pikes  or  spears,  34  feet  long,  of 
which  G  ft.  were  behind  and  18  ft.  held  in  front  of 
the  combatant.  As  each  man  occujiied  with  his 
shield  3  feet,  the  phalanx,  when  it  advanced,  had  six 
tiers  of  spear-points  in  front,  a  wall  of  steel  which 
no  troops  could  withstand,  especially  as  the  bearers 
of  the  spears  were  pressed  on  by  the  ten  ranks  in 
their  rear.  By  rapid  movements  the  phalanx  could 
change  front,  form  in  close  column  of  syntagmata, 
and  execute  other  critical  maneuvers.  The  heavj'- 
armed  phalanx  was  ordinarily  flanked  bj'  Peltastes 
or  light  infantry,  similarly  formed,  but  only  eight 
deep,  while  the  cavalry  were  but  four  deep.  The 
phalanx,  as  representative  of  the  heavy  formation, 
came  in  contact  with  the  lighter  legion  of  Rome  dur- 
ing the  wars  of  Pyrrhus  in  Italy.  At  the  great  bat- 
tle of  Heraclea  (379  b.c),  the  phalanx  won  the  day; 
but  the  victory  was  attributable  to  other  causes  as 
much  as  to  any  superiority  of  formation. 

PHEON.— In  Heraldry,  the  barbed  head  of  a  dart. 
It  is  represented  as  engrailed  on  the  inner  side,  and 
its  position  is  with  the  point  downward,  unless  oth- 
erwise blazoned. 

PHOENIX  RIFLE. —A  breech-loading  rifle  formerly 
manufactured  by  the  Whitney  Arms  Company.  This, 
like  the  Whitney  and  Kennedy  rifles,  which  are  im- 
provements on  it,  is  very  simple  of  construction,  and 
perfectly  strong,  safe  and  durable,  while  the  ease  of 
manipvdation  in  opening  and  closing  the  breech,  and 
extracting  the  shell  or  cartridge  cannot  be  surpass- 
ed. These  arms  have  less  parts  than  any  other 
breech-loading  rifles  in  use, and  the  parts  are  of  sush 
form  as  to  render  them  as  strong  and  safe  as  rifles 
can  be  made.  They  have  short  top  action,  and  are 
symmetrical  in  form.  See  Kennedy  Rifle  and  Whit- 
ney Rifle. 

PHOSPHOR-BRONZE.— Of  the  many  useful  inven- 
tions and  discoveries  recently  made  in  the  arts,  that 
of  phosphor-bronze  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the 
most  important.  The  invention  is  the  result  of  a 
long  series  of  careful  experiments,  which  have  es- 
tablished, as  a  scientific  fact,  the  great  superiority 
of  phosphorized  alloys  of  copper  and  tin  over  other 
alloys  and  metals.  The  chemical  action  of  phos- 
phorus on  the  metals  composing  the  alloys  is  claimed 
to  be  two-fold;  on  the  one  hand  it  reduces  any  ox- 
ides dissolved  therein,  and  on  the  other  it  forms  with 
the  purified  metals  a  most  homogeneous  and  regular 
combination,  the  hardness,  strength  and  toughness 
of  which  are  completely  under  control.  No  other 
metal  combines,  in  so  high  a  degree  as  phosphor- 
bronze,  the  conditions  of  toughness,  rigidity,  hard- 
ness, and  great  elastic  resistance.  From  the  drop- 
tests  following  its  comparative  relation  in  this  re- 
spect to  some  of  the  best  grades  of  wrougbt-iron  is 
made  very  apparent;  moreover,  if  jointly  with  these 
qualities  the  fact  of  the  total  absence  of  easily  cor- 
roded metals,  such  as  zinc,  be  taken  into  consider- 
ation, the  advantages  offered  by  the  use  of  phosphor- 
bronze  can  scarcely  lie  over-estimated. 

In  the  following  droji-tests.  the  weight  of  the  dro]) 
was  one  hundred  and  forly-eiglu  pounds  ;  be  ght  of 
stroke,  twelve  inches,  except  where  otherwise  stated; 


FHOBPHORUS. 


515 


FHO8PHOB08. 


(lisliincc  iK'twccn  supports,  four  inflios;  striking-face 
of  (Imp,  a  liluntcd  wcdgc-Hliapc! ;  tcst-liiirs,  six  inclicH 
Ion;;,  two  inclics  wide,  and  onc-lialf  incli  thick.  Tlic 
fnictionH  of  inclics  stated  in  llie  talile  represent  tlic 
permanent  set  of  the  test-bar  after  tlie  blow. 

'V\w  letters  inserted  in  tlie  tabic'  indicate  the  state 
<if  the  surface  of  tlie  test-bar,  on  Ihi'  side  opposite  to 
thai  npcin  which  I  he  blow  has  been  ijiven  :  a,  sound  ; 
A,  slif^hl  cracks  at  <'di;e;  r,  cracks  at  eil;;e  increase 
in  size ;  (I,  slijihl  cracks  in  the  middle  of  the  test- 
bar;  e,  cracks  in  the  middle  increase  in  mimbir;  /, 
cracks  in  the  iniddl(!  increase  in  size ;  17,  remains  un- 
altered ;  — ,  straight;  '--,  tcHt-bar  reversed.  It  is 
apparent  from  these  dro])-tests  that  the  riu:idity  of 
phosphor-bronze  is  i;reatly  sujicrior  to  that  of  lies! 
wroMi;hl-iron,  for  it  lakes  thirteen  Ijlows  In  benil  the 
bar  Xl\'.  H  to  the  depth  of  one  inch,  whilst  the  best 
fpialily  of  forLjed  cliarcoal  iron  lakes  ci,u;lit  blows, 
and  the  best  charcoal  scrap  iron  but  six  blows  for 
the  same  bend.  The  strength  of  the  phosplior- 
bronze  bar  No.  (ix  17  is  superior  to  that  of  tiest  char- 
coal scrap  iron,  it  havini;  stood  five  more  blows  of 
twelve  inches  than  the  latter  before  bcini;  ai^ain  com- 
l)letely  strai,K;litene(l.  The  relative  streni,'lh  of  phos- 
phor-bronze as  to  that  of  other  qualities  of  iron  test- 
ed needs  no  comment.     ' 


newed  in  consequence  of  their  freedom  from  any  ad. 
Iiering  slag  is  a  great  point  in  their  favor.  Phosphor- 
bronze  chisels,  hammers,  swages,  BciHHor»,  key  wed- 
ges, etc.,  are  made  of  various  sizes  and  possess 
tine  temper,  great  hardness  and  are  without  any 
liability  to  give  forth  sparks.  The  application  of 
|)liosphf>r-bronze  will  also  be  appreciated  by  all  who 
iiavc  experieneed  llw  dillicully  of  removing  brass  or 
iron  wood  screws  after  they  have  been  exposed  to 
th(!  weather  for  a  short  time.  Urass  screws  are 
more  likely  to  twist  off  than  withdraw,  and  those 
made  of  iron  become  so  rusted  that  their  removal  is 
next  to  impossible.  For  all  fortification  work,  car- 
riage linisliinir,  and  exterior  fastenings,  especially  at 
the  sea-side  Garrisons,  |)hos|)hor-bronze  .screws  are 
recommended  as  the  best  article  yet  produced.     See 

PHOSPHORUS.— One  of  the  most  unwelcome  in- 
gredients in  iron  ores,  from  the  ease  with  whch  it 
passes  into  the  metal  during  the  smelting  process, 
producing  the  most  injurious  effects,  if  present  in 
more  than  a  very  small  proportion.  Practically 
speaking,  all  the  phosphorus  in  the  ore  and  in  the 
fuel  passes  into  the  pig-iron  made.  Ijike  silicon,  it 
makes  pig-iron  weak ;  although  it  is  thr)ught  that 
when  the  amount  is  not  more  than  one-half  to  three- 


Metals  tested. 

Number  of  blows. 

1 

a 

3 

3 

4 

a 

5    6 

7 

H 
a 

8 

f 
a 

9 

10 

11 
g 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18  19  20 

Phosphor-bronze,  XIV .  B. 

a 

1 
a 

i 
a 

f 

a 

g 

l-H 

f 

i 

a 

H 
a 

t 

*f 

I  Broke. 

Phosphor-bronze,  6x17. 

a 

f 
a 

a 

f  M  U 

a  a     a 

If 
a 

1" 
a 

7 

a 

a 

A 
a 

i 

a 

t 

a 

i 
a 

a 

8- foot  blowe. 

',„  ^        ■> 
1    —Broke, 
b   a 

... 

i 
a 

t 

g 

g  g 

a 

A 

A 

8  foot  blows. 

i     1 

lioUed  Charcoal  Scrap-iron,  best  quality. 

lA 

—    Broke. 

d 

a 

a 

a  1  a 

1 

Best  Charcoal  Fire-flox  Plate-iron. 

a 

a 

r^ 

0 

H 

c 

H 
c 

1" 
c 

11 

a 

f 
a 

A 

}  Broke. 

d 

f 

The  same,  cvit  crosswise  off  plate. 

t 

c 

I'fflf  Broke 

i 

1 

1 

...j.... 

! 

Charcoal  Tank  Plate-iron. 

I 

At's 

c 

fBroke 
0 

a  lb   c 

1 

1 

i 

Best  Foro^e  Charcoal  Iron. 

a 

a 
f 

ii 

^f* 

n  \i 

fc 

9 

II  Broke. 

f 

tb 

f 

The  important  applications  of  phosphor-bronze 
have  received  constant  and  careful  attention,  and  the 
use  of  the  special  alloj'  has  become  so  widely  ex- 
tended into  almost  every  branch  of  industry  that  it 
has  become  known  as  the  "  best"  metal  for  bear- 
ings ;  it  has  been  adopted  by  many  of  the  leading 
railroads  for  bearings  of  their  locomotives  and  cars, 
and  large  quantities  are  in  use  in  rolling  mills,  foun- 
dries, steam  engines,  steam  ships,  and  industrial 
works  of  all  kinds  throughout  the  countr}-.  Phos- 
phor-bronze tuyeres  have  been  in  use  for  several 
years  in  the  iron  furnaces  of  the  United  States  with 
great  success.  They  have  proved  much  more  durable 
than  those  made  of  iron,  and  after  long  service  are 
found  to  be  free  from  incrustation  by  scoria  of  the 
furnace.     The  facility  with  which  they  can  be  re- 


fourths  per  cent.,  the  strength  of  the  pig-iron  is  not 
materiall}'  affected  by  it. 

Phosphorus  occasionally  forms  between  one-fiftieth 
and  one-sixtieth  part  of  the  weight  of  cast  iron,  but 
about  one-hundredth  part  is  a  more  common  propor- 
tion of  phosphorus.  It  exists  in  combination  with  a 
portion  of  the  metal  as  pfioiij)hidf  of  iron,  and  is  de- 
rived either  from  phosphate  of  iron  contained  in  the 
iron,  or  from  phosphate  of  lime,  which  is  frequently 
present  in  the  limestone  employed  as  a  flux,  and  in 
minute  quantitj'  in  the  coal.  These  phosphates  con- 
tain phosphorus  in  a  state  of  combination  with  oxj-. 
gen,  which  is  abstracted  by  the  carbon  of  the  fuel 
in  ,the  blast-furnace,  and  the  phosphorus,  thus  set 
free  enters  into  combination  with  the  iron.  So  com- 
pletely is  the  phosphorus  taken  up  by  the  metal,  that 


PHOTO-GLTPHOGRAPHT. 


516 


PHOTOGRAPHY. 


only  traces  of  that  element  in  the  form  of  phosphates 
are  usually  found  in  the  slag  from  the  blast-furnace. 

The  effects  of  phosphorus  are  to  harden  cast-iron, 
decrease  its  strength,  and  to  increase  its  fusibility. 
Iron  made  from  ores  containing  much  phosphorus 
is  always  mid-short,  or  incapable  of  being  wrought 
cold  under  the  hammer  without  breaking,  bee 
ta«t-iri>7i. 

PHOTO-GLYPHOGRAPHY. — \  process,  invented  by 
Mr.  Fo.\  Talbot,  for  etching  a  photograph  into  a  steel 
plate.  It  consists  iu  coafing  the  plate  with  a  mi.x- 
ture  of  bicliromate  of  potash  and  gelatine,  and  expos- 
ing under  a  negative.  The  effect  of  this  treatment- 
is  1o  render  the" gelatine  insoluble,  just  in  proportion 
to  the  intensity  of  the  light's  action,  after  which  a 
solution  of  perchloride  of  iron,  of  a  certain  detinite 
strength,  is  poured  over  the  film,  which  solution 
penetrates  those  parts  unacted  on  by  light,  reaching 
the  steel  plate,  and  biting  itself  in.  but  is  repelled  by 
that  portion  of  the  gelatine  rendered  insoluble  ;  the 
plate  being  tlms  protected  from  the  action  of  the 
solvent.  Because  a  dilute  solution  of  perchloride  (.f 
iron  soaks  into  a  tilm  of  gelatine  more  readily  than 
a  strong  solution,  it  is  very  important  that  the  etching 
fluid  should  possess  that  amount  of  dilution  which 
has  been  found  by  practice  to  yield  the  best  results. 

The  utility  of  such  a  process  for  copying  old  and 
rare  original  manuscripts  or  maps  and  plans  of  all 
kinds  for  the  use  of  engineers  and  others  will  at  once 
be  apparent,  and  it  has  already  been  largely  adopted 
in  the  Ordnance  Survey  Office,  Southampton,  for 
the  reproduction  of  maps  and  old  manuscript  records; 
at  the  India  Museum,  London,  for  the  reproduction 
of  the  patterns  of  Indian  fabrics;  and  at  Woolwich 
Arsenal,  for  the  reproduction  of  drawings  of  ord- 
nance, equipment.etc.  It  is  also  largely  used  by  the 
War  Departments  of  the  various  European  States  and 
in  America,  but  in  no  country  in  the  world  has  Pho- 
to-glyphography  been  so  extensively  and  so  usefully 
applied  to  the  reproduction  of  maps  as  m  India, 
where  skilled  lithographic  draughtsmen  and  engrav- 
ers are  very  scarce.  It  has  been  most  successfully 
worked  in  the  Surveyor  General's  office,  Calcutta, 
in  the  office  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  Great  Tri- 
gonometrical Survey,  Dehra  Dhoon,  and  in  the  Pho- 
tozincooraphic  Office  of  the  Bombay  Government  at 
Poonah.  By  its  aid  the  maps  of  the  various  surveys 
are  issued  to  the  public  within  a  few  months  after 
the  completion  of  the  survey,  instead  of  being  kept 


ticns.  The  adaptation  of  this  art  to  military  pur- 
poses, in  copying,  enlarging,  and  in  reducing  maps, 
etc.,  also  in  reconnoissances,  has  been  greatly  ex- 
tended during  the  last  few  years.  One  of  its  most 
useful  applications  to  surveying  consists  in  taking 
small  circular  pictures  or  panoramas  round  each 
station  of  the  triangulation  into  whicli  the  survey  is 
divided.  These  panoramas  are  printed  by  the 
ordinary  photographic  method,  and  are  cut  out  and 
fastened  on  a  sheet  of  drawing  paper  in  the  relative 
position  to  each  other  which  they  occupied  on  the 
ground  to  be  surveyed  ;  and  straight  lines  or  radii 
being  produced  from  the  center  of  each,  through  the 
objects  shown  in  tliem,  give  by  their  intersections 
the  relative  position  of  each  object  on  the  paper,  so 
that  the  "  filling  in,"  as  it  is  technically  termed,  is 
completed  as  rapidlj'  as  these  intersections  can  be 
found.  Such  a  system  dispenses  with  the  very 
slow  process  of  observing  each  object  separately, 
and  the  liability  to  any  possible  error  in  recording 
the  observation  in  the  field-book,  which  is  now  quite 
done  away  with.  Tlie  great  interest  taken  in  field 
photography  of  late  years,  at  posts  and  on  the  march, 
is  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  improvements  made 
in  the  apparatus,  which  began  with  the  iutroduction 
of  the  dry  plates.  Tliese  are  sensitive  gelatino- 
bromide  dry  plates,  and  can  be  carried  about  with 
little  trouble.  Formerly,  when  the  wet  plates  were 
in  ttse,  it  was  necessary  for  an  amateur  to  carry 
around  with  him  a  chemical  laboratory  and  an  ex- 
temporized dark-room.  Solutions  had  to  be  ready 
beforehand.  With  dry  plates  it  is  not  necessary  to 
bother  with  chemicals  while  in  the  field.  All  that  is 
necessary  is  to  keep  the  plates,  after  the  exposure, 
from  tlie  light.  They  can  be  packed  away  iu  cases 
to  be  developed  in  the  dark  room  at  home.  If  the 
party  wishes  to  make  his  picture  at  the  time,  a  dark 
closet  can  be  arranged  under  canvas.  Onh'  two 
solutions  are  necessary,  and  they  can  be  carried  in 
small  bottles.  Many  explorers  develop  their  plates 
when  they  get  back  at  night  from  a  day's  photograph- 
ing tramp.  Others  save  their  plates  and  take  them 
to  a  professional  in  the  city  to  be  developed. 

Pig.  1,  shows  a  camera  designed  especially  for 
field-service  by  the  Rochester  Optical  Company.  It 
is  a  very  accurate,  simple  and  practical  instrument 
and  may  be  operated  by  any  soldier, of  ordinary  intelli- 
gence. The  camera-box,  in  three  sizes,  is  made  of 
the  best  seasoned  cherry,  well  finished  in  the  natural 


i'i!,'.  i. 


Fig.  3. 


hack  for  years,  as  they  would  be,  had  they  to  be 
lithographed  or  engraved.  Besides  being  used  in  so 
many  (iovcrnrnent'Offlces,  this  process  is  extensive- 
ly worked  by  mauy  private  individuals  in  Europe  and 
Aiiicric;i. 

PHOTOGRAPHY.— The  art  of  producing  pictures 
by  the  action  of  light  upon  certain  chemical  prepara- 


wood.  The  focusing  screen  is  hi'nffed  to  the  camera- 
back,  which  is  more  convenient  than  where  loose, 
and  liable  to  loss  and  lircaUage.  The  back  with 
screen  slides  uiionlhc  beil,  being  faslened  by  a  set 
screw  when  the  focus  has  l)een  olitiiined.  The  tripod 
isallacheil  to  the  bed  by  a  screw  wliich,  wliile  it  al- 
lows of  the  swinging  of  the  box  horizontally,  or  its 


Physics.  1.  Apparatus  for  congealing  water  by  evaporation.  2. 3.  Vessel  for  reception  of  solid  cai 
heat.  10.  Leslie's  differeniial  tliermometer.  11,  12,  15.  Melloni's  apparatus  for  radiation  of  c 
thermo-t'olumn.  17.  Spi'olnil  i-iirve  of  tlierniic  intensity.  18.  Curves  of  intensity  of  the  chem 
ture  of  a  tlaine  with  wire  netting;.  22.  2.'J.  Davy's  safety-hiinp.  24.  C'onihiclinn  of  lieat  by  v 
constant  pressure.  2M.  Fonnation  of  mist  by  expansion  of  steam.  2it,  'iO.  (ienemtioTi  of  he 
3-1.  IMaK'ietie  iiuluction.  3.").  Attraction  and  repulsion  of  i>aranel  currents.  3G.  Curr^'iil-breakt 
polaiizaiiun  by  electro-magnets.    43.  Induced  currents.    44,  45.  Action  of  the  nrnguetlc  poI»*i  t 

XI— 678. 


acid.     4  to  8.  Apparatus  for  determination  of  specific  heat.     9.  Concave  mirrors  fo«  experiments  in  radiation  of 

13.  Heated  slit'et-copper  as  a  sonrce  of  rays  of  caloric.      14.  Absorbtion  of  rays  of  heat  by  gases.     16.  Linear 

pticaliiini  tlKTiuio  inrtueuces  of  the  spectrum.     19.  Comparative  conduction  in  solids.     20,21.  Reducing  tenipera- 

25.  Coiidu<-ti(m  of  lieat  by  gases.  26.  Generation  of  lieat  by  compressing  air.  27.  Specific  heat  of  air  inider 
friction.     31.  Generation  of  heat  by  compressing  lead.     32.  Tension  of  aqueoiig    vapor.     33.  Induced  currents. 

Magnetic  hammer.    38,39.  Geissler's  tubes.    40.  Rotating  copper  cube.    41.  Diamaguetic  repulsion.    42.  Circular 


PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY. 


517 


PIBROCH. 


removal,  rciimins  in  its  Hockt't  at  uj]  times,  tints  ob- 
viatini;  loss.  Tlic  lens  is  of  remiirkiilily  line  i|uality, 
giving  sharp  dolinition  and  )>;real  ilcplli.  'I'lKr  dia- 
phrafjms  are  ri'immMi' — a  point  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance, to  eompensate  for  the  varyini;  .streiifjlh  of 
dillercnt  lif^hts.  'I"he  ])lat(vhol(l<T  is  made  on  an  im- 
proved [jjan,  doinj;  away  with  ledi;es  and  thus  e,\- 
])osini;  the  full  jilale  to  the  action  of  the  li^riil,  mak- 
ini;  a  jiicture  the  fnll  size  of  the  fjlass.  liv  the  old 
•  method  a  (piarter  of  an  inch  all  around  was  lo.st.  The 
Tri|)od  Lcfjs  are  jointed,  capable  of  folding  to  half 
length, Imt  when  in  position  are  rigid  and  lirm.  These 
<-ameras  are  |)rovided  with  rising  and  falling  fronts, 
swinging  backs,  hinged  anil  folding  beds  (almost  in- 
dispensable adjiinets  on  some  views), ami  are  adjust- 
able for  stereoscopic  work,  having  double  lenses,  on 
intcrcliangeable  fronts  and  partitions. 

Figures  3  and  li,  show  a  swivel-bed  camera.  The 
front  is  mitcred  in  four  pieces,  giving  it  a  very  ele- 
gant ajipearance.  The  bed  swivels  under  the  bo.\, 
as  shown  in  the  drawing  L,  Fig.  3,  is  a  focusing 
screw,  and  M,  a  lock  nut  for  fastening  the  box  in 
position  when  the  focus  is  obtained.  The  trijjod 
head,  /v,  is  adjustable,  so  that  the  camera  may  be 
leveled  without  the  necessity  of  moving  the  tripod 
legs.  The  rising  and  falling  front,  (1,  is  reversible 
for  packing  more  compactly.  The  diaphragms  arc 
removable.  The  foc'us  screen  is  hinged  and  falls 
down  at  the  camera  back,  thus  offering  the  least  re- 
sistance to  wind.  This  camera  is  but  two  inches 
thick  when  closed,  thus  making  it  most  compact  for 
transportation.  The  lens  is  of  great  depth,  and  fine 
quality,  giving  a  sharp  and  clear  cut  picture. 

One  of  the  latest  of  instantaneous  cameras  consists 
of  a  small  wooden  bo.\  which  can  be  carried  easily 
imder  the  arm.  Inside  the  box  is  the  lens  through 
■which  the  picture  is  taken.  This  is  covered  by  a 
shutter,  which  by  the  mere  pressing  of  a  little  knob 
on  the  outside  uncovers  the  lens  for  an  instant.  On 
the  upper  side  is  another  lens,  and  underneath  a 
ground-glass  plate.  This  is  simply  to  enable  the 
photographer  to  see  the  image  he  wishes  to  take. 
When  it  falls  on  the  right  spot  in  the  plate  he  presses 
the  little  knob  for  less  than  a  twentieth  of  a  second, 
the  dry  plate  is  exposed  and  the  picture  is  taken. 
Troops  in  motion,  exploding  shells,  etc.,  have  thus 
been  photographed.  With  a  little  practice,  instan- 
taneous photographing  reaches  so  fine  a  point  that  a 
longer  exposure  than  one-twentieth  of  a  second  is 
not  required. 

It  is  not  within  the  province  of  this  article  to  go 
into  an  abstruse  demonstration  of  optical,  chemical 
or  mechanical  facts,  but  simply  to  direct  attention 
to  an  art  of  no  little  value  to  Topographical  Engin- 
eers, and  all  others  in  the  active  service  of  the  mili- 
tary profession.  Tlie  dark  room,  preparation  of 
chemicals,  manipulation  of  camera,  development, 
printing,  and  toning  may  form  special  studies  for 
those  desiring  to  become  experts.  The  art  of  pho- 
tography is  now  taught  as  a  part  of  the  regular 
course  at  the  Artillery  School,  Fortress  Monroe,  and 
in  most  of  the  Military  Schools  of  other  Countries. 

PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY.— The  application  of  pho- 
tography to  engraving  on  stone.  A  lithographic  stone 
is  coated  with  a  mixture  of  water,  gum-arabic, sugar, 
and  bichromate  of  potash,  dried  in  the  dark, exposed 
in  the  camera,  or  under  a  negative.  The  effect  of  the 
luminous  action  is  to  render  the  gum  almost  insolu- 
ble. A  solution  of  soap  is  then  applied,  which  serves  | 
the  double  purpose, by  its  decomposition,  of  yielding 
a  greasy  printing  s  irface,  and  by  its  solvent  action  to 
remove  those  portions  unacted  on  by  light ;  its  ac- 
tion being  inversely  proportionate  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  gum  was  fixed  by  the  light.  In  this  con- 
dition  the  stone  is  freely  washed  with  water,  and 
■when  dry,  receives  a  coating  of  printer's  ink  from 
the  roller,  ■which,  by  uniting  with  the  soap, gives  ad- 
ditional body  to  the  picture.  This  processVas  pat- 
ented by  Mr.  W.  E  Newton  ;  but,  in  common  ■n-ith  ' 
Others  of  a  kindred  character,  the  resulting  pictures  ' 


were  invariably  deficient  in  middle  lint. possessing  a 
degree  of  hardness  very  unpleasant  to  the  eye,  which 
previiiled  its  enmiMg  into  geni-ral  use. 

PHOTO  MICROGRAPHY.  The  enlargement  of  mi- 
croseopic  objects,  by  means  of  tlie  microscope,  and 
the  projection  of  the  enlarged  image  on  a  sensitive 
\  collodion  (ilm.  'I'he  manipulatory  dela>ls  are  the  same 
as  in  the  collodion  process, only  tliat, on  account  of  the 
delicate  nature  of  the  markings  to  !»•  rendered,  it  is 
necessary  loemploy  a  collodion  yielding  what  is  term- 
ed a  structureless  film.  TIk-  prineijile  upon  wliich  the 
enlargement  is  effected  is  that  of  the  conjugate  foci. 
This  branch  of  microscopic  and  jjliotographic  science 
has  [)roved  a  useful  aid  in  the  study  of  th(^  sciences 
of  botany,  physiology,  and  entomology,  by  delineat- 
ing, with  unerring  accuracy,  woody  fiber,  ducts, 
.starch  granules,  muscular  fiber,  blood  discs,  nerve 
papilla-,  etc.  Among  the  numerous  experimentera 
attracted  by  this  interesting  study.  ])r.  Maddox  is 
perhaps  the  only  one  who  iuis  attaineil  to  any  re- 
nown :  and  by  him,  minute  animalcuhe.  all  but  in- 
visible by  unassisted  vision,  have  been  magnilied  to 
a  superficial  areaof  l^s(|uare  inches, in  which  the  most 
delicate  iletails  have  been  faithfully  preserved,  ijy 
reversing  the  arrangement  ueces.sary  for  these  en- 
largements of  microscopic  otjjects.  it  will  be  .seen 
that  minute  photographs  of  engravings,  or  other  ob- 
jects, may  be  produced  which  wouhf  require  a  mi- 
croscope for  their  inspection.  In  this  way  com- 
munication was  maintained,  during  the  investment 
of  Paris,  when  copies  of  letters  and  newspapers  were 
inserted  in  quills,  and  fastened  to  carrier  pigeons;  and 
this  is  really  by  no  means  so  diflicult  to  accomplish 
as  it  may  seem  at  first  sight,  since  i)hotographs  no 
larger  than  a  pin's  head  have  been  produced,  includ- 
ing in  that  small  space  portraits  of  no  less  than  .'500 
eminent  men. 

PHOUS-DAN.— An  East  Indian  term  for  a  com- 
man<ler  of  a  large  body  of  forces. 

PHYLa;. — A  Greek  word,  meaning  tribes,  applied 
specially  to  the  divisions  of  Attica,  originally  four, 
but  made  ten  by  Clcisthenes  after  the  Pisistratidm 
were  driven  from  Athens.  The  number  was  still 
later  raised  to  twelve.  Each  I'hyle  had  a  leader  or 
Phylarch,  who  possessed  certain  authority,  both  of  a 
civil  anrt  military  nature,  and  each  tribe  sent  fifty 
representatives  to  the  Athenian  Senate.  In  time 
the  civil  duties,  such  as  presiding  over  the  assem- 
blies, were  taken  from  the  Phylarch  and  given  to  an 
officer  called  the  Epimeletes. 

PHYLARQUE.  —  A  Grecian  cavalry  officer  who 
commanded  the  cavalry  of  his  tribe. 

PISROCH. — Music  played  on  the  bagpipe,  ■which 
has  a  wonderful  power  in  exciting  the  martial  in- 
stincts and  hilarity  of  the  Highlanders.  Its  rythm  is 
so  irregular,  and  its  notes  in  the  quicker  parts  so 
much  jumbled  together,  that  a  stranger  has  difficulty 
in  following  the  modulations  or  reconciling  his  ear 
to  them.  The  earliest  mention  of  the  military  music 
of  the  bagpipe  is  in  1594,  at  the  Battle  of  Balrinnes ; 
indeed,  prior  to  that  period,  the  bagpipe  can  hardly 
be  looked  on  as  a  national  instrument  of  Scotland. 
There  are  appropriate  pibrochs  belonging  to  various 
clans  and  districts,  but  some  of  these  may  not  be 
older  than  the  beginning  of  the  last  century.  On* 
of  the  oldest  known  pibrochs  is  called  the  "  Battle 
of  Harlaw,"  but  it  may  be  doubted  whether  it  was 
contemporary  with  that  event  (1411).  In  the  ballad 
account  of  that  battle  there  is  mention  of  trumpets 
and  horns,  but  none  of  the  bagpipe  ;  and  the  pibrocU 
style  of  music  has  so  obvious  a  relation  to  the  bag- 
pipe that  it  is  difficult  to  suppose  that  it  preceded 
the  use  of  that  instrument.  According  to  Sir  Waltef 
Scott,  the  connoisseurs  in  pipe-music  affect  to  dis- 
cover in  a  well  composed  pibroch  the  imitative 
sounds  of  march,  conflict,  flight,  pursuit,  and  all  the 
current  of  a  heady  fight.  Many  remarkable  instances 
have  been  recorded  of  the  effect  of  the  pibroch  on 
the  Highlanders.  At  the  Battle  of  Quebec,  in  April, 
1760,  whilst  the  British  troops  were  retreating  in 


PICADOR. 


518 


PICKETS. 


confusion,  the  pipers  were  ordered  to  strike  up  a 
favorite  pibroch,  and  the  result  was  that  the  High- 
landers, who  were  broken,  rallied  the  moment  they 
heard  the  music,  and  formed  with  great  alacrity  in 
the  rear. 

PICADOR.— A  horseman  armed  with  a  lauce,  who 
commences  the  exercises  of  a  bull-fight  by  attacking 
the  animal  without  attempting  to  kill  him. 

PICAROOK.— A  pillager  or  plunderer  ;  one  who 
violates  the  laws. 

PICCOLO.— A  flute  of  small  dimensions,  having 
the  same  compass  as  the  ordinary  flute,  while  tlie 
notes  all  sound  an  octave  higher  than  their  nota- 
tion. In  joyous  as  well  as  violent  passages  this 
instrument  is  sometimes  very  effective  in  a  band. 

PICKER.— A  small,  pointed  brass  wire,  which  was 
formerly  supplied  to  every  infantry  soldier  for  the 
purpose"  of  cleaning  the  vent  of  his  musket. 

PICKERING.— -Clittle  flying  skirmish,  which  the 
marauders  make  when  detached  for  pillage,  or  be- 
fore a  main  battle.  Also  writen  Pickerooning,  and 
Picqneering. 

PICKET.—  A  technical  term  fo'  an  elongated 
conoidal  projectile.     See  Pickets. 

PICKET-GOARD.— A  guard-  of  horse  and  foot, 
always  in  readiness  in  case  of  alarm.    See  Pickets. 

PICKET-LINE.— 1.  A  positionheld  and  guarded  by 
small  bodies  of  men  placed  at  intervals.  2.  A  rope 
to  which  horses  are  secured  when  groomed.  The 
rope,  which  usually  passes  through  holes  near  the 
tops  of  posts  planted  in  the  ground,  is  frequently  re- 
placed by  a  timber  framed  on  the  posts. 

In  the"  Crimea,  the  cavalry  usually  encamped  in 
line  with  two  rows  of  picket-lines  and  a  line  of  shel- 
ter tents  in  front  of  and  behind  the  picket-lines;  the 
arms  and  equipments  between  the  shelters  and  the 


picket-hnes.  The  picket-lines  were  stretched  on  the 
ground,  and  tlie  horses  secured  to  tliem  by  hobbles 
on  the  right  fore-feet;  the  liobble  being  about  three 
feet  long  and  buckling  around  thepastern-joint.  The 
drawin^shows  this  arrangment,  which  is  spoken  of 
by  tlie  French  officers  as'being  the  best  manner  of 
securing  the  horses. 

PICKET-PIN.— An  iron  pin  with  a  ring  at  the  top. 
It  is  driven  ill  the  grouml,  and  tlie  lariat  is  attached 
to  it  to  secure  a  liorse  while  grazing. 

PICKETS.— 1.  Stout  wooden  stakes  driven  into 
the  ground  and  used  for  securing  purposes,  and  in 
the  construction  of  lioldfasts.  The  ordinary  slakes 
for  siege-gun  platforms  answer  for  most  cases. 
When  very  lieavy  strains  are  to  be  borne,  posts  from 
five  to  eight  feet  long  are  required,  and  are  set  into 
tlie  ground  liy  digging  holes,  or  witli  a  piie-driver. 
When  tlie  latter  is  us(!d.  the  post  should  lie  shod  with 
an  iron  point,  and  have  a  ring  upon  the  head  to  pre- 
vent splitting. 

2.  An  early  militarj'  punishment  where  the  cul- 
prit was  held  by  the  raised  arm  in  such  a  position 
thai  his  whole  weight  fell  on  one  foot,  wliicli  was 
8Uli]iorli-il  on  a  picket  with  a  blunt  point.     Tlie  time 


the  man  thus  stood  was  proportioned  to  the  offense. 
The  punishment  became,  after  a  few  moments,  ex- 
tremelj'  painful;  it  has  long  been  discontinued  on 
sanitary  grounds. 

3.  Detachments  of  troops  whose  principal  duty  is 
to  guard  an  army  from  surprise,  and  oppose  such 
small  parties  as  the  enemy  may  push  forward  for 
the  purpose  of  reconnoitering.  The  main-detacli- 
ments  or  pickets,  which  form  the  supports  to  the 
grand-guards  and  out-posts,  occupy  the  principal 
avenues  to  the  position  of  the  main-body.  As  their 
duty  is  to  hold  the  enemy  in  check,  the  points  which 
they  take  up  should  be  susceptible  of  a  good  defense; 
such,  for  example,  as  villages,  defiles,  etc.;  when- 
ever these  advantages  are  not  found  at  hand,  resort 
should  be  had  to  any  temporary  obstacles,  as  abatis, 
etc.,  which  can  be'  readily  procured,  to  place  the 
troops  under  shelter.  The  points  thus  occupied 
should,  as  a  general  rule,  be  about  midway  between 
the  line  of  out-posts  and  the  position  of  the  main- 
body.  Small  posts  should  be  thrown  forward  by 
the  pickets,  between  their  position  and  the  line  of 
grand-guards;  both  for  the  greater  security  of  the 
detachments,  and  as  supports  to  the  grand-guards. 
In  like  manner,  when  the  line  of  pickets  is  of  con- 
siderable e.xtent,  intermediate  posts  must  be  estab- 
lished,to  keep  open  a  communication  between  them. 
No  pains  should  be  spared  to  obstruct  the  approaches 
of  the  enemy  to  the  points  occupied  by  the  pickets; 
particularly  those  which  lead  to  the  flanks ;  leaving 
open  such  only  as  will  oblige  the  enemy  to  attack 
under  the  most  unfavorable  circumstances;  and  if, 
between  the  advanced-posts  and  the  main-body,  a 
defile,  or  other  unfavorable  pass  should  occur,  which 
the  enemy,  by  turning  the  line  of  the  advanced-posts, 
might  seize  upon,  and  thus  cut  off  their  retreat,  it 
should  be  occupied  by  a  strong  detachment; 
both  to  prevent  such  a  maneuver,  and  to  favor 
the  retreat  on  the  main-body. 

The  entire  strength  of  the  advanced-posts,  as 
well  as  the  relative  strength  of  the  pickets, 
grand-guards,  and  out-posts,  will  depend  upon 
the  character  of  the  ground  covered  by  them ; 
as  being  more  or  less  open,  and  presenting 
more  or  less  facilities  for  circumscribing  the 
approaches  of  the  enemy  to  the  main-position. 
It  rarely  occurs  that  sufficient  troops  can  be 
Eac^  detached  to  cover  all  the  accessible  ground, 
i  and  perform  the  duties  in  a  tiiorough  manner 
The  strength  of  each  picket,  and  tlie  kind  of 

I;; troops  of  which  it  is  composed,  will  depend  on 

the  degree  of  resistance  to  be  offered  to  the 
enemy's  attack  ;  and  the  character  of  the  posi- 
tion occupied.  In  most  cases  where  a  vigorous 
defense  is  called  for.  they  will  consist  of  troops 
of  all  the  arms ;  and  an  aggregate  of  several 
hundred  men.  The  grand-guards,  out-posts,  and 
patrols,  should  not  as  a  general  rule  exceed  one-third 
the  strength  of  the  pickets  to  which  they  belong. 
They  will  be  composed  of  cavalry,  or  infantry,  ac- 
cording to  the  more  or  less  broken  features  of  the 
ground.  It  rarely  occurs  that  artillery  is  placed  at  the 
out-posts.  Whenever  it  happens  that  a  piece,  or 
two,  may  be  deemed  necessary,  to  swee])  some 
passage,  or  defile,  in  advance  of  the  line  of  otit-posts, 
the  guns  must  be  protected  by  a  strong  ]iosl.  to  in- 
sure  their  safety  in  a  retreat.  If,  from  the  character 
of  the  ground,  the  out-posts  are  mahily  of  infantry, 
some  cavalry  should  always  be  attaelied  to  them,  to 
patrol  in  advance  of  the  position,  and  to  convey  in- 
telligence to  the  rear  of  what  may  be  passing  in  the 
ncighboriiood  of  the  out-posts.  When  the  advanced- 
posts  cover  aiiadvaiieed-guard.tlieCoriiniaiiding  Offi- 
cer of  tlie  whole  sliould  take  a  ])osilion,  with  his  artil- 
lery and  the  main-body  of  his  coiiiniaiid,  at  some 
cent  ml  point,  in  the  rear  of  the  jiiekets:  in  order  to  be 
ready  to  supjxirt  them  if  hard  jiressed  by  the  enemy. 
The  choice  of  this  ])osition  is  an  object  of  the  greatest 
importance;  as  the  safety  of  the  advanced-posts  as 
well  as  that  of  the  main-body,   may  depend  upon  the 


PICRATE8. 


5in 


PIECE. 


degree  of  judgment  shown  in  liia  Holection.  bo  booh  ' 
aa  the  adviinfcd-<|K).HtH  liave  tukcn  up  their  slalions, 
iMSlruclidiis  !<hould  Ik^  given  to  the  iillieers  iif  tlie 
dilTercMl  poKtH,  vvilh  respect  to  Hie  points  upon  whieh 
tliey  are  to  full  baeli,  in  case  of  their  Ijeing  forced  in: 
the  lincH  of  <:oinniuiiication  tlu'}'  must  of  necessity 
H'lire  by;  and  tlie  position  tliey  must  take  up,  when 
j<iining  tlie  supports  to  wliich  they  respectively  !)(•- 
long.  An  oliieer  in  eonuMaml  of  any  of  the  out- 
posts must  be  eajiiihleof  untiring  vigilance  and  activ- 
ity; to  perform  (he  various  (hities  which  devolve 
upon  him.  lie  should  lie  provided  with  a  good 
map  of  the  country,  a  telescope,  and  writing  mater- 1 
ials.  lie  will  thoroughly  recoimoiter  the  ground  upon  j 
which  he  is  to  dispose  Ins  command;  and  also  as  far  | 
in  advance  as  circumstances  will  admit;  (|uestioning 
closely  any  inhabitant  lie  may  lind.  .\ftcr  tid<ing  uj) 
his  position,  he  shoidd  go  forward  with  the  half  of 
his  command,  and  post  each  sentinel  himself.  If, 
however,  he  relieves  another  in  the  connnand,  and 
deems  it  advisable  to  make  any  changes  in  the  dis- 
positions of  his  predecessors,  he  sliould  promptly  re- 
port the  facts  to  the  comnianding-oni<'er  in  his  rear. 
When  the  officer  finds  that  the  enemy  is  not  in  bis 
immediatt^  neighborhood,  he  shoidd  endeavor  to 
feel  his  way  cautiously  towards  him  by  p;itrols;  and 
when  in  immediate  presence,  lie  should  omit  no 
means  to  watch  the  enemy's  movements;  and  from 
the  occurrences  of  the  moment,  such  as  noises,  the 
motion  of  clouds  of  dust,  camp  tires,  conflagrations, 
etc.,  endeavor  to  divine  what  is  passing  in  his  camp, 
and  his  probable  intentions.  Accurate  written  re- 
ports should  be  promptly  sent  to  the  otTieer  in  (com- 
mand, in  the  rear,  on  all  these  points.  The  reports 
should  be  Iffjilily  written,  and  should  clearly,  but 
cutwixely,  state  what  has  fallen  under  the  officer's 
eye;  what  he  has  learned  from  others;  and  the  charac- 
ter of  the  sources  from  wdiich  his  information  is 
drawn.  The  post  under  the  otiiccr's  command, 
whether  horse  or  foot,  should  not  all  be  allowed  to 
sleep  or  eat  at  once.  The  horses,  when  wanted, 
should  be  taken  singly  or  by  pairs,  and  always  mount- 
ed. At  night  one-half  of  the  command  should  be 
under  arms,  prepared  for  an  attack;  the  others  sealed, 
their  arms  and  the  bridles  of  their  horses  in  hand. 
The  men  should  never  be  permitted  to  occupy  a 
house;  and  if  the  weather  is  such  that  a  fire  out  of 
doors  is  indispensalile,  it  should  be  as  much  con- 
cealed as  practicable;  one-half  being  only  allowed  to 
sit  near  it;  the  other  posted,  at  a  convenient  spot  at 
hand,  to  fall  on  the  enemy  should  he  attempt  a 
stroke.  When  the  position  taken  up  is  to  be  held 
for  some  time,  it  will  be  well  to  change  the  locality 
of  the  posts  occasionally;  this  should  be  done,  par- 
ticularly at  night,  in  a  hilly  district,  changing  the 
post  from  the  brow  of  the  hill,  where  the  men  can 
best  keep  a  look-out  by  day,  to  the  low  ground  at 
night,  as  more  favorable  to  detect  any  movement 
above.  The  out-posts  are  usually  relieved  at  day- 
break, as  being  the  most  favorable  mcmient  for  the 
enemy  to  attempt  a  surprise;  the  new-guard,  will 
serve  to  reinforce  the  old.  For  the  same  reason, 
the  old-guard  should  not  be  suffered  to  retire  before 
the  patrols  come  in  and  report  all  safe.  See  Ad- 
vanced-posts. Fkld-service .  Grand  Guards,  and  Out- 
posts. 

PICKATES. — The  picrates  are  salts  of  picric  acid. 
Picric  or  trinitrophenic   acid  is  a  nitro-substitution 
product,  formed  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  car- 
bolic   acid    (phenol,  CjHcOj.      Three   substitution 
products  may  be  derived  from  this  action,  but  only 
one,   picric  acid,  possesses   any   marked   explosive  [ 
properties.     Picric  acid  has  the  composition  indica- 1 
ted   by   its   symbol— C„H3(NO„)30.  or  C'olIaNaO-, 
Picric  acid  is  found  in  commerce,  being  used  to  dye 
silk  and  wool  yellow.     If  the  acid  is  heated,  it  takes 
fire    and  burns  sharply  and  rapidly  witliout  e.\plo- 1 
sion.     The  picrates  are  all   exploded  with  more  or 
less  violence  by  heat  or  blows.     When  used  as  e.\- 1 
plosiveagents  they  are  mixed  with  potassium  nitrate  1 


CHaltpeler)  or  potassium  chlorate.  A  large  number 
of  picrates  are  kiuiwn,  but  the  potassium  and  am- 
monium salts  are  the  only  onr'S  tliatliuve  been  much 
usid  in  exiilosive  prei)arations. 

I'litnssiiiin  J'icraU \  (y',,HjKNjO,,  is  the  most  vio- 
lently explosive  of  the  picrates.  Potassium  picrate 
and  jxitassium  chlorate  form  a  mixture  nearly  as 
powerful  as  nitro-glycerine,  but  it  is  so  senHitive  to 
friction  or  penjussion  as  to  render  it  practically  use- 
less. With  potassium  nitrate  instead  of  f-hlorate  a 
li;ss  violent  mixture  is  (obtained,  but  one  still  too  liable 
to  accidental  explosion. 

AmiiKiuiiim  J'icrnte,  C,n2(Nri4)N,0,,  has  been 
proposed  by  Abel  as  an  ingredient  of  a  i)Owder  for 
bursting  charges  of  shells.  The  properties  of  am- 
nioiiiuni  picrate  are  very  difTerent  from  those  of  the 
jiotassiiim  .salt.  If  flame  is  applied  to  the  former,  it 
imrns  (|uietly,  withastrong,  smoky  flame.  If  heated 
it  nx'lts,  sublimes,  .-ind  burns  without  explosion.  It 
is  almost  eniirely  uiiiilfected  tiy  blows  or  friction. 
This  salt  mixed  with  saltpeter  forms  Abel's  picric- 
powder  (Brugf^re's  powder).  Experiments  with  this 
[jowder  in  England  indicate  that  it  po.ssesses  some 
advantages  when  used  in  shells.  A  number  of  shells 
charged  with  it  were  fired  from  guns  of  different 
caliber  without  accidents.  It  is  more  powerful  than 
gunpowder  and  less  violent  than  nitro-glycerine  and 
gun-cotton.  It  is  insensitive  to  ordinary  means  of 
ignition.  If  flame  is  applied  to  it,  the  particles 
touched  burn,  but  the  combustion  does  not  readily 
extend  to  the  others.  IJlows  or  friction  do  not  ex- 
plode it.  It  must  be  confined  in  order  to  develop  its 
explosive  force.  It  does  not  absorb  moisture  from 
the  air,  so  that  it  may  be  stored  and  handled  like 
gunpowder,  and  is  at  le;ist  equally  safe  and  perma- 
nent. It  is  prepared  for  use  by  the  usual  gunpowder 
processes  of  incorponition—pressing,  granulation, 
etc.;  so  that  it  has  the  same  form  and  may  be  handled 
in  the  same  way.  It  may  therefore  be  a  good  sub- 
stitute for  powder  when  a  more  violent  explosive  is 
wanted  and  neither  gun-cotton  nor  nitro-glycerine 
are  available.  The  mixture  contains  40  parts  of 
saltpeter  and  54  parts  of  the  picrate. 

The  picrate  is  prepared  from  picric  acid  and  am- 
monia. The  picric  acid  is  dissolved  in  water,  and 
ammonia  added  to  neutralization.  Another  charge 
of  picric  acid  is  then  dissolved  in  the  same  liquid, 
and  ammonia  again  added.  This  is  repeated  several 
times,  and  the  liquid  allowed  to  stand  for  some  time, 
when  the  ammonium  picrate  crystallizes  out  in  large 
quantities.  The  mother  liquoris  dr;iwn  off,  the  crys- 
talline deposit  drained  and  dried.  The  mother 
liquor  may  be  used  for  the  preparation  of  successive 
lots  of  the  ammonia  salt  until  it  becomes  charged 
with  impurities,  when  it  may  be  otherwise  treated 
or  thrown  away.  In  this  way  a  considerable  amount 
of  the  salt  can  be  expeditiously  prepared  with  little 
hibor  and  without  much  loss.  "  The  working  of  the 
mixture  is.  of  course,  to  be  done  at  a  powder-mill. 
Set  Expl'isiie  Aquits. 

PICEIC  POWDER.— Picrate  of  potash.  This  pow- 
der, of  a  bright  yellow  color,  has  been  recommended 
as  stronger  than  gunpowder,  and  less  susceptible  to 
ignite  bv  means  offriction  or  a  lilow. 

PICTS'  WALL.— One  of  the  barriers  erected  by  the 
Romans  across  the  northern  part  of  England  to  re- 
strain the  incursions  of  the  Picts. 

PIECE.— 1.  In  Heraldry,  an  ordinary  or  charge;  as 
the  fesse,  the  bend,  the  pale,  the  cross,  the  saltire. 
the  chevron,  called  honorable  pieces.  3.  Thetcrms 
cannon  and  ordnance  are  applied  to  all  heavy  fire- 
arms which  are  fired  from  carriages,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  S7nall-)irms.  whi(  h  arc  fired  from  the  hand. 
The  termp/Vc«  is  applied  to  cannon;  it  also  used  to 
designate  a  cannon  in  union  with  its  carriage  with 
or  without  the  limber. 

The  light  artillery  of  the  United  States  now  com- 
prises the  following  pieces,  viz. :  thret-inch  rifle  and 
three-and-one-half-inck  rifled-guns;  half-inch  and  one- 
inch  mitrailleurs;  and  the  twelve-poundtr  smooth-txrre 


PIECE. 


520 


PIECE. 


gun.  A  .45-inch  mitrailleiir  lias  just  been  adopted 
(1874) ;  it  is  intended  to  ultimately  replace  the  half- 
inch  mitraillcur.  The  three-inch  rifle  was  adopted 
in  1861.  It  is  made  of  ■mought-iron,  by  wrapping 
boiler-plate  round  an  iron  bar,  so  as  to  form  a  cyl- 
indrical mass,  which  is  brought  to  welding  heat  and 
passed  through  rollers,  so  as  to  unite  it  solidly  ;  the 
trunnions  are  afterward  welded  on,  and  the  piece  is 
bored  and  turned  to  its  proper  size  and  shape.  The 
method  originated  at  the  Phcenixville  Iron  Works, 
Pa.  The  model  for  the  t/i ree-a?id-i'ne-ha!f-inc.h  rille 
was  adopted  in  1870.  It  is  to  be  made  of  wrought- 
iron  or  bronze,  and   in   its   general  appearance  will 


-.J-— 


^ 


//I 


izr 

closely  resemble  the  three-inch  rifle.  The  mitrail- 
leurx  are  Gatling's,  and  were  adopted  in  1868 ;  they 
are  made  of  steel,  some  of  the  smaller  parts  being  of 
brass.  The  Ucelce-puunder,  or  Napoleon  gun,  adopt- 
ed in  1857,  is  still  (1874)  retained  in  the  United 
States  service,  though  abandoned  by  all  other  civil- 
ized nations.  It  is  cast  in  gun-metal  or  bronze, 
which  consists  of  ninety  parts  of  copper  and  ten  of 
tin,  allowing  a  variation  of  one  part  more  or  less. 
JJestrription  and  nomenrlatnre  of  light  guns:  The 
bore  (1)  is  the  hollow  cj'li'ider  which  receives  the 
charge.  The  mouth  (2)  is  that  part  of  the  bore  near- 
est the  front  of  the  piece.  The  bottom  of  the  bore  (3) 
is  its  extreme  rear:  in  the  three  inch  ritle,  it  is  a 
semi-elliptical  surface.  Tlie  bores  of  rifled-guns  have 
grooves;  the  intervals  between  the  grooves  are  called 
lands;  the  grooves  and  lands  are  of  equal  width. 
The  tent  is  a  cylindrical  hole,  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  the  ji/cce  (4),  near  the  bottom  of  the  bore, 
through  which  fire  is  communicated  to  the  charge. 
The  surface  of  the  piece  in  the  immediate  vicinity 


trunnions  with  the  gun  ;  their  ends,  or  \.\\e  shoulders 
of  the  trunnions,  are  planes  parallel  to  each  other  and 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  trunnions.  The 
breech  (8)  is  that  part  of  the  piece  in  rear  of  a  plane 
passing  through  the  vent  and  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  the  piece.  The  base  of  the  frrcifcA  is  the  plane, 
or  curved,  surface  at  the  rear  of  the  piece.  The.seat 
for  the  pendulom-hnusse  is  screwed  into  the  base  of 
the  breech.  The  breech  includes  the  cnscabel  (9) 
which  consists  of  a  knob  terminating  the  rear  of  the 
piece,  and  of  a  neck,  or  narrow  part,  whicli  unites 
the  knob  to  the  base  of  the  breech.  When  the  body 
of  the  gun  is  strengthened  by  a  band,  or  jacket,  this 
addition  is  termed  a  reinforce.  The 
■^i  chase  (10)  is  that-part  of  the  gun  in 

!  front  of  the  trunnions.     The  muzde 

(11 )  is  the  general  term  for  the  front 
of  the  gun  ;  if  t  he  chase  be  enlarged 
at  the  muzzle,  the  enlargement  is 
called  the  sicell  of  the  muzzle,  and 
the  part  of  the  chase  where  the 
swell  begins  is  called  the  neck.  The 
front,  or  mutzle,  sight  is  screwed  into  the  muzzle, 
or  into  the  swell  of  the  muzzle  at  its  highest  point. 
The /ace  (13)  is  the  perpendicular  plane  terminating 
the  front  of  the  gun.  Preponderance  is  the  excess  of 
the  weight  of  the  piece  in  rear  of  the  trunnions  over 
that  in  front  ;  it  is  measured  by  the  lifting  power  in 
pounds,  which  must  be  applied  at  the  base  of  the 
breech  to  balance  the  piece  when  suspended  freely 
on  the  axis  of  the  trunnions.  It  is  decided  to  dispense 
with  preponderance  in  all  guns  hereafter  cast.  The 
bore  is  kept  as  dry  as  possible  by  depressing  the 
piece  and  using  a  vent-cover  and  tompion.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  bend  or  injure  the  front- 
sights,  as  it  affects  the  accuracy  of  pointing.  After 
firing,  the  bore  of  the  gun  must  be  washed  out,  and 
the  piece  depressed.  Steel  guns  are  bronzed  or 
lackered  on  the  exterior.  Slitrailleurs  are  kept 
cleaned  and  oiled  to  prevent  them  from  getting  rusty; 
after  marching  over  dusty  roads  and,  if  possible, 
before  going  into  action,  the  barrels  and  carrier-block 
are  wiped  and  the  parta  oiled,  the  crank  being  re- 


Diameter  of  bore 

Length  of  bore 

Whole  length  of  piece 

Greatest    exterior    radius    of    base  of 

breech 

Greatest    exterior    radius    of    l)reech- 

casing 

Length  of  front-sight 

Length  of  trunnions 

Diameter  of  trunnions 

Depth  of  grooves 

Twist  of  grooves 

Weight 

Preponderance 


Rifles. 


3-inch. 


Inches. 

3. 

65. 

72.7 

4.85 


1.85 
3.8 
3.67 
.075 
1  in  10  ft. 

Pounds. 
830 
40 


8i-inch 


Inches. 
3.5 
65. 
73.84 

5.6 


2.25 
3.25 
4.2 
.075 
1  in  12  ft. 

Pounds. 
1,156 

None. 


Mitrailleurs. 


^-inch. 


Inches. 
.5 
33. 

58. 


3.81 


1-inch. 


Inches. 

1. 

33. 

68.15 


6.5 


2.35  2.8 

2.7  3.67 

.01  .01 

1  in  43  inch.  1  in  G  ft. 


Pounds. 
365 
45 


Pounds. 
1,008 
110 


13-Pdr. 

model  of 

1857. 


Inches. 
4.62 
63.6 

72.55 

5.5 


3.5 
3.25 

4.3 


Pounds. 
1.230 
105 


of  the  exterior  orifice  of  the  vent  is  called  tlie  vent- 
field.  The  bodg  (5)  is  that  part  of  the  piece  in  rear 
of  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  piece  and 
tangent  to  the  front  ])art  of  the  </•«««/'/«.'!  ((!. 6), or  jiro- 
jecting  cylinders  at  the  sides  of  the  piece,  vyjiich  are 
iiiteuiled  to  support  it  on  its  carriage  ;  th(  ir  axes 
arc  in  a  line  piTpendicular  to  tlie  axin  of  the  jiiecc, 
and  in  the  same  plane  with  it.  The  rimbases  (7,7) 
arc  the  short  masses  of  metal  which  unite  the  two 


versed  to  avoid  unnecessary  snapping.  Tlie  foregoing 
are  the  princi|)al  dimensions  aiKl  weights  of  pieces. 
In  bronze,  the  weight  of  the  three  and  one-half 
inch  rifie  is  l,2!)i)  lbs.  There  are  seven  grooves  in 
the  three-inch  and  thrce-and-one-half-inch  rifles,  and 
six  grooves  in  the  barrels  of  the  mitrailleurs.  In  the 
twelve-pounder,  the  irhidai/c,  or  dilTerence  between 
diameters  of  bore  and  projectile,  is  0.1  inch.  See 
Cannon,  Gatling  Gun,  anil  Mitrailleur. 


FrEBCED. 


521 


PIEZOMETER. 


FI£BCED.— In  Heraldry,  a  term  used  to  indicute 
tluil  11  clmrttc  is  perforated  so  as  to  show  the  Held 
bcneiilli  it.  Tlie  aperture  is  presumed  to  he  eir<:uliir, 
unless  some  oilier  form,  as  sipiari-piereed  or  loz- 
cnf;e  pierced,  lie  s|)ecilic-d  in  the  bla/.oii. 

PIERCES.'  -An  inslriimenl  employeil  in  the  fuhri- 
cution  of  ordnance.  The  horini;  of  a  cannon  is  com- 
menced liy  plaeinj;  the  l)orini;-rod,  armed  with  the 
lirsl.  culle'r,  called  the  iiiirrer,  in  tlii'  prolonv;iilion 
of  the  axis  of  the  ]iiece,  and  jiressini^  it  a};iiinst  the 
metal.  The  piercer  is  used  till  it  piiielrates  to  tiie 
bottom  of  llie  chamlier,  after  which  a  second  cutter, 
or  reamer,  is  altnched  to  the  borinfi-rod,  and  with 
this  the  lioriiii^  is  made  complete  to  the  round  jiarl 
of  the  chamher. 

FIEKRIER.  A  term  originally  ap|)lied  to  an  en- 
gine f<ir  casliiii;  stones,  and  later  to  a  small  kind  of 
cannon.  The  term  is  now  generally  applied  to  a 
liiorlar  used  for  discharging  stones,  etc. 

PIERS.  In  fortilication,  the  buttresses  on  which 
the  roadway  of  a  bridge  rests.  In  the  case  of  wood- 
en bridges,  piiTS  are  made  of  barrels,  etc. 

PIES.— Counts  Palatine,  who  were!  created  in  ISfiO 
by  Popi'  Pius  IV,  and  who  had  precedence  at  Home 
over  Knights  of  the  Teutonic  Order  and  Order  of 
Malla. 

PIEZOMETER.  — An  instrument  invented  by  Oer- 
sted for  measuring  the  compressibility  of  liipiids.  It 
has  been  pr()po.s<Ml  to  ascertain  the  jiressure  of  the 
gases  evolved  by  the  combustion  of  gunpowder,  by 
including  in  the  cavity  within  which  the  jiressurc 
should  be  restrained  a  piezometer,  which,  by  regis- 
tering the  compression  of  a  liquid  contained  within 
it,  sliould  afTonl  an  indication  of  the  pressure  to 
which  it  had  been  exposed.  This  instrument,  as  em- 
ployed in  these  experiments,  is  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing. Fig.  1,is  a  section  through  its  axis;  Fig.  2.  an 
exterior  side  view.     Tlie  same  letters  are  used  in  re- 


is  a  tubular  support  for  the  point,  and 
To  It  is  at- 


Fig.  1.  Fii;.  i 

ferring  to  like  parts  in  each  of  the  figures.  A,  is  the 
body  of  the  instrument.  The  general  form  of  its  low- 
er (or  outer  end)  is  hemispherical,  but  it  is  flattened 
on  four  sides  (as  at  a  and  a)  for  fitting  a  socket  at- 
tached to  the  middle  of  a  small  oil-pan  used  in  filling 
it.  B,  is  the  barrel  to  which  the  piston  is  fitted.  It 
screws  freely  into  the  body.and  makes  with  it  a  close 
joint.  C,  is  the  piston,  packed  with  a  leather  ring 
occupying  a  groove  ;  c,  is  the  eye  of  the  piston,  by 
means  of  which  it  is  withdrawn  or  turned  when  re- 
quired. A  special  itnplemcnt  (not  represented)  is 
fitted  to  the  eye  for  this  manipulation.  D,  is  a  stem 
screwed  into  the  piston.  The  lower  end  is  squared, 
to  fit  a  socket  like  that  of  a  watch-key.  As  it  is  de- 
sirable to  use  anew  stem  for  each  experiment,  spec- 
ial appliances  were  prepared  for  making  duplicates 
readily  and  with  accuracy.  They  are  coated  with  a 
thin  tilm  of  black  varni.sh  to  render  the  marks  the)' 
are  to  receive  more  distinct.  E,  is  the  point  from 
which  the  stem  receives  the  mark  recording  com- 


pregslon.     F 

also  a  guide  for  the  stem  fif  the  piston. 

Inched   the  spring,  (i,  pressing  the  point  against  the 

stem;  //,  are  holes  in  the  support  to  permit  the  oil 

within  It  to  escajie  freelv  when  the  stem  is  sudd<rnly 

thrust  in,  under  the  action  of  surrounding  pressure. 

II,  is  a  screw  pr'rinitting  the  escaix;  of  oil  when  the 

instrument  is  hiing  "  set"  for  use,  but  also  capable 

of  closing  tightly  tlie  opening  in  which  it  is  situated. 

Tists  were  made  of  the  tightness  of  the  piston  and 

of  the  joints. 

In  preparing  the  piezometer  for  an  experiment, two 
itemsaretohe  specially  observed  ;  it  must  contain 
no  air,  and  (he  "  setting,"  or  adjustment  of  the  quan- 
tity of  oil  contained,  must  be  done  at  the  precise  tem- 
perature the  instrument  is  to  have  at  the  moment 
of  firing.  The  procedure  is  simply  as  follows:  All 
the  parts  are  tirst  oiled,  over  their  whole  surfaces. 
The  adjusting-screw  is  inserted  into  the  body  of 
the  instrument,  which  is  then  set  upright  in  a  socket 
attached  to  the  middle  of  a  small  pan  intended  to 
catch  any  overflow,  and  is  nearly  or  quite  filled  with 
oil,  which  should  be  made  to  flow  down  the  side  of 
the  cavity  rather  than  in  a  stream.  The  support  of 
the  marking-point,  (juite  clean  but  covered  with  oil, 
is  now  screwed  into  its  )>lace,  with  the  aid  of  a  spec- 
ial implement,  not  described.  When  this  is  with- 
drawn, it  will  he  necessary  to  replace  the  oil  caused 
to  overllow  by  its  insertion.  The  barrel  is  now 
slowdy  put  in  its  place  and  screwed  firmly  down. 
The  hole  in  the  piston  for  receiving  the  stem  is  filled 
with  oil,  the  stem  screwed  in,  and  the  piston  insert- 
ed in  the  barrel.  The  adjusting-.screw  is  loosened  a 
little,  permitting  the  piston  to  lie  pressed  just  below 
the  top  of  the  barrel,  and  again  tightened.  The  next 
step  is  to  bring  the  instrument  ancl  its  contents  to  the 
setting  temperature.  Fortius  purpose  a  water  bath 
(a  common  wooden  pail)  is  provided  ;  also  a  narrow- 
tin  ctip.  deeper  than  the  bath  and  weighted  at  the 
bottom  so  as  to  stand  upright  within  it;  and  a  pair 
of  wooden  pinchers  for  handling  the  piezometer, 
which  instrument  could  be  inserted  in  them  in  such 
a  way  as  to  be  nearly  enveloped  and  yet  to  leave  the 
adjusting  screw  and  piston  readilj-  accessible.  The 
piezometer,  seized  in  the  pinchers,  is  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  cup  in  company  with  the  tools  to  be 
used  in  setting  it,  and  is  covered  with  a  loose  wad  of 
cotton.  The  cup  is  set  in  the  middle  of  the  bath  and 
surrounded  with  water  kept  as  nearly  as  possible  at 
the  desired  temperature,  for  a  sufficient  time  to  im- 
part, as  nearly  as  appreciable,  the  same  to  the  instru- 
ment. It  is  then  withdrawn,  the  screw  loosened, the 
piston  depressed  a  little  to  a  regulated  depth  with  a 
special  tool,  the  screw  tightened,  and  the  piston  ro- 
tated a  few  degrees,  which  completes  the  setting. 
The  object  of  this  last  movement  is  to  inscribe  a 
transverse  line  on  the  stem,  affording  a  starting  point 
in  measuring  the  length  of  the  stroke. 

Small  changes  of  temperature  after  theinstnunent 
I  is  set  are  of  no  consequence,  as  tlie  oil  will  of  course 
return  to  the  same  volume,  and  the  piston  stand  at 
the  same  place,  on  returning  to  the  same  tempera- 
ture. Before  placing  the  piezometer  in  the  hollow 
plug,  a  thin  leather  envelope,  kept  saturated  with 
oil,  is  drawnupon  it, (with  the  intention  of  affording 
protection  against  the  shock  of  firing),  and  when  in- 
serted, the  remaining  space  within  the  plug  is  filled 
with  oil,  which  is  retained  by  stopping  the  opening 
through  the  retaining  ring  (which  forms  the  com- 
munication with  the  bore  of  the  gun)  with  aloosely- 
fitted  disk  of  cork  or  leather.  One  particular  to  be 
noted  is  the  position  of  the  eye  of  the  piston  with 
reference  to  the  line  in  which  the  gun  will  recoil  on 
firing.  The  metal  surrounding  the  eye  occupies  a 
position  at  one  side  of  the  piston's  axis  of  rotation  in 
I  the  barrel,  thereby  throwing  the  center  of  gyration 
out  of  that  line;  and  if  that  center  be  so  situated  as 
to  fall  outside  of  a  plane  coincident  with  the  line  of 
recoil,  it  is  evident  that  the  piston  will  have  a  ten- 
dencv  to  rotation  when  the  gun  is  fired. 


PIFFARD  HEEL  PLATE. 


n5>9 


PILE-DEIVEE. 


PIFFAKD  HEEL-PLATE.— This  device  consists  of 
a  soft  rubber  pad  or  cushion  about  half  an  inch  in 
thickness.  It  is  applied  to  the  butt  of  the  jiun  (after 
removal  of  the  iron  heel-plate),  and  is  retained  in 
position  by  a  skeleton  plate.  The  latter  is  attached 
to  the  stock  by  usin.s  one  of  the  original  screws,  and 
in  addition  a  small  screw  inserted  near  the  toe  of  the 
heel-plate,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  stock  of 
the  gun  is  not  altered  in  any  manner,  and  the  origin- 
al butt-plate  can  be  re-applied  at  will.  E.xperience 
has  shown  that,  when  using  this  contrivance,  the 
effect  of  recoil  has  been  "greatly  moditied,  and  a 
charge  of  as  much  as  110  grains  of  powder,  with  430 


of  lead,  can  be  shot  without  discomfort.  The  bene- 
fits accruing  from  the  lessened  recoil  are :  Recruits 
and  beginners  will  not  become  "gun-shy,"  and  con- 
tract the  habit  of  flinching  ;  increased  accuracy  from 
absence  of  flinching ;  target  practice  can  be  more 
continuously  and  efficiently  carried  on  than  is  prac- 
ticable without  the  elastic-plate,  owing  to  the  bruis- 
ing and  other  injuries  attendant  on  the  use  of  the 
service  cartridge ;  and,  the  powder  charge  for  ser- 
vice ammunition  could  be  materially  Increased, 
thereby  flattening  the  trajectory,  andin  other  res- 
pects rendering  the  weapon  more  effective. 

It  is  evident  that  the  use  of  this  description  of 
heel-plate  insures  greater  safety  and  increased  ac- 
curacy. The  dropping  of  a  loaded  gun  (cocked  or 
half-cocked),  butt  downwards,  on  a  stone  or  hard 
ground  may  result  in  breaking  the  point  of  the  sear 
or  one  of  the  notches  of  the  tumbler,  causing  a  pre- 
mature discharge.  This  heel-plate  would  diminish 
the  force  of  the  concussion  and  lessen  the  liability 
to  accident.  In  repeating  rifles,  in  which  the  car- 
tridges are  arranged  in  the  magazine  with  the  bullet 
of  one  pressing  on  the  primer  of  the  one  in  front  of 
it,  the  dropping  of  the  gun  might  cause  an  explo- 
sion in  the  magazine.  The  liability  to  this  accident 
■would  be  diminished  by  the  use  ofthe  plate.  Prac- 
tical marksmen  have  found  that  wlien  using  this 
heel-plate  the  butt  of  the  rifle  is  retaint^d  in  proper 
position  against  the  arm  with  less  e.xertion,  the  rub- 
ber not  slipping  from  the  arm  as  readily  as  the  iron 
butt-plate.  On  drill.  Order  Arm.i  is  accompanied 
with  less  noise,  and  less  jar  to  the  mechanism  of  the 
weapon.  By  a  recent  resolution  of  the  Directors  of 
the  National  Rifle  Association,  the  use  of  this  heel- 
plate is  permitted  in  all  military  and  other  competi- 
tions held  under  their  auspices. 

PIKE.— Previously  to  the  use  of  the  bayonet,  in- 
fantry of  the  line  of" battle— that  is,  the  heavy-armed 
troops— were  from  the  earliest  times  armed  with 
pikes  or  spears.  The  Macedonians  carried  pikes  24 
feet  long  ;  those  of  modern  warfare  averaged  12  or 
14  feci.  They  were  of  stout  wood,  and  tipped  with 
a  flat  iron  spearhead,  which  sometimes  hticl  cutting 
edges.  As  a  (lefeiise  against  cavalry,  the  jiike,  from 
its  length  and  rigidity,  was  of  great  value;  but 
though  it  long  surviveil  the  introduction  of  gunpow- 
der, that  event  was  really  fatal  to  it.  For  success 
with  the  pike,  especially  in  ollensive  war,  a  dc'pth 
of  several  men  was  essential,  and  this  depth  ren- 
dered the  fire  of  arlillery  peculiarly  fatal.  The  pike 
is  now  sujjerseded  by  the  bayonet  on  the  end  of  the 
nniskcl. 

PIKEMEN.  -Men  who  were  armeu  with  the  pike. 
Fn.1,1  111,,  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  to  that  of  William 
III.  the  greater  part  of  theEnglish  Army  was  formed 
of  Pikemtn. 

PILE. — 1.  In  Heraldry,  an  ordinary,  or,  according 


to  some  Heralds,  a  subordinary,  in  the  form  of  a 
wedge,  issuing  generally  from  the  middle  chief,  and 
extending  towards  the  middle  base  of  th ;  shield.  It 
is  said  that  a  pile  should  occupy  one-third  of  the 
breadth  of  the  chief,  or,  it  charged,  double  that 
breadth.    When  a  pile  is  borne  issuing,  not  from  the 


Pile. 


middle  chief,  but  from  some  other  part  of  the  bound- 
ing-line  of  the  shield,  thi5  must  be  specified  in  the 
blazon.  Three  piles  are  sometimes  borne  conjoined 
in  point.  A  pile  transposed  is  one  whose  point  is 
upward. 

2.  A  round  or  squared  log  of  wood  used  in  engin- 
eering operations,  such  as  dams,  bridges,  roads,  etc. 
They  are  sharpened  at  the  point,  and,  if  necessary, 
protected  with  iron  points,  to  enable  them  to  cut 
tlirough  the  strata  they  encounter  as  they  are  driven 
into  the  ground.  When  used  for  cotfer-dams,  or 
such  temporary  purposes,  they  are  placed  close  to- 
gether, and  driven  firmly  into  the  earth  ;  the  water 
is  then  pumped  out,  and  the  piles  form  a  dam,  to 
enable  workmen  to  lay  foundations  of  piers,  etc. 
When  the  force  of  the  water  round  the  dam  is  great, 
two  rows  of  piles  are  driven  in  all  round,  and  the 
space  between  the  rows  filled  with  clay,  and  puddled. 
Piles  are  also  used  for  permanent  works,  when  they 
are  driven  through  loose  soil  till  they  reach  a  firm 
bottom,  and  thus  form  a  foundation  on  which  build- 
ings, roads,  etc..  may  be  placed.  Cast-iron  is  fre- 
quently used  for  piles,  which  are  cast  hollow. 
Wharf-walls  are  sometimes  built  of  piles  ;  tliey  are 
then  cast  with  grooves  on  the  sides,  into  which  cast- 
iron  plates  (forming  the  walls)  are  fitted.  A  kind  of 
pile  has  been  invented  by  Mr.  Mitchell,  which  is  of 
great  use  in  very  loose  and  shifting  substances.  It 
is  called  the  screw-pile,  and  consists  of  a  long  shaft 
(of  wrought  iron),  with  a  broad  cast-iron  disc,  of  a 
screw  form,  at  the  lower  end.  These  piles  are  espe- 
cially useful  for  light-houses,  beacons,  etc.,  which 
have  to  be  placed  on  sands.  They  are  fi.xed  by  means 
of  capstans,  which  give  them  a  rotatory  motion. 
In  1843  Dr.  L.  H.  Potts  obtained  a  patent  for  a  new 
kind  of  pile,  which  consists  of  hollow  tubes  of  iron, 
from  which  the  sand,  etc.,  within  them  is  removed 
by  means  of  an  air-pump,  and  the  pipes  are  then 
sunk.  In  recent  railway  bridges,  cylinders  have 
been  much  used  to  form  both  piles  and  piers.  They 
are  of  cast-iron,  and  made  in  pieces  (of  about  6  feet 
in  heiglit),  which  are  applied  one  on  top  of  another. 
The  sand  or  gravel  is  removed  from  the  inside  of 
the  first  laid,  which  thus  sinks  down ;  another  c)'l- 
inder  is  placed  above  it,  and  the  same  process  con- 
tinued till  it  also  has  sunk  suflicientl}-;  and  so  on,  cyl- 
inder over  cylinder,  till  a  solid  foundation  is  reached. 
The  requisite  number  of  cylinders  is  then  piled  up 
to  form  the  pier  above  ground. 

PILE  ARMS.— To  place  three  muskets,  with  bayo- 
nets fixed  or  unfixed,  in  such  a  relative  position  that 
they  shall  niuluallj-  supjiort  each  <itlu'r.  This  is  done 
when  men  stand  from  their  arms  either  on  parade, 
on  the  march,  or  in  camp.     See  SUirh  Arms. 

PILE  BRIDGE.— A  form  of  bridge  nuich  used  in 
military  operations,  having  Ihc  piers  built  will)  piles. 
These  may  be  either  temiiorary  wooden  strucliires, 
in  which  wooden  ])ili's,  driven  into  llie  ground,  serve 
also  as  ])iers,  or  they  may  be  iH'riuanent  bridges, 
with  iron  cylinders  fornung  the  piles  below  the 
surface,   and  jiiers  above. 

PILE-DRIVER.—  A  machine  having  a  rising  and 
falling  weight  to  drive  a  |)ile  into  the  bed.  Nearly 
forty  years  ago  an  cnnnent  Scotch  Engineer,  James 
Nasmyth,  th  einventor   of   the   sleam-bainmer,  con- 


PILE  DEIVEE. 


523 


PILE  DEIVEE. 


Btructed  the  first  steam  pile  driver  wliinli,  although 
a  grciit  improvement  dii  the  onlinary  drop-lmiiimer 
in  many  respecln,  iK'Ver  ciurie  iiiln  j^eiicnd  usi'  fur 
Heveral  reasons.  I'rinripal  anion;;  wliieli  were  tlie 
liability  of  tlie  machines  tliroiii;li  eonipliealion  of 
parts  to  ^et  out  of  order,  and  tlie  fact  llial  llii'  end  of 
eiieli  separates  i)il(^  reipiired  to  be  accurately  lilted 
and  banded  before  it  could  be  driven.      Subsequent 


steam  is  exhausted  and  the  cylinder  falling  delivers 
its  blow,  and  tliereafter  continui's  to  rain  blows 
upon  llie  pile  with  a  speed  at  the  will  of  thr- operator 
until  the  pile  be  down,  or  the  supply  of  the  steam 
cutoff,  when  th(!  machine  is  hoisteif  to  the  rest  at 
the  top  of  theleadersready  forari'petition  of  tlieper- 
formanei!  just  described.  In  this  connection  it  may 
be  slated  thai  li^ht  or  lieavy  blows  may  be  struck 
at  the  will  of  the  operator,  as  a  reverse  motion  of  the 
valve  lever,  which,  in  the  hands  of  the  operator,  ad- 
mits steam  to  the  hammer,  causr's  the  steam  to  be 
e.\haust<'d  at  any  ilesired  point  in  tin-  stroke,  and  a 
blow  correspondini,'  to  the  height  from  which  the 
ram  falls  delivered  ;  makin;;  it  possible,  if  desired 
by  the  operator,  to  test  the  pile  by  one  or  more  light 
blow^s  before  the  machine  is  permitted  to  work  au- 
tomatically at  fidl  stroke,  or  if  it  is  desired  to 
drive  the  pile  in  jiosilion  under  the  hammer  to  any 
desired  point.  It  is  jiossible,  when  the  pih;  is  found 
to  be  nearly  liome,  to  stop  the  autcmiatic  working 
of  the  hammer  and  deliver  the  remaining  blows  re- 
quired to  bring  the  i)ile  to  its  proper  position  by 
hand.  This  feature  in  the  working  of  this  hammer 
is  particularly  advantageous,  because  since  the  heads 
of  the  iiiles  driven  with  this  hammer  are  neither  bruis- 
ed nor  shattered,  the  ability  to  drive  to  any  desired 
level  with  accuracy  and  expedition  precludes,  in 
many  cases,  the  ne<'essitv  of  cutting  ofT  the  piles  to 
gain  a  common  level,  In  the  use  of  this  machine, 
whether  on  land  or  mounted  on  a  float,  it  is  found 
that  witli  the  point  of  the  pile  in  position,  and  the 
head  held  by  the  bonnet  casting,  no  other  guides 
of  any  sort  are  required  to  insure  accuracy 
I  of  position  when  driven.  The  bonnet  casting  re- 
ferred to  in  this  maihine  is  so  constructed  that  no 
preparation  of   the   heads  of  the   piles  is  necessary 


Fig-  1. 

modificjition  of  Nasmyth's  niacliine  has  greatly  less- 
ened its  liability  to  get  out  of  order,  and  largely  in- 
creased its  usefulness,  but  it  has  remained  for  .Mr. 
R.  J.  Cram,  an  American  and  the  inventor  of  the 
machine  which  we  describe  in  this  article,  to  devise 
an  engine  sufficiently  simple  in  construction  and  ef- 
fective in  practice.  The  Cram  pile-driver,  or  pile- 
hammer,  as  it  is  more  properly  termed,  has  a  cylin- 
drical ram,  Fig.  1,  made  to  reciprocate  between 
wrought-iron  I  Ijeams,  which  with  the  casting  con- 
necting the  upper  ends,  carrying  the  piston  rod  and 
valve  and  the  honnet  ra.tting,  hoTding  the  head  of  the 
pile,  and  connecting  the  bcttom  ends,  make  the 
frame  which  guid<'S  the  machine  while  being  hoisted 
between  the  leaders,  or  when  following  a  pile  which 
is  being  driven.  These  pile-hammers  maybe  readi- 
ly applied  to  anj'  machine  of  the  ordinary  patterns 
without  any  alteration  excepting  such  as  may  be 
necessary  to  accommodate  the  width  of  the  hammer, 
and  afford  an  opportunity  for  connecting  the  flexi- 
ble pipe  which  conveys  steam  from  the  boiler  to  op- 
erate the  hammer.  The  hammer  being  hoisted  to 
a  rest  at  a  convenient  height,  the  pile  to  be  driven  is 
placed  in  position  and  the  hammer  lowered  until  the 
bonnet  casting,  which  forms  the  bottom  of  the  frame, 
receives  the  head  in  the  conical  aperture  through 
which  the  pintle-like  projection  on  the  bottom  face 
of  the  hammer  strikes,  when  a  blow  is  delivered. 
The  weight  of  the  hammer  being  on  the  pile,  the 
clutch  on  the  winding  drum  or  other  device  ccmtrol- 
ling  its  descent,  is  cast  adrift  and  the  valve  thrown 
open  to  admit  the  passage  of  steam  through  the  flex- 
ible pipe  and  the  hollow  piston  rod  suttieieut  to  op- 
erate the  hammer  at  any  desired  speed. 

On  the  admission  of  steam  the  hammer  immedi- 
ately rises  in  its  frame  or  cage,  to  the  full  e.xteut  of 
the  stroke  at  which  it  maybe  set, ordinarilj- about  four 
inches,  and  on  reaching    the  end  of  its  stroke  the 


■when  the  diameters  do  not  exceed  eighteen  or  twenty 
inches.  When  it  is  desired  to  drive  piles  of  a  greater 
diameter  the  heails  are  roughly  chamfered  with  a 
chopping  axe.  It  is  an  exceedingly  difficult  matter 
to  compare  the  work  done  by  this"  simple  machine 
with  that  of  the  ordinary  drop-hammer,  because  thia 


PELETUS. 


524 


PILING. 


steam-hammer  will  so  readily  do  !  work  that  the  or- 
dinary drop-hammer  will  not  do  at  all,  for  instance, 
after  a  pile  has  been  driven  with  an  ordinary  drop 
hammer  until  it  has  become  necessary  to  remove 
the  ring  and  cut  a  section  off  the  pile  to"  form  a  new 
and  solid  head, by  experiment  it  has  been  found  that 
the  steam-hammer  experiences  no  difficulty  in  forc- 
ing the  pile  imtil  the  point  reaches  hard  pan  or  rock, 
and  it  will,  perhaps,  be  sutlicient  to  state  tbat  in  tbe 
machine  here  illustrated, the  ram  weighing  5,500  lbs., 
when  working  under  a  pressure  of  75  lbs.  of  steam 
delivers  upwards  of  100  blows  per  minute,  more 
than  sufficient  to  force  a  pile  through  hard  sand  or 
clay  to   the  depth  usually  desired. 

The  fact  that  the  ram, when  the  blow  is  delivered, 
is  free,  unattached  to  piston  rod,  valve  gear,  or  any 
other  pari,  will  recommend  the  machine  to  practical 
men,  as  will  also  the  fact  that  the  valve  is  a  perfectly 
balanced,  positive  action  valve,  with  a  travel  of  but 
I  of  an  inch  in  a  steam  jacketed  chest, and  that  the  at- 
tachments of  the  hose  at  either  end  are  flexible,  thus 
avoiding  any  cramping,  or  twisting  which  otherwise 
w.ould  occur.  The  tappit  or  trip  operating  the  valve 
is  adjustable,  permitting  the  operator  to  control  the 
length  of  stroke  when  the  machine  is  working  auto- 
matically, thereby  making  the  force  of  the  blows  suit 
the  work  in  hand.  Spiral  percussion  springs  are 
fitted  in  pockets  in  the  "  bonnet  casting"  to  receive 
any  chance  blow.and  in  practice  are  found  to  effect- 
ually prevent  any  loosening  of  the  fastenings  con- 
necting the  bonnet  casting  with  the  I  beams.  Fig  2 
shows  a  portable  spur-geared  pile-driver  engine, hav- 


PltlNG. — In  iron-working,  the  process  of  building 
up  piles  of  iron  bars,  to  be  charged  into  the  balling- 
furnace.  The  amount  of  work  put  into  bar-iron  varies 
with  the  quality.  For  the  common  kinds,  puddled 
bars,  or  No  1  iron,  cut  into  lengths,  are  piled,  and 
when  brought  to  a  welding-heat  are  rolled  off,  either 
with  or  without  first  being  worked  into  a  bloom  under 
the  hammer.  More  usually,  however,  the  iron  of 
second-rolling,  No.  2,  is  employed  at  the  top  and  bot- 


tom plates  of  the  piles  when  making  finished  No  3. 
or  best  iron.  Beyond  this, if  further  piled  and  welded, 
the  iron  is  distinguished  as  best-heat  and  trehle-heat 
according  to  the  number  of  heatings  and  weldings 
to  which  it  has  been  subjected.  The  drawing  shows 
samples  of  piling  for  plate,  T,  girder  and  bar-iron ; 
the  deeper  shaded  inner  outlines  representini:  finished 
sections.  The  harder  and  more  granular  kinds  of 
iron  are  worked  almost  exclusively  under  the  ham- 
mer, the  rolling-mill  being  only  used  in  giving  the 
proper  figure  to  the  bar  at  the  finishing  stage. 

The  great  improvement  in  the  strength  of  malle- 
able iron  by  the  processes  of  piling  and  rolling  has 
been  more  satisfactorily  established  by  experience 
than  explained  by  theory.  One  obvious  effect  of  the 
violent  compression  between  the  rollers  is  the  squeez- 


Cylinder. 

Boiler. 

Tubes. 

Dia.   of 

Duty  of 

Style  of  Engine. 

a? 

A 

Xi 

Engine 

g 

Bore. 

? 

Dia. 

bo 

No. 

Dia. 

^' 

Drum. 

lbs. 

^ 

M 

a 

^ 

r 

r                                                          r 

a; 

. 

6 

6 

8 

32 

63 

41 

2 

39 

10  5 

1800 

1 

S  wi        i 

One  Drum. 

10 

7 

10 

34 

72 

49 

2 

48 

12  1 

3000 

t. 

^■'3, 

o 

> 

w 

12 

"> 

10 

36 

72 

55 

2 

48 

12  ;S 

0) 

3000 

o  J 
"3 

£    ^ 

r                          ( 

12 

6 

8 

36 

78 

55 

2 

54 

12    f 

3600 

Engii 
ccted 
e  era 
aft. 

One  Drum. 

( 

20 

7 

10 

40 

90 

85 

2 

60 

"1 

6000 

W 

1§" 

Two  Drums. 

12 

6 

8 

36 

78 

55 

2 

54 

-1 

1800 

L    O     2 

L                                 ( 

20 

7 

10 

40 

90 

85 

2 

60 

3000 

Double  Vertical                              ( 

6 

6 

8 

36 

78 

55 

2 

54 

10   o| 

1800 

Independent  Engines.                        "i 

10 

7 

10 

40 

90 

85 

2 

60 

.2  ^ 

12  Q 

3000 

ing  a  cone  friction  single  drum.  The  engine  is  de- 
signed for  either  portable  or  stationary  purposes, and 
is  constructed  either  with  or  witliout  wheels.  The 
drum  is  loose  on  the  shaft,  having  a  conical  friction 
clutch  which  is  thrown  into  or  out  of  contact  with 
tlie  large  gear  wheel  by  means  of  a  hand  lever  oper- 
ating a  spiral  sleeve  on  the  drum  shaft.  The  drum,  in 
lowering,  revolves  back  free  of  the  gear,  and  is  con- 
trolled by  a  strap  brake  lined  with  wood,  operated 
by  a  foot  lever.  A  relief  valve  is  also  fitted  to  the 
engine,  which  allows  it  to  back  down  with  llie  load. 
This  style  of  engine  is  the  favorite  in  the  United  States 
for  land  pile  driving  machines.  It  is  also  well  adapt- 
ed for  other  kinds  of  work  where  speed  in  lowering 
is  required.  Tlie  engine  may  l)e  made  eitlier  vertical 
or  horizontal,  single  or  double  cylinder,  eillier  con- 
nected or  in(h-pendent  of  each  other,  and  witli  simrle 
or  double  drums.  The  foregoing  table  shows  the 
power  required  for  a  specified  duty.  See  Ounjmrdir- 
hnmmir. 

PILETUS.  A  kind  of  armor  formerly  used,  having 
a  knob  u])on  tlie  shaft,  near  the  head,  to  prevent  it 
from  penetrating  the  object  aimed  at  too  deeply. 


mg  out  of  slag,  which  is  liable  to  become  entangled 
in  the  iron  during  hammering  and  rolling  of  the 
balls  taken  from  the  puddling-furnace.  Tlie  occur- 
rence of  small  masses  of  slag  in  malleable  iron  is 
not  an  uncommon  cause  of  weakness,  each  particle 
of  slag  giving  rise  to  a  flaw  in  the  metal.  In  the 
process  of  reheating  the  bars  this  slag  is  melted, 
and  may  then  be  squeezed  out  by  the  action  of  the 
rollers. 

A  marked  diminution  in  the  proportions  of  carbon 
and  silicon  present  in  the  iron  is  also  effected  during 
the  process,  as  shown  by  the  following  results  of 
chemical  analysis: 

In  100  parts  Carbon.         Silicon. 

Puddled  bar 0.2'.l(5  0.120 

Best  bar 0.111  0.088 

This  may  be  explained  by  the  action  of  the  oxide 
of  iron  formed  upon  the  surficc  of  tlie  bar  during 
exposure  to  air  at  a  weldiiig-lieat.  The  rolling  of 
several  bars  into  one  single  bar  would  n'luler  the 
sinicliirc  of  the  iiK'lul  uniform,  so  that  the  bar  would 
be  equally  strong  throughout. 


PIUNO  OF  UALL8. 


525 


PILLAB  CEAME. 


During  the  opcriUion  of  liifintiiii;,  or  piling  and 
rolling,  the  iron  iicfjuircs  ii  n'lniirkablc  til)roiiK  str.ic- 
lurc,  so  tliut  if  11  bur  of  tin;  best  iron  be  nolclicd  willi 
a  cluHfl,  and  broken  across  by  a  steady  pressure,  the 
fracture  will  present  a  stringy  appearance,  resem- 
bling I  hat  of  a  green  stick;  whilst  a  puddled  bar 
thus  Ireateii  would  exhibit  a  crystalline, sliiningfrac- 
ture,  not  uiilik(;  I  bat  of  cast-iron.  That  this  iirrre, 
or  reed,  as  the  librous  slru(-'ture  is  sonietirnes  called, 
should  nuiterially  incn^ase  the  resistance  of  a  bar  to 
any  Iransverse  strain,  can  readily  be  believed,  for 
Bueh  a  bar  n'send)les  a  bundle  of  wires  lirinly  bound 
together,  wbilst  a  crystalline  bar  must  be  regarded 
as  composed  of  a  number  of  particles  of  iron  stuck 
together  in  a  confused  Miauuer.     See  /run. 

FILING  OF  BALLS.  Balls  are  piled  according  to 
kind  and  calil)er,  under  cover  if  practicable,  in  a 
place  where  there  is  a  free  circulation  of  air,  to  facil- 
itate which  the  piles  should  be  made  narrow,  if  the 
locality  permits;  the  width  of  the  bottom  tier  may 
be  from  12  to  14  balls,  according  to  the  caliber.  Pre- 
pare the  ground  for  the  base  of  the  pile  by  raising  it 
above  the  surrounding  ground  so  as  to  throw  off  the 
water;  level  it,  ram  it  well,  and  cover  it  with  a  layer 
of  screened  .-land.  Hake  the  bottom  of  the  pile  with 
a  tier  of  unserviceable  balls,  buried  about  two-thirds 
of  theirdiametcr  in  the  sand  ;  this  base  may  be  made 
permanent ;  clean  the  base  well  and  form  the  pile, 
putting  the  fvise-holes  of  shells  downwards,  in  the 
intervals,  and  not  resting  on  the  shells  below.  Each 
pile  is  marked  with  the  number  of  serviceable  balls 
it  contains.  The  base  may  be  made  of  bricks,  con- 
crete, stone,  or  with  borders  and  braces  of  iron. 
Good  and  imperfect  balls  should  not  be  used  in  the 
same  base  ;  and,  to  avoid  confusion,  the  unservice- 
able should  be  left  vmpainted,  or  painted  of  a  differ- 
ent color  from  the  serviceable. 

To  find  the.  number  of  hall«  in  a  pile:  Multiply  the 
Bum  of  the  three  parallel  edges  by  one-third  of  the 
number  of  balls  in  a  triangular  face.  In  a  square 
pile  one  of  the  parallel  edges  contains  but  one  ball ; 
in  a  triangular  pile  two  of  the  edges  have  but  one 
ball  in  each.  The  number  of  balls  in  a  triangular 
n  {n  +  1) 

face  is ;  n  being  the  number  in  the  bot- 

2 
tom  row.  The  sum  of  the  three  parallel  edges  in  a 
triangular  pile  is  »  +  2  ;  in  a  square  pile,  2  «  -j-  1  ; 
in  an  oblong  pile,  3N4"2  n  —  2,N  being  the  length 
of  the  top  row,  and  n  the  width  of  the  bottom  tier; 
or  3  TO  —  «  + 1,  m  being  the  length,  and  n  the  width 
of  the  bottom  tier.  If  a  pile  consists  of  two  piles 
joined  at  a  right  angle,  calculate  the  contents  of  one 
as  a  common  oblong  line,  and  of  the  other  as  a  pile 
of  which  the  tliree  parallel  edges  are  equal. 

To  find  the  length  of  ii  pile  tchich  shall  hold  a  given 
number  of  balls,  the  width  of  the  biise  being  fixed :  A 
=  the  number  of  Imlls  to  be  piled,  n  =  the  number 
in  the  width  of  the  base  of  the  pile,  vi  =  the  num- 
ber of  balls  in  the  length  of  the  base  of  the  pile;  then 
6  A+  n(n  +  1)  {n  -f  1) 

m  = 

3  71  (ra  +  1) 
In  the  table  of  the  number  of  balls  in  a  pile, on  page 
.526,  the  second  hne  shows  the  number  in  a  triangu- 
lar pile,  the  base  of  which  is  the  corresponding  num- 
ber in  the  lirst  line.  The  other  numbers  show  the 
contents  of  square  and  oblong  piles  ;  the  length  and 
width  of  the  base  being  in  the  upper  line  and  in  the 
left-hand  column,  respectively. 

For  rifle  projectiles  :  Divide  the  ntimber  of  pro- 
jectiles to  be  piled  by  the  number  in  the  triangular 
face  decided  upon,  and  multiply  this  number  by  the 
caliber  in  feet  of  tlie  particular  projectile  to  be  piled. 
The  dimensions  provisionally  adopted  for  service 
ritlc  projectiles  areas  follows,  viz:  Total  length, 
3i  calibers.  Radius  of  head,  Ii  diameter  of  projec- 
tile. Windage,  0".O5.  The  cavity  for  cored  shot 
and  for  shells  is  of  a  somewhat  similar  form  to  the 
exterior  of  the  projectile,  except  that  the  bottom  is 


rounded,  and  its  size  is  so  proportioned  as  to  secure 
the  pr(i[)er  weight  to  the  projectile. 

The  following  formulas  are  useful  in  connection 
with  this  sul)ject : 

For  an  ogival  head  of  1  diameter  radius:  Volume 
of  head    ^  D'  X  0".3i(.W!)2. 

For  an  ogival  head  of  IJ    diameter  radius  :     Vol- 
ume of  head—  I)''X  0"  44705. 
For  an  ogival  head  of  U  diameter  radius:  Volume 
of  h(;ad  =  D'  x  0".4942.'; 
(D  =:  diameter  of  shot. J 

Center  of  gravity  of  ogival  hea/l ;    Distance  from 
i  (r«  +  a")  gi  -   1^  gi  +a  a  a'  -  r\ 

base  = .  in 

(r«  +  a2)ir  — iy»  +  2a  « 
which  g  =  length  of  head,  r  =  radius  of  head,  a  = 
radius  of  head  —  radius  of  projectile. 

(Diam.;' 

Weight  of  eored  slvjt ;  Small  calibers large 

3 
calibers  Cradius)^   x  2.H. 

PILING  OF  BARBELS.— The  following  formute 
refer  to  the  \i8ual  manner  of  piling  barrels  in  maga- 
zines. 

Vase  1. — Pyramid  pile. 

8  =  1+2+3 +;i- 

where  8  =  number  of  barrels, 

n  =  number  in  bottom  row. 
n  (n+1) 

•••S  = (1) 

2 
In  an  incomplete  pyramid  pile, 
n  (n+1)        {m — 1)  m 

S  = 

2  2 

n* — m*-\-n-\-m 

2 
(n-\-m)  (n — mxl) 

=  2 ■' ''' 

where  m  =  number  in  top  row. 

Casel. — Where  oft«  end  of  the  pile  rests  against 
an  upright,  and  the  top  row  does  not  touch  the  up- 
right. 

S  =  re«  —  nj2; 
where  n  =  number  in  bottom  row,  and  m  number 
in  top  row. 

Suppose  the  pile  continued  till  m  =  1.     Then, 
8  =  2  (1+2+3.  .  .  .  +n)  —  71  —  1 

=  n  (71+1)  -  (?H-1) 

=  (71+1)  (n— 1)  =  7i«  —  1; (3) 

and  in  an  incomplete  pile, 

S  =  (71=  —  1)  —  (m»  ~l)  =  n*  ~m' (4) 

Cojie  3. — If  the  top  row  touch  the  upright. 
S  =  7i8  —  m^-\-m (5) 

Case  4. — Where  the  barrels  are  piled  between  two 
uprights  so  that  if  bottom  row  =  n,  second  =  n — 1, 
third  =  n.  and  so  on. 

If  top  row  =  re  —  1,  i.e.  if  top  row  do  not  touch 
the  uprights, 

tn         m 

S  =  mn =  —  (2n  —1); (6) 

2  2 

where  m  =  number  of  courses. 

When  top  row  =  n,  i.e.  when  top  row  touches  up- 
rights, 

S  =  mn  —  i  (to  —  1) 
7»  (271  —  1 )  +  1 

= (7) 

2 

These  results,  being  only  calculated  for  piles  of 
one  barrel  in  depth,  must  of  course  be  multiplied 
by  the  number  of  barrels  in  the  dfpth  of  the  piles. 

PILLAGE. — The  act  of  plundering;  that  which  is 
taken  from  another  bj"  open  force,  particularly  and 
chiefly  from  enemies  in  war. 

PILLAK  CRANE.— -A.  crane  of  this  class  is  entirely 
supported  from  below,  and  the  masonrj-  which 
forms  the  foimdation  must  have  sufficient  stability 


PILLAR  CRANE. 


526 


PILLAR  CRANE. 


,_*.H-ii--it--^OOOOOCOGOaDCCOD-^«-5-^C5CiC:CTC;iC;TCnk^.tUt;^C003CCtOi:OlOfcCt--'i-^»--i 

;:;  ^  ;:>;  0-^rf^h-^QDC;ftC/COCSCOO--3>P*»--^XCTt.C'COCTsCOO-<?4>-'--'<XCntOggOCCO--QfP^i--'ODC:T 


oooooooo  o_oo  oooooooooooooooooooooooooo 


00  -5  -1  -^  -3 

O  00  —   "  "■ 


Cltf>'tOO-QaTCOi--CO-^C7l05i--'OC53^t30GOC:rf*tOOGCC;?CO'---=D-30TCO»-*>?0 
WtoJ^O«00.<I05CJlrfa.COWi--^0!OQO-;iCSOT>f».COtOH-0':OGOW|01(:;Trfi'COl>3i-». 


OOO^tSOOO<XCOQD-3<I-5-^OOClC;TC^CTCJT4>-^f*-|4*'CCCOMWtOb2Wi-^i--'i-* 

mcoooocntC'^Oirf>'t--'QOCfttso--3>p'''--^ccocco-j*''to!r;C5WOOccn*p':cci*^ 

^^C5  QD  OtP  >^CSGDOtOtJ=^CaODO«>^05000tC>rf^C:iQCOtJ>f*-CSGCObO>fiasQOO 


"^ 


W03tOt:>tO^H-i'--OOOCDtOGOODGC--l-l-^C:iClClC:iC*»(3^rf^**CCCOCOiC'tC'*:0 
aTtOQCrf^Hi-.7  4».Oai&l<riC5tOOOWi-'GCft>.0-3COOC5J«CD(:;TtOOO>^.i--*--]rfs.O 
Sotl^OOI>5C;0*''GOtOOiOrf>'ODK)OSOt&OOtOaiO*^OOtOa504^GOK50SOtf!^ 


Oi-cs  c;TCTOtrf»->*^wo;totO'-''-'000!OOOcac-'3--3Cscsc:icncnrfk.rf:^cocoio 
ocnooTQcnoaiooTOC'TOaTOCTOcnocjtocfTOOTOcnoaTOcjTOCT 


to  •-*  ^^  H^  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  J-*  ^  ^  J-'  _^  ^ 

o'!D"^'oo"boV7"'-0~CiVt  OT^rf^'rf^  CO  CO  bO  tC  ^-^  <--  O  _    _    _-   --       - 

COGDb5-<l>-'CiOCf':Orf*-ODCC-:]tCiCit— '>-TOrf^^OO-GCl*^^3  _     _       _..       _. 

en  O  0»  OCAOOTOCJTOCJTOCnOOTOClOCnOCnocnoCTOCnOCrtOC;^ 


to  to  to  to  to  tS  to  j-^  H--  ^-'  J-*  ^  ^  ^  ^  H-  k-  _^^  j-i  H-t  ^►-^  K* 

>P».'CC  tCil>»"I--i"o'o"o  b^'cXjVj'ci'cs^'rf^^rf^  COlOtOi-^'— 'OCDCOOO-'l-^CaCTd 
tOSJTOC{OOTOtOCjrCCtOCiXit0  3itOCOCS?OCOCS005CiOOi*-30tO-^0 
Orf>.Xt0C5Orf^0Ct0  C^Orf^QDtOOSOrf^COtOCSOM^QOtOasQrf^OO 


to  fcO  lO  to  to  lO  to  to  tC  IC  IC  <-^  ^   '-'  >-'  '-^  ^^  J-*  ^   ►-'  ►-^  ^^-^  J-*  H-i 

V.  05  en  'kt-  oi  LC  cc  ^  'c;  ':r  'x  'x  ~i  ~  Cf  en  i*'  co  to  t—  .-^  o  ^  CO  cc  -i  o 

-1  o  to  rf^  a;  00  H-  cc  e^r  -  (  '—  rw  -i-  ~.  'X  o  05  en  -q  o  I— '  *».  Ci  GO  o  to  en 
00  oto>^r:'XOto>^r:Xwte4*csGoObS»»-cscxoto>^c:Goo 


to 


CO  CO  M^  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to^^^   ^_^^_    .^_ 

1o"h- o'o'o'co"^  c;  ct  rfj^'ec  to'''--''o  ooGO-3aiCJTht»-ccitoi— ^oocooo 
wjQo<©o>-'boe>:eorfi.c;TCi-'3  00«DOi-'to(oco>f».C7ioi-JCc<:DOv-'t-* 
Ci  en  rfi-  cc  to  >— ^  O  go  'X  <i  cieTttf>-ostOi-^0'^Qo-^g^en>f^cotS'-^ocp 


fe 

VI 


00  CO  t*  CO  CO  CO  CO^C  to  to  W^bOJiOJrO  to  tOJ^  H-k__J-^J--'J--'_^^-' H-^J-'^t-^J-' h-^ 

<3  CS  OT '*^  OS  \o "t— O "cO  bo 'C5 'en "rf^ "w  to  H- O  0 1» 

*'»t^cccctotO'-».H-oo!OcDGOOC-^-:iCiCscnentfk**eocototO'-' 
en  o  enomoenocTTOCnocJToenoenooTOOnocnocnocn 


rfi-rf^rfi-cocococcco  ec  w  CO  to_w  to  to  io_io  to  to_H-'j--'^_^-*  H-^^^-^j-* 
Vo'^-' o'oo'^'ci'cn  rf^lo'*-^  o'^  0Dl3i'en'V"b5  to'o  cDOo"^  cf;  'j^'eo'to 

rf*-tOOOOOS>f^fcOOGCCl*-tOOODCi*^f0  00005rf^tOCOOClt*- 

oooooooooooooo  oooooooooooo 


rfi.>^*..f;^ht».rfwCOC0OSO3  03  CO  W  tO_tOJ>0_bOJO  tOj:o_io  '-'_►-' J-' '-' 

^1ji~'h*»-"eo"to  o'cD  Go'*ase;T"t^  tow  o  oo"^  en  rf^  co  h-"  o'ic  •<]  oi"If^ 
Stoooenwootfk.O'jcoocstocoentooorf^H-'-arfi.ocieoco 

Otf^QOtOOSOrf'QOtOqsOt^OOtOC-.  O  >KQOt>OC;Orf^QOtOCS 


C;?  CJt  ft"-  rf^  *•  t^  tt^  »f*  rf*-  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO_tO  to  bO  to  tO_tO  H-i  HJ. 

CC^'tXj'oo'ci  Cn'eo  *.0  o"cO  -■3Cl4^CO'-*OGO-'3C;iCOIOOCCi-^5 
OCn«3rf^^CCODCOOCt0^3tOaii-'ClOCrrOe£rCDt^^COOO 

rf^  I-*  00  en  to  ^  C'  CO  o  -q  rf^)-*oocnto^csec  o^o  rf^  h-  oc  en 


oscsc5C;'cnoiencnrf*.rf^rfk.rfi».4».ccco  co  cojwjw  jo  toj>o 

lu.'fco  o  "bo  "--1  en  CO'-' 'tc  -Q  en  CO  >-*  ^c  oo  c::  rfi-  to  o  Qo  os  ►*>• 
S  -^7  00  o  o  »-'  to  CO  rf*>  en  Ci  •'I  oc  cc  o  »—  tc  cc  ►^-  e;T  ci  — j 
o  oo_o  oooooooooooooooooo 


wj  oi  05  Ci  oa  ffs  en  cnj:n  enj**^  rf:^_j^._kU*^  OS  coco  cojwjo 

o"bocs^'tc'oQDl?s^<-*  ?o  "I  enco"— 'o  -^  ento  o  oo 

-<)OseJii^coiO'-'0':coo-ia5cn4*.co(o>— ocooo^j 
oooooooooooooooocoooo 


WJ  -J  -q  ^1  OS  CS  Ci  C5  ^ p^^S^^^^^^^}^S^ 

'  -  Ofc.  to  o -^'en  CO  OOD  cs  co^  «o  os^  io"o  -1  en  CO 
gQoD-^osy'tt^ojtowocPx^gacnrf^eotOH-* 


CO 


en 

o 


PILLENLICHTE. 


527 


PIWCH-BAB. 


to  resist  tlic  nvrrtuminc;  tcndcnry  rauscd  l)y  tin;  loud 
lianfj;ini;  from  the  outer  end  of  the  boom.  VVliere 
tlie  surrouiidiiii;  ground  in  siilliciently  firm  the  pro- 
portions of  lliis  foiiiidalioii  arc  ulioul  as  represented 
in  (li(^  drawiiii;.  On  lilled  ;.'ronnd.  piliiif;  (jr  a  lim- 
ber pliUform  lienealli  Ibe  musonry,  or  bolli,  may  be 
necessary.  'I'licsc  (lueslions  can  only  be  properly 
determined  by  a  consideralion  of  the  fact  in  eacli 
case.  Keferrinj.;  to  the  dravvinj;,  A  is  the  efjlnmn  of 
the  cran(%  and  15  the  boom  earryinj;  the  upper  block 
and  revolvin;;  nronnd  the  lixed  mast  or  cohimn,  A  ; 
I)  is  Ibe  musonry  foundation  ;  10. u  heavy  iron  plate  or 
rini;  emlii'dded  in  the  masonry  near  its  bottom  ;  KF 
fouU'  alion-liolts  jiassini^  throu^jh  this  ring  and  also 
throu;;li  the  l]ase  of  the  pillar.  A,  thus  securely  fast- 
ening; the  latter  to  the  foundation.  The  foundation, 
D,  may  consist  of  ordinary  rubble  masonry,  covered 
with  a  cap  stone,  C,  the  upper  surface  of  which 
should  be  dressed  smooth  to  receive  thebasf^  of  the 
pillar,  A.  After  the  comjiletion  of  the  foundation 
the  ground  surroundini;  it  slioidd  be  retilled  and  tlior- 
<)u;;'hly  ]iacUed  by  r.'inunini;  or  puihllini.  so  as  to  as- 
sist the  foundation  in  resisting  tlie  strains  caused  by 
the  crane. 

The  pillar  or  column  of  the  crane  is  of  cast-iron, 
and  of  simple  but  symmetrical  design,  its  form  being 
proportioned  to  the  strains  it  has  to  resist.  It  has  a 
broad  base,  thus  giving  it  a  good  footing  on  the  foun- 
dation and  spreading  the  holding  down  bolts  well 
apart.  Fixed  in  the  head  of  the  column  is  a  steel 
pin  or  pivot  upon  which  rests  the  cross  bead  orj'oke. 
The  latter  is  bushed  with  bronze  and  has  proper  pro- 
vision for  lubrieatiim,  so  that  the  cross-head  shall  al- 
ways turn  freely  cm  the  pin.  The  boom  or  strut  con- 
sists of  two  wrought-iron  channel  beams, well  braced 
together  and  united  at  the  upper  end  by  a  head  cast- 
ing carrying  the  upper  chain  sheaves  over  which  the 
chain  passes  to  the  running-block.  The  foot  of  the 
boom  is  supported  vertically  by  two  suspension  rods, 
bung  from  the  ends  of  the  cross-bead,  and  its  upper 
end  or  head  is  held  by  two  guy  rods,  also  extending 
back  to  the  cross-head.  The  horizontal  thrust  at  the 
footot  the  boom  is  transmitted  totwo  turned  rollers, 
placed  within  the  foot  casting  of  the  boom  and  trav- 
eling upon  a  turned  path  aromid  the  base  of  the 
column.  The  weight,  botli  of  the  boom  and  load,  is 
entirely  carried  by  a  steel  pin  at  the  top  of  the  colunni, 
and  the  friction  of  rotation  is  thus  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum. 


a  train  of  spur  gearing  provided  with  an  automatic 
safety  ratchet  and  with  the  Weston  dlsc-brake  for 
lowering,  substantially  as  in  the  jib-crane,  so  that 
the  load  is  always  self-sustaini'd  and  cannot  run 
down,  nor  the  handles  recoil  on  the  operator.  Low- 
ering is  elTected  by  turning' thecranks  backward,  the 
load  descending  easily  and  smoothly  so  long  as  this 
motion  is  continued,  but  coming  to  rest  if  flie  back- 
ward motion  b(^  discontinued  or  the  handles  let  go. 
Two  changes  of  speed  are  provided.  Swinging  or 
rotation  of  the  crane  is  effected  by  pushing  or  pull- 
ing the  suspended  load,  an<l  the  con.struction  is  such 
that  the  maximum  load  can  be  easily  swuug  by  one 
man. 

This  type  of  crane  is  designed  for  yard  use  where 
there  is  no  roof  or  ceiling  to  support  the  top  of  crane, 
and  w  here  guy  rods  are  objectionable.  It  is  particu- 
larly adapted  to  railroad  and  wharf  use,  for  loading 
and  unloading  heavy  ordnance  from  cars  or  boats, 
and  is  a  useful  aildition  to  the  yard  appliances  of  any 
large  foundries.  They  are  constructed  for  operation 
by  band,  by  power,  or  by  direct  steam,  according  to 
the  rrr|uirements  of  the  case.     See  ('rniceA. 

PILLENLICHTE.— Short  cylindrical  tubes  of  labor- 
atory paper,  tilled  with  acomposition  resembling  that 
used  in  porl-lires.  A  countiTsLnk  is  formed  in  one 
end,  at  the  bottom  of  which  is  placed  a  small  disk  of 
fulminate  covered  with  a  water-proof  cap.  The  entire 
exterior  is  varnished.  These  are  used  to  light  the 
fuses  of  the  life-saving  and  anchor  rockets  of  the 
Germans.  They  arc  put  u])  in  packages  of  twenty 
each.  The  following  are  the  dimensions  and  weight: 


Total  length 

Exterior  diameter 

Depth  of  countersink  in  end. 


Time  of  burning. 
"Weight 


Inches. 

1.55 
0.623 
0.1 
Seconds. 

45 

Grains. 

230 


(S'ec  fri'rman  Ltfe-mving  Rocket. 


Centi- 
meters. 

3.93 
1.58 
0.25 


The  hoisting  gear  is  attached  to  the  boom  near  the 
column  and  rotates  with  the  former.     It  consists  of 


FILLES. — A  name  given  to  arrows  in  the  twelfth 
century,  according  to  the  chronicles  of  Saint  Denis. 

FILON. — A  half-pike,  7  feet  long  exclusive 
of  the  iron, which  was  18  inches.  It  consisted 
of  a  fir  tube  covered  with  parchment  and 
varnished.  Marshal  Saxe  proposed  to  draw 
up  an  army  four  deep,  the  two  front  ranks 
armed  with  muskets,  and  the  two  rear  with 
both  pilons  and  muskets. 

PILUM.— A  formidable  spear  used  by  the 
Romans.  It  bore  no  resemblance  to  any 
other  weapon  of  the  same  class,  either  lance, 
pike,  or  javelin.  Each  soldier  of  the  legions 
carried  two  pila.  The  weight  of  the  pilum 
caused  it  to  be  regarded  rather  as  a  spear 
than  as  a  dart. 

PIS. — A  short  piece  of  wood  or  metal, 
generally  with  a  head  and  hole  at  the  other 
end  to  receive  a  key.  There  are  many  sorts 
used  in  army  material.  See  Bolt,  and  Linth- 
pf'n. 

Fines.— To  pinch  a  gun  or  other  object  is 
to  move  it  by  small  heaves  with  a  pincb-bar 
or  handspike,  without  allowing  it  to  turn  on 
its  axis.  A  piece  is  pinched  one  end  at  a 
time,  the  other  end  being  chocked.  The  bar 
or  handspike  is  placed  ~as  a  lever,  with  the 
beveled  side  down,  and  the  power  applied 
at  the  other  end  by  bearing  down. 

PINCH  BAB.— -\  stoiit  handspike,  of  iron, 
with  a  round-beveled  butt,  turned  up  into  a 
blunt  edge  for  the  purpose  of  catching  under  a  gun 
or  other  similar  object.     It  is  used  as  a  lever,  by 


PINCHBECK. 


528 


FIBATES. 


pressing  down,  thus  Jiimptng  the  gun  forward  a  very 
short  distance  at  a  time.  The  butt  end  is  of  steel. 
The  length  of  tlie  biir  is  from  five  to  seven  feet. 
Those  used  witli  tlie  15-inch  gun  are  of  the  largest 
size,  and  weigh  53  pounds ;  the  shorter  size  weigh 
26  pounds.     See  Mec/iinical  Maneuvers. 

PINCHBECK. — An  alloy  of  zinc  and  copper,  in 
wliich  the  proportions  slightly  differ  from  those 
which  constitute  brass  ;  3  parts  zinc  to  16  of  copper 
constitute  this  material,  instead  of  1  part  of  the  for- 
mer to  2  of  the  latter  as  in  common  brass.  Pinch- 
beck, wlun  new,  has  a  color  resembling  red  gold. 

PINDAEEES.— In  the  East  Indies,  plunderers  and 
marauders  who  accompany  a  Mahratta  army.  Tlie 
name  is  properly  that  of  persons  who  travel  with 
grain  and  merchandise  ;  but  war  affording  so  many 
opportunities  and  creating  so  many  necessities,  the 
merchants,  as  it  is  all  over  the  world,  become  plun- 
derers and  the  worst  of  enemies. 

PING.—  The  whistle  of  a  shot,  especially  the  rifle- 
bullet  in  its  flight. 

PINTLE. — The  vertical  bolt  around  which  tlie  chas- 
sis is  traversed.  In  the  center-pintle  carriage  it  is  in 
the  center  of  the  chassis,  but  in  the  front-pintle  car- 
riage it  is  in  the  center  of  the  front  transom.  It  is  a 
stout  cylinder  of  wrought-iron  inserted  in  a  block  of 
stone,  if  the  battery  be  a  fixed  one;  or  it  is  secured  to 
cross  pieces  of  timber  bolted  to  a  platform  firmly  em- 
bedded in  the  ground,  if  it  be  of  a  temporary  nature. 
In  casemate  batteries  the  pintle  is  placed  immediate- 
ly under  the  throat  of  the  embrasure,  and  the  chassis 
is  connected  with  it  by  a  stout  strap  of  iron,  called 
the  tongue.  Casemate  carriages  differ  from  barbette 
carriages  in  being  much  lower,  hut  their  mode  of 
construction  is  essentially  the  same. 

PINTLE- HOLE. — An  oval-shaped  aperture  made  in 
the  trailtransom  of  a  field-carriage,  wider  above  than 
below,  to  leave  room  for  the  pintle  to  play  in. 

PINTLE-HOOK.— In  ordnance,  a  hook  attached  to 
the  rear  of  the  limber  axle-tree  bed  of  a  light  field 
carriage  to  enable  the  gun  or  ammunition  carriage  to 
be  limbered  up  to  it.  In  this  position  the  gun  forms 
a  counterpoise  to  the  weight  that  would  otherwise 
rest  on  the  shafts.  In  heavy  howitzers  and  siege 
carriages  formed  with  bracket  sides,  the  pintle-hook 
is  either  a  stiff  or  movable  iron  perch,  attached  to 
the  top  of  the  limber  axle-tree,  to  which  the  gun 
carriage  is  limbered  up  by  a  hole  passing  through  the 
rear  transom. 

PINTLE-PLATE— A  flat  iron,  nailed  tohoth  sides  of 
the  bolster,  and  through  which  the  pintle  passes. 

PINTLE  WASHER. —An  iron  ring,  thrcmgh  which 
the  pintle  passes,  placed  close  to  the  bolster  for  the 
trail  to  move  upon, 

PIONEER. — A  military  laborer  employed  to  form 
roatis,  dig  trenches,  and  make  bridges  as  an  arrhy 
advances,  and  to  preserve  cleanliness  in  the  camp 
when  it  halts.  Fornicrly,  the  pioneers  were  ordinary 
laborers  of  the  country  in  which  the  army  was,  im- 
pressed for  militarj- purposes;  but  now  such  persons 
are  onl}'  brought  in  as  auxiliaries,  a  few  men  being 
attached  to  every  Corps  as  a  permanent  bodj-  of  pio- 
neers. In  the  British  Army  one  man  is  selected,  for 
his  intelligence,  from  every  company.  These  pion- 
eers march  at  the  head  of  the  regiment,  and  the  sen- 
ior among  them  commands  as  Corporal.  Instead  of 
a  musket  each  man  carries  a  saw-liacked  sword, 
which  is  at  once  tool  and  weai)oii.  Each  liears  also' 
an  axe  and  two  gun-spikes,  other  necessary  tools  be- 
ing distributed  among  them.  There  is  something 
rather  conllictin'r  between  the  functions  of  the  pion- 
eers and  thosi^  ot  I  lie  engineer  force. 

PIONEER  SERGEANTr— In  the  British  service,  the 
Kon-comniissioncd  Officer  who  commands  the  pio- 
neers. 

PIPE  BOX.- The  cylindrical  box  in  the  nave  of  a 
wheel  in  which  the  axle-tree  arm  works, and  in  which 
is  a  recess  for  holding  grease.  A  hard  alloy,  techni- 
cally known  as  "  metal,"  composed  of  copper,  tin, 
and  zinc,  is  now  used  as  the  material  for  pipe-boxes 


in  preference  to  cast-iron,  on  account  of  the  less  de- 
velopment of  friction  between  it  and  the  iron  arm. 

PIPE-CLAY. — A  fine  clay,  free  from  iron  and  other 
impurities,  having  a  grayish.white  color,  a  greasy 
feel,  and  an  earthy  fracture.  It  adheres  strongly  to 
the  tongue, and  is  very  plastic, tenacious, and  infusible. 
The  localities  where  it  is  chiefly  obtained  areDevon- 
.shire.  and  the  Trough  of  Poole  in  Dorsetshire.  It  is 
also  found  in  various  places  in  France,  Belgium. and 
Germany.  This  substance  is  much  used  by  soldiers 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  their  bufi  belts,  etc., 
clean.  • 

PIPER  GIN.— In  this  gin,  the  windlass  is  attached 
by  placing  it  in  windlass  seats  of  peculiar  construc- 
tion, and  is  secured  in  position  by  icf^jfrs attached  to 
tne  legs.  The  keepers  are  placed  under  the  axles  of 
the  windlass.  Two  stay  chains  connect  the  pry-pole 
and  legs  at  the  upper  brace-bands,  and  prevent  them 
from  spreading.  They  also  serve  to  connect  theparts 
for  transportation.  Two  braces  (upper  and  lower) 
connect  and  secure  the  legs  when  the  gin  is  put  to- 
gether, and  serve  to  distinguish  the  right  from  the 
left  leg — the  long  brace  being  permanently  attached 
to  the  right  and  the  short  brace  to  the  left  leg.  The 
clevis  and  clevis  bolt  are  attached  to  the  head  of  the 
prj'-pole  with  keyes  which  secure  the  clevis  bolt  when 
the  gin  is  assembled  ;  double  and  single  blocks,  with 
fall,  are  used.  This  gin  was  designed  by  the  late 
Captain  J.  W.  Piper,  Fifth  artillery. 

Length  of  legs 13  feet  8  inches. 

Length  of  pry-pole 13  feet  8  inches. 

Weight  of  gin 365  pounds. 

Weight  of  windlass 88  pounds. 

Weight  of  block  and  fall. . . .   100  pounds. 

Weight  of  bail  and  dowels. ..  41  pounds. 

The  parts  are  estimated  to  be  suflicientl}'  strong  to 
bear  a  weight  of  of  5,000  pounds.  The  advantages  of 
this  gin  are,  its  superior  lightness  and  portability, 
and  its  great  facility  of  being  assembled,  taken  apart 
packed  up,  and  transported.  See  Gin,  and  Mechan- 
icnl  Maniurei:<i. 

PIQUICHINS. — Irregular  and  ill-armed  soldiers,  of 
which  mention  is  made  in  the  history  of  the  reign  of 
Philip  Augustus.  They  were  attached  to  the  infan- 
try. 

PIRACY. — Robbery  on  the  high  seas,  and  is  an 
offense  against  the  Law  of  Nations.  It  is  a  crime 
not  against  any  particular  State,  but  against  all  man- 
kind, and  may  be  punished  in  the  competent  tri- 
bunal of  any  country  where  the  offender  may  be 
found,  or  into  which  he  maj'  be  carried,  although 
committed  on  board  a  foreign  vessel  on  the  high 
seas.  It  is  of  the  essence  of  piracy  that  the  pirate 
has  no  commission  from  a  Foreign  State,  or  from 
one  belligerent  State  at  war  with  another.  Pirates 
being  the  common  enemies  of  all  mankind,  and  all 
Nations  having  an  equal  interest  in  their  apprehen- 
sion and  punishment,  tliej'  may  be  lawfully  captured 
on  the  high  seas  by  the  armed  vessels  of  any  partic- 
ular State,  and  brought  within  its  territorial  jurisdic- 
tion for  trial  in  its  tribunals.  The  African  slave- 
trade  was  not  considered  jiiracy  by  the  Law  of  Na- 
tions; but  the  municipal  laws  of  the  United  King- 
dom and  of  the  United  States  by  statute  declared  it 
to  be  so ;  and  since  the  treaty  of  1841  with  Great 
Britain,  it  is  also  declared  to  be  so  by  Austria,  Prus- 
sia, and  Russia. 

PIRAMETER. — An  instrument  for  measuring  the 
power  required  to  draw  a  gun  carriage,  etc.,  upon 
a  road  or  track.     See  Dynaniometfr. 

PIRATES.  Men,  or  .stpiads  of  men,  who  commit 
hostil-tics,  wlielher  by  fighting  or  inroads  for  de- 
struction oi  )iluudcr,  or  by  raids  of  any  kind,  with- 
out conunission,  wilhout  lieing  i>art  and  jxirlion  of 
tlie  organi/.etl  hostile  army,  and  without  sharing 
(•(inlinuously  in  the  war,  but  who  do  so  with  inter- 
milting  returns  to  their  homes  and  avocations,  or 
wilh  tiie  occasional  a.ssiimption  of  the  semblance  of 
peaceful  pursuits,  divesting  themselves  of  the  char- 
acter or  apiiearance  of  soldiers — such  men, or  squads 


PIESCHEE  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. 


529 


PISTON. 


of  men,  are  not  public  enemies,  and,  llicrclore,  if 
captured, are  not  entitled  to  the  privilcKes  of  priHonerH 
of  war,  but   shall  be  treated  Humnuirily  as  lii(;hway 

robbers  (ir  pirMtes. 

PIRSCHER  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.  In  this 
sysleni,  the  (iiri'iiili-  is  circular,  and  Ihi'  dileh  is  oe- 
(•ui)icd  liv  two  lines  of  works  nuituallv  llardiiuf;  each 
other.  'I'lu!  covered  way  and  glacis  are  replaced  by 
advaiiceil  works. 

PISA  REVETMENT.— A  wall  of  clay  built  aj,'aiiist  a 
slcipi-  iu  the  followini^  manner  :  Common  earth, 
mi.xed  with  clay  and  moistened  with  water,  is 
kneaded  until  the  particles  will  adiiere  when  pressed 
or  squeezed  totjcther.  Sometimes  (^hopped  straw  is 
ini.ved  in  the  mass.  A  row  of  pickets,  with  the 
pro))er  inclination  niven  to  them,  is  driven  aloufithe 
foot  of  the  interior  slnpe,  the  tups  extcndinir  a  short 
distance  above  the  height  marked  for  tlie  interior 
crest.  A  shallow  trench  about  twelve  inches  wide 
is  duf;  in  the  |)arai)(t,  behind  the  lini'  of  pickets,  and 
a  board  laid  horizontally  on  edf^e  on  the  side  ne.xtto 
and  supported  by  the]nckets.  The  tempered  clay  is 
then  placed  in  tlie  trench  and  rammed.  Successive 
layers  are  placed  in  until  the  day  reaches  the  top  of 
the  board,  the  earth  (if  the  jiarapet  beinfj;  carried  up 
simullaneiiusly  with  the  revetment.  A  second  board 
is  then  plac^ecl  upon  the  lirst,  and  the  clay  rammeil 
in,  rising  simultaneously  with  the  parapet  as  in  tlie 
first  course  ;  and  this  process  is  continued  until  the 
top  layer  is  on  the  same  level  with  the  interior  crest. 
When  the  claj'  has  dried,  the  boards  and  pickets  are 
removed.— See  Jievetment. 

PISTOL. — The  smallest  description  of  fire-arm,  and 
is  intended  to  be  used  with  one  hand  only.  Pistols 
vary  in  size  from  the  delicate  saloon-pistol,  often 
not  si.\  indies  long,  to  the  horse-pistol,  which  may 
measure  eighteen  inches  and  sometimes  even  two 
feet.  They  are  carried  in  holsters  at  the  saddle-bow, 
in  the  belt,  or  in  the  pocket.  Every  cavalry  soldier 
should  have  pistols,  for  a  fire-arm  is  often   of  great 


Weight  of  powder, 40.'K)  ip-n. 

Initial  velocity OOii.OO  feet. 

PISTOL  GRIP. —A  shape  given  to  the  small  of  the 

1  stock  in    hhot-giins  and  rillcH,  to   give  a  betler    hold 

I  for  tli(;  hand.     The  pistol-grip   has  of   late    become 

(|uile    popular  and    nearly  all  the  recent    model;    of 

sporting  arms  embody  it.     See  I'iiiUjl-rttrhlne. 

PISTON.-  A  device  so  fitted  as  to  occupy  the  serv 
tional  area  of  a  tube, and  be  capable  of  reciprocation 
by  pressure  on  eiiher  of  its  sidi'S.  It  may  be  of  any 
shape  corresponding  accurately  to  the  bore  of  the 
tube;  but  the  cylindrical  form  is  almost  exclusively 
I'mployed  for  both,  as  in  the  common  pump  and 
steam-engine.  One  of  its  sides  is  fitted  to  a  rod,  to 
which  it  either  imparts  reeiprocatory  motion,  as  in 
llicsti'am-engine,orby  which  it  is  itself  ri'clprocaterl, 
as  iu  the  pump.  In  the  former  case  it  is  termed 
solid,  though  generally  not  ri-ally  so;  but  in  the  lat- 
ter, an  aperture  controlled  by  a  valve  permits  the 
passage  of  the  tluid  from  one  side  to  the  other  dur- 
ing its  downward  movement.  The  piston  usually 
requires  "packing"  to  cause  it  to  fit  closely  within 
its  cylinder,  and  at  the  same  time  allow  its  free  back- 
ward and  forward  motion.  For  this  purpo.se  its 
ends  are  usually  fiirmedby  two  connected  discs,  or 
have  a  deejianiiular  groove  b<-tween  them  for  receiv- 
ing the  packing  material,  which  may  be  hempen  cord 
wound  around  it,  or  other  somewhat  expansible 
substance,  which  will  not  wear  loo  rapidly  nor 
cause  excessive  friction.  In  modem  practice,  me- 
tallic rings,  cut  through  at  one  side,  so  that  their 
expansion  may  compensate  for  any  wear,  are  largely 
employed  in  the  steam-engine. 

The  Cut  on  page  5.'J0  shows  the  plan  and  section  of 
the  t'ummerpiston.  It  is  made  large  enough  to  give 
ample  wearing  surface,  and  with  sufficient  weight 
and  careful  distribution  of  metal,  to  secure  strength, 
no  extra  weight  being  given  for  any  other  purpose. 
The  piston  consists  of  three  parts,  the  piston  proper, 
to  which  is  fitted  the  tapered  end  of  the  piston   rod 


Pistol-grip. 


service  for  personal  defense,  and  almost  indispensa-  secured  by  a  cotter,  the  chunk  ring,  and  the  follower, 
ble  for  giving  an  alarm  or  signal.  Sailors,  when  |  These  parts  are  all  dearly  shown  in  the  section.  The 
Ixiarding  an  enemy's  ship,  carry  each  two  in  their  plan  exhibits  the  piston  with  its  follower  removed 
waist-belts.  As  earlj-  as  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  lint  showing  in  section  the  four  bolts  which  hold  it 
the  English  cavalry  carried  clumsy  pistols  called  in  place  when  connected.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
"  Dao-s."  The  latest  improvement  on  the  pistol  is  I  piston  itself  and  also  the  follower  are  made  con- 
the  revolver.  'Y\\a  phtol  probably  derives  its  name  J  siderably  smaller  than  the  cylinder,  and  that  the 
from  ihe  word  pMalln,  which  means  "pommel,"  and  ,  chunk  ring  is  external  to  these  and  forms  the  bearing 
not  from  the  word  Pintiyn,  for  it  appears  not  to  have  |  surface,  ^he  chunk  ring  is  turned  up  so  as  to  be  an 
been  first  made  at  Pistoja,  but  at  Perugia.  accurate  fit.  and  is  then  adjusted  so  as  to  be  perfectly 

PISTOL  CARBINE. — A  horseman's  pistol  provided  |  central  by  means  of  four  stud  bolts,  which  appear 
with  a  removable  butt-piece,  which  may  be  secured  in  the  plan  and  section:  their  outer  ends  have  a  eoni- 
to  its  slock  bv  a  spring-catch,  or  detached,  so  that 
the  weapon  may  be  fired  either  from  the  hand  or  the 
shoulder.  The  pistol-carbine  used  in  the  United 
States,  and  particularly  suited  to  the  service  of  light 
artillery,  has  the  following  particulars  : 


cal  pciint  which  bears  against  the  chunk  ring,  while 
the  other  ends  are  tapped  into  the  boss  of  the  piston 
and  are  provided  with  jam  nuts.  The  center  of  the 
chunk  ring  is  grooved  to  receive  the  cast-iron  pis- 
ion  ring  which  is  pressed  well  outwards  by  several 


Length  of  barrel. 
Weight  complete. 
Weight  of  )iroji-ctile, 


Pistol-carbine.  i     i         •  * 

12.no  inch.  '  small  spiral  sprimrs  spaced  around  the   circnmter- 

.5.00  lbs.      ence.     The  positions  of  these  springs  appear   m  the 

i.50.00  grs.    ,  plan,  and  one  of  them  is  shown  in  the  section.     An 


PISTOS. 


530 


PITCHED  FASCINE. 


additional  packina;  is  provided  by  turning  two  small 
grooves  in  tlie  clumli  rinj  on  either  side  of  tlie  cen- 
tral piston  ring.  Tlie  advantage  of  using  a  eiiunk 
ring  is,  that  we  can  make  a  very  exact  Ht.  and  by 
using  the  central  adjustment,  secure  perfect  align- 
ment, and  we  obtain  a  greater  wearing  surface  for 
the  same  thickness  of  piston  because  the  cliunk  ring 
is  the  same  width  as  the  piston  itself  and  bears  over  ' 
its  whole  surface,  whereas  in  the  ordinary  form  a  ' 


vertical  hole  or  chimney  (which  is  afterwards  closed 

at  the  top),  and  the  process  of  charring  commences, 
beginning  at  the  center  and  spreading  all  round  until 
the  whole  pile  is  charred.  A  shifting  screen  is  gener- 
ally employed  so  as  to  regulate  the  draught  on  the 
windward  side,  and  small  holes  are  made  through 
the  sods  with  a  half-inch  iron  rod,  these  allow  the 
vapor  to  escape  and  draw  the  fire  to  any  side  of  the 
I)ile  tliat  may  be  desired.      From  seventy  to  eighty 


part  of  the  piston,  and  the  follower  also,  are  turned 
down  below  size  and  do  not  bear  at  all.  By  this  ar- 
rangement, also,  whenever  after  long  wear  it  becomes 
necessary  to  rebore  the  cylinder,  we  have  only  to  turn 
up  a  new  chimk  ring  instead  of  titling  up  a  whole  new 
piston.   See  Steam-engine. 

PISTOS. — Broad,  short,  double-edged  swords  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  which  do  not  differ  materially 
from  the  anelacea. 

PIT. — The  pit,  in  gun-casting,  is  usually  a  circular 
well,  nineteen  feet  deep, and  twelve  feet  in  diameter; 
the  walls  are  of  brick, and  the  bottom, an  iron  tank  of 
one-half  inch  sheet-iron,  extending  upwards  eight 
feet.  The  mouth  of  the  pit  is  provided  with  iron 
covers, made  to  fit  closely  to  prevent  escaping  of  heat 
from  the  fire  built  around  the  flask.  During  the  cast- 
ing, the  gas  which  is  generated  and  passed  out 
through  the  holes  in  the  flask  is  ignited  by  dropping 
small  (juantities  of  molten  metal  into  tlie  pit,  and  as 
soon  after  "  cast  "  as  possible, afire  is  built  in  the  pit, 
about  the  bottom  of  the  flask — wood  and  bituminous 
coal  being  used  in  sufficient  quantities  to  burn  four 
or  five  days;  the  mouth  of  the  pit  being  covered, after 
tlie  mass  is  thoroughly  ignited.     See  Molding. 

PITAUX. — This  term,  sometimes  written  Petaux, 
was  formerly  used  to  distinguish  those  peasants  who 
were  pressed  into  the  service,  in  contradistinction  to 
.soldiers  who  were  regularly  enlisted. 

PIT  BURNED  CHAECOAL.— This  description  of 
charcoal  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  wliat  is  known 
as  "  pit  gunpowder,"  and  is  found  to  be  more  suita- 
ble for  filling  fuses,  port-fires,  etc.,  tiian  that  made 
from  retort-burned  charcoal;  it  is  also  used  for  py- 
rotechnic  compositions  and  other  purpo.ses  of  a  simi- 
lar kind.  Charring  the  wood  in  a  pile  covered  up 
with  s^^aw  and  s<h1s  is  found  to  jiroduce  a  cliarcoal 
which  will  give  to  the  gunpowder  the  peculiar  qual- 
ities requir(vl  for  the  before-mentioned  purposes;  the 
process  employed  isasfollows:  Thewood  is  built  upin 
a  cone  about  10'  in  diameter  at  the  base  and  from  .'"/to 
7'  in  height, a  vertical  hole  being  left  in  the  center  of 
the  pile  or  cone  reaching  from  the  bottom  to  the  top, 
so  as  to  act  as  achimney.  Thewood  is  then  entirely 
covered  over  with  a  layer  of  straw  from  1"  to  .'>"  in 
thickness,  then  a  covering  of  charcnid  refuse  or 
sweepings  from  the  store,  if  such  can  be  obtained, 
-■ind  overall  a  covering  of  sods  with  the  grass  side 
inwards.  The  pile  is  now  fired  by  a  few  pieces  of 
lighted  charcoal  being  dropped  to  the  bottom  of  the 


hours  are  required  to  char  the  whole  mass,  and  as 
the  charcoal  produced  by  this  process  contains  more 
of  the  wood)'  fiber  than  the  cylinder  retort-burned 
charcoal,  it  consequently  burns  more  slowly,  is  heav- 
ier, has  a  reddish  tinge,  is  not  so  brittle,  and  has  a 
more  metallic  sound  when  dropped.     See  Cliarcoal. 

PITCH. — A  thick  substance  obtained  by  boiling 
down  tar  to  the  requisite  consistency,  either  by  itself 
or  combined  with  a  portion  of  rosin;  it  becomes 
solid  on  cooling,  but  is  soon  softened  by  the  heat  of 
tlie  hand,  in  which  state  it  is  very  adhesive.  When 
of  good  quality,  it  is  clear  and  hard.  It  is  used  in 
making  carcasses,  light-balls,  kit,  and  smoke-balls. 

The  term  is  also  used  in  wheel-work,  signifying 
the  distance  between  the  centers  of  two  contiguous 
teeth.  Pitch-line  is  the  circJe  concentric  witli  the 
circumference  which  passes  through  all  the  centres 
of  the  teeth. 

What  is  known  as  \\iepitch  of  a  acrew  is  the  inter- 
val between  the  points  of  starting  and  of  arrival  of 
a  complete  revolution  of  a  screw,  and  consequently 
of  the  thread  of  a  screw,  which  is  traversed  by  the 
screw,  or  its  thread,  when  it  has  completed  an  entire 
revolution.  The  pitch  is  therefore  independent  of 
the  diameter  of  the  screw. 

In  rifling,  the  pitch  is  described  as  term  resistance 
of  the  direct  progressive  motion  of  the  projectile 
through  the  bore.  This  resistance  varies  according 
to  the  incline  as  well  as  the  pattern  of  rifling  ;  for 
as  the  more  defined  the  pattern  the  more  the  resist- 
ance, so  the  sharper  the  pitch  the  greater  the  rota- 
tion of  projectile  around  the  axis  of  progression, 
and  conse(iuently  the  more  difficult  its  initial  and 
tlie  slower  its  direct  forward  motion  There  are 
two  natures  of  pitch,  an  increasing  and  decreasing 
pitch.     See  Tirixt. 

PITCHED  BATTLE.— A  battle  m  which  the  hostile 
forces  have  firm  or  fixed  positions,  in  distinction 
from  a  skirmish.     Sec  Battle. 

PITCHED  FASCINE.— Pitched  fascines  are  fagots 
of  dry  twigs,  covered  over  with  an  incendiarj'  com- 
position, and  used  to  set  fire  to  buildings  or  to  liglit 
up  a  work.  The  following  materials  and  utensils 
arc  re<iuired  to  make  pitclieil  fascines  :  Dry  lira nrhex, 
about  ..')  inch  diiuiutcr.  or  other  light,  <iimbustiblc 
wood;  iron  wire,  about  .0.5  inch  diametiT ;  four 
pickets,  about  40  inches  long  and  Ij  inch  diameter; 
cylindrical  stickH.  20  inches  long,  Ij  inch  diameter  ;  2 
tracc-ropcH  ;  1  rope  for  a   capstan  ;  2  leeem  ;   1   mmill 


PITCHING  FIKE. 


r,?,\ 


PLAIH. 


cord-  1  flat  punch;  1  saie,  or  bill.hi>ok  ;  1  block.  To 
makp  the  fasrincs,  form  two r-rnlclica,  1  foot  apart. 
will]  llic  4(l-iM<'li  pickcis;  cut  llic  lir:incMcs  'iO  iiir'lics 
loiii;,  anil  lii'llicni  in  llic  miildlc  of  their  l(ii;;lli,  ami 
iil)oiit  'i  inchijH  from  their  enils,  with  aiineiih'il  wire, 
aiul  place  inthi^  axis  a  cylindrical  slick,  inteii(h'il  to 
preserve  a  vacant  siiace;  draw  the  hriiiiches  tijrhtly 
tOfietluT,  that  they  may  hold  the  composition  better, 
undent  olT  the  ends  scpnin^ 

Tlie  fascines  receive  two  coats  of  composition, 
wiicn  pitched.  ViiT  tile  first  coat,  melt  20  parts  of 
pitch  and  one  of  tallow  in  the  pots,  tillini;  (lii'rn  not 
moretliMii  half  foil.  ILaviii^  tirst  well  oiled  the  cyl- 
indrical stick,  plunf;etlie  fasi'inc  into  the  liquid  with 
the  fork,  tirst  one  end  and  then  the  other,  each  time 
pouring  on  the  upper  end  two  ladl<'fiils  of  the  com- 
position. Let  the  composition  iiardcn,  holding  the 
tascine  over  the  pot,  turning  it  slowly  and  tlien  im- 
merse it  in  the  toll  of  water.  The  assistant,  with  his 
hands  covered  with  oil,  fashions  the  fascine,  rolling 
it  on  the  bottom  of  the  tub,  and  places  it  on  the 
planks. 

The  second  coat  is  ])ut  on  24  hours  after  the  first ; 
it  is  composed  of  eipial  parts  of  pitch  and  rosin  melt- 
ed and  mixed  together  in  the  pot.  The  cylindrical 
stick  is  taken  oiii,  and  the  fascine  immersed  in  the 
composition,  as  with  the  first  coat;  it  isjiermitted  to 
drip,  and  is  then  hiid  in  saw-dust,  and  jiowdcred  all 
oviT  with  it.  A  fascine  requires  about  I.l  pound  of 
each  composition.  Fascines  should  be  iirimcd  only 
a  short  time  before  being  used.  For  this  purpose, 
dip  each  end,  for  a  distance  of  half  an  inch,  into  a 
kettle  holding  melted  rock-fire. 

When  used  for  incendiary  purposes,  fascines  are 
placed  in  piles,  and  pieces  of  quick-match  and  port- 
tire  scattered  over  them,  to  make  the  whole  mass 
take  tiri!  at  once.     See  Fireworki:. 

PITCHING  FIRE.— Fire  is  pitching  when  the  shot 
is  projected  against  an  object,  covered  in  front  by  a 
work  or  obstacle,  the  ordnance  being  tired  at  full 
charge. 

PITCHINGTENTS.— There  isan  art  in  pitching  a 
tent,  and  the  men  of  a  regiment  should  be  instructed 
from  time  to  time  how  to  [litch  their  tents  and  to 
strike  them  ready  for  a  march;  but  they  will  soon 
come  to  know  how  to  do  so,  even  if  they  have  had 
no  previous  experience,  when  once  they  enter  on 
camp  life.  The  following  is  the  proper  method  of 
pitching  the  ordinary  wall  tent :  After  selecting  a 
suitable  spot,  place  the  ridge  pole,  A  B.  upon  the 
ground,  approximately  beneath  its  place  when  in 
position.     iJrive  pins  at  A  and  B.      From  .!  and  B 


-^ 


0+— •— 


-1 

F 


continue  A  B  to  C  and  />,  by  stepping  one  pace 
from  each  end.  From  Cand  D  make  four  paces  at 
right  angles  with  C  D  on  each  side,  and  determine 
the  points  E,  F,  O,  H.  At  these  points  drive  the 
corner  tent  pegs.  By  following  these  directions  the 
tent  may  be  promptly  pitched  and  will  make  a  beau- 
tiful appearance,  every  portion  of  canvas  being  in 
proper  position  and  free  from  wrinkles.  An  impor- 
tant point  to  be  <ibserved  in  pitching  a  tent  is  not  to 
dig  in.side  but  outside  of  it,  viz.,  to  use  such  means, 
in  case  of  rain,  that  water  shall  not  flood  the  tent. 
This,  however,  cannot  always  be  prevented,  but  a 
drain  dug  all  round  the  tent  to  the  lowest  ground 
may  save  a  flooding.    Then,  again,  to  secure  a  tent 


from  being  blown  down,  the  comer  ropei)  «liould  be 

bushed. 

PITS.  -Military  pits,  whether  round  or  square, 
should  lie  so  arranged  as  to  cause  an  advancing 
enemy  as  much  delay  and  annoyance  as  possible. 
They  are  usually  made  about  six  feet  in  diameter  at 
top,  and  about  one  footat  the  bottom,  and  are  placed 
so  that  the  (centers  shall  be  about  ten  feet  apart. 
They  shall  be  placi-d  in  rows,  at  least  tliree  in  num- 
ber, the  jiits  being  in  (piincunx  order.  The  earth 
obtained  by  the  excavation,  should  be  heaped  up  on 
till'  ground  between  the  pits.  Shallow  pits  should 
not  be  deeper  than  about  two  feet,  so  that  the 
enemy  could  not  obtain  shelter  by  getting  in  them. 
They  should  cover  the  ground  in  zig-zag  arrange- 
ment, the  upper  liases  being  made  square  or  rect- 
angular in  form,  and  in  contact  with  each  otlier. 
The  side  of  the  upper  base  should  be  made  about 
(■(lual  to  the  depth  of  the  pit.  The  earth  obtained 
from  the  holes  is  thrown  in  frontof  the  arrangement, 
making  a  glacis.     See  Trimx-ile-lf/ap. 

PIVOT.— The  soldier  or  guide  upon  whom  a  line 
of  trooiis  whcelSjOr  partly  wheels.  The  pivot  is  eiUier 
fixed  or  nK/nnhh. 

In  a  wheel  on  a  movable  pivot  the  radius  is: 

F'or  a  column  of  tiles 2yards. 

For  a  column  of  twos,  fours,  or  double  col- 
umn of  fours 3      " 

For  a  phitDon 6      " 

For  a  coinp;Lny 12      " 

PIVOT  BOLT.— The  axis  of  horizontal  oscillation. 
A  traversing  platform  passing  through  the  pivot  tran- 
som and  the  front  sleeper  of  the  platform. 

PIVOT  FLANK.— When  a  regiment  is  drawn  up  in 
column  right  in  front  that  is,  when  the  company 
which  stood  on  the  right,  when  in  line,  is  in  front 
the  left-hand  man  will  be  the  pivot  flank  of  each 
company.  When  the  column  is  left  in  front,  the 
right-hand  man  will  be  the  pivot  Hank  of  each  com- 
pany. 

PIVOT  GUN. — A  cannon  which  turns  on  a  pivot  in 
any  direction. 

PLACAGE.— In  fortification,  a  kind  of  revetment, 
which  is  made  of  thick,  plastic  earth  laid  along  the 
talus  of  such  parapets  as  have  no  mason-work,  and 
which  is  covered  with  turf. 

PLACATES. — In  ancient  armor,  small  plates  placed 
in  front  of  tlie  shoulders. 

PLACE  DU  MOMENT.— When  the  operations  of  an 
army  render  it  necessary  that  a  position  should  be 
fortified  and  occupied  for  the  whole  campaign,  the 
works  assume  more  importance,  and  many  consist 
of  forts  having  five  or  six  bastioned  fronts.  Such 
a  fort  is  called  a  place  du  moment. 

PLACES-OF-ARMS.— The  covered-way,  from  the 
direction  given  to  the  counter-scarps  of  the  enceinte 
and  outworks,  forms  a  line  of  communication  with 
salient  and  re-entering  parts.  The  salient  portions 
are  termed  nalient  places-of-arms -.  and  the  re-enter- 
ing^parts  the  re-entering  places-of-ariiin. 

The  salient  places-of-arms  result  from  the  general 
plan  of  the  covered  way ;  but  the  re-entering  place.s- 
of-arms  are  formed  by  changing  the  directions  of 
the  two  branches  where  they  form  the  re-enterings, 
so  as  to  make  a  salient  within  the  re-enterings ; 
thus  enlarging  the  covered-way  at  these  points,  and 
producing  a  flanking  arrangement,  by  which  the 
glacis  can  be  swept,  and  a  cross-fire  be  brought  to 
bear  on  the  ground  in  advance  of  the  salients.  See 
(>iitwi>rk.i. 

PLAID. — A  woolen  shawl  of  a  tartan  pattern,  worn 
over  the  shoulder  by  the  Scotch  lUglilanders.  and 
still  worn  by  Highland  regiments. 

PLAIN. — in  geography,  an  extensive  tract  of  coun- 
tni-  which,  on  the  whule.  preserves  a  nearly  uniform 
ekvation.  When  referred  to  the  level  of  the  sea. 
plains  may  be  distinguished  into  low  plains  or  low- 
lands, and  elevated  plains  called  plateaux  or  t^bk- 
ltin<i,<<.  Plains  differ  much  in  appearance,  according 
to   the  nature   of  their  soil  and  the  climate,  from 


PLAIN  CLOTHES. 


532 


PLAIN  COMPASS. 


the  frightful  sandy  wastes  of  Africa, to  the  luxuriant 

fertility  of  the  South  American  silvas.  They  are  oc- 
casionally crossed  by  hills  of  moderate  altitude, 
which,  however,  are  i;enerally  detached,  and  exhibit 
no  connection  witli  any  neighborins;  mountain  sys- 
tem. These  hills  often,  as  "in  tlie  North  American 
Plains  degenerate  into  mere  undulations,  quite  uni- 
form in  structure.  The  term  "  Plains  "  is, in  a  limited 
sense,  confined  to  the  Plains  of  Western  Europe  ; 
those  of  other  parts  of  tlie  world  receiving  special 
designations,  and  diilering  from  each  other  in  many 
important  points  thus  we  have  the  Steppes  ot  Eastern 
Europe  and  Asia  ;  the  Deserts  of  Arabia  and  Africa  ; 
tlie  Saennnafis  and  Prairies  of  North  America  ;  and 
tlie  Llanos.  Pampas  and  Silvan  of  South  America. 
The  chief  Plains  of  Europe  are,  the  country  stretch- 
ing from  the  foot  of  the  Carpatliians  in  Galicia  to  the 
Ural  ^Mountains,  including  Poland  and  Russia,  the 
drainage  area  of  the  Danube  in  Hungary,  and  the 
portion  of  Europe  which  is  bounded  by  the  Elbe, 
the  Hartz  mountains,  France,  and  the  sea.  Plains 
of  comparatively  small  extent,  but  presenting  the 
necessary  characteristics  in  perfection,  are  found  in 
almost  all  countries. 

PLAIN  CLOTHES.— A  citizen's  every-day  dress,  as 
applied  to  an  officer  not  in  uniform;  tliis  dress  is  also 
known  liy  the  familiar  name  of  mufti.  It  is  left  to 
tlie  discretion  of  General  Officers  Commanding,  to 
permit  the  use  of  plain  clothes  for  the  purpose  of 
recreation  :  otherwise  all  Officers  must  appear  in  uni- 
form in  camp  or  quarters,  or  when  attending  public 
lialls  witliin  the  district  iu  which  they  are  quartered. 

PLAIN  COMPASS.— The  plain  compass,  as  shown 
in  the  drawing,  lias  a  6-inch  needle,  and  is  furnished 
with  levels,  sight-vanes,  socliet,  etc.  The  compass- 
box  is  in  the  same  piece  with  the  main  plate,  and  the 


instrument  is  used  mainly  in  the  surveys  of  new  lines, 
or  in  tlie  preparation  of  maps,  where  i.be  variation  of 
the  needle  is  not  recjuired.  To  adjust  tlie  compass, 
first  bring  the  bulibles  into  the  center,  by  the  pressure 
of  the  hand  on  dilTerenl  parts  of  the  plate. and  then 
turn  tlie  compass  half-way  around;  should  the  bub- 
bles run  to  the  end  of  the  tubes,  it  would  indicate 
that  those  ends  were  the  highest;  lower  them  by 
tightening  the  screws  immediately  under,  and  loo.seu- 
iiig  those  underthe  lowest  ends  until,  by  estimation, 
tlu'  error  is  half  removed  ;  level  ti)c  pliite  iigain.  and 
repeat  the  first  openition  until  the  Imlililes  will  re- 
main in  lUr  center,  during  an  entire  revululion  of 
the  compass.  The  siirhts  may  next  be  tested  by  ob- 
serving through  the  slits  a  tine  hair  or  thread,  made 
exactly  vertical  by  a  pluinli.  Should  the  hair  ap- 
pear on  one  side  of  the  slit,  the  sight  must  be  ad- 


justed by  filing  off  its  under  surface  on  that  side 
which  seems  the  highest.  The  needle  is  adjusted  in 
the  following  manner  :  Having  the  e_ye  nearly  in  the 
same  plane  with  the  graduated  rim  of  the  compass- 
circle,  with  a  small  splinter  of  wood  or  a  slender 
iron  wire,  bring  one  end  of  the  needle  in  line  with 
any  prominent  division  of  the  circle,  as  the  zero,  or 
ninety  degree-mark,  and  notice  if  the  other  end  cor- 
responds with  the  degree  on  the  opposite  side  ;  if  it 
does,  the  needle  is  said  to  "cut"  opposite  degrees;  if 
not,  bend  the  center-pin  by  applying  a  small  brass 
wrench,  furnished  with  the  compasses,  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  below  the  point  of  the  pin,  until 
the  ends  of  the  needle  are  brought  into  line  with  the 
opposite  degrees.  Then,  holding  the  needle  in  the 
same  position,  turn  the  compass  half-waj'  around, 
and  note  whether  it  now  cuts  opposite  degrees ;  if 
not,  correct  half  the  error  b_v  bending  the  needle, 
and  the  remainder  by  bending  the  center-pin.  The 
operation  should  be  repeated  until  perfect  reversion 
is  secured  in  the  first  position.  This  being  obtained, 
it  may  be  tried  on  another  quarter  of  the  circle  ;  if 
any  error  is  there  manifested,  the  correction  must  be 
made  in  the  center-pin  only,  the  needle  being  already 
straightened  by  the  previous  operation.  When  again 
made  to  cut,  it  should  be  tried  on  the  other  quarters 
of  the  circle,  and  corrections  made  in  the  same  man- 
ner until  the  error  is  entirely  removed. and  the  neetlle 
will  reverse  in  every  point  of  the  divided  surface. 

In  using  the  compass,  the  Surveyor  should  keep  the 
south  end  towards  his  person,  and  read  the  bearings 
from  the  north  end  of  the  needle.     He  will  observe 
that  the  E  and  W  letters  on  the  face  of  the  compass 
are  reversed  from  their  natural  position,  in  order 
that  the  direction  of  the  line  of  sight  maybe  correctly 
read.    The  compass-circle  being  graduated  to   half- 
degrees,  a  little  practice  will  enable   the 
surveyor  to  read  the  bearings  to  quarters 
or  even  finer — estimating  with  his  eye  the 
space  bisected  by  the  point  of  the  needle, 
and  as  this  is  as  low  as  the  traverse  table 
is  usually  calculated,  it  is  the  general  prac- 
tice. Sometimes,  however,  a  small  vernier 
is  placed  upon  the  south  end  of  the  needle, 
and  reads  the  circle  to  five  minutes  of  a 
degree — the  circle  being  in  that  case  gra- 
duated  to   whole  degrees.      This  contri- 
vance, however,  is  quite  objectionable  on 
account  of  the  additional  weight  imposed 
on   the  center-pin,    and   the   difficulty  of 
reading   a  vernier  which    is  in   constant 
vibration  ;  it  is  therefore  but  little  used. 

To  take  angles  of  elevation.— Having 
first  leveled  the  compass,  bring  the  south 
end  towards  you,  and  place  the  eye  at  the 
little  button,  or  eye-piece,  on  the  right 
side  of  the  south  sight,  and  with  the  band 
fix  a  card  on  the  front  surface  of  the  north 
sight,  so  that  its  top  edge  will  be  at  right 
angles  to  the  divided  edge,  and  coincide 
with  the  zero  mark ;  then  sighting  over 
the  top  of  the  card,  note  upon  a  flagstaff 
the  height  cut  by  the  line  of  sight ;  then 
move  the  staff  up  the  elevation,  and  carry  the  card 
along  the  sight  until  the  line  of  sight  again  cuts 
the  same  height  on  the  staff,  read  off  the  degrees 
and  half-degrees  passed  over  by  the  card. 

For  angles  of  depression,  proceed  in  the  same 
manner,  using  the  eye-piece  and  divisions  on  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  sights,  and  ri':uliiig  from  the 
top  of  the  sights.  When  the  instrument  is  to  be 
used  in  making  new  surveys,  the  vernier  should  be 
set  at  zero  and  securely  clamped  by  screwing  up  the 
nut  beneath  the  plate.  In  surveying  old  lines,  the 
change  of  the  variatidn  of  the  neeilU^  should  be  a.s- 
eertiiined  by  setting  llie  etmipass  on  some  one  well- 
deliued  line  of  the  tract,  and  making  the  bearing  to 
agree  with  that  of  the  old  survey,  by  moving  the 
circle  as  already  described.  Then  the  circle  can  be 
clamped,  and  the  old  lines  retraced  from  the  bear- 


FLAN. 


533 


PLANE  OF  DEFILEMENT. 


in|»(i  Riven  liy  tlic  firifriniil  Siirvcy'ir.  When  the  vii- 
riiitiiin  of  the  lU'cdlc  is  Idiown.il  ciin  be  ciisilysct  olT 
by  llic  vernier,  niid  IIk^  cDiiipuHH  used  to  run  a  true 
nii'riiliiiii  by  Ibe  iiei'dle. 

A  little  eaiition  in  neeessiiry  in  bandling  tlio  eoni- 
pass,  tbat  llie  ulass  eoverini;  be  not  excited  by  t be 
frietion  of  elotb,  sillt,  or  tlie  Imiul,  so  as  to  atlniel 
the  needle  to  its  under  surface.  Wbr^n,  however, 
the  ijjlasM  bocomps  electric,  tlu'  tliiid  nmy  be  reiTioved 
by  lireathini;  u])on  il,  or  to\icliini;  ililferent  parts  of 
itssMrfu<'e  vvitli  the  moistened  lln;;er.  An  iffiiorance 
of  this  appareiUly  trillini;  matter  has  caused  many 
errors  and  perplexities  iiithe  practice  of  the  inexper- 
ienced Surveyor. 

The  railroail  compass  is  an  instrument  of  the  liij;liest 
grade,  in  which  by  the  addition  of  a  diviileilliml)and 
verniers  the  Surveyor  is  enabled  to  take  anjrles,  and 
run  lines  unalleeted  by  the  imperfections  of  the  mni;- 
netic  needle. 

The  vernier  compass  has  a  neat  compass-circle,  to 
which  is  attached  a  "vernier,"  movable  about  a  com- 
mon center  a  short  distance  in  either  direction,  thus 
enabling;  tin;  Surveyor  to  set  the  zeros  of  llie<'ircle  at 
any  required  an<;le  with  the  line  of  sii^bts;  the  num- 
ber of  dcjfrecs  contained  in  this  anirlc  or  the  "  varia- 
tion of  tiie  needle"  Ueing  read  off  bj' the  vernier. 
See  S'llirr  Ci)mpass. 

PLAN. — The  representation  on  paper.on  a  reduced 
scab',  by  means  of  conventional  siiins  and  jirocess, 
of  any  jiortion  of  the  earth's  surface.  In  fortilication, 
a  ]ilan  shows  the  tracinji,  also  the  horizontal  lengtlis 
and  breadths  of  the  works,  the  thickness  of  the  ram- 
parts and  parapet,  the  vvidth  of  the  ditches,  etc.  It 
exhibits  the  extent,  division,  and  distribution  of  the 
works,  but  the  depth  of  the  ditches  and  the  height 
of  the  works  are  not  represented  in  tlie  plan.  See 
I'ldii  of  ('iiinpiiiffii.Hnd  Plan  af  Defenxv. 

PLANE.  -1.  A  surface  without  curvature,  and  the 
test  of  it  is,  that  any  two  points  whatever  being  taken 
in  the  surface,  the  straight  line  which  joins  them 
lies  wholly  in  the  surface.  When  two  planes  cross 
or  intersect  one  another,  their  comniiui  section  is  a 
straight  line;  and  the  inclination  of  the  planes  to 
each  otlier  is  measured  by  taking  any  point  in  their 
common  section,  and  drawing  from  it  two  straight 
lines,  one  in  each  plane,  perpendicular  to  tlie  com- 
mon section  ;  the  angle  contained  by  these  lines  is 
the  angle  of  inclination  of  the  planes.  When  the 
angle  is  a  right  angle,  the  planes  are  perpendicular 
to  each  other. 

2.  A  tool  used  for  rendering  the  surface  of  wood 
smooth  and  level.  It  consists  of  an  oblong  block  of 
wood  or  metal  (the  latter  has  only  recently  come  into 
use),  with  an  opening  through  the  center;  this  open- 
ing is  square  on  the  upper  side,  ami  is  always  large 
enough  to  admit  the  cutting  instrument ;  it  dimin- 
ishes down  to  a  mere  slit  on  the  vuider  side,  just  wide 
enough  to  allow  the  cutting  edge  of  the  plane-iron 
and  the  shaving  of  wood  which  it  cuts  otf  to  pass 
through.  The  essential  part  of  the  tool  is  the  plane- 
iron,  a  piece  of  steel  witli  a  chisel-shaped  edge,  and 
a  slot  in  its  center  for  a  large-  headed  screw  to  work 
and  to  attach  to  it  a  strengthening  plate.  They  are 
held  in  place  by  the  hard-wood  wedge.  By  driving 
in  the  wedge,  the  irons  are  held  very  firmly  in  their 
plai-e.  and  they  are  so  adjusted  that  only  the  tine 
sharp  chisel-edge  of  the  cutting-tool  [irojects  through 
the  slit  in  the  bottom  of  the  body  of  the  plane,  so 
that  when  the  too!  is  pushed  forward  by  the  force  of 
the  hand,  the  cutting  edge  pares  off  all  irregularities, 
until  the  wood  is  as  smooth  as  the  under  surface  of 
the  plane.  There  are  many  modifications  in  this 
tool,  which  can  have  its  cutting  edge  and  under  sur- 
face made  to  almost  any  contour,  so  tliat  mouldings 
of  all  kinds  may  be  made.  The  two  commonest  are 
the  jack-plane  for  rough  work,  and  the  smoothing- 
plane  f<ir  tinishing  off  plane  surfaces.  See  Pianiiig- 
mai'hiiu, 

PLANE  OF  COMPARISON.— A  plan  of  a  fortress, 
tud  of  the  surroundini;  countrv,  on  which  are  ex- 


prcBsed  the  distanccH  of  the  principal  points  from  a 
liorizontal  |)!ane,  imagined  to  paHs  through  the  high- 
est  (jr  lowest  points  of  (rroimd,  in  the  Hurvey.  This 
imaginary  plane  is  cidhd  a  plane  of  comparisim. 

PLANE  OF  DEFILEMENT.  A  plane,  which  con- 
taining the  interior  crest  of  a,  work,  passes  at  lensl 
I'ight  feet  abovir  those  points  to  be  sheltered,  and  at 
least  live  feet  above  the  grounil  which  can  be  occu- 
pied by  an  enemy  within  cannon  range.  The  amount 
of  space  in  rear  of  a  i)arapet  which  is  reipiircd  to  be 
defiladed,  depends  upon  circumstances.  In  some 
cases,  the  entire  s])ace  enclosed,  and  in  others  only 
a  part,  is  to  be  protected  from  this  tire  from  a  com- 
manding height.  Thus,  it  is  usual  to  require  that 
the  whole  interior  space  of  an  enclosed  work  should 
be  defilaiU'd;  that  the  interior  as  far  as  the  gorge 
slioiild  be  defilade<l  for  a  lialf-enclosed  work;  and 
that  so  much  of  the  interior,or  so  much  of  the  terre- 
plein  behinri  tlie  parapet  as  may  be  necessary  for 
the  free  movements  of  the  defense,  should  be  defil- 
aded in  ojien  works  or  lines. 

It  is  not  convenient  in  practice  to  place  the  eve  at 
!i  distance  of  eight  feet  from  the  ground,  nor"  is  it 
an  easy  thing  to  judge,  from  a  distance,  what  should 
be  the  position  of  a  point  which   shall  be  live  feet 
above   the   ground.     The  method  used  is  to  place 
the  eye  at  a   convenient  distance  from  the  grounil, 
observe  tlie  highest  point  of  the  top  of  the  hill,  and 
determine  the  position  of  a  visual  plane  tangent  to 
the  hill.     Knowing  the  position  of  Ibis  visual  plane, 
a  second  plane  is  passed  parallel  to  it  and  five  feet 
above  it.     The  tangent  visual  jilane  is  known  as  the 
rampant   plane,  and  the   plane   parallel  to  it  is  the 
plane  of  defilement.     The   position  of  the  rampant 
plane  and  the  plane  of  <letilemeiit  may   be  fixed  as 
follows:  To  illustrate   the   method,  a  redan  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  lield  work  which  is  to  be  built,  upon 
a  position  commanded  by  a  neighboring  height,  and 
that   the  salient   and  extremities  of  the   faces  are 
marked  by  upright  poles  planted  in  tlieground.  The 
trace  marked,  the  next  step  is  to  profile  the  work, 
imd  this  requires  the  height  of  the  interior  crest  to 
be  determined.     Two  stakes,  at   a  convenient   dis- 
tance apart,  are  erected  ttpon  the  gorge  line;  if  not 
too  far  apart,  the  poles  already  erected  to  mark  the 
extremities  of  the  faces  may  be  used.     A  line,  three 
feet  from  the  ground,  is  marked  by  a  strip  of  wood 
having  a  straight  edge, or  by  a  cord  tightly  stretched, 
and    fastened   to  these   uprights.     An   observer   is 
placed  in  rear  of  this  line;  he  sights  along  it  and  tan- 
gent to  the  hill,  and  determines   where   the   visual 
plane  containing   this   line   cuts  the  pole  placed  at 
the  salient.       This  point  is  carefully  marked,  and 
with  the  line  joining  the  two  ujirights  on  the  gorge 
line,  fixes  the  position  of  a  plane  tangent  to  the  hill 
and  three  feet  above  the  ground  at  the  gorge.     If 
on  the  three  posts,  points  be  marked,  five  feet  above 
the  points  of  intersection  of  the  posts  by  the  rampant 
plane,  these  will  be  points  of  a  iilane  which  will  pass 
eight  feet  above  the  ground  at  the  gorge  and   five 
above  the  ground  at  the  top  of  the  hill.     If  the  faces 
of  the  redan  are  held  in  this  [ilane,  the  whole  inter- 
ior of  the  redan  will  be  defiladed  from  this  hill,  and 
the  last  plane  determined  will  be  the  jilane  of  defil- 
ade,  or  defilement.     The  extremities  of  the  faces  at 
the  gorge  have  parapets  of  the  ordinary  height,  viz., 
eight  feet;  the  parapets  from  these  points,  increase 
in  height  until   the   salient   is   reached,    where   the 
height  is  the  greatest.     The   height  of  the   interior 
crest  can  then  be  determined,  at   the  points  where 
the  profiles  are  to  be  placed.     The  site  being  level, 
there  is  no  reason  why  any  one  part  of  the  interior 
crest  should  be  higher  than  another.    It  is  neverthe- 
less the  practice,  even  in  this  case,  to  give  addition- 
al   height   to  the  parapet  at  a  salient,  not  for  the 
purposes  of  defilading  the  interior,  but  to  lessen  the 
elTect  of  any  enfilading  fire  which  an  enemy  might 
obtain  upon  the  faces,  and  to  allow  for  the  descent 
of  the  trajectorj-  of  a  projectile  which  might  graze 
the  interior  crest  at  the  salient. 


PLAWE  OF  ITKE. 


534 


PLANE  TABLE. 


A  slight  deviation  from  the  method  just  described 
is  made  when  the  worl{  to  be  defiladed  is  a  lunette, 
instead  of  a  redan.  Two  uprights,  about  twelve 
feet  apart,  are  planted  upon,  and  near  the  center  of, 
the  gorge  line.  A  third  upright  is  placed  in  front  of 
the  gorge  and  ten  or  twelve  feet  from  it  upon  the 
line  "joining  the  center  of  the  gorge  line  with  the 
salient.  The  points  are  then  marked  where  the 
rampant  plane,  three  feet  above  the  ground,  cuts 
these  three  uprights  and  the  uprights  planted  at  the 
salient,  and  at  the  shoulders.  A  distance  of  five 
feet  is  marked  above  the  points  just  determined, 
and  this  will  fix  the  position  of  the  plane  of  defilade 
for  the  lunette.  See  -Defilement,  Direct  Defilement, 
and  Bi^i-erse  Defilement. 

PLANE  OF  FIKE.— la  Gunnery,  a  vertical  plane 
thriMiijli  the  line  of  tire.     See  Pointing. 

PLANE  OF  SIGHT.  —In  Gunnery,  a  vertical  plane 
throusch  tlie  line  of  sight.     See  Pointing. 

PLANE  OF  SITE.— The  general  level  of  the  ground, 
or  ground  line,  upon  which  the  works  are  construct- 
ed,"i8  called  the  plane  of  site,  whether  that  plane  be 
horizontal  or  oblique  to  the  horizon. 

PLANE  OF  SYMMETRY.— In  artillery,  an  imaginary 
plane  everywhere  bisecting  the  space  between  the 
two  cheeks  of  a  gini  carriage. 

PLANER-CENTERS.- Devices  for  supporting  small 
work  on  the  bed  of  a  planing-machine.  One  of  the 
two  is  provided  with  a  worm  and  worm-wheel,  by 
which  tiie  work  may  be  rotated,  so  as  to  present 
each  face  in  succession  to  the  cutter:  the  other  has 


gra|.  hy  and  map  drawing.  As  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing, tlie  plane  table  consists  mainly  of  a  drawing- 
board  set  upon  a  very  firm  tripod,  and  having  upon 
its  upper  surface  a  movable  straight  edge  or  nlidaele., 
arranged  either  with  sight-vanes  or  telescope,  by 
which  it  may  be  directed  to  any  given  point,  the  line 
being  then  drawn  on  the  paper  along  the  edge  of  the 
alidade.  A  rectangular  plate  of  brass  to  whicli  is 
attached  a  small  compassand  two  spirit-levels,  is  also 
shown,  and  serves  both  to  level  the  table  and  when 
applied  by  the  edges  parallel  n  the  zero  points  of 
the  compass  circle,  to  determine  the  magnetic  bear- 
ing of  the  lines  drawn  on  the  paper,  or  tlie  direction 
of  the  table  itself.  The  table  is  made  of  wood  ar- 
ranged in  sections  so  as  to  prevent  warping,  and  has 
an  adjustable  wooden  roller  at  each  end  by  which 
the  paper  is  brought  down  snugly  to  the  board,  or 
upon  which  a  long  sheet  can  be  rolled  and  unrolled 
at  will.  In  place  of  the  rollers,  sometimes,  and  often 
in  combination  with  them,  a  number  of  brass  clamps 
as  shown  are  used  in  holding  the  paper  firmly.  The 
plumbing  arm  shown  in  the  figure  has  its  end  brought 
to  a  point,  that  it  may  be  set  at  any  given  point  on 
the  paper,  the  plunnnet  hanging  from  the  underarm 
determining  the  corresponding  point  on  the  ground; 
the  lower  arm  moves  upon  a  hinge,  an  index  on  the 
side  showing  when  the  ends  of  the  two  arms  are 
plumb  with  each  other  as  applied  to  the  table. 

The  construction  of  the  socket  and  tripod-head  is 
shown  in  the  drawing  on  page  53,5,  in  which  n  repre- 
sents the  hemispherical  concave  metal  cup  fastened 


an  inclined  plane  by  which  the  slope  of  the  work  is 
regulated  so  as  to  give  a  taper,  if  required.  The 
drawing  shows  an  improvement  in  the  device  for 
dropping  the  worm  out  of  gear,  as  in  many  cases  it 
's  not  needed,  the''''by  saving  time.  The  dials  are  so 
drilled  that  they  are  calculated  to  plane  any  shape 
♦hat  is  generally  required,  and  for  fluting  taps,  ream- 
ers, ste. 


by  six  screws  to  the  wood  top  of  the  tripod,  b  the 
upper  or  convex  part  fitting  nicely  into  the  cup  and 
clamped  to  it  at  will  by  the  clamping  piece  c  and  nut 
d ;  a  strong  spiral-ring  in  the  hollow  cylinder  be- 
tween c  and  d,  serves  to  hold  the  two  spherical  sur- 
faces of  the  socket  together,  and  allow  of  the  easy 
movement  of  the  one  within  the  other  in  the  leveling 
of  the  table.   The  flange  of  the  socket  b  supports  the 


PLANE  TABLE.— I'liiMc  l.ibles  may  be  >ised  to  deter 
mine  dislanics  and  to  note  file  fall  of  projeclilcs  \n 
target-practice   or  firing  for   rang 


tabh'  and  is  connected  with  its  luider  s\irface  by  three 

sciliiienis    of    brass,  I  wo  of  which  are  sluiwM  at  (W / 

iilso  in   topo- 1  these  are  brought  down  firmly  upon  the  shoulder  of 


FLANIMETEB. 


r)3r 


PLANI1I£T£B. 


the  flanRd  by  ciipHMiii-licad  Hcrows  uh  Hliown,  or  rc- 
leiiHiMl  111  will,  tliiiM  lUlowin;;  llic  |)laii(;  table  to  be 
moved  liori/.oiilally  wlieii  dcMircil.  A  set  of  tlirci' 
Icvcliiif^-xcrcws  is  Hoinctiiiics  added  for  mon-  aeeiir- 
alely  leveling  (lie  (able,  but  ordinarily  llie  jiressure 
of  tile  liatiil  upon  it  willi  tbe  Hoekel  alone  will  be  all 
tlial  is  re(iiiiri^d.  Wlien  clesired,  a  lanj,'cut  movement 
in  a/.iniiilli  may  also  bc^  added. 

\VI:en  estimlitinu;  dislanee,  if  the  target  is  on  the 
water,  a  iwiut  along  the  shore,  the  diHtance  of  which 


from  the  battery  has  been  asorrtained,  is  selected  so 
that  a  line  drawn  from  it  towards  the  place  where 
the  tirst  grazes  are  expected  to  occur  will  be  at  right 
angles  to  the  line  of  tire,  or  nearly  so ;  here  one  of 
the  plane  tables  is  placed.  The  other  is  situated  as 
nearly  in  line  with  the  larg<'l  and  battery  as  con- 
venient; sulliciently  removed,  however,  not  to  be  in- 


convenienced by  the  smoke.  The  two  stations  should 
be  so  situated  that  lines  drawn  from  them  to  the  tar- 
get will  be  nearly  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  Their 
distances  from  each  other  and  from  the  battery  are 
known.  The  table  is  ailjusted  with  the  small  metal 
plate  over  the  stake  thiit  marks  the  slation.  anil 
leveled.      The   observer  places  his   alidade  on  the 


pivot-pin,  Bights  carefully  on  a  given  point  at  the 
battery,  and  marks  on  the  paper  uflixed  to  the  table 
IIk'  direction  assigned  by  the  beveled  I'dge  of  the 
ruler.  The  direction  of  the  other  station  is  noted  in 
the  same  way,  as  is  also  the  target  and  any  stakiiB 
which  may  be  jilaced  in  the  line  of  (ire.  V\  hen  (lie 
cannon  is  ready  to  lire,  a  preparatory  signal  is  hoisted 
at  the  battery  ;  se(Mng  this,  the  observer  points  the 
alidade  in  tin;  exiiected  direction  of  the  llrst  graze. 
The  signal  is  lowered  and  the  gun  fired.  The  instant 
the  jet  takis  place,  the  sights  of  the  alidade  are 
aligned  upon  it,  an<l  the  direction  indicated  by  the 
beveled  edge  of  the  ruler  marked  ujion  the  paper, 
'i'he  lini'  connecting  the  two  stations  is  a  base  from 
which  is  determined  the  position  of  the  fxiint  struck 
and  of  tli(!  battery.  The  ])rojeclion  of  this  base  on 
any  scale  will  enable  one  to  ascertain  in  terms  of 
that  scale  the  distances  desired.  After  tlie  firing, 
the  tables  are  returne(l,  the  observations  maileon  one 
lalil<'  transferred  lo  the  other,  and  the  intersections 
of  llie  lines  lo(;ale  the  positions  of  the  points  struck. 
See  .  I  h'lhiih  . 

PLANIMETEE.— An  inRtnimcnt  for  ascertaining 
the  contents  of  all  irregular  plane  figures.  More  than 
thirty  years  ago,  OpjiikolTer,  of  Berne,  invented  an 
instrument  of  Ibis  description,  which  seemed  to  fulfill 
all  the  rei|iiirements  of  the  case  ;  but  its  cost  and  the 
practical  dillicullies  attending  its  use  prevented  its 
general  adopliijn.  More  recently,  Amsler-LalTon,  of 
Scholfhauseu.  devised  a  simpler  and  imich  less  costly 
instrumeni  of  the  kind,  which  was  exhibited 
at  the  Paris  Expo.sition  of  1807.  The  prin- 
ciple of  each  is  nearly  the  same,  the  area 
being  measured  by  a  roller  of  given  surface, 
the  number  of  revolutions  of  which  are  in- 
dicated by  a  disc.  The  drawing  shows  the 
Amsler  ])olar  planimeter,  whicii,  in  addition 
to  the  ordinary  requirements  of  the  instru- 
ment, is  well  adapted  for  measuring  the  area 
of  iiidiriitirr  (Ungrnm.i.  To  use  the  instru- 
ment, press  the  point  A  slightiy  into  the 
paper,  n(jt  clear  through,  ia  such  position 
that  the  tracer  B  will  follow  the  desired  line 
without  bringing  the  roller  C  against  any 
projection.  The  roller  must  move  (ma  con- 
tinuous flat  surface.  It  is  also  well  to  fasten 
the  diagram  to  a  drawing-board,  or  soma 
other  flat  surface, by  means  of  pins  or  springs, 
to  prevent  it  from  slipping.  IMark  a  starling 
point  at  any  point  on  the  outline  of  diagram 
D.  set  the  tracer  on  that  point,  and  place 
zero  on  the  roller  so  it  exactly  coincides  with 
zero  on  the  vernier  E.  Now  trace  the  line, 
moving  in  tlic  direction  traveled  by  the 
hands  of  a  watch,  stop  at  the  starting  point 
and  take  the  reading.  1st.  Find  the  high- 
est figure  on  the  roller  that  has  pa.ssed  the 
zero  on  the  vernier,  moving  to  the  left, 
[^^--nJ  whicli  we  will  assume  to  be  4;  now  the 
ij    o       construction  of  the  instrument  is  such,  that 

IV j     each  figure  on  the  roller  represents  an  equal 

number  of  scpiare  inches.  2d.  Find  the 
number  of  omipUUd  divisions  between  four 
on  the  roller  and  zero  on  the  vernier,  which 
we  will  assiniie  to  be .5.  3d.  Findthe  number 
of  the  mark  on  the  vernier  which  coincides 
with  some  mark  on  the  roller,  which  in  this 
I  case  may  be  (5.  ^A'e  now  have  the  exact 
reading,  4,'^,,",  inclies  area.  In  measuring- 
diagrams  of  more  than  10  inches  area,  add  10 
to  the  result. 

To  those  wlio  are  familiar  with  the  in- 
strument, it  is  not  necessary  to  place  the 
zeros  together ;  but  take  the  reading  as  it  is.  and 
subtract  it  from  the  result.  Should  the  second  read- 
ing be  less  than  the  tirst.  add  10  to  the  second  read- 
ing before  making  the  subtraction.  If  the  area  to 
be  measured  is  very  large,  divide  it  by  lines  into 
areas  of  less  than  20  si|uare  inches,  and  take  separate 
measurements.     If  the  drawing  is  to  a  scale,  multi- 


FLAinHG-MACHiHE. 


536 


PLANING  MACHIKE. 


ply  the  result  by  the  square  of  the  ratio  number  of 
the  scale.  In  using  the  Planimeter  for  indicator 
diagrams,  and  for  which  it  is  specUiUy  adapted,  we 
find  the  area  of  the  diagram,  according  to  the  fore- 
going directions,  whicli  we  will  assume  to  be  2.48 ; 
we  now  measiire  tlic  length  of  the  diagram  parallel 
with  the  atmospheric  line,  which  we  will  say  in  this 
case  is  4  inches.  Now  divide  the  area  by  the  length  ; 
the  quotient  is  the  mean,  or  average  height  of  the 
diastrara,  in  inches,  which  is  .()3  inches  :  this  we  mul- 
tiply by  the  scale  of  the  indicator,  whicli  we  will  as- 
sume to  be  40 ;  the  product  gives  us  24.8  lbs.  mean 
pressure  on  each  square  inch  of  the  piston. 

PLANING-MACHINE.— Planing- machines  have  re- 
cently been  much  in  use,  by  which  both  wood  and 
metal  are  planed.  In  the  case  of  those  intended  for 
wood,  the  cutting  instruments  are  moved  forw-ard 
over  the  wood  by  machinery  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  the  hand-plane.  The  precision  and  rapidity  with 
which  these  machines  work  have  given  great  facili- 
ties for  building,   us  one  machine  will  do  as  nuich 


of  tl  0  first ;  and  this  is  repeated  until  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  plate  is  reduced  to  the  required  level. 
However  tedious  this  process  may  appear,  it  offers 
such  facilities  for  metal  working  as  were  previously 
unknown. 

In"  its  usual  form,  the  metaUlc  object  is  dogged  to  a 
traversing-table  and  is  moved  against  a  relatively 
fi.xed  cutler.  In  practice,  the  cutter  is  adjusted  in  a 
stock,  and  is  usually  fed  automatically  between 
strokes.  The  machine  is  variously  constructed,  and 
in  sizes  to  suit  the  work  in  hand.  The  drawings  il- 
lustrate the  Pond  machines  of  the  latest  patterns,  and 
including  novel  features.  Fig.  1  shows  a  2fi-inch 
machine  which  is  intended  for  light  work.  Its  bed 
lias  great  depth  and  its  length  in  proportion  to  the 
length  of  table  is  greatly  in  excess  of  usual  pr.actice. 
The  uprights  have  sufficient  metal  and  breadth  of 
liase  to  resist  heavy  cuts  without  jar  when  the  tool 
is  at  the  greatest  height.  The  table  is  very  thick, 
with  three  bolt-slots  truly  planed  and  pin-holes  drill- 
ed and  reamed,  and  receives  back  and  forward  mo- 


Fig. 

work  as  sixty  men.  The  planing-machines  used  for 
metal  are  different  in  principle.  A  well-tempered, 
chisel-edged  steel  cutter  is  held  in  a  fixed  position, 
pressing  downwards  upon  tlic  metal  plate,  which  is 
moved  forward  by  powerfiil  machiucry.  The  action 
of  this  movement  is  that  a  groove  is  plowed  into 
the  metal  of  the  size  of  the  steel  cutter;  when  the 
metal  has  traveled  its  full  length,  and  has  made  the 


tion  from  an  open  and  cross  belt  through  a  powerful 
train  of  cut  gears  and  rack.  These  gears  are  mounted 
on  shafts  liaving  very  large  diameters  and  more 
than  twice  the  usual  length  of  the  journal.  These 
journals  are  carefully  scraped  together  and  straight 
surfaces  scraped  to  surface  plates.  The  automatic 
belt-shifter  transfers  but  one  belt  at  same  time,  thus 
obviating  squealing  of  belts  and  jar  of  machine,  it  is 


groove  complete,  the  downward  pressure  of  tlie  tool  I  entirely 
is  removed,  and  by  the  action  of  the  double   screw 
which  has  carried  it  forward,  it  is  riiurncd,  and  re- 
adjusted for  another  groove  to  be  formed  by  the  side 


discniuii'cl<'d  fioin  feeding  apparatus  and  is 
irranged  1o  llirow  out  1"  iliar  llw  reviTsing  dogs  on 
the  lable  wliich  i  an  then  lie  run  backward  to  exam- 
ine the  work.     The  feeding  device  gives  aulomatio 


PLANK  B£V£TK£NT. 


537 


PLAN  OF  CAUPAIQH. 


feed  in  nil  dircrlinns  and  is  adjiistiililc  from  0  to  J  of 
an  inch  wide  and  takes  no  power  exrept  ul  tlie  mo- 
ment of  feedin;;.  'I"ln'  down  and  anixnlar  fi'eds  can 
be  operated  by  hand,  if  more  ennveiiieni,  from  bolli 
ends  of  I  he  cross-head  as  well  as  I  he  top  of  I  he  saddle. 
'I'lie  countershaft  lias  two  pulleys,  each  lU  inches  di- 
ameter, by  .')  inches  face  for  Ihe^i-inch  belt  and  shonid 
make  itlO  revolutions  every  minute.  Weight  5,000 
pounds. 

Fig.  2  shows  an  81-inch  planer,  designed  for  the 
heavier  work.  It  possesses  all  the  features  above 
enumerated,  the  countershaft  liavini;  two  ])nllcyscaeh 
21  inches,  by  .')  inches  face  for  .'i-inch  belt,  and  mak- 
lufj;  2iH)  rcvdiulions  a  minute.  The  weii;lil  of  this 
machine  is  .'>('>, 000  pounds.  See  liotary  IHiiner,  and 
i^hiipinq-iniirjii  lit'. 

PLANK  REVETMENT.  -  Plank  is  an  excellent  ma- 
terial for  rcvelnienis  wliere  dural)ilily  and  very  great 
strenvclh  are  not  re(piired.  Tlu^  ease  of  working  and 
eonvenicnc(^  of  handling  are  its  great  advantages. 
When  it  can  be  easily  obtained  and  can  be  sparetl  for 
the  purpose,  it  will  always  be  used  in  works  of  liur- 
ried  construction. 

Kevetments  nuiy  be  maae  with  it  by  driving  posts 
or  pieces  of  scantling  into  the  earth,  three  or  four 
feet  a])art,  giving  to  them  the  sanu'  inclination  as 
the  inl<'rior  slope.  Hoards,  in  a  horizontal  position, 
to  retain  the  earth,  an'  then  nailed  to  these  scant- 
lings or  posts.  Or,  the  scantlings  may  be  capped, 
and  the  boards  having  been  cut  into  suitable  li'ngths, 
placed  in  an  vipri^ilit  position,  similar  to  the  jiosts  in 
the  limber  revetments.  The  moisture  of  the  earth 
soon  produces  rot  in  the  boards,  and  renders  the 
revetment  a  very  perishable  one.     See  lieretment. 

PLAN  OF  CAMPAIGN. -^Before  undertaking  any 
military  ojieralion,  great  or  small,  we  should  first 
sellle  down  upon  some  decidecl  end  to  be  gained : 
determine  upon  beforc'liand.  as  far  as  practicable, 
the  steps  to  be  taken  to  attain  (»ir  obje(!t.  In  one 
word,  we  should  clearly  see  what  we  propose  to  ac- 
complish, in  order  that  we  may  not  go  blindly  to 
work  and  leave  anything  to  chance.  The  inental 
process  by  which  all  that  is  here  supposed  is  elabo- 
rated is  ternu'd  The  huj  nq  nut  tlic  VUiti.  nf  Cnni-pn'tjn. 
In  the  first  place,  it  stands  to  reason  that  this  pliui 
should  be  so  limited  as  to  comjjrise  only  the  leading 
strategical  disjiositions,  thus  presenting  only  the  out- 
line features,  within  which  the  mesliwork  of  the  mi- 
nor operations  is  to  be  confined  ;  thus  leaving  ample 
latitude  for  all  movements  of  detail  and  their  execu- 
tion. Nothing  could  be  more  absurd  than  to  pretend 
to  dictate  to  the  Commanding  (General  what  he  shall 
do  from  day  to  day:  yet  this  has  been  (hme,  and 
with  but  few  exce])tions,  with  disastrous  results. 
Once  within  the  sphere  of  the  enemy's  operations,  a 
Commanding  (ieneral  is  no  longer  at  liberty  to  do 
what  he  wishes,  but  what  he  best  can.  Marches, 
maneuvers,  combats  depend  on  circumstances  for 
the  most  part  imperative;  decisions  arrived  at  are 
often  sudden,  and  brought  about  Ijy  the  attitude,  re- 
sources, strength,  and  the  tnora'.f  of  the  enemy. 
The  Commanding  General  shotdd  have  rnrti-  hlnnrlie 
for  carrying  out  the  details  of  the  campaign,  the 
plan  of  which  may  have  ticen  deciiicd  upon  by  a 
coimcil,  but  even  this  is  far  better  left  in  the  hands 
of  him  who  has  the  whole  responsibility  of  its  exe- 
cution on  his  shoulders,  and  has  the  greatest  interest 
in  its  success.  It  is  with  the  aid  of  the  general  maps 
of  a  comitry,  made  to  a  small  scale,  as  embracing  a 
wider  territory,  that  the  general  plan  of  campaign  is 
marked  out.  All  that  is  wanted  for  this  object  is  that 
the  map  should  contain  the  exact  positions  of  the 
places  upon  it :  the  water  courses,  the  mountain 
crests,  the  jirincipal  lines  of  commimication,  and  the 
political  and  geographical  boundaries.  The  less  de- 
tail on  such  maps  the  belter  they  are  for  this  pur- 
pose, as  the  mind  is  not  distracted  by  them  from  I  he 
main  features.  For  all  ])oints  of  detail  topographic- 
al maps,  on  a  large  scale,  are  necessary.  To  these 
we  have  recourse  when  it  is  a  question  to  choose  an 


encampment;  to  decide  upon  u  nulitary  position  ;  to 
dispo.se  an  order  of  battle,  elc.     The  plan  of  cam- 
paign lays  down  the  points  where  the  troops  are  to 
be  assembled,  the  base  and    lin<'   of  operations,  and 
th<!  strategical  points  to  be  attained.     The  choice  of 
the  positions  where  the  troops  are  to  be  assembled  is 
not  only  diilatcd  by  the  facility  of  sulisisting  them, 
I  although  this  is  a  point  of  great  importance  ;  but  by 
their  sidtableness  to  deceive  the  enemy  UH  to  the 
point  on   which  wc;  intend  to  make  an  advance,  so 
that  we  nwiy  take  the  initiative  and  follow  up  our 
blow  with  the  most  crushing  effect.     The  advance, 
where  practicable,   should    be    made  over  rommoil- 
ious  roads  rather  than  upon  narrow  and  obstructed 
byways.     The  nature  of  towns  or  defiles  to  be  Ira- 
versed  may  force  us  to  leave  them  on  one  side  to  lake 
byways,  although  bad ;  for  we  overcome  with  le.ss 
difficulty  material  obstacles  on   our   line  of  march 
than  we  can  towns  and  defiles  well  defended.     When 
an  army  can,  in  its  onwanl  movement,  rest  one  wing 
upon  a  natural  obstacle  to  an  enemy,    it  will  be  well 
for  it  to  keep  as  near  that  obstacle  as  practicable; 
because  it  will  be  better   covered  by  the  army,  the 
front  of  which  during   the   march  occupies  always 
several  ndles  in  extent :  at  least  so  long  as  a  battle  is 
not  imminent.     When  the  two  wings  of  the  army  are 
not   supported  in  this  way,  the   line  of  operations 
should  cut  the   middle  of  the   front  of  the  army,  in 
order  that  it  may  be  efjually  well   covered   on  each 
side.     There  is  one  general  nde  both  on  the  march 
and  for  battle,  which  i::,   never  to  expose  your  line 
of  operations;    every  disposition,   on  the  contrary, 
should  be  tidten  to  cover  it  and  defend  it  in  the  best 
possil)le  manner.     The  plan  of  campaign  for  the  de- 
fensive  is   usualh-  termed  the   IhftiiMte  I'lnn.     It 
chiefly  consists  in  deciding  upon  the  character  of  the 
warfare  to  be  adopted :  one  which  will  depend  upon 
national  traits,  the   resources,  topography,    and  cli- 
mate  of  the  country.     The   French,   for  example, 
make  a  defensive  warfare  by  assailing  their  enemies; 
the  Germans,  on  the  contrary,  carry  on   patiently  a 
methodical    defensive  behind   their  own   frontiers: 
the  Spaniards  have  been  seen  to  carry  on  an  extermi- 
nating  war  of  detail :  whilst   the   Russians,   under 
like  circumstances,  have  laid  waste  whole  provinces, 
and  destroyed  by  fire  their  capital  city,   to  deprive 
their  invaders  of  every  luaterial   resource.     .\  brave 
people,  but  not  babituated   t*   privations,  will  not 
drag  out  a  war  by  patient  endurance,   but   will  en- 
deavor to  bring  it  speedily  to  a  close  by  a  few  bril- 
liant actions  ;  its  preferences  will  be  for  sledge-ham- 
mer blows,  preferring  the  hazard  of  a  great  decisive 
battle,  in  which  it  may  fall  with  glor}-,  to  a  series 
of  petty  combats  which   only  serve   to   exhaust  the 
resources  of  the  country  without  bringing  about  any 
decisive  results.     Carrying  the  war  into  the  heart  of 
the  assailant's  coimtry,    or   that  of  his  allies,  is  the 
surest  plan  of  making  him  share  its  burdens  and  foil- 
ing his   plans.     The  courage   and  conduct  of  troops 
i  are  improved  in  this  way,  and  the  chances   in  their 
I  favor  increased.     But  to   be  successful,   the  party 
I  adopting  it  must  not  be  too  inferior  in  strength,  and 
the  nature  of  the  frontiers  should  favor  it :  as  there 
would  be  too  great  a  risk  under  less  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, and  in  these  even  it  would   not  be  pru- 
i  dent  lo  advance  too  far  beyond  our   own   frontier. 
\  The  army  will  chiefly  depend  for  the  supply  of  its 
i  wants  upon  the  zone  "of  territory  adjacent   to   the 
frontier,  and   this   should   be  desperately  disputed, 
liy  vmiting  all  its  forces  against  the  enemy's  invading 
corps.     If  this  succeeds,  from  the  defensive  the  ar- 
my can  assume   the  offensive.     If  unsuccessful,  no- 
thing remains  to  be  done  but  to  concentrate   all  the 
troops  possible  and  fall  back  upon  positions  selected 
beforehand,  either  of  very  great  natural  or  artificial 
strength,  as  rivers,  mountain-passes,  fortresses,  etc. 
In  this  manner  the  enemy  is  drawn  forward  into  a 
region  the  devastations  of  which  are  upon  his  shoul- 
ders.     The  skilful   .Montecuculi.    in   his   memoirs, 
argues  strongly  for  llie  adoption   of  such   a  plan  of 


PLAN  OF  DEFENSE. 


538 


PLANT. 


defensive  measures;  remarking  that  upon  the  ter- 
ritory of  our  enemy  wc  arouse  tlic  discontented, 
whilst  the  fountains  of  men,  money,  and  whatever 
else  war  calls  for,  are  only  disordered  and  fail  in  this 
portion  in  which  the  war  rages. 

PLAN  OF  DEFENSE.— The  determination  of  the 
points  on  which  resistance  is  to  he  made,  those  upon 
which  we  are  to  fall  back  in  case  of  disaster,  and  the 
roads  leading  to  these,  in  retreat;  the  dispositions  of 
our  forces  at  the  outset  so  as  to  anticipate  the  enemy 
on  every  point;  an  indication  of  tlie  points  in  rear  of 
our  frontier  for  concentration,  so  soon  as  the  enemy 
has  unmasked  his  projects;  the  mode  of  supporting 
our  advanced  corps  and  those  of  observation  by  cen- 
tral reserves;  tinally,  the  designation  of  the  points  to 
be  fortified  by  art,  "bridges  to'^be  destroyed,  roads  to 
be  repaired,  etc.,  etc. :  such  are  some  of  the  objects 
upon  which  attention  must  be  directed  in  any  defen- 
sive plan.  The  suitable  military  dispositions  in  all 
suchplanswill  be  controUedby  the  local  topography; 
it  is,  therefore,  impracticable  to  lay  dovi^n  invariable 
rules  on  this  point;  the  most  that  can  be  said  is,  that 
too  great  a  dissemination  of  our  force  is  always  dan- 
gerous; therefore  that,  so  far  from  attempting  to  de- 
fend every  pass  some  must  be  abandoned  to  their 
fate,  in  order  to  effectually  guard  those  whicli  are 
most  important  and  the  more  directly  threatened  by 
the  enemy.  If,  instead  of  moving  upon  the  latter, 
the  enemy  makes  a  show  of  gaining  the  former,  he 
must  be  met  by  analogous  movements,  and  our  task 
should  be  to  be  in  readiness  to  meet  him  by  what- 
ever route  he  may  arrive;  and  also  with  the  most 
troops  he  can  concentrate.  It  is  from  this  cause  that 
the  configuration  of  frontiers,  and  the  direction  and 
nature  of  the  roads  by  which  they  are  approached, 
have  so  great  an  influence  upon  the  defensive  meas- 
ures against  invasion.  If  these  last  are  such  as  to 
permit  our  moving  on  right  lines,  from  a  center, 
upon  the  enemy  maneuvering  on  the  periphery,  every 
advantage  of  mobility  is  on  our  side,  and  we  ought  to 
reach  any  point  before  the  enemy.  But,  in  any  case, 
it  is  next"  to  impossible  to  close  every  pass.  To  do 
so  would  require  a  continuous  line  of  troops,  which, 
from  its  extent  alone,  would  be  weak  at  all  points, 
and  which  an  enterprising  enemy  would  easily  pierce 
at  any  one.  Instead  of  attempting  any  such  imprac- 
ticable plan  it  would  be  better  to  place  a  considera- 
ble force  at  some  one  favorable  point  in  rear  of  our 
frontier,  and,  from  there,  take  the  chances  of  antici- 
pating the  enemy  on  any  point  he  may  threaten  by 
moving  on  him  promptly.  In  advance  of  this  cen- 
tral force,  and  upon  its  front  and  flanks,  small  bod- 
ies can  be  thrown  forward  to  occupy  the  principal 
passes  momentarily  and  give  wiirning  of  the  enemy's 
movements.  These  cfetachments,  by  retiring  slowly 
and  holding  the  enemy  in  check,  will  give  the  main 
body  time  to  make  its  dispositions,  either  to  advance 
or  to  receive  the  enemy  at  any  point  further  back. 
With  these  precautions  the  main  body  will  be  se- 
cured from  surprise,  a:ud  all  the  troops  can  be  kept 
near  enough  to  concentrate  for  battle.  Such  are  the 
general  defensive  dispositions  recommended  by  the 
highest  military  authority.  It  is  readily  seen  that 
great  discretion  is  necessarily  left  to  tlie  Command- 
in"-  General,  and  th;it  his  measures  should  lend 
themselves  to  tlie  local  fitatun-s  of  his  line  of  de- 
fense. All  that  is  requisite  that  these  should  be 
good  is  that  tliey  should  be  based  upon  the  simple 
idea  of  concentration.  This  is  always  preferable  to 
a  feeble  continucms  line,  with  separated  bodies  that 
cannot  alTord  mutual  sii|)])ort;  which  are  too  tar  re- 
moved from  the  supervision  ol*  the  ('(iinnianding 
General,  who  cannot  be  everywhere,  and  which,  ow- 
ing to  the  distances  between  them,  cannot  he  ral- 
lied and  concentrated  in  time  when  the  line  is 
pierced  at  any  imint.  With  the  foregoing  disposi- 
tions there  should  be  combined  some  suitable  sys- 
tem of  signals,  or  oilier  means  of  Iransinitling  in- 
telligence promptly  from  the  interior  line  of  delach- 
lucnts  lothe  niain'body.  No  Jiains  should  be  spared 


to  have  this  system  as  perfect  as  practicable,  an(i 
not  liable  to  mistakes.  A  position  chosen  on  the 
direct  road  that  the  enemy  must  follow  is  not  always 
the  best  tocheck  with  advantage  his  onward  march; 
flank  positions  can  also  often  be  found  of  superior 
advantage  for  this  purpose  from  which  the  enemy's 
line  of  operations  can  be  threatened  it  he  persists  in 
neglecting  this  position.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  when  the  force  thrown  on  the  flank  is  of  such 
strength  that  the  enemy  dare  not  to  leave  it  in  his 
rear,  "and  therefore  must  attack  and  drive  it  back 
so  that  he  may  not  expose  himself  to  be  separated 
from  his  case.  In  this  simple  manner  the  enemy 
is  forced  to  give  battle  on  a  ground,  of  our  own 
choice,  and  where  we  will  have  had  time  to  make 
every  defensive  disposition.  The  searching  out 
and  establishing,  on  sound  principles,  flank  posi- 
tions for  concentration  of  troops,  forms  an  essential 
feature  in  laying  down  anj'  plan  of  defense.  Having 
decided  upon  the  most  advanced  positions  to  be  oc- 
cupied, attention  should  next  be  directed  to  those  of 
a  secondary  character,  which  will  naturally  be  con- 
trolled by  the  water  courses  and  mountain  chains  in 
rear  of  the  first  line.  These  will  demand  in  their 
selection  verj'  careful  study.  The  best  of  this  class 
are  those  which  have  their  wings  or  extremities- 
resting  upon  natural  obstacles  that  an  enemy  can- 
not turn — as  the  sea,  lakes,  unfordable  rivers,  which, 
in  some  respects,  overlook  the  lines  of  approach  on 
them  ;  are  accessible  from  the  front  only  by  a  few 
practicable  roads  which  can  be  easily  guarded  :  the 
general  outline  of  the  position  being  convex  towards 
the  enemy,  and  in  rear  having  good  roads  leading  to 
all  points  of  it,  along  which  troops  can  be  rapidly 
moved  to  any  point  in  danger.  Fortified  places  on 
a  frontier  will,  of  course,  play  an  important  part  in 
any  defensive  plan ;  even  open  towns,  by  properly 
covering  them  with  field  works,  may  give  the  means 
of  effective  resistance  to  any  usual  mode  of  attack. 
When  these  places  lie  upon  a  river,  which  is  itself 
a  line  of  defense,  particularly  wlien  thej-  occupy 
both  banks  of  it,  they  afford  great  facilities  for  the 
operation  of  an  army  which  can  maneuver  on  either 
shore  with  safet}',  so  long  as  the  place  itself  is  not 
invested.  Fortifications  so  placed  completely  pre- 
vent the  enemy  from  using  the  river  as  a  means  of 
transportation,  whUst  they  assist  us  in  so  using  them; 
and,  in  most  cases,  they  would  therefore  force  an 
enemy  to  take  all  the  known  measures  for  gaining 
possession  of  them  before  he  would  dare  to  pass  be- 
yond them.  In  whatever  way  a  river  may  lie,  which 
has  fortified  points  on  it,  the  disadvantages  to  an 
invading  force  are  necessarily  great.  If  parallel  to 
our  line  of  frontier  an  enemy  cannot  cross  the  river, 
leaving  these  occupied  in  his  rear,  without  running 
the  risk  of  a  grcatdisaster.  When  perpendicular,  he 
cannot  with  safety  divide  his  forces  to  operate  on 
both  banks  at  once,  as  we  have,  by  means  of  the 
fortified  points,  the  ready  facility  of  concentrating  on 
either  side  at  our  pleasure.  Without  such  strong 
points  on  it,  a  river,  on  the  contrary,  might  be  a  posi- 
tive advantage  to  the  enemy,  by  allowing  liiin  to  se- 
cure one  of  his  own  wings  from  attack  by  resting  it 
upon  the  river,  whilst  he  would  also  thus  facilitate 
his  own  means  of  transportation.  As  to  military 
positions,  properlj'  so  called,  that  is  localities  favor- 
able to  accepting  battle,  great  care  should  be  taken 
in  designating  tliem  on  the  [ilan  of  defense,  and  in 
preparing  them  beforehand  for  every  eventuiility,  by 
field  works,  lines  of  retreat,  the  removal  of  all  ob- 
structions between  the  points  of  the  position,  etc.  In 
every  plan  of  defense,  parlicular  care  should  be 
talun  in  pointing  out  what  reads  shonkl  be  care- 
fully i)reserved,  and  which,  in  any  emergency,  may 
he  broken  up,  or  otlierwi.se  obstructed.  "These 
measures  of  deslruction  arcalmosl  always  put  off  so 
late  as  to  become  impracticable  at  the"  moment  of 
need. 

PLANT.— In  a  military  sense,  to  place  or  to  flx;  as 
til  iildiitii  utandiird.     It  likewise  signifies  to  arrange 


FLAN. 


539 


PLATE-ABMOB. 


dilTerenl  picccB  of  oriliiHiicc  for  the  i)iirpoH<t  of  (loiiij; 
excoiil.ion  UK'''''*'t  ""  •■■H'liiy  '"^  ''i**  work«;  hence,  t/i 
plant  a  hdlt'  ry.  Some  iiiilliorH  iipply  this  word  to 
the  act  of  direct  ill;;  ii  ciiiiiioii  properly. 

PLANTATIONS.  '!><■<■«  which  are  KometiineH 
pluiilcd  "11  Ihi'  ;;hicis  of  fortresses.  Wlieii  juiiiei- 
ously  pliic<'d,  they  form  a  vahialile  aid  to  the  dcfeiiMe. 
First,  ill  tile  wood  lieiiii;  uscil  for  tiiiilier,  as  they 
would  be  cut  down  when  the  place  wjis  aliout  to  he 
attacked.  Secondly,  in  the  roots  of  the  trees  which 
run  under  the  glacis  formiiii^a  considerahle  obstacle 
to  the  lie»ieu;er's  sups.  Care  should  be  taken  toleuvc 
a  space  of  aliout  20  feet  clear  in  front  of  the  crest. 
This  p.'irt  will  be  of  no  use  to  the  besie^cer,  as  the  sap 
of  his  lod'j:riiem  will  probabjy  be  excavated  <jiitside 
of  it;  and  the  defenders  may  liave  occiision  (biriiig 
the  siei;e  to  cut  rainp.s  in  it  ascending  from  tlic 
covered  way  to  facilitate  sorties,  or  to  construct 
lodiiments  thereon  for  ritlemen.  For  the  same  rea- 
son it  would  he  advisable  to  avoid  planting  any 
parts  of  the  glacis  where  it  is  likely  the  defenders 
will  have  to  excavate  counter-approaches. 

FLASH. — A  term  coninionlv  used  to  signify  the  in- 
terwc'aving  of  branches,  as  for  gabions,  (Tikes,  weirs, 
hunlles.  e>c. 

PLASTRON.— 1.  A  stiifTed  pad  or  cushion,  for- 
merly worn  at  the  shoulder  to  sustain  'he  recoil  of 
heavy   muskets   and  other   lire-arnis,  and  still   used 


by  fencers  upon  the  right  side.  3.  A  brcast-platc 
or  half  cuirass.  In  the  old  French  service,  the  (iens 
d'Arines,  the  heavy  cavalry,  the  light  horse,  etc., 
were  obliged  to  wear  them  on  all  occasions,  at  re- 
views, etc.     Sometimes  written  J'lii.ttnii. 

PLATE. — 1.  In  Heraldry,  a  roundle  argent.  It  is 
represented  flat,  and  in  the  Heraldry  of  Scotland  is 
known  as  a  fiizant  argent.  2.  Metallic  armor  com- 
posed of  broad  pieces,  and  thus  distinguished  from 
mail. 

PLATE-AEMOR.— The  employment  of  tliick  slabs 
of  iron  to  protect  the  sides  of  ships  of  war  and  the 
fronts  of  fortiticatiuns,  is  quite  a  recent  invention  : 
or  rather,  the  modern  system  is  the  practical  reali- 
zation (  f  plans  surrsrested  long  ago  by  Mersenne  and 
others.  In  1842,  Jlr.  Balmaiio,  of  New  York,  pro- 
posed that  war-ships  should  be  clad  with  several 
thicknesses  of  iron  plate,  riveted  one  iipon  another, 
the  plates  being  individually  ^th  inch  thick.  Soon 
afterwards,  Mr.  Stevens,  an  American  ship-builder, 
made  further  suggestions  on  the  subject,  and  other 
practical  men  kept  the  matter   before   the    attention 


of  thi^  aiilhorilieH  in  various  coiintrieH.  In  1854, 
the  French  sent  several  lloating-lmtterieH  to  the 
Hlack  Sea,  clad  witli  iron  plates;  and  th<!  Knglish 
Admiralty  hastily  iinilaleil  this  example,  producing 
eight  very  slow  and  iiiimanagealile  butteries  in  IH.'j.'j- 
;j(i.  Then  laine  in  a  llo(jil  of  Huggi'Slions  for  arming 
regular  ships  of  war  in  a  similar  way.  Tlie  A(i- 
miralty,  dismayed  at  the  thought  of  dismantling  the 
existing  lleet,  which  hail  cost  so  miieh,  delayed  the 
subject  as  long  as  they  could,  but  without  abandon 
ing  it.  In  IHtiO,  the  French  sent  to  sea  /<«  (lli/ire,  a 
timber-built  ship  of  war,  altered  from  a  !W-gun  three 
decker  to  a 4i)-gim  corvette,  clad  with  4J-inch  iron 
plates  having  a  burden  of  ;i,0()0  tons.  This  proceed- 
ing at  once  set  the  English  Government  on  the  alert 
they  saw  that  further  delay  would  be  imprudent, and 
they  set  about  the  creation  of  an  armor-clad  navy. 
Many  problems  had  to  be  solved — whether  to  case 
old  wooden  ships  with  armor;  to  build  and  case  new 
wooden  ships  ;  or  to  build  new  vessels,  of  which  the 
hull  as  well  as  the  armor  should  be  of  iron.  Then 
arosit  further  jirobleins-  how  near  the  bulwarks 
should  the  armor-plates  come,  how  near  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  how  near  the  stem  and  stern  ;  also, 
what  thickness  of  iron,  and  whether  the  same  thick- 
ness in  every  part. 

From  IHtil  to  18Tt!,  the  British  Admiralty  were  en- 
gaged on  a  series  of  costly  constructions  and  recon- 
structions, intended  to  alford  eventually  solutions  to 
the  above  jiroblems.  Several  of  t  he  shijis  built  have  cost 
from  t::il>l),OtK)to  £45U,00Ueach  :  several  half-tinislied 
timber  three-deckers  have  been  cut  down  and  con- 
verted into  iron-clads;  and  variations  of  detail  almost 
innumerable  have  been  introduced.  Thefollowing  isa 
list  of  English  vessels  which  in  187G  formed  the  Iron- 
clad Navy.  Those  wliicli  an;  wholly  clad—/,  e.  covered 
with  armor  plates  in  all  parts  of  the  hull  needing  pro- 
tection—are the  MinoUiur,  Agincimrt,  Xvrthumlier- 
laml,  lioyal  Oak,  Prince  Connort,  Caiedonia,  Oaan, 
Ijord  Ciyd-e,  Ijn-d  Warden,  Audacious,  InviruibU, 
Prince  All/ert,  Scjrrpion,  Wyvern,  Monarch,  Iron 
Duke,  Sultan,  Glaitun,  CyelapH,  Hecate,  Hydra,  Gor- 
gon, Dreadnought,  Dnuxtatiun,  Thunderer,  Swiftmre, 
Triumph,  Rupert,  Jlotupur,  Ilerculet,  Indexible.  Alex- 
ander, and  tihannon.  Those  which  are  only  partially 
clad  —  /.  e.  covered  with  armor-plates  only  in  tlie 
more  exposed  portions— comprise  tlie  Black  Prince, 
Warrior,  Defenxe,  Jie.v'ntance,  Achillea,  JlecVrr,  VaU 
iant.  Royal  Alfred,  Bellerophon.  Zealvuji,  Pallan, 
Favorite,  Rexearch  Enterprise,  Viper,  Vixen.  Water. 
witch,  Penelope.  Regarded  as  to  the  material  of 
which  the  hulls  are  mostly  built,  and  on  which  the 
armor-plates  are  laid,  the  following  are  timber-built : 
Royal  Oak,  Prince  Connnrt,  Calednnia.  Ocean,  Royal 
Alfred,  Zealous,  Lord  (Hyde,  Lord  Warden,  Pallan, 
Favoritr,  liexearch,  and  Enterprise.  The  Vixen  is 
wood  and  iron:  the  Siriftsure  and  Trimnph  are  iron 
[  sheathed  with  wood;  all  the  rest  are  iron.  The 
'  dimensions  and  weight  of  these  ships,  laden  with 
armor-plates  from  3  t'o  24  inches  thick,  are  enormous. 
The  load  displacement  of  five  of  them  exceeds  10,000 
tons  each  ;  six,  9,000  to  10.000;  four,  7,000  to  9,tM.O  ; 
twelve.  0,000  to  7,000;  seven,  4,0u0toU,0()0.  Some  of 
the  steam  engines  for  these  ponderous  ships,  nomin- 
ally of  1200  "horse-power,  work  up  to  (indicated) 
8000  horse-power.  Whatever  the  thickness  of  the 
armor,  the  plates  are  nicely  tongued  and  grooved  to 
fit  closely  together  edgewise.  The  bolts  wliieli  fas- 
ten them  to  the  ship  are  generally  2  to  2J  imhes 
thick,  expanded  at  one  end  to  form  a  head,  andhav- 
ins  a  screw-thread  at  the  other  to  receive  a  nut. 

It  is  not  yet  known  whether  the  thickest  armor 
will  resist  any  shot  that  can  be  liurled  against  it ; 
whether,  in  o"ther  words,  the  thickest  practical  ar- 
mor will  overcome,  or  be  overcome  by,  the  heaviest 
practicable  shot.  Experiments  at  enormous  cost  have 
been  conducted  for  some  years  to  determine  this  im- 
portant (luestion  ;  a  natural  result  has  been  that  can- 
non are  m;ide  larger  and  larger,  and  armor-plates 
thicker  and  thicker,  in  the  struggle  between  artillery 


FLATFORM-BOABD. 


540 


FLATFOKUS. 


and  ship-building.  The  experimpnts  (so  far  as  Eng- 
land is  concerned)  have  been  conducted  principaUy 
at  Shoeburyness.  The  usual  mode  is,  to  construct  a 
target  resembling  the  armed  sitie  of  one  of  the  iron- 
clads, ani  then  to  try  to  pierce  it  with  shot  fired 
from  guns  at  various  distances.  A  Warrior  target, 
for  instance,  consists  of  a  4i-in.  armor-plate,  backed 
by  18  in.  of  teak,  and  an  inner  skin  of  :,'-in.  iron  ; 
while  a  Lord  Wnrdoi  target  has  4i  in.  plate,  30  in. 
teak,  and  1|  in.  skin.  A  few  examples  will  serve  to 
illustrate  the  method  of  proceeding.  In  August, 
1866,  a  Warrior  target  was  built  up  at  Shoebury- 
ness— /.  e.,  a  target  similar  in  strength  and  construc- 
tion to  the  side  of  that  ship.  Alderson's  steel  sliell, 
Armstrong's  conlcle  sliell,  and  Palliser's  chilled-iron 
shell  were  tired  at  it  from  a  7-in.  gun  at  200  j-ards: 
the  Palliser  shot  excelled  the  others,  going  clean 
thrtnigh  the  target,  armor  and  all,  and  bursting  be- 
hind. On  another  occasion,  a  Palliser  115-lb.  shot 
went  through  the  target  even  at  an  angle  of  30*^  from 
the  perpendicular.  T[\e  Lord  WardenXavgeX  has  been 
pierced  by  9A  and  10-in.  shot  at  a  distance  of  1,000 
yards ;  while  the  thinner  Warrior  target  was  pierced 
at  2000  yards.  The  Bellirophon  and  Herai let  targets 
were  more  ponderous.  At  the  end  of  1878.  the 
British  navy  consisted  of  64  ships,  afloat  or  building, 
of  wliich  46  were  efficient.  They  were  divided  into 
five  classes,  the  first  two  of  which  contain  only  the 
formidable  turret-ships.  I'he  armor  of  the  first  class 
comprising  4  ships,  ranged  from  12  to  24  in.  in  thick- 
ness :  the  Inflexible  hasarmor  from  16  to  24  in.  The 
second  class,  of  9  ships,  has  armor  from  8  to  14  in. 
thick.  The  third,  of  16  ships,  from  5  to  12  in.  The 
fourth,  of  4  ships,  from  6  to  10  in.  In  the  fifth  class, 
13  ships,  the  armor  is  from  4^  to  5j  in.  The  last 
class  comprises  the  two  old  iron-clads,  the  Warrior, 
Black  Prince,  and  others. 

Armor-clad  forts  are  also  attracting  attention. 
Iron  has  been  used  largel}-  in  the  defenses  of  Plymouth 
and  Portsmouth.  In  1864,  a  line  of  iron-clad  fort  was 
built  up  at  Shoeburyness,  to  test  several  modes  of 
construction.  In  the  same  year,  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment employed  the  Millwall  Company  to  build  a 
w  rought-iron  shield. as  an  experiment  for  the  defenses 
of  Cronstadt.  The  front  was  made  of  12  in.  thick  of 
iron  in  horizontal  bars;  this  was  backed  by  14  in.  of 
thickness  in  upright  bars  ;  and  the  whole  strength- 
ened with  enormous  struts,  brackets,  ribs,  and  dove- 
tails of  iron.  The  shield  was  to  form  the  facing  or 
armor  for  a  battery  of  three  of  Krupp's  600-pounder 
steel  guns,  and  measured  43  ft.  by  10.  The  shield, 
with  its  foundation-plate,  weighed  140  tons.  In 
one  experiment  at  Shoeburyness,  a  plate  13  in.  thick 
was  placed  in  front  of  a  mass  of  granite  14  ft.  thick, 
and  tired  at  with  200-poiinders;  ifour  shots  cracked 
the  granite,  although  the  plate  was  not  pierced.  The 


Fig.   1. — Front  View  of   ''Wiirrior"    target,  after  practice 
witli  COO-pouiider  Armstrong  Gun. 

Americans  made  an  experiment  in  Chesapeake  Bay, 
in  September,  1866,  on  a  temporary  fortification, made 
of  enormous  granite  blocks  faced  with  10  in.  armor; 
shots  of  4:M)  and  630  lbs.  were  fired  from  the  Hoilman 
guns,  at  a  range  of  about  S.'iO  yards,  and  eleven  such 
shots  destroyed  the  whole  fabric.  The  Thinirlerer 
was  titled  up  as  aliirgct-slii]iat  I'ortsmoutli,  ])artly  to 
test  very  thick  plates  at  very  short  distances.     The 


plateu  were  fastened  to  an  enormous  bulkhead  near 
one  end  of  the  ship,  and  the  guns  placed  near  the 
other  end.  On  one  special  occasion,  a  Palliser  115- 
lb.  chilled  shot,  with  an  extra  charge  of  powder  tired 
at  25  ft.  ofT,  went  clean  through  a  7-in.  plate  and  45 
in.  of  teak  bulkhead.  On  another  occasion  soon  after- 
wards, a  nereides  target,  with  a  9-in.  plate,  was  tired 
at  with  an  8-in.  spherical  shot  at  30  ft.;  the  sliot  made 
a  dent  2j  in.  deep,  but  did  not  further  disturb  the 
plate.  The  24-in.  armor  of  the  Inflexible  is  divided 
into  two  12-in.  plates,  with  9  in.  of  teak  between — 
the  theory  of  this  arrangement  being  that  the  outer 
plate,  even  if  pierced,  will  shatter  the  shot,  which 
will  then  be  stopped  by  the  inner  armor.  Dr.  CoUis 
Brown  has  suggested  a  system  of  sloping  armored 
sides  which  would  give  a  ship  armor  of  36  in.  at  any 
given  point  in  a  displacement  not  exceeding  tliat  of 
existing  iron-clads.  In  the  trial  of  the  100-ion  Arm- 
strong gun  at  Spezzia,  a  steel  armor-plate  was  fired 
at,  and  the  shot,  though  it  penetrated  the  plate,  was 
stopped  in  the  backing. 

Regarded  as  articles  of  manufacture,  armor-plates 
were  first  produced  mainly  by  hammering,  several 
thicknesses  of  iron  being  welded  one  tipon  another, 


Fig.  2. — Section  of  ''Warrior"  Target,  eliowing  tlie  hole  made 
by  the  600-[)ouud  Shell,  and  displacement  of  the  upper  plate, 
a.  armor  plating,  43,i  in.  tliick  (displaced) ;  h.  teak  ijacking,  18 
in.  thick;  c,  boiler-plate  skip.  ?b'  in.  thick;  d,  wrought-iron 
beams ;  e,  platform. 

at  a  white  beat,  by  blows  of  a  ponderous  steam-ham- 
mer; but  it  is  now  more  customary  to  produce  them 
by  rolling  than  by  hammering — pressure  being  con- 
sidered to  produce  more  satisfactory  results  than  per- 
cussion. Whatever  the  thickness  of  the  slab  is  to  be, 
operations  are  commenced  with  plates  about  an  inch 
thick;  these  are  heated,  rolled,  cut.  piled  up,  heated 
and  rolled  over  and  over  again,  >mtil  the  required 
thickness  is  produced.  The  rollers  are  placed  fur- 
ther and  further  apart,  as  the  slab  becomes  thicker 
and  thicker.'  Some  of  them  are  truly  enormous 
masses  of  metal,  solid  cylinders  8  ft.  long  by  32  in. 
diameter.  At  the  Atlas  works  of  Mes-  rs.  Brown  & 
Co.,  Shefliekl  (the  chief  manufactory  for  armor- 
platesj,  there  has  been  produced  a  rolled  slab  17  ft. 
long,  7  ft.  wide,  and  14  in.  thick,  weighing  30  tons. 
At  Grtiser,  in  Germany,  some  excellent  armor-plates 
of  chilled  (cast)  iron  have  been  manufactured.  For 
armor-plates,  the  metal  is  very  scrupulously  selected, 
and  every  part  of  the  processes  conducted  with  great 
caution. 

PLATFORM  -BOARD. — A'side-board  on  an  ammuni- 
tion carria:;c  for  forage. 

PLATFORM  WAGON. — A  carriage  on  four'wheels; 
having  no  sides,  and  used  for  the  transport  of  guns, 
mortare,  traversing  platforms,  and  for  every  de- 
scri])lion  of  heavy  stores. 

PLATFORMS.— To  insure  accuracy  of  fire  with 
heavy  nuns  ;iiid  mortars,  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  have  solid  and  substantial  platforms.  For  case- 
mate and  barbette  batteries  in  forlitieafions,  fixed 
platforms  are  constructed  with  the  works.  The  bar- 
bette platform  consists  essentially  of  the  pintle  block, 
which  is  of  irraiiite  firmly  imbedded  in  concrete  ;  in 
the  lilock  is  inserted  flic  ]iintle,  of  iron,  and  around 
this  is  the  friction  plalc  for  the  pintle  transom  of  the 
chassis  to  rest  upon.  Traverse  circles,  of  iron,  form 
level  and  smooth  tracks,   upon  which  the  traverse- 


PLATFORMS. 


541 


PLATF0HM8. 


wliccls  run.  »Tlic  pinUc  of  iiciiscirmtr'  carriiigp  i.i  iii- 
wrlrd  in  a  hole  in  tlic  .soli'  of  llic  (•nil)ruHiirc,  and  i« 
liflcd  oul  wlii-n  (lie  clmssiH  IH  to  bi;  removed.  The 
cliassis  is  ulliiclicd  to  it  liy  a  tonf;iic,  and  is  provided 
willi  a  front  set  of  truverse-wlieeju.  I'lalfornis  for 
Bicj;e  jjieccs  accompany  troops  in  llie  field,  and  it  Ih 
dcHir!d)Ie  to  Ijave  tliem  asliiilit  as  is  compalilile  with 
sidlicii  111  Htrenj;lh  to  endure  llie  shock  of  liriiii;. 
Tliose  nsed  in  tiie  United  Stales  Service  conitiine.  in 
a  hiirh  deiirec,  tlie  essential  qiialilie.s  of  slren;;lli  and 
portability.  All  the  pieces  coniposinf;  them  are  of 
the  sanu^  dimensions,  and,  as  the  w<ii:lit  of  each 
piece  is  oidy  lifty  jionnda,  a  soldier  can  carry  one 
from  the  de])ot  to  the  batteries,  or  any  moderate  dis- 
tance, in  addition  to  his  arms  and  eqnipmenls.  An- 
other ])lalform  for  mortars  is  de.scrilied,  which  is 
very  simple,  atronii:,  anil  well  snited  to  positions 
when'  trees  or  tindier  <'an  bi^  easily  pnanired.  This 
is  desii^nated  the  mil  philfunn.  \Vhen  a  n'w^t:  );iin  or 
liowilzer  is  to  lie  llred  constantly  in  one  direction,  it 
is  best  to  Ljive  the  platform  an  inclination  to  the  rear. 
This  prevents  excessive  recoil,  and  also  serves  to 
carry  ofT  water  from  rain.  The  dci^ree  of  inclination 
is  not  alisolule.  When  the  piece  is  to  be  traversed 
over  a  wiile  lielil  of  tire,  the  platform  should  be  \WT- 
feelly  level  ;  the  recoil  is  then  checUed  l)y  placini;  a 
ban  "f  earth  or  a  i)ile  of  sods  at  a  proper  distance 
(about  live  feet)  behind  each  wheel.  The  followinu: 
is  the  method  of  laying  the  platform  when  it  lias  an 
inclinalion.  To  lay  it  horizontally,  simply  omit 
what  is  .said  with  reference  to  the  slope  :  Tlie  direc- 
tion in  which  the  piece  is  to  lire  is  established  by 
stri'tcliimi  a  cord  over  the  center  of  the  ])lace  where 
the  platform  is  to  be  laid.     This  line  is  the  directri.\ 


Fig.  1. 

of  the  platform.  Prepare  a  bed  for  the  platform  by 
excavating  the  earth  so  that  it  will  have  the  proper 
inclination  to  the  rear  and  be  perfectly  level  across. 
The  earth,  if  not  already  firm,  should  be  well 
rammed.  Lay  the  outside  sleepers  parallel  to  the 
directrix,  their  outside  edges  being  fifty-four  inches 
distant  from  it.  The  four  other  sleepers  are  laid 
parallel  to  these,  the  edge  of  each  fifteen  and  a 
half  inches  from  the  edge  of  the  next.  The  upper 
surface  of  the  front  ends  of  these  sleepers  is  fifty 
inches  below  the  sole  of  the  embrasure,  and  they 
are  laid  with  an  elevation  to  the  rear  of  one  and  a 
half  in<-lies  to  the  yard,  or  four  and  a  half  inches  in 
their  vvliole  length.  Tliis  elevation  is  delermined  by 
placing  a  block  four  and  a  half  inches  high  on  tlie 
front  end  of  the  sleeper,  and  laying  a  straight-edge, 
with  a  level  on  it,  from  this  block  to  the  rear  end: 
the  earth  is  then  arranged  so  as  to  bring  the  level 
true  in  this  position.  The  next  set  of  sleepers  are 
laid  against  and  inside  of  the  first,  overlapping  them 
three  feet,  having  the  rear  ends  inclined  outwards, 
so  that  the  outer  edges  of  the  exterior  ones  sliall  each 
be  fifly-four  inches  from  the  directrix,  and  tlu' space 
between  the  rear  edges  of  the  oiuers  the  same  as  in 
the  first  set,  viz.,  fifteen  and  a  half  inches  from  the 
edge  of  one  to  the  edge  of  the  next;  all  having  an 
elevation  to  the  rear  of  one  and  a  half  inches  to  the 
yard,  and  perfectly  level  across.     The  earth  is  then 


rammed  firmly  around  the  sleepers  and  made  even 
with  their  ujipcr  surface.  The  first  deck-plank, 
with  a  hole  tlirough  each  end  for  the  eye-bolts,  is 
laid  in  jilacc,  perpendicular  to  the  directrix,  its  holes 
corresponding  with  those  in  the  sleepers.  The  luirler 
is  placed  on  it,  and  the  bolls  driven  througli  the 
corresponding  holes  in  these  pieces.  The  jiurler 
should  bi-  so  placed  as  to  prevent  the  wheels  from 
striking  against  the  epaulcnient  when  the  piece  is  in 
battery.  If  the  interior  slope  lias  a  base  of  two- 
sevenths  of  ils  height,  the  inner  edge  of  the  liurler 
should  be  two  and  a  half  inches  from  th<'  foot  of  the 
slope.  The  other  jjlauks  are  laid,  each  bi-ing  forced 
against  the  jireceding,  with  the  dowels  fitting  into 
llieir  respective  holes;  the  last  plank  has  holes  for 
the  eye-bolts.  Hy  dritwing  out  or  driving  in  the 
outsiiie  slee|)ers,  the  holes  through  their  ri-ar  ends 
are  made  to  correspond  with  those  in  the  last  deck- 
plank.  The  bolls  are  then  driven.  Drive  stakes  in 
rear  of  each  sleeper,  leaving  their  tops  level  with  the 
upper  surface  of  the  platform.  Raise,  ram,  and  level 
the  earth  in  rear  of  th(' platform,  so  as  to  have  a 
|)lain,  hard  surface  to  support  the  trail  when  the 
recoil  is  great.  The  earlli  should  lie  raised  nearly 
as  high  as  the  iilatform  along  llie  sides,  and  well 
ramnied,  giving  it  a  slight  inclination  outward  to 
allow  water  to  run  olT.  Tlu^  platform  is  fifteen  feet 
long  and  nine  feet  wide.  Instead  of  twelve  sleepers, 
each  nine  feet  long,  it  is  pr(^ferable  to  use  six,  each 
fifteen  feet  long.     See  Fig.  1. 

The  field  platform  is  for  siege  guns  and  howitzers 
when  serving  with  an  army  in  the  field,  and  the 
method  of  conslructing  it  indicates  the  wity  in  which 
platforms  may  be  extemporized  from  sucii  material 
as  may  be  at  hand.  To  lay  this  platform,  level  off 
the  ground  and  mark  the  directrix;  dig  trenches  for 
the  sleepers;  place  the  latter  in  the  trenches  so  that 
the  boles  for  the  eye-bolts  will  correspond  in  place 
to  those  in  the  wheel-planks;  place  the  wheel-planks 
in  position,  and  drive  in  the  eye-bolts.  The  front 
eye-bolts  pass  through  and  secure  the  hurter;  apply 
the  level  and  make  the  structure  perfectly  level; 
secure  the  front  sleeper  with  stakes;  it  is  well  to 
secure  also  the  rear  ends  of  the  wheel-planks  with 
stakes;  lay  on  the  trail-plank  and  secure  it  with  an 
eye-bolt  to  the  third  sleeper;  ram  the  dirt  well  in 
around  the  sleepers.    Fig.  2.   To  check  recoil,  place 


r.. 

•      1 

1 
• 

^    ^ 

,' 

:.■ 

^-^ 

''  i 

/ 
( 

/ 

Fig.  8. 

sacks  of  earth  or  piles  of  sods  over  the  eye-bolts  of 
the  third  sleeper,  or  a  stick  of  timber,  similar  to  a 
sleeper,  laid  across  will  effect  the  same  object.  This 
platform  admits  a  chansre  of  direction  of  about  ten 
degrees  on  each  side  of  the  directrix,  thus  covering 
as  much  of  a  field  of  fire  as  is  ordinarily  required. 
To  make  this  chanse  of  direction,  slightly  loosen  or 
remove  the  earth  about  the  three  rear  sleepers,  and 
heave  the  rear  ends  of  the  wheel-plauks  over  with 
handspikes.  The  platt<irm  then  has  the  position 
indicated  bv  the  dotted  lines  in  the  figure. 
The  siege  liiorlar  platform  is  composed  of  six  sleepers 
and  twent  v-oiie  deck-planks.  It  is  laid  level,  and  the 
front  and  fear  deck-planks  are  connected  by  eye-bolts 
to  each  sleeper.  A  bed  for  the  platform  is  first  pre- 
pared bv  leveling  off  the  ground,  and,  if  not  already 


PLATINUM  FUSE. 


542 


PLEA. 


solid,  the  earth  should  be  well  rammed.  This  bed 
should  be  sunk  only  so  deep  as  to  allow  the  upper 
surface  of  the  platform  to  be  slightly  above  the  sur- 
rounding ground,  for  drainage.  The  sleepers  are  laid 
paralleHo  the  directrix  or  plane  of  fire,  three  on  eacli 
side  of  it,  at  equal  distances  apart,  so  that  the  holes 
in  tlieir  ends  shall  correspond  to  the  holes  in  the  front 
and  rear  deck-planks.  The  front  deck-plank  is  laid 
first,  and  the  eye-bolts  driven  to  secure  it  ;  the  re- 
maining planks  are  driven  up  against  it,  and  the  last 
secured,  like  the  first,  with  eye-bolts.  At  the  rear  end 
of  eacli  sleeper  a  securing  stake  is  driven.  Fig.:l  The 
earth,  on  all  sides, should  be  raised  nearly  as  high  as 
the  platform,  and  well  rammed,  giving  it  a  slight  in- 
clination outwards  to  allow  the  water  to  run  oil.     It 


^huMXlMf-**^  • 


-T= 


^        7g  A^. 


Fii:.  .■!. 

is  of  the  first  importance  fliat  the  upper  surface  of 
the  platform  should  be  level  and  true. 

The  rail  platform  for  siege  mortars  consists  of  three 
sleepers  and  two  rails  for  the  shoes  of  the  mortar  to 
rest  on.  It  is  very  strong,  and  easily  constructed  and 
laid.  The  rails  and  sleepers  are  notched  and  fitted 
together  as  represented  in  Fig.  4.  The  distance  be- 
tween the  center  lines  of  the  rails  is  equal  to  that  be- 

.n  n  n  , 
1.^  -,  -_i 


nin 


"^~n 


1 


3 


Fig.  4. 

tween  the  center  lines  of  the  cheeks  of  the  mortar 
carriage.  The  pieces  are  put  together  at  the  battery, 
and  the  earth  is  e.xcavated  eight  inches  in  depth,  and 
of  suitable  length  and  width  to  receive  the  platform. 
The  bottom  of  this  excavation  is  made  perfectly  level. 
The  directrix  being  accurately  marked  by  stakes,  the 
platform  is  placed  in  position,  its  center  line  coincid- 
ing with  a  cord  stretched  between  the  stakes  mark- 
ing the  directrix.  The  earth  is  filled  in  as  high  as 
the  upper  surface  of  the  sleepers  and  firmly  rammed; 
stakes  are  driven  in  the  rear  angles  formed  by  tlie 
sleepers  and  the  rails, and  one  at  the  rear  end  of  eacli 
rail. 

The  platform  for  sea-coast  mortars  is  15  feet  by 
1.5  feet  by  2  feet  2  inches.  To  lay  it,  a  pit  is  dug  2 
feet  deep  and  about  18  feet  square  on  the  bottom. 
The  earth  on  the  bottom  is  well  rammed  and  leveled 
The  two  inch-planking  is  laid  level  on  the  rammed 
earth,  perpendicular  to  the  directrix.  The  cylin- 
drical bolts  are  put  in  the  sleepers,  and  the  .sleepers, 
with  bolt-heads  down,  are  laid  compactly  on,  and 
perpendicular  to  the  planking  and  parallel  to  the 
directrix.  As  the  deck-timbers  are  laid  the  bolts 
pass  through  the  holes  in  them.  These  timbers  are 
hiid  compactly  upon  the  sleepers,  perpendicular  to 
the  directrix.  Tln'  nuts  are  put  on  the  bolts  and 
screwed  down.  Both  the  nut  and  bolt-heads  arc 
countersunk.  The  iron  plates  are  laid  parallel  to  the 
directrix,  and  secured  firmly  with  screws  to  the 
deck-timbers,  covering  nine  feet  in  the  center  of  the 
platform  and  leaving  three  feet  on  each  side  un- 
covered. The  earth  is  then  filled  in,  and  rammed 
compactly  around  the  platform,  with  a  slight  inclin- 


ation' outwards,  so  as  to  shed  water.  The  plat- 
form for  the  center-pintle  classis  is  17  feet  square  ; 
the  bottom  of  the  pit  must  therefore  be  20  feet 
square. 

Tlie  10-inch  sea-coast  mortar  platform  is  12  feet 
by  12  feet  by  a  1  foot  8  inches.  To  lay  it,  a  pit  is 
dug  1  foot  G  inches  deep  by  15  feet  square  ;  the  re- 
mainder of  the  operation  is  similar  to  that  for  the 
13-inc'h  mortar.  See  Mortar  Carriages,  and  8iege 
Ciirn'iiges. 

PLATINUM  ruSE.— Afuse  of  great  value  introduc- 
ed by  tlie  Laflin  and  Rand  Powder  Company,  and 
used  with  their  magneto  machines.  These  fuses  have 
become  noted  for  their  surety,  regularity, and  perfect 
safety.  They  cannot  be  fired  by  a  spark  or  by  the 
effects  of  free  electricity,  but  need  a  current  of  suffi- 
cient strength  and  persistence  that  in 
its  passage  througli  the  circuit  it  shall 
heal  to  redness  a  small  bridge  of  fine 
platinum  wire  in  the  body  of  the  fuse. 
The  drawing  shows,  in  section,  one  of 
these  fuses  nearly  of  actual  size.  The 
following  are  its  parts  :  A,  the  shell, 
of  copper,  having  a  corrugation, thrown 
out  from  the  inside, which  holds  the  sul- 
phur cement  more  firmly  in  place.  B, 
chamber  containing  the  charge  of  ex- 
plosive, composed  mainly  of  fulminate 
of  mercury — very  powerful.  C.  the  fuse 
wires,  of  copper,  entering  the  shell, 
having  a  covering  which  is  a  partial 
insulator  sufficient  for  all  ordinary  pur- 
poses. D,  the  bare  ends  of  the  copper 
fuse  wires,  projecting  above  the  sul- 
phur cement  and  into  the  charge.  E, 
the  small  platinum  wire,  or  bridge,  sol- 
dered to  and  connecting  the  two  ends 
of  the  fuse  wires  :  this  is  heated  to  red- 
ness or  combustion  by  the  passage  of 
the  electric  current.  F,  the  sulphur 
cement  holding  the  fuse  wires  firmly  in 
place.  These  fuses  are  of  cotton-covered 
wires;  the  nicety  of  insulation  by  gutta 
percha  not  being  needed  for  general 
work,  but  only  where  blasting  is  to  be 
done  in  deep  water,  and  not  then  unless 
several  fuses  are  to  be  fired  simultane- 
ously through  a  great  length  of  sub- 
merged wire. 

In  March,  1880,  these  fuses  were  sub- 
mitted to  a  rigid  and  careful  testiug  at 
Willet's  Point,  N.  Y . ,  and  were  found  to  be  remark- 
ably imiform  both  in  resistance  and  in  the  current  re- 
quired to  explode  them.  The  blasting  machine  with 
which  tliey  are  intended  to  be  used  is  a  small  n^.ag- 
neto-electric  instrument,weighing  only  about  sixteen 
pounds,  and  occupying  considerably  less  than  oiie- 
lialf  of  a  cubic  foot  of  space.  The  capacity  of  this 
machine  is  for  about  twelve  or  fifteen  holes,  though 
under  entirely  favorable  circumstances  many  more 
can  be  fired.  As  to  durability,  the  construction  is 
such  that  one  should  last  as  long  as  a  clock.  No  un- 
certainty exists.  In  the  deep  mining  of  the  Terri- 
tories, especially  in  Colorado,  many  of  them  have 
been  used  in  very  wet  shafts,  and  have  been  found 
invaluable.  The  patent  self-discharging  arrange- 
ment, a  remarkable  invention,  has  made  them  far 
superior,  for  practical  use,  to  any  instrument  ever 
made.     See  JUa«ting. 

PLATOON. —A  subdivision  of  a  company.  This 
term  (probably  from  the  French  plMim)  was  for- 
merly used  to  designate  a  body  of  troops  who  fired 
together.  A  battalion  was  commonly  divided  into 
10  platoons,  and  each  compau)-  into  2  platoons,  the 
platoon  thus  corresponding  to  the  present  subdivi- 
sion. The  word  is  olisolete  in  this  its  original  sense; 
but  it  survives  in  the  expression  "platoon  exercise," 
which  is  the  course  of  motions  in  connection  with 
handling,  loading,  and  firmg  the  musket  or  rifle. 
PLEA^— A  technical  term  in  law.     In  England  it 


PLOUBEE. 


54?, 


PLTnHACHEE  PEBCUSSION  FUSE. 


Imd  II  vfry  rostrirlcd  mciinin;;,  brinj;  fonlim-d  tollic 
nk'iidinf;  iif  a  dcfciidiiiil  Id  lui  iiction  iil  ciiiiiiiioii  law. 
Now  ill  all  actions  in  the  lli^li  Court  it  is  called  the 
"Statcimiil  of  Defense."  In  Serjtiand  it  is  not  used 
in  the  same  Hens(^  but  denotes  the  short  lei;al  ;;roiind 
on  vvhieli  a  |)arty .  whether  pursuer  or  defender,  bases 
luK  case  or  pleadinij.  Hence  the  pleas  in  law  are 
only  short  jiropo^iilions  of  law.  i'li-as  are  subdivided 
aecordinj;  to  their  subject-niatler,  into  pleas  dilalory 
and  pereniptory,  pleas  of  abatement,  pleas  to  the 
jurisdic^tion.  I'leas  in  bar  are  the  same  as  peremp- 
tory ])leas;  but  in  criminal  cases  in  Knglaml,  special 
picas  in  bar  are  pleas  statins;  some  ground  for  not 
proeeedini;  with  lh<^  indictment,  such  as  a  plea  of 
formal  ac(iuittal  or  aulrefois  acquit;  or  of  conviction, 
or  autrefois  convict;  or  a  jilea  of  pardon.  In  Scot- 
land a  "Plea  of  r'aiiel"  means  a  plea  of  fj;uilly  or  not 
guilty.  "Picas  of  the  Crown"  was  an  expression 
anciently  used  to  denote  the  divisions  of  criminal 
offenses  generally,  as  in  the  well-known  work  called 
Pleanof  the  Crmnn,  by  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  and  other 
writers.  The  phrase  was  so  used  because  the 
Sovereign  was  supi)osed  in  law  to  be  the  person  in- 
jured by  every  wrong  done  to  the  conimunily,  and 
therefore  was  the  i)rosecutor  for  every  such  oilense. 

FLOMBEE. — An  ancient  war-club,  whose  liead  was 
loadi-il  with  lead. 

PLONGEE. — In  artillery  and  fortification,  a  slope 
toward  the  front.  Thus,  in  speaking  of  the  course 
of  a  shell  through  the  air.  its  plongee  is  from  the 
point  of  greatest  altitude  to  tl:e  point  at  which  it 
strikes  the  earth.  So,  in  fortification,  the  plongee  is 
the  top  of  tin:  parapet  sloping  gently  toward  the 
front.      Tills  slope  is  ordinarily  1  in  G;  but  a  devia- 


f right  companlcB  ploy  In  front, 

In  ploying  on  an  J      dress  to  lift. 
interior  company,  if  I  left  companies   ploy   in  front, 
I      (IreH.s  to  rifj/it. 

In  ployments  <«  or  on  the  right  or  left,  the  com- 
panies clear  lh(r  columns  bv  ^iO  yards  before  forming 
lini' 

PLUMACHER  PERCUSSION-FUSE.— This  fuse  con- 
sists of  a  lube,  the  iutirjor  <i{  which  has  three 
peculiar-shaped  communicating  chambers  of  difTer- 
ent  sizes,  u  screw  cap,  a  Hcrew-l)ottotn,  a  winged 
needle-discharging  plunger  in  the  upper  chamber, 
and  a  chargerl  plunger  in  the  lower  chamber,  the 
two  plungers  being  kept  apart  by  the  thiril  smaller 
or  intervi'uing  chamber,  as  will  be  shown  by  refer- 
ence to  the  drawing.  Fig.  1  is  a  vertical  section  of 
the  charged  fuse  in  repose,  top  end  up.  Fig.  2  is  a 
vertical  section  of  the  charged  fuse  at  the  point  of 
striking,  after  having  been  discharged  from  the  gun, 
top  entl  down.  Fig.  3  :s  a  vertical  section  of  the 
empty  fuse-case.  In  external  appearance  the  fuse- 
tube,  A,  is  an  ordinary  cylinder,  having  a  screw- 
thread,  t,  cut  to  a  proper  depth  at  one  end  on  the 
periphery  of  the  projectile.  It  is  made  of  the  size 
usual  for  percussion-fuses,  so  that  it  may  be  used 
in  any  paltern  of  elongated  shell.  The  cavity  of 
this  cylinder  is  tapped  at  both  top  and  bottom  at 
V  v',  and  is  provided  with  a  screw-cap,  D,  anil  a 
screw-bottom,  E.  and  the  interior  is  divided,  by 
abutting  shoulders,  '>  ",  into  three  different-sized 
chambers,  /',  g.  and  fi,  in  which  the  sliding  plungers 
ojierate.  The  screw-cap,  D,  has  a  groove,  r,  that  it 
may  be  handled  by  a  serew-driver.  and  an  indent,  «, 
on  the  lower  side,  to  admit  the  point  of  a  needle, 


ii    e'  w 


u   e  It 


a.      J,      a. 


V\'i.  i 


tion  is  permissible  of  from  1  in  9  to  1  in -t;  the  sharp- 
er the  slope,  however,  the  more  liable  is  the  crest  of 
the  parapet  to  be  destroyed  by  an  enemy's  fire. 
Moreover,  as  flat  a  plongee  as  possible  is  desirable, 
that  sandbags  may,  when  required,  be  laid  upon  it 
to  form  cover  for   riflemen. 

PLOUGH. — A  wooden  wedge  ,or  a  shoe,  shod  with 
leather.  It  is  attached  to  a  gunpo\v<ler  incorporating 
mill,  for  confining  the  charge  under  the  patli  of  the 
runner.  There  are  two  attached  to  each  pair  of  run- 
ners. 

PLOYMENTS.— A  general  term  for  all  tactical 
movements  by  which  column  is  formed  from  line  up- 
on a  designated  subdivision.  The  following  points 
are  general: 

If  right  is  to  be  in  front,  heads  of  companies  in- 
cline to  the  right. 

If  Ujt  is  to  be  in  front,  heads  of  companies  incline 
to  the'/</<. 

Always  wheel  by  fours  away  from  the  file-closers. 

In  all  ployments  (except  to  or  on  the  right  or  left) 
the  designated  company,  unless  it  is  to  be  the  rear 
company  of  the  dose  column,  moves  forward — 19 
yards,  if  from  line,  and  1-5  yards,  if  from  column. 

In  ploying  on  a  flank,  or  leading  eompanj-,  dress 
on  side  which  company  enters  the  column. 


should  it  be  deemed  necessary  to  reverse  the  dis- 
charge-plunger wlien  shipping  the  projectile.  The 
screw-bottom,  E,  has  keyholes,  (/  u.  by  which  it  is 
screwed,  etc.,  and  an  escape-hole,  e' ,  through  its 
axis,  to  permit  the  passage  of  tire  into  the  magazine 
of  the  shell.  Thedischarging-plunger,  B,  is  a  cone- 
crowned  piece  of  metal,  smaller  in  diameter  than 
either  of  the  chambers,  with  a  tapped  hole,  c,  in  the 
ape.x.  into  which  a  pointed  steel  needle  is  screwed, 
holding  in  place  by  a  shoulder  on  the  needle  a  many- 
pointed  .steel  spring,  k.  The  steel  spring,  k,  is  just 
sufficiently  stiff  to  hold  the  plimger  in  place  and  to 
prevent  it  from  being  forced  into  the  center  or 
chamber,  g,  by  any  power  less  than  the  impact  pro- 
duced by  the  discharge  of  the  projectile  from  the 
gun.  The  plunger  is  contained,  needle-point  down, 
in  the  chamber,  /.  but  by  the  impact  produced  by 
the  discharge  of  the  gun  it  is  thrown  forward  and 
secured  by  the  flaring  springs  in  the  chamber,  g. 
The  sliding  plunger,  C,  incased  in  the  chamber,  n. 
larger  and  lieavitrthan  the  plunger,  B,  is  of  cylind- 
rical shape — a  body  of  metal  with  a  cone-shaped 
crown,  having  through  its  a.xis  a  hole,  e.  in  which 
is  secured  by  a  drop  of  varnish  or  other  suitable 
material,  the  fulminating  powder  or  pill.  Through 
this  hole  also  passes  the  fire  into  the  magazine  of 


PLUMES. 


544 


PNEUMATIC  BUFFER. 


the  shell  Extra  security  in  transportation  may  be 
obtained  by  unscrewing  the  cap,  D,  and  taking  out 
and  reversing  the  neei  lie-plunger,  B,  securing  the 
point  of  the  needle  in  the.  indent  in  the  lower  side 
of  the  cap.  When  tired,  the  impact  produced  upon 
the  projectile  by  discharging  the  gun  from  which  it 
was  thrown  forces  the  pluuger,  B.  from  its  normal 
position  into  the  center  chamber,  (/,  where  it  is  held, 
at  the  bottom,  by  the  narrow  entrance  to  the  lower 
chamber,  and  from  the  top  bj'  the  ends  of  the  many- 
pointed  spring  coming  in  contact  with  projecting 
shoulder,  o  o,  dividing  chamber,  /,  from  g,  the  point 
of  the  needle  protruding  into  the  larger  chamber,  h. 
Then,  by  the  check  on  fhe  projectile  when  striking, 
the  plunger,  C,  is  thrown  violently  forward  on  to 
the  plunger,  B,  the  point  of  the  utedle  entering  and 
discharging  the  pill  or  fulminaling-powder,  thereby 
exploding  the  shell.     See  Fuse. 

PLUMES.— Large  and  handsome  feathers  knots  of 
buffalo-hair,  etc.,  worn  as  ornaments  on  helmets, 
chapeaux,  military  hats,  etc.  In  the  United  States, 
the  General-in-Chief  wears  three  black  ostrich  feath- 
ers. All  other  general  officers,  officers  of  the  General 
Staff  and  Staff  Corps,  except  the  Signal  Corps,  wear 
two  black  ostrich  feathers.     See  Helmet. 

PLUMMET. — S.  lead  or  iron  weight  suspended  by 
a  string,  used  by  artificers  to  sound  the  depth  of 
water,  or  to  regulate  the  perpendicular  direction  of 
any  buijding.  Pendulums,  called  also  plummets, 
which  vibrate  the  required  times  of  march  in  a  min- 
ute,  are  of  great  utility.  The  different  lengths  of 
these  plummets  are  as  follows:  For  common  time, 
90  steps  in  a  minute,  17.37  inches  ;  quick  time,  110 
steps  in  a  minute,  11.6  inches;  double  time,  165 
steps  in  a  minute,  .5.17  inches. 

The  plane  of  sight  is  established  by  plummets  ; 
one  suspended  in  front  and  another  in  the  rear  of  the 
mortar.  A  convenient  method  of  suspending  the 
plummets  is  by  means  of  trestles,  made  light  and 
easy  to  handle.  The  one  in  rear  of  the  mortar  should 
be  about  six  feet  high,  to  permit  the  gunner  to  sight 
without  stooping.  The  one  in  front  being  on  the  par- 


apet, need  not  be  more  than  eighteen  inches  high. 
The}-  should  have  their  upper  edges  scored  with 
fine  saw-cuts,  close  together,  to  secure  the  plummets 
when  adjusted  in  position.  The  plummet-eord  should 
be  of  fine  thread  or  silk, and  if  affected  by  wind  when 
suspended,  the  bob  should  swing  in  a  bucket  of 
water.  A  third  trestle  and  plummet  is  required  tem- 
porarily for  placing  the  first  two  in  position.  To  es- 
tablish tlie  plummets  in  position, the  Instructor  com- 
mands :  1,  Place  the  plummets. — The  gunner,  as- 
sisted by  No.  2,  places  a  trestle  upon  the  parapet  near 
the  interior  crest,  and  susjiends  from  it  a  plummet 
ill  such  jiositicm  that  it  will  be  appro.viinately  in  the 
line  passing  through  the  center  of  the  platfdrm  and 
the  object  to  be  fired  at.  No.  ;i  brings  up  another 
trestle,  which  tlie  gunner  causes  iiim  to  place  a  few 
feet  in  advance  of  the  first,  and  in  line  with  it  and 
the  object;  sighting  by  the  plummet  first  establish- 
ed, he  cau.ses  tlie  second  plummet  to  be  accurately 
adjusted  on  the  line  to  the  object;  then,  going  to  the 
front  pluiiunet  ;uid  sighting  back,  he  causes.  No.  4 
to  jilacc  in  jiiisiticju  the  trestle  in  rear  of  the  mortiir. 
and  suspeiiil  from  it  the  plummet,  being  careful  to 
have  it  in  exact  line  with  the  two  on  the  parapet. 
The  front  trestle  is  then  removed  by  No. 3.  The  tres- 
tle in  rear  of  the  mortar  should  be  about  three  yards 


from  the  platform.  Should  the  fire  from  the  enemy 
endanger  the  plummet  on  the  parapet,  a  priming- 
wire  may  be  stuck  there  in  itsplace  to  murk  tlie  line. 
When,  owing  to  the  interposition  of  an  intermediate 
obstacle, the  object  to  be  tired  at  cannot  be  seenfrom 
the  mortar,  a  point  must  be  interpolated  on  the  re- 
quired line  in  such  position  that  it  can  be  seen  from 
the  mortar.  This  is  most  readily  effected  by  using 
the  Paddock  interpolater.  See  Bub, Mortar ,&n(!L  Pad. 
(liii'k  Interpolater. 

PLUNDEE.  —That  which  is  taken  from  an  enemy 
by  pillage  or  open  force.  In  the  United  States  the 
Articles  of  AVar  declare  that  every  officer  or  soldier, 
who  shall  quit  his  post  or  colors  to  plunder  and  pil- 
lage, shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other  punishment  as 
may  be  ordered  by  a  General  Court-Martial. 

PLUNGER. — Aformof  strikerused  in  some  breech- 
loadius  fire-arms.     See  Firing-pin. 

PLUNGING  FIRE.— When  a  battery  is  raised  con- 
siderably above  the  object,  so  that  the  shot  impinges 
at  a  great  angle,  and  is  buried  without  grazing,  the 
fire  is  termed  "  Plunging  Fire."* 

PLUNGING  RICOCHET.— The  description  of  rim- 
chet  fire,  when  the  angle  of  fall  is  comprised  between 
6'^  and  10".  In  this  fire,  the  ball  is  given  a  small 
velocitv,  and  the  curve  described  is  short  and  high. 

PLUTEUS.— A  kind  of  wicker  helmet  covered  with 
raw  ox-hide,  worn  by  the  ancient  Greeks  when 
engaged  in  sapping  walls.  Others  were  made  of 
hurdles,  covered  in  the  same  way,  running  upon 
three  wheels,  and  affording  cover  to  7  or  8  miners. 

PLUVIOMETER.— An  instrument  to  measure  the 
quantity  of  rain  that  falls.  It  usually  consists  of  a 
metal  funnel  from  .5  to  7  inches  in  diameter, the  rain 
being  collected  in  a  glass  bottle.  This  bottle  should 
be  placed  in  a  small  stand  near  the   surface  of  the 


ground,  to  protect  the  bottle  from  the  action  of  the 
sun.  The  amount  of  rain  fallen  in  a  given  time  is 
measured  in  a  graduated  glass-jar,  one-tenth  the  area 
of  the  funnel,  and  so  divided  that  every  inch  in  depth 
of  the  tube  shall  indicate  j'j,  inchfalling  in  the  funnel. 
Tlie  ainoiint  of  rain  which  has  fallen  can  be  meas- 
ured by  such  an  instrument  to  suVoP'*''''  ^^  ''■^  inch, 
or  even  less. 

Another  kind  of  rain-gauge  may  also  be  adopted. 
It  consists  of  a  cylinder  of  copper  or  other  metal, 
from  5  to  7  inches  in  diameter,  and  30  inches  long. 
A  float,  just  so  much  smaller  as  to  allow  it  to  rise 
freely,  is  placed  within  the  cylinder,  and  to  the  cen- 
ter of  the  llo;it  ;in  upright  staff  is  attached,  marked 
in  inches  and  tenths  of  an  inch,  wliicli, rising  through 
a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  funiul,  indicates  the 
depth  of  rain  received  into  the  guage.  The  drawing 
shows  this  inslrumenl  as  employed  in  the  United 
States  SiLcnal  Service.     See  liain-f/iinge. 

PNEUMATIC  BUFFER.— A  device  for  checking  re- 


PNEUMATIC  DISPATCH. 


545 


PNEUMATIC  DISPATCH. 


coil  tliroiigh  tlio  agency  of  ntmo'tplicric  nir, 
present,  only  the  l.^-ineli  frun  is  lliiis  iiroviiled.  Be- 
tween llie  front  ends  of  llie  eli:is-i"-iiii|s  ari' iittiielied 
two  eust-iron  cylinders  eiieli  110  inelies  Ion;;,  with 
III)  interior  diiinieter  of  14.2"!  inelies.  The  ends  of 
the  evlinders  iire  closed  with  tiirht-littini;  heads  se 


At  I  his  speciiliitionH  were  called  to  mind  in  later  years, 
iind  fed  to  the  estnl)lishinent  of  ArMOKMiKitic  Kail- 
WAYH.  In  IHtil  was  aijiioiineed  a  I'm innalli;  Diiipnlfh 
project,  based  on  a  ri'eonsideration  of  the  eanses  of 
failiin^  in  the  earlier  sehenies.  The  conveyance  of 
passenirers  and  of  Imlky  j;oods  was  not  here  contetn- 


ciired  with  screw  bolts.  A  (liston  works  in  each  I  plated:  parcels  and  niail-baKS  were  the  articles  held 
cylinder.  The  rods  of  the  pistons  jiass  out  lliroii<;h  chi<-l!y  in  vi(rw.  To  lest  the  theory,  a  quarter  of  a 
tile  rear  cylinder  heads  and  are  attaelied.  by  nuts,  mile  of  iron  tube  was  ixperiinentally  laid  down  near 
to  a  heavy  tninsoin  on  the  rear  end  of  the  tijp-ear-  Hallersea,  with  a  very  fair  average  of  uradients  and 
riaue.  Tlie  cylinders  have  Die  same  in<-lination  as  Cnrves  purposely  g.ven  to  it.  The  tube  was  about 
the  chassis-rail  i,  and  are  secured  to  the  latter  by  DO  inches  in  diameter:  and  it  was  found  easy  to  pro- 
three  cylinder  transoms.  When  tiie  piece  recoils  the  '  pel  a  train  through  the  lube  consisting  of  two  iron- 
piston-rod  is  withdrawn,  and  the  air  contained  in  carriagesof  Tewi.  eaf:h,  at  a  rate  of  SOniiles  an  hour, 
the  cylinder  compressed  between  the  piston  and  the  i  After  many  financial  discouragements,  a  I'nenmatic 
rear  fiead  of  the  cylinder.  A  small  hole  in  the  front  j  D'upalch  ('iniiiiany  obtained  capital  in  1802,  and  be- 
head admits  air  tii  supply  the  vacinim  in  front  of  the  i  gan  operations  in  IHdIi.  The  expr-rimental  tube  was 
piston.  The  air  in  rear  "of  tile  piston  thus  forms  an  I  removed  to  London,  and  laid  down  beneath  tlie 
elastic  cushion,  olTering  but  slight  resis!;ince  to  the  :  roadway  of  Seymour  Street,  Kiiston  Srpiare— a  dis- 
tirst,  movement  of  recoil,  but  gradually  increasing  in  j  tanee  of  one-third  of  a  mile.  Mail-bags  being  suc- 
cessfully transmitted  in  this  way,  the  Company  corn- 


resisting  force  as  the  carriage  moves  back,  until 
linally  ilie  force  of  recoil  is  overcome  and  the  top- 
carriage  is  brought  to  a  state  of  rest.  The  shock  of 
recoil  is  to  a  great  extent  absorbed  without  sudden 
strain  to  the  carriage.  The  top-carriage  must  be 
out  tif  (/ear  whenever  the  piece  is  discharged:  it  then 
niovi's  on  the  chassis  with  slidingfriclion.  This,  to- 
gether with  the  inclination  of  the  chassis-rails,  assists 
in  cheeking  the  recoil.  When  the  carriage  isingood 
running  order,  it  generally  runs  forward  a  short  dis- 
t;ince  liy  the  reaction  of  the  compressed  air  after  re- 
coil. To  run  the  piece  in  hatUry.Ww  top-carriage 
is  thrown  into  gear;  it  then  moves  forward,  the  air 
is  compressed  in  front  of  the  pistons,  and.  escaping 
gradually  through  lh<' small  holes  in  tliehe:ids(>f  the 
cylinders,  allows  the  carriage  to  move  forward  with 
a  gentle  motion.  The  weiglit  of  the  air-cvlinders 
with  attachments  is  about  oOOO  pouuils.  See  lHydraii- 
lir  li'ifftr. 

PNEUMATIC  DISPATCH.— This  name  is  given  to  a 
mode  of  sending  parcels,  mail-bags,  or  telegram   pa- 


HBiliiaJllkdESilliilia 

I'-i.;.  1. 


pers  through  a  tube  by  atmospheric  pressure,  or  by  a 
partial  vacuum.  Earl_v  in  the  present  century,  jlr. 
Medhurst  conceived  the  idea  of  some  such  contriv- 
ance, lie  proposed  to  construct  air-tight  tunnels, 
with  carriages  moving  through  them  on  rails;  and 
these  carriages  were  to  be  propelled    by  compressed 


menced  in  1H(!4  the  construction  of  a  tube  ona  larg- 
er scale,  and  this  has  since  been  completed.  The 
tube  has  been  laid  down  from  Euston  Square  to  St. 
>Iartin's-le-(!rand.  by  way  of  Tottenham  Court  Road, 
Holborn,  and  Newgate  Street — over  a  distance  of  2y 
miles  The  tube  is  of  large  size,  nearly  4J  feet  in 
diameter,  laid  down  at  as  small  a  depth  fieneath  the 
carriage-way  of  the  several  streets  as  the  water  and 
gas  pipes  will  permit.  It  is  chiefly  of  cast-iron:  but 
some  portions  on  a  sharp  curve  are  of  brick.  There 
is  a  large  engine-house  on  the  south  side  of  Holborn, 
near  Lmcolu's  Inn  Fields,  to  sui)ply  all  the  power 
for  working  the  whole  tube  in  both  directions.  li:ire- 
lied  air  in  one-half  of  the  tube  draws  a  train  of 
iron  carriages,  laden  with  parcels  and  mail-bags, 
from  Euston  Station  to  Holborn;  and  compressed 
air  drives  them  through  the  other  length  of  I  ube  from 
Holborn  to  the  General  Post-Ofliee— there  being  a 
suction  in  the  one  case  and  pressure  in  the  other. 
A  reverse  action  brings  trains  in  the  other  oi- 
rection.  The  necessary  amount  of  rarefac- 
tion in  the  one  case, and  of  compression  in  the 
other  was  determined  by  experiment;  but 
both  are  produced  by  means  of  a  revolv- 
ing fan  of  peculiar  construction  and  large 
iliiiuiisions  worked  by  a  powerful  steam-en- 
gine at  the  Holborn  Station.  If  this  mode  of 
transmission  were  to  come  into  general  use, 
tlicre  would  be  great  saving  of  time  in  the 
ill  livery  of  letter.s  ami  parcels,  and  a  material 
li  sseniug  of  the  number  of  parcels  and  mail- 
\  alls  and  carts  in  the  overcrowded  streets  of 
I  ities.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  a  work  so 
Micessful  ina  scientific  and  engineering  point 

I  view  should  still  remain  undeveloped  in  a 
inmercial  sense.     The  Postmaster  General, 

II  Railway  Companies,  and  the  great  Carri- 
ii>,  have  made  no  practical  working  engage- 
ments with  thePneumatic  Dispatch  Company; 
and  this  costly  tube,  with  the  engine-house  in 
Holborn,  has  now  remained  silent  and  unused 
for  several  years.  This  of  course  has  check- 
ed any  extension  of  the  system  into  other 
distric'ts.  We  cannot  resist  the  conviction 
that  a  better  result  will  present  itself  sooner 
or  Inter.  The  problem  of  pii.i.ie)iger  convey- 
ance with  a  pneumatic  tube  was  shown  to 
be  practicable  by  Mr.  Rammell,  in  an  exper- 
iment tried  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in  18(54:  but 
nothing  further  has  been  done  in  the  matter. 

More  success  has  attended  the  introduction  of  a 
system  for  transmitting  small  rolls  of  paper  through 
tiibes  of  a  few  inches  diameter,  by  pneumatic  pres- 
sure. Mr.  Siemens  introduced  it  at  Berlin:  it  was 
next  tried  with  success  at  Paris;  Mr.  Latimer  Clark 
constructed  similar  apparatus  in  London :  and  the 


air  from  behind,  or  else  bv  suction  in  virtue  of  a  plan  is  now  in  regular  use  in  the  telegraph  depart- 
vacuum  formed  in  front  of  them.  Medhurst  was  ment  of  the  new  buildings  connected  with  the  Gen- 
laughed  at  by  his  contemporaries  as  a  visionary;   but    eral  Post  Office  in  St.  Martin's-le-Grand,  while  :t  13 


PNEUMATIC  DISPATCH. 


546 


PNEUMATIC  DISPATCH. 


also  used  in  some  of  the  chief  provincial  cities  and 
towns.  In  1875  the  number  of  tubes  in  London  was 
24,  with  an  aggregate  length  of  nearly  18  miles; 
there  were  4  tubes  in  Liverpool  ;  3  in  Dublin  ;  .5  in 
Manchester:  3  in  Birmingham:  and  1  in  Glasgow. 
Small  tubes,  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  are  ar- 
ranged for  the  reception  of  telegraph  forms  or  pa- 
pers, made  up  into  aroll,  and  put  into  a  felt  cylinder. 
The  purpose  is  to  economize  time  and  expense  in 
conducting  the  Government  Postal  Telegraph  Inisi- 
ness  by  blowing  along  the  telegraph  forms  at  a  rate 


of  SOTiiles  an  hour,  instead  of  sending  them  by  street 
conveyance.  Two  parallel  tuljes  have  been  laid 
down  "beneath  the  pavements  of  the  streets  from  the 
General  Post  Office  to  various  parts  of  London,  and 
also  in  some  of  the  large  provincial  cities  and  towns; 
additions  being  made  to  tlie  length  of  tube  according 
as  the  system  liecomes  practically  developed.  One 
tube  in  eacli  pair  may  be  called  the  down  line,  the 
other  the  iip  ;  the  two  are  placed  in  connection  at 
each  end,  and  one  steam-engine  work:?  them  both. 
The  felt  cylinder  very   nearly   fiUs  up    the    tube, 


Bift.  8. 


PNEUMATIC  DRILL. 


547 


PNEUMATIC  DRILL. 


bill,  still  moves  ciisily  along  it ;  this  movciiieiil  is 
bniiiiilit  about  cither  by  tlio  fonimtioii  of  a  par- 
tiid  vacuum  in  front  of  the  cylinder,  or  byconiprcss- 
jni;  tile  air  behind  it ;  and  tlio  Hleam  power  is  so  a|). 
plied  as  to  ])rodiice  either  or  but  h  of  these  two  results, 
acc<irdini;  as  convenience  may  sui;i;est.  An  inj^en- 
ious  plan  isadopleil  foraccoinmodaliin;  one  or  more 
iiilcrmediate  ollices,  just  as  local  stations  are  ac- 
CMinmodalei!  between  thi^  two  termini  of  a  railway. 
The  cylinder  or  m/vvV;- travels  from  end  to  end  of 
the  tulic,  unless  a  block  or  check  action  is  puriiosely 
put  in  force  at  an  intermediate  station;  and  the  mode 
of  clfectini;  this  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  Mr. 
Hienien's  inventions  relatini?  to  the  subjecl.  Two 
pieces  of  l)ipe,  the  mv/cf/- and  the  trniismith  r,  are 
mad(^  exactly  alike,  and  are  so  jiivoted  toijetlier  that 
cither  may  be  adjusted  into  a  cavity  cut  in  the  tube, 
and  made  temporarily  to  form  ])arl  of  it.  The  car- 
rier, we  will  HU])pose,  is  intended  to  stop  at  the  inter- 
mediate stations,  to  admit  of  the  removal  of  some 
teleiiram  pa]>ers  and  tluMntroduclion  of  others.  A 
click  is  heard,  the  carrier  strikes  ai^ainst  an  obstruc- 
tion in  the  receiver;  the  cavity  is  opened;  the  ex- 
chanu;e  of  pajiers  is  made;  the  carrier  is  re-intro- 
duced, but  into  the  transmitter  instead  of  the  re- 
ceiver; the  cavity  is  closed  airain,  and  the  carrier  re- 
aumes  its  journey.  All  this  is  the  work  of  a  few 
seconds  merely.  If  the  intermediate  station  has 
nothinu;  to  send  and  nothing  to  receive,  the  trans- 
mitter alone  is  used,  and  tlie  carrier  travels  on  with- 
out slop])iiig.  The  up-lulie  and  the  down-tube  have 
each  its  apparatus  of  receiver  and  transmitter.  The 
felt  cylinder  and  its  contents  being  very  light,  a 
slight  rarefaction  of  the  air  in  fnnit  of  it,  orcon'leu- 
sation  of  the  air  behind  it,  is  suflicient  to  produce  a 
speed  equal  to  twenty  or  thirty  miles  an  hour.  Prac- 
tically, there  is  a  cum  nt  of  air  maintained,  circulat- 
ing through  the  two  tubes  and  their  terminal  connec- 
tion^■.;  wherever  !i  carrier  is  placed  in  this  current  it 
is  blown  along,  and  there  may  be  two  or  more  car- 
riers traveling  at  the  same  time. 

We  have  recently  examined,  with  considerable  in- 
terest, the  pneumatic  system  of  transmitting  tele- 
graphic messages  between  the  operating  and  re- 
ceiving rooms  in  the  newly  constructed  building  of 
the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  in  New 
York.  In  such  an  immense  edifice,  comprising  elev- 
en stories,  it  would  obviously  involve  great  delay 
to  maintain  the  necessary  communication  liy  means 
of  messenger  boys,  and  consequently  the  apparatus 
which  we  describe  and  illustrate  herewith  has  been 
introduced,  with  remarkably  successful  results.  In 
the  large  engraving,  f'ig.  3,  sections  of  several  of  the 
stories  are  represented,  showing  the  numerous  tubes 
througii  which  the  necessary  current  of  air  which 
propels  the  packages,  are  maintained.  Those  of 
our  readers  who  have  had  occasion  to  send  a  tele- 
gram at  the  Central  Otllce  above  named,  may  re- 
member that,  after  they  had  delivered  the  writing 
to  the  clerk,  that  functionary  rolled  the  paper  in  a 
little  parcel  and  inserted  it  in  a  wood  and  leather 
case,  of  the  manner  and  form  shown  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  illustration.  Fig.  2.  He  then  dropped 
the  case  into  an  open  tube,  leading  up  through  his 
desk,  at  A,  and  perhaps  announced  that  the  packet  ; 
had  reached  the  operating  room,  in  the  seventh 
story,  almost  before  tlie  curious  watcher  of  his  pro- 
ceedings had  had  time  to  draw  a  second  breath. 
The  packet  appeared  to  be  sucked  into  the  tube,  and 
so  in  fact  it  is,  and  in  about  two  seconds  it  is  drawn 
up  almost  to  the  top  of  the  great  building.  After 
leaving  the  clerk's  hand  it  passes  down  through  the 
wide  curve  in  its  conduit,  at  15,  and  thence  ascends 
the  straight  portion  of  the  same,  nntilit  jumps  forth 
from  the  end  of  the  tube  i  none  of  the  compart- 
ments of  the  receptacle,  C,  in  the  operating  room. 
A  section  of  a  good  portion  of  this  receptacle  is 
also  well  represented  in  Fig.  1,  in  one  compart- 
ment of  which  a  packet  is  seen  emerging  from  its 
tube.    The  compartments,   C,  are   entirely  cut  off 


from  the  nniin  portion  of  the  case,  being  constnict- 
ed  within  the  same,  so  that  above  them  and  extend- 
ing over  all  is  a  large  emiMy  cliamlx-r,  K.  With  tlie 
latter,  however,  each  compartment  commiinicaleB 
by  an  orilice,  F.  wliicli  is  provided  witli  a  cover 
openid  or  closed  at  pleasure,  thus,  as  will  be  seen 
further  on,  tlirowingaiiy  tube  into  or  out  of  action, 
or  moderating  the  air  current  therein  as  is  desired. 
In  the  center  of  tlie  receptacle  and  opening  into 
the  upper  chamber,  E,  is  a  large  tube,  D.  which  ex- 
tends down  beside  the  pipes,  IJ,  and  connects  with 
a  blower  in  the  cellar.  It  is  a  positive  blast  rotary 
blower,  invented  and  constructed  by  the  well  known 
firm  of  I'.  II.  &  F.  M.  Koots,  of  Connersville,  Ind. 
The  machine  has  long  l)een  in  use  in  iron  founderies, 
machine  and  blacksmith  shops,  and  other  estalilish- 
nients,  and,  besides,  has  met  with  extensive  employ- 
ment for  ventilating  purposes  in  buildings,  ships, 
mines,  and  other  localities.  It  will  be  understood 
that,  in  the  present  instance,  the  blower  forces  the 
air  out  beneath,  so  that  the  current  is  drawn  down 
the  tube,  l>.  through  the  chamber,  E,  in  the  recepta- 
cle above,  thence  through  the  oritices,  F,  and  com- 
partments, C,  and  tinally  uj)  through  the  pipes,  B. 
Thus  used  as  an  exhauster,  and  at  the  slow  speed  of 
120  revolutions  per  minute,  it  draws  down  five  cubic 
feet  of  air  per  revolution,  or  3ii,000  cubic  feet  per 
hour,  thus  propelling  the  packets,  and  at  the  same 
time  (by  removing  the  last  mentioned  aggregate 
quantity  of  air  from  the  atmospheres  of  the  rooms 
with  wiiicli  the  pijie  orifices  communicate;  serving 
as  an  excellent  and  ellicient  ventilating  apparatus. 

After  a  packet  arrives  in  the  upper  story,  the  per- 
son stationed  at  the  receiitacle  lifts  a  little  window 
in  the  compartment  which  it  enters,  takes  out  the 
case,  extracts  the  paper  therefrom,  and  passes  the 
message  at  once  to  the  projier  operator,  who  im- 
mediately telegraphs  its  contents  to  their  destination. 
The  case"  is  then  returned  to  the  first  story  by  drop- 
ping it  into  the  open  tubes,  (i,  through  wfiich  it  falls 
by  its  own  gravity,  landing  in  the  box,  II,  whence  it 
is  again  taken  out  to  be  filled  and  started  liack  on  its 
journey.  The  general  adojition  of  this  system  by  all 
Military  Headquarters,  .allowing  that  it  will  operate 
througii  tubes  of  half  a  mile  length  as  effectively  as 
it  does  at  the  AVestern  Union  Office,  would  expedite 
the  collection  and  distribution  of  otticial  matter,  and 
greatly  promote  the  public  service  and  convenience. 

PNEUMATIC  DRILL. — A  drilling-machine  operated 
by  conipresseed  air  admittted  alternately  above  and 
below  a  piston  connected  with  gear-wheel.s  which 
rotate  the  drill.  The  air-reservoir  and  force-pump 
may  be  placed  at  any  required  distance  from  the  cyl- 
inder, and  connccte"d  therewith  by  a  flexible  pipe. 
The  introduction  of  the  first  Burleigh  drill  into  the 
Iloosac  Tunnel  ten  years  ago  marked  a  new  era,  not 
only  in  that  great  eiigineering  enterprise,  but  in  the 
history  of  rock  work  througliout  the  world.  Up  to 
that  diite  many  bad  been  the  attempts  to  jiroduce  a  ma- 
chine that  would  supersede  the  severe  manual  labor 
of  the  sledge  and  hand  drill,  but  all  proved  failures. 
Eventually^Mr.  Burleigh  took  up  thematter  and  solv- 
ed the  problem  bv  producing  the  machine  which 
liears  his  name, and  which  is  a  monument  to  his  gen- 
ius. The  main  elements  of  the  drill,  shown  in  the 
drawing,  are  the  cage,  the  cyliniTer,  and  the  piston. 
The  cage  is  merely  a  trough,  with  ways  on  either 
side,  in  which  the  cvlinder, by  means  of  a  feed-screw 
and  an  automatic  feed-lever",  is  moved  forward  as 
the  drill  cuts  away  the  rock.  The  piston  moves  back 
and  forth  in  the  cylinder,  propelled  and  operated 
either  by  steam  or  compressed  air,  like  the  piston  of 
an  ordinary  steam-engine.  The  drill  point  is  attached 
to  the  end"of  the  piston, which  is  a  solid  bar  of  steel. 
The  piston  is  rotated  as  it  moves  back  and  forth  by 
ingenious  and  simple  mechanism.  The  forward  mo- 
tion of  the  cylinder  in  the  trough  is  regulated  by  an 
automatic  feed  as  the  rock  is  cut  away,  the  advance 
being  more  or  less  rapid,  as  by  the  variation  in  the 
nature  of  the  rock,  the  cutting  i's  fast  or  slow.  It  will 


PNEUMATIC  GUN-CARKIAGE. 


548 


PNEUMATIC  GUN  CAERIAGE. 


thus  be  seen  that  the  drill-point  and  solid  steel  piston 
alone  receive  the  shock  of  the  blow :  and  it  also 
should  be  stated,  that  the  piston-rod.  arranged  witli 
a  double  annular  cam  and  spiral  grooves, in  its  move- 
ments performs  three  important  functions.  First. 
The  movement  of  the  valve  admitting  the  steam  or 
compressed  air  to  the  cylinder.  Second.  By  the  op- 
eration of  the  annular  cam  acting  upon  the  feeding 
device,  the  cylinder  is  moved  forward  (as  the  rock 
is  penetrated)  in  the  cage  or  slide.  Third.  By  the 
spiral  grooves  and  a  spline  in  the  ratchet,  the  piston 
bar  is  automatically  rotated,  a  partial  revoliuion  tak- 
ing place  at  eacli  upward  movement  of  the  piston. 


the  ratchet  remaining  perfectly  stationary  while  the 
rotating  movement  occurs,  and  moving  only  as  the 
piston  again  descends.  When  the  cylinder  has  been 
fed  forward  the  entire  length  of  the  feed-screw,  it 
may  be  run  back,  and  a  longer  drill-point  inserted  in 
the  end  of  the  piston. 

By  an  ingeuioius  peculiarity  in  the  form  of  the  cut- 
ting-edge of  the  drill-point,  perfectly  round  holes  are 
ensured  ;  thus  giving  a  greater  area  to  the  hole,  and 
a  larger  percentage  of  the  powiler  near  its  bottom. 
The  regular  rotation  of  the  drill  insures  tlu'  deliverv 
of  each  blowatthe  point  of  greatest  etticiencj' ;  eacii 
wing  of  the  drilI-i)oint  striking  the  rock  at  a  point 
just  far  enougli  in  advance  of  the  cut  of  the  preced- 
ing blow  to  chip  away  the  rock  lying  between.  The 
3'ielding  of  the  chip  saves  the  edge  of  the  drill-point; 
and  thus  the  advance  of  the  drill-point  in  the  rock, 
without  sharpening,  is  te/i  timex  r/mitjr  than  is  pos- 
sible in  hand-drilling,  where  the  hole  is  formed  by 
the  crushing  and  |)ulverisiug  of  the  rock.  The  drili- 
ing-inaehine  is  attac'hed  to  a  clamp  by  means  of  a 
circular  plate,  with  a  beveled  edge  cast  ujion  the 


botti>m  of  the  cage  near  its  center.  This  plate  tit  s 
a  corresponding  cavity  in  one  side  of  the  clamp,  and 
is  held  t  here  tirmly  in  any  required  position  bj-  the 
tightening  of  screws.  The  clamp  is  clasped  about  a 
bar  of  iron  to  which  it  may  be  quite  tightly  held  by 
screws. 

By  the  motions — upon  one  plane,  of  the  plate  in 
its  cavity,  and  upon  anotlier.  at  aright  angle  to  the 
first,  of  the  clamp  upon  the  bar,  and  the  sUding  end- 
wi.se  of  the  clamp  upon  the  bar — it  will  be  seen  at 
once  tliat  any  position  and  direction  of  the  drill  is 
attainable.  It  only  remains  to  securely  attach  the 
liar,  of  any  reasonable  length,  to  a  convenient  car- 
riage or  suitable  frame,  and  the  machinery  is  ready 
for  operation.  The.se  machines  are  applicable  to  all 
kinds  of  rock  work,  whether  in  mining,  quarrving, 
cutting,  tunneling,  or  in  sub-marine  drilling.  They 
combine  simplicity,  strength,  lightnessand  compact- 
ness, are  easily  handled,  and  require  but  few  re- 
pairs. With  them,  holes  may  be  drilled  from  three- 
'  fourths  of  an  inch  to  five  inches  diameter,  and  to  a 
depth  not  exceeding  thirty  to  thirty-five  feet,  at  the 
rate  of  from  two  to  ten  inches  per  minute,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  rock.  They  are  driven  by  either 
steam  or  compressed  air  as  a  motor,  and,  under  a 
pressure  of  fift}-  pounds  to  the  inch,  work  at  two 
hundred  to  three  hundred  blows  per  minute,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  machine. 

PNEUMATIC  GUN-CARKIAGE.— Facility  of  man- 
euver is  of  the  greatest  importance,  after  strength 
and  stability,  in  a  gun-carriage,  and  the  training  and 
running  of  heavy  carriages,and  the  elevating  and  de- 
pressing of  the  gun,  are  now  generally  accomplished 
by  means  of  toothed-gear.  Modern  guns  should 
be  trained  very  quickly  and  smoothly,  and  facility 
in  that  respect  is  of  inestimable  advantage  in  com- 
bat, hence  a  simple  carriage  that  will  return  a  B.  L. 
gun,  automatically  to  battery  after  each  discharge 
is  greatly  to  be  desired. 

Simplicity  of  construction  also  is  a  very  important 
quality  in  a  gun-carriage  for  sea-service,  where  the 
liabilitj'  to  rust,  deterioration  and  damage  from  shot 
is  very  great,  and  the  facilities  for  repair  limited. 
Unfortunately,  the  modern  carriages  are  entirely  too 
elaborate  in  construction,  and  the  aim  in  the  design 
should  be  always  to  make  the  working  parts  as  ac- 
cessible as  possible,  and  as  simple  as  is  consistent 
with  the  object  in  view. 

The  endurance  of  a  carriage  is  greatly  enhanced 
by  a  real  judicious  application  of  fhe  recoil  check. 
Though  it  is  desirable,  on  general  principles,  to  allow 
the  carriage  free  recoil,  it  is  not  usually  possible 
to  do  so  in  practice,  and,  in  fact,  since  the  introduc- 
tion of  B.  L.  cannon,  it  has  been  an  object  to  limit 
t  he  recoil  as  much  as  possible,  with  a  view  to  return 
the  gun  quickly  to  battery.  Any  device  that  will 
give  an  increasing  check  is  much  the  easier  on  the 
carriage. 

A  comparison  of  the  foregoing  will  demonstrate 
the  advantages  of  the  pneumatic  carriage  in  rapid- 
ity of  mancuver.simplicity  of  construction, certainty 
of  action  in  any  climate, protection  of  the  vital  parts, 
and  endurance.  The  use  of  water  as  a  recoil  check 
makes  a  summer  gun-carriage  ;  other  Huids  are  liable 
to  cake  or  clog  the  cylinders  at  an  important  moment. 
Any  misadjustmenl  or  accident  to  the  valves  of  any 
hydraulic  check  would  cause  an  instant  splitting  of 
the  cylinders,  thereby  disabling  the  gun — an  impos- 
sible occurrence  when  using  an  elastic  gas. 

.Vs  a  familiar  exampU'  of  the  application  of  pneu- 
matic force, th'i  Westinghouse  air-brake  may  be  here 
cited.  The  introduction  of  lliis  appliance  was  baf- 
fied  for  si.\  years  by  the  adver.se  opinion  of  eminent 
■Engineers  as  to  its  'x>rM-\  ical  utility.  It  iK'ver  freezes 
clogs  or  splits  the  pipes,  and  one  man  controls  witli 
ea.se  a  gri'at  train  of  cars.  In  this  coimeelion  it  may 
be  remarked  that  the  use  of  band-gearing  in  modern 
gim-carriages  is  comparable  to  the  old  style  "brakes" 
on  a  railway  train.  •  Tlie  operating  of  the  gun-car- 
riages, either  in  the  forts  or  on  ships, by  means  of  com- 


PNEUMATIC  GUN  CARRIAGE. 


549 


PNEUMATIC  GUN  CARRIAGE. 


P3CKET  LEDGER. 


550 


POCKET  SOLAR  COMPASS. 


pressed  air  supplied  to  tlie  working  parts  from  the 
pipe  led  to  the  breast  of  the  carriags,  and  controlled 
b}'  simple  levers,  for  rapid  training,  for  rapidly  rais- 
ing or  lowering  the  gun  to  aim.  for  checking  the  re- 
coil without  shock,  and  for  running  in  and  out  when 
desired,  is  absolutely  practical,  certain  in  its  action, 
and  the  least  liable  to  accident. 

A  section  of  the  Westinghouse  air-pump  is  shown 
in  the  drawing.  The  parts  are  numbered  as  follows: 
Steam-cj'linder  Head  (with  reversing-cylinder,  pis- 
ton, and"  valve  bushes), 2;  Steam-cylinder  (with  the 
main  valve  and  bushes,)  3:  Center-piece,  4:  Air- 
cylinder  (with  lower  discharging-valve),  5;  Steam- 
piston  and  Rod.  7;  Air-piston,  SfJIain  Piston  PacK- 
ing-ring,  9;  theReversimr-valve,  the  Reversins-valve 
Plate,  the  Plate  Bolt  and  Stim,  13,  10,  11,  12,  Mam 
Steam-valve,  14 ;  Packmg-rings  for  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Piston-valves,  15,  16;  the  Upper  and  Lower 
Main  Steam-valve  Bushes,  17,  18  ;  Reversing-cyl- 
inder and  Cap,  19,  33;  Reversing-piston  and  Packing- 
ring,  20,  21:  Reversing-valve  Bush  and  Cap,  23,  24; 
Piston-rod  Nut,  35;  Discharge-valve  Stop-bolt,  2<'>; 
Piston-packing  Kut  and  Gland,  37,  38;  Right  and 
Left  Chamber  Caps,  29,  30;  Upper  Discharge-valve 
and  Seat,  32,  31  ;  Receiving-valve,  34;  Half-inch 
Union,  35;  Three-quarter-incli  Union,  36;  One-inch 
Union,  37;  Top  and  Bottom  Steam-cylinder  Gaskets, 
40,  41;  Top  Air-cylinder  Gasket,  43.  The  steam  from 
the  boiler  enters  the  top  c.ylinder  between  two  pis- 
tons forming  the  main  valve,  14.  The  upper  piston 
being  of  greater  diameter  than  the  lower,  the  ten- 
dency of  the  pressure  is  to  raise  the  valve,  unless  it 
is  held  down  by  the  pressure  of  a  third  piston.  30,  of 
still  greater  diameter,  working  in  a  cylinder  directly 
above  the  main  valve. 

The  pressure  on  this  third  piston  is  regulated  by 
the  small  slide-valve,  13,  working  in  the  central 
chamber  on  the  top  head.  This  valve  receives  its 
motions  from  a  rod,  13,  extending  into  the  hollow 
piston,  which,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  has  a  knob 
at  its  lower  end  and  a  shoulder  just  below  the  top 
head.  This  valve  chamber  in  the  top  head,  by  a 
suitable  steam-port,  is  constantly  in  communication 
with  the  steam  space  between  the  two  pistons  of  the 
main  valve.  The  steam  .acting  on  the  third  piston, 
80.  and  holding  the  main  valve  down,  enters  below 
the  main  piston;  as  the  main  piston  approaches  the 
upper  head,  the  reversing-valve  rod,  13,  and  its 
valve,  13,  are  raised  until  the  slide-valve  exhausts 
the  steam  from  the  space  above  the  third  or  revers- 
ing piston,  when  the  main  valve  is  raised  by  the 
steam  pressure  on  the  greater  area  of  its  upper  pis- 
on,  which  movement  of  the  main  valve  admits  the 
steam  to  the  upper  end  of  the  main  cylimler. 

Wlien  the  main  valve  is  moved  up  to  admit  steam 
to  tlie  upper  end  of  the  cylinder,  it  opens  an  exliaust- 
port  at  the  lower  end,  just  below  the  lower  steam- 
port,  which  latter  is  closed  by  the  lower  piston  of 
the  main  valve;  and  when  the  main  piston  is  on  its 
upward  stroke,  the  upper  exhaust-port  is  similarly 
opened.  The  air-valves  of  the  pump  are  similar  to 
those  used  in  all  pumps.  The  lift  of  a  discharge 
valve  should  not  exceed  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch. 
Sec  I'liirlitt  <!Hii-r(i.rria{/e. 

POCKET  LEDGER.— A  small  account-book  with 
which  a  soldier  in  the  British  service  is  provided, 
and  in  wliich  is  inserted  the  monthly  settlement  of 
his  accounts,  having  reference  to  his  pay,  the  state 
of  his  savings-l):ink  account,  date  of  enlistment,  etc. 
Commanding  Otlicers  are  to  see  that  these  books  are 
kci)t  with  tlie  utmost  regularity,  the  officer  com- 
manding the  company  of  the  soldier  being  respon- 
sible that  the  book  is  kept  correctlv,  his  signature 
being  a  voucher  for  the  same.  This  book  is  familiar- 
ly termed  bv  llie  soldier  his  "  Tomniv  Atkins." 

POCKET  SOLAR  COMPASS.— This  instrument  has  a 
needle  '.'<  inelies  long,  and  a  limb  of  IJ.  indies  diam- 
eter, ilivided  toli:iIf  deirrees  and  reailing  by  its  one 
double  vernier  horizontal  angles  to  single  minutes. 
The  arrangement  of  the  plates  is  similar  to  that  of 


the  large  solar  corap?,ss,  the  under  plate  carrying  the 
sights  revolving  around  the  upper  or  compass-plate 
to  which  are  attached  the  solar  apparatus,  levels, etc.; 
there  is  also  a  clamp  with  tangent-screw  between  the 
two  plates,  and  another  to  the  whole  instrument 
about  its  spindle.  The  distance  between  the  sights 
is  nearly  7  inches,  the  sights  themselves  are  i\  inches 
high,  and  have  a  slot  and  hair  in  half  their  heights  ; 
they  are  hinged  so  as  to  fold  down  in  packing.  The 
compass-circle  is  arranged  with  pini(m  and  movable 
part  so  as  to  set  off  the  variation  of  the  needle  to  five 
minutes;  the  needle  has  a  lifting-lever,  as  usual,  by 
which  it  is  raised  against  the  glass.      The  solar  ap- 


paratus IS  attached  to  the  flange  of  the  upper  plate, 
and  consists  of  the  usual  hour,  latitude,  and  declina- 
tiun  area,  marked  respectively.  A,  C,  and  B,  in  the 
drawing,  with  an  arm,  FF,  to  the  last  named,  carry- 
ing the  solar  lenses  and  lines  as  in  the  larger  instru- 
ments. The  latitude  and  declination  arcs  are  each 
divided  to  half  degrees,  and  read  by  verniers,  the 
latitude  arc  to  five  minutes,  and  the  declination  arc 
to  single  minutes  of  a  degree  ;  the  hour  arc  is  divid- 
ed on  its  inner  edge  into  hours  and  twelfths, or  spaces 
of  five  minutes  each,  the  inde.x  of  the  declination 
arc  above  easily  enabling  one  to  read  the  time  to 
single  minutes. 

The  hour  arc  is  made  movable  on  its  supporting  seg- 
ment to  either  side,  its  outer  edge  being  also  divided 
on  the  middle  portion  to  spaces  of  five  minutes  of 
time,  and  read  by  a  vernier  upon  the  segments  to 
single  minutes;  in  this  way  the  equntion  nf  time  for 
any  given  day  is  set  off  at  once,  and  the  time  given 
by  the  index  of  the  hour  arc  thus  made  to  agree  with 
mean  time  or  that  given  by  the  ordinary  clock. 

The  solar  lenses  and  lines  are  placed  as  in  the 
larger  instruments,  the  declination  arc  being  also  re- 
versible, as  the  sun  changes  from  north  to  south  of 
the  equator. 

When  [lacked  in  the  case  the  declination  arc  with 
its  arm  is  detached  from  the  hour  arc;  and  this  itself, 
together  with  the  latitude  arc,  folds  very  closely  to 
the  compass  box. 

The  pocket  solar  is  set  up  for  use  cither  upon  the 
ball  spindle,  with  stalT  mountings,  or  upon  a  light  tri- 
pod like  the  other  jiocket  compasses,  and  very  often 
with  small  leveling-head  with  clamp  and  tangent 
screws. 

Sometimes  a  side  telescope  with  enterpoise  is  sub- 
stituted for  tlie  sight-vanes. 


POIMT. 


551 


FOIHTIBO. 


When  iiliout  to  use  tlic  instniincnt,  it  is  Bct  upon 
its  tripod  orstiitl,  mid  citrcfiilly  leveled;  tlie  <lecliiiii- 
tinn  of  the  sun  for  tliefjiven  diiyiind  hour  isohliiined 
from  lh<'  Kpheineris  hiipiilii'd  willi  [hi*  and  other 
Boliir  iiislrunients,  and  set  oil'  upon  its  arc,  and  (he 
liour  ar<r  is  raised  until  its  vernier  marks  the  lati- 
tude of  the  place  upon  the  lalilude  arc.  The  e(pia- 
tion  of  liin(^  for  the  day  is  also  set  oil  as  before  de- 
seribed,  the  zero  of  the  hour  eirele  IkmiilT  moved  to 
the  ri^ht  wlu'ii  th(^  equal  ion  is  to  be  added,  and  to 
the  left  when  it  is  to  be  sublraeted  from  api)arent 
time.  The  index  of  the  deelination  arc  bein^  then 
setlolhe  proper  division  on  the  hour  arc.  and  the 
declination  arm  ilirected  to  the  sun,  the  limb  bein^ 
also  set  at  zero,  and  the  .sun's  inia;re  l)rou;;ht  be- 
tween the  hour  lines  of  the  silver  plate  by  turning 
the  whole  instrument  upon  its  spindle,  the  sights 
will  indicate  the  Inn'  iHcriiUiiii  precisely  as  with  the 
larger  s(;lar  compass.  The  compass-circle  being 
now  turned  by  the  jiinion  until  the  lu'cdle  points  to 
zero,  the  needle  also  will  beset  to  the  true  meridian, 
and  the  variation  of  tlu^  needle  can  be  read  off  upon 
the  outside  divisions  of  the  compass-lK),\. 

The  adjustments  and  the  use  of  this  solar  an^  sub- 
stanliidly  I  be  same  as  those  of  the  solar  compass,  and 
its  indications  so  accurate  that  after  repealed  trials 
it  will  give  the  true  nu-ridian  within  an  error  of  less 
than  three  inimites  of  a  degree,  which  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  dellection  of  the  magnetic  needle 
will  indicate  with  certainty  the  presence  and  direc- 
tion of  veins  of  magnetic  iron  ore. 

Indeed,  we  liave  the  assurance  of  competent  Sur- 
veyors that  while  it  is  much  more  portable  it  is  also 
very  nearly  or  (piite  as  accurate  in  all  its  indications 
as  the  large  solar  compass.  Its  weight,  excluding 
box  .'ind  tripod,  is  4','  lbs.  See  Satar  (^'om/jaxii. 
POINT. — In  Heraldry,  a  triangular  figure  issuing 
from  the  dexter  and  sinister  base  of 
the  shield.  It  is  common  in  French 
and  (ierman  Ili'raldry,  and  occurs  in 
the  shield  of  Hanover,  which  was  a 
part  of  the  royal  arms  of  Great  Bri- 
tain from  the  accession  of  George  I. 
till  that  of  the  iiresenl  Sovereign.  A 
shield  cliarged  with  a  ]ioint  is  in  her- 
aldic drawing  hardly  distinguishable 
from  one  parted  per  cheverou.     See  I'dinU. 

POINT-BLANK.— With  all  small-arms,  the  second 
point  in  wliich  the  natural  line  of  sight  (when  hori- 
zontal) cuts  the  trajectory.  With  artillery,  it  is  tlie 
point  where  the  projectile  tirst  strikes  the  horizontal 
plane  on  which  the  gun  stands,  the  axis  of  the  piece 
being  horizontal. 

Usually,  the  object  aimed  at  has  a  certain  heiglit; 
hence,  it  will  not  only  be  struck  when  at  j>'iint-hlank, 
but  also  when  at  points  in  rear  or  in  front  of  the 
point-blank  where  the  vertical  distances  of  the  tra- 
jectory from  such  points  shall  be  equal  to  or  less 
tlian  the  height  of  the  object.  This  distance  between 
these  two  points,  known  as  the  dangerous  space,  is 
greater  as  the  trajectory  is  Hattened  or  as  the  height 
of  the  object  is  greater. 

In  the  drawing,  A  F,  is  the  line  of  tire;  A'  F  P,  is 
the  natural  line  of  sight;  and  A"  F  P',  is  an  artificial 


Point. 


line  of  sight.  It  will  be  seen  thaj  the  object  P  P', 
beyond  the  point-hlmik,  is  struck  at  the  bottom,  P'. 
If  it  were  at  pi>int-lil-ink.  it  would  be  struck  at  P. 
Were  the  object  increased  in  height,  above  P,  it 
would  also  be  struck  when  placed  between  point- 
bUink  and  tlie  piece.  The  sum  of  the  distances  in 
front  and  rear  of  the  point-blank,  at  which  the  ob- 
ject could  be  struck  at  its  bottom  and  top.  is  the  dan- 
gerous space.     This  permits  us  to  make  slight  errors 


in  eslimafing  distanceB;  we  can  eitlier  over  or  under 
estinuite  tliemso  long  as  the  errors  do  notexceed  the 
limits  of  till'  dun'.'crous  s|)ace.  See  Artijki'd  Point- 
hlonk. 

POINT  BLANK  RANGE.— The  distance  from  the 
muzzle  of  the  piece  to  that  point  in  the  projectile's 
trajectory  where  it  cuts  the  prolongation  of  the  natural 
line  of  sight,  a  second  time,  the  natural  line  of  sight 
being  horizontal.  The;  Hritish  define  jioiut-hlank 
ruiKjr  as,  the  distance  from  the  muzzle  to  the  firBt 
L'raze  when  the  axis  of  the  piece  is  parallel  to  the 
horizontal  plane  upon  which  the  carriage  stands  ;  but 
this  is  really  nothing  more  than  the  range  due  to  the 
aiiyU  ofelmiti'ii  equal  to  the  angle  subtended  Ijy  the 
height  of  tlie  gun  from  th<-  point  struck.  See  I'oint. 
blank. 

POINT  BLANK  SHOT.— The  shot  of  a  gun  pointed 
direcllv  low.'ird  tin' object  to  be  hit. 

POINT  D'APPUI.   -A  fixed  point  of  support  in  rear 
of  the  operations  of  an  army,  or  on  its  flanks,  such 
as  a  fortress  or  some  convenient  locality  to  resort 
to  in  case  of  necessity.     A  I'oint  d'Appuiia  of  great 
importance  in  military  tactics.      Few  battles  have 
I  been  fought  without  niiiking  use  of  villages,hills.and 
•  even  trees  as  J'^iuti  d'Apjuii.    In  changes  of  front, 
I  one  flank,  or  part  <if   the  force,  shoiihl  be  held  se- 
curely appuye<l.     Artillery  massed  in  batteries  have 
also  serveil  as  I'nlaU  (V A/ipni.   as  instanced  at  the 
battles  of  liiprodino.  Kamilies,  Ilohenkirch,  etc. 
I      POINTED  STAKES.— A  form  of  impediment  used 
I  on  the  lierm,  at  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  and  beyond 
I  the  counterscarp.     They  are  placed  about  one  foot 
in  the  ground,  and  stand  about  one  foot  above  it. 

POINTING. — To  ])oint  or  aim  a  fire-arm,  is  to  give 
it  sucli  diiection   and   elevation  that   the   projectile 
shall  strike   the  object.     To  do  this   properly,    it  is 
necessary  to  understand  the  relations  which  exist  be- 
tween the  lineof  sight,  the  line  of  fire,  tlie  trajectory, 
etc.      The   line  of  mglit   is   the   riglit  line  contain- 
ing the   guiding   points  of  the   sights.     The   sights 
are  two  pieces,  A  audi?,  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
gun,  the  situation  of  which   with  regard  to  the  axis 
of  the  bore  is  known.     The  front  sight  is  situated 
near  the  muzzle,  or  on  the  riglit  rimliase,  and  is  gen- 
erally lixed;  the  rear  sight  is  placed  near  the  breech, 
and  is  movable  in  a  vertical,  and   sometimes  in  a 
horizontal  direction.     The  natural  line  of  sight   is 
the  line  of  siglit  nearest  the  axis  of  the  piece;    the 
others  are  called  artificial  lines  of  sight.     The  lineof 
fri'h  the  axis  of  the  bore  prolonged  in  tlie  direction 
of  the  muzzle,  or  C  I).     The  angle  of  fire  is  the  angle 
incliide(l  lielweenthe  lineof  tire  and  horizon;  on  ac- 
count of  the  balloting  of  the  projectile,  the  angle  of 
tire  is  not  always  equal  to  the  angle  of  departure,  or 
projection.     TJiis  is  evident.     The  angle  of  night  is 
the  angle  included  between  the  line  of  sight  and  line 
of  fire:  angles  of  siglit  are  divided  into  natural  and 
artificial  angles  of  sight,  corresponding  to  the  natural 
and  artificial  lines  of  sight  which  encUjse  them.  The 
plane  of  fire  is  the  vertical  plane  containing  the  line 
of  lire.     The  plane  if  siglit  is  the  vertical  plane  con- 
taining the  line  of  sight.     The  jiointMank   is   the 
point  at  which  the  line  of  sight  intersects  the  tra- 
jectory, or  /'.     Strictly  speaking,  the  line  of  sight 
"  intersects  tlie  trajectory  at  two  points.  Cand 
P;  but,  in  practice,  the  latter  point  P  is  only- 
considered.      The   distance,  13  P,   is   called 
the  point-blank  distance.     The  natural pnnt. 
blank  corresponds  to  the  natural  line  of  sight  : 
all  other  point-blanks  are  called  artificial pvint- 
blanks.     In  speaking  of  the  point-blank  of  a 
piece,  the  natural  line  of  sight  is  supposed  to  be 
horizontal.     In  the   Hritish  service,  the  point-blank 
distance  is  the  distance  at  which  the  projectile  strikes 
the  level  ground  on  which  the  carriage  stands,  the 
axis  of  the  piece  being  horizontal.     It  is  evident  that 
this  detinitiou  of  point-blank  distance  conveys  a  bet- 
ter idea  of  the  power  of  tlie  piece  than  the  former, 
wliich  makes  it  depend  on  the  form  of  the  piece,  as 
well  as  on  the  charge.    As  the  angle  of  sight  .1 V  C" 


POINTING. 


552 


FOINTIHO. 


is  increased,  the  point-blank  distance  is  increased  ; 
as  it  is  diniinislied,  the  intersections  of  the  line  of 
sight  and  trajectorj'  approach  each  other  until  they 
unite,  when  the  line  of  sight  and  trajectory  are  tan- 
gent to  each  other;  beyond  this,  the  point-blank  is  I 
imaginary.     As  the  angle  of  tire  increases,  the  force 
of  gravity  acts  more  in  opposition  to   the  force  of 
projection,  and  the  poiut-lilank  distance  is  tlimin- 
ished.  until  at  90'^  it  becomes  zero.    Under  an  angle 
of  depression,  the   force   of  projection   acts   more  j 
nearly  in  the  direction   of  gravity,  and  the  point- , 
blank  distance  is  increased,  becoming  infinite  when 
the  angle  of  depression  is  equal  to  90^  minus  the 


of  the  plane  of  fire.  As  the  lines  of  sight  and  fire 
are  parallel  in  their  revolved  position,  tlie  planes  of 
sisrht  and  tire  must  also  be  parallel.  The  angle  COC 
=  BOB\  therefore  CV  =  OC  sin.  BOH.  It  is 
easily  seen  that  with  this  arrangement  of  the  front 
sight,  the  error  of  pointing  can  never  exceed  the  ra- 
dius of  the  breech.  By  an  inspection  of  the  figure, 
it  will  also  be  seen,  that  in  the  revolved  position  of 
the  line  of  sight,  the  elevation  is  diminished  by  a 
small  quantity,  wliich  is  equal  to  the  versed  sine  of 
the  arc  CV . 

If  the  natural  line  of  sight   be  not  parallel   to  the 
a.\is  of  the  piece,  the  planes  of  sight  and   lire  inter- 


X..  . 

-T      <^_ 

-_^ 

.—■ — ••" 

/7     ^^.^ 

m 

m 

^=— 

-^ 

Tvi.  \. 

angle  of  sight.  In  ordinary  tiring,  it  is  not  considered 
that  the  trajectory  changes  itsposition  with  refer- 
ence to  the  line  of  sight  and  line  of  tire,  for  any 
angles  of  elevation  and  depression,  less  than  1.5". 
In  aiming  at  an  object,  therefore,  tlie  anglf  nf  ele- 
'catioii.  of  which  is  less  than  1,5°,  aim  exactly  as 
though  it  were  in  the  same  horizontal  plane  with  the 
•  piece.  For  the  same  piece,  the  point-blank  distance 
increases  with  the  charge  of  powder:  for  the  same 
initial  velocity,  a  large  projectile  has  a  greater  point- 
blank  distance  than  a  small  one  ;  a  solid  shot  than  a 
lioUow  one  ;  an  oblong  projectile  than  a  roiuid  one  ; 
or,  in  other  words,  it  varies  with  the  value  of  c, 
before  referred  to.  Range  is  the  distance  at  which 
a  projectile  first  strikes  the  ground  on  which  the 
carriage  is  situated  ;  extreme;  range  is  tlie  distance  to 
the  point  at  which  the  projectile  is  brought  to  rest. 

In  pointing  guns  and  howitzers  under  ordinar}- an- 
gles of  elevation,  the  piece  is  first  directed  toward 
the  object,  and  then  elevated  to  suit  the  distance. 
The  accuracy  of  the  aim  depends — 1st.  On  the  fact 
that  the  object  is  situated  in  the  plane  of  sight;  2d. 
That  the  projectile  moves  in  the  plane  of  fire,  and 
that  the  planes  of  sight  and  fire  coincide,  or  are  par- 
allel and  near  to  each  other  ;  and  3d.  On  the  accura- 
cy of  tlie  elevation.  The  first  of  these  conditions  de- 
pends on  the  eye  of  tlie  gunner,  and  the  accuracy 
and  delicacy  of  the  sights  ;  the  errors  under  this  head 
are  of  but  little  practical  importance.  When  the 
trunnions  of  the  piece  are  horizontal,  and  the  sights 
are  properly  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  piece,  the 
planes  of  sight  and  fire  will  coincide  ;  but  when  the 
axis  of  the  trunnions  is  inclined,  and  the  natural  line 


k 

f- 

\-^' 

/ 

1 

\-^ 

\ 

:^ 

-no 

> 

-^1 

\z,^ 

J 

of  sight  is  oblique  to  the  axis  of  the  bore,  the  planes 
are  neither  parallel  nor  coincident,  and  the  aim  will 
be  incorrect.  If  the  natural  line  of  sight  be  made 
parallel  to  the  line  of  fire,  by  making  the  height  of 
the  front  sight  equal  to  the  ilispart  of  the  piece,  the 
])lanes  of  sight  and  tire  will  be  jiarallel,  and  at  a  dis- 
tance from  each  other  equal  to  the  radius  of  the 
breech  multiplied  by  the  sine  of  the  angle  which  the 
axlctree  makes  with  the  horizon.  To  sliow  this,  let 
the  circle  yl  (J  H  I),  in  Fig.  2,  represent  the  section 
of  the  breech  taken  at  right  angles  to  the  axis,  and 
C the  Jirojection  of  the  natural  line  of  sight  >ipon 
this  plane;  let  Ai  K  be  the  inclined  position  of  the 
axlctree,  <ir  trunnions,  ("  marks  the  revolved  position 
of  the  natural  line  of  sight,  and  C  D'  the  trace  of  llie 
plane  of  sight,  which  is  parallel  to   C  D,  the  trace 


sect  at  a  short  distance  from  the  muzzle  ;  hence,  it 
follows,  that  as  the  object  is  situated  in  the  plane  of 
sight,  the  projectile  will  deviate  from  the  object  to 
the  side  on  which  the  lower  wheel  is  situated,  and 
at  a  distance  from  it,  which  is  proportional  to  the 
distance  of  the  object  from  the  piece  ;  to  correct  for 
this  source  of  error,  the  line  of  sight  should  be 
pointed  to  the  side  of  the  higher  wheel,  and  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  object,  which  is  proportional  to  the 
distance  of  the  object  from  the  piece.  Siege  and 
sea-coast  cannon  are  generally  fired  from  fixed  plat- 
forms, which  renders  the  axis  of  the  trunnions  hori- 
zontal ;  they  are,  therefore,  not  furnished  with  pen- 
dulum sights.  In  case  the  axis  of  the  trunnions  is 
not  horizontal,  and  the  piece  has  not  a  pendulum 
hausse,  the  highest  points  of  metal  at  the  breech  and 
muzzle  may  be  determined  by  the  gunner's  level  and 
marked  with  chalk;  the  center  line  of  the  tangent 
scale,  or  lireech-sight,  is  placed  on  the  mark  at  the 
breech,  the  slider  is  placed  at  the  proper  elevation, 
and  the  aim  is  taken  along  the  notch  of  the  slider 
and  the  mark  on  the  muzzle.  This  method,  how- 
ever, does  not  give  a  pcrfectlj'  accurate  aim.  In  the 
absence  of  a  breech-sight,  the  piece  can  be  pointed 
with  the  natural  line  of  sight  so  as  to  strike  objects 
not  situated  at  point-blank  distance  if  the  object  be 
within  point-blank  range,  as  at  /'",  Fig.  1,  the  na- 
tural line  of  sight  should  be  depressed  below  the  ob- 
ject as  much  as  the  trajectory  is  above  it ;  if  it  be 
beyond  point-blank,  as  at  /",  the  natural  line  of 
sight  should  be  directed  to  a  point  //,  which  is  as 
much  above  the  object,  as  the  point  H' ,  of  the  tra- 
jectory, is  below  it.  Owing  to  the  shape  and  size  of 
the  reinforce  of  sea-coast  cannon,  the  natural  line  of 
sight  is  formed  by  affixing  a  front  sight  to  the  muz- 
zle, or  to  a  projection  cast  on  the  piece  between  the 
trunnions.  Although  the  latter  arrangement  does 
not  give  quite  so  long  a  distance  between  the  sights 
as  is  desirable,  it  permits  the  use  of  a  shorter  breech- 
sight,  and  the  front  sight  does  not  interfere  with  the 
roof  of  the  embrasure,  when  the  piece  is  fired  under 
high  elevation. 

In  pointing  small-arms  and  mortars,  the  piece  is 
first  given  the  elevation,  and  then  the  direction  nec- 
essary to  attain  the  object.  Mortars  are  generally 
fired  from  behind  epualements,  which  screen  the  ob- 
ject from  the  eye  of  the  gunner.  The  elevation  is 
first  given  by  a  gunner's  quadrant;  and  the  direc- 
tion is  given  by  moving  the  mortar-bed  with  a  hand- 
s]iike,  so  as  to  bring  the  line  of  sight  into  the  plane 
of  sight,  which,  by  construction,  passes  through  the 
object  and  the  center  of  the  platfnnn.  The  plane  of 
sight  may  be  determined  in  several  ways;  the  me- 
thod prescribed  is  to  plant  two  stakes,  one  on  the 
crest  of  the  ejiaulement,  and  the  other  a  little  in  ad- 
vanceofthe  first,  so  that  the  two  shall  be  in  a  line 
with  tlie  object,  and  the  gunner  standing  in  the  mid- 
dle of  tlie  rear-edge  of  the  platform  ;  a  <'or(l  isattach- 
ed  to  the  second  stake,  ;uid  carefull}'  held  so  as  to 
touch  the  first  stake;  a  third  slake  is  driven  in  a  line 


POINTINO-BOABS. 


553 


POINT  OF  IMPACT. 


with  t/ie  ford,  in  rear  of  the  pliilforiii,  iinil  a  plum, 
met  is  attucli('(l  to  this  conl  so  iis  to  full  ii  little  in 
rriir  of  the  iiinrtar.  It  ;s  I'viilcnt  tliiil  the  cord  jijid 
])liiriiiii('t  ili'lcniiini'  tlir  rc(|iiirr(l  |ihuii' of  sii;lit  into 
whii'h  the  line  of  sijrht  of  I  he  mortar  iiuist  \>v 
l)roiij;ht.  TIk' usual  anjilr  of  liri' of  mortars  is  ^l", 
which  corresponds  nearly  with  the  maximum  rani;e. 
The  advanlaiies  of  the  angle  of  greatest  range  are  : 
1st.  Economy  of  [lowder;  2il.  Diminished  recoil, 
and  slrain  on  the  jiid'c, lied. and  jilatforni;  i}d.  More 
uniform  rangi's.  When  the  distance  is  not  great  and 
the  oliject  is  to  peru'trate  the  roofs  of  magazines, 
buildings,  eti'..  Ihc  force  of  f.'ill  may  he  increased  liy 
firing  under  an  angle  of  tiO".  The  rangcH  obtained 
under  an  tiiigle  of  (iO"  are  about  nne  tnitli  less  than 
those  obtained  with  an  angle  of  4.'j''.  If  the  object  be 
to  iiroduce  etTeet  by  the  bursting  of  the  projectile, 
the  penetration  should  be  iliminished  by  firing  under 
an  angle  of  ',W\  AVhen  the  object  is  not  on  a  level 
with  the  piece,  the  angle  of  greatest  range  is  consid- 
ered in  practice  to  be  -lo^-j-.l-V,  or  40  — i.V.  A  being 
the  angle  of  elevation  or  depression  of  the  object. 
Thus,  to  attain  a  magazine,  for  instance,  situated  on 
a  hill,  for  which  A=i.')'^,  the  angle  of  greatest  range 
Is  h^y^  instead  of  45".  The  angle  of  lire  being  fi.xed 
at  4.')''  for  objects  on  the  same  level  with  the  ]iicce, 
the  range  is  varied  by  varying  the  charge  of  jiowder. 
The  jiractical  rule  is  founded  on  the  knowledge  of 
the  amoinil  of  jiowder  necesNary  to  diminish  or  in- 
crease the  range  1!)  yards.  For  the  French  ,S  and  10 
inch  siege moriars, tins  amount  is  about  (iO  graiusfor 
the  former,  and  125  grains  for  the  lallcr.  .\  jiracti- 
cal rule  for  finding  the  time  of  llight  by  which  the 
length  of  the  fuse  is  regulated,  is  to  take  the  sciuare 
root  of  the  rang<'  in  feet,  and  ilividc  it  by  four  :  the 
quotient  is  the  ajiproximatctiuie  in  seconds.  Stone- 
mortars  are  pointed  in  the  same  manner  as  common 
mortars  :  the  angle  of  lire  for  stones  is  from  (!0^  lo 
75",  in  order  that  they  may  have  great  force  in  fall- 
ing ;  the  angle  for  grenades  is  about  33",  in  order 
that  their  bursting  effect  may  not  be  destroyed  by 
their  penetration  into  the  earth.  Cannon  are"  point- 
ed at  uiglit  by  means  of  certain  marks,  or  measure- 
ments, on  the  carriage  and  platform,  which  are  ac- 
curately determined  during  the  day.  See  Cannon 
and  Firhifi.  | 

POINTING-BOARD.— In  gunnery,  a  piece  of  1)oard 
1  foot  long,  2  or  3  inches  wide,  and  1  inch  thick, 
having  a  notcli  cut  in  the  middle  of  one  side  to  tit  i 
on  the   stake,  and  eraduatetl  into  c<iual  divisions 
from   its  middle.      When  not   in  use  the   pointing  ; 
cord  may  lie  wound  on  it.     This  board  is  used  for  1 
poinliuL'  mortars.  I 

POINTING-CORD.— A  cord  used  in  pointing  mor- ! 
tars  IJy  means  of  pohiting-Htaken,  one  of  the  lixed 
points  is  established  upon  the  crest  of  the  parapet  or 
at  the  foot  of  the  interior  slope,  and  another  in  rear 
of  the  piece.  Then  by  a  cord  called  the  puintiiig. 
cord,  stretched  between  these  two  points,  with  the 
plummet  suspended  from  it,  a  vertical  plane  is  de- 
termined witli  which  the  line  of  metal  is  made  to 
coinciile. 

POINTING-RINGS.— Two  rings,  one  smaller  than 
the  other,  attached  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  trail 
of  the  stock  of  a  field  gun-carriage,  for  the  recep- 
tion of  a  handspike,  which  enables  the  cannoneers 
to  raise  the  trail  and  carry  it  to  the  right  or  left. 
The  trail-hanilles  serve  the  same  purpose,  but  are 
used  jirincipallv  for  raising  the  stock. 

POINTING-RODS.— Pickets  or  rods  of  iron  i  inch 
round,  and  about  2  feet  long,  two  of  which  are 
phu'ed  upon  the  epanlement  of  a  battery  in  front  of 
each  mortar,  b_v  means  of  which,  with  the  aid  of  a 
plummet,  the  mortar  can  he  directed  with  tolerable 
accuracy  upon  the  oliject  to  be  slruc'.;.  The  pickets 
are  first  lined  upon  the  oliject  ;  the  jilummct.  which 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  laying  otiieer,  who  stands  be- 
hin  1  the  mortar,  is  made  to  coincide  with  them,  and 
the  mortar  is  then  traversed  until  the  line  of  the 
plummet  covers  the  center  line  on  the  mortar,  which 


I  is  denoted  by  a  notch  on  the  muzzle,  and  another 
behind  the  vent ;  a  chalkid  line  is  geneially  drawn 
on  the  exterior  surface  of  the  mortar  between  tlieHC 
notches.  In  masonry  works,  they  must  bi-  placed 
<in  a  fir  [ilank,  and  about  (i  inches  from  each  end. 
The  plank  should  be  lilteil  witli  u  grummet  or 
handle  al  each  end.  In  carlhworkH,  two  ramrods 
will  answer  for  poiniing-rods. 

j     POINT  OF  ATTACK.-   In  siege  operaliong,  after  ob- 
1  taining  all  the  informal i<in  that  can  be  liad  from  re- 
connaissances, surveys,  and  other  sourceH,  the  nex' 
<ibject  is  to  decide  ujion  the  jiortion  of  tlic  defenses 
which  it  will   lie  ne<cssary  lo  gain  possession  of  to 
force  the  garrison  to  a  surrender;  this  portion,  wliicli 
j  usually  embraces  one  or  more  fronts  of  the  position, 
with  ihe  outworks  and  any  advanced   works  that 
I  may  be  connected  with  them,  and  which  must  be  re- 
duced before  the  points  of  Ihe  main  work  can  be  as- 
sailed,  is  termed  Ihe  I'liint  af  AUwIc.     It   is  in  the 
choice  of  this   point  — a  decision  which  mainly  rests 
with  theCommandingfJIlicer — that  the  judgment  and 
skill  of   this  Olliccr  are  shown.     In  making   this  se- 
lection, not  only   must  the  relative  strength  of  the 
I  various  points  of  Ihe  defenses  which  are  accessible 
j  be  carefully  weighed,  but  the  nature  fif  the  site  as 
to  .soil,  natural  surface,  etc.,  uponwhich  the  trenches 
and  other  works  of  the  attack  must  be  laid  out,  and 
the  f.acililies  afforded  of  iui  easy  communication  be- 
tween Ihe  ]iarks,  (/(/«;<.v,  etc  ,  and  the  ]ioint  selected. 
In  considering  Ihe  strength  of   the  defenses,  those 
parts  arc  regarded  as  unassailable  by   the  ordinary- 
measures  of  an  attack,  whieli  border  upon  precipices, 
marshes,  a  water-course  that  cannot  be  forded ;  or 
are  protected  by  works  on  inaccessible  points,  the 
lire   from   which  sweeps  in  flank  and  reverse   the 
ground  over  which  the  trenches  must  be  run.  Tho.se 
parts,  again,  are  considered  as  offering  pcctdiar  dif- 
ficulties which  ]iresent  a  series  of  works  in  good  de- 
fensive relations  which  can  only  be  carried  in  suc- 
i  cession;  or  works  which  are  mined;  or  those  which 
have  their  ditches  arranged  fora  play  of  water;  which 
have  dry  ditches  of  unusual  depth  ;  or,   those  parts 
where  the  works  to  be  carried  are  displayed  on  a 
right  line,  embracing  nearly  Ihe  same  extent  of  front 
that  the  besiegers  can  take  up  with  their  trenches ; 
)  or,  finally,  portions  which  present  a  concave  front 
to  the  attack.     The  points^which  are  looked  upon  as 
most  advantageous  to  the  attack  are  those  in  which 
the  general  condiiualiou  of  the  works  forms  a  salient 
point  with  respect  to  the  rest  of  the  defenses  ;  as  a 
point  so  situated  can  receive  but  little  support  from 
the  collateral  portions,  and  can  be  enveloped  by  a 
line  of  trench  of  much  greater  extent   than   itself, 
along  which  positions  can  be  obtained  for  enfilading 
and  other  batteries,   the  fire  of  which  will  be  con- 
vergent u]ion  that  of  the  defenses.     See  Key.puint. 

POINT  OP  FALL.— The  point  at  which  the  projec- 
tile strikes  the  ground,  w  hen  permitted  to  do  so. 
When  the  gun  ami  point  of  fall  are  on  the  same  level, 
the  iiiiijkiif  fire  is  always  less  than  Xheangle  of  fait. 
POINT  OF  FORMATION.— The  point  taken,  upon 
which  troops  are  formed  in  militarv  order. 

POINT  OF  HONOR.— A  nice  discrimination  in  mat- 
ters affecting  one's  honor.  A  delicacy  of  feeling, 
which  is  most  generally  acquired  by  education,  and 
strengthened  b}-  intercour.sewith  men  of  strict  integ- 
rity and  good  conduct.  It  is  likewise  very  frequently 
the  offspring  of  peculiar  habits,  received  notions, 
and  established  etii|uettes. 

POINT  OF  IMPACT.— That  point  or  spot  which  a 
projectile  first  strikes  on  meeting  an  opposing  body. 
The  method  of  finding  the  poiniof  mean  impact  is  as 
follows:  The  horizontal  distance  of  each  shot  upon 
the  target  from  a  fixed  vertical  base  (generally  one 
side  of  the  target)  is  first  found,  and  a  mean  horizon- 
tal distance  obtained,  by  dividiugthe  sum  of  the  dis- 
tance by  the  number  of  shot:  the  same  process  is 
followed  to  obtain  a  mean  vertical  distance  from  a 
fixeii  horizontal  base  (generally  the  bottom  of  the 
targetj.     The   intersection  of  the  two  lines  drawn 


POnfT  OF  WAR. 


554 


POLAB  DISTORTION. 


parallel  to  the  bases  respectively  arc!  at  distances 
equal  to  the  horizontal  and  vertical  mean  distances 
already  found,  gives  what  is  termed  the  pnnitH  of 
mean  impni-t.  The  distance  of  each  shot  from  the 
point  of  mean  impact  is  measured;  these  distances  are 
added  together,  and  the  sum,  divided  by  the  num- 
ber of  shot  on  the  target,  gives  the  agure.  of  merit. 
Half  a  diagonal  is  allowed  for  every  shot  that  does  not 
strike  the  target. 

POINT  OF  WAR. — A  loud  and  impressive  beat  of 
the  ilrura,  the  perfect  execution  of  which  requires 
great  skill  and  activitj'.  'X\\t  Point  of  V,'ar  is  beat 
when  a  battalion  charges. 

POINTS. — Movements  in  Sabre  Exercise  executed 
as  follows : 

Tierce  Point. — Being  at  guard,  raise  the  hand  in 
tierce  as  high  as  tlie  eye :  throw  back  the  right  shoul- 
der, carrying  the  elbow  to  the  rear,  the  point  of  the 
saber  to  the  front,  the  edge  upward.  (Two.)  Tlirust 
to  the  front,  extending  the  arm  to  its  full  length, 
edge  up.     (Three.)     Resume  the  guard. 

Qurirte  Point. — Being  at  guard,  lower  the  hand  in 
quarte  near  the  right  hip,  the  point  a  little  higher 
than  the  wrist.  (Two.)  Thrust  to  the  front,  extend- 
ing the  arm  to  its  full  length.  (Thbee.)  Resume 
the  guard 

Left  Point. — Being  at  guard,  turn  the  head  and 
shoulders  to  the  left,  draw  back  the  hand  in  tierce 
toward  the  right  shoulder,  the  hand  at  the  height  of 
the  neck,  the  edge  of  the  blade  upward,  the  point  to 
the  left  and  as  high  as  the  hand.  fTwo.)  Thrust  to 
the  left,  extending  the  arm  to  its  full  length.  (Thbee.) 
Resume  the  guard. 

Right  Point. — Being  at  guard,  turn  the  head  to  tlie 
right,  carry  the  hand  in  quarte  near  the  k  ft  breast, 
the  edge  of  the  blade  upward,  the  point  to  the  right 
and  as  high  as  the  hand.  (Two.)  Thrust  to  the  right, 
extending  the  arm  to  its  full  length.  (Three.)  Re- 
sume the  guard. 

Hear  Point. — Being  at  guard,  turn  the  head  and 
shoulders  to  the  right  and  rear,  bring  the  hand  in 
quarte  near  the  leii  breast,  the  point  to  the  rear  and 
as  high  as  the  hand,  the  edge  upward.  (Two.) 
Thrust  to  the  rear,  extending  the  arm  to  its  full 
length.     (Three.)     Resume  the  guard. 

Againut  Infantry.  Eight  Point. — Being  at  guard, 
this  movement  is  executed  the  same  as  quarte  point, 


point ;  G,  the  dexter  base  point ; 
H,  the  middle  base  point ;  and 
I,  the  sinister  base  point.  The 
dexter  and  sinister  sides  of  the 
shield  are  so  called,  not  in  rela- 
tion to  the  eye  of  the  spectator, 
but  from  the  right  and  left  sides 
of  the  supposed  bearer  of  the 
sliield. 

joints  Of  ili9  POITRAIL.— That   portion    of 

JEacutchcoa.  the  horse  armor  which  covers  the 

breast,  fitted  either  with  hinges  or  like   a  flounce. 
Also  written  Poitrel. 

POITRINAL. — In  ancient  armor,  the  horse's  breast- 
plate, formed  of  metal  plates  riveted  together  as  a 
covering  for  the  breast  and  shoulders.  The  term 
Pectoral  has  a  like  signification,  and  is  commonly 
used. 

POLANS. — A  term  applied  to  knee-pieces  in  ancient 
armor. 

POLAR  DISTORTION  —In  the  practice  of  gunner}-, 
trajectories  are  generally  constructed  by  the  system 
(A  polar  distoriion.  By  this  method  the  angles  of 
elevation  are  multiplied  by  an  assumed  co-efficient  of 
distortion.  The  data  necessary  are  the  angles  of  ele- 
vation and  the  corresponding  ranges.  Assume  a 
range  scale,  a  co-efficient  of  distortion,  and  a  point 
as  the  origin  of  the  curve.  Through  the  origin  draw 
a  straight  line  representing  the  axis  of  fije,  and  from 
this  line,  with  the  origin  as  a  center,  plot  successive- 
ly (commencing  with  the  least)  the  angles  of  eleva- 
tion multiplied  by  the  co-efficient  of  distortion.  Up- 
on the  lines  of  sight  so  established  mark  points  at 
distances  from  the  origin  equal  to  the  corresponding 
ranges  reduced  to  scale.  A  curve  drawn  through  the 
origin  and  the  points  located  will  represent  the  trajec- 
tory. Let  O,  be  the  origin;  OA,the  axis  of  fire;  AOB. 
AOC,  AOD,  etc.,  the  angles  of  elevation,  multiplied 
by  the  co-efficient  of  distortion,  to  which  correspond 
respectively  tho  ranges  from  100  to  500  yards  ;  then 
will  Oi,  Oii,  O'li,  Ol^  O,  be  points  of  the  curve.  The 
portion  of  the  curve  lying  above  each  line  of  sight 
will  represent  the  trajectory  for  that  range.  The  dan- 
gerous space , or  the  limits  in  distance  within  which  the 
object  aimed  at  is  liable  to  be  hit,  is  dependent,  with 
the  same  arm, on  the  extent  of  that  object  above  and 
below  the  point  of  aim.     To  determine  this, describe 


turning  tho  head  and  shoulders  to  the  right,  inclin- 
ing the  point  downward.  (Two.)  Thrust  in  quarte. 
(Three.)  Resume  the  guard. 

Against  Infantry,  Lift  Point. — Being  at  guard, 
this  movement  is  executed  the  same  as  Left  Point, 
except  the  point  is  downward.  (Two.)  Thrust  down 
in  tierce  .     (Three.)     Resume  the  guard. 

Against  Infantry,  Front  Point. — Being  at  guard, 
ben(l  well  down  to  the  right,  extend  the  rigiit  arm 
well  downward,  the  hand  in  rear  of  the  thigh, 
the  b;ick  of  the  saber  upward.  (Three).  Resume 
the  LHiard.     See    t^oher  Exercise. 

POINTS  OF  PASSING.— The  ground  on  which  one 
or  more  bodies  of  armed  men  march  by  a  Reviewing 
General. 

POINTS  OF  THE  ESCUTCHEON.  — In  Heraldry,  in 
onliT  to  facilitate  the  descriptiiiii  of  a  coat-of-arms, 
it  is  the  practice  to  suppose  the  shield  to  be  divided 
into  nine  points,  wliich  are  known  by  the  following 
names:  A.  the  dexter  chief  point:  B,  the  middle 
chief  ;  C,  the  sinister  chief;  D,  the  colhir  or  honor 
point;  E,  the  fess  point ;  F,   the  nonibril.  or   naval 


two  circles  one  about  the  origin  as  a  center, the  oth- 
er about  the  point  aimed  at:  the  former  with  a  rad- 
ius equal  to  the  assumed  muzzle  height  multiplied 
by  the  co-efficient  of  distortion,  and  the  latter  with 
a  radius  equal  to  the  height  of  tlie  point  aimed  at 
above  the  ground  multiplied  by  this  same  co-efficient. 
A  straight  line  tangent  to  these  circles  at  their  low- 
est point  will  be  the  ground  line  ;  and  a  line  tangent 
to  the  second  circle  and  parallel  to  tlie  ground  line, 
will  be  the  lineifheigld.  The  dangerous  space  will 
be  tlic  projection,  on  the  ground  line,  of  the  portion 
of  the  trajectory  ciimiiriscd  between  these  two  lines. 
With  the  U.  S.  liille  the  dangerous  space  is  calculat- 
ed for  the  muzzle  fifty-six  inclu's  from  the  ground, 
aimed  at  a  jioint  thirty-four  inches  from  the  ground; 
for  .'300  yards,  this  extends  40  yards  before  the  ob- 
ject (a  foot  soldier)  and  30  yards  behind  it.  The  dis- 
tance on  the  figure  is  D'S.nv/'  being  equal  to  HA. 
To  ascertain  the  vertical  height  above  tho  ground 
line  of  a  particular  jioint  of  tjie  trajectory  at  any  dis- 
tance from  the  oriL'in  :  with  this  distance  as  a  radius 
describe  an  arc  cutting  the  trajectory.     The   length 


POLAR  PROJECTILES. 


555 


P0IJXIC8. 


of  tlie  pfi'pcndiciilar  to  Uk- ground  lini'  from  lliis  in- 
UTscction  is  the  rcijiiinil  IumkIU.  'I'Iic  numliiT  10 
iiiiiy  !)(■  cinploycil  us  ii  c<mvciiicnt  co-clHciciit  of  (lis- 
tortiou.  J{y  this  method  of  ))h)tlin};,  the  rehitiveeur- 
viiture  of  eoiisefiilivit  jKirtioiis  of  the  tnijcctriry  is 
represented  willi  siillleien'.uceiiruey  to  detenninc"tlie 
'*  diini^eroiis  sp;ier." 

POLAR  PROJECTILES.  -A  de»if;niition  applied  to 
priijecliles  which  pursue  tlieir  lliglit  llirout;li  tiie 
air,  idwiiys  lieepiii'j;  one  end  or  aspeet  foremost. 

POLE.  -In  iirlillery,  tliat  portion  of  a  carriage  to 
wiiich  tlie  wlieel  iiorses  are  attaclied.  At  tlic  ex- 
trcmily  (if  llie  pole  are  placed  two  pole-chains,  by 
which  it  is  held  up,  and  a  iiole-yoke  with  two  mov- 
alile  hranches,  to  prevent,  as  much  as  jiossible,  the 
[Idle  from  oscillating  and  striking  the  horses. 

POLE  AXE.  -A  weapon  nnich  used  by  thi;  early 
northern  nations,  Celtic  and  Scandinavian,  retpiiring 
great  strength  in  its  use.  Some  were  held  with  one 
hand;  some  with  two,  the  former  kind  coul  1  be 
wielded  equally  by  liorse  and  foot,  but  the  latter 
was  for  fiioi-soldicrs  only.  The  pole-axe  had  a 
lon,^er  handle,  and  a  broader,  stronger,  an  1  sharper 
blade  than  the  common  axe.     During  tlie  Middle 


^=^ 


33= 


Ages,  and  somewhat  earlier,  it  was  much  used  in 
sorties,  and  to  prevent  the  escahiding  of  a  besieged 
fortress.  The  pole-axe  diiTered  but  little  from  the 
l)atlle-axc.  The  hlark  hill  and  hrtiirn  hill  where  a 
sort  of  halbert.  having  the  cutting  jiart  hooked  like 
a  woodman's  bill,  with  a  spike  projecting  from  the 
back,  and  another  from  the  head.  The  r/laive  was 
a  kind  of  pole-axe,  or  bill,  useil  by  the  Welsh. 

POLE  HAMMER. — An  early  weapcm  of  war.  con- 
sisting of  a  spiked  hammer  placed  at  the  end  of  a 
very  long  shaft  or  pole.  See  War-hnmmer,  and  Ln- 
terner. 

POLE  MARCH.— Originally,  in  Greci.an  antiquity, 
the  Comnianilcr-in-C'hief;  hut,  afterwards,  a  civil 
Magistrate,  who  had  under  his  care  all  strangers  and 
sojourners  in  the  city. 

POLE  -PAD.— A  pad  placed  on  tlie  end  of  the  pole 
in  field-gun  carriages,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  horses. 

POLE-PROP.— A  bar  for  suiiportiug  the  end  of  the 
pole  or  tongue,  especially  used  with  the  various  car- 
riages of  the  artillery  service. 

POLE-STRAP.— -V  heavy  strap  by  which  the  poleof 
the  carriage  is  attached  to  the  collar  of  the  hor.se. 
Also  called  Pole.piece. 

POLIABOLE.— A  ballista,  which  was  capable  of 
throwing  both  arrows  and  stones.  Also  written 
Piihnt  inne. 

POLICE. — 1.   The  term  Military  Police  has  two 
significations— 1st,    the   organized    bod}'   employed 
within  an  army  to  preserve  civil  order,  as  distinct 
from  military  discipline;  and,  2d,  a  civil  police  with  | 
a  military  organization.     The  police  of  an  army  com-  : 
monly  consists  of  steady,  intelligent  soldiers, who  act 
under  the  orders  of  the  I'rovost-Marshal.  and  arrest  j 
all  persons  out  of  bounds,  civilians  not  authorized  to  t 
pass  the  lines,  disorderly  soldiers,  etc.;    they  also  at- 
tend to  sanitary  arrangements.     As  in  all  military 
matters,  the   police   of  an   army  possess   siunmary 
powers,  and  a  sentence  of  the  Pros'ost-^Marshal  is  I 
carried  out  immediately  after  it  is  pronounced.     Of 
civil   police  with   military  orgaui/.aticm  may  be  in- 
stanced, as  specimens,  the  Gendarmerie  of  France,  I 
tlu-  Sbirri  of  Italy,  and,  in  an  eminent  degree,  the  j 
Irish  Constabulary. 

2.  The  cleaning  of  a  camp  or  garrison,  or  the  state 
of  a  camp  in  regard  to  cleanliness.  The  workmg 
party  engaged  in  policing  is  called  the  Pulice  Party, 
and  the  .Sergeant  in  charge  of  the  same,  the  Police 
iSi'rf/iiiiif. 

POLICE  GUARD. — An  interior  guard, having  the  care 
of  the   arms,  property  and  prisoners  :  also  charged 


with  enforcing  the  regulations  of  the  camp  in  regard 
to  order  and  cleanliness.  In  each  regiment,  in  the 
Held,  a  police  guard  is  detailed  every  day,  consist- 
ing of  two  Sergeants, three  Corporals. two  drummcrB, 
and  men  enough  to  furnish  the  required  sentinels 
and  patrols.  The;  men  nri:  taken  from  all  the  com- 
panies- from  each  in  i)roportion  to  its  strength. 
The  guard  is  commanded  by  a  I>ieutenant.  under  the 
supervision  of  a  Captain,  as  Kegimental  Olllcer  of 
the  Day.  It  furnishes  ten  sentinels  ut  the  camp — 
one  over  the  arms  of  llu'  guard  ;  one  at  the  Colonel's 
tent ;  three  on  the  color  front,  one  of  them  over  the 
colors;  three,  fifty  jiuces  in  renr  of  the  lield-ollicers' 
tents ;  and  one  on  each  flank,  between  it  and  tlie 
next  regiment.  If  it  is  a  flank  regiment,  one  more 
sentinel  is  posted  on  the  outer  flank.  See  Fitld- 
Hrrrii'i . 

POLISHING.— Polishing,  in  the  armory,  is  effected 
by  first  removing  any  tarnish  or  oxidation  by  means 
of  some  material  which  will  chemically  act  upon  it; 
for  this  purpose  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  oxalic, 
anil  acetic  acids  are  used,  and  in  various  states  of 
dilution.  Usually,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  acid 
with  clean  water,  and  dry  rai)idly,  to  prevent  re- 
oxidation  ;  and  then  either  friction  with  various 
polishing  uiateri;ds,  or  rubbing  with  ;i  smooth. hard 
surface  or  burnisher,  brings  out  the  luster  of  the 
metal.  The/""<-polishing lathe. shown  in  the  draw- 
ing, is  used  for  all  small  articles  and  [larts.  It  has 
a  spindle,  one  end  of  which  is  threaded  and  tapers 


to  a  point  for  holding  a  brush,  buff,  or  other  polish- 
ing wheels.  The  otiier  end  of  the  spindle  forms  aa 
arbor  for  holding  emery  and  other  grinding  wheels, 
also  for  small  drills.  PdV^hing  Pimieg  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  materials  upon  which  they  are  to  be  era- 
ployed.  For  brass,  the  best  kind  is  a  mixture  of  2 
parts  of  soft  soap  with  4  parts  of  rotten-stone  in  very 
fine  powder.  Another  sort  is  8  parts  of  fine  rotten- 
stone  powder,  2  parts  of  oxalic  acid  powdered,  3 
parts  olive  oil,  and  enough  of  turpentine  to  make 
them  into  a  paste.  For  iron,  a  mixture  of  emery 
powder  and  lard  is  used  ;  and  for  pewter  a  mixture 
of  flnel}--powdcred  bath-brick  and  soft  soap.  For 
wood,  a  paste  called  furniture  paste  is  made  by  add- 
ing spirit  of  turpentine  to  beeswax,  sufficient  to 
form  it  into  a  soft  paste,  which  is  rubbed  on  thinly 
with  a  brush  and  woolen  rag,  and  afterwards  polished 
with  a  dry  woolen  cloth  and  soft  brush.  See  Kmtry. 
POLITICS.— That  branch  of  ethics  which  has  for  its 
subject  the  proper  moile  of  governing  a  State,  so  as 
to  secure  its  prosperity,  jieace,  and  safety,  and  to 
attain  as  perfectly  as  possible,  the  ends  of  civil  soci- 
ety. Among  the  subjects  which  political  science 
embraces  are  the  principles  on  wliich  Government  is 


POLKOWNICK. 


556 


POLTSPASTE. 


founded,  the  hands  in  which  the  supreme  power  may 
be  most  advantageously  placed,  the  duties  and  obli- 
gations of  the  governing  and  governed  portions  of  so- 
ciety, the  development  and  increase  of  the  resources 
of  the  State,  the  protection  of  the  right  and  liberties 
of  the  citizens,  the  preservation  of  fheir  morals,  and 
the  defense  of  the  independence  of  the  State  against 
foreign  control  or  conquest.  While  the  philosophy 
of  governing  constitutes  the  scienre  of  politics,  the 
art  of  politic-s  consists  in  the  application  of  that  sci- 
ence to  the  individual  circumstances  of  particular 
States.  The  ancient  Greek  writers  treated  politics 
■with  reference  to  an  ideal  perfect  State,  which  each 
propounded  according  to  his  own  speculative  views, 
pointing  out  the  variation  of  every  existing  govern- 
ment from  his  standard.  The  politics  of  a  coimtry, 
in  common  parlance  implies  the  course  of  its  Gov- 
ernment, more  especially  in  its  relations  with  foreign 
powers. 

POLKOWNICK.— A  Colonel  of  a  Polish  regiment. 

POLO. — This  may  be  described  as  hockey  on  horse- 
back. It  is  a  game  of  Asiatic  origin,  and  was  intro- 
duced into  England  in  1872  by  Cavalry  Officers  who 
had  learned  it  in  India.  Two  goals,  as  for  football, 
are  set  up  about  350  yards  apart,  and  the  object  is 
to  drive  a  ball  about  the  size  of  a  cricket-ball  through 
the  goal  b}'  striking  it  with  long  sticks  having  bent 
or  crooked  ends.  The  players  are  mounted  on  ponies, 
and  much  depends  on  the  skill  with  which  these  are 
managed.  Four  or  five  a  side  are  the  usual  numbers, 
and  those  scoring  the  greater  number  of  goals  win 
the  game.  Polo  has  become  very  popular  among 
EugUsh  Cavalry  Officers,  and  a  few  clubs  have  also 
been  formed. 

POLEON. — That  part  of  the  armor  which  covers 
the  neck  and  shoulders. 

POLTROON. — A  coward;  a  dastard;  one  who  has  no 
courage.  The  origin  of  this  word  is  stated  by  some 
to  coine  from  the  Latin  polUx  trunc)js,m  consequence 
of  the  frequent  instances  of  men  cutting  off  their 
thumbs  to  disqualify  themselves  for  military  service. 
Others,  however.derive  it  from  High  Dutch,  pointer, 
a  bed,  from  poltroons  taking  to  their  beds  whenever 
any  peril  presents  itself  ;  or  again,  from  the  Italian 
poltroiie.  a  colt,  because  of  that  animal's  readiness 
to  run  away. 

POLYGAR  HELMET. — A  casque  of  Central  India, 
with  fixed  nose-piece,  cheek  pieces,  and  very  long 
neck-guard,  or  mail  hood. 

POLYGON. — 1.  A  school  of  practice  for  artillery 
in  Japan.  2.  The  name  applied  to  the  many-angled 
forms  in  which  the  outer  walls  of  all  fortified  places 
are  built.  Polygons  of  5,  6,  7,  8,  etc.,  sides  are  de- 
nominated pentagons,  hexagons,  heptagons,  octa- 
gons, etc.,  and  when  the  number  of  sides  exceed 
twelve,  the  figure  is  merely  mentioned  as  a  polygon 
of  so  man}'  sides.  The  quindecagon,  or  figure  of  15 
sides,  is  the  only  common  exception  to  this  rule. 
Polj'gons  have  many  general  properties:  such  as  that 
the  sum  of  the  angles  of  a  polygon,  when  increased 
by  four  right  angles,  or  360'',is  equal  to  twice  as  many 
right  angles  as  there  are  sides  in  the  poh-gon,  and  that 
(supposing  the  number  of  sides  of  the  polj'gonfohe 

n{n  —  3) 
expressed  by  li)  the  luimber  of  its  diagonals  is ; 

also,  if  a  polygon  of  an  even  number  of  sides  be  cir- 
cumscribed about  a  circle,  the  sums  of  its  even  and 
odd  sides  are  equal;  and  if  a  polj  gon  of  an  even 
number  of  sides  be  inscribed  in  a  circle,  the  sums  of 
its  even  and  odd  angles  are  equal.  A  polygon  whicli 
has  all  its  sides  and  angles  equal  is  called  a  nyular 
polygon.  All  polygons  of  this  class  arc  capable  of 
l)eiiig  inscribed  in  or  circumscribed  about,  a  circle ; 
but  tliough  the  ])n)blem  is  merely  to  divide  the  cir- 
cunifercnce  of  a  circle  into  a  number  of  equal  parts, 
corresponding  to  flu;  number  of  sides  in  Ihe  jiol.v- 
gon,  geometry  was  till  lately  only  able  to  perform  it 
m  those  cases  where  Ihe  lunnber  of  sides  of  the  pol.v- 
gon  belongs  to  one  or  other  of  the  series  2.  4,  8.  10, 


etc.;  X  G,  12,  24,  etc.;  or  5,  10,  20,  40,  etc.  Gauss, 
however,  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
showed  how  it  could  be  done  in  the  case  of  all  poly- 
gons, the  number  of  whose  sides  was  of  the  form 
2"  + 1  (provided  it  be  a  prime  number),  or  a  mul- 
tiple of  this  prime  number  by  any  power  of  2.  This 
discover}-  supplies  us  with  iunumerable  series  repre- 
sentative of  the  numbers  of  the  sides  of  polygons 
which  can  be  described  around  or  inscrilied  in  a  cir- 
cle, such  as  17,  34,  (IS.  etc.;  2Tu .  514.1028.  etc. 

POLYGONAL  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— The 
polygonal  S3'stem  has  been  proposed  by  several 
engineers  of  distinction,  but  its  most  ardent  advo- 
cate has  been  the  celebrated  Montalembert.  Con- 
sisting of  either  a  simple  polygonal  enceinte  without 
re-euterings,  the  sides  of  which  are  flanked  by  case- 
mated  caponnieres,  placed  at  the  middle  point  of 
the  fronts;  or  of  fronts  either  slightly  tenailled  or  of 
a  bastion  form,  with  short  casemated  flanks  to  flank 
the  faces  of  the  central  caponnieres,  this  s^'stem 
affords  more  interior  space,  and  from  the  mode 
adopted  of  flanking  the  enceinte,  will  ailmit  of  much 
larger  fronts  than  either  the  bastioned  or  the  tenailled 
systems.  The  salient  angles  moreover  will  be  more 
open  in  this  than  in  the  other  two  .systems.  From 
these  peculiarities  of  this  sy.steni  the  positions  suit- 
able for  the  erection  of  batteries  to  enfilade  the  faces 
of  the  enceinte  are  less  advantageous,  from  their 
being  thrown  in  nearer  to  the  adjacent  fronts  than  in 
either  of  the  other  systems;  whilst  a  greater  devel- 
opment of  trenches  will  also  be  requisite  to  envelop 
the  fronts  of  attack.  The  polygonal  trac^  has  cer- 
tain prominent  advantages  and  defects  which  may 
be  seen  by  a  slight  comparison  with  the  bastioned 
system.  As  the  exterior  sides  are  longer  and  the 
re-enterings  of  the  enceinte  less  deep  than  in  the 
bastioned  systems,  it  follows  :  1.  That  the  interior 
space  enclosed  by  the  enceinte  is  greater  in  the 
polygonal  trace.  2.  That  the  faces  of  the  enceinte 
are  less  exposed  to  ricochet  from  the  greater  obtuse- 
ness  of  the  salient  angles.  3.  That  the  tire  of  the 
faces  has  thus  a  better  bearing  on  the  distant  de- 
fence. 4,  That  requiring  fewer  fronts  on  a  given 
extent  of  line  to  be  fortified,  there  will  be  fewer 
flanks  and  more  artillery  therefore  disposable  for 
the  faces  and  curtains.  5.  That,  in  the  usual  mode 
of  attack;  the  besiegers  will  be  forced  into  a  greater 
development  of  trenches  for  the  same  number  of 
fronts. 

The  defects  of  the  system  are:  1.  That  the  enceinte, 
having  no  other  flanking  defen.se  than  the  main 
caponni^re,  will  be  exposed  to  an  escalade  so  soon  as 
the  fire  of  this  defense  is  silenced.  2.  That  the  progress 
of  the  besiegers  during  the  last  and  most  important 
period  of  the  siege  is  but  little  delayed,  owing  to  the 
want  of  the  concentrated  cross-fires  which  arc  afford- 
ed in  both  the  bastioned  and  tenailled  systems,  in 
advance  of  the  salients  of  the  enceinte,  and  upon 
the  ground  generallj'  in  advance  of  the  fronts,  due 
to  the  slighter  re-entering  formed  by  the  independ- 
ent works  in  front  of  the  enceinte  salient.  It  is  fur- 
ther objected  that  in  the  German  method.  First. 
The  system  makes  use  of  numerous  works  of  ma- 
sonry that  can  be  easily  ruined  by  distant  batteries 
of  heavy  caliber,  especially  when  pierced  with  em- 
brasures and  loop-holes  like  the  casemated  capon- 
nieres and  defensive  barracks  of  the  German  method. 
Seamd.  That  the  di.stribution  of  troops  -dwA  mnteriel 
of  war  throughout  the  independent  works  deprive 
i  the  defense  of  the  union  ;m(i  concerted  action  that 
j  c:in  only  exist  inider  a  single  command<T.  Third. 
1  Th:it  the  cxjjen.se  of  construction  is  mucli  greater, 
j  in  consceiuence  of  the  numerous  works  of  masonry 
reijuiring  nice  workm;inship.  And,  Fo>irth.  That 
it  is  imprudent  to  abandon  existing  sy.stems  that 
have  stood  the  l<'st  of  experience  for  those  not  pos- 
sessing this  advantage.  See  Ihrmiiii  Synttm  of  For- 
tijiciiliiiii.  .Uoiitiilitiilirrt  Si/>itim  of  Fo-rtificntiun,  and 
Si/sl>  III  of  Fortifriiti'iii. 

POLYSPASTE.— The  crane  of  Archimedes,  an  en- 


POL'xTECHNIC  SCHOOL. 


557 


PONCHAHEA  EIFLE. 


ginc  wliicli  was  iiscil  to  rii'mc  anil  sliattcr  to  picfps 
wlioli!  vessels,  and  ideiililied  with  those  enormous 
hooks  that  were  used  lo  pull  olV  Ihe  heads  of  Ihe 
hallerhm-ranis. 

POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL.  An  Inslilijlion,  first  es. 
tahli>he(i  ill  I'iiris  ( ITllI  i  liy  Hie  Nalional  Convenlioii, 
under  Ihe  name  of  Iv^itr  iIih  'J'niriiiij-  /'u/)lin<  (f>i-\itni\ 
of  I'lihlie  worlds).  No  sliideiils  were  adinilti'd  Imt 
those  wlio  intended  to  enter  tli<'  |)iil)lie  servifM';  and 
tlioni;h  tlic"  genc'ral  ')hject  of  the  Institution  was  tiic 
BUjipiyin.i;  of  well-educated  youtlis  to  all  hranrlies, 
it  was  more  particularly  devoted  to  tlie  tliorou;;li 
instruction  of  recruits  for  the  (lorps  of  Civil  and 
Military  Kivi^'ineers.  'I'lie  Institution  reeeivi-rl  (lie 
name  of  "  Keole  I'(ilyteehnii|u<' "  in  171(5.  'I'he  pu- 
pils were  at  first  ;il!)  in  nurnher,  and  eacli  receiv(-d, 
durini;  his  stay  nf  two  years  in  tlie  Institution,  an 
aiuiual  stipend  of  l,2lll)  francs  (i'4.S  nearly;;  the 
teachers  were  in  most  cases  the  most  eminent  sa- 
vants of  France.  In  17!)!)  some  modilications  were 
introduced  into  tlnr  working  of  the  School;  the 
numljcr  of  impils  was  at  the  sime  time  limited  to 
21)1),  and  tliey  were  put  into  uniform.  Tlie  advan- 
taij;es  of  an  Instiliilion  of  tills  sort,  wlien  ably  eon- 
ducted,  soon  made  tliemselves  evident,  and  tlie 
Polyteclinique,  in  consequence,  rose  into  hi<;h  esti- 
mation, not  only  in  France,  but  tlirouiilioiit  Europe, 
BO  much  so,  that  it  became  common  for  foreiij;n 
nations,  when  entering  into  a  treaty  with  France,  to 
stipulate  for  tlie  admission  of  a  certain  number  of 
their  sulijects  into  the  Institution,  after  passing  the 
prescribed  entrance  e.xamiiialion.  In  1H()4,  tlie  Em- 
peror Napoleon  introduced  various  modifications 
into  its  working,  and  gave  it  a  military  organization; 
it  was  also  removed  from  the  Palais  Bourbon  (wliere 
it  had  existed  from  its  first  establisliment)  to  the 
Old  College  de  Navarre.  Tlic  In.stitution  became 
more  and  more,  as  the  end  of  tlie  Napoleonic  Eni])ire 
drew  near,  a  training-scliool  for  j-oung  artillerists 
and  engineers;  !ind  such  was  the  enthusiasm  of  Hie 
pupils  in  the  Kmperor's  c;uisc,  that,  after  the  di.sa.s- 
ters  of  IS  14,  they  dem;inded  to  be  enrolled  en  mnxse 
in  the  ranks  of  the  French  Army.  However,  Napo- 
leon was  (to  use  his  own  words)  not  inclined  "to 
kill  the  hen  for  the  golden  eggs;"  but  he  allowed 
them  to  form  three  out  of  the  twelve  companies  of 
which  the  Artillery  Corps  of  the  National  Guard  was 
composed.  These  three  companies  rendered  impor- 
tant service  in  manning  the  walls  of  Paris,  and  be- 
haved heroically  in  tlie  battle  of  JIarcli  30,  1.S14. 
After  the  First  Restoration,  the  Polytechuiquc, 
being  considered  to  be  evil-disposed  to  the  Govern- 
ment, suffered  considerable  reductions:  but  was 
restored  to  its  former  imjiortance  for  the  brief  pe- 
riod of  the  "hundred  days."  After  the  Second 
Restoration  (July,  1815),  the  StafT  of  Professors  was 
remodeled;  Lacroi.v  and  some  others  were  dis- 
missed, and  replaced  by  Poisson,  Arago,  Caucliy, 
etc.  Notwithstanding  these  changes,  the  Govern- 
ment still  had  its  doubts  as  to  the  loyalty  of  the 
establishment,  and  took  advantage  of  an  outbreak, 
April  3,  181(>,  to  break  it  up.  It  was  reconstituted 
in  Septemberof  the  same  year,  under  a  revised  code 
of  regulations,  and  ill  11S33  the  old  severity  of  mili- 
tary discipline  was  restored.  During  the  w:ir  of 
1870-71,  the  Government  of  National  Defense  ordered 
the  jiupils  to  meet  at  Bordeaux,  and  classes  were 
opened  there  under  distinguished  pupils  of  the 
School  brought  from  all  p;irts  of  France.  Iloweverthe 
attempt  had  to  be  abandoned,  and  the  pupils  having 
sought  permission  to  take  part  in  the  war,  were 
divided  among  the  ditTereut  sections  of  the  army,  in 
which  their  services  were  highly  appreciated.  The 
Constitution  of  the  School,  which  has  so  freiiuenlly 
BuiTered  change,  was, in  the  end  of  1,S73  regulated  by 
Decret  of  Nov.  30,  18()3,  and  Jlinisterial  Pules  issued 
on  Mar.  .5,  1857,  1.  No  pupil  can  be  admitted  unless 
he  has  'leen  successful  in  the  public  competitive  ex- 
amination which  is  held  each  _year.  2.  The  condi- 
tions of  admission  to  the  competitive  examination 


are,  that  the  candidate  shall  be  a  Frenchman  ;  that 
\h:  shall  be  more  than  10,  and  less  than  20  years  of 
age,  on  the  1st  of  .(aniiary  of  that  year  ;  and  tliat  he 
shall  be  either  a  Bachelor  of  Letli  fs  or  a  Bachelor  of 
Sciences  of  the  University  of  France.  If  he  holclti 
both  ilegrees  he  is  alloweil  50  marks  in  llii'  exuniina- 
tion  for  admission.  3.  Kegular  soldiers  are  adniillcd 
up  to  the  agi' of  25  years,  provided  Ihcy  liavi-  1  een 
on  real  and  elTeclive  service-  for  two  years.  4.  'I'lie 
charge  for  board  is  1.000  francs  ('X40/prT  auniini, and 
the  cost  of  outlil  Ho  be  also  paid  by  Ihe  pui>il;  about 
f!00  francs.  5.  The  duration  of  the  course  of  in- 
struction is  two  years;  the  pupils,  after  finishing 
their  course,  must  |ia.ss  a  final  examination  ;  Hie  suc- 
cessfiil  candidates,  if  found  lo  be  jiliysically  (jualified, 
are  arranged  in  order  of  merit,  and  choose  In  fjrder 
what  branch  of  the  public  service  they  wish  to  enter. 
<).  The  branches  of  the  public  service  whidi  are  re- 
rruited  from  the  Polyteclinique  are,  tlie  Corps  of 
Land  and  Naval  Artillery,  Military  and  Naval 
Engineers,  tlii'  Imperial  .Marine,  the  Corps  of  Hydro- 
graphic  Engineers,  that  of  Engineers  of  Hoads, 
Bridges,  and  Mines,  the  Corps  of  Staff  Ollicers,  the 
Superintendence  of  Telegraphs  and  Gunpowder  and 
Tobacco  Manufactories;  ami  generally  every  Depart- 
ment which,  requiring  special  scientific  knowledge, 
niaj'  be  added  by  Din-rtU  to  these.  The  following 
branches  of  study  are  embraced  in  the  curriculum  . 
Alat hematics,  Pnysics, Chemistry  and  Chemical  ^Man- 
ipulation.  History  and  Literature,  (Jernian,  Written 
Exercises,  Drawing,  Geodesy,  Mechanics,  Ard.i- 
tecture,  Art  Mililaire.  Lessons  in  Fencing,  Music, 
and  Dancing  are  given  out  as  optional,  and  must  be 
.separately  paid  for.  The  number  of  pujiils  varies 
with  the  requirements  of  the  public  service.  In  1794 
there  were  3i)lj  pupils;  in  1H20  only  fifi.  During  the 
First  Empire,  the  numbers  increased  from  110  in 
1808,  to  227  in  1813;  under  Louis  Philippe  the 
average  number  was  130.  During  the  Second 
Empire,  it  had  risen  to  140  iiiid  1-50.  After  the  war 
with  Germany  in  1870-71  the  number  rose  to  2C0. 
The  numerous  and  admirably  equipped  Technical 
Schools  of  Germany,  often  called  l'i'!ytechnii-n^  have 
received  no  military  restriction,  and  are  available  for 
all  interested  in  the  industrial  arts  ;  thej-  are  in 
many  cases  scientific  centers  comparable  to  the 
Universities. 

POMADA. — An    exercise    of 

W         I  vaulting  the  wooden  horse,  by 

^^I^^I  laying  one  hand  over  the  pom- 

^■■B^NW  mel  of  the  saddle.      See  Gym- 

\  «  y  POMEL  CROSS.— In  Herald- 

ry, a  cross  whose  extremities 
Pommettee  Cross.  terminate  in  single  knots  or 
poniels,  like  the  linurdon  or 
Pilgrim's  St;iff.     ^Vlso  written  Pnmmittie  Cross. 

POMERIUM. — In  ancient  architecture,  that  space 
of  ground  which  lay  between  the  walls  of  a  fortified 
town  and  the  inhabitants'  houses.  The  term  is  stUl 
used  among  modern  architects,  particularly  by  the 
Italians,  to  describe  the  breadth  of  the  terreplein 
of  the  rampart,  its  inward  talus,  and  the  vacant 
space  which  is  usually  left  between  this  talus  and 
the  houses  of  the  town 

POMME. — In  Heraldry,  a  bearing  or  device  repre- 
sentintr,  or  in  the  form  of,  an  apple. 

POMMEL.— The  knob  on  the  hilt  of  a  sword.  Also 
the  protuberant  part  of  a  saddle-bow.  The  term 
I'ammeled .  ox  Pommelled,  signifies  furnished  or 
mounted  with  one  or  more  pommels,  as  a  sword, 
dagger,  or  the  like. 

POMMELION.— The  cascabel.or  hindmost  knob  of 
a  cannon.     See  Cascabcl.. 

POMPON. — .\  tuft  of  wool,  or  other  material, some- 
times worn  by  soldiers  on  the  top  of  the  hat  in  front, 
instead  of  a  feather. 

PONCHARRA  RIFLE.— In  1833,  Colonel  Poncharra 
suggested  jilacing  ;i"  sabot  "of  hardwood  under- 
neath the  ball  with  a  greased  patch. which, resting  on 


PONCHO. 


558 


PONTOON. 


the  offsets  of  the  mouth  of  the  chamber,  was  prevent- 
ed from  entering  it.  This  rifle  was  objected  to  as  a  war 
weapon  on  acronnt  of  the  complicated  nature  of  its 
ammunition,  and  the  difficulty  of  procuring  it  in  the 
field  ;  besides  which,  the  sabots  frequently  broke  in 
loading,  from  the  ramming  necessary  to  expand  the 
bullet  into  the  grooves. 

PONCHO. — A  "Spanish-American  garment,  consist- 
ing of  a  piece  of  'woolen  cloth,  5-7  ft.  long,  3^  feet 
broad,  having  in  the  middle  a  slit  through  which  the 
wearer  passes  his  head, so  that  the  poncho  rests  upon 
the  shoulders  and  hangs  down  before  and  behind.  In 
the  fashions  of  recent  times,  the  poncho  has  been  in- 
troduced in  Europe.  In  the  United  States  Army, 
mounted  troops  are  issued  a  waterproof  poncho,con- 
sistiug  of  painted  cotton  or  rubber  cloth. 

PONIARD. — A  pointed  instrument  for  stabbing, 
usually  borne  in  the  hand,  at  the  girdle,  or  in  the 
pocket.     See  Dagger . 

PONTONES. — Ancient  square-built  ferry-boats  for 
passing  rivers,  as  described  by  both  Caesar  and  Aulus 
Gellius. 

PONTOON, — The  name  given  to  buoyant  vessels 
used  in  military  operations  for  supporting  a  tempo- 
rary bridge.  Pontoon  bridges  have  been  construct- 
ed, with  greater  or  less  skill,  from  the  earliest  times. 
Darius  passed  the  Hellespont  and  Danube  by  pon- 
toon bridges,  and  the  former  was  traversed  by  Xerxes' 
immense  array  on  similar  temporary  bridges,  very 
admirably  formed.  A  pontoon  train  is  a  necessity 
for  every  army  maneuvering  in  a  country  where 
there  are  rivers,  and  many  campaigns  have  proved 
failures  for  want  of  this  cumbrous  but  indispensable 
apparatus.  In  most  armies  the  pontoons  are  under 
the  charge  of  the  engineers ;  but  in  the  Austrian 
army  there  is  a  distinct  and  highly-trained  corps, 
called  pontonCereyt .  Marlborough  used  clumsy  wood- 
en pontoons.  Napoleon  and  ^Vellington  had  them 
lighter  of  tin  and  copper.  They  were  flat-bottomed, 
rectangular  boats,  open  at  the  top.  Anchored  at 
stem  and  stern,  beams  were  laid  over  from  one  to 
another,  anil  transoms  with  planks  crossing  these 
beams  completed  the  roadwa}'  of  the  bridge.  These 
open  pontoons  were  exposed  to  the  disadvantage 
that  they  were  very  liable  to  be  filled  with  water,  and 
thus  ceased  to  support  the  bridge.  They  were, 
moreover,  very  heavy,  one  pontoon,  with  appurten- 
ances, constituting  a  wagon-load.  As  36  were 
deemed  necessarj'  for  the  train,  a  pontoon  equip- 
ment was  a  serious  item  in  the  impedimenta  of  an 
army.  The  Open  pontoons  are  now,  however,  obso- 
lete, modern  science  having  substituted  closed  C)'lin- 
drical  vessels  of  copper  (or  occasionally  of  India- 
rubber),  which  are  far  lighter,  can  in  an  emergency 
be  rolled  along,  and  can  only  be  submerged  if  per- 
forated. Against  the  last  contingency,  thej^  are  di- 
vided within  into  water-tight  compartments,  so  that 
one  perforation  may  not  seriously  detract  from  the 
total  buoyancy  of  a  pontoon.  In  the  British  service 
two  pontoons  are  used ;  the  larger,  with  hemispher- 
ical ends,  being  33  ft.  3  in.  in  length,  and  2  ft.  8  in. 
in  diameter  ;  the  smaller,  cigar-shaped,  with  conical 
ends,  15  ft.  in  length,  1  ft.  8  in.  diameter.  Two  of 
the  largest  used  to  form  a  raft  weigh  8  cwt.  7  lbs.; 
the  superstructure  18J  cwt.  At  34  ft.  apart  from 
center  to  center,  this  raft  will  carry  infantry  four 
deep,  marching  at  ease ;  cavalry,  two  deep,  and 
light  field  guns  ;  at  16  ft.  interval,  heavy  guns.  A 
raft  of  three  pontoons,  at  close  distances,  will  sup- 
port siege-ordnance.  The  pontoons  can  be  used  in 
very  wide  rivers  as  rafts,  in  thfiir  proper  sense,  or 
they  can  be  connected,  when  the  width  permits,  to 
form  a  bridge.  In  the  latter  ease,  each  is  towe<l  into 
lin(N  anchored  above  as  it  drops  to  its  jjlaee,  and  a 
second  time  when  its  exact  spot  is  reached.  It  is 
computed  that  each  pontoon  requires  li  minutes  to 
take  its  position,  and  that  when  the  pontoons  are 
l)laced,  the  roadway  can  be  laid,  if  properly  arranged 
previously,  in  IJ  minutes  for  each  interval  between 
two  pontoons.     A  river  of  6IJ0  feet  may  thus  be 


bridged  in  less  than  1^^  hours.  The  process  of 
throwing  a  bridge  over  in  face  of  an  enemy  is 
fraught  with  the  utmost  danger  to  the  engineers  em- 
ployed.  Pontoon  bridges  have  to  be  passed  with 
great  care,  and  every  measure  should  be  adoiited, 
such  as  breaking  step,  etc.,  which  can  reduce  the 
peculiarly  dangerous  vibration.  The  following  is 
the  method  generally  employed  for  building  bridges 
with  the  bridge  equipage  of  the  United  States  Army, 
and  known  as  the  construction  by  successive  pmitoons. 
The  place  for  building  the  bridge  having  been  se- 
lected, the  pontoons  are  brought  to  the  banks  of  the 
stream,  near  the  spot,  and  theboatsare  launched  in- 
to the  water.  Each  boat  is  provided  with  an  an- 
chor. Some  of  the  boats  cast  their  anchors  up- 
stream,   while  others  cast  them  down-stream.     The 


number  of  anchors  to  be  cast  will  depend  upon  the 
rapidity  and  strength  of  the  current.  Under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  an  anchor  cast  uij-stream  from 
ever}'  alternate  boat,  and  half  the  number  down- 
stream, will  be  sufficient.  The  boats  casting  up- 
stream anchors  are  launched  above  the  bridge  ;  the 
others  Ijelow.  If  none  exists,  an  easy  approach  for 
the  wagons  and  artillery  should  be  constructed, 
leading'down  the  bank  to  the  bridge.  A  strong  sill 
is  then  imbedded  in  a  trench,  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  the  bridge, and  is  held  firmly  in  place  by  four 
stout  pickets,  driven  about  eight  inches  from  each 
end.  This  sill  is  horizontal,  and  should  be  as  near- 
ly as  possible  on  a  level  with  the  flooring  of  the 
bridge.  A  pontoon  is  then  brought  up  opposite  to 
this  "sill,  and  close  to  it.  Five  balks  are  brought 
forward,  and  the  ends  placed  upon,  and  lashed  to 
the  outer  gunwale  of  the  boat,  in  the  proper  places 
The  men  holding  the  balks  push  the  pontoon  off, 
until  the  ends  of  the  balks  on  shore  rest  upon  the 
abutment  sill.  The  pontoon  is  then  secured  in  posi- 
tion by  shore-lines  running  out  from  the  1)0W  and 
stern,  and  fastened  to  mooring-pickets.  The  chess 
are  brought  forward  and  laid  upon  the  balks,  to 
witliin  one  foot  of  the  boat.  A  second  pontoon  is 
brought  alongside  of  the  first ;  five  balks  are  again 
used,  and  this  second  boat  pu.shed  out.  The  balks 
are  firmly  lashed  togetlwr  and  to  the  gunwales  of 
the  first  pontoon.  The  intervals  between  the  pon- 
toons are  known  as  bays.  The  chess  are  laid  as 
soon  as  the  balks  are  lashed:  and  when  a  liay  is  com- 
pletely covered,  the  side  rails  are  laid  and  lashed  to 
tlie  balks  beneath.  This  operation  is  continued  un- 
til I  he  entire  length  of  bridge  is  obtained.  It  is  re- 
<-iiiiimi'nd(Ml  to  strengthen  the  first  bay  by  using  two 
additional  balks — one  between  the  first  and  second, 
aud  in  contact  with  the  latter;   the  other,   between 


PONTVALENT. 


PONY  PLANER. 


the  fourth  and  liflli.  in  fiuiliicl,  witli  tlir  foiirlli. 
Wlicii  llic  wiitcr  is  not  (ii'i'p  cnuiiuli  to  (lout  tlic  llrsl 
pontdiin,  11  Iri'stic,  or  oilier  lixi-il  [loint  of  support, 
may  lie  usimI  inslciul  of  tlir  ]ioiilonii.  'Plic  irn'iil  oli- 
•'H'ciiou  lo  lliis  ])oiilooii  is  its  wcitrlil,  wliicli  iiial<i-s 
its  Iranspiirlaliou  over  bad  roads  dillicwll.  For  liad 
roads  and  rapid  niovciiicnls  a  li;;hter  pontoon  tlian 
tliis  wooden  boat  lias  to  1)(;  used.  The  one  employ- 
ed under  these  clrrumstanoes  is  the  canvas  pontoon, 
wliifh  c'oiisists  of  a\voo(l<'n  frames  covered  witii  can- 
vas. The  wooden  frame  comes  apart,  so  as  to  be 
casil}'  loaded  on  \va,i;ons  for  lrans))orlalion.  It  has 
two  side  frames,  trapezoidal  in  shape,  the  upper 
piece  beini;  twenty-one  feet  long;  the  lower,  ci.^li- 
tcen  feet  and  four  inches  lonj;.  The  depth  of  this 
frame  is  two  feel  and  four  inches.  The  frames  arc 
connected  by  pieces  called  transoms,  framed  into 
the  side  frames,  and  these  latter  are  fastened  togeth- 
er by  ropes  passing  through  ringsin  the  ends  of  the 
frames.  The  inner  width  of  the  boat  frame,  or  dis- 
tance l)Ptween  the,  side  frames,  when  the  jiarts  are 
arranged,  is  four  feet  and  eight  inches.  In  some 
cases,  the  side  frames  are  hinged  in  the  middle,  so 
that  when  taken  apart,  they  may  be  folded  up.  The 
canvas  cover  is  made  of  cotton  duck.  The  balks  are 
twent.y  two  feet  long,  witlia  cross-section  of  four  and 
and  one-half  inches,  and  are  provided  with  claws  as 
before des('ribeil.  Tlie  chess  is  the  same  as  that  de- 
scribed, but  only  eleven  feet  long,  instead  of  Ihirtei'n. 
The  reserve  equipage  is  divided  into  trains,  each 
train  being  composed  of  four  ])ontoon  divisions,  and 
one  supply  division.  Each  pontoon  division  contains 
all  the  material  necessary  to  construct  a  bridge  of 
eleven  bays,  or  a  bridge  two  bundreil  and  twenty-five 
feet  long.  The  advance  guard  equipaire  is  also  di- 
vided into  trains  each  train  having  four  ))ontoon 
divisions.  A  division  contains  eight  pontoon  wagons 
two  wagons  for  chess  and  two  for  trestles.  Tint 
pontoon  wagons  of  this  e(|uii)age  arc  so  loaded 
that  each  wasou  will  have  all  the  material  necessarv 


I  sterile  regions.  They  are  in  general  the  jjroperly  of 
man,  and  not  truly  wild,  ultliough,  in  vt.-ry  many 
cases,  they  live  almost  in  a  wild  state,  and  receive  no 
care  or  attention  except  when  tbi'y  are  wanted  for 
use.  They  are  in  gcfncral  very  liardy,  and  their 
strenglh  is  great  in  proiwrtion  to  tlieir'sijce.  They 
an^  often  vicious,  or  at  least  playfully  tricky  to  a 
nnicli  greater  degree  than  is  usual  with  large  liorsen. 
Ponies  arc  very  often  covered  with  rough  hair,  and 
Inive  large,  shaggy  manes  apd  forelocks.  The  8/iH- 
1(1  lid  puny  is  a  very  good  examjilc  of  these  small  races 
of  horse.  The  Irilaixl  p>nyK  scarcely  difTerent  from 
it,  anil  is  hardy  enougli  to  endure  the  winter  of  Ice- 
land without  shelter.  The  tliiWiirny,  WHih,  JJiirt- 
■mo(/r,  Exinnirr,  and  Nt-w  Furmt  breeds  are  British 
races  of  pony  larger  than  the  Shetland.  The  pro- 
gress of  indosure  and  cultivation  in  their  native  re- 
gions has  so  changed  the  circumstances  in  which 
they  long  subsisted,  and  in  which,  perhaps,  they  ori- 
ginated, that  scarcely  any  of  them  are  now  to  be  seen 
of  pure  and  unmixed  race.  Sardinia  and  Corsica 
have  small  races  of  ponies  which  have  subsisted  un- 
changed from  ancient  times.  In  the  Morea  there  is 
a  race  of  ponies,  driven  iu  herds  to  Attica  for  sale, 
exceedingly  wild  and  vicious,  but  capable  of  being 
rendered  very  serviceable.  But  it  is  unnecessarj'  to 
mention  the  many  races  both  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
They  dill'er  considerably  in  size,  some,  like  the  Shet- 
land jiony,  sugiresling  a  comparison  with  a  large  dog, 
some  nuicb  larger.  They  also  differ  much  in  color: 
a  dun  or  tan  color,  with  a  black  stripe  along  the  back, 
is  prevalent  in  man\  of  them.  Ponies  are  seldom 
employed  in  agricultural  labors;  but  they  are  of  in- 
estimable value  for  campaign  purposes  in  many  wild 
and  mounl;iinous  regions,  from  their  hardiness  and 
surefootedness,  and  are  often  used  as  saddle-horses, 
the  hirgesl  kinds  being  even  employed  as  horses  for 
lisrht   cavalry. 

>ONY   PLANER.— Until  quite  recently  the  more 
important  arsenals  and  armories  were  equipped  with 


to  construct  one  complete  biiv.  By  this  arramrc- 
meut  the  number  of  wagons  may  be  increased  or 
diminished,  as  the  case  mav  refpiire.     See  Jiridgen. 

PONTVALENT.— A  kind  of  light  bridge,  used  in 
sieges,  for  surprising  a  post  or  outwork  which  has 
but  a  narrow  moat.     See  Flying  Bridge. 

PONY. — The  common  name  of  many  small,  active 
■breeds  of  horses,  belonging  to  different  countries, 
from  India  and  Africa  to  Iceland;  but  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  world  chiefly  foimd  in  mountainous  or 


a  novel  machine  in  which  an  emery  wheel  was  used 
for  surfacing  tiles,  finishing  anvils,  nuts,  gilw,  keys, 
slide  valves,  straps,  crossheads,  and,  in  short,  for 
accomplishing  the  majority  of  work  usually  surfaced 
on  the  planer,  milling-inachine.  and  shaper.  The 
mode  of  operation  consisted  in  adjusting  the  object 
to  be  surfaced  in  the  clnick  to  proper  elevation, 
when  it  was  carried  under  the  wheel,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  latter  was  drawn  across  it.  This  motion 
continued  until  the  table  carried  the  work  out  of  the 


POOLEE-JONES  CABTKIDGE-BELT. 


560 


POEOSITT. 


action  of  the  grinder.  Then,  by  means  of  suitable 
mechanism,  the  operator  slightly  elevated  the  object 
and  caused  it  to  run  back  again  under  tlie  wheel. 
Of  this  machine,  the  invention  of  the  Tauite  Com- 
pany is  a  moditication.  The  main  ditlerence  is  that 
the  planer  bed  is  made  to  slide  to  an  1  fro  on  its  ways 
by  the  action  of  a  crank,  the  work  being  thus  moved 
to  and  fro  in  the  line  of  the  emery  wheel's  revolution, 
while  the  wheel  also  has  a  cross  motion  imparted  to 
it  by  another  crank.  This  motion  of  the  table  cor- 
rects the  inaccuracy  resulting  from  gradual  decrease 
in  the  wheel's  diameter,  there  being  a  perceptible 
wear  in  the  wheel,  so  that  it  grinds  a  long,  flat  piece 
taper  instead  of  plane,  when  the  work  slowl}'  passes 
under  it;  while,  by  this  crank  throw,  the  whole 
length  of  work  is  brought  into  contact  with  the 
wheel  at  each  throw.  A  chuck  rests  on  four  springs, 
and  rises  and  falls  vertically  in  planed  wa_vs.  When 
the  adjustable  stops  have  been  adjusted,  and  the 
wheel  no  longer  cuts,  the  work  must  be  plane.  The 
springs  force  the  (chuck)  work  against  the  wheel, 
and  yet  act  as  safety  appliances  against  over-friction 
and  pressure.  The  whole  table  and  bed  has  a  verti- 
cal adjustment  by  a  screw.     Three  belts  are  needed: 


ly.  The  driving  belt  can  come  from  above,  below 
or  from  the  back.  When  standing  in  front  of  the 
machine  the  cutter-head  pulley  is  at  the  left  hand. 
See  Einery-grindtr. 

POOLER-JONES  OAETRIDGE-BELT  —A  belt  hav- 
ing cartridge  holders  attached  to  it.  suitable  for  eith- 
er paper  or  brass  shells.  These  holders  can  be  easily 
attached  to  an}'  hunting  vest,  coat  front,  or  belt.  An 
ordinary  vest  will  hold  from  36  to  50,  each  hoder 
weighing  about  J  of  an  ounce.  A  belt  with  30  hold- 
ers attached  (weighing  one  poimd)  is  shown  inthe 
drawing.  The  belts  can  be  perfectly  adjusted  by 
wearer  to  fit  either  a  slim  or  large  man,  with  waist 
measuring  from  30  inches  to  41  inciics.  It  can  be 
worn  over  or  under  a  coat,  and  it  is  impossible  to 
lose  the  cartridges.  The  belt  is  intended  to  be  worn 
or  put  on  witli  tlie  biickle  behind.  The  cartridges  are 
nearly  all  to  the  front  and  can  be  easily  reached.  The 
holder,  B,  with  the  side  cut  away  to  show  the  wad 
supporter,  is  for  carrying  brass  or  paper  shells  with- 
out being  crimped.  The  form  shown  at.  A,  is  for 
carrying  paper  shells  crimped,  or  with  ends  turned 
down. 

POOR  KNIGHTS  OF  WINDSOR.— An  institution  of 


one  to  the  wheel  mandrels,  one  to  the  suction  fan, 
and  one  to  the  driver.  The  gears,  being  interchange- 
able, allow  the  proportion  of  speeds  between  the 
wheel  shafts  and  the  table  to  be  altered  in  various 
ways.  The  machinery  stands  'A'i  inches  high,  and  is 
2  feet  8  inches  each  way.  It  will  grind  work  9  inches 
long  by  5  inches  wide.  It  is  adapted  to  all  small, 
flat  work,  especially  to  dies  of  hardened  steel  and 
chilled  iron,  to  parts  of  gun  and  pistol  locks,  machine 
work,  small  levels,  machine  keys,  locks,  etc.  It  is 
claimed  that  thousands  of  small  parts  can,  by  this 
means,  be  finished  to  a  gauge  with  greater  exactness 
than  can  be  done  in  any  other  way.  The  remaining 
portions  of  the  device  are  similar  to  those  in  the  de- 
vice first  alluded  to  above. 

The  name  Pony  Planer  is  also  given  to  a  most 
useful  wood-planing  machine.  One  of  the  best  ma- 
chines of  this  cla.ss,  and  one  adapted  for  a  great 
variety  of  work,  is  shown  in  the  drawing.  It  has 
very  powerful,  geared,  double  feed-rolls,  four  inches 
in  diameter.  Those  in  front  are  weighted,  those  be- 
hind are  provided  with  self-adju.sting  scrapers.  The 
machine  can  take  a  ij  inch  cut,  and  is  adjustable  to 
different  thicknesses  of  stuff  by  a  single  hand  wheel, 
-j>,i  of  an  inch  to  a  turn.  Either  plane  is  smooth 
enough  for  any  work. but  three  admit  of  faster  feed, 
and  tlie  feed  cones  are  made  accordingly.  Two 
pressure  bars  are  close  to  the  cutterliead.  the  front 
one  hinged  and  weighted.  The  machine  is  suitable 
for  heavy  as  well  as  tor  light  and  very  short  stuff. 
The  shaving  giuird  and  feed-roll  covers  are  hinged, 
to  give  access  to  the  knives,  which  can  be  whetted 
when  in  place.  The  principal  bearing  boxes  are  self- 
oiling.  The  heavy  boxed  shaped  base  is  proof 
against  twisting  even  when  standing  on  a  weak 
floor,  which  will  often  yield  from  the  weight  of  lum- 
ber, thereby  straining  the  bearings  of  the  macliincs, 
and  causing  them  to  work  hard  and  wear  out  quick- 


Military  Knights  at  "Windsor,  England,  wliich  owes 
its  origin  to  Edward  III.,  and  is  a  provision  for  a 
limited  number  of  old  otficers.  These  officers  consist 
of  a  Governor  and  13  Knights  on  the  upper  founda- 
tion, and  5  on  the  lower,  together  18,  and  are  com- 
posed of  olBcers  selected  from  every  grade,  from  a 
Colonel  to  a  Subaltern,  chiefly  veterans,  or  on  half- 
pay.  The.y  are  allowed  three  rooms  each  in'Windsor 
Palace, and  2  shillings  per  diem  for  their  sustenance, 
besides  other  small  allowances. 

POPPET-HEAD.—That  part  of  a  lathe  which  holds 
the  back-center,  and  can  be  fixed  on  any  part  of  the 
bed.  Boring-machines  have  a  poppet-head. 

POROSITY.— By  this  term  we  express  the  experi- 
mental fact  that  no  kind  of  matter  completely  nils 
the  space  it  occupies  ;  in  other  words,  that  all  bodies 
are  full  of  minute  cavities  or  interstices,  such  as  are 
ilhistrated  on  a  large  scale  by  a  sponge.  On  the 
atomic  theory,  it  is  obvious  that  this  must  be  the 
case  if  the  atoms  of  matter  are  spherical,  or,  indeed, 
if  they  have  any  form  save  one  or  two  special  ones, 
such  as  cubes  or  rhomlnc  dodecahedrons.  It  is 
commonly  asserted  that  all  bodies  must  be  porous, 
becatise  they  are  compressible  ;  but  this  is  a  great 
mistake,  since  we  have  no  reason  to  believe  "that 
matter  is  not  jjcr.w  compressil)le,  independently  of 
the  existence  of  interstices.  The  Florentine  Acade- 
micians, in  their  attempts  to  compress  water, 
proved  the  porosity  of  silver  by  flattening  sphere 
of  tliat  metal,  filled  with  water,  nd  soldered.  The 
water  escaped  llirough  the  ])ores  of  the  silver,  and 
stood  in  fine  drops  on  its  surface.  The  porosity  of 
liquids  is  easily  shown  by  mixing  alcohol  and  water. 
Tlie  bulk  of  ttie  mixture  is  considerably  less  than 
the  sum  of  the  bulks  of  the  components,  showing 
tliat  these  must  in  part  have  entered  each  other's 
(•ores.  Tliis  iiroperty  of  matter  is  of  great  impor- 
tance in  the  Arsenal  and  Laboratory. 


PORTABLE  DRILL. 


561 


PORTABLE  FIRE  ARU8. 


PORTABLE  DRILL.  A  form  of  drill  iiuicli  frnploy- 
C(l  inarHciials.  l'„  drillHiil  any  luiuli',  in  iuiy  poHilioii, 
at  any  diHtancc,  and  in  any  din-el  ion  from  llic  power. 
It  is  especially  adapted  to  drilliiii:  all  |)ieees  which 
are  ine<invenient  to  move,  or  wliieli  eaniiol  lie  readi- 
ly .'idjusled  under  ulalionary  drilliiiix  miiehiiies.  TIk- 
(irawini;  shows  the  drill  as  employed  al  Ihe  Waler- 
lowti  Ars<'nal.  It  is  used  in  four  sizes:  No.  1  is  in- 
tended for  lii;ht  work  only.  It  will  drill  \iptn  1  inch 
diameter.  Th('  spindle  has  0  inches  feed — the  post 
has  C)  inches  vertical  adjuslmenl  -the  arm  is  moved 
in  and  out  by  a  screw,  and  roliiled  liy  a  worm  an<l 
taM};ent-whe(0.  nivini;  a  convenient  and  deliealf  ail- 
juslment  to  the  drill.  With  one  settini;  it  will  drill 
anywhere  over  a  surface  of  ;i:i  inches  oulsidi'  di- 
ameter, and  11  inches  inside  diameter- the  spindle 
cau  be  set  to  any  anjjjle  (up  to  30  degrees)  with  the 
base — the  post  can  be  held  in  the  split  bearing  on  the 
side  for  drilling  parallel  with  the  base.  The  weight 
is  I'Za  poun<ls.  No.  2,  is  similar  to  No.  1,  with  more 
power  and  range.  It  will  drill  up  to  1  h  inches  di- 
ameter. The  sjiindle  hasti  inches  feed-  the  post  has 
n  inches  vertical  adjustment.  With  one  settini;  it 
will  drill  over  a  surface  43  inches  outside  diameter, 
ami  i:5  inches  inside  diameter.  The  w-eighl  is  200 
pounds.  No.  3,  is  the  most  popular  and  useful  size. 
It  will  drill  up  to  2  inches  diameter.  The  spincDe  has 
8  inches  feed,  working  automatically  when  desired, 
with  3  speeds  of  feed  -the  jxist  has  (i  inches  vertical 
adjustment.  With  one  .setting  it  will  drill  anywiiere 
over  a  surface  43  inches  outsi(le,  and  13  inches  inside 
diameter.  The  weight  is  240  pounds.  No.  4,  is  in- 
tended for  heavy  work.  It  will  drill  anj'  size  hole  and 
bore  up  to  8  inches  diameter.  The  spindle  luiH  13 
inches  automatic  feed — the  post  hasO  inches  vertical 
adjustment- with  one  setting  it  will  drill  anywhere 
over  a  surface  5G  inches  outside,  and  IG  inches  in.side 
diameter.  Back  gearing.  The  weight  is  390  pounds. 
The  operation  of  llu^  drill  is  simple  and  as  follows: 
The  counter-hanger  is  bolted  to  the  ceiling  or  otlier 
convenient  place,  and  receives  power  from  the  "line 
shaft"  by  a  tiat  belt  on  the  fast  and  loose  pidleys. 
The  frame  carrying  the  "idlers"  rotates  on  a  hollow 
stud,  through  which  the  round  belt  passes  to  the 
grooved  driving  pulley.  The  rotation  of  this  frame 
permits  the  belt  to  be  led  to  the  drilling-nuichine  in 
any  direction,  radially,  from  the  hanger,  while  the 
rise  and  fall  of  the  weighted  "idler"  permits  it  to  be 
led  to  any  point  within  the  scope  of  this  rise  and  fall 
— say  ten  to  fifteen  feet  or  more.  By  inserting  sec- 
tions of  belt,  by  means  of  the  hook  "couplings,  any 
distance  can  be  reached.  The  base  is  intended  to  be 
bolted  or  clamped  to  the  piece  to  be  drilled.  Tlie 
height  of  the  post  can  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  different 
lengths  of  drills  aiKl 
chucks  used  in  the  sjiin- 
dle. The  radial  slotttxl 
arm  is  fastened  to  the 
post  b)'  the  stud  and 
nut ;  the  position  of  tlie 
drill  being  adjusted  by 
Ihe  screw  which  travels 
the  arm,  and  the  worm 
and  tangent-wheel  that 
rotates  it  on  the  post. 
When  it  is  required  to 
drill  parallel  with  the 
,  base,  the  post  Is  held  uy 
the  clamp  bearing  on  the 

side  of  the  base.  There  is  a  shoulder  turned  on  the 
bottom  of  the  ball  on  the  gear  frame  (of  sizes  1,  2, 
and  3),  and  a  half  collar  fitted  to  it  and  bolted  on 
the  arm;  this  keeps  the  spindle  square  with  the  base. 
When  this  half  collar  is  removed,  the  spindie  can  be 
aet  to  an  angle  in  any  direction.  When  not  being 
used  on  the  floor,  it  serves  the  purpose  of  a  bench 
drill  press.    See  Drilling-tnachine. 

PORTABLE  FIRE-ARMS.— The  portable-fire  arms 
employed  as  militar.r  weapons  of  war  are  rities, 
carbines,  and  pistols ;   these  generally  rary  in  con- 


struction witli  the  Nation  by  which  thr:y  are  used. 
The  term  "breech-loailing"  a|)plieK  to  those  urrng 
in  which  the  charge  is  inserted  through  an  opening 
in  the  breech,  and  in  the  loading  of  which  no  ramrod 
is  re(|uirecl.  All  ndlitary  br<<-ch-louderH,  now  in  use, 
employ  the  metallic  cas'e  carlriilgi' ;  they  may  be  i\\. 
vidediiUo  i/m/"V    l,ni'li.!i''i'l'ri  utA  ri"riyitcrH.     The 


essential  parts  of  all  such  arms  are  the  barrel,  the 
chamber,  the  birech-meclianiim.  the  lock,  the  stock, 
the  nightu,  and  the  mauntingK.  and  in  repeaters  the 
magazine.  If  the  chamber  be  made  in  the  piece 
which  closes  the  breech,  commonly  called  the  breech- 
block, the  arm  is  said  to  have  a  niorabU  chamber;  if 
it  be  formed  bv  counterboring  the  barrel,  it  is  said 
to  have  &fiid  chamber.  The  latter  has  great  ad- 
vantages, and  is  generally  used.  With  the  fixed 
chamber  the  interior  of  the  barrel  is  divided  into 
two  distinct  parts,   viz.,   the  bi/re  proper,  or  space 


PORTABLE  FIEE-AEMS. 


562 


PORTABLE  FIRE  ARMS. 


through  which  the  projectile  moves  under  tlic  in- 
flueuce  of  the  powder,  and  the  chamber  in  wliicli  the 
charge  is  deposited.  Tlie  principal  parts  peculiar 
to  simple  breech-loaders  are  ;  1st.  The  tiiuvable  hreecli- 
block,  by  which  the  chamber  is  opened  and  closed. 
3d  The  hreerh -frame,  upon  wliich  the  breech-block 
is  mounted  and  united  to  the  barrel.  3d.  Theo/;^;?!- 
ber,  with  its  recess,  to  receive  the  rim  of  the  cart- 
ridge. 4th.  The  firing-pin,  which  transmits  the  blow 
of  the  hammer  to  the  cartridge.  5th.  The  extraetor , 
by  which  the  empty   case   is  removed   after  tiring. 

The  foregoing  named  parts  may  be  said  to  be  es- 
sential to  all  breech-loading  arms  in  which  tlie  me- 
tallic cartridge  is  used;  the  diflferent  ways  in  which 
they  are  combined  mark  the  systems.  These  com- 
binations have  reference  chiefly  to  the  modes  of 
operating  and  locking  the  breech-ljlock.  The  dif- 
ferent systems  may  be  classified  into:  1st,  those 
with  a  fixed  chamber;  2d,  those  with  a  mirrable 
chamber.  The  latter  have  now  become  obsolete. 
The  first  class  have:  1st,  a  morable  bnrnl;  3d,  a 
movable  breech-block.  With  each  the  motion  ma_v  be 
sliding,  in  which  case  it  moves  in  grooves;  rotating, 
when  it  swings  on  a  hinge  ;  or  sliding  and  rotating 
combined.  The  greater  number  of  systems  belong 
to  the  class  of  a  •'m(>val)le  breech-jjlock  rotating 
about  an  axis."  In  arms  of  this  class  the  axis  of 
motion  may  be  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  barrel,  and 
above,  below,  or  to  one  side  of  it ;  or  perpendicular 
to  that  axis,  being  vertical  or  horizontal,  and  lying 
in  or  out  of  the  plane  of  the  axis.  The  position  of  the 
hinge  has  an  important  influence  on  the  facility  of 
operating  the  block,  inserting  the  cartridge,  and  ex- 
tracting the  empty  shell :  the  most  suitable  position 
is  deemed  to  be  in  front  of  the  center  of  the  block. 
In  this  case  the  motion  of  opening  and  closing  the 
block  is  natural  and  easy  ;  the  cartridge  is  pushed 
into  its  place  by  the  block,  and  a  very  simple  re- 
tractor serves  to  withdraw  the  empty  shell  after  fir- 
ing. The  most  serious  defect  found  in  breecli-load- 
ing  arms  w.as  the  escape  of  the  flame  through  the 
joint,  which  not  only  incommoded  the  soldier,  but, 
by  fouling  tlie  machinery,  seriously  interfered  with 
its  operations.  At  present  this  is  entirely  overcome 
by  the  elastic  metallic  case  of  the  cartridge.  The 
advantages  of  breech-loading  over  muzzle-loading 
arms  are  :  1st.  Greater  certainty  and  rapidity  of  fire". 
3d.  Greater  security  from  accidents  and  loading. 
3d.  The  impossibilitj'  of  getting  more  than  one  cart- 
ridge into  the  piece  at  the  same  time.  4th.  Great- 
er facility  of  loading  under  all  circumstances,  and 
particularly  when  the  soldier  is  mounted,  lying  on 
the  ground,  or  firing  from  behind  any  cover.  "The 
greater  security  with  which  the  charge  is  kept  in 
place  when  the  piece,  is  carried  on  horse-back  with 
the  muzzle  down. 

TluTe  are  certain  functions  performed  by,  and 
certain  important  conditions  to  lje  fulfilled  in,  the 
construction  of  the  different  portions  of  a  small- 
arm.  Tlie  barrel  is  by  far  the  most  important  part 
of  a  fire-arm, its  oflice  Ix'ing  to  concentrate  the  force 
of  a  charge  of  powder  on  a  projectile,  and  give  it 
proper  initial  velocity  and  direction;  for  these 
purposes,  and  for  the  safety  of  the  firer.  it  should 
fje  made  of  tlie  best  material  and  with  the  greatest 
care.  In  determining  the  exterior  form,  it  is  not 
only  necessary' to  give  siicli  tliickness  to  the  ditTer- 
«nt  parts  iis  will  best  resist  the  explosion  effect  of 
the  charge,  but  such  as  will  ^ireveiit  it  from  beiiiu: 
"bentwhen  used  as  a  jiike.or  when  subject  to  the  rough 
"usage  of  the  service.  We'ght,  to  a  certain  extent 
is  necessary  to  limit  recoil,  to  give  steadiness  to  the 
barrel  in  aiiiiiiig,  and  to  jirevent  it  from  "  s]>rin!jing" 
in  firing.  The  latter  defect  generally  arises  from 
bad  workinaiiship, whereby  there  is  a  greater  thick- 
ness of  metal,  and  consecpiently  less  expansion,  on 
one  side  of  tlie  bore  than  on  the  otlier.  In  souk; 
sporting  rilles  till' barrel  weighs  from  13  to  l.")  Ilis., 
tut  in  the  military  service,  where  it  is  carried  bv 
tlie  soldier,  it  seldom  weighs  more  than  4i  lbs.    The 


I  ngth  of  the  barrel  is  determined  by  the  nature  of 
the  service  to  which  it  is  applied.rather  than  by  the  ef- 
fect wliich  it  exerts  on  the  force  ofthecharge.  It  was 
shown  by  experiment  that  the  velocity  of  a  projec- 
tile in  a  smooth-bored  musket  increased  with  the 
length  of  the  bore  up  to  108  calibers  at  least,  but 
such  length  of  barrel  would  be  too  heavy  for  a  fire- 
arm and  too  unwield}'  as  a  pike  ;  in  a  rifled  barrel 
the  increase  extended  to  about  350  calibers. 

Three  points  are  to  be  considered  in  determining 
the  caliber  of  small  arms:  1st.  It  should  be  as  small 
as  possible  to  enable  the  soldier  to  carrv  the  greatest 
number  of  cartridges.  3d.  To  diminish  the  amount' 
of  ammunition  required  to  supply  the  wants  of  an 
arm}',  and  to  prevent  the  confusion  liable  to  arise 
from  a  variety  of  calibers,  there  should  not  be  more 
than  two  for  all  arms  of  the  same  service,  viz.,  one 
for  the  rifle  and  the  carbine,  and  one  for  the  pistol. 
3d.  This  point  relates  to  the  force  and  accuracy  of 
the  projectile,  and  to  the  flatness  of  its  trajectory. 
The  introduction  of  elongated  projectiles  affordel 
the  means  of  increasing  the  accuracy  and  range  of 
fire-arms,  withoiit  increasing  the  weight  of  the  pro- 
jectile, simply  by  reducing  the  caliber,  which  dimin- 
ished tlie  surface  opposed  to  the  air.  Too  great 
reduction  of  caliber,  however,  gives  a  very  long 
and  weak  projectile,  and  besides  the  effect  of  a  pro- 
jectile on  an  animate  object  depends  not  onlj'  on  its 
penetration,  but  also  on  the  shock  communicated  by 
it  to  the  nervous  system,  or  upon  the  surface  of  con- 
tact. These  considerations  have  led  to  a  general  re- 
duction of  caliber  of  military  rifles. 

The  gromes  being  for  the  purpose  of  communicat- 
ing a  rotar_v  motion  to  the  p-'ojectile  around  an  axis 
coincident  with  its  flight,  their  construction  will  de- 
pend upon  the  form,  dimension  and  material  of  the 
projectile,  charge  of  powder,  and  angle  of  fire.  The 
points  to  be  considered  in  determining  the  form  of 
grooves  for  military  arms  are  range,  accuracy  of 
fire,  endurance,  and  facility  of  cleanin'j;  the  bore. 
Experiment,  in  this  country,  has  shown  that  for 
breech-loaders  these  points  are  best  attained  by  mak- 
ing the  grooves  broad  and  shallow,  and  with  a  rapid 
twist.  Tlie  cltamber  being  a  receptacle  for  the  charge, 
its  shape  is  made  to  conform  to  that  of  the  cartridge. 
Its  diameter  is  made  a  little  larger,  and  that  of  the 
bore  a  little  smaller  than  that  of  the  projectile  ,  this 
facilitates  the  insertion  of  the  charge,  and  causes  the 
projectile  to  be  compressed  and  held  firmly  by  the 
lands  in  its  passage  through  the  bore.  The  bottom 
of  the  grooves  and  the  surface  of  the  chamber  are 
generally  continuous. 

The  breech-ynecJianism  comprises  the  principal  parts 
that  are  peculiar  to  arms  loading  at  the  breech. 
The  functions  of  these  parts  are  the  opening, closing, 
and  locking  of  the  breech,  firing  the  charge,  and  re- 
moving the  empty  cartridge  shell.  These  are  the 
objects  for  the  accomplishment  of  which  the  differ- 
ent sj'stemsare  variously  contrived,  and  with  which 
alone  thej'are  concerned.  The  most  important  con- 
ditions to  be  fulfilled  in  the  arrangement  of  this  me- 
chanism are:  1st.  The  number  of  parts  shoidd  be  as 
few  as  possible,  and  all  should  be  of  the  simplest 
construction.  2d.  The  strength  and  union  of  the 
parts  should  be  such  as  not  only  to  resist  repeated 
discharges,  but  the  bursting  of  a  cartridge  case, 
which  sometimes  occurs  from  defective  material  or 
workmanship.  3d.  The  locking  of  the  breech-block 
should  not  only  be  secure,  but  all  the  parts  by  which 
it  is  effected  should  worlc  freely  without  sticking. 
4tli.  The  parts  sliould  be  so  iirranged  tli;it  the  ham- 
mer cannot  strike  the  tiriug-pin  until  the  breech- 
block is  properly  locked,  .'ith.  The  liaiiiuier  should 
not  necessarily  rest  on  the  liriiig-pin  when  the  iiieccis 
carried  loaded  (Ah.  The  breech  sliould  be  unlocked 
without  the  hammer  liiini;  brought  necessarily  to 
full  cock.  7tli.  The  working  parts  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  lie  covered  from  dust  and  water,  8lli.  The 
extractor  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  reipiire  no  cuts 
or  openings  in  that  i>«irt  of  the  chamber  which  sur- 


POBTABLE  FOSOE. 


)r)3 


POHTABLE  FOBOE. 


rounds  tliR  body  of  llio  riirlriilgc  riisp.  Tlii' ^Wi;  is 
tlicmuchinn  by  which  llii:  chiir^jc  in  the  ('urlridi^f!  \n 
if^nitod.  Thortcof  the  prcHciil  diiybi'loni;  to  llicpcr-i 
cus.sion  class,  in  wliich  tire  is  produced  l)y  a  blow 
upon  thofulininiitin);  powder  conliiincd  in  the  cart- ; 
ridf;c-case.  Fiocks  are  divided  into  »/>/'■  and  cfnl^^rl 
locks,  (h'pendini;  upon  tlie  position  occupied  in  tin- 
Mtock;  eadi  of  th<'S(^  may  lie  cltlier  friiii.t-iicfiun, 
wherein  tlic  inainsprinij  is  in  front  of  llie  luinl)l<T, 
or  hnck-acliiiii,  wlien!  tins  s])rini;  is  in  rear  of  the 
tmnbler.  The  mortise,  which  forms  a  bed  for  the 
lock  of  the  latter  (construction,  seriously  alTects  the 
streni^tli  of  the  stock  at  the  handle, -and  for  this 
reason  the  front-action  lock  is  j;''"i'™lly  i)reffrred 
for  all  military  arms,  except  revolvers.  Tin'  condi- 
tions to  be  fullilled  in  the  construction  of  a  military 
lock,  are  simplicity,  strenu;tli,  cerlainly  of  action, 
ami  freedom  from  such  accidental  motion  of  the  parts 
as  might  produce  explosion  of  the  charge  in  the  bar- 
rel. 

The  stock  is  the  wooden  part  of  the  fire-arm,  to 
which  all  the  parts  are  asscmble<l;  for  military  arms 
it  is  preferable  that  it  sliould  be  ill  one  piece.  The 
material  should  be  lii;lit,  stroni;,  and  well  seasoned. 
The  bull,  the  jKirl  intended  Ifi  rest  aj^ainst  the  shoul- 
der and  to  sup))ort  the  recoil  of  the  piece,  should  be 
of  such  leni^th  and  sliajie  as  will  ('nable  it  to  trans- 
mit the  recoil  with  the  least  inconvenience  to  the 
soldier.  The  longer  it  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
more  firmly  will  it  be  ]iresscd  aijainst  the  shoul- 
der, and  the  effect  of  the  recoil  will  be  a  piixli  rather 
than  a  hhnf.  The  stock  is  crooked  at  the  handle  for 
convenience  in  aimina;,  and  for  the  purpose  of  dimin- 
ishing the  direct  action  of  the  recoil,  ('hanginir  the 
direction  of  the  recoil  in  this  manner  causes  the  piece 
to  rotate  around  the  shoulder;  but  if  the  stock  be 
made  toocrooked,  the  butt  will  be  liable  to  fly  up  and 
,  strike  the  soldier's  face.  The  nirjliU  are  guides  by 
which  the  piece  is  given  the  elevation  and  direction 
necessary  to  hit  the  object.  There  are  two;  calletl 
front  and  rfnr  nigliU.  The //■««?  m'glit  is  fixed  to  the 
barrel  near  the  mu/./.le.  'T\w.  flnrninK  of  its  point  is 
regulated  by  the  length  of  the  barrel,  or  distance 
from  the  eye,  and  the  size  and  distance  of  the  ob- 
ject generally  aimed  at;  it  is  made  coarser  in  mili- 
tary  than  in  sporting  arms,  to  prevent  injury.  The 
rmr  night  is  attached  to  the  l)arrel  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  breech;  it  has  a  movable  part,  capa- 
ble of  being  adjusted  for  ditfcrent  elevations  of  the 
barrel.  A  sight  for  a  military  arm  should  sati.sf)- 
the  following  conditions,  viz. :  1st,  it  should  be 
easily  adjusted  for  all  distances  within  effective 
range;  2d,  the  form  of  the  notch  should  permit  the 
eyeto  catch  the  object  quickly;  3d,  it  should  not 
be  easily  deranged  by  the  accidents  of  service.  Olobe 
and  telescopic  sights  are  used  for  very  accurate  sport- 
ing arms,  but  they  are  too  delicate  in  their  structure 
and  too  slow  in  their  operations  for  general  pur- 
poses. 

The  mountings  may  be  divided  into  three  classes, 
viz.:  1st,  those  which  serve  to  connect  the  principal 
parts,  generally  bands  and  screws;  2d,  those  which 
protect  from  wear  or  strengthen  the  stock  at  certain 
points,  as  the  butt-plate,  guard-plate,  tip:  3d,  the 
minor  parts  which  secure  the  different  parts  (includ- 
ing the  mountings  proper)  in  their  place,  consisting 
of  "springs,  screws,  rivets,  pins,  washers  and  nuts. 

A  butt-plate  is  to  protect  the  end  of  the  stock  from 
injury  by  contact  with  the  ground;  it  is  generally 
curved  to  fit  the  shoulder  in  tiring.  A  guard-plate  is 
to  strengthen  the  handle  of  the  stock;  it  may  serve  as 
a  fulcrum  for  the  trigger.  A  tip  is  a  shield  placed  on 
the  end  of  the  stock  towards  the  muzzle.  If  the 
piece  be  intended  to  be  carried  upon  the  soldier's 
back,  it  is  provided  with  awireh  for  that  purpose. 
generally  two,  one  of  which  may  be  fastened  to  a 
band  and  the  other  to  the  guard-plate,  or  to  a  point 
of  the  stock  in  rear  of  that  plate.  The  trigger  is  a 
lever  used  to  set  the  lock  in  motion.  TViggers  are 
divided,    according   to   their  construction   and   the 


force  reipiired  to  rlraw  them,  inlii  ri/mmon  and  net  or 
/inir  triggers;  the  latter  are  employed  only  in  sport- 
iiig  arms.  The  force  re(|uired  to  set  off  the  trigger, 
if  very  great,  may  <Iislurb  the  accuracy  of  tlie  aim;  if 
it  be  slight,  the  piece  will  be  liable  to  accidental  (iio- 
oliarges.  The  trigger  has  a  guard  which  protects 
thir  finger.i)iec('  from  injury,  and  from  accidental 
blows  that  might  produce  explosions.  'I'he  ramrod 
is  a  long,  slender  piece,  carried  with  an  arm;  with 
breech-loaders  it  is  only  eniploye<l  to  wipi;  out  the 
barrel  to  remove  from  it  any  obstruction,  as  a  defec- 
tive cartridge-shell.  Hee  Small-nrmii,  and  Mpring. 
field  Rifle. 

PORTABLE  FOBGE.-Alight  and  compact  black- 
siiiitli's  forge,  with  bellows  or  lilowers,  etc.,  all  so 
arranged  as  to  be  readily  movi'd  from  place  to  place. 
Kig.  1,  shows  a  most  complete  jxirtable  forge,  de- 
signed for  army  usage.  Its  height  is  22  inches ; 
size  of  firepan,  22x'-i7  inches,  weight,  20()  pounds ; 
and  diameter  of  the  fan  9  inches.  The  firepan  is 
made  of  wrought-iron.  and  is  10  inches  deep,  con- 
taining all  till'  other  p:irts  of  the  forge  when  packed 
for  transjjortation.  The  blower  and  gearing  are 
compactly  framed  together,  and  lit  into  a  slot  on  the 


Fig.  1. 

end  of  the  forge  when  in  use.  It  has  the  chain  gear- 
ing described  under  Riveting  Forge.  The  legs  made 
of  angle  iron,  fit  into  slots  at  the  comers  of  the  fire- 
pan.  The  tuyere-box  fits  into  a  slot  under  the  hearth, 
which  is  made  of  heavy  cast-iron,  and  is  bolted  to  the 
bottom  of  the  firepan.  The  lid  of  the  firepan  is  made 
of  heavy  sheet-iron,  and  so  attached  by  strong  hinges, 
that  when  the  forge  is  in  use,  it  is  raised  perpen- 
dicularly, forming  a  back  or  a  fender.  The  forge 
can  be  set  up  for  use,  or  packed  for  transportation 
in  one  minute.   To  pack  the  forge  for  transportation. 


as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  the  blower  and  gearing,  the  legs 
and  tuyere-box  are  withdrawn  from  their  slots,  and 
with  the  short  blast  pipe,  are  placed  in  the  firepan. 
The  falling  doors  at  the  sides  of  the  firepan  are 
closed  and  fastened.  The  lid  is  shut  down,  and  fa.«- 
tened  by  a  hasp.  The  entire  forge  thus  packed  oc- 
cupies a  space  only  22  X '^7  inches   square  and  10  ia- 


PORTABLE  MAGAZINE. 


564 


POSITION  OF  THE  SOLDIEB. 


ches  deep.  This  forge  will  produce  a  quick  welding 
heat  on  iron  three  inches  diameter,  and  on  larger 
iron  if  required,  as  there  is  an  abundance  of  spare 
blast. 

PORTABLE  MAGAZINE.— A  wooden  box  or  metal- 
liueil  case,  covered  with  canvas,  aud  of  such  size  as 
to  be  easily  carried  in  a  battery  from  place  to  place 
when  there  is  only  one  expense  magazine  for  several 
batteries ;  but  this  would  scarcely  ever  be  the  case 
in  the  future,  as  expense  magazines  in  the  present 
fortifications  are  provided  in  the  proportion  of  1  to 
every  4  or  5  guns,  or  in  the  case  of  very  heavy  guns, 
1  to  evcrv  2  or  3. 

PORT  "arms.— This  old  command  in  musketry 
drill,  is  derived  from  p"Hare.  to  carry,  and  applies 
to  a  motion  in  which  the  tire-arm  is  brouglit  to  a 
slanting  position  in  front  of  the  body,  lock  to  the 
front,  the  barrel  crossing  opposite  the  front  of  the 
left  shnulder.     See  Arms  Port. 

PORTATE.— In  Heraldry,  borne  not  erect,  but 
athwart  an  escutcheon ;  as,  a  portate  cross. 
PORTCULLIS.— A  b  irrier,  termed  a  porUullh,  which 
can  be  lowered  or  raised  vertically  by  machinery,  is 
sometimes  added  to  secure  a  passage-way  from 
surprise.  The  ancient  portcullis  was  a  framework 
of  heavy  beams,  placed  vertically,  leaving  a  few 
inches  only  between  each  pair  of  beams.  Tfiese  ver- 
tical beams  were  either  solidly  confined  between  hor- 
izontal beams,  or  clamping- 
pieces,  in  pairs;  or  else  they 
were  so  arranged  that  they 
rould  slide  upwards  between 
the  clamping-pieces.  Each 
of  the  vertical  beams  was  shod 
at  the  bottom  with  a  strong 
pointed  iron  shoe.  The  hori- 
zontal pieces  were  framed  se- 
curely with  two  heavy  vertical 
beams  that  formed  the  sides  of  the  frame,  aud  were 
fitted  into  vertical  grooves  made  in  the  side  walls 
of  the  passage-way  "in  which  the  frame  could  slide 
when  raised  or  lowered.  By  arranging  the  vertical 
beams  to  slide  upwards  between  the  clamping-pieces, 
it  enabled  the  passage-way  to  be  closed  where  an  ob- 
struct ion  might  be  designedly  placed  before  the  port- 
cullis to  prevent  this  being  done;  as  the  beams  which 
meet  the  obstruction  would  be  pushed  upwards, 
whilst  the  others  would  fall  to  their  ordinary  level 
and  close  the  passage-way  on  each  side  of  the  ob- 
struction. 

In  the  works  recently  constructed  with  us  the  port- 
cullis, and  even  the  doors  preceding  them,  have 
been  constructed  of  a  strong  open  lattice-work  of 
wrought-iron  bars  bolted  strongly  to  the  wrought- 
iron  uprights  and  cross-pieces,  forming  the  frame- 
work of  tlie  lattice.  Tliis  is  a  great  improvement 
for  these  purposes,  both  as  to  durability  and  defense. 
Passage-ways  of  this  description  should  l)e  secured 
by  all  tlie  means  at  an  engineer's  disposal.  A  large 
guard-room,  with  loop-holes  bearing  on  the  passage, 
should  be  erected  on  one  side,  near  the  gateway; 
and  if  the  enceinte  is  a  simple  one,  w>tliout  outworks 
beyond  its  ditch,  a  small  lunette,  or  loopholed  tam- 
bour of  masonry,  or  tindier,  should  be  constructed 
beyond  the  coun1crscar]i,  fdrming  a  tete-de-pont,  for 
the  security  of  the  liridge  from  surprise. 

2.  In  Heraldry,  the  portcullis  is  represented  with 
rings  at  its  uppermost  angles,  from  which  chains  de- 
pend on  either  side.  It  was  a  badge  of  the  JSeaufort 
family,  and  borne  in  virtue  of  their  Beaufort  descent 
by  the  Tudor  Sovereigns.  Portcullis  is  the  title  of  a 
pursuivant  in  the  Kuglisli  College  of  Arms,  whose 
oriicr  was  iiisiituted  by  Henry  VH. 

PORTER  BAR.  In  iron  working,  when  a  mass  is 
too  large  to  be  handled  conveuienily  with  the  tongs, 
a  large  iron  rod,  called  the  porter-bar,  is  welded  to 
it  to  serve  as  a  porter  or  guide-rod.  Somc'.inu's  a 
part  of  tlie porler-bar  is  made  to  fo;-ni  the  core  of  the 
forging,  and  the  slalis  of  iron  which  form  the  forg- 
ing arc  welclcd  ;iii(l  liuilt  up  on  the  bar.       When  the 


Width. 

Depth.  Weight 

9.1 

.5.1            38 

0.1 

10.1            70 

-The  name  formerly  given 


mass  of  iron  is  too  large  to  be  handled  by  the  forge- 
man,  it  is  supported  by  a  crane,  which  .serves  to 
swinii:  it  from  the  lire  to  the  hammer.    SeellfWmjr. 

PORT-FIRE.— A  sort  of  slow  match  for  tiring  guns. 
It  consists  of  a  paper  tube  from  10  to  20  inches  in 
length,  filled  with  a  composition  thus  proportioned: 
Saltpeter  GOG  parts,  sulphur  222  parts,  mealed  gun- 
powder 112  parts.  The  composition  is  rammed  with 
force  into  the  paper  barrel,  and  then  when  ignited  it 
burns  for  a  considerable  period.  As  a  substitute 
ma3'  be  employed  soft  brown  paper  dipped  in  a  solu- 
tion of  two  ounces  of  niter  to  a  gallon  of  water,  dried, 
and  rolled  up  to  the  size  of  a  common  port-fire.  An- 
other port-fire  consists  of  a  rod  cut  square,  of  lime, 
birch,  or  poplar,  boiled  for  six  hours  in  a  solution 
formed  by  dissolving  1  lb.  of  nitrate  of  lead  in  one 
quart  of  water.  The  rod  is  subsequently  boiled  in 
spirits  of  turpentine.  When  thoroughly  dried,  one 
yard  will  burn  three  hours. 

Port-fires  are  packed  in  boxes  containing  100  or 
200.  The  contents  of  the  box  should  be  marked  in 
white  letters  on  each  end,  aud  the  place  and  date  of 
fabrication  on  the  inside  of  the  cover.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  particulars  of  the  packing-boxes  for  port- 
fires. 

Length. 
For  100  port-fires,      18 
For  200  port-fires,      18 

See  Firfirorks. 

PORT-FIRE  CLIPPEK.- 
to  the  cutting  implement  which  was  fixed  on  the  off 
side  of  the  beam  trail  of  a  gun  carriage,  for  cutting 
off  the  lighted  end  of  the  port-fire.  Port-fires  being 
no  longer  in  use,  except  on  emergency,  and  having 
been  superseded  by  friction  tubes,  the  sockets  and 
cutters  have  been  removed  from  all  artillery  car- 
riages. 

PORT-FIRE  CUTTER  — An  implement  for  cutting 
port-fires  to  place  in  shells  or  for  other  purposes.  It 
is  simply  a  strong  pair  of  steel  scissors,  with  an  in- 
dentation one  inch  wide  and  four  inches  deep  made 
in  one  of  the  blades  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the 
port-fire. 

PORTGLAVE.  —  An  ancient  name  for  a  sword- 
bearer. 

POSITION  OF  THE  SOLDIER.— When  dismounted, 
the  proper  pondliou  of  the  soldier  is  as  follows:  Heels 
on  the  same  line,  aud  as  near  each  other  as  the  con- 
formation of  the  man  permits.  The  feet  turned  out 
equally,  and  lorming  with  each  other  an  angle  of 
about  sixty  degrees.  The  knees  straight,  without 
stiffness.  The  body  erect  on  the  hips,  inclining  a 
little  forward.  The  shoulders  square,  and  falling 
equally.  The  arms  hanging  naturally.  The  elbows 
near  tiie  body.  The  palms  of  the  hand  turned  slight- 
ly to  the  frcmt,  the  little  fingers  behind  the  seams  of 
the  trousers.  The  head  erect  and  square  to  the  front. 
The  chin  slightly  drawn  in,  without  constraint.  The 
eyes  straight  to  the  front,  and  striking  the  ground  at 
about  the  distance  of  fifteen  yards. 

These  points  will  lie  belter  imder.stood  by  a  refer- 
ence to  the  following  remarks  :  lleils  on  Vie  mine 
line.  If  one  be  in  rear  of  tlie  other,  the  shoulder  on 
that  side  will  be  thrown  back,  and  the  position  con- 
strained. Ileili  mure  or  lexs  rhmil.  Slen  who  are 
knock-kneed,  or  who  have  legs  with  large  calves, 
cannot,  without  constraint,  make  their  heels  touch 
while  standing.  Feet  turned  out  erjiiolli/,  and  not 
fiirming  too  large  an  angle.  If  one  foot  be  turned 
out  more  than  the  other,  the  shoulders  will  be  de- 
ranged, anil  if  both  feet  be  too  niucli  turned  out,  it 
wili  lie  iiiipc\  siblc  to  incline  the  up]ii'r  ]>art  of  the 
body  fcirward  without  making  the  whole  position 
unsteady.  Knees  straight,  iritlioiit  stiffness.  If  stift'- 
ened,  cinistraint  and  fatigue  will  be  ■.mavoidablc. 
liody  erect  on  tlie  hips.  This  gives  equilibrium  to  the 
position.  The  Instructor  will  ob.servc,  that  many  re- 
cruits have  the  liad  haliit  of  drojiping  a  shoulder  or 
advancing  a  hip,  These  defects  he  will  labor  to  cor- 
rect.      The  upjier  part  of  body  incting  Jbrirard.     lie- 


POSITIONS. 


565 


POSITIONS. 


criiit.s  are  commonly  disposed  to  the  reverse,  to  pro- 
ject the  belly  and  throw  back  the  shoulders,  which 
causes  i^rc'at  ijicoMveiiieiice  in  MiarchiriiT.  'I"he  habit 
of  inclining;  forward  Ihc  upper  |)art  of  thi'  body  is  so 
important  to  contract,  that  tin-  Inslructor  must  en- 
force it  from  the  beninnirif;,  parlicularly  with  re- 
cruits who  have  naturally  the  o])posite  tendency. 
tS/ii/ii/.(liri  Kf/miri\  If  the  shoulilers  be  advanceil  be- 
yond the  line  of  the  breast,  and  tlie  bacU  arched 
(the  defiM-l  callril  round-shoulilereil  i.  the  man  can- 
Miit  alii;n  himself  nor  us<'  his  arms  with  address. 
I'nless  the  coat  tits  easily  about  the  shoidders  and 
arm]iits,  it  will  he  ditlicult  to  correct  this  defect. 
The  shoulders  must  not  hi'  tlirown  too  far  back,  as 
this  will  mak('  the  belly  project,  and  curve  tlie  small 
<»f  the  back.  Arinn  JniiKjinti  nntur'flli/;  rthiurM  iti'iir 
I  hi'  hiiilij:  polmn  nf  tin  Juin  ils  I  urn  id  filii/htlj/'J/i  llie  fnrnt; 
null'  finyerx  heJiind  tlir  maiiiH  of  tin-  trou«i'n.  These 
positions  prevent  tlie  men  from  occupyinj;  unneces- 
sary space  in  the  ranks,  and  keep  in  the  shoulders. 
lleailtrcet  and  Mpiare  to  the  front;  cJihiKliglitly  ilniirn 
in  irilhimt  atnstraint.  If  tluTe  be  stiffness  in  these 
posili(ms,  it  will  be  coinnuinicated  tollie  upper  [jart 
of  the  body,  embarrass  its  movements,  andi;ive  jiain 
and  fatii^iie.  Kifix  xtrnhjhtto  thv  frmit.  Tliis  is  the 
surest  way  of  maintainim;  tlie  shoulders  in  a  lini — an 
essential  oliject  to  be  insisted  upon  and  attained. 

When  mounted  (horse  unsaddled)  the  proper  posi- 
tion of  the  soldier  is  as  follows:  Tlie  buttocks  bear- 
ini;  equally  ujion  the  horse's  back, and  as  far  forward 
as  |)ossible.  The  thijilis  turned  upon  their  Hat  side 
without  etfort,  embracini^  the  horse  equally,  and 
stretched  only  by  their  <iwn  weiijht  and  that  of  the 
lejjs.  The  knees  bent  without  stilVncss.  The  leirs  and 
feet  free,  and  falliii;;  naturally,  the  feet,  jiarallel  to 
the  horse.  The  body  erect  and  unconstiaiiied.  The 
slioulders  e()ually  thrown  back.  The  arms  free,  the 
elbows  fallinsr  naturally.  The  head  erect,  square  to 
the  front,  and  without  constraint.  One  rein  in  each 
hanil,  the  rein  comins;  into  the  closed  hand  on  the 
si(h'  of  the  little  tinjxer.and  passinu;  (Hit  over  the  first 
tiiij?er,ou  which  the  thumb  is  |iressed,the  hijiht  (end) 
of  the  reins  falliiii:  to  the  front  and  b<-tween  the  right 
rein  and  the  horse's  neck;  the  hands  as  hisih  as  the 
elbows,  and  six  inches  apart;  the  fingers  turned  to- 
ward  each  other. 

These  points  will  be  better  understood  by  a  refer- 
ence to  the  followini;  remarks;  Buttnehi  hearing  e- 
qiiiiUy  upon  the  hm'xt'n  hitrk.  If  they  do  not  sujiport 
equally  the  weight  of  the  bod}',  its  steadiness  will  be 
impaired.  As  furforinird  as  pr'niiible.  That  the  thighs 
may  readily  clasp  the  horse.  Thighs  turned  upon  their 
Jtiitside.irithinit  ejf'ort.eml/raeitig  the  horse  eijiiaUp.  The 
more  tlie  thighs  adhere  to  the  Iiorse,  the  greater  is 
the  stability  of  the  rider;  if  they  do  not  clasp  the 
horse  equally,  the  seat  will  be  der;uigetl.  Stretched 
only  hy  their  mm  weight,  iind  that  of  the  ligs.  If  they 
do  not  fall  naturally,  they  can  only  lie  extended  by 
an  effort,  which  will  cause  constraint.  Kiwes  bent 
■inthout  stiffness.  To  give  facility  in  carrying  the  legs 
more  orless  to  the  rear,  without  deranging  the  posi- 
tion of  the  thighs.  Legs  and  feet  free,  and  falling 
■naturally:  feet  parallel  to  the  horse.  Stiffness  in  the 
legs  will  impair  their  action  ;  if  the  feet  be  parallel 
to  the  horse,  the  thighs  will  be  in  proper  position. 
liody  i-reet  and  unennstrained.  This  gives  ease,  and 
enables  it  to  conform  with  suppleness  to  the  motions 
of  the  horse.  S/io'ilders  er/iially  throirn  bark.  If  thrown 
forward, the  back  will  be  curved,  and  the  breast  con- 
tracted; if  not  thrown  back  equally,  the  position  of 
the  body  will  lie  distorted.  Anns  free,  and  elboics 
fiitliny  naturally.  That  the)-  may  contribute  to  the 
steadiness  of  tlie  seat, and  not  stiffen  tiie  shoulders  or 
forearms.  Head  erert.  sr/iiare  to  the  ront,  and  irith- 
out  ronstraint.  If  not  erect,  the  body  will  incline  to 
one  side;  if  there  be  stiffness, it  will  be  communicat- 
ed to  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  and  prevent  the 
head  fnnii  iiiovins  with  freedom. 

POSITIONS.-  The  skill  of  the  Engineer  is  chieHy 
shown  in  adapting   tlic   resources  of  his  art  to   the 


great  variety  of  topograpliical  feuturcH  met  witli  in 
the  positions  that  an  army  is  necessuriiy  obliged  lo 
occupy  wh<n  acting  on  the  defi'nsive.  No  less  skill 
is  called  for  on  the  jiart  of  the  General  in  the  selec- 
tion of  his  defensive  jioints,  as  no  engineering  skill 
can  remedy,  in  other  than  a  defective  manner,  a 
position  which  is  strongly  coinmaniled  by  points 
which  the  assailed  can  occupy  within  good  cannon 
range,  or  tin-  flanks  of  which  can  be  readily  turned. 
To  fortify  similar  jxisitions  demands  a  degree  of 
effort  in  the  invers<'  ratio  of  their  strength,  ami  for 
the  most  part  is  but  labor  in  vain.  Two  principal 
questions  present  themselves  in  a  strictly  defensive 
war;  the  one  strati giriil,  the  other  tarXieeil.  The  first 
is  based  upon  the  general  features  of  the  territory  to 
be  defended  as  affecting  the  ojierations  of  the  assail- 
ing force,  and  the  system  of  w;irfare  the  liest  adap- 
t<'dto  the  assailed;  tlie  second  on  the  particular  tojK)- 
grajiliiial  features  of  the  positions  where  resistance 
is  to  be  made.  The  first  attention, will  naturally  be 
given  to  the  system  of  defense  for  the  frontier, 
whether  one  or  more  strong  jioints  shall  be  alone  oc- 
cupied from  which  the  assailed  can  be  ob.servcd;  or 
wlKther  a  continued  line  of  natural  and  artificial  ob- 
stacles sh.-ill  be  ])resentedto  obstruct  the  movements 
of  the  invading  force.  Although  opinion  is  against 
the  latter  method,  the  question  is  one  that  cannot 
be  decided  in  an  absolute  manner.  The  numbers 
and  quality  of  the  army  on  the  defensive :  polit- 
ical as  well  as  numerois  military  considerations  ; 
the  character  of  the  frontier  in  great  detail :  the 
facilities  for  the  rajiid  concentratiim  of  the  troops: 
and  the  security  of  the  line  of  retreat  have  an  impor- 
tant bearing  u|>oii  it  and  at  all  times  demand  the 
most  careful  consideration.  That  a  very  extended 
line  is  n<'cessarily  a  weak  one  is  generally  admitted; 
still  a  system  of  continued  lines,  ina  countrj' difficult 
to  penetrate,  may  be  nsed  with  advantage,  and  if 
weak  when  assailed  by  a  strcjng  force,  may  serve  as 
an  obstruction  to  a  weak  one,  and  be  i)articiilarly 
serviceable  agaiuts  niids.  Such  a  line  may  be  made 
to  play  the  s;ime  p:irt  as  the  lines  thrown  u])  in  siege 
operations  to  prevent  the  garrison  besieged  from 
obtaining  succor  or  supiilies  by  detachments  trying 
to  penetrate  them.  The  tactical  considerations  are 
the  same  in  the  application  of  field  fortifications 
a  position  as  for  the  distribution  of  troops  for  its 
defense.  Their  principal  value  depends  upon  the 
character  of  the  site  itself.  If  it  has  the  (|ualitiesof 
a  good  defensive  field  of  battle,  and  lends  itself  to 
such  a  disposition  of  intrenchments  as  the  troops 
themselves  would  naturally  assume,  then  the  essen- 
tial tactical  considerations  can  be  secured.  In  all 
such  cases  both  the  plan  and  the  command  of  the 
s\-stem  employed  must  be  subordinate  to  the  site:  to 
attempt  more  than  this  would  require  the  time  and 
means  far  beyond  the  command  of  an  army  in  the 
field. 

Positions  derive  their  great  importance  from  the 
influence  of  fire-arms  in  the  decision  of  liattles; 
for  whatever  enables  one  party  to  deliver  its  fire 
with  effect  against  the  other,  whilst  it,  at  the  same 
time,  remains  sheltered  in  any  degree  from  that  of 
its  adversary,  places  the  advantage,  all  other  things 
being  equal,  greatly  on  its  side:  and  it  is  this  advan- 
tage which  should  be  principally  kept  in  view  in 
selecting  a  position.  Woods,  commanding  heightx, 
preripires.  and  villages,  constitute  the  strong  points 
of  a  position.  They  .serve  as  points  of  support 
against  which  the  wings  of  the  army  rest:  or  else,  by 
covering  parts  of  the  front, they  may  serve  as  tiie  key 
points  in  the  defense.  A  wood,  if  properly  in- 
trenched, covers  the  infantry  from  the  attacKS  of 
cavalry;  conceals  its  maneuvers,  and  enables  it  to 
deliver  its  fire  without  being  exposed  to  that  of  the 
enemy.  Heights,  by  giving  a  commanding  view  of 
the  surrounding  ground,  increase  both  the  range  and 
the  effects  of  fire-arms;  whilst  they,  at  the  .same 
time,  serve  to  screen  the  troops  behind  them  until 
thev  are  required  to  be  brought  into  action.     Preci- 


POSITIVE  FEED. 


566 


POSSE  C0MITATU8. 


pices  offer  similar  advantages  to  heights,  and  are 
moreover  unassailable.  \  illages  serve  as  secure 
shelters  for  detarlimeuts,  which,  by  their  fire,  cover 
the  maneuvers  of  the  troops  in  their  rear;  and,  if 
properly  intrenched,  will  cause  the  enemy  great  loss 
in  his  effort  to  force  his  way  into  them.  Ewers, 
marshes,  fiollmos  and  ravines,  are  the  most  luifavor- 
able  features  of  a  position,  because  they  may  pre- 
vent a  free  circulation  from  one  point  to  another,  and 
thus  impede  the  maneuvers;  and  they  are  exposed 
to  the  full  fire  of  the  enemj'.  They  may,  however,  Ije 
of  service  when  they  are  so  placed  as  to  support  the 
wings,  or,  when  the  position  being  too  extended  for 
the  number  of  troops,  they  render  parts  of  the  front 
unassailable.  The  best  positions  are  those  which, 
being  in  due  proportion  to  the  force  by  which  they 
are  occupied,  command  all  the  surrounding  ground 
within  cannon  range,  the  ground  descending  in  a 
gentle  slope  to  the  front,  presenting  woods,  villages, 
etc.,  to  support  the  wings  and  cover  parts  of  the 
front,  and  admitting  of  a  free  circulation  from  one 
point  to  another,  with  secure  communications  in 
their  rear  in  case  of  retreat.  If  with  these  advantag- 
es, they  present  marshes,  or  other  obstacles,  which 
will  embarrass  the  enemy's  movements,  and  force 
him  to  advance  in  column,  exposed  to  the  fire  and 
free  maneuvers  of  the  assailed,  they  will  unite 
everything  desirable  in  a  favorable  field  of  battle. 

POSITIVE  FEED.— The  earlier  model  Galling  guns 
had  cartridges  fed  to  them  by  means  of  feed  cases, 
or  b}'  a  drum ,  but  recently  a  new  method  for  supply- 
ing the  cartridges  to  the  gun  has  been  devised,  which 
is  positive  and  certainin  its  action.  In  the  old  methods 
of  supplying  ammunition  to  the  gun,  it  was  possible 
for  the  cartridges  to  jam  in  feeding  down  from  the 
feed  cases  into  the  carrier  or  receiver,  but  in  this 
newly-improved  feed,  the  mechanism  never  loses 
control  of  the  cartridges  from  the  time  they  leave 
the  feed  magazine,  until  they  enter  the  chambers, 
are  loaded,  fired,  and  the  empty  cases  extracted. 
With  this  new  feed,  it  is  impossible  for  the  gun  to 
fail  in  its  operation,  even  when  it  is  worked  by  men 
unacquainted  with  its  use.  This  new  improvement 
not  only  greatly  increases  the  rapidit}'  and  certainty 
of  fire,  but  enables  the  gun  to  be  fired  at  the  rate  of 
over  1,200  shots  per  minute,  and  at  all  degrees  of 
elevation  or  depression,  which  is  something  no  other 
machine  gun  can  do.  By  firing  the  gun  at  proper 
elevations,  ascertained  by  means  of  a  quadrant,  the 
bullets  disciiargcd  from  it  can  be  made  to  fall  upon 
men  beliind  breastworks,  or  entrenchments,  at  .all 
distances,  from  200  to  3500  3ards  from  the  gun. 
This  "  high  angle,"  or  "  mortar"  fire,  adds  greatly 
to  the  effectiveness  of  the  gun,  and  will,  no  doubt, 
prove  of  inestiniiible  value  in  future  warfare.  Ex- 
periments have  proved  that  musket-size  balls,  fired 
from  a  Gatling  gun  at  high  angles,  strike  the  ground 
with  sufficient  force  to  penetrate  from  two  to  three 
inches  of  timber.  About  1,200  shots  per  minute  can 
be  fired  from  the  gun,  raining  down  a  hailstorm  of 
bullets  on  the  heads  of  men  behind  entrenchments, 
thus  making  such  positions,  in  a  short  space  of 
time,  untenable.  Open  breastworks,  or  uncovered 
entrenclunents,  would  furnish  little  or  no  protection 
totriKips   aitainst  llicrtre  of  this  forniidabh-  weapon. 

POSSE  COMITATUS.— A  Sheriff  or  .Marsh;il,  for  the 
purpiise  of  kei'piiig  the  peace  and  i>ursuing  felons, 
in;iy  ccjmmaud  ;ill  the  people  of  his  county,  above  15 
years  old,  to  attend  hiin,  which  is  called  the  Posse 
Comitntus,  or  Power  of  the  County. 

It  is  not  lawfid  to  cnii)loy  any  part  of  the  Army  of 
the  United  States,  as  a  Posse  Comitatus,  or  other- 
wise, for  the  i)urpose  of  executing  the  laws,  except  in 
such  cases  and  under  such  circumstances  assuch  em- 
ployment of  said  force  miiy  be  expresslj-  authorized 
bylhe  (..'onslitulion  or  liy  some  special  Act  of  Con- 
gress ;  and  no  money  appropriated  is  used  to  pay  the 
expenses  of  any  kind  incurred  in  the  eniployinent 
of  any  troops  in  violation  of  this  law;  and  any  person 
willfully  violating  the  same  is  deemed  guilty  of  a 


misdemeanor,  and  on  conviction  thereof  is  punished 
by  fine  not  exceeding  ten  thousand  dollars  or  impris- 
onment not  exceeding  two  years,  or  by  both  such 
fine  and  imprisonment.  The  provisions  of  the  Con- 
stitution and  of  Acts  of  Congress  understood  as  in- 
tended to  be  excepted  from  the  operation  of  this  law, 
authorizing  the  employment  of  the  military  forces 
for  the  purpose  of  executing  the  laws,  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  The  United  States  guarantees  to  every  State  in 
this  Union  a  republican  form  of  government,  and 
protects  each  of  them  against  invasion;  and  on  appli- 
cation of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive  (when 
the  Legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against  domes- 
tic violence. 

2.  It  is  lawful  for  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  or  such  persons  as  he  may  empower  for 
that  purpose,  to  employ  such  part  of  the  land  or 
naval  forces  of  the  United  States,  or  of  the  militia, 
as  may  be  necessary  to  aid  in  the  execution  of  judi- 
cial process  issued  under  any  of  tlie  provisions  of 
the  ■' Civil  Rights"  bill,  or  as  shall  be  necessary  to 
prevent  the  violation,  and  enforce  the  due  execution  of 
the  same. 

3.  No  military  or  naval  officer,  or  other  person 
engaged  in  the  civil,  military,  or  naval  service 
of  the  United  States,  can  order,  bring,  keep,  or 
have  under  his  authority  or  control,  any  troops  or 
armed  men  at  the  place  where  any  general  or  special 
election  is  held  in  any  State,  unless  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  repel  tlie  armed  enemies  of  the  United  States, 
or  to  keep  the  peace  at  the  polls. 

4.  The  military  forces  of  the  United  States  may  be 
employed  at  any  time  in  such  manner  and  under  such 
regulations  as  the  President  may  direct — First.  In 
the  apprehension  of  every  person  who  may  be  in 
the  Indian  country  in  violation  of  ihe  law ;  and 
in  conveying  him  immediately  from  the  Indian 
country,  by  the  nearest  convenient  and  safe  route, 
to  the  civil  authority  of  the  Territory  or  judicial 
district  in  which  such  person  shall  be  found,  to 
be  proceeiled  against  in  due  course  of  law;  Second. 
In  the  examination  and  seizure  of  stores,  packages, 
and  boats,  authorized  by  law;  Third.  In  preventing 
the  introduction  of  persons  and  property  into  the  In- 
dian country  contrary  to  law;  which  persons  and 
property  shall  be  proceeded  against  according  to  law; 
Fourth.  And  also  in  destro3'ing  and  breaking  up  any 
distillery  for  manufacturing  ardent  spirits  set  up  or 
continued  within  the  Indian  country.  No  person 
apprehended  by  militarj'  force  under  the  preceding 
laws  can  be  detained  longer  than  five  days  after  ar- 
rest and  before  removal.  All  officers  and  soldiers 
who  may  have  any  such  person  in  custody  shall  treat 
him  with  all  the  humanity  which  the  circumstances 
will  permit.  The  superintendents,  agents,  and  sub- 
agenis,  endeavor  to  procure  the  arrest  and  trial  of 
all  Indians  accused  of  committing  any  crime,  offense, 
or  misderaeaner,  and  of  all  other  persons  who  may 
have  committed  crimes  or  offenses  within  any  State 
or  Territory,  and  have  fled  into  the  Indian  country, 
either  by  demanding  the  same  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
proper  tribe,  or  by  such  other  means  as  the  Presi- 
dent ma)'  authorize.  The  President  may  direct  the 
military  force  of  the  United  States  to  be  employ- 
ed in  the  appreliension  of  such  Indians,  and  also  in 
preventing  or  terminating  hostilities  between  any  of 
the  Indian  tril)es. 

5.  The  President  is  authorized  to  employ  so  much 
of  the  laud  and  naval  forces  of  the  I'nited  States  as 
may  be  necessary  effectually  to  prevent  the  felling, 
cutting  down,  or  other  destruction  of  the  timber  of 
the  United  States  in  Florida, and  toiirevent  tlie  trans- 
portation or  carrying  away  any  such  timlicr  as  may 
be  already  felled  or  cut  down  :  and  to  take  such 
iilher  and  further  nu'asures  as  may  be  deemed  ad- 
visablf  for  tlie  preservation  of  the  limber  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  in  Florida. 

0.  Thequarantincs  and  other  restraints  established 
bv  the  healt  h  laws  of  any  State,  respecting  any  vessels 


POSSE  COMITATUS. 


5G7 


POSSE  COMITATUS. 


arriving  in,  or  lioiinil  to,  uiiy  port  unliHirict  thereof, 
arc  (Inly  olmcrvcil  by  tl"'  olllccrs  d!  Ilic  fiisloinH 
rcvcnui'  of  the  I'nitrd  Sliitcs,  liy  tlic  inaslcrH  jiiiil 
•  Tews  of  tlic  scvcnil  ri-vriiiic-ciillcrs.  iiiiil  liy  Ilic  mil- 
itary olticrrs  coiniimMiliii^j;  in  iinv  fort  or  sliilion  upon 
llie  seu-coasl ;  anil  all  Hncli  ohlcTS  of  the.  Uiiitc<l 
HiJites  faithfully  aid  in  the  CACiiilion  of  such  fpiur- 
ajvlincs  anil  hcallh-lawM,  ai-conlinf;  to  their  rcHpcclivc 
[KiwcrM  anil  within  their  rcsjjcctivc  precincts,  and  as 
they  shall  lie  ilirecled  from  lime  to  time,  by  the  Hec- 
retJiry  of  the  Treasury. 

7.  WhcMcvcr  any  ])iTson  is  ilelivered  by  any  foreifin 
jiovunment  to  an  ajjjcnl  of  the  I'niled  .Slates,  for  the 
Ijuri>"*'e  of  beini;  lirout'ht  within  the  l' lilted  States 
aiul  tried  for  any  crime  for  which  he  is  <luly  accused, 
tlu'  President  has  power  to  take  all  necessary  meas- 
ures for  the  transportation  and  safe-keepiuf;  of  such 
accused  person,  and  for  his  security  asiainst  lawless 
violence,  until  the  liiial  conclusion  of  his  trial  for  the 
crimes  or  offenses  specilied  in  the  warrant  of  extra- 
dition, and  until  his  linal  ilischari;e  from  <'Usloilyor 
imprisonment  for  or  on  account  of  such  crimes  or 
offenses, and  for  a  reasonable  time  th<Teafler. and  may 
employ  such  portion  of  the  land  or  naval  forces  of 
tlic  United  States,  or  of  the  militia  thereof,  as  may 
bi^  necessary  for  tlic  safe-keeping  and  protection  of 
tjie  accused. 

H.  Every  person  who,  within  the  territory  orjuris- 
fUction  of  the  United  States.  bei;ins.  or  sets  on  foot. 
or  provides  or  prepares  the  means  for,  any  military 
expedition  or  entcriirise.to  be  carrieil  on  from  thence 
against  the  territory  or  dominions  of  any  foreiirn 
prince  or  state,  or  of  any  colony,  district,  or  peo])le, 
with  whom  the  United  States  are  at  peace. is  deemed 
gtiilty  of  a  liiuli  niisdenieanor,  and  is  fined  not  e.\- 
ecedins;  three  thousatnl  dollars,  and  imprisoned  not 
more  than  three  years. 

t).  In  every  case  in  wliich  a  vessel  is  fitted  out  and 
armed,  or  attempted  to  be  fitted  out  and  armed,  or 
in  whicli  the  force  of  any  vessel  of  war,  cruiser,  or 
other  armed  vessel  is  increased  or  augmented,  or  in 
whidi  any  military  expedition  or  enterprise  is  bejrun 
or  set  on  foot,  contrary  to  the  provisions  and  pro- 
liibitions  of  the  Neutrality  Acts,  and  in  every  case 
of  the  capture  of  a  vessel  within  the  jurisdiction  or 
protection  of  the  United  States  asbeforedctined;  and 
in  every  case  in  which  any  process  issuing  out  of  any 
court  of  the  United  States  is  disobeyed  or  resisted 
by  any  person  having  the  custody  of  any  vessel  of 
war,  cruiser,  or  other  armed  vessel  of  any  foreign 
prince  or  state,  or  of  any  colony,  district,  or  people, 
or  of  any  subjects  or  citizens  of  any  foreign  prince 
or  state,  orof  any  colony,  district,  or  people,  it  is  law- 
ful for  the  President,  or  such  other  person  as  he 
shall  have  empowered  for  that  purpose,  to  employ 
such  part  of  the  land  or  naval  forces  of  the  United 
States,  or  of  the  militia  thereof,  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  possession  of  and  detaining  any  such  vessel, 
with  Tier  prizes,  if  any  ;  and  also  for  tiie  jiurpose  of 
preventing  the  carrying  on  of  any  such  exjiedition 
or  enterprise  from  the  territories  or  jurisdiction  of 
tlie  United  States  against  the  territories  or  dominions 
of  any  foreign  prince  or  state,  or  of  any  colony,  dis- 
trict, or  people  with  whom  the  United  States  are  at 
peace. 

10.  It  shall  be  lawful  fortlie  ['resident,  or  such  per- 
son as  he  shall  empower  for  that  purpose,  to  em- 
ploy such  i)art  of  the  land  or  naval  forces  of  the 
United  States,  or  of  the  militia  thereof,  as  shall  lie 
necessary  to  compel  any  foreign  vessel  to  depart  the 
United  States  in  all  cases  in  which,  by  the  laws  of 
nations  or  the  treaties  of  the  United  States,  she  ought 
not  to  remain  withiu  the  United  States. 

11.  In  case  of  an  insurrection  in  any  State.against 
the  governmer.l  thereof, it  is  lawful  for  the  President, 
on  application  of  the  I.igislaturc  of  sucli  State,  orof 
the  Executive,  when  the  Legislature  cannot  be  con- 
vened, to  call  forth  such  number  of  the  militia  of  any 
other  State  or  States,  whichniay  be  applied  for.as  he 
deems  sufficient  to  suppress  such  insurrection ;  or, 


on  like  application,  toernpl.oy,  for  the  same  piirpoHes, 
such  part  i/f  tin-  land  or  naval  forces  of  the  United 
States  as  he  deems  necessary. 

12.  Whenever,  by  reason  of  unlawful  obstructions, 
combinations,  or  as.semblages  of  persons, or  reljellion 
against  the  authority  of  the  Government  of  the  Uni- 
ted States.it  becomes  impracticable,  in  the  judgment 
of  the  President  .to  enforce, by  the  ordinary  course  of 
judicial  proceedings,  the  laws  of  the  United  States 
within  anv  SlatcorTerritory.it  is  lawful  for  the  Presi- 
dent lo/all  furl  h  the  militia  of  anv  or  all  the  States. and 
to  employ  such  jjarts  of  the  lanil  and  naval  forces  rjf 
the  United  Slates  as  he  may  deem  necessary  to  en- 
force the  faithful  <'xecution  of  the  laws  of  the  Unit- 
'  ed  States,  or  to  suppress  such  rebellion,  in  whatever 
State  or  Territory  thereof  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  may  be  forcibly  opposed,  or  the  execution 
thereof  forcibly  oljslructed. 

'      i;i.  Whenever  insurrection,  domestic  violence,  un- 
lawful combinations,  or  conspiracies  in  any  State  so 
olistructs  or  hinders  the  execution  of  tlie  law  th'jre 
of,  and  of  the  United  States,  as  to   deprive  any  por- 
l  tion  or  class  of  the  people  of  such  State   of  any  of 
the  rights,  privileges,  or  immunities,   or  protection, 
named  in  the  Constitution  and  secured   by  the  laws 
!  for  the  protection  of  such  rights,  privileges,   or  im- 
munities, and    the    constituted    authorities  of   such 
State  are  unatile  to  protect,  or.   from  an)'   cause  fail 
or  refuse   protection    of  the  people   in  such   rights, 
such  facts,  are  deemed  a  denial  by  such  State  of  the 
e(|ual  protection  of  the  laws  to   which  they  are  en- 
titled under  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  ; 
;  and  in  all  such  cases,  or  whenever  any  such  insur- 
rection, violence,  unlawful  combination,  or  conspir- 
i  acy,  opi)oses  or  obstructs   the  laws  of    the   United 
States,  or  the   due  execution   thereof,  fir  impedes  or 
I  obstructs  the  due  course  of  justice  under  the  same, 
I  it  is  lawful  for  the  President,  and  it   is  his  duty,  to 
!  take  such  measures,  by  the  employment  of  the  mili- 
,  tia  or  the  land  and  naval  forces  of  the  United  States, 
or  of  either,  or  by  other  means,  as  he  may  deem  nec- 
essary,  for  the  suppression   of  such     insurrection, 
domestic  violence,  or  combinations. 

14.  It  is  unlawful  to  take  any  vessel  or  cargo  de- 
tained under  section  9  from  the  custody  of  the  proper 
officers  of  tJie  customs,  unless  by  process  of   some 
]  court  of  the  United  States;  and  in  case  of  any  attempt 
I  otherwise  to  take  such  vessel  or  cargo  by  any  force. or 
j  combination.or  assemblage  of  persons. loo  great  to  be 
i  overcome  by  the  officers  of  the  customs. the  President, 
!  or  such  person  as  be  shall  have  empowered  for  that 
jmrpose.   may  employ    such  part  of  the  Army  or 
j  Navj'  or  militia  of  the  United  States,  or  such  force 
I  of  citizen  volunteers  as  may  be  necessary,  to  pre- 
j  vent  the  removal  of  such  vessel  or  cargo,  and  to  pro- 
I  tect  the  officers  of  the  customs  in  retaining  the  cus- 
tody thereof. 

1.5.  The  President  is  authorized,  at  his  discretion, 

!  to  employ  the  land  and  naval  forces  of  the  United 

!  States  to  protect  the  rights  of  the  discoverer  [of  a 

guano  island]  or  of  his  widow,   heir,  executor,  ad- 

'  ministrator,  or  assigns. 

j  Officers  of  the  Army  can  not  permit  the  use  of  tlie 
troops  under  their  command  to  aid  the  civil  author- 
ities as  a  Pu.ise  f'«;rt(tf'?i«  or  in  execution  of  the  lawj 
except  as  authorized  in  the  foregoing  enactments. 
If  time  will  admit,  the  application  for  the  use  ot 
troops  for  these  purposes  must  be  forwarded,  with 
a  statement  of  all  the  material  facts,  for  the  consi- 
deration and  action  of  the  President ;  but.  in  cases 
of  sudden  and  unexpected  invasion,  insurrection,  or 
riot,  endangering  the  public  property  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  cases  of  attempted  or  threatened  rob- 
berj-  or  interruption  of  the  United  States  mails,  or 
other  equal  emergency,  officers  of  the  Army  may, 
if  they  think  a  necessity  exists,  take  such  action  be- 
fore the  receipt  of  instructions  from  the  seat  of  Go- 
vernment as  the  circumstances  and  the  law  under 
which  they  are  acting  may  justify  ;  and  will  then 
promptly  report  their  action  and  the  reasons  there-. 


POST. 


568 


POST  FUND. 


for  to  the  Adjutant-General  for  the  information  of 
the  President.  See  Civil  Authority,  and  Execution 
of  Laws. 

POST. — 1.  A  soldier's  beat  while  on  sentry,  or  a 
position  assiijned  to  or  taken  up  by  a  soldier  or  body 
of  men  ;  it  generally  consists  of  an  entrenched  vil- 
lage or  position,  or  any  building  placed  in  a  state  of 
defense.  The  necessity  of  strengthening  a  post  is 
admitted  to  be  of  paramount  importance,  and  every 
endeavor  should  be  made  by  an  officer  in  command 
to  place  himself  in  such  a  defensive  position  as  shall 
prevent  his  being  taken  unawares,  or.  if  attacked, 
enable  him  to  make  a  good  fight.  Often  neither 
time,  material,  intrenching  tools,  nor  men,  will  per- 
mit of  solid  works,  such  as  a  redoubt  or  other  elab- 
orate field-works,  being  thrown  up,  but  it  is  possible, 
when  villages  or  detached  houses  are  occupied  by 
troops,  to  throw  up  temporary  cover  which  shall 
greatly  strengthen  the  position.  The  following  are 
principles  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  forming  a  post,  or 
in  strengthening  a  position  ;  1 — To  obtain  cover 
for  the  men  and  animals  from  the  enemy's  fire.  3 — 
To  enable  the  troops  to  fire,  in  the  most  advantageous 
manner,  on  the  ground  over  which  the  enemy  must 
advance.  3 — To  hinder  the  approach  of  the  enemy 
by  obstacles,  which,  even  if  surmountable,  shall  be 
sufficient  to  break  his  order  and  detain  him  for  some 
time  under  lire.  4 — To  enable  the  troops  to  pass  free- 
ly from  one  part  of  the  works  to  another,  in  order  to 
concentrate  (m  any  point  attacked.  5 — To  impede 
the  flank  movements  of  the  enemy  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, and  thus  prevent  his  different  parties  from  sup- 
porting each  other  effectually. 

2. — rust,  in  a  military  sense,  frequently  means  to 
station  ;  as,  to  post  a  sentinel  or  relief.  To  be  posted 
signifies  to  be  formed  ready  for  action.  Thus,  when 
troops  are  brought  up  in  column,  and  ordered  to  de- 
ploy, it  frequently  happens  that  some  part  of  the 
line  is  refused,  in  order  to  flank  an  enemj',  or  to 
cover  a  weak  position ;  the  part  that  is  aligned  is 
said  to  be  posted.  The  phrase  also  means,  in  a 
familiar  sense,  to  be  publicly  announced  as  an  in- 
famous or  degraded  character. 

3. — In  the  British  service,  the  term  Post  is  given 
to  the  bugling  which  precedes  the  tattoo.  This  is 
the  First  Post,  the  Last  Post  that  which  follows  it. 
See  Advanced  Post,  Garrison,  Military  Post,  Outpost, 
and  Station. 

POST  BAKER.— The  person  who  bakes  bread  for  a 
garrison.  In  the  United  States  service  the  Post 
Baker  is  an  enlisted  man,  who  receives  additional 
pay  for  his  labor. 

POST  CEMETERIES." The  Commanding  Officers  of 
all  posts,  situated  on  all  pulilic  lands  of  the  United 
States,  see  tliat  a  suitable  portion  of  sucli  land  is  set 
apart  and  propcrlj-  maintained  for  the  burial  of  de- 
ceased officers,  and  soldiers,  and  their  families,  and 
of  Government  emploj-es.  The  burial  ground  is  suit- 
ably and  securely  inclosed  with  the  best  material 
available— a  stone  or  adobe  brick  wall,  or  a  neat 
wooden  picket  fence — and  maintained  by  the  labor 
of  the  garrison.  At  each  grave  is  placed  a  head- 
board, plainly  marked  with  a  number,  and  with  the 
name,  company,  regiment,  and  date  of  <lealh  of  the 
occupant,  the  number  on  the  head-ljoard  to  corres- 
pond willi  the  number  on  the  record  of  burials.  The 
iiead-boards  are  about  four  feet  long,  ten  inches  wide, 
and  one  and  three-eighths  inch  thick;  and  stand  two 
feet  out  of  the  ground;  of  well-seasoned  wood,  and 
painted  with  three  coats  of  white  pamt ;  inscription 
in  black  Ictlers  one  inch  long.  The  w;ilks  are  about 
four  feet  wide,  neatly  rounded  up,  proiJerly  drained, 
and  graveled  wlien  the  material  is  at  hand.  Wliere 
practicable,  a  good  grass  sod  covers  all  the  rest  of 
the  ground,  including  the  graves  ;  and  native  trees 
and  shrubs  are  preserved  or  planted  for  ornament 
and  shade.  A  record  of  interments  is  kejit  at  each 
post  by  the  Acting  Assistant  Quartermaster  in  the 
form  on  page  Wi  ;  and  when  he  is  relieved,  is  turned 
over  by  him  to   his  successors;  and  if  the  post  be 


broken  up,  is  transmitted  to  the  Quartermaster  Gen- 
eral. 

A  list  of  the  names  of  those  buried  (including  a 
transcript  of  the  items  embraced  in  columns  1,2,  7, 
8,  9.  10,  11,  23.  and  2.'5)  is  forwarded  to  the  Quarter- 
master General  at  the  end  of  each  year. 

A  public  Cemetery  is  established  near  Salt  Lake 
City,  Utah,  underthe  provisions  of  an  Act  approved 
May  10,  1874.  This  Cemetery  is  under  control  of  a 
Board  of  which  the  Commanding  Officer.Camp  Dou- 
glas, Utah,  is  ex-offi'io  a  member.  See  Battle-groundi, 
Cemeteries,  National  Cemeteries,  and  Superintendent 
of  National  Cemeteries.  . 

POSTERN. — Posterns  are  arched,  bomb-proof  pass- 
age-ways constructed  under  the  terre-pleins  and  ram- 
parts, forming  subterranean  comnuu)ieat  ions  Ijet  ween 
the  parade  and  the  enceinte  ditch,  or  between  the 
ditches  and  the  interior  of  the  outworks.  The  width 
and  height  of  the  interior  of  posterns  depend  upon 
the  use  to  which  the  communication  is  to  be  applied. 
For  artillery  the  width  is  usually  taken  at  10  feet, 
and  the  height  under  the  crown  or  key  of  the  arch  at 
least  8  feet.  Posterns  for  infantry  may  be  only  from 
4  to  G  feet  wide,  and  from  G  feet  6  inches  to  8  feet 
high  under  the  crown  of  the  arch.  The  thickness  of 
the  piers  of  the  arches  is  generally  taken  at  about 
half  the  width  of  the  postern.  The  arches  are  from 
18  inches  to  two  feet  thick,  and  are  covered  with  a 
thickness  of  earth  sufficient  to  protect  them  from  any 
injury  from  shells  bursting  over  them.  A  strong 
wooden  door  is  placed  at  each  outlet  of  the  postern 
to  secure  it  against  surprise.  The  doorway  in  pos- 
terns for  tlie  service  of  artillery  should  be  of  just 
sufficient  height  for  the  convenient  passage  of  a  gun. 

The  most  important  postern  is  the  one  leading 
from  the  parade  to  the  main  ditch.  This  generally 
receives  a  width  of  12  feet  and  the  same  height  under 
the  crown.  For  greater  security  from  surprise,  its 
outlet  is  at  least  6  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch,  this  difference  of  level  being  overcome  by 
means  of  a  temporary  wooden  ramp  which  receives 
an  inclination  or  at  least  \.  Besides  two  strong 
doors  at  the  two  ends  of  the  postern,  there  is  a  par- 
tition of  masonry  about  midway  between  the  two 
ends,  which  is  pierced  with  a  doorway  of  the  same 
size  as  the  doorways  of  the  ends,  and  closed  by  a 
strong  door  which,  as  well  as  the  partition  wall,  is 
loop-holed  for  musketr}'. 

In  cases  where  the  postern  forms  the  main  en- 
trance to  the  work,  an  arched  chamber  is  placed  on 
one  side  of  it,  at  the  outlet,  which  serves  as  a  guard- 
room for  a  few  men,  to  secure  the  outlet  from  sur- 
prise. The  wall  between  this  chamber  and  the  pos- 
tern is  loop-holed,  so  that  a  flre  can  be  brought  to 
bear  on  the  doorway  of  the  postern;  and  as  a  further 
precaution  against  surprise  a  machicoulis  defense  is 
sometimes  arranged  at  the  top  of  the  scarp  wall  just 
above  the  doorway  of  the  postern.  See  Communi- 
cations, 

POST  FLAG.— In  the  United  States  Army,  the  Post 
Flag  is  the  National  Flag,  It  is  twenty  feet  fly  and 
ten  feet  hoist,  is  furnished  to  all  posts  garrisoned  by 
troops,  and  is  hoisted  onlj-  in  pleasant  weather.  See 
Flags. 

POST  FtJND.— In  the  United  States  Army,  a  fund 
constituted  by  the  troops  liaking  their  own  bread 
and  thereby  saving  33',  percent.,  the  difference  be- 
tween bresvl  and  Hour.  The  I'ost  Trader  also  pays 
an  assessment  of  10  cents,  or  less,  ii  month  for  every 
officer  and  soldier  in  the  garrison,  which  is  carried 
to  the  credit  of  the  I'ost  I'lind.  The  following  (ex- 
(■lusiv<'  of  sums  tnuisferred  to  the  regimental  fund) 
are  the  objects  to  which  the  Post  Fund  may  be  ap- 
propriated, and  Councils  will  give  them  precedence 
in  the  order  named:  1.  Kxpenses  of  bake-house. 
3.  Garden  seeds  and  utensils  (for  all  troops  serving 
at  the  post).  3.  Post  schools.  4.  Post  library  and 
reading-room.  .'i.  dynuiasinm.  Wlien  tlic  neces- 
sary material  anil  lalior  ;irc  in  thi'  I'ost  tjuiirternnis- 
ler's  Depart  menl,  and  can  be  spared  from  more  im- 


POST  OASSENS. 


')f;o 


POST  SCUOOLB. 


Record  of  Jieceam'd  Ojjkem  ami  NolUicrs  buried  by  ■ 

at , 


(^uartermaiiler,  U,  8.  A., 


^  . 

•a  .a 

E§ 

Is 

a  0. 

^5 

Number  and  locality  of 
the  grave. 

V 

■p. 

(A 

c 

m 

a 

i 

"S 

u 

1 

a 

a 
I" 

a 

n 

Coujugal    condition,   if 
married  or  single. 

Residence  of  widow. 

.d 

o 

'fi 

•t-i 

c 

& 

1? 

pi 

- 

i 

•3 

•c 

3 
.2 

5 
1 

o 

00 

if 

ss 
9 

a 

3 

a 

2 

a 

3 



4 

1 

5 

pq 


6 

7 

8 

C 

a 

s 
!^; 

9 

CO 
O 

3 

CO 

a 

d 
■<f 

a 

a 
1 

14 

d 

1 

13 

5 

18   . 

■c 

3 
« 

18   . 

1 

10 

u 

12 

18 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

30 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

portant  work,  the  neces.'<ary  apparatus  for  the  gym- 
nasium, and  for  such  games  and  exercises  as  the 
Council  niaj'  consider  desirable  for  the  health  and 
amusement  of  the  soldiers  at  the  post  may  be  con- 
structed by  the  Quartermaster's  Department,  fi. 
Chapel.  7.  For  fruit  and  shade  trees.  8.  For  fruit- 
bearing  vines  and  bushes.  9.  For  printing  press. 
The  Quartermaster  (iencral,  imder  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  War.  procures  and  forwards  to  the  ))ost 
librarian  such  periodicals  and  newspapers  as  Ids  ap- 
propriation for  incidental  expenses  can  afford  to 
pay  for,  or  school  books  in  lieu  of  periodicals, 
when  the  Post  Fund  is  not  sulticient  to  supply  I  hem 
and  the  post  does  not  ilesire  j^eriodicals.  The  pe- 
riodicals, newspapers  and  school  books  are  intended 
for  the  use  of  the  enlisteci  men,  and  nuist  not  be 
taken  from  the  library  or  school-room.  If  used  at 
all  by  olUeers  it  must  be  at  a  time  when  other  du- 
ties prevent  their  use  by  enlisted  men.  The  neces- 
sary school  books  for  soldiers  and  for  soldiers'  child- 
ren are  purchased  from  the  Post  Fund,  except  in 
cases  provided  for  in  the  foregoing  paragraph.  See 
Ctiinpany  Fund  and  liigiiiientiil  Fund. 

POST  GARDENS.— Coinm.inding  Officers.of  posts, 
at  or  near  wliich  suitable  public  lands  are  available, 
set  aside  for  Company  or  Post  Gardens  such  extent 
of  those  lands  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  produc- 
tion of  vegetables  for  the  command,  and  cause  the 
same  to  be  duly  cultivated  by  the  garrison,  and 
such  varieties  and  (plant  ities  of  vegetal)les  to  be  rai.s- 
ed  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  subsistence  or  health 
of  the  troops.  On  approved  requisitions,  the  Sub- 
sistence Department  procures  for  sale  to  companies 
or  posts,  seed  potatoes,  garden  seeds,  and  agricultur- 
al implements  necessary  forestablishing,cultivaling, 
and  perpetuating  companv  or  post  gardens.  Pav- 
meul  to  the  Subsistence  Department  forthe.se  articles,  , 
at  cost  price,  is  made  from  the  company  or  post 
fund.  The  Commissary  General  of  Subsistence  gives  : 
to  the  oltieers  of  his  Department  the  necessary  in- 
structions for  the  purchase  and  distribution  of  seeds 
and  agricultural  implements.  If  in  changes  of  sta- 
tion a  company  or  garrison  is  succeeded  by  another, 
the  latter  succeeds  to  the  garden  of  the  former,  re- 
imbursing the  fund  of  the  former  for  its  actual  ex- 
penditures for  seeds,  agricultural  im])lemcnts,  etc. 
Comman<iers  of  Divisions  and  Department  give 
such  detailed  instructions  as  may  be  necessary  for 
carrying  these  regulations  into  effect,  and  for  the 
proper  distributicni  of  products  of  gardens  among 
those  entitled  to  them.  Surplus  products  may  be 
sold,  and  the  proceeds  credited  to  the  post  fund,  or 


.ifiriiH>iTfran^4*ii^ 


divided  among  the  comi)any  funds  of  the  garrison, 
whichever  may  have  borne  the  expen.se  of  '.he  culti- 
vation. 

POST  OF  HONOR.— The  guard  in  the  advance.  The 
right  of  the  two  lines  is  also  the  post  of  honor,  and 
is  generally  given  to  the  eldest  corps:  the  left  is  the 
next  post,  and  is  given  to  tlie  next  eldest,  and  so  on. 
The  laws  of  military  disci))liue  forbid  an  inconven- 
ii'Ut  accordance  with  this  practice,  as  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case  may  reipiire  a  verv  different  ar- 
rans;emeiit,  which  it  wovild  be  wanton  to  oppose. 

POST  REVETMENT.— A  revetment  constructed  of 
posts  from  4  lot;  inches  in  diameter,  cut  into  lengths 
of  h.5  feet,  and  set   with  proper  slo])e,  in  close  con- 
tact, in  a  trench  two  feet  in  depth,  at  the  foot  of  the 
breast-height.     The  tops  of  the  posts,  if  not  already 
so,  are  sawed  off  level,  to  receive  a  horizontal  cap- 
'  ping  piece,    wbicli  Ls  spiked   on.     Anchor   ties    are 
dove-tailed  Into  the  cap  and 
secured  to  an  anchor  log  Im- 
bedded In  the  parapet.     On 
top  of  the  cap  are  laid  sever- 
al  C(nirses    of   sods,  raising 
the  interior  crest  to  the  pro- 
per  height.     WItli  a   good  cpiality   of   timber   this 
revetment  is  durable.     It  is  easily  constructed,  and 
next  to  sods,  is  the  best.     Sec  licnUnent. 

POST  SCHOOLS.— Schools  are  established  at  all  the 
posts,  garrisons,  and  the  permanent  camps  at  which 
troops  are  stationed,  in  which  the  enlisted  men  may 
be  instructed  in  the  common  English  branches  of 
education  and  especially  In  the  history  of  the  United 
States;  and  the  Secretary  of  War  details  such  otli- 
cers  and  enlisted  men  as  miv  be  necessary  to  carry 
out  this  provision.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Post  or 
(Tarrison  Commander  to  set  apart  a  suitable  room  or 
bulkling  for  school  and  religious  purposes.  The 
teachers  and  schools  are  under  the  control  of  the 
Post  Commander,  or  such  officer  as  the  Post  Com- 
mander may  designate.  School  teachers  are  de- 
tailed from  the  enlisted  men  of  the  Army.  The  num- 
ber of  teachers  detailed  cannot  exceed  one  for  each 
company  serving  at  the  post.  At  any  post  at  which 
there  are  no  soldiers  suitable  for  detail  as  school- 
teachers, application  is  made  to  the  Adjutant  General 
of  the  Army  by  the  Post  Commander  for  the  neces- 
sary number  of  teachers.  A  soldier  while  serving  as 
school  teacher  receives  extra-duty  pay  as  overseer 
(Ji.i  cents  per  day)  Irom  the  Quartermaster's  Depart- 
ment, not  deducting  for  Saturdays  and  Sundays. 
Soldiers  while  detailed  as  school  teachers  will  attend 
such  parades,  inspections,  and  drills  as,  in  the  judg- 


POST  TBASEB. 


570 


POTENT  COUNTEE-POTENT. 


ment  of  the  Post  Commander,  are  necessary  to 
keep  them  well  instructed  in  their  company  duties. 
While  it  is  left  optional  with  soldiers  whether  to  at- 
tend school  or  not,  yet  they  are  advised  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  means  afforded  to  improve  them- 
selves, and  Commanding  Officers  not  only  give  them 
all  possible  opportunities,  but  advise  and  encourage 
them  to  use  them.  The  children  of  soldiers  are  re- 
quired to  attend  the  post  school  for  children,  unless 
specially, excused  by  the  officer  in  charge  of  schools. 
The  children  of  citizens  living  near  a  post  are  al- 
lowed to  attend  the  post  school  for  children.  For 
the  instruction  given  them  they  are  required,  if  able, 
to  pay  a  small  rate  into  the  post  fund.  Officers  and 
citizens  furnish  the  school  books  necessary  for  their 
own  children.  Tlie  Post  Council  of  Administration 
decide  whether  it  is  advisable  or  practicable  to  have 
separate  schools  for  adults  and  children.  An  officer 
is  detailed  by  the  Secretary  of  War  to  visit  and  in- 
spect regularh'  the  various  post  schools.  It  is  made 
his  duty  to  examine  into  the  sj'stem  of  instruction ; 
to  advise  Commanders  of  Posts  of  defects  which  he 
maj'  discover,  and  to  suggest  methods  of  improve- 
ment; to  endeavor  to  bring  about  uniformity  in  the 
methods  of  management  and  instruction,  and  to 
make  known  throughout  the  Army  the  best  methods 
and  systems  in  existence  at  any  Military  Post.  He 
reports  the  results  of  his  inspection  fully  to  the  War 
Department  from  time  to  time.  His  inspections  do 
not  dispense  with  or  interfere  witii  those  of  the  In- 
spector Generals  of  the  Army,  but  are  specially  and 
directlv  addressed  to  the  schools  alone. 

POST  TRADER.— In  the  United  States,  every  mili- 
tary post  may  have  one  Trader,  who  is  appointed  by 
the  Secretary  of  War,  or  the  recommendation  of 
the  Coimcil  of  Administration,  approved  by  the 
Commanding  Officer.  Post  Traders  are  furnished 
with  a  letter  of  appointment  from  the  Secretarj'  of 
War  indicating  the  posts  to  which  they  are  ap- 
pointed. They  are  subject,  in  all  respects,  to  the 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  government  of  the 
Army.  They  actually  carry  on  the  business  them- 
selves, and  habitually  reside  at  the  station  to  which 
the}'  are  appointed.  They  can  not  farm  out,  sublet, 
transfer,  sell  or  assign  the  business  to  others.  They 
are  permitted  to  erect  buildings  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  on  their  business  upon  such  part  of  the 
military  reservation  or  post  where  they  are  assigned 
as  the  Commanding  Officer  may  direct.  Such  build- 
ings are  in  convenient  reach  of  the  garrison.  [Oirr. 
A.  G.  0.,  Aug.  28,  1879.]  When  "a  Trader  is  re- 
moved from  his  post,  he  has  a  right  to  remove  and 
dispose  of  the  materials  of  the  buildings  erected  by 
him  as  his  own  property.  He  cannot  lease  or  sell 
his  buildings  to  another  Post  Trader  without  per- 
mission of  the  military  authorities ;  but  such  per- 
mission woulil  have  the  same  force  as  a  license  to  a 
new  Post  Trader  to  erect  such  a  building  at  that 
spot.    Post  Traders  have  the  exclusive  right  of  trade 


hel(i  to  pay  for  the  benefit  of  the  post  fund,  at  a  rate 
to  be  determined  by  the  Post  Council  of  Adndnistra- 
tion,  not  exceeding  ten  cents  per  month,  for  every 
officer  and  enlisted  man  serving  at  the  post — the 
monthly  average  to  be  determined  equitably  by  the 
Council.  The  Council  of  Administration  once  in  six 
months,  and  not  oftener,  examines  the  Post  Trader's 
goods  and  invoices  or  bills  of  sale,  and.  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  Post  Commander,  establishes  the 
rates  and  prices  (which  should  be  fair  and  reason- 
able) at  which  tlie  goods  .shall  be  sold.  A  copy  of 
the  list  thus  established  is  kept  posted  in  the  Trader's 
store.  Should  the  Post  Trader  feel  himself  aggrieved 
by  the  action  of  the  Council  of  Administration,  he 
may  appeal  therefrom,  through  the  Post  Commander, 
to  the  War  Department.  In  determining  the  rate  of 
profit  to  be  allowed,  the  Council  considers  not  only 
the  prime  cost,  freight,  and  other  charges,  but  also 
the  fact  that  the  Trader  has  no  lien  on  the  soldier's 
pay,  and  is  without  security  in  this  respect.  Post 
Commanders  report  to  the  War  Department  any 
misconduct,  breach  of  military  regulations,  or  failure 
on  the  part  of  Post  Traders  to  comply  with  the  re- 
quirements of  regulations. 

When  any  cause  of  complaint  against  a  Trader 
arises,  the  Post  Commander  places  the  same  before 
the  Council  of  Administration,  and  the  Council  ex- 
amines the  evidence  for  and  against  the  Trader,  and 
makes  a  report  of  the  facts,  through  the  Post  Com- 
mander, to  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  Army,  for 
the  action  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  in  whom  alone 
is  the  power  vested  to  remove  a  Post  Trader.  When. 
a  new  Trader  is  selected,  and  his  appointment  is  is- 
sued, the  appointment  of  the  former  Trader  will  be 
revoked;  but,  in  order  that  injustice  may  not  be  done 
the  former  Trader  in  the  total  loss  of  his  investment 
in  buildings  and  goods,  the  new  appointee  will  be 
required  to  purchase  a  portion  or  all  of  the  same  at 
a  fair  valuation — the  articles  to  be  so  purchased  and 
the  appraisement  of  their  value  to  be  determined  by 
the  Council  of  Administration.  The  former  Trader 
is  not  debarred  from  withdrawing  his  goods  if  he  so 
elect,  nor  from  entering  upon  the  reservation  to  at- 
tend to  the  settlement  of  his  business  until  the  same 
has  been  closed;  such  privilege,  however,  does  not 
entitle  him  to  continue  to  trade  at  the  post.  See 
Canteen  and  Sutler. 

POT. — The  paper  cylinder  forming  the  head  of  a 
signal-rocket  and  containing  the  decorations.  To 
diminish  the  resistance  of  the  airthe  pot  is  surmount- 
ed by  a  paper  cone. 

POT  DE  FER. — A  heavy  helm  worn  in  siege  oper- 
ations. It  is  related  that  Louis  XIV.,  like  the  other 
soldiers,  went  into  the  trenches  in  full  armor,  and 
wearing  the  pot-de-fer.  See  Pet  Helmet. 
POTENCE. — Troops  are  ranged  en  potence  by  break- 
ing a  straight  line,  anil  throwing  acertain  proportion 
of  it  either  forward  or  backward,  from  the  right  or 
left,  according  to  the  circumstances,  for  the  purpose 


Potent. 


£ot«at  Cotmtcr-Potent'. 


Patentee, 


upon  the  mililary  reserve  to  which  tlu'V  are  ap- 
jiiiiulc'd:  and  no  dlhcr  person  is  allowed  to  trade, 
pcdille,  or  sell  goods,  by  sample  or  ollu'rwisc,  within 
the  limits  of  the  reserve.  This  does  not  prohibit  tlu; 
sal(',  oy  producers,  of  fresh  fruit  or  vegetables  Iiy 
permission  of  tlie  Post  (\immander.  Post  Traders 
in  the  Indian  country  have  no  right  to  ni;iintain  a 
traOic  in  goods  with  the  Indians,  unless  tliey  be 
jirojierly  licensed  for  sucli  trade.  For  the  exclusive^ 
privilege  allowed  them,  Post  Traders  are  a.ssessed  and 


of  securing  that  line.    An  army  may  be  posted  ere /)<?- 
If  nee  h\  lui-ans  cif  a  villMi;e,  a  river,  or  a  wood. 

POTENT  COUNTER  POTENT.-  One  of  the  heraldic 
furs,  in  wiiicli  tlie  liehl  is  tilled  with  crutch-shaped 
figures  alternately  of  metal  and  color,  those  of  oppo- 
site tinctures  being  jilac'ed  liase  against  base,  and 
point  against  point.  The  metal  and  color  are  under- 
stood to  be  argent  and  azure,  unless  they  be  sjieeial- 
ly  blazoned  otherwise.  Potent  counter-potent  is 
sometimes  blazoned  vairy-cuppy. 


POTENT  CBOBS. 


POWSEB  BOX£B. 


POTENT  CROSS.— In  ncraldry.arroHHcnitr'li-Mliiipcd  I  cd  tunic  and  rlKniHHeK.  was  frr'(|iicnlly  worn  by  the 
at  cacli  ixlicMiily. —  It  in  also  called  a  .IcniKalcin  KniglitH  of  this  jii-riod  bi-iicalli  the  Kurcoal.  which 
c-roHH,  froin  ilMdcciirroncc  in  till' iiisii;nia  of  the  Cliris-  waH,  as  a  general  tiling,  conBiderably  lengthened, 
tian  l;ing(l(iMi  of  .liriisalein.vvhirh  arc.argent  a  eross  and  very  richly  emblazoned  with  the  armH  of  the 
potent   lietween    f(iur   eros.slets  or.     This  coat  is  re-    wearer. 

markable  as  lieing  a  deparlnre  from  (he  usual  jjeral-  '  POWDER, — A  fommon  term  for  gunpowder.  Un- 
die  rule  which  prohibits  the  placing  of  nielal  upon  der  this  name  is  found  a  variety  of  nowderH  in  u»e 
metal.  |  at  the  present  day  for  small-ariRH  and  guns. 


America 
Austria 

England 

France 
Germany 

Italy 

Kus.sia 

Spain 


COUKTKIES 


iUNPOWDEB 

. 

Smaj 

1.I.-A2H   Po^ 

VDEB. 

Saltpeter. 

Charcoal. 

12  •.'50 

Sulphur. 

Saltpeter. 

Charcoal. 

Sulphur. 

75 

12-50 

75-50 

13-20 

11-30 

70 

17 

16 

75-50 

13-20 

11-30 

76 

1.5 

10 

76-.50 

14-.'50 

9 

76 

U-.-iO 

O-.TO 

76 

13-.50 

9 

75 

U-.TO 

i)-.50 

75 

12-.'-.0 

12-50 

7.5 

13-00 

11 -.50 

75 

12-.50 

12-.50 

7C 

12 

12 

75-.'50 

13-20 

11-30 

71 

17-r.o 

11-50 

80 

11-30 

8-70 

76-50 

12-70 

10-80 

75-50 

13-20 

11-30 

POTENTEE. — A  heralilic  line  of  division  which 
takes  \\\'-  form  of  the  outline  of  a  succession  of  crutch- 
shaped  figures. 

POT  GUN. — A  mortar  for  firing  salutes.  The  name 
is  derived  from  its  shape  being  formed  like  a  pot.  It 
is  now  obsolete. 

POT-HELMET. — A  sort  of  skull-cap  of  thick  iron, 
and  very  heavy.  It  was  used,  partie\darly  in  sieges 
in  the  lOth  and  17th  centuries.  The  wurd  p</t-/ifliiiet 
is  also  very  commonly  used  for  iron  hats  much  lighter 
in  weight,  that  were  inucU  worn  by  ('romwell's  foot- 
soldiers. 

POT  METAL. — An  alloy  of  lead  and  copper,  ob- 
tained by  throwing  hunps  of  copper  into  red-hot 
melted  lead.  It  is  of  a  gray  color,  Ijrittleand  graiui- 
lar. 

POUCH. — A  stout  leather  box,  black  or  brown, 
lined  witli  tin, covered  with  a  strong  flap,  and  orna- 
mented with  the  device  of  the  regiment.  It  serves 
to  carry  the  cartridges  retpiired  by  a  soldier  for  im- 
mediate use.  When  cartridges  are  supplied  for  a 
•whole  day's  service,  two  pouches  are  worn,  one  on 
the  front  point  of  the  hip,  and  a  larger  one  on  a  belt 
suspended  over  the  left  shoulder.  The  leather  cases 
containing  primers,  lanyard,  etc.,  in  field  and  heavy 
artillery,  and  those  containing  a  guimer's  level,  vent- 
punch,  gindet,  etc.,  in  licav}- artillery,  are  also  called 
pouclies. 

POULEYNS. — In  ancient  armor,  a  variety  of  knee- 
guards,  which  were  very  elaborately  and  variously 
enriched. 

POUNDER.— The  name  by  which  dilTerent  nafiires 
of  ordnance  and  shot  and  shell  are  distinguished. 
By  being  so  denominated,  the  w<'ight  of  the  projec- 
tile which  the  gun  throws  is  implied.  Projectiles 
fired  from  heavy  howitzers  and  mortars  are  distin- 
guished by  the  diameter  of  the  pieces,  such  as  those 
propelled  from  the  10-inch  and  8-iuch  howitzer  and 
mortar;  and  it  would  be  advisable  to  denominate  all 
projectiles  by  the  diameter  of  the  piece,  and  also  by 
the  weight  of  the  projectile  itself.  This  is  done  in 
the  case  of  shot  and  shell  used  with  the  heavy  JI.L. 
R.  guns  of  7-inch  caliber  and  upwards,  but  below 
this  caliber  they  are  known  only  by  the  weight  of 
the  shot.  The  weight  of  heavy  rifled  ordnance  is 
alwaj's  expressed  in  tons,  if  of  5  tons  or  upwards; 
otherwise  in  cwts. 

POURPOINT.— A  military  babi*  worn  in  the  tliir- 
tecntli  cent\iry,  but  which  was  subserjuently  modi- 
fied, and  from  the  iieculiar  work  with  which  it  was 
then  ornamented,  obtained  the  name  of  I'oiirpmnt  or 
Counterpoint,    A  complete  suit,  consisting  of  a  slcev- 


The  following  table  gives  the  pro])ortions  of  the 
composition  most  generally  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder  in  the  countries  mentioned.  SeeOttn- 
poirder. 

POWDER  BARREL.— Barrels  in  w-hich  gunpowder 
is  stored.  There  are  three  sizes,  called  vliolf,  half, 
and  iinnrtir,  liolding  respecti-.-ely  IIIO  lbs..  .50  lbs.,  2.5 
lbs. .of  ordinary  ]iowder.  The  whole  barrel  iscajiable 
also  of  containing  125  lbs.  of  pebble  powder.  There 
is  also  a  barrel  in  the  service  termed  a  hnnge  barrel, 
which  is  the  size  of  a  quarter  barrel,  and  intended  to 
be  used,  not  for  storage,  but  for  holding  loose  pow- 
der for  mortars  or  cartudges  in  a  standing  battery. 
This  barrel  is  distinguished  from  the  ordinarj-  pow-- 
der  barrel,  in  having  a  leather  bag  attached  to  it, 
which  takes  the  place  of  one  head  of  the  barrel,  and 
is  closed  by  a  leather  tlnrng.  The  word  tmuge  or 
hwlye  is  a  corruption  of  the  French  word  huuget,  a 
leather  bag. 

Powder  barrels  are  composed  of  heads  and  staves 
bound  round  with  copper  and  ash  hoops,  and  are 
made  by  hand  or  by  machinery.  The  wood  used  in 
English  barrels  is  usually  American  oak.  whereas 
the  Indian  powder  barrels  are  made  of  teak,  if  any- 
thing a  stronger  and  closer-grained  wood  than  the 
oak  alluded  to.  so  that  it  is  not  found  necessarj'  to 
bind  tliem  round  with  ash  hoops,  as  in  the  English 
barrels, 

POWDER  BOXES. — Contrivances  analogous  to  fou- 
gasses,  used  by  the  Russians  at  Sebastopol.  Each 
consisted  of  a  double  deal  box,  of  a  capacity   suffi- 


cient to  contain  3.5  pounds  of  powder,  water-tight. and 
elTectually  secure  it  from  the  penetration  of  damp, 
into  the  top  of  each  box  was  inserted  a  vertical  tin 


POWDEK  CART. 


572 


FOWSEB  UAGAZIKE. 


tube,  connected  with  a  horizontal  tin  tube  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  Witliin  the  latter  was  a  glas» 
tube,  filled  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  coated  with  a 
composition  of  chlorate  of  potassa,  sugar,  sulphur, 
and  gum-water,  which  immediately  takes  fire  on 
coming  in  contact  with  the  acid.  The  space  be- 
tween the  interior  of  the  tin  tube,  and  the  exterior 
of  the  glass  tube,  as  well  as  the  vertical  tin  tube,  is 
filled  with  gunpowder.  A  little  earth  spread  lightly 
over  the  whole  completes  the  arrangement.  A  per- 
son walking  over  the  ground,  and  treading  on  the 
tin  tube,  crushes  it  and  the  glass  tube  contained  :n 
it,  causing  the  escape  of  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  tlie 
explosion  of  tlie  sunpowder.      See  Foiigames. 

POWDER  CART.— A  two-wheeled  carriage  covered 
with  an  angular  roof  of  boards.  To  prevent  the 
powder  from  getting  damp,  a  tarred  canvas  is  put 
over  the  roof;  and  on  each  side  are  lockers  to  hold 
shot,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  powder. 

POWDER  DEPOTS.— Large  depots  for  the  storage 
of  powder,  and  the  materials  for  its  manufacture. 
In  selecting  sites  for  these  depots,  the  following  con- 
siderations should  be  observed:  1st.  That  the  depot 
should  be  in  a  region  of  countr}'  which  docs  not  ad- 
mit of  being  populated,  so  that  destruction  of  life 
and  property  in  case  of  accident  would  be  a  mini- 
mum. 2d.  The  tract  should  be  sufficient  in  extent 
to  contain  suitable  positions  for  magazines  for  stor- 
age of  10,000  tons  of  powder,  material  for  its  manu- 
facture, etc., and  the  necessary  buildings  for  a  govern- 
ment powder-mill.  3d.  It  should  be  near  enough  to  rail 
and  water  transportation  to  afford  facilities  of  trans- 
portation to  the  seaboard,  interior,  and  the  lakes,  hav- 
inga  shortlineofgovernmcnt  railroad  connecting  the 
site  with  rivers  and  trunk-lines.  When  the  present  ar- 
senals in  theUnited  States  were  established, their  loca- 
tions were  but  sparsel}'  settled.  The  rapid  increase  of 
population  in  theadjacent  towns  and  cities  has,  how- 
ever, in  the  majority  of  cases,  rendered  these  mag.a- 
zines  dangerous  to  the  communities  in  which  thej-  are 
located  and  hence  the  Government  either  has  aban- 
doned, or  eventually  will  have  to  essentialh'  abandon, 
the  storage  of  powder  at  all  of  our  arsenals.  The  damp 
sea-air  renders  our  fortifications  unfitted  for  this 
purpose,  and  the  Government  has  now  large  quanti- 
ties of  powder  rapidly  deteriorating  at  these  places 
for  want  of  j^roper  storage-facilities.  See  Lightning 
Coyidwti>rn,  Mngazine.  and  Preservation,  Storage,  and 
I'mnnpiirtati'in  nfPmrder. 

POWDER  DUST.- All  gimpowder,  in  the  process 
of  reeling,  gives  off  a  certain  amount  of  dust.  It  is 
a' great  object  to  remove  the  dust  from  the  powder, 
as  it  quickly  absorbs  moisture  from  the  atmosphere, 
and,  consequently,  impairs  its  preserving  qualities. 
This  dust  is  not  lost  to  the  factory,  but  is  worked 
over  again,  receiving  first  the  process  of  incorpora- 
tion  for  a  short  time,  and  then  going  througli  the 
rest  of  the  mills  until  it  becomes  perfect  gunpowder. 
The  operation  of  dusting  is  effected  by  cylindrical 
reels  covered  with  canvas,  which  revolve  at  a  given 
rate.     See  Dusting  Heeln. 

POWDERED.— In  Heraldry,  Powdered,  or  Seniee. 
signify  strewn  with  an  indefinite  number  of  small 
charircs. 

POWDER-FLASK.— A  pouch  or  metallic  case  for 
holding  gunpowder,  and  having  a  charging  nozzle 
at  the  end.  A  horn  is  often  fitted  to  hold  powder 
and  used  as  a  flask. 

POWDER-HOSE.— A  tube  of  strong  linen,  about  an 
inch  ill  diaiiii'ler,  filled  with  powder,  and  used  in 
tiriui;  iiiililMTv  Miincs. 

POWDER  MAGAZINE.— The  main  objects  to  be 
obtained  in  constructing  a  powder  magazine  are,  to 
place  it  in  a  position  convenient  to  the  pieces  to  be 
served,  and  one  least  exposed  to  the  fire  of  the 
enemy;  to  make  it  shot-proof;  and  to  secure  the 
contents  from  moisture.  It  is  usually  placed  iiO  feet 
in  rear  of  the  i)arapet  of  the  battery.  The  ceiling  of 
tlie  magazine  siioujd  not  be  more  than  a  few  inclics 
above  the  natural  level,     Tlie   interior  hiiirht   neeil 


not  ^e  more  than  .5  feet.  The  width  may  be  6  feet, 
and  the  length  12  feet  in  the  clear.  The  sides  ot  the 
magazine  may  be  formed  of  frames  and  sheeting 
boards;  or,  of  a  row  of  gabions  crowned  with  two 
courses  of  fascines.  Tlie  magazine  is  covered  at  top 
by  splinter-proof  of  timbers,  6  by  9  inches,  laid  in 


juxtaposition  and  covered  with  at  least  3  feet  of 
earth,  both  on  top  and  on  the  sides  tow-ards  the 
parapet.  A  passage  leads  into  the  magazine  on  the 
side  from  the  parapet,  which  is  reached  by  one  or 
two  inclined  trenches. 

The  drawing  shows  the  plan  and  section  of  a 
powder  magazine  employed  at  the  siege  of  Fort 
Wagner  A,  the  Magazine;  B,  the  covered  entrance; 
C,  the  telegraph  oliice ;  D,  the  lookout  on  top;  E, 
an  embankment  of  sand  covering  the  ra.igazine. 
The  plan  is  taken  just  below  the  ceiling.  In  the 
section.  A',  is  the  interior  of  the  magazine;  B',  the 
entrance;  D',  the  lookout;  E',  the  covering  of  .sand. 
The  rules  given  for  the  construction  and  location  of 
bomb-proof  shelters  for  men,  apply  equally  to  shel- 
ters of  this  class.  The  only  ditference  in  construc- 
tion is  in  the  size  of  the  shelters,  it  being  much 
smaller,  as  a  rule,  than  that  required  for  the  use  of 
troops.  Large  magazines  are  not  constructed  in 
ordinary  field  works.  Tliey  take  up  too  much  room, 
and  even  the  best  of  them  are  but  poor  places  in 
which  to  store  ammunition  for  any  length  of  time. 
The  usual  method  adopted  is  to  construct  as  many 
service  magazines  as  may  be  necessary,  near  the 
guns  to  be  served  by  them,  making  them  large 
enough  to  contain  the  amount  required  for  a  definite 
service  of  the  gun  or  guns  to  which  the_y  belong. 

In  Permanent  Fortification,  powder  magazines  are 
built  with  strong,  full  center  bomb-proof  lirick 
arches,  supported  on  heavy  stone  piers  which  form 
the  outward  walls,  and  to  which  interior  buttresses 
are  sometimes  added.  The  capping  of  the  arches  is 
covered  with  from  4  to  10  feet  of  solidly  packed 
earth.  The  interior  of  the  magazine,  tlie  floors, 
and  the  doors  and  windows,  are  built  with  a  view  to 
security  from  fire;  and  to  preserve  the  powder  from 
(himpness,  by  a  good  system  of  drainage  around  the 
fouiulations,  and  of  ventilation  by  means  of  air-holes 
madethrougli  tlic  jtiers,  and  panelsof  ci)|)]H'r  pierced 
Willi  small  holes  placed  in  the  doors.  IS'o  iron  or 
steel  fastening  or  sheeting  is  allowed  in  any  jiart  of 
the  structure;  and  in  arranging  the  air-holes  through 
the  piers  they  receive  a  broken  direction,  and  have 
a  copper  mesli-w^ork  jilaced  across  them,  to  prevent 
aiij'  combustible  material  or  rats,  or  mice,  penetrat- 
ing to  the  interior  of  the  magazine.  In  large  works 
the  magazines  are  isohitcd,  as  far  as  jiracticable, 
from    the  enceinte,    so  as  not  to  endanger   it  should 


POWDER  MILL. 


573 


POWDER  PHE88. 


an  aooidcniitl  cxploHion  take  place.  The  magazine 
is  inclosed  liy  a  si roiifr,  lii!,'li  wall  for  Mcciirily,  an<l 
is  provided  willi  liixliliiiiii;  rods.  In  sriiidl  works 
some  oiii'  or  more  of  llir  eascrnules  iiillii'  position 
least  exposed  to  the  ussailanl's  lire  uru  buill  fur  the 
l)iirposes  of  H  inaiiaziiie. 

Tlie  followiiii;  iiK'nioraiida  respecting  tliovenlila- 
tion  of  jaiwder  niai,'a/ines  is  lierewith  aiip<'nded :   1. 
The  dampness  complained  of  in  l)nildinf;s  will  fre- 
(Hienlly.l"'  found  to  arise  from  eondensaljon  of   the 
watery  va])or  of  ilie  air  whieli   enters  the  IniildinL'. 
Unililinns   with   thick   walls  and  vaulted   roofs,  and 
especially  those  covered  with  earth,  ari'  parlii-nlarly 
llalile  to  dampness  from  this  cause.     2.  Air  always 
contains  some  proportion  of  watery  vapor.     When 
the  proportion  is  snndl,  the  air  is  said  to  be  dry,  and 
when  lari^c,  the  air  is  said  to  be  damp;  wlii'n  the  pro- 
portion is  the  sreatest  that  can  be  ilill'used  lhrou>;li 
uiral  a  j;iven  temperature,  the  air  is  said  to  be  satu- 
rated at    that   temperature.      H,   The   proportion    of 
watery  vapor  whieli  saturated  airconlains  varies  with 
the  temperature,  beins;  i;reater  for  hisih  than  for  low 
temperatures.     .\ir  containing  a  particular  propor- 
tion of  moisture  is  rendered  less  capable  of  deposit- 
inj;  moisture  by  its  lemia-rature  beinj;  raised,  and  the 
reverse  when  it  is  lowered.     4.  Air  may  be  brought 
to  a  state  of  saturation  by  reducinic  its  temperature. 
If  the  air  contain  Init  III  lie  moisture,  the  reduction  of 
temperature  nuist  be  considerable  ;   but  if  it  contain 
niucii,  a  slijrht  reduction  will  bring  it  to  a  state  of 
saturation.     .T.   If  air  be  cooled  below  the  degree  of 
temperature  al  which  it  will  be  in  a  state  of  satura- 
tion, a  portion  of  the  watery  vapor  contained  there- 
in  will   be  deposited  on  any  cold    substance  with 
which  it  may  eonu'  in  contact.     The  degree  of  tem- 
perature at   wdiich   air  will   thus   begin  to   deposit 
moisture  is  called  its  diif.pnint.     G.  Wlieit  warm  air 
enters  a  comparatively  cold  building,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  is  reduced  by  coming  in  conta<'t  with 
the  interior  walls  and  other  cold  .surfaces ;  and  if  its 
temperature  be   thus  reduced  below  the  duo-pnint, 
condensation  will  take  place.     In  the  latter  case  it  is 
obvious  that  the  admission  of  fresh  air  will  not  tend 
to  dry  a  building,  but  toreniler  it  damp.    7.  If  a  mag- 
a/lne  40  feet  by  ;i4  feet  by  12  feet,  the  tem]ierature 
of  whose  internal  walls,  etc.,  is  4.5^,  were  to  be  tilled 
with  saturated  air  having  a  temperature  of  50",  and 
the   magazine   were   then  closed,   nearly    a  pint  of 
moisture  would  be  deposited  during  the  cooling  of 
the  fresh  air  to  the  temperature  of  the  wall.^.     The 
pint  of  moisture  would  result  from  the  quantity  of 
air  sulHcienl  merely  to  till  the  magazine  ;  but  if  the 
ventilators  were  opened,  the  air  might  be  renewed 
many  times  in  the  course  of  a  day,  anil  ver\'  much 
more  than  a  pint  of  moisture  be  deposited.     8.  Air 
entering  a  building  whose  temperature  is  higher  than 
itf!  own  becomes  capable  of  absorbing  moisture  from 
(lamp  surfaces.     9.  The  efficiency  of  the  ventilation 
of  a  magazine  will  depend  upon  the  degree  of  dr3'ness 
which  the  fresh  air  admitted  into  it  possesses,  and  tlie 
rapidity  of  the  current  of  dry  air  passing  through  tlie 
liuilding.     10.  The  dryness  of  air  is  indicated  by  tlie 
nunil)er  of  degrees  by  which  its  temperature  exceeds 
itsdevv-i>oint.  U.The  ventilators  of  magazines  should, 
in  all  cases,  be  constructed  so  as  to  exclude  or  admit 
the  external  air  at  discretion,  aiulthe  instriictioitu  fur 
thi'ir  line  xhtnild  be  framed  irith  a  vieir  to  the  rxcluninn 
tf  the  external  air  irheii.  tlte  temperature  of  its  deir- 
piiint  IS  above   that  of  the  interior  of  the  fmildiitg, 
and  the  admission  of  tlie  air  when  its  deir.point  is 
below  the  temperature  of  the  interior  of  tlie  building. 
12.  The  interior  of  a  bombproof  magazine  with  thick 
walls  and  a  vaulted  roof  is  commonly  colder   than 
the  outside   air   in  summer  and  warmer  iu  winter. 
Winter  is  therefore  the  more  favorable  season  for 
ventilation  ;  but  in  the  climateof  England  the  excep- 
tions to  this  rule  are  numerous,  owing  to  the  preva- 
lence during  winter  of  warm,  damp  winds  from  the 
south  and  west,  and  during  summer  of  cold, dry  winds 
from  the  north  and  east.     13.  Whenever,  uotwith- : 


standing  a  careful  attention  to  ventilation,  maguziues 
are  found  to  bit  dam|),  their  condition  maybe  im- 
proved by  the  usi'of  i|uiek-lime.  which  has  the  [irop- 
crty  of  absorbing  from  the  air  about  one  third  of  its 
own  weight  of  watir.  14.  The  pr<Ji)ertime  for  using 
lime  is  when  the  condition  of  the  magazine  woula 
not  be  improved  by  ventilation,  ami  when,  conse- 
(piently,  the  ventilators  are  closed.  I.,inie  would  be 
of  very  little  service  while  a  rapid  current  of  air 
was  ]iassing  throuL'h  the  buililing.  l.l.  Lime  will 
be  used  during  the  seasons  of  tlie  year  least  favora- 
ble for  ventilation  ill  all  magazines  that  show  signs 
of  dam|)ness.  l(i.  The  lime  should  be  fri'sli  from 
the  kiln,  broken  into  lumps  not  larger  than  about  the 
size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  and  exposed  to  the  air  of  the 
interior  of  the  magazine  in  shallow  ves.sels.  It 
should  be  kejit  in  air-tight  casks  until  spread  out 
for  use. 

POWDER  MILL.  Works  in  which  the  materials 
for  guiipowilcr  arc  prcpan'd  and  compounded,  and 
the  powdiT  LTained  and  faced.      See  (1  unpoirder. 

POWDER  MINE.  -A  cave  or  hollow  in  which  pow- 
der is  jilaced  lo  be  tired  at  any  particular  time.  These 
were  first  used  in  l.WH.  at  Naples,  when  it  was  be- 
sieged by  the  Spanish  (teneral  Gonzalvo,  of  Cordova. 

POWDER  PRESS.— The  last  operation  of  breaking 
down  the  mill  cake,  and  the  one  now  about  to  be 
described,  of  pressing  the  meal  into  a  solid  cake,  is 
nier<-ly  for  the  purpose  of  lilting  it  to  be  made  into  a 
hard  grain  of  c(iual  density.  In  the  [ircssing  pro- 
cess, the  powder  that  has  passed  through  tli(-  break- 
ing-down machine  is  brought  from  the  small  maga- 
zines to  the  press-house,  wliere  it  is  compressed  into 
hard  cake.  Many  advantages  are  gained  by  this  opera- 
tion, first,  the  cake  when  made  into  grain  of  the  re- 
quired size  absorbs  less  moisture  from  the  atmo- 
sphere than  if  it  had  been  soft  and  not  pressed,  and 
the  lasting  qualities  of  the  powder  are  much  in- 
creased, especially  if  glazed ;  again,  by  having  been 
compressed  the  powder  is  less  liable  to  be  reduced 
to  dust  in  transport,  for  if  proix-rly  made  it  may 
safely  be  kept  for  a  number  of  years,  even  on  board 
ship  at  sea,  without  any  appreciable  deterioration. 
Further,  by  a  closer  connection  of  the  ingredients  a 
larger  volume  of  gas  is  proiluced.  bulk  for  bulk,  than 
from  a  soft  light  powder;    it  also  produces  more 


grain  than  could  be  obtained  from  '•  mill  cake  "  not 
pressed,  ami  consequently  there  is  less  waste  by  dust 
in  manufacture,  and  in  addition  to  this,  a  hard, 
clean-grained  powder  does  not  foul  the  gun  so  much 
as  a  soft  powder. 

For  the  purpose  of  compressing  the  meal  powder 
into  what  is  called  "press  cake,"  a  powerful  hyilrau- 
lic  press  is  employed.  The  apparatus  for  holding 
the  meal  consists  of  a  very  strong  gun-metal  box 
incased  on  the  outer  and  inner  sides  with  oak;  it  is 


POWDER-PKOOF. 


574 


POWER  OF  ATTORNEY. 


2'  square  and  2'  6"  deep,  the  bottom  and  one  side 
are  permanently  fixed  to  each  other,  but  the  other 
three  sides  are  hinged  to  the  bottom,  so  as  to  allow 
of  their  being  opened;  when  shut  these  sides  are 
firmly  held  together  by  strong, coarse-threaded  metal 
screws.  The  box,  when  about  to  be  tilled,  is  first 
laid  on  its  side  in  front  of  the  press,  and  the  upper- 
most side  is  then  opened  and  laid  back.  Two  guide 
racks,  of  gun-metal,  with  wooden  ribs  on  them, form- 
ing a  number  of  grooves  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in 
width  and  tive-eighths  of  an  inch  apart,  are  hung  on 
the  inside  of  the  box  to  those  sides  that  have  not 
been  opened;  into  these  grooves  a  series  of  gun-metal 
plates  one-tenth  of  an  inch  thick  are  slid,  the  racks 
keeping  them  upright  and  equidistant.  The  spaces 
between  the  plates  are  now  filled  in  with  the  meal 
powder,  and  this  being  dune,  the  racks  are  with- 
drawn, leaving  the  plates  supported  in  their  position 
by  the  powder  between  them.  The  third  side — 
which  has  remained  open  until  now— is  then  lowered 
down  and  screwed  fast  up  to  the  two  sides  already 
in  position.  The  box  is  provided  with  two  project- 
ing gun-metal  claws  that  fit  into  a  mandrel  attached 
to  the  front  of  the  press;  upon  this  mandrel  the  box 
is  now  turned  by  means  of  overhead  tackle,  the 
mandrel  being  so  adjusted  that  when  the  box  is 
raised  partly  into  a  vertical  position  it  is  pushed 
over  and  lowered  down  exactly  on  the  center  of  the 
press  table.  Attached  to  the  press  cross-head  are 
two  overhead  rails,  carrying  a  large  block  of  hard 
wood,  which  is  hung  and  travels  upon  these  rails  by 
means  of  four  wheels;  when  the  box  is  turned  over 
on  its  side  for  the  purpose  of  filling,  this  block  is 
drawn  back  to  the  extremity  of  the  rails,  and  when 
the  box  is  filled  and  replaced  on  the  table  and  in  the 
proper  position  for  pressing,  the  block  is  drawn  for- 
ward again  until  it  arrives  exactly  over  the  center  of 
the  box,  where  it  is  retained  in  position  by  means  of 
a  catch. 

The  press  is  now  put  in  motion  by  means  of 
pumps,  which  are  driven  either  by  steam,  water,  or 
hand  power,  and  are  placed  in  a  separate  building, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  a  high  traverse  that  divides 
the  one  building  from  the  other.  In  the  pump-house 
the  attendants  remain  in  safety  while  the  pressing 
operation  is  being  performed.  The  pumps  are  of 
the  description  generally  used  for  such  purposes,  and 
are  fitted  with  large  and  small  plungers.  At  first, 
when  the  material  to  be  pressed  is  soft,  the  large 
plungers  are  used  and  the  box  is  raised  rapidly,  but 
when  the  press  has  traversed  about  three-fourths  of 
its  distance  the  use  of  the  large  plungers  is  discon- 
tinued, and  the  smaller  ones  worked  until  such  time 
as  the  powder  is  subjected  to  a  pressure  of  70  tons  per 
square  foot  of  surface.  Wlien  the  piunps  are  first 
put  in  motion,  one  of  the  attendants  remains  in  the 
press-house  for  a  short  time  to  see  that  the  block  en- 
ters the  box  fairly,  and  that  it  is  in  tlie  center;  a 
clearance  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  is  allowed  all 
round  between  it  and  the  box.  If  all  is  in  order,  the 
attendant  then  retires  to  the  pump-house,  and  when 
the  requisite  pressure  has  been  obtained,  the  press  is 
allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  minutes  with  the  full 
pressure  on  it ;  this  allows  the  air  to  escape  and  the 
powder  to  consolidate.  Should  the  pressure  go 
df)wn  from  this  cause,  the  pumps  are  again  set  in 
molicin  until  the  full  pressure  is  attained;  "and,  after 
allowing  a  few  minutes  to  elapse,  the  escajx^  valve  is 
opened  and  the  ram  with  the  box  descends.  The 
overhead  block  is  now  run  back  out  of  the  way,  the 
box  turned  over  on  its  side,  and  all  the  fixing  screws 
removed  from  the  three  sides,  the  uppernu)St  one  is 
lifted  up  and  turned  over,  and  the  other  two  are 
opened  out.  The  powder,  with  the  giui-metal'plates 
between  it,  will  now  be  found  to  be  standing  like 
a  solid  mass  on  the  side  of  the  box  underneath,  and 
which  for  tlic  time  forms  the  bottom. 

The  plates  anil  powder  cakes  are  now  separated 
hy  copper  chisels,  and  the  cake — being  from  three- 
eighth  of  an  inch  to  one-half  inch  in  thickness,  and 


loolving  like  slabs  of  slate — is  broken  mto  pieces  a- 
bout  the  size  of  a  man's  hand  by  means  of  wooden 
mallets.  It  is  now  collected,  put  into  tubs,  and  re- 
moved to  the  next  magazine,  where  it  is  allowed  to 
remain  for  two  or  three  days;  this  renders  it  so  hard 
that  it  is  not  easy  to  break  it.  Some  difilculty  is  at 
times  experienced  in  obtaining  precisely  the  same 
density  in  the  pressed  powdei  ,and  it  is  an  ascertain- 
ed reality  that  any  great  difference  in  this  particidar 
causes  the  powder"  to  vary  considerably  in  quality 
and  strength  ;  in  fact,  until  the  greatest  precision 
and  certainty  are  obtained,  firstly,  in  purifying  the 
ingredients, so  as  to  ensure  their  containing  the  same 
percentage  of  gases  and  carbon;  and,  secondly,  by 
an  equally  precise  amount  of,incorporating  and  press- 
ing, absohite  uniformity  in  the  quality  and  strengtli 
of  the  powder  manufactured  cannot  be  secured.  See 
Gunpowdrr. 

POWDER -PROOF. —All  guiipoirdei-  for  proving  ord- 
nance should  be  of  the  best  qualitj',  of  the  kind  used 
in  the  gun  to  be  proved,  and  giving  not  less  than  the 
standard  iiutial  velocity;  it  should  be  tested  imnjedi- 
ately  before  being  used  unless  it  shall  have  been  test- 
'  ed  within  one  year  previously,  and  there  be  no  reason 
to  suspect  that  it  has  become  deteriorated. 
!  POWER.— In  military  affairs, as  well  as  in  all  others 
power  is  knowledge — of  human  passions,  of  arms, 
of  distance,  of  the  skill  and  numbers  of  an  enemy. 
To  be  in  the  power  of  an  enemy,  is  to  have  taken  up, 
injudiciously,  such  a  position  as  to  expose  to  defeat 
whenever  the  enemy  mav  think  proper  to  attack. 

POWER  MILLING-MACHINE.— A  machine  much 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  small-arms.  The  draw- 
ing represents  the  Pratt  &  Whitney  No.  2  Power 
Milling-Machine  (Lincoln  Pattern),  which  is  in  ex- 
tensive use  in  armories  and  manufactories  in  Amer- 
ica and  Europe,  and  is  highly  approved  at  the  Na- 
tional Armory.  Springfield,  Mass.    It  has  automatic 


screw-feed,  and  automatic  stop-motion  adjustable  at 
any  point,  a  foot-stock  for  steadying  the  ends  of 
long  arbors  in  heavy  cuts,  and  a  vise  with  perman- 
ent crank-wrench.  Tlie  head  is  furnished  with 
back-gears.  The  cone  has  three  grades,  and  carriesa 
U-inchbelt.  The  feed  cone  has  four  grades.  Speed 
of  countershaft,  having  11  by  3J  inch  tight  and 
loose  pulleys,  I'i.'i  revolutions  per  minute.  Weight, 
with  countershaft,  1,200  pounds. 

POWER  OF  ATTORNEY.— An  instrument  author- 
izing a  person  to  act  as  the  agent  or  attorney  of  the 


POWER  PRESS. 


575 


POWER  TRAVELLING  CRABE. 


person  pnintini,'  it.  A  general  power  aiUliorizeH  tlie 
ajjeiit  to  ael  ircnenilly  for  llie  i)riiieipiil.  A  special 
power  liiiiils  the  iii,rciiey  lo  jiarllciilar  l|]iiii;«.  A 
jiower  of  alloriiey  iriiiy  lie  hy  parole,  or  under  Heal. 
The  attorney  eannoti'Xeeijtc!  a  sealed  instrument  that 
will  bind  his  principal  unless  his  own  power  is  j;iv(;n 
under  seal.  Oranis  of  this  nature  an^  very  strictly 
construed.  Aulliority  </i\-r\\  to  one  person  ciiiwiot 
be  dele;;aled  by  liini  lo  anothiT,  unless  e.xpressjv  set 
forth  in  the  oriL,'inal  j^ranlr  The  dealli  of  the  prin- 
cipal at  once  cancels  a  power  of  attorney.  All  con- 
ditions in  the  [lower  must  be  strictly  ob-served  to 
rcn<ler  llie  alloriiey's  action  lc!;al. 

POWER  PRESS. — A  form  of  |)ress  extensively  em- 
ployed in  the  niaaufuclure  of  lire-arnis.    That  repre- 


sented in  tlie  drawint;  is  provi<led  with  Stannard's 
hydraulic  adjustment.  A  foot-lever  actuates  a  stop- 
motion  that  instantly  stops  the  jihiniier,  always  at 
the  hirjhest  point  of  the  stroke.  The  crank-shaft,  of 
steel,  is  made  with  a  throw  of  2\  inches,  or  less,  as  it 
may  be  ordered  for  trimminj;  or  for  pimchina;  pur- 
poses. The  shaft-bearinu;s  are  3  inches  diameter  and 
8  inches  lone;.  The  driviui;-wlieel.  33  inches  diam 
eter  and  weigliing  380  pounds,  receives  a  4-inch  belt. 
The  plunger  is  a  lioUow  cylinder,  open  at  the  top, 
and  bored  to  receive  a  piston,  which  is  also  hollow. 
The  plunger  travels  in  gibbed  slides,  and  has  a  por- 
tion of  (me  of  its  Hanges  toothed,  to  engage  with  a 
pnion  operated  by  a  crank-wrench.  The  hollow  pis- 
ton contains  oil,  or  glycerine  (preferably  the  latter, 
as  being  unaffected  by  changes  of  temperature).  This 


piston  is  attached  to  the  crank  l)y  u  connecting-bar. 
I5y  means  of  a  thumb-value  in  the  bottom  of  the  pig 
ton,operaleil  by  a  rod  extending  up  through  the  lop 
and  termiiiatr'd  by  a  knob,  the  liipiiil  may  be  allow- 
ed to  pass  from  thi^  pi^ton  to  the  plunger,  and  vire 
rrrmi,  as  tlie  plunger  is  lowered  or  raised  by  tlir-  pin- 
ion anil  toothed  flange.  'l"he  adjustnn:nt  of  the 
punch  can  thus  be  made  very  minute  and  exact,  and 
the  relative  positions  of  the  jilunger  and  piston  may 
lie  firmly  secured  by  a  biniling-screw  on  the  former, 
which  is  split  a  portion  of  its  length  for  this  purpose. 
The  bed  of  the  press  may  receive  a  dii-|)late,  12  by 
14  inches.  Weight  of  tiie  machine,  2,7o0  i)ound». 
Speed  of  driving-wheel,  17.T  revolutions  jjer  minute. 
The  hydraulic  adjustment  being  ipjile  costiv,  is  sel- 
dom onh'red.  In  lieu  of  it,  one  is  made  by  substitut- 
ing for  the  hollow  piston,  a  solid  one,  having  its  cir- 
cumference threaded  to  match  an  annularnut  placed 
in  the  central  part  of  the  |)lunger,  and  projecting 
therefrom  sufliciently  to  be  readily  turned  to  raise 
or  lower  the  plunger.  The  press  is  also  furnished 
withoul  pliuejcr  adjustment. 

POWER  shears!— A  shearing-machine  manufac- 
tured by  the  I'ratt  it  Whitney  Company,  for  use  in 
armories.     The  machine,  as  represented  on  page  .576, 
I  is  novel  in  style  and  action,  noiseless  in  its  opera- 
;  tion,  and  all  its  parts  liable  to  be  clogged  by  dust 
or  injured  by  scale  are  contained  inside  of  the  pe- 
'Ir^lai.    but   an;   still    fully   accessible    through    tlie 
medium  of  doors.     On  a  shaft  passing  through  the 
machine  from  end  to  end  is  a  worm  engaging  with 
a   large   worm-wheel.     This   shaft   is   driven    by  a 
faced  balance-wliecl  (used  as  a  pidley  for  belt)  from 
which  connection  with  the  shaft  is  made  by  means 
of  Pratt's  Patent  Friction-clutch.      The  transverse 
shaft  carries  the  worm-wheel,  which  has  an  eccen- 
tric, forming  a  part  of  the  wheel,  a  connecting-rod 
from  which   engages  with   the   lower  end  or  pro- 
longation of  a  vertically  vibrating  horizontal  cutter- 
head,  furnished  with  steel  jaws  on  either  side  the 
central  bearing,  which  engage  as  shears  with  corre- 
sponding fixed  jaws.  One  pair  of  these  jaws  is  made 
witli  recesses  of  the  form  of  segments  of  circles  to 
receive  roimd   bars,  and  the  otlier  is  straight.     In 
front  of  the  jaws  are  adjustable  sliding  rests,  to  re- 
sist  the  upward  tendency  of  the   piece  to  be  cut, 
and  at  the  back  is   an  adjustable  gauge  for  deter- 
mining its  length.     The  machine  is  started  or  stop- 
ped   instantaneously,  without   the   slightest  shock, 
and  there  is  no  loss  of  power  b_v  starting  it  from  a 
perfect  stand-still.     Speed  of  pulley  on  macliine  is 
280  to  300  every  minute.      The  steel  cutting-blades 
may  be  removed  from  the  jaws  for  sharpening  or 
replacement  with  very  little  trouble.     The  condjina- 
tion  of  the  screw,  worm-wheel,  eccentric,  and  lever 
results  in  a  machine  of  immense  power.     One  size 
machine  is  made.     It  will  cut  round  iron   to  1^  in- 
ches diameter;  or  fiat  iron  J  inch  thick  to  3  inches 
wide.      Weight,   with   coimtershaft,   4.600  poimds. 
Speed  of  countershaft,  having  16  by  6  inch  tight  and 
loose  ptilleys,  about  240  revolutions  per  minute.    See 
Angle  S/ii(in'iir/-iii<ic/iine.  Lri-ir  Shfnring-mac/iine,  and 
Sheariiiq-)iHrrfihn'. 

POWER  TRAVELING  CRANE.— This  crane  consists 
of  a  bridge  composed  of  two  wrought-iron  girders 
carried  at  each  end  by  a  two-wheeled  truck  with 
double-tlanged  truck  wheels  having  chilled  treads. 
At  one  end  of  the  bridge  is  a  crab  containing  the 
operating  mechanism,  and  suspended  beneath  this 
is  the  operating  platform.  Power  is  communicated 
to  the  crane  by  an  endless  rope,  moving  continually 
in  one  direction,  aad  drivenby  a  suitable  wheel  on  a 
stationary  shaft  at  one  end  of  the  longitudinal  tracks, 
this  shaft  being  driven  by  the  power  transmitted  in 
any  convenient  manner  from  a  stationarj-  engine, 
either  directly  or  through  the  line  shafting.  The 
mechanism  of  the  crab  is  such  that  the  operator, 
standing  upon  the  suspended  platform. is  enabled  by 
means  of  three  levers,  to  apply  power  so  as  to 
cause   the  bridge  to  travel  longitudinally  on  the 


POWER  TRAVELING  CRANE. 


576 


POWER  TRAVELING  CRANE. 


tracks  in  either  direction,  or  the  trolley  to  travel  in 
either  direction,  across  the  bridge,  or  to  raise  or 
lower  the  load.  The  bridge  and  troUe}'  may  be  mov- 
ed independently  or  sinuiltaneousl}^,  at  will. 

The  illustration  on  page  .577  shows  Weston's  Tra- 
veling crane, driven  by  power  transmitted  from  a  sta- 
tionary source, and  controlled  by  an  operator  standing 
on  a  phiiform  suspended  from  the  crane  at  one  end 
of  the  bridge.  The  bridge  is  arranged  to  travel  longi- 
tudinallj'  upon  overheaci  tracks. "and  the  trolley  to 
travel  transversely  across  the  bridge,  so  that  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  crane  covers  the  entire  rectangle  in- 
cluded between  the  tracks,  which  latter  may  if  de- 
sired, be  400  or  500  feet,  or  more,  in  length.  Cranes 
of  this  construction  are  built  of  any  desired  capacity 
from  5  to  50  tons,  and  of  an}'  span. 

The  motions  of  the  bridge  are  effected  by  fixed 
wire  cables,  so  arranged  as  to  constitute  a  perfect 
squaring  device,  which  insures  the  absolute  parallel- 
ism of  the  end  trucks  of  the  bridge  with  their  tracks 
under  all  conditions,  so  that  the  bridge  always  moves 
smoothly  and  with  the  least  possible   friction.     The 


form  should,  if  possible,  be  arranged  as  shown  in  the 
engraving,  beneath  the  bridge,  as  in  this  position  the 
operator  has  best  command  of  the  floor  below.  Where 
the  headroom  does  not  allow  of  this,  or  where  other 
obstructions  interfere,  the  ijlatform  can  be  arranged 
at  each  side'of  the  bridge. and  projecting  but  .slightly 
below  the  crab.  But,  for  the  reason  above  given, 
this  arrangement  is  not  so  good  as  that  shown  in  the 
engraving.  A  foot  way  across  the  bridge  gives  ac- 
cess to  the  parts  attached  to  the  latter,  and  also  to 
the  trolley.  The  main  chain  sheaves  have  a)iti-fric- 
tion  bushings,  and  the  action  is  such  as  to  distribute 
the  wear  equally  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the 
chain.  The  power  traveling  crane  constitutes  the 
most  perfect  and  complete  "apparatus  for  handling 
heavy  loads,  and  is  to  be  preferred  to  all  other  tvpes 
of  cranes,  wherever  the  construction  of  the  building, 
and  the  other  surrounding  conditions  admit  of  its  use. 
j  It  avoids  all  strains  ofher  than  vertical  upon  the 
building  in  which  it  is  contained,  and  for  its  support 
requires  merely  a  trestle  or  wall  of  sufficient  stability 
to  resist  the  direct  pressure  of  the  crane  and  its  load, 


motions  of  the  trolley  on  the  bridge  are  effected 
through  the  two  parts  of  the  main  hoisting-chain, 
thus  avoiding  the  need  of  an  independent  traversing 
mechanism  and  greatly  simplifying  the  machine. 

The  hoisting  and  lowering  gear  consists  of  cut 
worm-wheels  with  bronze  rims,  driven  by  cut  steel 
worms  running  in  oil,  and  provided  with  automatic 
devices  by  which  the  load  is  always  self-sustained. 
Motion  is  transmitted  to  the  worm  gears  by  cut  spur- 
gearing,  driven  by  the  primary  shaft,  which  in  turn 
is  driven  continuously  in  one  direction  by  the  driv- 
ing rope.  Automatic  stO])S  arc  provided  for  arrest- 
ing the  transverse  motion  of  tlie  trolley  nt  either 
end  of  the  bridge,  and  also  of  the  bridge  at  eitlier  end 
of  the  longitudinal  tracks,  so  that  over-travel,  either 
of  the  bridge  or  of  the  trolley,  cannot  by  any  acci- 
dent occur. 

Provision  is  always  made  for  two  speeds  of  hoist- 
ing anil  lowering,  and  when  desired  hack  gearing  is 
added  to  the  crab,  tlius  alTiirding  four  sjiecds  of 
hoisting  and  lowering  and  two  speeds  of  travel,  both 
of  bridge  and  trolley.  Wlicn  desired,  liand  gearing 
can  be  also  added  to  enable  the  crane  to  lie  moved 
bj'  hand  in  the  event  of  the  power  being  temporari- 
ly disabled.  This  adds  somewhat  to  the  expense 
of  the  crane  and  is  usually  not  desirable,  as  the  mo- 
tions by  hand  are  necessarily  very  slow  and  the  oc 
casions  for  its  use  very  rare.     Tlie   oiierating   plat- 


so  that  there  is  practicall}'  no  limit  to  the  capacity 
which  nuiy  be  obtained.  With  jih  cranes,  on  the 
contrary,  lateral  strains  upon  the  building  are  un- 
avoidably introduced  ;  and,  where  the  crane  is  large, 
either  in  capacity  or  dimensions,  these  strains  be- 
come exceedingly  severe.  A  jib  crane  encroaches 
seriously  upon  the  floor  it  covers,  and  its  capacity 
for  the  horizontal  transfer  of  loads  is  necessarQy 
very  limited.  The  traveling  crane,  on  the  contrary 
leaves  the  floor  below  it  entirely  clear,  and  is  practi- 
cally unrestricted  in  the  length  of  its  travel.  The 
designing  of  the  Weston  power  traveling  cranes 
has  been  a  subject  of  the  most  careful  studv  and 
thorough  experiment,  extended  over  a  number  of 
years.  '  It  is  believed  that  these  are  the  most  highly 
organized  and  mechanically  perfect  cranes  whicli 
have  ever  been  Imilt.  Cranes  of  this  construction  are 
adai)ted  for  use  in  foundries,  armories,  forges,  ma- 
chine shops,  rolling  mills,  stone  yards,  and  other 
places  where  heavy  loads  are  to  be  liandled,  and 
where  it  is  desired  to  accomiilisli  this  in  the  most  ef- 
licicnt  and  economical  manner.  Where  actively  em- 
ployed cranes  of  this  type  will  do  the  work  of  from 
30  to  50  men  using  the  ordinary  devices  of  tackles, 
jacks  and  screws,  so  that  it  is  demonstrable  in  many 
cases  that  the  economy  cfTected  by  a  crane  witliin 
one  or  two  years  will  cnlirelv  cover  the  cost  of  pro- 
curing it.     See  C'ranen,  and  tliind  Traveling  Crane, 


POWLDRON. 


577 


POWWOW 


POWLDRON.  — Ill  llinildry,  llial  |iarl  of  armor 
wliicli  ciiviTM  the  Hliiiiililcrs. 

POWLETT  GUN  CARRIAGE.  — A  pmiiiimlir  car- 
riage coiisislin'i:  of  nil  iiiiprovcil  slide  lilted  with 
Kuilahle  erosH-lraiisoiiis  uriii  aiii;li-kiiees  for  llie  sup- 
port of  riiiiniiif;  and  recoil  cylinders, which  arc  placed 
iiiideriieiith  the  jj;iiti  and  liel  ween  the  Kliilc  rails  in 
such  a  manlier  as  to  lie  eiilirely  protected  Ihereliy 
from  the  chances  of  disarraii!;enienl  b)'  a  shot  or 
shell  in  action.  A  rack-piece  runs  alon;;  the  inside 
of  one  of  the  slide  rails  with  a  rolliii;;,  eccentric 
c:Uitch,  with  a  lever  attached  to  its  collar,  so  that 
when  the  j;""  '*<  fired  and  the  recoil  is  "  brought 
up",  the  lever  falls  ami  automatically  secures  the 
nun  in  that  position  until  it  is  desired  to  run  in 
battery,  or  to  he  lirouL^hl  hack  to  Ilie  rear  liutTers 
for  loading.  The  ruiiiiiiiir  cylinders  are  liriiily  lixed 
to  the  cross-transoms  of  llie  slidi'.  and  arc  lilted  witli 
pistons,  the  rods  of  which  arc  secured  to  the  for- 
ward transom  of  the  brackets  of  the  slidinu;  carriage 
carryinu;  the  gun.  'Phis  attacliment  of  the  collar  of 
the  piston-rod  to  the  carriage  has  a  slot  motion,  so 
arranged  that  when  llu'  gun  is  lired  there  is  sulVicient 
play  not  to  strain  the  piston-rod  in  the  gland  stulT- 
ing  box  at  the  forward  end  of  the  cyliuder  head. 

This  running  cylinder  is  fitted  "with  supply  and 


into  n  cogged  racer  wheel,  so  arranged  and  meshed 
thai  any  niotiim  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  will  tra- 
verse or  train  the  gun  lo  right  or  left,  us  desired. 
The  oscillating  cylinders  are  placed  at  such  an  angle 
thai  there  is  no  center  of  a,\is  or  motion,  and.  like- 
wise, there  are  no  slide  valves  for  reversion  of  mo- 
li<in,  as  lliis  is  acconi])lished  liy  two  pairs  of  supply 
pipes  leading  lo  the  ports  or  base  fif  the  cyliiiilers 
on  binli  siiles  of  the  trunnion  support;  therefore,  by 
moving  the  lever  to  the  right  or  left,  the  training 
engintwould  follow  that  motion  and  train  the  gun  lo 
the  right  or  li-ft,  as  desired. 

The  elevating  and  depressing  gear  of  this  carriage 
is  operated  by  an  \ipriglit  cylinder,  with  siifJicient 
drift  to  give  instantaneously  the  extreme  degree  of 
elevation  or  depression  required  by  the  action  of 
compressed  air.  On  either  side  of  the  breech  of  the 
gun  are  racked  standards,  with  :.  movable  slot,  hav- 
ing a  compressor  screw  encompassing  a  racked  die 
or  slot-plug,  by  which,  with  one-half  turn  of  the 
screw  lever,  the  breech  of  the  gun  is  firmly  .secured 
at  any  degree  of  elevation  or  depression  desired. 
By  this  method  of  working  heavy  guns,  two  men  and 
agunnerare  all  the  crew  that  is  ret|uired  lo  work 
and  load  the  heaviest  ordnance,  and  all  the  p<iwer 
is  furnished  trom  below,  from  an  air  compressor  en- 


exhaust  pipes,  with  reversing  valves  or  cocks,  \vhere- 
by  compressed  air  funiislied  from  below  at  a  pres- 
sure may  be  supplied  to  eitlier  end  of  the  cyliuder, 
at  will,  by  moving  the  lever  allached  lo  the  stem  of 
such  reversing  valves  forward  or  backward,  for 
ruiming  out  or  running  in.  When  the  gun  is  run 
out  and  tired,  a  pressure  of  any  number  of  pounds  of 
compressed  air  as  may  be  desired  remains  at  llie  rear 
end  of  the  cylinder  for  picking  up  the  recoil,  and.  if 
it  is  desired,  the  clutch-lever  may  be  elevated  and 
secured  and  the  gun  made  to  run  immediately  in 
liatli-ry  again,  aulomatically.  after  each  tire.  In 
training  this  carriage,  which  is  done  without  tackle, 
winch,  or  clmiu  wheel,  there  is  placed  at  the  rear  of 
the  carriage  slide  and  between  the  same  a  pair  of 
oscillating  cylinders  laid  horizontally  with  a  plane 
of  the  slides  and  attached  directly  with  a  worm 
geared  into  a  worm  wliecl  having  a  pinion  geared 


gine  and  receiver  of  suitable  size.  The  drawing 
represents  a  3-5-ton  B.L.K.  gun  mounted  on  the 
Powlett  carriage.  Connected  with  this  carriage  is 
an  ingenious  stand-by  recoil  check  device,  winch, 
should  any  accident  happen  to  the  compressed-air 
machinery  or  pipes  during  action,  can  be  thrown  by 
a  lever  and  clutch  instantly  into  service.  This  recoil 
check  is  mechanical,  and  has  no  cogged  gearing, 
and  keeps  itself  in  order  by  running  perfectly  free 
during  all  maneuvering,  until  thro^vninto  gear  in 
an  emergency.     Sec  Bnike. 

POWWOW. — A  priest  or  conjuror  among  the  North 
American  Indians:  also,  conjurations  performed  for 
the  cure  of  diseases  and  other  purposes,  attended 
with  great  noise  and  confusion,  and  often  with  danc- 
ing. When  an  accepting  Chief  wishes  to  organize 
his  war  party,  he  mounts  his  horse,  both  in  full  war 
paint,  raises' a  pole  to  which  is  attached  a  bunch  of 


POYNADO. 


578 


PfiECEDENCE. 


feathers  and  a  small  red  blanket,  and  rides  about  the 
village  singing  the  war  song.  Those  wishing  to  go, 
mount  their  pouies  and  follow  the  chief.  This  is 
continued  several  days,  until  there  is  a  sufficiency  of 
volunteers  for  the  work. 

During  the  absence  of  the  war  party,  the  people 
at  liome  become  very  anxious,  and  all  the  conversa- 
tion is  centered  on  the  absent  party  and  its  probable 
time  of  return.  When  it  is  announced  that  the  war- 
tiors  are  returning  victorious,  there  is  a  great  excite- 
ment throughout  the  village.  The  womnu  chant  songs 
of  victory,  while  the  old  men  narrate  the  deeds  of 
their  forefathers  and  themselves  to  excite  the  emu- 
lation of  the  young.  The  '■  Medicine  Men"  gallop 
through  the  camp  beating  their  drums  and  shouting 
encouragement,  while  the  warriors  painted  black, 
with  their  horses  in  the  full  war  paint,  perform  the 
scalp  (lance. 

If  the  expedition  turns  out  to  be  a  failure,  and  some 
of  the  party  are  killed,  the  relatives  of  the  killed  cut 
off  their  own  hair  and  the  tails  and  manes  of  the  fa- 
vorite horses  of  the  deceased,  and  crj"  without  ces- 
sation for  days,  weeks,  and  even  months. 

POYNADO. — An  earh-  name  for  a  poniard. 

PKAELIARES. — Among  the  Romans,  lighting  days 
on  which  they  thought  it  lawful  to  engage  in  acts  of 
liostility ;  for  duriug  the  time  of  some  particular 
feasts,  the)'  reckoned  it  a  piece  of  impiety  to  raise, 
march,  or  exerci.se  men  for  war,  or  to  encounter  the 
eucniy.  unless  first  attacked. 

PKAIKIE. — The  name  given,  by  the  early  French 
Explorers  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  North  America,  to  the  vast  fertile  plains 
which  extend  from  western  Ohio  and  southern  Michi- 
gan, across  the  States  of  Indiana,  Illinois,  Jlissouri, 
Arkansas,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Dakota  Ter- 
ritory, including  the  southern  portions  of  Wisconsin 
and  Minnesota.  These  great  plains  or  .savannas  are 
sometimes  flat. but  oftener  rollinglike  the  long  swells 
of  the  ocean,  and  rise  in  gradual  elevation  from  800 
to  L.^iOO  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  They  are 
draiued  by  numerous  rivers,  branches  of  the  Ohio, 
Mississippi,  and  Missouri,  or  emptying  into  Lake 
Michigan,  who.se  channels  seem  to  have  been  worn 
to  the  depth  of  50  to  300  feet,  with  vertical  walls  or 
bluffs  of  limestone,  sandstone,  displaying  in  some 
places  banks  of  clay,  sand,  and  loam,  200  feet  in 
thickness.  Beneath  the  prairies,  northwest  of  the 
Ohio,  are  extensive  coal-flelds,  with  deposits  of  iron, 
lead,  etc.  The  soil  is  finely  comminuted,  rich,  and 
fxtremely  fertile,  varying  in  thickness  from  1  or  2 
feet  to  tlie  Ijottom-lands  on  the  borders  of  the  rivers, 
which  are  of  great  depth  and  inexhaustible  fertility. 
These  plains  are  destitute  of  trees,  except  in  isolated 
groves. a  few  rocky  ridges, and  the  borders  of  streams. 
They  are  covered  with  fine  grasses, and  brilliant  flow- 
ers of  various  species  of  the  helianthoid  rompoxitm. 
Water  is  found  from  1.5  to  30  feet  below  the  surface. 
Tliesc  great  prairies. covering  an  area  of  about  -400,000 
square  miles,  formerly  fed  vast  herds  of  buffalo, 
deer,  wild  turkeys,  prairie-hens  or  grouse,  prairie- 
dogs,  squirrels, etc.  In  the  autumn, the  dried  grasses, 
lired  by  the  Indians,  converted  them  into  seas  of 
fiame.  The  lack  of  timber  is  attributed  by  some  to 
the  fineness  of  thesoil.  Kemains  of  ancient  jnounds, 
fori itical ions, and  cities  show  that  they  were, at  some 
distant  period,  inlial)ite(l  by  a  more  civilized  race 
than  the  Indians  found  by  European  discoverers. 
These  great  rolling  plains,  or  natural  pastures,  with 
only  the  labor  of  plowing,  produce  large  crops  of 
wheat  or  niai/.e,aiiil,  |)enetrated  by  navigable  rivers, 
and  crossed  by  <:licai>ly  binlt  railvva3-s,  they  form  one 
of  the  nu)st  easily  cidlivated  and  prolitic  regions  of 
the  world,  and  are  capable  of  sustaining  immense 
populatioMs. 

PEAIRIE  CARRIAGE.— The  necessity  for  a  small 
carriaL'e  fcpr  llic  luouiitain  howitzer,  when  used  on 
our  western  prairies,  has  led  to  the  adoption  of  a 
special  carriage  for  that  service,  with  a  limlicr  at- 
tached as  iua  field  carriage.     This  renders  the  car- 


riagte  less  liable  to  overturn,  and  preferable  in  every 
respect  to  the  two-wheeled  one.  The  limber  is  fur- 
nished with  two  ammunition  boxes,  placed  over  the 
axle-tree,  and  parallel  to  it,  and  just  wide  enough 
for  one  row  of  shells  and  their  cartridges.  See  Giui- 
carria(]en. 

PRATT  RANGE-FINDER.— Any  device,  by  means 
of  whicli   the  distance  between  two  objects  may  be 
measured  with  such  accuracy  as  will  warrant  its  ap- 
plication in  determining  what  elevation  should  be 
given  to  a  fire-arm  discharged  at  one  of  the  points,  in 
order   that   its   projectile   shall  strike  the  other,  or 
within  effective  proximity,  may  be  called  a  range-fin- 
der. For  militarypurposes,  a  range-finder  should  be  as 
small  inexpensive,  durable,  and  simple  as  is  possibly 
consistent  with   necessar}'  accuracy.     It  should  also 
not  be  limited  in  its  apphcation  to  one  base,  and  the 
base   should  not   be  long  in   comparison  with  the 
range.     It  is  thought  that  the   method  of  use   sug- 
gested by  Lieut.  Sedgwick  Pratt,  Third  Artillery,  C. 
b.  A.,  may  materially  increase  the   value  of   fixed- 
angle  telemeters.     An  outline  of  this  method  is  here 
given  as  applied  in  general  to  telemeters  with  fixed 
angles.     It  enables  the  observer  to  obtain  the  dis- 
tance between  two  points  even  when  he  can  occupy 
neither  of  them.     The  observer  being  at  C,  to  obtain 
the  distance  between   the  points  A  and  B,  he   lays 
off  the  bases  C  C  and  C  C",  as  if  to  determine  the 
distances    C   A   and    C   B,  respectively.      AVithout 
measuring  these  ba&es|he  measure's  the  distance  C'C", 
and  this  is  multiplied  by  the  number   correspond- 
ing to  the   instrument,  20,  for  instance,  giving  the 
distance  A  B.     This  is  because  the  angle  C  C  C"  is 
equal  to  the  angle  A  C  B.and  the  sides  C  C  and  C  C" 
are  proportioned  to  the  sides  A  C  and  B  C  in  the  tri- 
angles C  C  C"  and  A  B  C.     Care  must  be  taken  to 
lay  off  the  bases  in  the  same  direction  from  C,  that 
is,  both  to  the  right  or  both  to 
the  left  of  the  observer  at  C  as 
he  stands  facing  the  points  A 
and  B  for  the   two  bases  re- 
spectively.   Where  the  instru- 
ment is  adapted  to  laying  off 
a  right  angle  also,  the  observ- 
er can  place  himself  on    the 
line  between  two  points,  A  and 
B,  and  obtain  the  distance  be- 
tween them  in  a  very  simple 
manner.     Being  at  C,  he  lays 
off  in  the  same  direction  tiie 
bases  C  C  and  C  C".  one  cor- 
responding to  the  distance  C 
A  and  the  other  to  C  B,  adds 
the  bases,  and  multiplies  their 
sum   by    the   usual    number. 
Lieutenant  Pratt's  instrument 
consists  of  four  mirrors.    Two 
are  set  at  an  angle  of  45°  and 
two   at   a   lesser  angle.     The 
number  of  nnrrors  is  the  same 
as  in  the  modified  Azemar  in- 
stnunent,  which    gives   three 
angles.     The  bases  are  ,',,  and 
-i^   of  the  distance  to  be  determined,  and  with  the 
longer  base  the  instrument  is  used  like  Weldon's. 
The  method  shown  in  the  tigure  is  applicable  t<i  the 
Weldon  range-finder,  as  well  as   to  those  giving  a 
right  angle.     When  the  right-angle  instriments  are 
used,   care  must  t)e   taken   to  lay  olf   this  angle  at 
the  riglit  or  at  the  left  extremity  of  the  base  in  both 
observations.     When  A  C  C  and  1$  C  C"  are  both 
right  angles  the  line  C  C"  will  be  perpendicular  to 
tlie  line  A  B,  anil  this  affords  an  easy  method  of  lay- 
ing off  a  |)erpcndiculur  to  an  inaccessible  line,  two 
points  of  which  are  visilile  to  the  observer.     This 
method  can  be  used  also  with  variable-angle  tilenie- 
lers.     See  Nulnn,  Rangi-fiiuler,  liiiswU  I'rixm  liange- 
fiiiilfr.  Telemeter,  Watkiiis  Jiange-finder,  and,  Weld<m 
luiiige-finiler. 
PRECEDENCE. — Priority  in  rank  or  precedenc  in 


PRECEPTORY. 


579 


PRESENT  ARMS. 


military  life  is  reguliitcd  by  tlie  dutf  of  an  officer's   government  patronapje,  including  the  appointment 


oominiHsion,  or  the  Htiindini;  in  the  (.'orpt  towliinh 
)u'  iiuiy  licicin^.  The  fulldwin^r  Im  the  order  of  pre- 
ccdciice  (if  tin:  sfvcriil  Kcgiiiii'iitM  and  Corps  of  her 
Majesty's  service,  viz:  -  (1)  The  Keijimenis  of 
Life  (iiiards,  mid  tlie  lloyul  Hci^imciil  of  Horse 
Ginirds.  Ci)  Tlie  Uoyal  Horse  Arlillery;  Ijul  on  |)iir- 
ade,  with  their  K"i's,  tliis  Corps  will  liike  the  riylit 
and  march  at  tlie  head  of  the  Hoiisehdld  Cavalry. 
(;i)  The  Keiriinents  of  Cavalry  of  the  I,ine,  aeeord- 
inn  to  llieir  nuniher  and  order  of  preeedenccs  (4) 
The  Koyal  Uei^inient  of  Artillery.  (Ti)  The  Corps  of 
Hoyal  Kni^ineers.  (0)  The  Uepiin('nts  of  Foot 
Guards.  (7)  The  Rei^iineutH  of  Infantry  of  the  I>ine 
according  to  their  number  and  order  of  precedence. 
(H)  The  Departmental  (,'orps.  The  Royal  Marines, 
when  acting;  with  the  Troops  of  the  Line,  taki'  rank 
next  to  the  •tilth  Rei;imenl.  The  Kille  Brii;iiile  rank 
next  to  the  '.Cid  Kei;iiiient.  The  .Mililia  KeLjimenIs 
have  iireeedence  after  those  of  the  Lini;,  accordini; 
to  their  respective  numbers  as  fixed  bj-  lot.  When 
l{ej;iments  of  Hritish  and  Irish  Militia  of  the  same 
arm  are  serving  toi;ether,  the  Mililia  of  tliat  part  of 
the  United  Kinjjdom  in  which  the  Regiments  may  at 


of  a  KoitM  prifct  for  each  ArroinliiiMeinfnt,  and  in  time 
of  tumult  may  call  out  the  military,  or  provisionally 
<leclare  a  state  of  siege.  The  chiif  check  on  Ihesf 
extensive  powers  is  to  be  found  in  the  dinmeil  dr.  Itt 
J'ri'ferture,  which  acts  in  some  measure  as  a  court 
of  appeal  from  the  decisions  of  the  Prdfet. 

PREPONDERANCE.-The  excess  of  weight  of  the 
part  of  the  pic:(te  in  rear  of  the  trunnions  over  that 
in  front.  It  is  expressed  by  Ihr;  lifting  force,  in 
pounds,  which  must  be  applir-d  at  the  cascabel  to 
balance  the  piece  upon  the  trunnions.  It  is  u.seful 
only  for  pieces  mouiiled  on  traveling  carriages,  to 
keep  them  steady  in  transportation.  For  all  other 
pieces  of  recent  model  the  axis  of  the  trunnions  in- 
tersects the  axis  of  the  piece  at  the  center  of  gravity, 
thus  enabling  the  piece  to  lie  elevated  and  depressed 
with  greater  ease.  The  discharge  does  not  sensibly 
change  the  ]iosition  of  the  piece  before  the  projectile 
leaves  the  bore. 

PRESBYOPIA.— This  condition  is  an  accompaniment 
of  tin-  later  years  of  life  ;  it  is  a  physiological  or  nat- 
ural, not  an  abnormal  change,  and  effecis  all  eyes. 
It  depends  almost  solely  upon  the  failure  of  the  ac- 


the  time  be  ipiartered  has  jirecedence  over  other  ;  commodatiou, due  to  a  gradual  hardening  of  the  lens 
Militia, but  Reginienis  of  Artillery  Militia  always  have  l  and  decrease  of  the  power  of  the  ciliarj'  muscle  as 
precedence  over  the  Infantry  Militia.  On  jiarade  for  age  advances.  Although  this  decrease  in  the  power 
purposes  of  maneuvering.  Corps  are  to  be  distributed  of  adjustment  for  near  objects  is  not  noticed  until, 
and  drawn  up  in  the  mode  which  the  General  or  ,  jierhaps,  the  40th  or  4oth  year,  yet,  from  theatre  of 
other  Officer  commanding  may  judge  most  conven- !  nine  or  ten, the  accommodation  is  gradually  growing 
lent,  and  best  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  the   ser-    weaker,  that  is,  tine  print  can  no  longer  be  seen  as 


vice.      Rifle  Battalions    should  be  formed   upon  a 
flank. 

PRECEPTORY.— The  name  given  to  certain  houses 


close  to  the  eye  as  formerly. 
This  defect  is  not  of  itself  a  cause  for  the  rejection 

of  a  recruit,  but  those  in  whom  it  exists  are  usiiallj' 
of  the  Knights  Templar,  the  Superiors  of  which  I  over  age.  All  eyes  undergo  the  changes  producing 
were  called  Knights  Preceptor.  All  the  preceptories  '         "  '  ..-      ■ 

of  a  province  were  subject  to  a  Provincial  Superior, 
called  Grand  Preceptor ;  and  there  were  three  of 
these  who  held  rank  above  all  the  rest,  the  Grand 
Preceptors  of  Jerusalem, of  Tripolis.and  of  Antioch. 
Other  houses  of  the  order  were  called  "  Command- 
eries." 


presbyopia  ;  we  frequently,  however,  hear  of  perl 
sons,  ripe  in  years,  who  have  never  felt  the  necessity 
of  glasses  for  reading  or  other  tine  work,  and  whose 
"  strong  "  eyes  are  their  especial  pride.  Such  per- 
sons have  been  near-sighted,  probably,  all  their  lives 
their  defect  neutralizing  the  normal  changes  taking 
place  ;  a  weak  concave  glass  liefore  such   ej-es  wiU 


PRECISION. — Exactness  ;     accuracy  ;    scrupulous  ;  usually  improve  distant  vision. 


observance  of  certain  given  rules.  In  military  phrase 
ology,  this  term  is  often  employed  when  remarking 
on  the  drill  or  marching  of  a  regiment.  The  term  is 
also  applied  to  rifled  arms  under  the  name  of  Arms 

of  /')Yi-isin/l. 

FREDAL  WAR. — A  war  carried  on  by  plunder  and 

rapine.     Commonlj'  written  Predatory  Wnr. 

PREFECT. — A  common  name  apjilicable  to  various 
Ronuiu  functionaries.  The  most  important  was  the 
Prirfectu-H  Urbi,  or  warden  of  the  city,  whose  office 
existed  at  an  early  period  of  Roman  hislorj-,  but  was 


The  popular  opinion  that  the  use  of  glasses  should 
be  postponed  as  long  is  possilile,  is  erroneous.  As 
soon  as  unpleasant  feelings  denote  the  approach  of 
presbyopia,  glasses  should  be  resorted  to  at  once,  as 
the  longer  the  eyes  are  deprived  of  the  aid  which 
they  need,  and  consequently  are  subjected  to  strain, 
the  more  rapidly  will  the  changes  in  the  eye  become 
developed. 

The  treatment  of  presbyopia  is  found  in  convex 
glasses,  of  such  strength  that  flne  print  may  be  seen 
readily  at  7  to  8  inches.     Here  such  a   glass  is  em- 


revived  under  Augustus,  with  new  and  greatly  al- '  ploj-ed  not  to  correct  the  refraction,  as  the  case  of 
tere<I  and  extended  authority,  including  Uie  whole  the  convex  lenses  in  hypermetropia,  but  to  aid  the 
powers  necessary  for  the  maintenance  oif  peace  and  \  power  of  the  eye  in  accommodating.     Presbyopia, in 


order  in  the  city,  and  an  extensive  jurisdiction  civil 
and  criminal.  "The  Prcefictus  Prffturin  was  the  Com- 
mander of  the  troops  that  guarded  the  Emperor's 
person. 

PREFECT  PRETORIAN.— In  Roman  antiquity,  the 
C'ommaiuler  of  the  l'nu'ti>rmii  (huirds. 


a  perfectly  healthj-  eye,  does  not  affect  the  sharpness 
of  distant  vision,  although  in  extreme  old  age, distant 
vision  also  is  somewhat  diminished,  owing  to  other 
changes  which  affect  the  eye. 

The  "lasses  should  be  used  at  first  only  while  read- 
ing by  lamp  or  gaslight.     When  the  unpleasant  sen- 


PREFET.— The  name  of  an  important  magistrate  |  sations  show  tliemselves  also  in  the  day-time,  then 
in  modern  France,  so  called  from  his  exercising  i  the  glasses  previou.sl3-  worn  at  night  should  be  used 
functions  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  the  prirfectun  \  for  reading  by  daylight,  and  their  place  supplied  by 
^trbi  at  Rome.  In  old  times,  the  officers  whose  duty  ]  a  pair  of  slightly  stronger  glasses  for  night-work.  In 
it  was  to  superintend  the  details  of  administration  in  j  old  persons,  when  distant  vision  is  improved  by  weak 
the  Provinces  were  csil\ed.\fa>trei<de  Riquetes.  Under  convex  glasses,  those  of  the  proper  strength  may  be 
Henry  II.,  their  office  was  rendered  permanent  ;  and  '  worn  constantlj-.  See  Recruits. 
at  a  later  period,  their  powers  were  much  extended,  I  PRESENT.— A  term  used  in  the  British  service, 
and  they  were  known  by  the  designation  of  Int4-n-  \  meaning  to  bring  the  musket  to  a  horizontal  position, 
dants.  The  Intendants  were  abolished  at  the  Revo-  j  the  butt  resting  against  the  right  shoulder  for  the 
lution  ;  and  a  law  of  1800  first  appointed  Prefets  for  {  purpose  of  di.scliarging  its  contents  at  a  given  object, 
the  departments,  with  powers  greatly  similar  to  PRESENT  ARMS.— A  command  in  tactics  dire<ting 
those  of  the  Intendants.  The  office,  as  it  now  exists,    that  the  musket  be  brought  to  a  certain   prescribed 


includes  the  superintendence  of  police  establishment, 
the  enforcement  of  the  laws,  and  the  entire  control 
of  the  administration  of  the  departments.  The  PrtS- 
fet  is  the  head  of  the  executive,  exercises  most  of  the 


position,  for  the  purpose  of  paying  a  military  com- 
pliment. The  movement  is  ex?cuted  as  follows: 
The  Instructor  commands:  1.  Present,  2.  Abms. 
Carry  the  piece  with  the  right  hand,  in  front  of  the 


PRESERVATION  OF  AMMUNITION. 


580 


PRESERVATION  OF  PROJECTILES. 


center  of  the  body,  at  the  same  time  gra.sp  it  witli 
the  left  hand  at  "the  lower  bund,  the  forearm  hori- 
zontal and  resting  against  the  bod_v,  (Two.)  Grasp 
the  small  of  the  stock  with  the  right  hand,  below 
and  against  the  guard.  1.  Can-//,  2.  Arms.  Re- 
sume the  carry  with  the  rirfit  hand.  (Two.)  Drop 
the  left  hand  by  the  side.    See  Manual  of  Arms,  Fig. 

^PRESERVATION  OF  AMMUNITION  AND  FIRE- 
WORKS.— Stiirc'huusL-s  and  magazines  should  be  kept 
in  tlie  neatest  possible  order,  the  stores  arranged  as 
much  as  possible,  by  classes,  kinds,  and  calibers, 
and  labeled.  They  should  be  ventilated  from  time 
to  time,  in  the  middle  of  the  daj',  in  line  weather, 
particularly  those  which  contain  ammunition  and 
tireworks,  which  are  injured  by  moisture.  LeaAkn 
balU  are  generally  kept  in  cellars,  on  account  of  their 
weight ;  the  boxes  should  be  kept  as  dry  as  possible, 
and  so  piled  as  to  admit  the  circulation  of  air  about 
them.  C'lrtridgen /(»•  KinaU-drms  SiTe'k.ept  in  mag.a- 
zines,  the  barrels  or  boxes  being  piled  3  or  4  tiers 
high  at  most.  Fixed  ammunitioHfur  cannvii,  it  not 
inboxes,  should  be  placed  in  piles  formed  of  two 
parallel  rows  of  cartridges,  with  the  sabots  together, 
m  4  tiers  for  12-pounder ;  chock  the  lower  tier  with 
strips  of  wood  fastened  with  small  nails  ;  put  a  lay- 
er of  tow  3  inches  thick  between  the  shot;  let  the 
piles  rest  on  planks,  if  there  be  no  floor,  and  cover 
them  with  paulins  ;  have  the  place  swept,  and  the 
cartridge-bags  brushed  off.  Leave  a  passage  of  18 
inches  between  the  double  rows,  and  keep  them  2 
feet  from  the  walls.  Fixed  ammunition  should  not  j 
be  put  into  powder-magazines  if  it  can  be  avoided  ; 
it  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  above  the  ground-  [ 
floor  if  practicable.  The  store-rooms  should  always 
be  aired  in  line  weather  ;  the  piles  siiould  be  taken 
down  anil  made  up  again  every  six  months  at  most, 
the  bags  examined,  repaired,  and  the  damaged  cart- 
ridges broken  up.  A  ticket  on  each  pile  shoul43how 
thenumber  and  kind  of  cartridges,  the  additions  to 
the  pile,  and  the  issues.  Canisters  are  piled  up  like 
fixed  ammunition,  in  4  or  .5  tiers.  Empty  cannis- 
ters  in  10  or  12  tiers,  the  bottoms  and  covers  separ- 
ately. Cartridge-bag^  are  filled  and  kept  like 
fixed  ammunition,  or  packed  in  boxes  or  barrels. 
When  empty,  they  are  stored  in  bundles  of  50,  sealed 
up  in  paper  cases,  carefully  closed  with  strips  of  thin 
paper  pasted  over  the  seams.  Paper  cartridge-bags 
are  kept  in  bundles, packed  in  boxes  or  on  shelves, in 
a  dry  place,  with  pounded  camphor  and  black  pep- 
per or  tobacco:  the  flannel  bottom  dipped  in  a  solu- 
tion of  the  sulphate  of  copper.  Luadtd  shdln  should 
never  be  put  into  magazines,  except  from  .absolute 
necessitj';  powder  is  not  well  preserved  in  them. 
They  should  be  piled  on  the  ground-floor  of  a  secure 
building,  on  planks,  if  the  floor  be  not  boarded,  in  6 
tiers  at  most;  the  fuses  of  the  lower  tier,  in  the  va- 
cant spaces  between  the  shells;  those  of  the  other 
tiers,  turned  downwards,  like  the  fuse-holes  of  emp- 
ty shells.  The  pile  should  be  covered  with  a  paulin. 
Use  the  same  precautions  against  moisture  and  acci- 
dents as  in  a  jxjwder-magazine.  The  different  kinds 
of  caiiinUr  shut  are  kept  together,  in  bins  or  boxes. 
Shw-match  is  kept  in  a  dry  place,  such  as  a  garret, 
in  boxes  or  barrels,  or  are  piled  on  tlie  floor.  "Quick- 
iiiatf/i,  if  not  in  boxes,  may  be  hung  up  in  bundles 
on  ropes  or  jiins  and  covered  with  paper.  Frirtinn. 
pritnirK  should  be  ke])l  in  tin  boxes.  Port-Jirea,  in 
liumlels  of  ten,  are  placed  in  boxes  or  in  barrels  on 
end  in  safe  and  dry  sitiuitions.  Fanes  are  packed  in 
boxes,  the  same  kind,  as  much  as  possible,  in  the 
same  box,  in  very  dry  and  well-ventilated  stores. 
('flinders  of  ruak-Jire  are  kept  inbo.vesor  barrels  like 
fuses.  Fire.lialls  are  kejjt  in  cool  but  dry  and  airy 
])laces,  suspended  by  the  handle,  the  bottom  restin"- 
on  a  board  nr  fluor  llial  llicy  may  not  become  de- 
formed. Each  ball  should  be  labeled,  stating  itscali- 
ber,  weiglit,  andyear  of  fabricalion.  Signal-riirkrtsarv. 
])acked  in  boxes,  the  sticks  tied  togeth.er.  Each  box 
should  contain  rockets  of  but  one  caliber,  andshoulil 


be  nfarked  with  the  size  and  the  kind  of  decoration. 
If  the  sticks  be  attached  they  are  tied  in  bundles  of 
n  according  to  the  kind  of  decoration.  War-rejckets 
are  preserved  in  dr_y  places  with  the  same  precau- 
tions as  loaded  shells.  Tarred  links  are  strung  on  a 
rope  and  hung  up.  For  transportation  they  are 
packed  in  barrels  with  straw  between  the  tiers. 
Fetscines  aniX  ton'/(fs  are  packed  like  tarred  links.  The 
parts  of  ornamental  fireworks,  owing  to  their  liabil- 
ity to  deteriorate  in  store,  are  generally  made  as  re- 
ipiired.  They  may  be  packed  in  the  same  manner 
as  ]iiirt-fires.     See  Ammunition. 

PRESERVATION  OF  PROJECTILES.— Projectiles  for 
rifle  guns  shouUl  be  neither  lacquered  nor  painted, 
for  the  reason  that  either  of  these  substances  would 
adhere  to  and  foul  the  grooves  of  the  piece.  When 
practicable,  they  should  be  kept  under  cover,  in  a 
dry  place,  and  if  unboxed,  should  be  oiled  once  a 
year  with  sperm  oil.  They  are  piled,  according  to 
kind  and  calilier,  on  their  sides,  in  tiers  of  conven- 
ient height.  The  fuse  holes  should  be  stopped  with 
tow  or  cotton-waste.  Great  care  should  be  taken 
when  handling  them  to  avoid  injuring  the  sabot. 
No  shells  of  any  description  should  be  kept  habitual- 
ly charged.  This  is  done,  as  occasion  requires,  when 
tiring.  Empty  shell,  whether  in  store  or  in  trans- 
portation, are  most  carefully  protected  from  damp- 
ness. They  have  the  fuse-bouching  coated  with 
composition,  and  the  fuse-hole  is  stopped  by  a  plug 
of  very  soft  wood  wliich  is  well  coated  with  a  mix- 
ture of  oil  and  tallow,  and  screwed  in.  The  ends  of 
the  plugs  are  not  sawed  off  even  with  the  shell,  but 
left  square,  and  project  sufficiently  to  allow  them  to 
be  unscrewed  by  means  of  a  wrench;  and  when 
these  plugs  are  removed  for  the  purpose  of  fitting 
the  shells  for  service,  they  are  not  thrown  away,  but 
preserved  for  future  use. 

When  projectiles  have  been  allowed  to  become 
very  rusty,  they  may  be  thoroughly  cleaned  in  tlie  fol- 
lowing manner  :  Provide  stout  rectangular  wooden 
tubs,  fitted  with  faucets  and  troughs,  for  conducting 
the  waste  water,  acids,  etc.,  to  the  gutters.  The 
loose  rust  having  been  removed  with  a  file-card, 
place  the  projectiles  in  the  tubs,  and  cover  them 
with  a  mixture  of  three  parts  muriatic  acid  and  four 
parts  water.  After  pickling  for  an  hour,  or  an  hour 
and  a  half,  remove  the  acid  directly  into  another  tub, 
if  convenient,  as  the  same  mixture  may  be  used 
many  times.  Then  thoroughly  rinse  the  projectiles 
in  running  water  ;  if  any  rust  remains  it  will  be  in  a 
spongy, half-dissolved  condition. easily  removed  with 
a  file-card.  After  rinsing,  the  projectiles  are  wiped 
with  a  dry  cloth  and  piled,  when  they  will  be  ready 
for  lacquering. 

Whenever  projectiles  are  to  receive  lacquer,  care  is 
taken  that  the  quantity  applied  tloes  not  increase 
the  diameter  more  than  is  indispensabl}'  necessary, 
and  in  no  case  above  established  high  ga\ige.  Old 
lacquer  and  rust  are  removed  by  scraping,  as  far 
as  can  be  conveniently  done,  before  a  new  coat- 
ing is  applied.  Neither  liammering  nor  beating  is 
resorted  to  fortius  purpose.  After  numerous  ex- 
periments upon  different  lacquers  employed  for  the 
preservation  of  projectiles  from  rust,  the  French 
have  abandoned  all  of  them.  The  projectiles  are 
simi)ly  piled,  imder  sheds  when  practicable,  or  in 
the  open  air,  and,  when  put  onboard  of  shii),  cleaned 
of  rust  and  rublied  over  with  whale-oil;  the  same 
means  are  adopted  every  three  months  of  the  cruise. 

In  emptying  slu'U  they  are  handled  carefully  and 
placed  on  a  bench  with  a  hole  in  it  to  re<five  and 
suiiport  the  inverted  shell.  A  wooden  vessel  i)laced 
below  re(-eives  the  powder.  The  powder  which  has 
been  removed  from  shells  is  only  used  for  filling 
shell,  as  it  always  contains  a  small  (juantity  of  grit, 
which  renders  it  unlit  for  gi'ueral  service.  All  [low- 
der  taken  from  shell  is  sifted,  and  all  dust  and  jiar- 
ticles  of  dirt  removed,  asfaras  possilile,  Iiefore  put- 
ting it  into  barrels.  Shoidil  the  powder  have  bc- 
conie  caked,  so  as  not  to  be  easily  removed  by  wash- 


FB£8£aVAII0N  OF  FOWOEB. 


581 


PRESIDKNT. 


ing  out  the  shell,  !i  Imnilful  of  small  iron  shot  piit  in  '  not  bf  mod.     Tlic  Rontinfl  or   puard  at  a  magazine, 
the  slicll    fiicilitalcs  lliis  opiratioii.     See  /'iliiif/  nf  wlien  it  is  open,  should  liavr  no  tirc-arriiH,  and  j-v<;ry 

one  wlio  fntcrs  tin;   nmjra/.inr   should  take  o(T   hm 


Ihill.i  mid    I'riiji'i'titin. 

PRESERVATION.  STORAGE.  AND  TRAN8P0RTA 
TION  OF  POWDER.  In  the  poH  dir.iii,iL';i/iMcs  Ihr 
liarrcls  arc  f,'ciirrHlly  pla<-cd  on  the  sidi-s,  llircc  lli-r>< 
liish,  or  four  tiers,  if  iic-eessaiy.  Small  skids  should 
lie  i)laced  on  the  lloor  and  lietwcen  the  seviral  tiers 
of  i)arr<'ls,  in  order  to  steady  tliein,  and  cliocks 
should  lie  plaeed  at  intervals  on  the  skids  to  pre- 
vent the  rolling  of  the  liarrels.  The  powder  should 
be  separated  iie<-iirdinLC  toils  kind,  the  |ilaee  and  ilate 
of  falirieatioM  and  the  proof-ran<:e.  Fixed  ainiiiiini- 
tioii,  espeeiidly  for  cannon,  should  not  tie  put  in  the 
Biime  ina!j;azine  with  po\vd<T  in  barrels,  if  it  can  be 
avoided.  In  a  room  i;t  or  14  feel  wide,  the  barrels 
may  be  arranged  in  a  double  row  in  llu'  center,  two 
alleys  'ih  feet  wide,  and  two  single  rows  0  to  13  inehes 
from  the  walls  ;  in  this  way  the  marks  of  eaeli  barrel 
may  be  seen  and  any  barrel  can  be  easily  reached. 
In  a  room  13  feet  wide,  an  cipial  luunber  of  barrels 
may  be  plaee<l  in  Iwo  doulile  rows,  with  a  central 
alley  of  :{  feet,  and  two  side  alleys,  next  the  walls, 
of  about  10  inches  each.  Thi're  should  be  an  un- 
encundx'red  space  of  6  or  8  feet  at  the  door  or  doors 
of  the  magazine.  , 

Should  it  be  necessary  to  pile  the  barrels  more 
than  four  tiers  high,  the  upper  tiers  should  be  sup- 
ported by  a  frame  resting  on  the  tioor;  orthe  barrels 
may  be  placed  on  their  heads,  with  boards  between 
the  tiers.  Besides  being  recorded  in  the  magazine 
book,  each  parcel  of  powdersliould  be  inscribed  on 
a  ticket  attached  to  the  pile,  showing  the  entries 
and  the  issues. 

For  the  preservation   of  the  powder,  and   of  the 


slioi'S,  or  ])ut  socks  over  I  hem;  no  sword  or  cane,  or 
anything  which  might  ncrasion  sparks,  should  be 
carried  ill.  The  window  s  ^lioiild  have  inside  slnittere 
of  co])per  wire-doth.  Fire  should  never  be  kindled 
near  the  magazine  for  the  repair  of  the  roof  or  liclit- 
ningrods.  Barrels  of  powder  should  not  be  rolled 
for  transi)ortation;  they  should  be  carrii'd  in  hand- 
barrows,  or  slings  made  of  ro|ie  or  leather.  In  mov- 
ing powder  in  the-  ma^Mzine.  a  cloth  or  carpet  should 
be  spread;  all  inslnimenis  used  there  shoulil  be  of 
wood  or  cojipcr,  and  the  barrels  should  ni-ver  be  re- 
])aired  in  I  he  niairaziiw.  When  it  is  necessarv  to 
roll  the  ])owder  for  its  betti-r  jireservation  and  to 
prevent  its  caking,  this  should  lie  done,  with  a  small 
ipiantity  at  a  lime,  on  boards  in  the  magazine  yard, 
In  the  spring  an  ins]ieclion  of  the  barrels  should 
be  mide,  and  the  hoops  swept  with  a  brush  wherever 
they  can  be  got  at,  to  remove  the  insects  which  de- 
posit their  eggs  at  this  season.  In  wagons,  barrels 
of  powder  must  be  packed  in  straw,  secured  in  such 
a  manner  as  not  to  rub  against  each  other,  and  the 
load  covered  with  thick  canvas.  In  transportation 
by  railroad,  each  barrel  should  be  carefully  boxed 
and  packed,  so  as  to  avoid  all  friction.  TIk"  barrels 
should  have  a  thick  paulin  under  them.  The  cars 
should  have  springs  similar  to  those  of  passenger 
cars.  When  ])owder  has  been  ilamaged  by  being 
stored  in  d:imp  places,  it  loses  its  strength,  and  re- 
quires to  be  worked  over.  If  the  quantity  of  mois- 
ture absorbed  does  not  exceed  7  per  cent!,  it  is  suf- 
ficient to  dry  it  to  restore  it  to  service.  This  is  done 
by   e.xposing   it  to   the  sun,  or   in   a  drying  room. 


floors  and  lining  of  the  magazine,  it  is  of  the  great- 1  When  "powder  has  absorbed  more  than  7  per  cent.,  of 
est  importance  to  preserve  unobstructed  the  circula-  water  it  is  sent  to  the  powder-mills  to  be  worked  over, 
tinn  of  air  under  tlie  tlooring  as  well  as  above.  The|orsold  as  condemned  [lowder.  When  it  has  been 
magazine  should  be  opened  and  aired  in  clear,  dry  !  damaged  b)-  salt  water,  or  become  mixed  with  for- 
•wniMwr, when  the  Umperatunnf  the  air  uiit^i<le  in  Awp- ,  eign  matters  which  cannot  be  separated  by  sifting, 
er  than  that  inxide  the  magazine.  It  should  not  be  |  the  saltpeter  is  dissolved  out  from  the  other  mater- 
opened  in  damp  weather  if  it  can  be  avoided.     The    ials  and  collected  by  evaporation. 

Pr'ipoHiunn  of  ingredientn. 


By  the  atomic  theory 

In  the  United"  States  : 

For  the  military  service  (the  latter  proportion  is  generally  used;  - 

For  sporting  j 

In  England  same  as  United  States; 
For  the  military  service 

For  sporting  ,' 

In  France  (Wetteren  powder  has  given  best  results ;    many  e.\- 
periments  have  been  made  with  varviu.g  jiroportions) : 

For  the  military  service 

For  sporting 

For  blasting 

In  Prussia,  same  as  England  and  United  States : 
For  the  military  service T, 

In  Spain :                                                   — 
For  the  military  service 

In  Austria : 
For  the  militarv  service 


Saltpeter. 


Charcoal. 


74,64 
76. 

rjtt 


75. 

78. 
75. 


73.775 

78. 

63. 

75. 

76.5 

74. 


11.51 

14. 
IS- 
IS. 
13. 

15. 

14. 
17. 


14.205 
12. 

18. 

15. 

13.7 

16. 


Sulphur. 


11.85 

10. 
10. 
10. 
10. 

10. 

8. 
8. 


13.020 

10. 

20. 

10. 

10.8 

10. 


See  Gunpowder  and  Powder  Depots. 
ventilators  must  be  kept  free;  no  shrubbery  or  frees  j 
should  be  allowed  to  grow  so  near  as  to  p"rotect  the  . 
builuing  from  the  sun.     The  magazine  vard  should 
be  paved  and  well  drained.     Tbeinoistufe  of  a  maiia- 
ziue  may  be  absorbed  by  chloride  of  lime  suspended 
in  an  open   box  under  t"he  arch,  and   renewed   from 
time   to  time;   quicKlimc  is  dangerous,  and   should 


PRESIDENT.— The  President  of  the  United  States 
is  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  army,  narj-,  and  mili- 
tia called  into  service.  His  functions  as  such  are 
assigned  by  Congress,  but  embrace  of  course  what- 
ever authority  may  be  assigned  to  any  Military  Com- 
mander. r:n  the  principle  that  the  authority  of  the 
greater  includes  that  of  the  less.   For  the  command. 


PKESIDENX  OF  COURT. 


582 


PBETOB. 


government,  and  reculation  of  the  army,  however, 
bugress  has  created  a  military  liierarchy  or  range 
of  subordination  in  the  army  w'ith  rights  and  duties 
regulated  by  Congress,  and  the  Commander-in-Chief 
cannot  make  use  of  any  other  agents  in  exercising 
Ins  command;  and  all  orders  is"sued  bv  him  must 
be  according  to  the  rules  and  articles  ma'de  by  Con- 
gress for  the  government  of  the  army.  In  his  capa- 
city of  Chief  Magistrate  of  the  Unioia,  Congress  has 
also  invested  the  President  with  many  ad"ininistra- 
tive  functions  relating  to  military  affairs  :  and  for 
the  performance  of  fhe  latter  duties  the  Secretary 
of  the  Department  of  War  has  been  made  his  Min- 
ister, upon  matters  connected  with  materiel^  ac- 
counts, returns,  the  support  of  troops,  and  the  rais- 
ins of  troops. 

PHESIDENT  OF  COURT.— The  President  of  a  Court- 
Martial  is  the  senior  member.  He  preserves  order 
in  Court ;  administers  the  oath  taken  by  the  Jud'je- 
Advocate.  and  the  proceedings  of  the  Court  are  au- 
thenticated by  his  signature  and  that  of  the  Judge- 
Advocate.     See  CinirU-Martial. 

PRESIDIO. — A  place  of  strong  defense  ;  a  garrison 
guard-house. 

PRESS  CAKE.— Gunpowder  after  it  has  been  sub- 
jected to  hydraulic  pressure.  The  different  natures 
of  powder  used  in  the  service  receive  a  pressure  of 
so  many  tons  on  the  square  foot,  with  reference  to 
the  density  required.  Pebble  powder  receives  a 
pressure  which  gives  it  a  density  in  e.\cess  of  the 
usual  powders.  The  amount  of  pressure  varies  with 
the  season  of  the  year,  less  pressure  being  required 
in  summer  than  in  winter.     See  (jlnnpoirdtr. 

PRESSURE-GAUGE. — An  apparatus  invented  by 
General  Kodman  for  measuring  the  pressure  exert- 
ed by  the  gases  of  e.xploded  powder.  The  drawing 
shows  the  construction  of  the  instrument.  It  consist's 
of  the  hmmng,VL,  c\oseA.hj  the  plug ,  h;  of  thepwtoH, 
P,  with  its  head,  p,  to  which  is  attached  the  ind^nt- 
ing-tool,  I ;  and  the  recorder,  R,  of  copper.  The  gns- 
check,  C,  a  thin  copper  cup,  and  the  ganktt,  G,  a  cop- 
per rin,"-,  exclude  the  gas  from  the  cavity  of  the  hous- 
ing. AVhen  the  gauge  is  placed  in  the  cartridge-ban-, 
it  is^  securely  tied  to  it  at  the  croove,"!!'  h'. 
In  using  this  instrument,  all  its  parts,  except  the  ex- 
terior of  the  outer  cylinder,  are  carefully  cleaned  be- 
fore each  tire,  and  the  threads  of  the  screw-plug  and 
the  indenting-piston  carefully  oiled;  the  copper 
specimen  is  then  placed  in  the  iiottom  of  the  cylinder, 
the  indenting-piston  inserted  into  thescrew-p"lug,and 
with  the  outer  cylinder  horizontal  the  plug  is  scrl'wed 
home,  being  afterwards  tightly  set  in  with  a  wrench 
while  the  cylinder  is  held  m  a" vise.     The  cylinder  is 


then  carefully  set  downupon  its  closed  end,  and  the 
ind(iiling-])iston  gently  pushed  down  till  tlie  point 
of  tlie  indenting  tool  rests  u|)(m  the  copper  specimen; 
a  sinal!  gas  check  is  then  inserted,  mouth  outward! 
till  it  rests  \\\»m  tlie  end  of  the  indenting-piston.  It 
gives  additional  security  against  the  passage  of  gas 
to  jilace  a  small  wad  of  "cotton  or  tow  over  the  giis- 
clieck,  i)ressing  it  in  liniily  without  ilriving,  a"s  a 
very  light  blow,  several  limes  repeated,  miglil  give 
a  greater  indentation  than  Unit  ihie  to  tlir  pressure 
to  which  it  was  to  be  subjected,  and  thus  give  erron- 


eous results.  The  instrument  is  inserted  into  the  gun 
with  the  screw-plug  toward  the  muzzle,  and  is  gen- 
erally found  in  the  bore  of  the  gun  after  its  discharge, 
when  the  screw-plug  is  withdrawn  and  the  speciujen 
removed,  having  an  indentation  in  its  surface, due  to 
the  pressure  tliat  has  been  exerted  upon  the  outer 
end  of  the  indenting-piston.  The  indications  of  pres- 
sure are  found  to  be,  generally,  something  less,  for 
equal  charges,  b3'this  instrument  than  by  the  exter- 
nal housing ;  tills  may  be,  and  proljably  is,  due  to 
the  retardiUion  of  the  rate  of  intlamma'tion  of  the 
charge  by  the  presence  of  the  instrument,  and  to  the 
heat  absorbed  by  it.  Another  reason  for  this  is  prob- 
ablj'  owing  to  the  fact  that  in  the  external  gauge  the 
gas  has  a  considerable  space  to  travel  through  be- 
tween the  powder-chamber  and  the  indicating  parts, 
so  that  before  reaching  the  piston  the  gases  have  at- 
tained a  high  rix-viva,  especially  with  quick-burning 
powders.  For  these  reasons  this  instrument  should 
be  as  small  as  may  be  compatible  with  its  practical 
use.  See  Crusher-gauge.  External  Pressure-gauge, 
and  Internal  PrtsKure-gavge. 

PRESSURE-SCREW.— A  screw  variously  applied  In 
ordnance  constructions  to  exert  pressure  and  hold 
parts  in  proper  positions.  An  example  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  pressvrescrew  may  be  seen  in  the 
Breithaupt  fuse,  when  gauging  the  fuse  for  firing. 

PRESUMPTION.— An  inference  drawn  by  the  law 
in  certain  circumstances  or  conditions  of  "facts,  and 
is  used  generally  as  a  mere  starting  point  in  an  argu- 
ment or  litigation.  Presumptions  are  often  divided 
into  pre.fumptio  juris  and  presumptio  jtiri's  et  de  jure. 
The  former  serves  as  a  mere  starting-point,  and 
ma3'  be  rebutted  by  proof  to  the  contrary.  Thus,  a 
person  who  has  possession  of  goods,  is  presumed  to 
be  the  owner  till  the  contrary  is  proved.  A  man  is 
presumed  to  be  innocent  until  the  contraryis  proved. 
A  presumptio  juris  et  dejure  is  said  to  be  a  presump- 
tion which  cannot  be  rebutted;  but  there  are  few  in- 
stances of  this.  Presumptions  abound  in  all  de- 
partments of  the  law,  and  are  adopted  from  the 
necessity  of  coming  to  some  conclusion  or  other  in 
most  cases  where  the  evidence  is  general  or  incon- 
clusive. 

PRETENSE.- In  Heraldry,  an  Escutclieon  of  Pre- 
tense  or  Escutcheon  Surtout,  is  a  small  shield  placed 
in  the  center  of  the  tiekl  of  another  shield.  The 
husband  of  an  heiress  may  be:\r  the  arms  of  his  wife 
in  an  Escutcheon  of  Pretense;  instead  of  impaling 
them.  Feudal  arms  are  also  sometimes  placed  on 
an  Escutcheon  of  Pretense,  particularly  in  the  in- 
signia of  Elective  Sovereigns,  who  have  been  in  use 
of  bearing  their  own  proper  arms  in  surtout  over 
those  of  tlie  dominions  to  which  they  are  entitled. 
The  Crown  of  Charlemagne  is  placed  in  surtout  in 
the  Arms  of  Hanover;  and  from  1801  to  the  acces- 
sion of  Queen  Victoria,  the  Hanoverian  insignia  oc- 
cupied an  Escutcheon  of  Pretense  in  the  center  of 
the  Royal  Arms  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

PRETOR. — Among  the  ancient  Romans,  the  title 
given  to  the  Consuls  as  leaders  of  the  armies  of  the 
State:  but  it  was  specially  employed  to  designate  a 
JIagistrate  whose  powers  were  scarcely  inferior  to 
those  of  a  Consul.  The  Pretorship.  in  this  specific 
.sense  of  the  term,  was  first  instituted  in  30G  b.  c, 
us  a  compensation  to  the  Patricians  for  lieing  obliged 
to  share  with  the  Plebeians  the  honors  of  Consulship. 
It  was  virtually  a  third  Consulship;  the  Pretor  was 
entitled  ('"Uega  C'unsulihus ;  he  was  elected  by  the 
.same  ausjiices  and  at  the  .same  Coniilia.  For  nearly 
;i(t  years.  Patricians  alone  were  eligible  for  the  office; 
but,  in  337  b.c.  the  Plebeians  made  good  their  right 
to  it  also.  The  Pretor's  functions  were  chiefiy  judi- 
cial. Though  he  sometimes commaniled  armies,  and, 
in  the  absence  of  the  Consuls,  exercised  considerable 
authority  witliin  the  city,  yet  his  principal  business 
was  the  ailministralion  of  justice  both  in  matters 
civil  and  criminal;  and  "  to  the  edicts  cif  successive 
I'retors,"  says  .Mr.  G.  Long,  "  the  Hdiiian  law  owes, 
in  a  great  degree, its  development  and  improvement." 


PEETORIAN  BANDS. 


583 


PEIMEE. 


Orininiilly.  there  was  only  one  Pretor;  but,  as  the 
City  and"  Slate  inorciiHcd,  ami  tlnir  relations  with 
other  nations  l)eeanie  more  coinpliealed.  otlnTS 
■Hiicre  ailded.  In  24()  u.  c.  a  second  I'retor  was  j 
appoinlcd,  to  settle  disputes  that  niiLdil  arise  lie-  I 
tween  Konnins  and  Foreigners  temporarily  n'sidi'nl  j 
Ht  KoMii'.  for  trailinf;  ipr  other  jiiirposes.  lienee  called 
I'ra'tiir  l'eri(iriiiiiK  (Foreign  I'relorj,  to  distin^jiiisli 
liini  from  the  original  I'rwU/r  Urbiinitii (I'Wy  I'retorj. 
In  2'27  B.C.,  two  new  Pretors  were  npiHjiafed,  to  ad- 
ministrate alTairs  in  Sicily  and  Sardinia;  and  in  11)7 
11. <•.,  two  more  for  the  Spanish  Provinces,  or  0  in 
all.  Sulla  incrcaseil  the  niimlier  to  H,  and  .lulins 
Cicsar  to  l(i.  An^uslus  reiliiced  the  niind)er  to  I'i: 
hut  at  a  later  period  wi-  read  of  is,  if  not  more.  The 
city  I'retor-ships  were  reckoned  the  highest;  and 
after  a  person  had  tilled  these  olliees,  he  sometimes 
received  tlie  administration  of  a  province  with  the 
title  of  I'mprirt'ir  or  I'ruC'inKiit. 

PKETORIAN  BANDS.—  The  name  iriven  more  par- 
tieularly  durinir  I  he  perioil  of  the  Koman  Kmpire. 
to  a  hody  of  soldiers,  (>ri;anized  for  the  purpose  of 
protectinc;  the  jierson  and  maintainiuLC  the  power  of 
the  Emperors.  We  indeed  rea<l  of  n  I'nrturin  Cohnrx, 
or  select  guard  of  the  most  valiant  soldiers  attached 
to  the  person  of  Scipio  Afrieanus.  who,  according  to 
Festus,  received  six-fold  ])a_v,  and  the  exigencies  of 
the  civil  wars  naturally  increaseil  their  nundier;  but 
it  was  to  Augustus  that  tlie  insliiution  of  them  as 
a  separate  force  is  owing.  lie  formed '.tor  IDcohorts, 
each  consisting  of  l,O0()men  (horse  and  fool):  but 
kept  only  three  of  them  in  IJome,  the  rest  being  dis- 
persed in  cities  not  far  off.  Tiberius,  however,  as- 
sembled the  !l  cohorts  at  the  caiiital  in  a  permanent 
camp,  and  Vitellius  increased  their  number  to  Ki. 
The  I'retorians  served  at  tirst  for  12,  and  afterward 
for  ICi  years  ;  they  received  double  pay  ;  the  privates 
Were  held  in  e([ual  rank  to  the  Centurions  in  the  reg- 
\\\\\x  army,  and  on  theirretirement  each  received  2(1,- 
0(10  sesterces.  They  socm  acquired  a  dangerous 
power, which  the}'  exercised  in  a  most  unscrupulous 
manner,  deposing  and  elevating  Kmperors  at  their 
pleasure.  Aspirants  for  the  Imperial  Dignity  found 
it  advisable,  and  even  necessary, tobribe  them  large- 
ly ;  while  those  who  acquired  that  dignitj' without 
their  assistance  were  accustomed  on  tlieir  accession 
to  purchase  their  favor  by  liberal  donations.  The 
Pretorians.  however,  had  no  political  or  ambitious 
views;  they  were  sim[ily  an  insolent  and  riqiacious 
soldiery,  fondof  substantial  gratitications.  and  care- 
less how  they  got  them.  After  the  death  <if  Pertina.x 
(11)3  A  D.),  they  actually  sold  "the  purple"  for  a 
sum  of  I  money  to  Didius  .Tulianus;  but  in  the  same 
j-ear  their  peculiar  organization  was  entirely  broken 
U))  by  Severus,  who  formed  new  cohorts  altogether 
out  of  thebest  legions  serving  on  the  frontiers,  which 
he  increased  to  four  times  the  number  of  the  old. 
After  several  other  changes,  they  were  entirely  abol- 
ished by  C'onstantine  (312  a.  d.),  who  dispersed  them 
among  his  regular  legions. 

PRETORIUM.— The'IIall  or  Court  where  the  Pretor 
lived  and  administered  justice.  It  also  denoted  the 
tent  of  the  Koman  General,  in  which  councils  of  war 
were  held.  The  place  where  the  Pretorian  Guanls 
were  ([uartered  or  lodged  was  likewise  called  pre- 
toriuni. 

PREVENTOR  ROPE.— A  contrivance  for  checking 
the  forward  motion  of  a  carriage.  It  is  attached  to 
the  rear  block  of  the  carriage,  and  being  twisted 
round  the  hnUiirtJ  of  the  platform,  is  held  by  one  of 
the  cannoneers. 

PRICE  RETORT  FURNACE.— The  Price  furnace  is 
in  part  a  g;is  furnace,  and  it  embraces  some  of  the 
features  of  the  regenerative  system,  as  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air,  as  well  as  that  of  the  gaseous  and 
fi.xed  constituents  of  coal,  is  raised  by  the  waste 
heat  before  it  enters  the  chimney.  It  consists  of  a 
combu.stion  chamber  or  fire-box.  furnished  with 
grate-bars  in  the  ordinary  way  :  a  heating  chamber 
or  hearth,  separated  from"  thecombustiou  chamber 


by  the  usual  bridge ;  and  a  neck  leading  Into  a  flue, 
which  ojiens  to  the  retort  cliaMiber.  fii  the  center 
of  the  retort  chamber  is  a  circular  firebrick  pillar, 
on  which  is  placed  a  cast-iron  cylindrical  air-vi'ssel 
iiroticled  all  round  by  lirehrick.  On  this  air-vessel 
IS  liuilt  thr- rr-tort,  the  lower  part  of  which  is  made 
of  brick  while  the  upper  jiarl  is  cast-iron.  At  the 
top  of  the  retort  and  aliovtr  the  closed  end  of  the 
chamber  is  placed  a  hojiper,  in  the  throat  of  which 
are  fitted  two  doors  worked  by  a  lever  from  the 
ground.  This  feeding  apparatus  may  he  of  any  oth- 
er Huitabh^  construction.  In  the  tirebrick  portion 
of  the  ret')rt  are  two  passages,  tin-  one  leading  to  (he 
coiidiuslion  chamber,  and  the  other  to  the  outside 
of  the  furnace  for  the  insertion  of  stoking  tools  to 
force  the  fuel  forward  into  the  combustion  chamber. 
The  entrance  to  the  outer  pas.sage  is  closed  by  a 
tii^ht  door.  Near  the  bottom  of  the  retort  chamber, 
and  in  a  line  with  the  center  of  the  air-vessel,  are 
pipes  inserted  in  the  walls  of  the  chamber  and  ])ass- 
ing  all  around  it.  On  the  inner  sidi' of  these  pipes 
and  opening  into  the  retort  chamber  are  a  number 
of  holes  li'a<ling  into  the  space  around  the  pipes. 
This  space  affords  room  for  expansion  and  for  a  free 
circulation  of  heal.  The  pipes  are  connected  with 
the  blast  from  a  fan  or  from  any  suitabli-  blower. 
The  air  passes  into  Xhv.  air-vessel  and  is  delivered 
through  an  outlet  in.  the  ash-pit,  directly  vuider  the 
grate.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  descri[)tion  that  the 
retort  furnace  embraces  some  of  the  best  features  of 
the  regenerative  system,  while  it  entirely  dispenses 
with  its  complications  of  producers,  regenerators, 
and  reversing  valves.     See  Furnace. 

PRICKER.  1.  An  early  name  for  a  light  horseman. 
2.  A  priming-wire. 

PRIDE.— A  term  in  Heraldry.  A  peacock,  or  oth- 
er bird,  when  the  tail  is  sjireadout  in  a  circidarform, 
and  the  wings  dropped,  is  said  to  be  "  in  his  jiride." 

PRIEST  CAP —When  the  faces  of  a  redan  cannot 
be  so  placed  as  to  sweep  well  the  flank  approaches 
without  making  the  salient  angle  too  acute;  or  when 


the  flank  approaches  extend  towards  the  rear;  then 
the  plan  may,  in  the  first  case,  be  what  is  termed  a 
priest-cap.  or  xiraltmr-teiil,  in  which  the  two  main 
faces  sweep  the  flank  approaches,  and.  instead  of  a 
pn/i-ci/npie,>i  broken  line  forming  a  reentering  angle, 
placed  in  the  salient,  affords  a  cross-fire  on  the 
ground  in  front.  In  the  second  case  a  flank  is  added 
to  each  face  of  the  redan,  and  receives  such  a  direc- 
tion as  to  sweep  that  portion  of  the  flank  approach 
whic'i  cannot  be  reac-hed  from  the  faces  except  by  a 
very  oblique  fire.  The  priest-cap  is  so  named  from 
its  shape.     See  Fielil  Wi/rkn&iid  Simlhir.titil. 

PRIME. — 1.  In  fencing,  one  of  the  chief  guards. 
2.  To  charge  with  the  jiowder,  percussion-cap,  or 
other  device  for  communicating  fire  to  the  charge, 
as  a  fire-arm. 

PRIMER.— .\.  wafer,  cap,  tube,  or  other  device 
for  connnimicating  fire  to  the  charge  of  powder  in 
a  cannon.  The  cap  or  tube  usually  contains  a  fric- 
tion or  percussion-powder.  The  friction-prhiier  is 
generally  used  in  the  land  service.  For  service  on 
ship-board,  a  quill  filled  with  rifle-powder,  having  on 
the  top  a  capsule  of  fulminate  of  mercury,  is  gener- 
ally employed.  The  cajisule  is  exploded  by  a  blow 
from  the  lock-hammer.  The  tape-primer,  used  some- 
times in  blasting,  is  formed  of  long,  flexible  strips 


PEIMEK  EXTEACTOB. 


584 


PBISUATIC  FOWSEB. 


of  paper  or  fabric  containing  fulminate  or  other 
quick-burning  substance.  Tlie  electric  primer  is  used 
to  lire  simultaneous  discharges,  botli  in  ordnance  and 
blasting.  In  tiring  wet  gun"-cotton.  the  small  charge 
of  dry  gun-cotton  Used  in  conjunction  with  the  de. 
timathig  exploder  is  called  a  primer.  In  small-arms, 
the  term  is  specially  applied,  at  the  present  time,  to 
the  percussion-caps"  used  in  reloading  metallic  car- 
tridge-cases.    See  Cniinon-primern. 

PEIMER  EXTRACTOR.— A  reloading  tool,  whose 
function  is  to  extract  the  7>W;«r;- from  the  cartridge- 
shell,  when  it  is  required  to  reload  the  shell.  It  is 
variously  designed.  The  drawing  shows  a  very 
handy  and  efficient  form  of  extractor,  suitable  for  re- 


certain  States  in  Germany.  The  title  is  now  very 
geneially  applied  to  tlie  sons  of  Kings  and  Emper- 
ors, and  persons  of  the  Blood-Hoyal.  In  various 
parts  of  Continental  Europe,  the  title  Prince  is  borne 
liv  families  of  eminent  rank,  but  not  possessed  of 
sovereignty:  ami  in  England  a  Duke  is,  in  strict  her- 
aldic lang\iage,  entitled  to  be  styled  "  High  Puissant 
and  Most  Noble  Prince,"  and  a  JIarquis  or  Earl  as 
"Most  Noble  and  Puissant  Prince."  Practically, 
however,  in  Britain,  the  term  Prince  is  restricted  to 
members  of  the  Royal  Family.  The  eldest  son  of 
the  reigning  Sovereign  is  by  a  special  patent  created 
Prince  of  Wales,  and  this  is  the  only  case  in  which 
the   title  Prince  is  connected  with   a   territorial  dis- 


loading  central  fire  cartridge-shells  of  any  caliber. 
To  operate  it.  it  is  only  necessary  to  insert  the  shell, 
close  the  handles  just  enough  to  cause  the  chisel  to 
penetrate  the  primer,  and  elevate  the  tongue  suffi- 
ciently to  throw  it  out. 

PEIMIGENIA. — A  kind  oi  pike  very  much  resem- 
blins  tlie  pilum. 

PKIMING-TTJBE.— A  tube  to  contain  an  inflamma- 
ble composition,  which  occupies  the  vent  of  a  gun 
whose  charge  is  fired  when  the  composition  is  ignit- 
ed. There  are  several  kinds  of  priming-tubes,  fired 
by  port- fire,  lock .  or  frkt'on .  The  tube  is  made  of 
quill,  paper,  or  metol.  and  is  charged  with  mealed 
powder  damped  with  methylated  spirit,  or  by  a  de- 
tonating composition,  sucli  as  chlorate  of  potash  and 
antimony.  The  tube  is  .slightly  smaller  than  the  gun 
vent,  inthe  relative  proportions  of  -f^,  and  |  of  an 
inch,  and  a  hollow  is  made  down  the  middle  of  the 
composition,  so  that  the  fire  may  involve  the  whole 
length  instantaneously.  The  simplest  form  i.?  that 
in  which  the  tube  is  merely  a  holder  for  the  priming, 
which  is  touched  off  by  a  port-fire.  This  is  the 
guill,  Dutch,  or  amimon  metal  tube.  Another  variety 
has  a  cross-head  or  snipe  to  contain  a  detonating 
composition  which  is  exploded  b}-  a  hammer.  This 
is  the  crobs-hfnd,  or  detonating  tube.  A  third  variety 
is  operated  by  friction,  a  roughened  bar  occupying 
the  hollow  in|the  composition,  and  exploding  liy  fric- 
tion the  detonating  composition  in  the  head  of  the 
tube.  The  rough  bar  is  jerked  out  by  a  lanyard. 
See  Frirtion-primer. 

PRIMING  WIRE. — An  implement  used  to  prick  the 
cartridge  before  priming  when  the  quill  or  metal 
tubes  are  used.  It  is  made  of  wire  a  little  less  in 
diameter  than  the  vent,  sloping  to  a  point  at  one 
end,  and  at  the  other  vent  into  a  circle,  which  serves 
to  hold  it  by,  as  well  as  prevent  it  from  slipping 
Ihrouirli  the  loop  on  the  primer  pouch,  where  it  is 
carried  wlien  not  in  use. 

PRIMIPILUS.— The  Centurion  belonging  to  the  fir.?t 
cohort  (if  a  leL;ion.  Among  the  Rnmaiis,  the  I'rinii- 
pilarii  were  such  as  had  formerly  lioriie  tlie  otHrc  of 
Primipilus.  Among  other  privileges  which  lliey 
enjoyed,  they  became  heirs  to  what  little  pro|)erty 
was  left  by  the  soldiers  who  died  in  tlie  campaign. 

PRINCE.— An  epithet  whicli  was  origiiuilly  ap- 
plieil  to  the  I'rincepH  Senatim  of  the  Roman  Slate 
and  afterward  liecamo  a  title  of  dignity.  It  was 
adopteil  by  Augustus  and  his  successors;  hence  the 
word  was  afterward  applied  to  persons  enjoying 
kingly  jiowcr,  mori'  especially  tlie  Rulers  of  small 
States,  either  Sovereign,  as  in  the  case  of  the  ancient 
Princes  of  Wales,  or  Dependent,  like   the  Rulers  of 


tinction.  In  Germany,  the  ambiguity  of  appl}'ing 
the  same  title  to  tlie  members  of  Royal  Houses  and 
Princely  Families,  not  Sovereign,  is  avoided,  the 
former  being  .styled  "Prinz,"  the  latter  "  Fiirst." 
The  German  Fiirst  takes  rank  below  the  Duke  (Her- 
zog).  Most  of  the  Counts  who  had  a  seat  in  the  old 
German  Diet  were  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  Prince 
on  the  acquiescence  in  the  dismemberment  of  the 
German  Empire.  In  a  more  general  acceptation,  the 
term  Prince  is  often  used  for  a  Sovereign  or  Ruler  of 
a  State. 

PRINCE  ALFRED  GUN.— This  gun  was  forged  hol- 
low, on  a  plan  intended  principally  to  overcome  the 
defect  of  unequal  shrinkage  and  initial  strain  and 
rupture.  Broad  plates,  bent  to  the  proper  curve, 
were  laid  and  welded  upon  a  barrel  made  of  rolled 
staves.  Its  dimensions  are:  length  (without  cas- 
cabel),  1,1-51  inches;  length  of  bore.  137  inches;  di- 
ameter over  the  chamber,  31j  inches;  diameter  at 
muzzle,  141  inches;  diameter  of  bore,  10  inches; 
weight,  24,094  pounds.  -The  gun  is  rifled  with  three 
grooves  ^  inch  deep,  but  cut  the  wrong  way,  so  that 
the  projectile  would  be  rotated  by  the  inclined  in- 
stead of  the  radial  surface  of  the  grooves.  It  will 
therefore  have  to  be  borod  out  to  lOi  inches,  and 
will  then  carry  a  156  pound  spherical  shot.  The  test 
proposed  by  the  makers  is  one  round  with  one  shot 
and  100  pounds  of  powder. 

PRINCEPS  SENATUS.— An  officer  of  the  Roman 
Senate,  who,  under  the  Monarchy,  was  a  ro^-al  ap- 
pointee for  life,  Cuittos  Urhis,  and  had  jirecedence 
among  the  Decemviri.  Under  the  Republic,  he  was 
the  appointee  of  the  Curies,  b,  c.  487,  the  Paties 
Minorum  Gentium,  previously  ineligible,  were  made 
eligible,  and  afterward  the  senior  Ex-Censor  held 
the  office  Bx-Officio.  Later,  any  Senator  was  eligi- 
ble, but  the  office  was  simply  honorary,  and  did  not 
carry  with  it  the  Presidency  of  the  Senate,  Finally 
the  title  belonged  to  the  Emperor. 

PRINCIPES.— In  the  Roman  armies,  Principes 
were  the  infantry,  who  formed  the  second  line  in 
the.  order  of  battle.  They  were  armed  like  the  /lan. 
tiiti,  with  this  difference,  that  tlie  former  had  half- 
pikes  instead  of  whole  ones.     See  IlfiHtnti. 

PRISE-BOLTS.— The  projecting  bolts  at  the  rear  of 
a  mortar-bed  or  g;irrison  gun-carriage,  under  wliich 
the  handspikes  are  inserted  for  training  and  man- 
euvering the  ])iece.  They  are  formed  by  the  pro- 
longation of  the  assembling  bolts.  Also  written 
J'ri:,-b»l/s. 

PRISMATIC  POWDER.— Tlie  adoption  of  this  form 
of  powder  by  some  n;iliiins.  ;ind  production  of  ma- 
chinery  for  its  niauufacluru,  iiuccbsilatBd  the  use  of 


PEI8MATIC  TRANSIT 


585 


PEISMAII^  TRANSIT. 


pri'HHfs  of  pi'ciiliiir  ciiiislrMclioM  to  iiimirn  sufflrifnt 
and  iinifdriM  dciisily  ;  I  lie  pnsH  to  ]»•  si)  di'visi'd  as  Id 
produce  uniforni  size  luid  sliupi'  of  j;niiiis,  iind  iillow 
their  rem ly  witlidnnvid  from  Ihe  molds  ;  tlK'Kurfaees 
suoli  us  to  allow  close  ]iackiiii;  ill  a  i;ivenspace.  Tlies.; 
C'onsideralions  led  lo  tin-  ailoptioii  of  a  rejrular  geo- 
melrical  ligiire:  the  lie.\aj;on  oIVits  i;ood  shape  for 
Iiiliiii;,  the  angles  heiim'  all  siiltlcieiill_v  ol>liis<-1o  pre- 
vent hreakini;  or  spavvlini;al  the  edi;es.  Kach  layer 
and  the  whole  carlridi;e  is  easily  made  up.  I'er- 
foralions  were  found  necessary  to  insure  lielle-  and 
more  uniform  control  of  condiiislion  in  the  f;rain. 
The  nimiher  of  perforations  first  adopt<'il  were  seven 
— one  central,  the  olhi'r  six  at  eipial  distances  from 
the  central  one  -  although  one  perforation  iu  the  cen- 
ter has  been  found  sutlicient. 

The  iiii;redii'nts  for  the  manufaclnre  of  the  pow- 
der base  are  tile  same  as  used  in  llie  manufacluri'  of 
ordinary  powder.  The  ]iulverized  materials  for  2'M 
pounds  are  placed  in  wooilen  drum  lined  with  sole- 
leatiier,  with  li;i()  pounils  of  bron/<'  balls,  and  sub- 
jected to  1.440  revolutions  at  the  rate  of  H  or  10  per. 
minute.  The  powder  is  then  lirnuiiht  to  the  moist- 
liiiiij:  table  of  wood  surrounded  by  an  iiprii;ht  ediie. 
over  which  is  suspended  a  :;radualed  udass  measure 
havini;  a  pipe  of  copper  and  rose  at  the  bottom. 
On  the  table  a  charLTc  of  .W  pounds  of  powder  is 
spread  and  nioisteneii  with  2',  quarts  of  distilled  wa- 
ter. It  is  then  jiassed  from  a  liopper  to  an  endless 
canvas  belt  20  inches  wide,  between  a  lower  paper 
anil  upper  bronze  roller,  weii;hiii!j  2,12")  pounds, 
making  a  revolution  in  twelve  minutes.  The  bron/e 
roller  can  be  weighed  to  exert  a  pressure  of  (iO.OOO 
pounds.  The  powder  is  then  broken  into  coarse 
luni])s  by  wooden  mallets,  and  granulated  to  two 
sizes  of  grains:  the  tirst.  cannon  powder— used  for 
maiiufactiir<'  of  the  jirisms — is  passed  through  a  sieve 
of  0.2()  inch  diameter  of  holes. 

Ordinary  grain  powder. niiide  a.s  above,  is  of  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  l.r>,  and  too  elastic  for  the  use  in  the 
press.  By  reworking  it  loses  a  part  of  its  elasticity, 
and  is  then  tit  for  formation  of  the  prisms  by  the  fol- 
lowing process:  The  powder-base,  as  above, is  moist- 
ened with  10  per  cent,  of  water.  ))assed  through  the 


spindle  press  with  the  prescribed  pressure  and  granu 
lated  grain  and  dust  being  collected  in  a  receptacle.  1 
This  mixture  of  grain  and  dust  is  dried  in  the  air  or 
by  artirtcial  heat  "till  U  per  cent,  of  the  moisture  re- 
mains. It  is  placed  iu  a  mixing-drum  —220  pounds 
of  powder  and  330  pounds  of  bronze  balls — and  sub- 
jected to  1.440  revolutions,  moisteiieil  and  pressed  as 
before,  giving  it  a  specific  gravity  of  1  .<iT.5  to  1.75.  It 
is  granulated  and  separated,  the  cannon  size  again 
dried  by  air  till  (!  jier  cent,  iu  dry  weailier  of  moist- 
ure remains, and  placed  iu  barrels  covered  with  damp 
cloths  for  use. 

Tlie  press  for  this  purpose  is  constructed  to  giv?  a 
pressure  of  Go. 000  pounds  per  sipiare  inch.  It  con- 
sists of  a  heavj'  casting  on  a  stone  foumlation:  a  main 


j  and  BPcondarc  shaft,  one  flxc-d  and  two  movable 
eroHS-heads.  Tlic-  main  shaft  carries  a  heavy  wheel 
I  at  I'aih  end,ovir  whii  li  belts  conduct  the  powrr  from 
lliircenter  shafting  lo  llie  press.  ItliasacI  itch  opera- 
ted by  a  lever  for  starting  and  stopping  the  iiiacliine; 
two  pinions  on  the  main  operate  geared  wheels  on 
the  secondary  shaft,  on  whicli  two  eccentrics  ami 
cranks  operate  respectively,  by  connecting  rods,  the 
lower  and  u|)per  movable  cross-heads.  Tliesc  have 
each  six  hc-xagonal  stamps  perforated  witli  seven 
holes  which  enter  corresponding  hexagonal  molds  on 
the  low<T  cross-head.  Six  groups  of  seven  needles 
are  tixed  in  such  position  that  they  e.\tend  up  Ihrougll 
the  perforations  of  the  lower  stamps  throughout  into 
tlK-  molds  and  enter  the  perforations  of  the  upper 
stamps  as  the  latter  descend  to  press  the  powder  in 
the  molds;  these  form  the  jierforations  in  the  prisms. 
The  eccentrics  and  cranks  operating  the  croHS-heads 
are  timed  so  that  when  the  ujiper  stamps  have  reach- 
ed their  lowest  point  of  descent. tthe  lower  ones  are 
moving  upward  giving  the  extreme  ])ressure,  after 
which  the  u])per  stamps  ascend  ami  the  lower  ones 
simultaneously  ])usli  the  perforated  prisms  up  from 
the  molds.  The  lower  stamps  constitute  the  bottom 
of  the  molds.  The  molds  are  tilled  from  a  ho|)per 
having  a  table  with  forward-and-back  motion,  con- 
laining  six  suitable  measures  which  receive  tlie  ])0W- 
der  from  the  hopper ;  thecharging  table  moves  for- 
ward and  drops  the  charge  in  the  molds;  its  edge 
carries  the  prisms  brought  up  from  the  mold  to  an 
inclined  shelf,  whence^  they  are  removed.  The  ca- 
pacity of  the  powder  measures  can  be  regulated  as 
desired.  Two  rooms  are  required  for  each  press ; 
one  for  the  press,  the  other  for  the  prisms. 

Before  starting  the  press,  the  mold-needles  and 
stamps. and  all  rubbing  surfaces  ought  to  be  oiled 
with  a  light. pure  oil  or  graphite.  All  surplus  lubri- 
cant must  be  wiped  oil.  The  ]«)wder  to  be  pressed 
ought  to  have  at  least  .TJ  per  cent,  of  moisture.  The 
moist  prisms  weigh  about  020  grains  each,  and  must 
not  vary  more  than  5  grains.  The  first  two  sets  of 
])risms  should  be  rejected  because  of  excess  of  oil.  The 
weiLTht  of  prisms  must  be  veritied.  Three  men  can 
work  ;i  ]iri'ss;  a  carrier  for  every  press  is  also  re- 
quired. The  height  and  weight  of  tlie  prisms  must 
be  veritied  from  time  to  time,  and  the  powder  in  the 
hopper  stirred  from  time  to  time.  Loose  powder 
must  be  lirushed  away  from  tlie  stamps  and  top  of 
the  molds;  lubricate  as  often  as  once  an  hour.  If  a 
needle  breaks,  stop  the  press  and  replace  it  at  once. 
On  dry  days,  the  powder  loses  moisture;  this  will 
be  indicated  by  increased  height  of  prisms  or  vil)ra- 
tions  of  the  press,  in  which  case  moisten  with  ]  per 
cent,  of  moisture,  which  is  done  in  a  drum  by  a  fine 
rose  sprinkler.  The  prisms  pressed  by  the  press  con- 
tain about  5  per  cent,  of  moisture. and  must  be  dried 
to  about  f  per  cent,  by  exposure  to  air  or  ;,n  shelves 
in  a  suitably  arranged  drying-room;  they  are  then 
exposed  to  a  tem])erature  of  120*^  Fahr.  for 48  hours, 
and  are  ready  for  packing. 

The  prisms  are  jjacked  in  wooden  boxes  in  layers 
(12  rows  of  11. and  11  rows  of  9,  0  deep)  weighing  a- 
bout  110  pounds  to  the  box.  The  prisms  are  regular 
hexagons  0".992  high  and  1".0  width  across  the  an- 
gles. The  packing-boxes  are  of  inch  stuil.  and  may 
be  tin-lined.  Two  sheets  of  felt — the  smaller  at  one 
end. the  other  on  top — keep  the  prisms  from  rubbing 
against  each  other  in  transportation.  The  boxes  have 
rope  handles,  and  are  marked  with  the  weight,  kind, 
place,  and  date  of  fabrication  of  the  powder.  See 
Giinpoirdfr. 

PRISMATIC  TRANSIT.— This  form  of  transit,  sug- 
gested bySteinheil.  anil  designed  by  Mr.  G.N.  Sieg- 
muller.was  manufactured  for  the  United  States  Coast 
Survey.  It  is  intended  to  be  set  up  in  the  prime 
vertical,  tlie  tilescope  pointing  ea.st  and  west.  By 
the  use  of  a  prism;itic  objective,  any  stiir  passing  the 
meridian  will  be  reflected  and  seen  in  the  field  when 
the  instrument  is  set  up  correctly :  by  turning  it  in  its 
bearings  it  will  sweep  the  meridian.    The  pivot-rings 


PRISON. 


586 


PEISONEKS  OF  WAB. 


are  of  phosphor-bronze,and,to  avoid  flexure  as  much 
as  possible,  these  rings  are  again  connected  by  a  tube, 
so  that  the  telescope  body  is  really  double.  By  one 
of  the  three  setting-screws  the  instrument  is  moved 
an  azimuth.  It  is  provided  with  a  reversing  appara- 
tus, which  also  carries  the  illuminating  lamp.  The 
tine  level  over  the  telescope  is  held  by  a  projection 
from  the  reversing  apparatus,  which  secures  the  great 
advantage  that  the  level  need  not  be  taken  off  on 
reversing  the  instrument ;  it  remains  on  whether  ob- 
serving in  the  zenith  or  horizon.  The  setting-circle 
is  attached  behind  the  micrometric  eye-piece  with 
level  alidade,  divided  on  silver,  and  reading  to  min- 
utes. It  also  carries  the  latitude  level,  which  is 
chambered  and  reads  to  single  seconds.  This  instru- 
ment, being  very  simple  and  portable,  is  especiallj' 
adapted  for  work  in  a  rough  or  mountainous  country. 
See   Enginefr's   Traimt. 

PRISON. — In  a  military  sense,  a  building  con- 
structed for  the  retention  of  prisoners  of  war,  or  for 
the  safe-keeping  and  punishment  of  oflenders  against 
military  law.  Sometimes  during  war,  forts  and 
other  strong  structures  are  utilized  for  these  pur- 
poses. A  permanent  military  prison  was  established 
at  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  in  1873.  The  De- 
partment Commander  stationed  at  Fort  Leavenworth , 
is  cr-tijficin  Commandant  of  this  prison.  The  other 
officers  of  the  prison,  detailed  by  the  Secretary  of 
War,  from  the  officers  of  the  Army,  are  a  Governor, 
an  Adjutant,  a  Disbursing  officer,  Commissary,  Sur- 
geon, and  Chaplain.  Division  and  Department 
Commanders  may  designate  this  prison  as  the  place 
of  confinement  for  all  prisoners  sentenced  to  be  eon- 
fined  for  one  year  or  upwards,  except  such  as  are 
convicted  of  offenses  which  lawfully  subject  them 
to  punishment  in  a  State  penitentiary.  Discharge 
papers,  descriptive  lists,  orders  promulgating  or 
modifj'ing  sentences,  and  statements  of  conduct 
since  under  sentence,  are  forwarded  to  the  Com- 
mandant of  the  prison  with  each  prisoner  sent  there 
for  confinement.  Before  sending  convicts  to  the 
military  prison,  a  careful  medical  examination  is 
made  of  those  wliose  physical  or  mental  condition 
appears  to  be  sueli  as  might  be  seriously  affected  by 
the  confinement,  or  be  in  danger  of  ending  in  per- 
manent disability  which  might  cause  them  to  be 
discharged  before  the  expiration  of  their  sentence. 
Special  report  is  made  of  cases  found  to  be  of  this 
description,  with  a  view  to  avoid  imnecessary  ex- 
pense of  transportation. 

The  following  were  noted  prisons  during  the  Civil 
War,  1861-C5,  for  the  retention  of  Federal  prisoners 
of  war.  Andersonville.  Belle  Isle.  Castle  Thvmder. 
Libby  and  Salisbury.  The  prison  at  -\ndersonville. 
was  notorious  for  unhealthfulness  and  its  discipline 
for  barbarity ;  and  in  ISU.'i, after  the  close  of  the  war, 
Henry  Wirz,  a  Swiss,  the  chief  instrument  of  ill- 
treatment,  was  indicted  for  "injuring  the  health  and 
destroying  the  lives  of  prisoner:;  by  subjecting  them 
to  torture  and  great  suffering,  by  confinement  in  un- 
health3'and  unwholesome  quarters, by  exposing  them 
to  the  inclemency  of  the  winter  and  the  dews  and 
burning  sun  of  the  summer,  by  compelling  the  use 
of  impure  water,  and  by  furnishing  iusutficient  and 
unwholesome  food  ;  for  establishing  the  dead  line 
and  ordering  the  guards  to  shoot  down  any  prisoner 
attempting  to  cross  it ;  for  keeping  and  using  blood- 
hounds to  hunt  down  prisoners  attempting  to  escape; 
and  for  torturing  prisoners  and  contining  them  in 
stocks."  He  was  found  guilty  and  hanged.  Under 
orders  of  the  Ooveniment.the  place  where  the  bodies 
had  been  rudely  l>uried  in  long  trenches  was  arranged 
as  a  cemetery,  and  adorned  with  gravel  walks  an<l 
trees:  12,4(11  dead  soldiers  of  the  I'nion  -Vriny  were 
identified,  and  llu-ir  placesof  burial  marked  witli  tab- 
lets ;  451  were  "unknown."  Prisons  were  also  estab- 
lished for  the  retention  of  Confederate  prisoners  at 
Camp  Douglas,  Utah;  Chicago, Illinois;  Camp  Chase, 
Ohio;  Elinira,  New  York;  "Point  Lookout,  Mary- 
land; and  Kock  Island,  Illinois. 


PRISONERS  OF  WAR.— A  prisoner  of  war  is  a 
public  enemy  armed  or  attached  to  the  hostile  army 
for  active  aid,  who  lias  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
captor,  either  figliting  or  wounded,  on  the  field  or 
in  the  hospital.  %  individual  surrender  or  by  capit- 
ulation. All  soldiers,  of  whatever  species  of  arms  ; 
all  men  wlio  belong  to  the  rising  en  ma.ise  of  the  hos- 
tile country;  all  those  who  are  attached  to  the  army 
for  its  efficiency  and  promote  directly  the  object  of 
the  war ;  all  disabled  men  or  officers  on  the  field  or 
elsewhere,  if  captured;  all  enemies  who  have  thrown 
away  their  arms  and  ask  for  quarter,  are  prisoners  of 
war,  and  as  such  exposed  to  the  inconveniences  as 
well  as  entitled  to  the  privileges  of  a  prisoner  of 
war.  Moreover,  citizens  who  accompany  an  army, 
for  whatever  purpose,  such  as  sutlers,  editors,  or  re- 
porters of  journals,  or  contractors,  if  captured,  may 
be  made  prisoners  of  war,  and  be  detained  as  such. 
The  monarch  and  members  of  the  hostile  reigning 
family,  male  or  female,  the  chief,  and  chief  officers 
of  the  hostile  government,  its  diplomatic  agents,and 
all  persons  who  are  of  particular  and  singular  use 
and  benefit  to  the  hostile  army  or  its  government,  are, 
if  captured  on  belligerent  ground,  and  if  unprovided 
with  a  safe-conduct  granted  by  the  captor's  govern- 
ment, prisoners  of  war.  If  the  people  of  that  por- 
tion of  an  invaded  country  which  is  not  yet  occu- 
pied by  the  enemy,  or  of  the  whole  countr}-,  at  the 
approach  of  a  hostile  army,  rise,  under  a  duly  au- 
thorized levy,  enmnsHe  to  resist  the  invader,  they  are 
now  treated  as  public  enemies,  and  if  captured,  are 
prisoners  of  war.  No  belligerent  has  the  right  to 
declare  that  he  will  treat  every  captured  man  in  arms 
of  a  levy  en,  inasne  as  a  brigand  or  bandit.  If,  how- 
over,  the  people  of  a  countr}',  or  any  portion  of  the 
same,  already  occupied  by  an  army,  rise  against  it, 
they  are  violators  of  the  laws  of  war,  and  are  not  en- 
titled to  their  protection.  The  enemy's  chaplains, 
officers  of  the  medical  staff,  apothecaries,  hospital 
nurses  and  servants,  if  they  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
American  Armj-,  are  not  prisoners  of  war,  unless 
the  commander  has  reasons  to  retain  them. 
In  this  latter  case,  or  if  at  their  own  desire,  they  are 
allowed  to  remain  with  their  captured  companions, 
the}'  are  treated  as  prisoners  of  war,  and  may  be  ex- 
changed if  the  commander  sees  fit. 

Bythe  laws  or  recognized  principles  of  war,  the 
entire  people  of  a  vanquished  town,  state,  or  nation 
become  the  absolute  property  of  the  victors ;  but 
civilization  has  greatly  modified  this  stern  rule,  and 
except  when  a  country  is  devastated  for  military 
reasons,  it  is  rare  for  non-combatant  citizens  to  be 
subjected  to  penalties  of  concpiest,  beyond  the  levy- 
ing of  contributions  in  money  or  provisions.  The 
combatants  who  have  laid  down  their  arms  become 
prisoners  of  war.  Their  lives  and  liberty  are  at  the 
disposal  of  their  conquerors,  and  even  in  modern 
times,  their  lives  are  sometimes  taken,  as,  for  in- 
stance, when  Napoleon  put  the  Turkish  prisoners  to 
death  at  Jaffa  in  1T99  ;  otherwise,  prisoners  of  war 
are  kept  in  confinement  until  peace  ensues,  or  they 
are  exchanged  for  prisoners  of  their  conqueror's  na- 
tion, held  in  captivity  by  their  own  countrymen.  It 
is  unusual  to  subject  prisoners  of  war  to  penal  dis- 
cipline ;  but  the  loss  of  liberty  and  liard  fare  (for,  of 
course,  they  arc  allowed  no  more  th;m  a  bare  sub- 
sistence) render  a  captivity  sufficiently  irk.some.  lu 
ancient  times,  the  treatnient  of  prisoners  of  war 
was  far  more  severe.  In  the  (ireek  wars,  it  was  no 
uncommon  thing  to  put  the  whole  aiiull  male  popu- 
lation of  a  conquered  state  to  the  sword,  while  tlie 
women  and  children  were  enslaved.  Although  the 
putting  to  dciith  of  prisoners  became  less  freiiuetit, 
they  and  their  families  were  conunonly  redu('ed  to 
slavery  to  as  recent  a  period  as  the  i:!th  century. 
About"  that  time  the  more  humane  custom  of  ex- 
changing jirisoners  came  into  practice.  Notwith- 
standing frequent  exelianges,  large  numbers  of  pris- 
oners acctnnulate  during  w;ir.  In  liill  about  47, (JOO 
French  were  prisoners  in  England. 


FBIICH£T  BULLET. 


587 


PHOBAEILITY  FACTORS. 


Money  antl  other  valiiiibles  on  tlie  person  of  a 
priHoner,  micli  lis  wiilclies  or  jewelry,  us  well  lis  ex- 
tni  elotliiiii;,  are  rei,Mrcleil  liy  llie  Aiiierii-iiii  Army  lis 
the  private  properly  ol'llie  prisorn-r,  and  the  appro- 
priation of  sueli  valuables  or  money  is  eonsiilered 
(tishonorable  and  is  prohibited.  Nevertheless,  if /«/•//'' 
sums  are  foiinil  upon  tiie  persons  of.  prisoners,  or  in 
their  possession,  they  shall  be  lakin  from  thiTii,  and 
the  surplus,  after  providini;  for  their  own  siipporl, 
apiiropriated  for  the  use  of  the  army,  under  liw  di- 
reelion  of  the  ecjirimander,  unless  otherwise  ordered 
by  the  i;overmiienl.  Nor  eaii  (irisoners  elaim,  as 
private  properly,  large  sums  f<iiind  ami  captured  in 
their  train,  allhoiiirh  they  had  been  placed  in  llie 
jirivate  luggau;e  of  the  prisoners.  All  otlicers,  when 
capliired,  surrender  their  siiU'-arms  to  the  captor. 
They  may  be  restored  to  the  prisoner  in  inarked 
rases,  by  the  Commander,  to  sij.;nalizi;  admiration 
of  his  distini^uished  bravery,  or  approlialion  of  his 
liumaiK'  treatment  of  prisoners  before  his  capture. 
The  caiiturcd  otlieer  to  whom  they  may  be  restoreil 
cannot  wear  them  durini;  captivity.  A  prisoner  of 
war,  beins  a  jjublic  enemy,  is  the  prisoner  of  the 
government,  and  not  of  the  captor.  No  ransom  can 
be  paid  by  a  prisoner  of  warto  his  individual  captor, 
or  to  any  ollicer  in  command.  The  j^overnment 
alone  releases  captives  accordinj^  to  rules  prescribed 
by  itself.  Prisoners  of  war  are  subject  to  cfmtine- 
nient  or  imprisonment  such  as  may  \>o  deemed  nec- 
essary on  account  of  safety,  but  they  are  to  be  sub- 
jected to  no  other  intentional  sulTerint;  or  indinnit}-. 
The  continement  and  mode  of  treatinj;  a  prisoner 
may  be  varied  during  his  captivity  according  to  the 
demands  of  safety.  Prisoners  of  war  shall  be  fed 
upon  jilain  and  wholesome  food,  whenever  practic- 
nlile,  and  treated  with  humanity.  They  may  be  re- 
quired to  work  for  the  benefit  of  the  {'aptor's  gov- 
ernment, according  to  their  rank  and  condition. 

A  prisoner  of  war  who  escapes  may  be  shot,  or 
otherwise  killed  in  his  flight;  but  neither  death  nor 
any  other  punishment  shall  be  intlicte<i  upon  him 
simply  for  his  attempt  to  escape,  which  the  law  of 
war  does  not  consi(U-r  a  crime.  Stricter  means  of 
security  shall  be  used  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
at  escape.  If.  however,  a  conspiracy  is  discovered, 
the  purpose  of  which  is  a  united  or  general  escape, 
the  conspirators']  may  l)e  rigorously  punished,  even 
with  death;  and  capital  punishment  may  also  be  in- 
flicted upon  prisoners  of  war  discovered  to  have 
plotted  rebelion  against  the  authorities  of  the  cap- 
tors, whether  in  union  with  fellow-prisoners  or 
other  persons.  If  prisoners  of  war.  h;iving  given  no 
pledge  nor  made  any  promise  on  their  honor,  forci- 
bly or  otherwise  escape,  and  are  captured  again  in 
battle,  after  having  rejoined  their  own  army,  they 
shall  not  be  punished  for  their  escape,  b>it  shall  be 
treated  as  simple  prisoners  of  war,  although  they  will 
be  subjected  to  stricter  continement.  See  Cartel,  and 
rarolr. 

PHITCKET  BULLET.  —  The  Englisli  retained  a 
wedge  made  of  wood,  which  was  placed  in  the  base 
of  the  Pritchet  bullet  used  with  the  Entield  riHe,  and 
wliich  prevented  the  gas  from  penetrating  any  lis- 
sures  that  might  exist,  while  at  the  same  time  it  was 
driven  before  fhe  gas  into  the  cavitj',  e.xpanding  the 
ball. 

PRIVATE.— The  title  applied  in  the  British  Army  to 
a  common  soldier  of  the  Cavalry  and  Infantry,  the 
corresponding  nuik  in  the  Arliller\'  being  gunner  or 
driver, and  in  the  Engineers  the  sapper.  The  pay  of  a 
private  is  one  shilling  a  day  in  the  infantry,  and  Is. 
2d  in  the  cavalry — exclusive  of  a  free  ration  or  corres- 
ponding allowance.  A  private  in  the  cavalry  is 
sometimes  called  a  trooper.  In  the  United  States 
Army  all  soldiers  below  the  grade  of  non-commis- 
sioned officers  are  called  privates. 

PRIVATEER.— A  ship  owned  by  a  private  indi- 
vidual, wliich.  under  government  permission,  ex- 
pressed Iiy  letter  of  marque,  makes  war  iqion  the 
shipping  of  a  hostile  power.   To  make  war  upon  an 


enemy  witlinut  this  commiftsion,  or  upon  the  Bliip- 
ping  of  a  nation  not  specified  in  it,  is  piracy.  I'riva- 
lecring  was  al)olislie(i  by  mutual  agreement  among 
Eiirojiean  Nations  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  IH.VJ. 
It  is  doubtful,  liowev(-r,  how  far  that  abolition 
would  stand  in  a  general  war,  for  privateering  is 
the  natural  resource  of  a  nation  whose  regular  navy 
is  too  weak  to  make  liead  against  the  maritime 
power  of  the  enemy,  espi-cially  when  the  latter 
oilers  the  temptation  of  a  weallhy  commerce.  An 
effort  was  made  at  an  early  period  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  I'nited  Slates  to  have  provisions  in 
treaties  with  foreign  countries  which  would  abolish 
privateering  in  case  of  war:  and  the  laws  of  the 
United  Slates  are  more  prohibiting  in  this  respect 
than  those  of  most  other  nations.  At  the  time  of 
the  mutual  agreement  among  European  nations  to 
abolish  the  eustom  miiilioned  above,  the  govern- 
ment declared  ils  willingness  to  unite  with  them, 
provided  a  certain  clause  of  the  treaty  was  amended 
so  that  the  private  property  of  the  subject  or  citi- 
zen of  a  belligerent  on  the  high  seas  should  be  ex- 
empted from  seizure  by  public  armed  vessels  of  tlie 
other  belligerent,  except  it  be  contraband  of  war. 
Hut  this  was  declined,  and  eonsecpiently  no  arrange- 
ment with  the  United  .States  was  included  in  the 
treat  V. 

PRIVY  COAT.— A  light  coat  or  defense  of  mail, 
concealed  under  the  (jrdinary  dress. 

PRIZE. — Property  captured  from  an  enemy,  or  an 
enemy's  jjroperty  captured  from  a  neutral  in  time 
of  war.  Prize-money  is  distributed  in  the  United 
Stales  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Act 
of  ,Iune  30,  18<i4.  This  statute  directs  that  where 
the  prize  is  equal  or  superior  in  force  to  the  capturer 
the  Captors  shall  have  the  whole;  where  it  is  in- 
ferior in  force,  the  Captors  shall  have  half,  and  the 
United  States  the  other  half.  In  the  case  of  Letters 
of  Marque  and  Privateers,  the  Captors  shall  have 
the  whole,  unless  otherwise  stipulated  in  the  com- 
missions issued  to  such  vessels.  Strictly  speaking, 
/idcti/  is  the  military  term,  the  word  prizf  being  more 
freiiuently  used  in  the  Navy.  See  lilttekade,  Vuntra- 
hand  I'f  \V({r.  Nftitrality,  and  I'ru-utetr. 

PRIZE  AGENTS.— Officers  belonging  to  an  army 
in  tlie  field,  who  are  cho.sen  after  a  campaign  to  col- 
lect all  property  belonging  to  the  enemy  which  has 
fallen  into  the"  hands'of  "the  victors.  In  England 
all  military  booty  is  apportioned  as  the  Sovereign 
from  time  to  time  may  direct.  Deserters,  and  those 
who  do  not  claim  their  share  within  six  years,  re- 
ceive none.  The  officers  appoint  two  Prize  Agents, 
by  letters  of  attorney  :  the  Field  Officers  naming 
one,  and  tlie  Subordinate  Officers  another.  The 
Officer  commanding  the  successful  expedition  sends 
to  the  military  autliorities  a  list  of  the  persons  en- 
titled to  booty.  The  Agents  collect  the  property, 
convert  it  into  money  at  the  best  advantage,  and 
hand  over  the  proceeds  to  the  authorities,  receiving 
a  small  percentage  for  their  trouble.  A  scale  of  dis- 
tribution is  thenniade  out.  and  the  money  is  paid 
after  a  certain  interval.  When  an  army  and  a  fleet 
join  in  a  capture,  the  Admiralty  calculaies  the  armjr 
share,  and  sends  the  amount  to  the  military  authori- 
ties. Prize  and  booty  originally  belonged  to  the 
Sovereign,  and  are  only  distributed  to  the  Captors 
as  an  act  of  crace  ;  for,  if  tlie  Sovereign  pleases, 
the  ]iro]ierlv  can  be  given  back  again  tolhe  enemy. 

PRIZE  MONEY.— The  value  of  tlie  property  cap 
lured  from  the  enemy  after  its  realization  by  sale. 
To  carry  out  the  rules  having  reference  to  prize 
property.  Prize  Agents  are  appointed,  selected  by 
the  army,  to  collect  all  property  wliich  has  been  cap- 
tured in  each  of  the  towns  and  fortresses  through 
which  the  conquering  army  has  passed.  No  oppres- 
sion is  permitted  in  the  matter;  all  that  is  demanded 
is  that  what,  by  the  rules  of  war.  falls  to  the  posses- 
sion of  the  captors  he  iiiven  up.  Such  property  13 
sold,  ami  tiuMllv  dividcil  among  the  army. 

PROBABILITY  FACTORS.— A  table  of  factors,  which 


PROBABLE  RECTANGLE. 


588 


FROFILE-BOABDS. 


multiplied  by  the  width  of  a  zone  containiug  50  per 
cent,  of  the  hits,  will  give  the  widths  of  zones  con- 
taining any  other  percentage  of  hits.  Thus,  if  the 
width  of  a  SO  per  cent,  zone  is  1.00,  we  would  find 
from  such  a  table  that  the  widths  of  20,  40,  60,  80, 
and  99  per  cent,  zones  are  .38,  .78,  1.25,  1.90,  and 
3.82  respectivel}-.  From  such  a  table,  we  would 
also  see  that  a  zone  twice  as  wide  as  that  of  ijO  |)er 
cent,  will  not  contain  all  the  hits,  but  onlj"  a  little 
over  S2  per  cent. 

PROBABLE  RECTANGLE.— The  relative  accuracy 
of  different  guns  at  different  ranges  is  estimated  by 
the  dimensions  of  a  rectangle,  called  the  pmhalle 
rect-angle.  If  we  determine  the  lateral  and  longitudi- 
nal probable  zn/iex,  and  suppose  them  to  be  super- 
posed, we  shall  have  a  rectangle  which  must  con- 
tain .50  per  cent,  of  -50  per  cent,  or  25  per  cent  of  the 
total  number  of  hits.  Then  by  reference  to  a  table 
of  probability  fart'irs,  we  can  tind  the  proportionate 
widths  of  any  other  zones  (containing  a  different 
percentage  of  hits)  to  one  of  50  per  cent,  as  unity. 
To  illustrate  take  the  following  example  : 

Suppose  a  raft,  25  yards  square,  is  tired  at  by  the  40- 
pr.R.  M.  L.  at  an  elevation  of  5°,  how  many  rounds 
may  be  e.xpected  to  hit, when  the  range  is  accurately 
obtained  ?  Here,  the  mean  error  in  range  is  17.0  yards 
and  the  mean  lateral  deviation  is  0.02  3'ards.  Conse- 
quently,the  50  per  cent. longitudinal  zone=17. 9x1.69 
=30.25  yards  in  width,  and  the  50  per  cent,  lateral 
zone  =  9.02xl.69  =  15.23  yards  in  width.  Hence, 
25  25 

the  zones  are  respectively =  .88,and =  1.64 

30.25  15.23 

of  the  width  of  the  50  per  cent.  zone.  From  a  table 
of  probability  jactor»,  we  find,  that  a  zone  .83  the 
width  of  the  .50  per  cent,  one  would  receive  about 
42.5  per  cent.,  and  one  of  1.64  would  have  73  per 
cent,  of  the  total  number  of  rounds  fired.  Conse- 
quently the  rectangle  formed  by  the  intersection  of 
the  zones  would  receive  42.5  per  cent,  of  73  per  cent., 
or  31  per  cent,  of  the  total  tired. 

PROBABLE  ZONES. — It  can  be  shown  by  the  theory 
of  probabilitie-:,  that  if  each  of  the  three  mean  errors 
(range-vertical  and  lateral)  is  multiplied  by  the  fac- 
tor 1.69,  we  will  have  the  breadth  of  three  zones  (of 
infinite  length),  each  of  which  will  contain  .50  per 
cent,  of  the  hits.  If  the  mean  errors  in  two  direc- 
tions are  given,  we  can  tind  two  .50  per  cent,  zones, 
and  hence  a  rectangle,  in  the  plane  of  the  zones, 
which  must  contain  50  per  cent,  of  50  per  cent.,  or 
25  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of  hits. 

PROCEEDINGS.— The  proceedings  of  Courts-Mar- 
tial of  the  previous  day  are  usually  read  over  each 
day  by  the  Judge  Advocate.  Much  time  is  lost  by 
adopting  this  measure,  and  there  is  no  rule  directing 
the  Court  to  read  them.  All  ";■(/<>«  which  have  been 
issued,  modifying  the  detail  of  a  Court,  after  its 
original  organization,  should  be  included  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  every  case.  The  entire  proceedings  ol 
the  Court  in  each  case  should  be  fully  set  forth.  All 
orders,  motions,  or  rulings  of  the  Court  itself — all 
motions,  propositions,  objections,  arguments,  state- 
ments, etc.,  of  Uie  Judge  Advocate  and  the  prisoner 
— the  entire  testimony  of  each  witness,  given  in  rhis 
own  language  —  and,  indeed,  every  feature  of  the 
proceedings  material  to  a  complete  history  of  the 
case  and  to  a  correct  understanding  of  every  point 
of  the  same  by  the  reviewing  authority — should  be 
recorded  at  length.  The  record  of  proceedings,  and 
the  final  defense  fif  the  accused,  should  be  wrilten 
upon  Icgal-ca])  jiaper  of  uniform  size.  The  ])roceed- 
ings  in  eacli  completed  case  should  be  immediately 
signed  by  the  President  and  Judge  AdvcK'ale.  Ifr. 
coimiiendations  to  C'lemenei/  shoidd  not  be  i)laced  in 
connection  with  the  sentence,  but  should  be  ai)i)end- 
ed  to  the  record.  The  oriyinal  procenliiig.H  of  a 
Court  are  not  the  rough  minutc-s  kept  by  the  Judge 
Advocate  or  Recorder  :  but  those  finally  aullicnti- 
cated  by  the  signatures  of  the  ['resident  and  .ludirc  ' 
Advocate  (or  recorder).     All  documeutar_\-  evidence  I 


subnitted  to  the  Court  must  be  attached  to  the  pro- 
ceedings, lettered  in  the  order  of  submission,  as  Ex- 
hibits ^-A,"  "  B,"  etc. 

PROCLAMATION.  —A  jjublic  notice  given  by  the 
Sovereign  to  liis  subjects.  The  power  of  issuing 
proclamations  is  part  of  the  prerogative  of  royalty  as 
the  fountain  of  justice.  They  sometimes  consist  of 
an  authoritative  announcement  of  some  matter  of 
state,  or  act  of  the  executive  government  affecting 
the  duties  and  obligations  of  subjects.  The  demise 
of  the  Crown,  and  accession  of  a  new  Sovereign,  a 
declaration  of  war,  and  the  issue  of  new  coin,  are 
all  occasions  on  which  a  royal  proclamation  is  issued. 
A  jiroclamiition  may  .also  be  issued  to  declare  the  iu- 
tenliiin  of  the  Crown  toexercise  some  prerogative  or 
enforce  some  law  which  has  for  a  long  time  been 
dormant  or  suspended.  In  time  of  war,  the  Crown 
by  a  proclamation  may  laj'an  embargo  on  shipping, 
and  order  the  ports  to  be  shut.  But  the  most  usual 
class  of  proclamations  are  admonitory  notices  for  the 
prevention  of  offenses,  consisting  of  form.al  decla- 
rations of  existing  laws  and  penalties  and  of  the  in- 
tention to  enforce  them:  such  as  the  proclamation 
against  vice  and  immorality,  appointed  to  be  read  at 
the  opening  of  all  courts  of  quarter  sessions  in  Eng- 
land. Proclamations  are  only  binding  when  they  do 
not  contradict  existing  laws,  or  tend  to  establish  new 
ones,  but  only  enforce  the  execution  of  those  which 
are  already  in  being,  in  such  manner  as  the  Sover- 
eign judges  necessary. 

PROCONSUL. — A  Roman  Magistrate  not  holding 
the  Consulship,  who  was  invested  with  powers  near- 
ly approaching  those  of  a  Consul,  not  however,  ex- 
tending over  the  city  and  its  vicinity.  The  Procon- 
sul was,  at  first,  one  who  had  held  the  office  of  Con- 
sul, whose  Imperium  was  prolonged  to  enable  him 
to  bring  an  unfinished  campaign  to  a  close.  The 
duration  of  the  office  was  a  year.  During  the  latter 
period  of  the  Republic,  when  the  Consuls  were  ex- 
pected to  spend  a  year  of  their  consulate  at  Rome, 
they  were  generally  appointed  at  its  close  to  under- 
take, as  Proconsuls,  either  the  conduct  of  a  war  in 
some  Province,  or  its  peaceful  administration.  Oc- 
casionalh',  the  office  of  Proconsul,  with  the  govern- 
ment of  a  Province,  was  conferred  on  a  person  who 
had  never  held  the  Consulship.  Under  Constantino, 
parts  of  certain  Dioceses  came  to  be  governed  by 
Proconsuls. 

PRODD. — A  light  cross-bow,  used  chiefly  in  field 
sports,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  It  usuallj' projected 
bidlets. 

PROFESSORS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  MILITARY 
ACADEMY.— The  Professors  of  the  Academy,  being 
Staff  Officers  of  the  Army,  are  assimilated  in  rank 
to  the  grades  of  which  they  are  entitled  by  law  ttr 
the  pay  and  allowances.  They  are  respected  and 
obe3'ed  according  to  their  rank  and  office  in  the 
Academy.  The  uniform  of  Professors  is  that  of  officers 
of  the  General  Staff  of  the  Army  of  their  assimilated 
rank,  with  the  letters  M.  A.  on  the  shoulder-knot. 
Or  they  ma_y  at  their  option  wear  a  citizen's  blue 
cloth  coat,  with  Inittons  of  the  General  Staff  of  the 
Army;  black  dress  hat;  pantaloons  and  vest  plain, 
white  or  dark  blue;  cravat  or  stock,  black.  The 
uniform  of  the  Chaplain  is  that  i)rescribed  for  Chap- 
lains in  the  Army.  See  United  Stnten  Military Aaidemy. 
PROFILE  BOARDS.— Boards  employed  in  the  in- 
spection of  cannon  formeasuring  distances  in  front 
and  rear  of  base  line.  Their  lower  edges  are  adapt- 
ed to  the  shape  of  the  gun,  and  the  ujiper  ones  are 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  tlu'  bore.  The  distances  from 
the  baM'  line  of  the  several  parts,  and  of  points  at 
which  dianu'lers  are  to  be  Uieasured  are  laid  otT  ac- 
curately on  the  upper  edge,  and  then  marked  in 
lines  |)erpendicular  to  it  on  the  sides  and  lower 
edges  of  the  profile.  An  iron  strap  is  attached  to 
the  upjier  edge  to  prevent  warping,  and  the  whole 
is  well  coated  with  shellac-varnisli  to  keep  it  from 
alisorbiiig  moisture. 
The  following  instruments  are  used  in  connection 


PROFILING. 


589 


PKOFILING-MACHINE. 


with  IliP  prolilc-hnnrds  :  A  r'llf,  for  vorifyinc  the 
marks,  of  sucli  a.  Icii;j;th  that  iKit  iiiDre  than  ime  Uc  l- 
hiu;  may  be  necessary,  !in<l  to  be  ^^railiiaU-d  deci- 
mally accordiiij;  Id  tliu  Ktandard.  AKinall  Hquare  of 
Htcd,  to  bf  iiK.id  ill  ri'fcrrint;  themarlts  on  Ihi' board 
to  those  on  tlie  rule.  A  uteel  utrahjUt  kIj/i',  loiii; 
enoiiuli  to  cxti'iid  across  the  muz/.le-faec  and  several 
inches  on  the  board,  used  to  ascertain  the  extri'me 
length  from  liases  to  nui/zle.  It  is  also  used  for  the 
same  |>iir|iose  at  the  I'Xtrcme  end  of  the  cascabel.  A 
steel  Kcrdlclier,  to  mark  the  i;nn  at  jioints,  not  other- 
wise indicated,  where  diameters  are  to  be  raeusured. 
Bee  Insptftion    <if  (Jrdiiiiiire. 

PROFILING. — An  operation  in  the  construction  of 
field  Works  which  consists  in  erect ini;  at  ])ro|)er 
points  aloii;;  the  sub-crests,  wooden  pniji/m  which 
j;ive  the  form  of  the  |)arapets  at  those  points,  and 
which  guide  tlie  workrnen  in  the  construction  of  the 
works.  Proliles  are  placeil  at  the  extremities  of  a 
parapet;  at  points  along  the  siil)-crest  from  twenty 
to  thirty  yards  apart:  at  the  salients  and  re-entrants; 
and  at  any  points  where  a  change  of  direction  or  di- 


mensions .arc  to  bo  made.  The  profiles  or  poles  hav- 
ing l)een  planted  at  the  angles  of  the  work,  and  the 
lieight  of  the  interior  crest  marked  on  them,  a  line 
is  traced  on  the  ground  with  a  pick, showing  the  direc- 
tion of  the  interior  crests.  When  the  gromid  is  sensibly 
level,  lines  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the  inte- 


rior crest  are  I  raced  ujion  if , at  suitable  distances,  from 

twenty  tu  thirty  yards  apart,  to  mark  the  positions  ;  manipiilation  of  the  parts,  in  the  absence  of  the  pat 


slopes  in  eitlier  direction,  cords  are  stretched  above 
the  surface,  in  a  horizontal  line,  between  two  stout 
pickets,  in  the  direction  of  the  proliles,  and  so  as  to 
include  all  of  its  lines.  This  cord  serves  to  measure 
the  horizontal  distances  on,  and  to  lind  the  points  of 
the  prolile.  above  and  below  it,  by  means  of  an  or. 
ditiary  plummet.  A  stout  s(piare  jiicket  is  driven 
tirmlv  into  the  ground,  where  the  cord  crosses  above 
the  pick-line,  ami  a  slip  of  pine,  on  which  the  height 
of  the  interiorcresl  is  marked,  is  nailed  to  tin-  picket. 
The  thickness  of  the  parapet  is  measured  on  the  cord, 
an<l  a  picket  driven  into  the  ground  to  mark  the 
l)oint.  The  base  of  the  interior  slope,  and  the  tread 
of  the  bamiuette,  are  set  off  in  a  similar  manner; 
and  a  slip  of  deal  is  nailed  to  each  of  the  |)ickets. 
The  height  of  the  interior  crest,  and  tin-  tread  of  the 
banquette,  are  easily  ascertained,  from  th<-  position 
of  the  cord  and  the  "interior  crest ;  these  points  hav- 
ing been  marked  on  their  respective  slips,  the  out- 
line of  the  parapet  is  shown  by  connecting  them  by 
other  slips,  which  are  nailed  to  the  uprights;  the  ban- 
i  quette  slope  and  exterior  siope  will  be  determined  by 
a  simila!    process. 

From  the  proliles  thus  formed  perpen- 
dicidar  to  the  interior  crests,  the  oblique 
profiles  at  the  angles  can  readily  be  set 
up,  by  a  process  wliich  will  suggest  itself 
without  explanation.  Having  completed 
the  protilimr,  the  foot  of  the  banquette, 
and  that  of  the  exterior  slope,  are  mark- 
ed out  with  the  pick,  and  also  the  crests 
of  the  scarp  and  counterscarp.  All  the 
arrangements  preparatory  to  commencing  the  ex- 
cavation are  now  complete.  See  Fintd-fm-tifica- 
ti<m.  \<>rmiil  I'mfi/i .  /'iinijut.  and  Tracing. 

PROFILING  MACHINE.— A  machine  much  tised  in 
armories,  and  bv  which  ;ui  object  of  a  given  contour 
or  outline  may  be  duplicated;  or  one  by  which  any 
given   profile  may  be  given  to  a  piece  by  adequate 


of  the  profiles,  and  the  horizontal  distances  for  the  I  tern  which  forms  an  automatic  guide  for  the  tooL 
thickness  of  the  parapet ;  the  bases  of  the  slopes.  In  the  former  case,  the  machine  is  used  for  duplicat- 
etc,  are  set  off  on  these  lines.  But  when  the  ground  '  ing  templets,  gauges,  and  patterns  (now  much  used 
along  the  direction  of  the  profile  is  undulating,  or  ;  in  making  various  machines)  in  great  numbers  loan 


PROGRESSIVE  POWDER. 


)90 


PROJECTILES. 


exact  size  and  proportion,  to  be  afterwards  assem- 
bled. Fire-arms,  sewing-machines,  watches,  and 
many  other  articles  are  thus  made. 

The  drawini;  shows  a  two-spindle  profiling;  ma- 
chine, as  manufactured  by  the  Pratt  &  Whitney 
Company,  wlio  make  a  specialty  of  gun  machinery. 
It  is  built  withor,without  Parkhurst's  device  for  cut- 
ting formers  without  reversing  the  fixtures.  With 
this  improvement,  to  produce  the  forming  pattern, 
the  model  piece  is  secured  in  the  place  and  position 
afterward  occupied  by  the  work  to  be  machined, 
aud  the  piece  to  be  cut  for  the  forming  pattern  is 
placed  in  the  position  it  will  permanentlj-  retain. 
The  guide-pin  is  put  in  the  spindle  which  usually 
carries  the  cutter,  and  follows  the  outline  of  the 
model  piece,  while  the  cutter,  in  tlie  spindle,  which 
afterward  holds  the  guide-pin,  cuts  the  forming  pat- 
tern in  the  exact  position  it  will  retain  in  use.  After 
disconnecting  the  gearing  upon  the  spindles,  revers- 
ing the  relative  positions  of  the  guide-pin  and  cutter, 
and  smoothing  the  edge  of  the  forming  pattern  (if  this 
be  necessary),  tlie  machine  is  ready  for  work.  The 
gearing  for  moving  the  table  and  cross-slide  is  ad- 
justable by  means  of  double  gears,  set  to  prevent 
back-lash  by  two  independent  adjusting  screws,  ami 
also  b}'  a  double  rack  adjusted  in  the  same  manner. 
This  arrangement  is  indispensable  to  secure  perfect 
accuracy  in  cutting  irregular  forms,  especially  in  turn- 
ing corners.  The  No.  1  two-spindle  machine  has 
an  area  of  table  of  10^  by  8  inches,  distance  between 
top  of  table  and  under  side  of  cross-head  3  inches, 
and  distance  between  center  of  guide-pin  and  cutter 
also  3  inclies.  Weight,  1,350  pounds.  Speed  of 
countershaft,  with  ',)  by  Sj  inch  tight  and  loose  pul- 
leys, 12.5  revolutions  per  minute.  The  No.  2  two- 
spindle  machine  has  an  area  of  table  of  15  by  12 
inches,  distance  between  top  of  table  and  under  side 
of  cross-head  4^  inches,  and  between  centers  of  guide- 
pin  and  cutter  4^  inches.  Weight,  2,600  pounds. 
Speed  of  countershaft,  with  14  by  3  inch  tight  and 
loo.se  pulleys,  140  revolutions  per  minute.  The  cut- 
ter will  profile  or  surface  work  to  the  extreme  limit 
of  the  table  area.  The  height  between  table  and 
cross-head  may  be  increased,  if  so  required.  Tlie  ma- 
chine may  be  constructed  with  one  to  three  spindles, 
running  in  one  adjustal)le  head  sliding  on  the  cross- 
head.     See  Edging-mcwhine. 

PROGRESSIVE  POWDER.— The  excellent  results 
obtained  in  Italy  with  wliat  was  termed  "Progressive 
Powder,"  suggested  the  advisability  of  making  trials 
of  similar  powders  in  some  of  the  United  States  larg- 
er calibers,  all  of  which  have  resulted  satisfactorily. 
Progressive  powder  is  fabricated  as  follows  :  After 
passmg  through  the  first  stage  of  manufacture,  and 
being  brought  to  the  condition  of  mealed  powder,  it 
is  pressed  into  cakes  which  have  a  density  of  1.79;  the 
cake  is  broken  up  into  irregular  grains  of  from  0.3  in. 
to  0.6-in.  in  thickness,  as  is  required,  which  are  not 
to  be  glazed.  These  grains  are  mixed  with  40  per 
cent,  of  mealed  powder,  taken  from  the  same  work- 
ing as  tliat  from  which  the  grains  themselves  are 
made,  and  the  whole  mass  pressed  into  a  cake  hav- 
ing a  less  density  than  the  original  small  grains,  say 
1.75.  The  cake  is  then  granulated  as  may  be  pre- 
scribed. Each  grain  of  the  resulting  powder  is  thus 
a  conglomerate  grain,  consisting  of  one  or  more 
small  grains  of  very  dense  powder  imbedded  in  a 
mass  of  less  density,  the  mean  density  being  1.75. 
The  theory  of  the  comliustioii  of  this  powder  is  that 
the  powder  of  less  density  being  more  quickly  con- 
sumed, the  whole  charge  breaks  up  into  a  much 
greater  number  of  smaller  grains,  thereby  cxi)osiug 
a  greatly  increased  surface  to  the  action  of  the  fiame. 
In  using  this  powder  that  size  of  the  regular-shaped 
grains  is  employed  most  suitaVile  to  the  caliber  of 
the  gun.  and  is  mixed  with  a  certain  proiKirtion,  to 
be  determined  by  experiment,  of  the  powder  of  ir- 
regular or  mammoth  grain.  See  FossaTio  Pmi>der,»,ni\ 
Oinipinrder. 

PROJECTILE  FORCE — The  projectile  firrce  is  that 


produced  by  the  combustion  of  the  powder  in  the 
piece, causing  sudden  development  of  gas, the  expand- 
ing force  of  which,  acting  on  the  projectile,  impels 
it  forward  and  out  of  the  piece.  It  is  physically 
impossible  to  obtain  cxactuniformity  in  the  charges. 
In  practice  there  will  always  be  a  difl'erence  in  the 
weight  and  shape  in  the  cartridges,  and  in  pushing 
them  home,  greater  pressure  will  be  applied  at  one 
time  than  at  another.thus  causing  want  of  unifonnity 
in  combustion.  The  temperature  of  the  piece,  aris- 
ing from  previous  discharges  and  from  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  or  tsxjs  of  the  sun  ;  the  nature  of  the 
projectile  and  its  movement  iii  the  bore  ;  the  condi- 
tion of  the  bore  with  respect  to  humidity  and  foul- 
ness— all  have  more  or  less  influence  on  the  combus- 
tion of  the  powder,  and  consequently  on  the  velo- 
city and  range.  Above  all,  however-,. is  the  want  of 
uniformity  in  the  quality  of  ))Owder.  In  this  respect 
considerable  latitude  must  be  allowed  in  the  size  and 
density  of  grain  or  pellet,  in  the  manipulation  of  the 
ingredients,  and  in  its  condition  resulting  from  age, 
moisture, and  handling.  With  small  charges,  especi- 
ally with  fine-grained  powder,  it  is  possible  to  so 
mix  the  contents  of  different  barrels  for  any  series 
of  shots  as  to  secure  a  fair  degree  of  uniforniit)'  for 
that  particular  occasion  ;  but  with  charges  requiring 
large  quantities  of  powder,  this,  except  to  a  limited 
degree,  is  impracticable. 

PROJECTILES.— In  a  military  sense,  the  term  pro- 
jectile is  applied  to  a  mass  usually  thrown  from  a 
firearm  by  some  explosive  to  strike,  or  destroj'  a  dis- 
tant object.  To  accomplish  this,  a  projectile  should 
have  certain  hardness,  tenacity,  and  weight.  If  it 
be  soft  and  weak  compared  with  the  body  struck,  it 
will  spread  out  laterally  or  break  into  pieces,  and 
presenting  an  increased  surface  will  meet  with  a 
greater  resistance,  and  consequently  will  penetrate 
less  than  if  it  had  retained  its  original  fonn.  High 
density  gives  to  the  mass  the  least  possible  volume, 
whereby  the  effect  of  the  resistance  offered  by  the 
air  and  by  the  body  to  be  penetrated  is  diminished. 
Different  materials  liave  been  used  for  projectiles. 
Stone,  lead,  wrought-iron, 'steel,  cast-iron. and  chilled 
iron  possess  peculiar  properties  which  render  each 
advantageous  according  to  the  object  to  be  attained. 
Prior  to  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  large  masses 
of  stone  without  regard  to  form  were  thrown  from 
machines  constructed  for  that  purpose.  This  ma- 
terial was  very  generally  employed  until  the  year 
1400;  but  its  want  of  strength  and  density,  qualities 
required  in  a  projectile  propelled  by  powder,  neces- 
sitated its  use  in  large  masses  and  with  compara- 
tively small  charges.  Such  projectiles  were  destruc- 
tive against  unbacked  walls  of  masonry,  but  broke 
if  ricocheted  on  earth.  As  late  as  1807,  stone  balls 
of  enormous  caliber  were  used  by  the  Turks  in  de- 
fending the  passage  of  the  Dardanelles. 

Lead,  as  a  material  for  projectiles, possesses  the  es- 
sential quality  of  density;  but  it  is  too  soft  to  be  used 
against  verj-  resisting  objects,  since  it  is  flattened 
even  against  water.  From  its  softness  and  fusibility, 
large  projectiles  of  this  material  are  liable  to  be  dis- 
figured, and  partially  melted,  by  the  violent  shock 
and  great  heat  of  large  charges  of  powder.  Its  use 
is  chieily  confined  to  small-arms  and  case-shot,  which 
are  generally  directed  against  animate  objects.  These 
defects  of  lead  may  be  corrected,  in  a  measure,  by 
alloying  it  with  tin,  antimony,  etc. 

From  tlie  first  introducticui  of  cannon,  wrought- 
iron  projectiles  have  at  ilifrereiit  times  been  tried. 
This  melal  has  great  density  and  tenacity,  but  has 
not  a  high  degree  of  hardness,  cannot  be  easily 
worked  into  the  necessary  shapes,  aud  when  used  in 
large  masses  becomes  very  expensive.  Steel  pos- 
sesses the  qualities  riMiuired  In  a  projectile,  but  is 
very  costly  and  dllHcult  to  manipulate. 

The  adoption  of  cast-lrou  for  projectiles  caused  an 
important  advance  in  artillery.  It  has  great  hard- 
ness,  sufficient  density  and  tenacity;  is  cheap,  easy 
to  mold,  and  can  at  slight  cost  be  given  exact  forms. 


PK0JECTILE8. 


591 


PROJECTILES. 


Kcccnt  improvempnts  in  tlic  ni'iniifartiirf"  of  this 
metal  liiivi;  so  grciitly  iiuTciiscd  llic  Htri'ii>;tli  nf  pro- 
lectikH  iimdf  from  it.tlmt  tlicy  <:aii  lir  uscil  ciri'ciivc- 
ly  uniiinsl  heavy  armor.  Cast  iron,  rhiilnl  hy  being 
coole<l  rapidly,  has  its  hanhiess,  iTiiHliing  .strength, 
and  density  increased.  I'mjeetiles  so  prepari'd  are 
now  employed  with  e.xeellent  results  against  the 
most  powerful  armor, and  are  found  aliont  aseffect- 
ive  as  tliose  of  steel  ami  very  niueli  less  costly.  Com- 
pound jirojcctiles,  uniting  the  good  and  correcting 
the  had  nualilies  of  diircrent  metals, have  sometimes 
been  used.  Thus,  at  the  siege  of  Cadi/,,  cast-iron 
shells  tilled  with  lead,  forming  i)rojectiles  of  great 
strength  and  density,  were  thrown  from  niorturs  to 
a  distance  of  three  miles  anil  three-i|uarters. 

Projectiles  may  be  either  nji/imfdl  or  elunr/iited. 
Spherical  projectiles  are  commonly  used  in  smooth- 
bored  cannon,  and  for  this  purpose  possess  certain 
advantages  over  those  of  oblong  form  :  1st  They 
touch  tlie  surface  of  the  bore  at  only  one  point,  and 
are  therefore  less  liable  to  wedge  in  the  bore  and  en- 
danger the  safety  of  the  pieci^ ;  ^d.  The  centers  of 
ligure  and  inertia  coinci(h':  :td.  The  mass  is  eni- 
Ijraced  in  the  least  possible  volume;  4th.  As  they 
turn  over  in  their  llight.the  surfa<'e  presented  to  the 
resistance  of  the  air  is  uniform  and  a  nuninunii; 
5th.  In  ricocheting  on  land  or  water,  their  rebounds 
are  more  certain  and  regular,  and  less  deviation  oc- 
curs from  the  plane  of  tire. 

It  was  known  at  an  early  day  that  the  spherical  Iiall 
was  not  the  one  to  whirh,  for  an  e(pial  weiglit,  the 
air  ollered  tlie  least  resistance.  In  order  that  any  ad- 
vantage may  be  gained  from  an  oblong  projectile,  it 
must  move  through  the  air  in  the  directiim  of  its 
length  ;  numerous  imsuccessful  attemjjts  have  been 
made  to  ensure  accuracy  in  its  liight  when  fired  from 
a  smooth-bored  piece.  One  of  tlie  simplest  plans  for 
this  purjiose  is  to  place  the  center  of  gravity,  or  in- 
ertia,in  advance  of  the  center  of  figure, or  resistance. 
As  these  points  slio\dd  be  in  the  longer  axis  of  the 
projectile,  the  force  of  inertia  and  the  resistance  of 
the  air,  acting  along  the  same  right  line  and  in  o])- 
posite  directions,  will  tend  to  preserve  the  line  of 
flight.  This  was  tried  on  a  hollow,  pointed  projec- 
tile in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.;  the  cavity  was  divided 
into  two  compartments;  the  front  one  was  tilled  with 
leaden  balls  and  powder,  and  the  rear  one  with 
powder  only.  The  tlight  of  these  projectiles  was 
uncertain  and  irregular,  some  of  them  bursting  in 
the  air.  and  otliers  striking  tlie  oljject  sidewise.  An- 
other plan  of  this  kind,  proposed  by  Thirou.x,  is  to 
make  the  projectile  very  long,  with  its  rear  portion 
of  wood,  and  its  point  of  lead  or  iron,  somewhat 
after  the  manner  of  an  arrow;  but  it  does  not  appear 
that  that  method  has  ever  been  submitted  to  the  test 
of  practice. 

Attempts  have  also  been  made  to  give  an  elongated 
projectile  a  motion  of  rotation  around  its  longer 
axis  :  1st,  by  cutting  spiral  grooves  on  the  base  for 
the  action  of  the  gas  from  the  cliarge  ;  2d,  by  form- 
ing such  grooves  on  the  forward  part  for  the  action 
of  the  air  ;  3d,  by  combining  he  preceding  methods 
in  the  same  projectile ;  4tli.  by  causing  the  air  to 
enter  a  cavity  at  the  front  end.  pass  through  nearly 
the  length  of  the  cylinder,  and  escape  by  radial 
openings  at  the  sides.  None  of  these  plans  have 
succeeded  in  practice,  for  the  reason,  perhaps,  that 
the  projectile  naturallj-  turns  over  end  for  end,  and 
the  charge  and  the  air  do  not  act  with  sufficient 
promptness,  energy,  and  certainty  to  prevent  it.  An 
oblong  projectile,  thrown  under  a  high  angle  and 
with  a  moderate  velocity,  can  have  rotation  about 
its  shortest  axis  arrested  by  attaching  to  its  rear  por- 
tion a  light  body,  by  means  of  a  chain  or  cord  ;  the 
resistance  which  this  body  experiences  from  the  air 
will  cause  the  projectile  to  move  point  foremost. 
Projectiles  with  wide  flanges  or  wings,  operated  by 
springs  by  which  they  were  extended  after  the  shot 
left  the  piece,  have  been  tried,  but  without  success. 

ProjectUes  may  be  further  classified  according  to 


their  construction  and  mode  of  operation,  as  mlid, 
liiiUoir,  and  cum  nli'it.  Solid  proJef:tiIes  iiroduce  their 
etlVct  by  impact ;  they  are  used  'mi/uun  and  in  mnall- 
(iniiH  ;  those  for  guns  are  known  as  mdid  kIidI  dt  nil-it, 
and  tiiose  for  small-arms  as  huUetn.  Such  projectiles 
I  are  recpiireil  when  great  range,  accuracy,  and  pene- 
tration an;  sought  ;  they  must,  therefore,  pos.seHS 
great  strength  anil  den.sity,  and  be  llrtd  with  large 
charges  of  powder. 

Shells  are  hollow  shot  which  act  both  by  impact 
and  explosion,  for  which  purpose  they  contain  an 
explosive  and  a  fuse  to  ignite  it  at  the  proiier  time. 
As  they  have  less  strength,  they  are  fired  with 
smaller  charges  of  powder  than  solid  projectiles, 
and  are  used  against  aniniiite  objects  and  such  inani- 
mate ones  as  will  not  cause  them  to  break  on  strik- 
ing. Th(^  thicker  the  sides  of  a  shell,  the  greater  its 
ability  to  resist  the  sho(;k  of  discliarge,  and  the 
greater  the  penetriition  and  accuracy ;  on  the  other 
hand,  a  shell  should  be  capable  of  containing  suffi- 
cient exiilosive  or  incendiary  material  to  accomplish 
the  proposed  end.  The  number  of  pieces  resulting 
from  an  explosion  varies  with  the  lirittleness  of  the 
metal,  and  is  increased  by  giving  to  the  interior  the 
form  of  a  regular  polyhedron.  A  dodecahedral  form 
lias  been  found  advantageous.  The  most  rapid  and 
violent  explosive  practicable  should  be  employed; 
the  size  of  the  fuse-liole  should  l)e  as  small  as  possi- 
ble, and  should  diniinisli  with  the  size  of  the  cavity, 
to  prevent  the  loss  of  too  great  an  amount  of  gas. 

Case-shot  act  only  by  impact »  they  consist  of  a 
collection  of  small  projectiles  enclosed  in  a  case  or 
envelope.  The  envelope  is  intended  to  be  liroken, 
either  in  the  piece  by  the  sliock  of  discharge,  or  at 
any  iioint  of  its  flight,  by  a  charge  of  powder,  in- 
closed within  it ;  in  either  ease,  the  contained  pro- 
jectiles continue  to  move  on  after  the  rupture,  but 
cover  a  largj-r  surface,  and  attain  agreater  number  of 
objects.  These  projectiles  can  be  used  with  efTect 
only  against  animate  objects  situated  at  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  point  of  rupture ;  they  are  divided 
into  grape,  ciininter,  and  nhrapnel.  Grenades  are  pro- 
jectiles that  are  commonly  thrown  by  the  hand,  or 
are  rolled  down  the  slopes  of  a  work.  They  are 
designed  to  act  only  by  the  force  of  their  own  ex- 
plosion. Hdiid  Grennden  are  thrown  against  troops 
in  mass  ;  for  this  purpose  any  spherical  projectiles 
filled  with  powder  only  and  weighing  not  over  six 
pounds  are  Suitable  ;  these  can  be  thrown  from  20 
to  311  yards  ;  they  are  provided  with  a  .short  fuse 
which  is  ignited  by  a  match,  or,  in  the  act  of  throw- 
ing, by  a  special  device.  Projectiles  have  been  de- 
signed especially  for  this  service,  an  example  of 
which  is  the  "  Ketchum  "  hand  grenade.  This  is  a 
small  oblong  percussion  shell,  which  explodes  on 
striking  a  slightly  resisting  object ;  a  guide  attached 
to  the  rear  end  causes  it,  when  thrown,  to  move 
point  foremost.  Rampart  Grenades  are  intended  to 
be  rolled  down  a  breach  in  its  defense,  or  to  be 
thrown  over  the  ran.part.  etc.  Spherical  shells  of 
any  size  will  answer  for  this  purpose ;  those  unfit 
for  firing  may  thus  be  utilized.  Shells  are  fired  from 
guns,  from  howitzers,  i>nd  from  mortars.  They  are 
made  of  cast-iron,  and  their  caliber  is  expressed  in 
the  same  manner  as  solid  shot  of  an  equal  diameter. 
The  thiclvness  of  metal  in  spherical  shells  is  about 
one-sixth  of  the  diameter,  and  their  weight,  when 
empt)-,  is  generally  about  tir,>-t/iird.i  of  that  of  the 
correspondmg  solid  shot.  In  the  United  States'  Ser- 
vice, there  are  two  kinds  of  spherical  shells;  one 
for  guns,  and  another  for  mortars.  Each  consists  of 
the  Kidfn,  the  cavity,  the  fii.ir.kide.  and  the  earn  ;  and, 
in  gun-shells,  the  reinforce.  Tlie  sides  are  thicker 
in  gun-shells  than  in  mortar  shells  of  the  same  size, 
to  withstand  the  high  charges  of  powder  with  which 
they  are  fired.  The  fuse-hole  is  used  for  inserting 
the  charge,  and  to  hold  the  fuse  for  communicat- 
ing fire  to  it.  All  shells  of  eight  inches  or  more  in 
diameter  have  ears  to  receive  the  "hooks"  used  in 
lifting  the  projectile  to  the  muzzle   of  the  piece  in 


PROreCTILES. 


592 


PROJECTILES. 


loading.  The  reinforce  of  metal,  about  the  fuse- 
hole  of  the  gun-shell,  gives  a  greater  bearing  sur- 
face to  the  fuse,  and  prevents  it  from  being  driven 
in  by  the  force  of  the  discharge  ;  this  reinforce  also 
serves,  in  a  measure,  to  compensate  for  the  metal 
taken  out  of  the  fuse-hole,  and  thereby  render  the 
shell  more  nearly  concentric.  In  some  services, 
shells  have,  in  the  upper  hemisphere. a  charging-hole, 
placed  at  an  angle  of  45''  with  tlie  fuse-hole,  through 
which  the  charge  is  povired  immediately  before  the 
shell  is  used  and  after  the  fuse  has  been  inserted. 
This  is  not  necessary  with  the  fuses  used  mosth'  in 
the  United  States'  Service,  as  the  powder  and  fuse 
can  be  readily  introduced  at  the  moment  of  loading. 

A  carcass  is  a  thick  shell  which  has  three  addi- 
tional holes,  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the  fuse- 
hole,  pierced  at  equal  distances  apart  in  its  upper 
hemisphere,  their  exterior  openings  being  tangent  to 
the  great  circle  perpendicular  to  the  a.xisof  the  fuse- 
hole"  The  object  of  a  carcass  is  to  set  tire  to  wooden 
structures,  by  the  Hame  of  an  incendiary  composi- 
tion issuing  from  the  holes.  This  shell  has  no  fuse. 
and  is  not  intended  to  be  exploded,  although  a 
charge  of  powder  may  be  placed  beneath  the  com- 
position to  prevent  it  from  being  approached  by  the 
enemy. 

A  stand  of  grape-shot  is  composed  of  nine  small 
cast-iron  balls,  disposed  in  three  layers  of  three  balls 
each.  The  diameter  of  the  balls  for  grape-shot  va- 
ries with  the  size  of  the  piece ;  being  used  at  longer 
distances,  they  are  larger  than  the  shot  for  the  cor- 
responding canister.  (Jrape-shot  are  employed  only 
in  the  siege  and  sea-coast  services;  as  now  construct- 
ed, they  cannot  be  used  in  rifled  pieces. 

The  (?nvelopefor  a  stand  of  canister-shot,  consists 
of  a  tin  cylinder,  closed  at  the  bottom  by  a  thick 
plate  of  cast-iron,  and  at  the  top  by  one  of  sheet- 
iron.  The  plates  are  kept  in  place  by  cutting  the 
ends  of  the  cylinder  in  strips  about  0.5  inch  long, 
which  are  turned  down  over  the  plates.  A  wire 
handle  is  attached  to  the  top  plate.  To  give  more 
solidity  to  the  mass,  and  to  prevent  the  contained 
balls  from  cro%vding  upon  each  other  when  the  piece 
is  fired,  the  interstices  are  closely  packed  with  saw- 
dust. For  a  gun,  37  small  cast-iron  balls  are  used, 
arranged  in  four  layers,  the  top  of  6  and  the  re- 
mainder of  7  each :  this  makes  the  diameter  of  the 
balls  about  one-third  that  of  the  bore.  For  howitz- 
ers, the  envelope  contains  48  balls,  in  folir  layers  of 
12  each,  the  balls  being  smaller  than  those  in  a  can- 
ister for  the  corresponding  g\in.  Canister-shot  are 
used  in  all  services.  For  those  in  which  the  charge 
of  powder  is  attached  to  the  projectile,  the  canister 
has  a  block  of  wood,  called  a  sabot,  to  which  the 
envelope  is  nailed  at  the  bottom;  the  lower  plate 
rests  upon  this  block  ;  the  wire  handle  is  omitted. 
The  parts  composing  a  stand  of  grape  or  canister 
begin  to  separate  the  moment  the}'   leave  the  piece. 

Shrapnel  are  cast-iron  shells,  in  which,  besides 
the  bursting-charge  of  powder,  is  placed  a  number 
of  small  bails.  Their  sides  are  much  thinner  than 
those  of  ordinary  sliells,  in  order  that  they  may  con- 
tain a  greater  numlier  of  bullets;  the  thickness  must 
be  such  that,  when  supported  by  tlie  bullets,  the  case 
will  not  be  broken  by  the  force  of  discharge,  but 
will  yield  readily  to  a  small  bursting-charge.  The 
weight  of  the  case,  emiity,  is  about  one-half,  and, 
when  tilled,  about  e(|Ual  to  that  of  the  solid  shot  of 
the  same  diameter.  This  projectile  is  prepared  by  fill- 
ing the  case  with  leaden  musket-balls  well  packed  in; 
the  interstices  are  then  filled  with  melted  rosin;  this 
prevents  the  fracture  of  the  envelope  by  the  liullets. 
when  the  piece  is  fired.  The  (■hmaher  for  the  pow- 
der  is  afterwards  bored  out.  The  case  is  stemithened 
by  a  reinfarri',  and  to  increase  the  effect  of  the  burst- 
ing-charge, the  lower  portiuu  of  tlie  fuse-hole  is  clos- 
ed bva  iti«i\t)i  wrougiit-iroM,  perforateil  with  a  small 
hole  for  the  i)assage  of  the  flame  from  the  fuse.  A 
shrapnel  may  l)e  made  to  explode  at  any  jioint  of  its 
flight,  and,  "as  the  bursting-charge  should  be  only 


sufficient  to  open  the  envelope,  without  scattering 
the  bullets  too  much,  the  execution  depends  on  the 
velocit}' which  the  case  has  at  the  moment  it  is  brok- 
en. This  projectile  is  therefore  of  more  general  use 
than  grape  or  canister,  and  should  be  fired  with  as 
large  a  charge  as  possible.  It  may  be  used  in  all 
services,  but  is  most  effective  in  the  field.  A  defect 
of  this  construction  is  that  the  bullets,  adhering  to 
one  another  and  to  the  case,arenot  always  separated 
by  the  bursting-charge.  The  shrapnel  adopted  in  the 
English  Service  is  known  as  the  "  Boxer  diaphragm 
shell."  It  consists  of  a  thin  cast-iron  shell, weakened 
by  four  grooves  down  the  sides  to  make  it  open  out 
more  readily;  of  a  wrought-iron  diaphragm  which  di- 
vides the  shell  imequally,the  upper  portion  contain- 
ing the  bursting-charge,  and  the  lower  being  filled 
with  balls  of  hardenecTlead,  packed  in  coal  dust.  A 
socket  is  screwed  into  the  fuse-hole  and  passes  through 
the  diaphragm;  this  forms  a  channel  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  bullets  and  coal ;  the  bottom  of  the 
socket  is  then  closed  by  a  plug.  Into  this  socket  is 
screwed  the  fuse,  the  fire  from  which  is  communi- 
cated to  the  powder-chamber  through  the  fire-hole. 
The  bursting-charge  is  inserted  at  the  loading.hole, 
closed  by  a  metal  screw-plug. 

The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  p- 
longated  projectiles  having  once  been  established,  it 
became  necessary  that  some  means  should  be  devis- 
ed to  make  their  flight  accurate.  It  has  been  found 
that  to  do  this  with  certainty,  a  motion  of  rotation 
about  its  longer  axis  must  lie  communicated  to  the 
projectile, and  this  end  has  been  satisfactorily  attain- 
ed only  by  cutting  spiral  grooves,  or  '•  rifles"  in  the 
surface  of  the  bore  of  the  piece,  with  which  the  pro- 
jectile is  connected,  and  by  means  of  which  it  starts 
with  a  motion  about  an  a.xis  parallel  to  or  coincident 
with  that  of  the  bore.  The  rotation  continues  dur- 
ing the  flight  of  the  projectile.  Without  this  rotation, 
an  elongated  projectile  will  naturally  turn  over  end 
for  end, and  present  a  constantly  varying  surface  to  the 
resistance  of  the  air.  This  "  rifle-motion,"  therefore, 
tends  to  cause  the  projectile  to  move  through  the  air 
in  the  direction  of  the  least  resistance,  thereby  in- 
creasing the  range,  and  thii  effect  of  impact,  and, 
furthermore,  giving  steadiness  to  the  projectile  by 
distributing  the  deviating  forces  uniformly  around 
its  line  of  flight.  The  more  important  advantages 
of  elongated  projectiles  are,  that  the  form  may 
be  altered  at  anj'  time,  and  the  center  of  gravity 
can  be  placed  at  any  desired  point;  the  projectile 
niaj'  be  elongated  so  as  to  oppose,  for  an  equal 
weight, a  diminished  surface  to  any  resisting  medium; 
by  this,  the  range  is  extended,  and  a  flatter  trajectory 
with  greater  accuracy  and  penetration  obtained. 
The  chief  disadvantages  are,  increased  strain  on  the 
gun;  greater  probability  of  jamming  and  injury  to 
the  bore ;  irregularity  of  ricochet ;  increased  com- 
plication and  expense  of  manufacture;  and  the  lia- 
bility of  an}-  soft  metal  on  the  exterior  to  be  acci- 
dentally injured. 

The  different  systems  of  projectiles  for  rifled  pieces 
are  classified  according  to  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  caused  to  follow  the  grooves.  The  systems  are 
distinguished  by  some  peculiarity  of  construction, 
and  are  generally  known  by  the  name  of  the  person 
by  whom  designed,  or  by  the  place  at  which  first 
made.  The  same  principles  are  applicable  to  differ- 
ent systems,  and  the  same  precision  of  fire  may 
practically  be  olitained  from  several.  All  systems 
are  comprised  under  three  classes:  1st.  I'rojectiles 
with  projecting  ribs  or  studs;  or  having  a  peculiar 
cross-section.  3d.  Projectiles  having  a  portion  that 
is  expanded  by  the  action  of  the  gases  in  the  bore, 
lid.  Those  more  or  less  of  whose  surfiice  is  com- 
pres*;ed  by  the  charge  into  the  form  of  the  bore. 
Tlie  first  and  .second  classes  are  a|)i)lieable  to  muzzle- 
loading  jiieces ;  the  third  to  breech-loaders  only. 
The  principal  points  to  be  considered,  as  regards  the 
piece  and  the  projectile,  are  the  mnrst  and  nafest 
means  of  causing  the  projectile  to  follow  the  grooves 


PROJECTION. 


503 


PfiOJECT/ON. 


of  llic  piece.  To  fiillil  tliese  comiilions,  llie  pro- 
jeelile  should  lie  siinple  in  eonHtriiclion.  mill  of  suf- 
fieieiil  strerij:;!!!  to  iidiiiil  of  its  use  willi  tlie  ]itr>;esl 
cliiir}.'e  lliiit  tuny  he  desin'd  ;  it  luusi  not  he  liiiliie  lo 
jiiMi  in  the  l)ore  in  loj.din;,'  or  lirinj;:  imd  innsl  pro- 
dnee  a  inodenile  and  uniform  strain  on  tlie  ;;un. 
'I'lie  system  tlial  most  nearly  complies  with  these  re- 
(|uiremenls,  and  gives  insured  aeeuracy  of  lire  willi 
imiform  and  hiirli  velocities,  slioul<l  lie  the  best.  In 
many  systems,  one  or  more  of  these  considerations 
liave  been  sacriticed  to  some  extent,  to  secure  a 
closer  com  pi  iiince  with  others  tlionuht  to  heof  greuler 
Importance  or  of  easier  attaimneul. 

\.il,  (,'/(i.H«.  Sfilid  Manures,  projectiun  from  the  liody 
of  a  projectile  and  so  shaped  as  to  til  the  rillini;  of 
the  bore,  were  th<-  means  lirst  used  lo  coinnuinicate 
the  rille-infition  in  cannon.  In  some  cases,  there 
was  for  each  fjroove  a  rilx-xtcndini;  the  entire  lelij^tli 
of  the  cylindrical  portion  of  the  projectile,  while  in 
others,  sets  of  rounded  bullous  were  employe<l. 
These  projections  were  of  the  same  material  as  the 
boily  of  the  projectile,  and  beini;  of  a  very  unyield- 
ini;  nature,  frequently  led  to  tin-  burslini;  of  the 
piece;  buttons  of  zinc,  copper,  or  bron/e,  lirmly 
sccuretl  in  mortises  in  the  projectiles,  were  therefore 
adopted.  The  buttons  are  arranjred  in  rows  of  two 
or  more  so  that  each  row  enters  freely  into  a  corre- 
spon<linij;  groove,  in  loading.  When  the  bore  of  a 
gun  is  a  twisted  prism,  with  any  plane  ligure  for  its 
base,  the  projectile,  if  shapeil  to  tit  it,  will  receive 
the  rille-motion  when  lireil.  The  Whitworlli  cannon 
is  ritled  in  this  manner,  the  cross-section  being  a 
he.xagon  with  rounded  corners,  (inns  have  also 
been  constructed  with  ribs  projecting  from  the  bore, 
fitting  into  corres|)oniling  grooves  in  the  projectile. 
To  the  last  system  belongs  the  Vavasseur  gun,  which 
has  given  good  results;  the  system  preceding  has 
not,  however,  proved  so  satisfactory. 

The  principal  advantages  of  systems  of  the  first 
class  arc  that  the  projectiles  are  stnmg,  and  that  the 
required  motion  is  communicated  to  them  with 
great  certainty  and  regularity.  The  escape  of  gas 
around  the  projectile,  as  it  causes  injury  to  the  bore, 
is  an  objection  to  the  class  ;  various  experiments 
have  been  nuide  to  overcome  it,  the  latest  being  by 
the  attachment  of  a  metal  cup  to  the  rear  of  the  pro- 
jectile, which,  by  the  action  of  the  powder,  is  ex- 
panded and  pressed  against  the  sides  of  the  bore. 
The  French  studded  projectile,  employed  generally 
on  the  Continent  with  muzzle-loading  cannon,  and 
the  Woolwich  system,  similar  to  it  and  used  in  Eng- 
land, arc  the  best  representatives  of  this  class. 

3/.  C'liinx.  In  projectiles  of  tlic^  second  class,  the 
body  is  composed  of  a  hard  metal,  as  cast-iron,  and 
there  is  attached  ti->  it,  generally  at  the  base,  a  cup. 
band,  or  other  arrangement  of  softer  metal,  which  is 
expanded  bj'  the  action  of  the  charge  into  the  groo- 
ves of  the  gun,  when  tired.  Expanding  projectiles 
are  easy  to  load,  are  not  liable  to  overstrain  the 
piece,  and  those  of  different  systems  can  generally 
be  fired  from  the  same  piece — a  point  of  great  im- 
portance. Such  projectiles  do  not  always  withstand 
the  heaviest  charges  of  powder,  and  are  not  certain 
to  receive  the  rifle  motion.  The  use  of  projectiles 
of  this  class  is  confined  more  particularly  to  the 
United  States.  The  most  important  are  the  Parrott, 
HotchkLss,  and  Butler  systems. 

Si  Cldis.  In  breech-loading  cannon,  the  recepta- 
cle for  the  charge  is  of  larger  diameter  than  the  bore 
of  the  piece.  The  projectile  is  of  tlie  same  size  as 
this  chamber,  and  must  be  reduced  to  enable  it  to 
]);iss  into  the  bore.  Such  projectiles  are  emlmiceil 
under  the  third  class;  the  body  has  a  coating  of  soft 
metal,  which  is  compressed  as  the  projectile  is  driv- 
en through  the  bore,  the  grooves  compelling  it  to 
follow  the  direction  of  the  rifling.  The  same  result 
is  sometimes  accomplisheil  by  one  or  more  rings  of 
soft  metal.  The  chief  advantages  of  this  class  are, 
that  the  projectile  is  generally  certain  iotake  up  the 
rifle-motion;  that  its  axis  is  steady   on  leaving   the 


bore;  anil  that  the  wear  of  the  bore,  from  gas  pass- 
ing the  ]irojectile,  or  from  any  irregular  movement 
of  the  latter,  is  [)reveiiled.  The  objections  are, 
that  till'  necessary  compression  of  the  coaling,  the 
sudden  closing  of  winilage.  and  the  fouling  of  the 
bore,  produce  uiidui'  strain  upon  the  piece;  that  the 
velocity  of  the  jirojeclile  is  reduced  by  the  force  ex- 
pendeil  in  compressing  it;  and  that  the  soft  metal 
forms  an  extra  weight,  which  is  useless  in  penetrat- 
ing resisting  objects.  The  Cerrnan  and  the  Frencli 
systems  are  the  most  ])roniiiient  typ(;s  of  this  class. 
All  sinall-arms,  at  tlie  pnsent  time,  use  bullets  of 
this  class,  which  being  entirelv  of  soft  metal  arc- 
readily  compressed  without  their  general  form  being 
injured. 

In  consequence  of  windage  and  of  the  action  of 
gravity,  the  axis  of  the  projectile  df)CB  not  always 
coincide  with  that  of  the  bore,  in  tiring;  this  gives 
rise  to  inaccuracy  of  fire.  With  projectiles  of  each 
clasg  means  have  been  devised  to  overcome  this 
(lifiiculty,  partially  if  not  entirely,  by  the  system  of 
rilling,  or  by  the  nature  of  the  chamber.  These 
properly  relate  lo  the  construction  of  the  iiicce. 
See  Armor-piercing  PrujectiUn.  Armatrong  Projec- 
tile, ('hilled  I'rojectile.x,  Comjiremion  ProjertileK,  Detia. 
tioH  (if  1' rojeel'len.  Effects  of  J'rojectileti,  Elojigntfd  Pro- 
jectiles, Expanding  Projectiles,  Fnhric/ttioii  of  Projec. 
tiles.  Vailing  Jlodies,  Form  of  Projectile.  Insjiertinn  of 
Projectiles,  l'< nitration  of  I'rojrrliles.  Pretervation  of 
Projectiles,  Iloekrti,  Hnjilure  if  Shells,  Shells,  SmcUL- 
'  arm  Projectiles,  Solid  Shot,  Spherir/d  Projictiles,  Stfel 
Projectiles.  Studded  I'rojictiUs  and  Trajectory. 

PROJECTION.— The  representation,  on  any  surface, 
of  till-  p:irts  of  fortification  and  other  objects  as  they 
appear  to  the  eye  of  the  observer.  It  thus  includes 
perspective,  and  is  most  simply  illustrated  by  the 
shadow  of  an  object  thrown  by  a  candle  on  a  wall : 
the  shadow  being  the  projection,  and  the  place  of 
the  light  the  ])osition  of  the  eye.  The  theory  of  pro- 
jections is  of  great  importance,  both  in  mathe- 
matics, engineering,  and  geojrraphy  ;  being  in  the 
former  cases,  perfectly  general  in  its  aiiplication ; 
while  in  the  latter  only  the  jirojection  of  the  sphere 
I  is  required.  Projections  of  the  sphere  are  of  var- 
ious kinds,  depeudimr  on  the  position  and  distance 
of  the  eye  from  the  sphere,  and  the  form  of  the  sur- 
face on  which  the  projection  is  thrown;  thus  we 
have  the  ortlingropliic.  stereograpliir.  globular,  conical, 
and  cylirulriciil  or  Mircator's  projections.  Another 
projection  freiiuently  employed  is  the  g/Mmonic.  In 
gnomonic  projection,  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  situ- 
ated at  the  center  of  the  sphere,  anil  the  surface  on 
which  the  projection  is  thrown  is  a  plane  surface 
which  touches  the  sphere  at  ;iny  one  point  (called  the 
principal  jioint).  It  is  evident  that  a  map  constructed 
on  the  gnomonic  projection,  is  sensibly  correct  only 
for  a  circular  area  whose  circumference  is  at  a 
small  angular  distance  from  the  principal  point. 
From  the  position  of  the  eye  in  the  gnomonic  projec- 
tion, it  follows  that  all  great  circles,  or  portions  of 
great  circles,  of  the  sphere  are  represented  by  straight 
lines,  for  their  planes  pass  through  the  eye.  The 
distance  of  two  points  on  the  sphere,  when  measured 
along  the  surface,  is  least  if  they  are  measured  along 
a  great  circle  ;  and  as  the  distance  of  the  projections 
of  these  points  on  the  plane  is  represented  by  a 
straight  line,  which  is  the  shortest  distance  between 
two  points  on  a  plane,  this  projection,  if  employed 
in  the  construction  of  manners'  cliarts,  would  at 
on<;e  show  the  shortest  course.  Majis  of  the  earth's 
I  surface  have  been  projected  by  the  gnomimic  meth- 
od, the  surface  of  projection  being  the  interior  sur- 
j  face  of  a  cube  circumscribing  the  sphere,  and  the 
I  complete  series  consequently  amounting  tosix  maps: 
j  but  it  is  not  fitted  for  the  construction  of  maps  of 
large  portions  of  the  earth's  surface.  The  gnomonic 
projection  derives  its  name  from  its  connection  with 
the  mode  of  describing  a  gnomon  or  dial.  The  or- 
thographic and  stereographic  projections  were  eni- 
I  ployed  by  the  Greek  astronomers  for  the  construe- 


PROKING  SPIT. 


594 


PEOMOTION. 


tion  of  maps  of  the  heavens  :  the  former,  or  analem- 
ma,  being  tlie  best  known  and  most  used.  The  ste- 
reographic,  called  phi rii.ip/uiv  hy  the  Greeks,  is  siiid 
to  have  been  invented  b_y  llipparchus,  and  the  gno- 
monic  is  described  l)y  Ptolemy.  Tlie  otliers  are  of 
modern  invention.  In  mathematics,  tlie  theory  of 
projections  is  general  in  its  application,  and  has 
been  employed  within  the  last  few  years  to  general- 
ize the  ancient  geometrj',  as  a  powerful  aid  to  alge- 
bra. Its  basis  is  the  investigation  and  determina- 
tion of  those  properties  wdiich,  being  true  of  a  tigure. 
are  also  true  of  its  projections,  such  properties  be- 
ing necessarih-  dependent,  not  on  the  "  magnitude," 
but  on  the  "position"  of  the  lines  and  angles  be- 
longing to  the  tigure.  These  properties  are  general- 
ly denominated  pvijerthe  -priyperties.  For  instance, 
the  three  conic  sections,  the  parabola,  ellipse,  and 
In'perbola,  are  merely  various  projections  of  a  circle 
on  a  plane,  and  all  "positional"  properties  of  the 
circle  are  at  once,  by  this  theory,  connected  with 
similar  properties  of  the  three  conic  sections.  The 
theory  is  also  largely  employed  in  demonstrative 
meclKinics. 

PKOKIHG-SPIT.— An  early  name  for  a  large  Span- 
ish rapier. 

PROLONGATION  OF  THE  LINE.— A  tactical  ma- 
neuver effected  by  parallel  movements  at  the  right 
or  left  of  any  given  number  of  men  on  a  front  di- 
vision. 

PROIONGE. — A  strong  hemp  rope  used  with  field 
pieces  til  attach  the  gun  to  the  limber  when  tiring  in 
retreat,  or  advancing,  instead  of  limbering  up:  for 
the  same  purpose  in  crossing  ditches  ;  for  slinging  a 
piece  to  a  limber ;  for  righting  carriages  when  up- 
set, and  for  various  other  purposes.  It  is  usuall)- 
26'  7"  long,  and  is  carried  wound  around  the  pro- 
longe-hooks  on  the  trail  of  the  piece.  It  has  a  hook 
at  one  end  and  a  toggle  at  the  other,  with  two  inter- 
mediate rings,  into  which  the  hook  and  toggle  are 
fastened  to  shorten  the  distance  between  the  limber 
and  carriage. 

PROLONGED  FLANK.  -In  fortification,  the  flank 
extension  from  the  angle  of  the  epaule  to  the  exterior 
side,  whin  the  ansle  of  the  flank  is  a  right  one. 

PROMOTION.— The  efliciency  of  any  body  of  men 
depends  upon  the  energy  of  the  individuals  com- 
posing it ;  the  root  of  that  energy  is  emulation;  and 
emulation  can  only  be  secured  by  maintaining  a 
proper  current  of  promotion.  The  elticiencv  of  a 
service  is  thus  dependent  on  the  system  of  promo- 
tion adopted  ;  and  so  important,  consequently,  does 
promotion  become,  that  in  the  present  article  it  is 
purposed  to  glance  at  the  rules  observed  in  the  prin- 
cipal armies  of  the  world. 

In  the  Army  of  France  it  is  a  very  common  saying 
that  every  Conscript  has  a  Marshal's  hiiton  in  his 
knapsack.  Speaking  of  the  times  of  the  Hcvolution- 
ary  War.  this  was  doubtless  true,  for  battalions  cho.se 
their  cluef  oflicers  from  their  own  ranks— a  Conscript 
of  one  year  was  often  a  Lieut. -Col. the  next,  and  per- 
liaps  a  Brig.  Gen.  the  following.  In  the  quieter  times 
or  recent  years,  however,  progress  is  slower;  and,  al- 
though promotion  is  open  to  all,  and  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  officers  do  rise  from  the  ranks,  yet 
it  is  very  rarely  indeed  that  an  otticer  who  basso  risen 
<'ver  ;ittains  a  hiffher  grade  than  tli;it  of  Captain, 
.lunior  coiniiiissii)ns  are — if  the  rule  nf  the  service 
were  strictly  followed — given,  one-third  to  men  from 
the  ranks,  one-third  to  cadets  from  military  schools, 
and  one-third  by  government  patronage.  In  practice 
it  aiijiears  that  in  the  artillery  and  engineers  two- 
tliirds  of  the  first  ])ositions  are  given  to  puj)ils  from 
tlic  I'lilytcchiiique.  and  the  remainder  to  men  from 
the  ranks;  wliilr  in  the  Line  two-tliinis  of  the  iilticers 
rise  from  the  ranks,  and  one-lhird  cnnie  fmm  the 
Military  School  of  St.  Cyr.  liefore  ollicers  can  be 
promoted  certain  service  in  each  rank  is  recjuired, 
viz.,  as  2d  tjiinitenant,  two  years:  as  Lieutenant,  two 
years;  ast'aptain,  fotir  years:  as  Major,  three  years; 
and  as  liieuteuant  Colonel,  two  years.     These  peri. 


ods  aiOi  however,  curtailed  in  time  of  war.  Pro- 
motion takes  place  in  the  regiment  up  to  the  rank  of 
Captain,  two-thirds  by  seniority,  and  one-third  by 
selection.  From  Captain  to  Major  (cJiefd'inciK/ri/H  uu 
de  bataiUim),  promotion  is  divided  equally  between 
seniority  and  selection  ;  while  to  all  higher  ranks  it 
falls  exclusively  to  selection.  The  selection  is  made 
on  reports  b}'  the  Inspectors  General  of  the  several 
arms — their  reports  being  founded  on  personal  ob- 
servation, and  the  testimony  of  senior  regimental  of- 
ficers. To  maintain  rapidity  of  promotion  there  is  a 
fixed  age  at  which  officers  must  retire — viz..  Lieu- 
tenant General,  05;  Major  General,  G3;  Colonel.  GO; 
Lieutenant  Colonel,  .58;  Major,  56;  Captain.  53;  and 
Lieutenant,  52.  These  ages  do  not  prevent  the  offi- 
cers of  a  regiment  from  being  the  opposite  of  youth- 
ful. 

In  Anntria  all  officers  are  at  first  Cadets;  but  a  large 
proportion  of  these  Cadets  are  nominated  from  men 
in  the  ranks  b}'  their  comrades  Promotion  goes  by 
seniority,  and  in  the  regiment,  with  occasional  se- 
lection from  other  regiments.  The  organization  and 
officering  of  the  German  Army  are  both  peculiar. 
Every  German  subject,  of  whatever  rank,  is  bound 
to  serve  from  the  age  of  20  to  25:  but  in  practice  this 
service  is  reduced  ^o  a  j'ear  in  the  case  of  profes- 
sional men.  Every  officer  must  serve  in  the  ranks 
but  not  necessarily  longer  than  a  day.  Young  gentle- 
men intended  for  officers  enter  the  nn^is,.  aitpirnnten. 
They  do  duty  as  common  soldiers  for  from  six  to 
nine  months,  and  pass  two  examinations.  After- 
ward they  remain  nine  months  at  a  division  school 
or  twelve  months  at  an  artillery  and  engineer  school. 
The}'  then  become  eligible  for  appointment  as  offi- 
cers when  vacancies  occur  which,  however,  they 
cannot  obtain  unless  recommended  by  the  officers 
of  their  respective  regiments.  Two-thirds  of  the 
first  commissions  are  given  to  these  aspiranten.  and 
one-third  to  pupils  from  the  cadet  schools. 

In  the  Italian  Army,  one-third  of  the  Sub-Lieuten- 
ants are  promoted  from  the  ranks.  Of  subsequent 
promotion,  two-thirds  go  by  senioritj-.  and  one-third 
by  selection.  It  is  always  urged  against  the  British 
system  of  army  promotion,  that  it  is  too  exclusive, 
and  confines  the  commissions  to  the  upper  classes 
of  society;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  promotion 
from  the  ranks  is  much  rarer  than  in  almost  any 
other  army.  But.  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  argued, 
the  constituents  of  the  force  are  very  different.  Sol- 
diers in  Britain  are  not  Conscripts,  who  necessarily 
comprise  men  of  all  classes  and  all  degrees  of  educa- 
tion, but  are  taken  as  a  rule,  from  an  extremely  low 
and  very  uneducated  class  of  society.  Again,  Brit- 
ain lias  a  true  middle  class,  which  is  wanting  in  al- 
most every  continental  nation.  Its  army  is  not, 
therefore,  necessarily  aristocratic  because  it  is  not 
officered  from  the  ranks.  Lastly,  the  habits  of  the 
different  classes  of  society  differ  so  greatlj',  that  un- 
less the  soldier  be  very  superior  to  his  comrades, 
promotion  to  a  commission  is  a  small  boon. 

With  regard  to  the  actual  system  of  promotion 
which  obtains;  in  the  ranks,  promotion  from  Pri- 
vate up  to  Company  Sergeant  takes  place  in  the  com- 
pany, and  is  made  by  the  regimental  officers.  The 
promotion  of  C'ompany  Sergeants  to  be  Stafl"  Ser- 
geants is  made  throughout  the  regiment.  All  tlie.se 
promotions  are  by  selection  entirely.  Of  the  com- 
missioned otfieers.  the  Quartermasters  and  Hiding 
masters  are  ajipointed  almost  exclusively  from  the 
ranks;  but  they  have  no  further  promotion  to  look 
forward  to — Sergeants  and  Sergeants-niiijor  are  oc 
easionally  gazetted  to  Eusigncies  or  Lieutenancies. 
The  junior  combatant  offiei'rs  ;iei|uire  their  commis, 
sinus  I'itlier  liy  a  competitive  e.\iiiuiiiatinii  open  to 
the  whole  nation,  or. by  previ ms  service  in  the  mili- 
tia as  officers,  or  in  the  ranks  of  the  army  ;is  non- 
<-oniniissioned  oflicers.  The  artillery  and  engineers 
are  olficeretl  entirely  l>v  Cadets  from  the  Hoyal  Mili- 
tary Academy,  whose  subsciiuent  jiromotion  is  by 
seniority  only.     In  the  cavalry,  guards,  and  line,  vci- 


PROOF  HOUSE. 


59f 


FBOOF  OF  ODRPOWDEK. 


caiK-icM  lire,  since  the  abolition  of  llic  piircliaso  sys- 
tem in  1H71,  lilled  Ijy  "seniorily  lenipcreil  hy  selec- 
tion," the  si'li'ction  becomint;  more  strict  as  the  bibb- 
er ranks  are  reach<(l.  The  pniniotion  of  otlicers;  up 
to  tlie  ranl<  of  Captain,  is  mainly  re!;iin<-nlai,  and  is, 
at  the  same  lime,  liy  seniorily;  hut  seniority  is.  in 
this  case  (pu'ililied  l)y  what  has  been  called  ne;;ative 
selection  -  that  is,  in  other  words,  the  exclusion  of 
thos(!  otlicers  who  do  not  prove  their  fitness  for  jiro- 
molionuttbe  [leriodical  inspections  and  exaniiniitions. 
Above  the  rank  of  Cajitain,  for  suhtMintin:  or  m//- 
inniUil  rank,  seniorily  is  little  regarded,  and  selection 
is  more  absolnte;  but  otlicers  may  hold  at  the  same 
time  ((/■/////  or  hn'vel  rank,  conferred  for<lislini;nisbed 
service,  or  for  mere  seniority,  in  the  i;cneral  list  of 
tlii^  whole  army.  This  brevet  rank  does  not  alTecl 
the  position  in  a  reiximi'iil.  and  adds  but  a  small  sum 
to  the  officer's  pay;  hut  it  is  of  j;reat  importance,  in- 
asmuch as  C'olonels  rise  by  seniorily  ulone  to  be  gen- 
eral officers,  and  Colonel  is  almost  exclusively  a  bre- 
vet rank  (the  only  exceptions  being  in  tin'  artillery 
and  enLciiicers,  where  Colonel  is  a  retjiniental  rank). 
Underthcse  rules,  it  sometinu^s  happ<'nsthat  anollle- 
er  who  lias  never  held  liinber  rci;imenlal  rank  than 
Capt;iiu,  may  become  successively,  for  j;ood  servi(;e, 
Brevet-Miijor, Brevet-Lieutenant  Colonel,  and  IJrevet- 
Colonel,  until  he  succeeds,  in  bis  turn,  to  the  rank  of 
Major  General. 

In  the  Unhed  States  Arm;/,  promotions  in  tlic  line 
are  made  throuub  the  whole  Army,  in  the  several 
lines  of  artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantry,  respectively. 
Promotions  in  the  tStaif  of  tlu'  Army  are  nuide  in 
the  several  departments  and  corps,  respectively. 
Officers  may  bi'  transferred  from  the  Line  to  the 
StatT  of  the  Army  witlnmt  prejudice  to  their  rank  or 
promotion  in  the  Line  ;  but  no  officer  can  hold,  at 
the  sam<'  time,  an  ajiiiointment  in  the  Line  and  an 
appointment  in  the  Stall'  which  confer  equal  rank  in 
the  Army.  When  any  otticer  so  transferred  lias,  in 
virtue  of  seniority,  obtained  or  becmne  entitled  to  a 
grade  in  his  rcninu'iit  equ;il  to  the  jjrade  of  his  com- 
mission in  the  tStalT.  he  vacates  either  his  commis- 
sion in  the  Ijine  or  his  commission  in  the  Staff.  No 
officer  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers  below  the  rank  of 
Field-Otlicer  can  be  promoted  to  a  higher  grade,  un- 
til be  has  been  examined  and  approved  by  a  Hoard 
of  three  Engineers,  senior  to  him  in  rank.  If  an 
Engineer  officer  fail  on  such  examination  he  is  sus- 
pended from  promotion  for  one  year,  when  he  is  re- 
examined before  a  like  Hoard,  fn  case  of  failure  on 
such  re-examination,  he  is  dismissed  from  the  ser- 
vice. When  any  Lieutenant  of  the  Corps  of  Engi- 
neers [or  Ordnance  Corps]  fias  served  fourteen  years' 
continuous  service  as  Lieutenant,  be  is  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  Captain,  on  passing  the  required  examin- 
ation, but  such  proinotion  does  not  authorize  an  ap- 
pointment to  till  any  vacancy,  when  such  ajipoint- 
nient  would  increase  the  v^hole  number  of  officers 
in  the  corps  beyond  the  number  tixed  by  law  ;  nor 
can  any  officer  be  promoted  before  officers  of  the 
same  grade  who  rank  hiin  in  his  corps.  When  pro- 
motions in  the  ( )rdnance  Department  of  the  Army 
are  allowed  by  law,  no  officer  of  the  corps,  below 
the  rank  of  Field  Otiicer,  can  be  promoted  to  a  high- 
er grade  until  he  h;is  been  examined  and  a])proved 
by  a  Board  of  not  less  than  three  Ordnance  Officers, 
seniors  to  him  in  rank.  If  an  Ordnance  officer  fail 
on  such  an  examination  he  is  suspended  from  pro- 
motion for  one  year,  when  he  is  re-examiued  before 
a  like  board.  In  ca.se  of  failvircon  such  re-examina- 
tion, he  is  dismissed  frinn  the  service.  When  any 
officer  in  the  line  of  promotion  is  retired  from  iictive 
service,  the  next  otiicer  in  rank  is  promoted  to  his 
place,  according  to  the  established  rules  of  the  ser- 
vice ;  and  the  same  rule  of  promotion  is  applied, 
successively,  to  the  vacancies  consequent  upon  such 
retirement.  Sec  Appointment,  and  Staff.  | 

PKOOF-HOUSE.— A    house    titled   up  for    proving  I 
barrels  of  tire-arnis.  They  are  e.xtra  heavily  charged, 
laid  ou  a  bench,  primed,  and  fired  by  a  train  of  pow- 


der into  a  bank  of  sand.  The  average  loss  in  Eng- 
land is  four  per  cent,  on  (iOO.tJtJtJ  barrclH  aunually. 
A  second  proving  takes  place  wlicn  tlie  piece  is  ready 
for  assemblinL'. 

PROOF  OF  GUNPOWDER.— A  process  pursued  in 
testiii'.'  gunpowih  r  as  rigarils  its  ipialily,  strength, 
and  uniformity.  The  ipiality  is  ascertained,  both 
small  and  large  grain,  by  its  general  appearance,  its 
lirmness,  ghizing,  uniformity  of  grain,  and  density ; 
its  strength  and  uniformity,  as  explained  further  on. 
The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  government  powrler 
varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  powder.  The 
process  oi  Jlffihiny  is  also  resorted  to  for  testing  the 
cleanliness  and  intimate  mixture  of  the  ingredients. 
W'ith  this  view,  about  :i  drachms  of  prjwder  are 
placed  on  aglass  plate,  and  tired  with  a  red-hot  iron, 
whi'n.  if  the  powder  has  been  properly  made,  no  res- 
idue or  foulness  should  be  left.  In  addition  to  tlie 
above  proof,  the  hygrometric  test  is  a  very  neces- 
sary one  to  be  taken  of  all  natures  of  powder.  The 
usual  mode  ado|>t<Ml  to  ti'sttbe  explosive  strength  or 
pressure  of  guniiowder  in  a  gun  is  thus  explained:  An 
H-inch  pror)f  gun  is  littc<l  with  y  screw  gauges,  or 
"crushers."  by  wliicli  the  pressure  of  the  exploding 
charge  is  recorded  at  three  points  in  the  bore,  name- 
ly— in  the  axis  by  a  gauge  screwed  through  the  cas- 
("abel  of  the  gun ;  by  a  gauge,  screwed  into  the  side 
of  the  gun  at  7:'J  inches  from  the  end  of  the  bore ; 
and  by  a  gauge  screwed  into  the  side  of  the  gun  at 
l.Ti  inches  from  the  end  of  th('  bore.  The  velocity 
of  the  shot,  or  cylinder,  is  measured  by  two  chrono- 
scopes.  For  this  purpose  four  wire  screens  are  ar- 
ranged in  front  of  the  gun  at  tlie  respective  distances 
from  the  muzzle  of  itd  feet,  100  feet,  210  feet,  and 
220  feet.  Nos.  1  and  3  screws  ijelong  to  No.  1  in- 
strument, Nos.  2  and  4  screws  to  No.  2  instrument. 
The  velocity  of  each  projectile  is,  therefore,  regis- 
tered at  two  points  in  front  of  the  gun.  namely,  at 
1.50  feet  and  160  feet,  by  two  independent  instru- 
ments. This  affords  a  complete  check  on  the  me- 
thod of  recording  the  velocity.  The  "crusher" 
gauge,  or  instrument  for  measuring  the  pressure 
caused  by  the  explosion  of  the  charge,  consists  of  a 
screw-plug  of  steel,  provided  with  a  movable  base 
which  admits  of  the  insertion  of  a  small  copper  cy- 
linder, ^  inch  in  length,  into  a  chamber.  One  end 
of  this  copper  cylinder  rests  on  an  anvil,  while  the 
other  is  acted  upon  by  a  movable  piston.  The  cop- 
per cylinder  is  centered  in  the  chamber  by  a  small 
circular  watch  spring.  The  action  of  the  apparatus 
is  as  follows  :  Upon  the  explosicm  of  the  charge,  the 
gas,  acting  on  the  area  of  the  piston,  one  end  of  which 
isalmost  flush  with  the  interior  of  the  bore,  crushes 
the  copper  cylinder  against  the  anvil.  The  amount 
of  compression  which  the  cojjper  thereby  sustains 
becomes  an  indication  of  the  pressure.  The  area 
of  the  copper  cj'linders  used  for  proof  of  gunpowder 
is  ,'j  square  inch,  while  the  area  of  the  piston  is  J 
square  inch.  To  form  a  table  of  pressure,  a  series 
of  experiments  has  been  <-arried  out  in  a  testing 
machine,  so  as  to  determine  the  pressure  required  to 
produce  a  definite  amount  of  compression  in  copper 
cylinders  corresponding  to  those  used  in  the  instru- 
ment. The  tabulated  results  furnish  a  means  of 
comparison  whereby  the  amount  of  compression 
produced  in  the  "  crusher"  becomes  a  direct  indica- 
tion of  the  pressure  at  that  part  of  the  bore  where 
the  i)lug  is  inserted.  The  interesting  experiments 
carried  out  by  the  committee  on  explosives  have 
shown  that  the  pressure  indicated  by  each  "  crusher 
gauge"  is,  practically  speaking,  a  true  measure  of 
the  strain  on  the  gun  at  that  point. 

The  modu.i  operandi  of  contlucting  an  individual 
experiment  in  connection  with  the  proof  of  gunpow- 
der is  as  follows:  The  electric  batteries  and  wire 
screens  for  use  with  the  chronoscope  having  been 
duly  prepared,  the  operator  having  satisfied  himself 
that  the  instruments  are  in  thorough  working  order, 
the  command  is  given  to  "load."  L'pon  this  the  men 
at  the  gun  insert  a  cartridge  of  3,5  lbs.  weight  and  19 


PROOF  OF  ORDNANCE. 


596 


PROPORTIONAL  DIVIDEH8. 


inches  length  into  tlie  bore,  and  ram  it  home  until  a 
stopper  on  the  stave  of  the  rammer  comes  in  contact 
with  the  face  of  the  muzzle.  The  cylinder,  tiat  at 
both  ends, is  then  inserted  and  rammed  home  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner.  This  proceeding  insures  uniformity. as, 
owing  to  the  stops  on  the  rammer  staves. each  charge 
occupies  tlie  same  space  in  the  bore.  The  "crush- 
er" plugs  are  then  screwed  into  their  respective  holes, 
the  copper  cylinders  having  previously  been  titled 
into  the  chamber  in  the  extremity  of  the  plug.  All 
is  now  ready.  The  operator  adjusts  the  chronoscopes. 
and  gives  the  signal  to  lire.  The  projectile  passes 
through  the  wire  screens  before  it  buries  itself  iu  the 
e;irth  butt  at  which  it  is  directed.  The  operator  notes 
the  readings  of  the  instruments.  The  "crusher" 
plugs  are  withdrawn,  and  the  little  copper  cylinders 
removed,  stamped  with  the  experimental  number  of 
the  series,  and  measured  in  a  calipers  or  micrometer 
gauge.  A  reduction  iu  the  length  of  the  copper  cj'l- 
rnder  of  yV  ioch  indicates  a  pressure  of  12  tons  on  the 
square  inch;  of  one-tenth  and  a  half,  of  16  tons;  of 
■^i;.  of  31  tons;  ot^fg,  of  36  tons,  etc.  Thus,  the  op- 
erator, in  each  round,  records  two  velocities,  which 
ought  to  be  almost  equal,  and  pressures  at  three 
points  in  the  bore.  Let  us  assume  that  the  pres- 
sures at  the  three  points  are  respectively  17.6  tons, 
17.9  tons,  and  16.3  tons,  and  that  the  observed  ve- 
locities per  second  are  1430  and  1436  feet  at  the  res- 
pective distances  of  150  feet  and  160  feet  from  the 
muzzle.  As  a  flat-headed  cylinder  of  ISOIbs.  weight 
and  8  inches  in  diameter,  traveling  at  1400  feet  a 
second, would, owing  to  the  resistance  of  the  air,  lose 
about  15  feet  velocity'  in  passing  over  1.50  feet  of  space, 
the  mean  velocity  at  the  muzzle  will  be  1443  feet.  Tliis 
batch  of  powder,  therefore, would  have  passed  proof 
within  the  terms  of  the  specification.  Had.  howev- 
er, the  pressure  recorded  at  any  one  point  exceeded 
tweut}-  tons,  or  the  observed  velocities  been  less 
than  about  1405  feet, or  greater  than  about  1465  feet, 
the  powder  would  be  rejected.  The  instrument  in- 
vented by  Le  Boulenge  for  proving  powder.has  now 
nearly  superseded  that  of  Navez-Leurs, both  in  India 
and  in  England. 

A  very  valuable  paper  on  "  Fired  Gunpowder,"  by 
Captain  A.  Noble,  F.  R  S.,  and  Professor  Abel,  F. 
R.  S.,  will  be  found  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions of  the  Royal  Society  "  for  the  year  1875,  in 
which  is  given  the  result  of  certain  experiments  for 
ascertaining  the  different  phenomena  of  fired  gun- 
powder within  the  bore  of  a  gun. a  subject  until  very 
lately  veiled  in  obscuritj'  for  want  of  suitable  instru- 
ments and  data  on  which  to  carrj-  out  the  experi- 
ments. The  different  chronographs  which  have  been 
invented  give  us  the  measure  of  velocity  of  a  projec- 
tile at  the  muzzle  of  a  gun  and  during  its  flight,  but 
the  velocity  of  a  shot  within  the  bore  from  the  first 
movement,  along  certain  fixed  points  until  it  leaves 
the  gun,  has  been  left  to  Captain  Noble  to  discover 
with  his  beautiful  chronoscope.  which  is  able  to  re- 
cord the  milliontli  part  of  a  second.  This  instrument, 
in  conjunction  with  the  "  crusher  gauge,"  enables  us 
to  ascertain  all  the  phenomena  attending  the  com- 
bustion of  guni)Owder,  such  as  its  tension  or  pres- 
sure— its  rapidity  of  ignition — the  time  occupied  iu 
burning  dilferent  natures  of  gunpowder,  etc.  The 
suliject  is  so  interesting  that  it  canmit  fail  to  attract 
tlie  alleutiou  of  all  scientific  men  and  tliat  of  tlie 
practical  arliUerist.  The  length  of  the  memoir  pre- 
vents, in  a  work  of  this  sort,  a  longer  allusion  to  the 
results  of  the  experiments  than  is  now  given.  See 
Fj)triiiir,tt, .  ■,\\\i\i; III! iiiiird, r. 

PROOF  OF  ORDNANCE.— Guns  of  all  descriptions 
are  iirovcd  before  being  issued  for  service.  Mus- 
kets are  test'jd  by  licing  fired  witli  heavier  bul- 
lets and  larger  charge  of  powder  than  they  will  in 
the  ordinary  way  be  required  to  carry.  Cannon  are 
Hubjecled  to  a  series  of  tests.  First,  they  an^  gauged 
to  ascertain  that  the  dimensions  are  correct,  the  ut- 
most va-iatiou  iiermitteri  lieing  .3  in.  externally,  and 
.033.  iu  the  (liauielcr  of  llie  bore,  but  the  positi(jn  of 


the  jore  may  frequently  deviate  .25  in.  from  the 
line  of  the  piece's  axis.  The  next  trial  is  by  firing 
twice  with  very  heavy  charges— the  bore  being  sub- 
sequently minutely  examined,  to  detect  flaws  or 
crevices  in  the  metal.  A  cavity  exceeding  in  depth 
.2  in.  if  behind  the  first  re-infor"ce  ring,  or  .25  if  be- 
fore that  ring,  condemns  the  piece.  After  the  proof 
by  firing,  wateris  forced  at  a  great  pressure  into  the 
bore,  in  order  that  it  may  permeate  way  honeycombs 
or  flaws;  the  next  day  the  bore  is  examined  by 
means  of  a  mirror,  which  casts  a  strong  light  into  it. 
Flaws  arethen  easily  detected  for  wliile'the'rest  of  the 
bore  is  thoroughly  dry.  water  will  continue  for  some 
time  to  weep  or  run  from  the  holes,  and  will  stand 
over  them  in  drops.  This  operation  completes  the 
proof.  When  a  gun  bursts  in  proof,  the  remainder 
of  the  guns  of  the  same  sort  tlien  in  proof  are  sub- 
jected to  another  round. 

Gunpowder  for  proving  ordnance  should  be  of  the 
best  quality  of  the  kind  used  in  the  gun  to  be  proved, 
giving  not  less  than  the  standard  initial  velocitj-;  it 
should  be  proved  immediately  before  being  used  un- 
less it  shall  have  been  proved  within  one  year  pre- 
viously, and  there  be  no  reason  to  suspect  that  it 
has  become  deteriorated.  The  cartridgebags  are 
made  of  woolen  or  raw  silk,  the  full  diameter  of  the 
bore  or  chamber.  They  are  filled  by  weight.  The 
shot  must  be  smooth,  free  from  seams  and  other  in- 
equalities that  might  injure  the  bore  of  the  piece, 
and  they  must  be  of  the  true  diameter  and  weight 
given  in  the  tables.  Guns  and  hueiUers  are  laid 
with  the  muzzle  resting  on  a  block  oi  wood,  and  the 
breach  on  the  ground  or  on  a  thick  plank,  giving  the 
bore  a  small  elevation.  Mitrtars  are  mounted  on 
strong  wooden  frames  or  iron  beds,  at  an  elevation 
of  45°,  supported  by  the  trunnions.  Each  piece 
should  be  tired  two  rounds  with  maximum  charges 
and  projectiles.  The  bore,  vent,  and  the  exterior 
surface  of  every  piece  which  is  approved,  should 
be  well  covered  with  sperm  oil  immediately  after  the 
inspection.  Bronze  cannons  are  fired  three  times 
with  solid  shot  and  a  charge  of  powder  ojie-third  the 
weight  of  the  shot.  If  the  piece  has  been  in  service, 
or  if  it  be  new,  and  its  bore  be  of  the  true  size,  the 
shot  should  be  wrapped  in  cloth  or  strong  paper,  to 
save  the  bore  as  much  as  possible  from  injury.  See 
Inspection  of  Ordnancf. 

PRi)OF-PLUG. — A  plug  screwed  temporarily  into 
the  breech  of  a  gun-barrel  to  be  proved. 

PROPER.— A  term  in  Heraldry.  A  charge  borne 
of  its  natural  color,  is  said  to  be  proper.  An  object 
whose  color  varies  at  different  times  and  in  different 
examples,  as  a  rose,  which  maj'  be  white  or  red,  can- 
not be  borne  proper. 

PROPORTIONAL  DIVIDERS.— An  instrument  de- 
signed for  dividing  a  line  into  any  number  of  equal 
parts:  for  describing  regular  polygons  in  given  cir- 
cles; forreducing  or  enlarging  the  area  of  a  drawing, 
and  also  for  taking  the  square  and  cube-root  of  num- 
bers, The  bodies  of  the  legs  of  these  dividers  are 
made  of  a  flat  piece  of  German  silver,  or  brass,  with 
a  rectangular  opening  cut  in  each  nearly  the  whole 
length;  tlie  ends  of  the  legs  are  armed  with  steel 
points;  the  longest  two  are  four  or  five  times  the 
length  of  the  shortest  ones.  The  legs  are  put  togeth- 
er with  the  rectangular  openings  exactly  opp<isite 
each  other,  and  retained  in  their  jilace  by  clamp 
plates  and  a  thumb-screw,  which  can  be  moved  up 
and  down  the  opening  and  made  tight  at  any  desir- 
ed point;  these  clamp-plates  and  thumb-screw  consti- 
tute the  joint  of  the  dividers,  upon  which  the  legs 
are  opened,  and  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  if  this  joint 
is  exactly  halfway  between  the  extremity  of  the 
points  llie  two  ends  will  npcii  to  the  same  distance, 
init  if  the  joint  is  moved  nearer  one  end  the  opening 
of  the  points  will  bear  the  same  proportion  to  each 
I  other  as  the  liniger  does  to  the  shorter  [lart.  The 
I  cheaper  form  of  these  dividers  have  but  one  set  of 
graduations,  by  wliich  lines  only  can  be  subdivided; 
the  proportions  are  .J.  |.  \,  {,  J,  !,  J,  J,  ,'„;  that  is,  if 


PROPOSALS. 


597 


PE0P08AL8. 


till'  liiif!  across  one  of  llio  clamp-plates  is  made  to 

iMinic  opposite'  cidicr  of  the  divisions  on  tlir  li'K.  the 
Uvo  cndsof  llic  (liviiliTH  will  open  in  llial  |ircpporlion. 
Till'  licst  proportionid  dividers  Imvi'  oni'  siilc  of  one 
of  tli(!  legs  graduated  for  dividiiii;  liiii's  into  |  J.  S,  }. 
1.  2.  J.  |.  s.  J.  71  S.  J.  I'o.  I'l.  "'"1  till'  other  Hide  of 
tlie  leg  IS  graduated  for  inseriliing  regular  polygons 
of  (i.  7,  H,  1)  10,  11.  12,  Hi,  14,  l.'i,  U;,  17.  IH,  1!),  and 
20  sides  in  given  circles.  To  use  iMe  lines  of  poly- 
gons, bring  tile  line  across  llie  elaiup  pliile  to  eoiii- 
eide  with  the  gradiialicjii  which  is  marked  with  the 
lunnlier  tiiat  tiie  polygon  is  to  have  sidi-s,  then  opi-ri 
the  dividers  and  make  tlu^  long  steel  jioinls  take  in 
the  radius  of  the  circle,  then  the  distance  between 
the  small  i)oiuts  will  be  the  length  of  one  side  of  the 


is  made  upon  an  abstract  showing  fully  all  its  essen- 
tial particulars.  As  soon  as  the  pro])osals  have  been 
opened  and  di'cided  upon,  an  "Abstract"  of  tlieni 
is  made,  one  c'opy  of  which,  together  with  one  of 
the  duplicates  of  each  propcjsal  ollered.is  forwarded 
to  the  proper  liiireaii  without  delay.  Thi:  "Abstract 
of  J'roposals"  has  a  eo|)y  (jf  the  notice  attached, and 
has  separate  columns  for  "No.  of  prr)i)Osal."  "Name 
of  biihhr."  "Date  of  delivery."  "Hrniarks."  and  two 
columns  folic  for  (jiuuility  and  one  for  jirice;  for  each 
article,  variety  of  article,  or  jiackage  that  nwiv  beof- 
fered;  for  example  under  the  item  of  jwrk,  there 
are  two  columns  (price  and(|uantity)  for  each  of  the 
varieties  "Mess,"  "  I'rime  mess,"  "Thin  mess;" 
under  colTee,  two  for  each  of  the   items  "Green,  in 


reipiired  iiolygon.  Tlii'  joint  of  most  of  the  propor- 
tional dividers  is  slipped  along  the  rectangular  open- 
ing by  the  hand;  but  it  is  frequenliy  quite  ditlicult  to 
bring  it  exactly  to  the  right  place,  as  a  little  tor) 
much  |)ressure  will  move  the  line  a  little  too  far,  and 
an  ojiposite  pressure  may  put  it  too  far  in  the  origi- 
nal direction  again.  For  nicety  in  adjusting  the 
jninl  to  the  reipiired  jioint.  some  proportional  divid- 
ers are  fitted  with  a  bar  and  micrometer  screw,  by 
which  the  joint  can  he  drawn  exactly  to  the  required 
division.  Another  plan  is  to  have  it  rack  litted  on 
the  inside  of  the  rectangular  opeinng  and  a  pinion 
all.ached  to  the  sliding  joint  fitting  into  it;  by  turning 
till'  milled  Ihninb-screw  of  the  pinion  the  joint  is 
moved  up  and  down  in  thi' re<tangidaropening  with 
gri'at  regularity  and  exactness,  (irealcare  must  be 
taken  that  none  of  the  points  of  tlie  proportional  di- 
viders get  broken. 

PROPOSALS.  -Information  in  regard  to  supplies 
or  services  for  which  proposals  have  been  invited  by 
advertisements  is  furnished  to  all  persons  desiring 
it,  on  a]iplication  to  such  sources  as  are  designated 
in  the  advertisement.  Incase  of  supjilies,  they  are 
informed  of  the  kind. (luantity. and  quality  of  articles 
reipured  ;  place,  time,  and  rate  of  delivery ;  con- 
ditions of  payment,  etc.  In  case  of  services,  they 
are  informed  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  services 
required;  the  place  where  or  places  between  whicli 
they  are  to  be  performed,  and  the  time  allowed  for 
the  performance  ;  furnished  with  or  allowed  to  ex- 
amine plans  and  specitic;itions  of  all  buildings,  con- 
structions and  other  works  in  contemplation,  etc. 
No  bidder  is  informed,  directly  or  indirectly,  of  the 
name  of  siuy  person  intending  to  bid  or  not  to  bid, 
or  to  whom  information  in  respect  to  proposals  may 
have  been  given.  All  proposals  should  be  inclosed 
in  suitable  envelopes,  securely  sealed,  indorsed,  and  j 
addressed  as  required  by  the  advertisement,  and  be 
delivered  to,  or  received  by, the  otlicer  to  whom  ad- 
dressed before  the  time  appointed  for  the  opening  ; 
and  no  responsibilty  should  attach  tQ  that  otlicer  for 
premature  opening  of  any  proposal  not  so  indorsed 
as  to  show  that  it  is  a  proposal,  and  the  particular  j 
purpose  for  which  it  is  made.  When  an  advertise-  j 
meut  calls  for  propo-sals  to  deliver  supplies  or  render  i 
services  at  more  than  one  place,  a  separate  proposal 
should  be  made  for  eacli  place,  but  all  maj-  be  sub- 
mitted in  the  .same  envelope.  The  otlicer  whose 
duty  it  is  to  open  proposals  decides  wdieu  the  time  fix- 
ed upon  for  tlie  opening  has  arrived, and  no  propo.sal 
for  that  opening  is  thereafter  received  as  formal. 
If  a  bidder  wishes  to  withdraw  his  proposal,  he  may 
do  so  before  the  time  tixed  for  the  opening,  without 
prejudice  to  himself.by  communicating  his  purpose, 
in  writing,  to  the  otlicer  who  holds  it;  and  when  his 
proposal  is  reached  it  is  handed  to  him.or  his  author- 
ized agent,  unread.  Proposals  are  opened  and  read 
aloud  at  the  time  and  place  appointed  for  tlie  open- 
ing; and   ;i  record   of  each  proposal  then  and  tlicre 


barrels;"  "Green,  in  bags:"  "Roasted,  in  bags,"  etc. 
The  following  is  the  general  form  of  proposal : 

The  undersigned,  engaged  in  the business,  in 

response   to  your  dated  the day  of , 

hereby  otl'er  for  sale  to  the  -     -  Department  of  the 
U.  S.  Army  the  following  stores,  viz:  ■ 

at dollars  and cents  per 

.   and  should  this   proposal   be  accepted 

hereby  bind to  deliver  the  stores  in  strict  com- 
pliance with  the  terms  of  your on  or  before  the 

(Signature) . 

r.  s]  A. 
On  the  above  proposal  is  accepted  the  following : 

(Signature) , 

Office  U.  S. , 

In  all  cases  where  bonds  are  required  from  bid- 
ders, no  ])roposal  is  ccmsidered  unless  accompanied 
by  a  bond  nuide  according  to  the  form  prescribed. 
The  condition  of  the  bidder's  bond  is  to  the  effect 
that  the  bidder  will  not  withdraw  his  proposal  within 
sixty  days  succeeding  the  date  announced  in  the  ad- 
vertisenu-nt  or  notice  for  the  opening  of  propo.sals; 
and  that,  if  his  proposal  be  accepted  and  the  con- 
tract for  which  he  has  bid  be  awarded  him.  he  will 
enter  into  a  contract  and  bond  ;igreeablc  to  the  terms 
of  his  proposal  within  such  number  of  days  after 
the  day  on  which  lie  is  notified  of  such  acceptance 
and  award  as  may  be  designated  by  the  officer  rep- 
resenting the  United  States. 

The  form  of  the  bidder's  bond  is  as  follows  : 

Know  all  men  bv'  these  presents.  That  we  [name 
<>f,ihlig<n'],  of  [residence (if  obiig'ir.  giving  tmni.  ctjunty. 
State,  etr.'],  as  principal,  and  [name  of  utrety],  of 
[residene-e.  of  mrety\.  and  [name  of  siirety],  of  [rexi- 
denceof  mretyl.  as  sureties,  are  held  and  b<jiind  unto 
the  United  States  of  America  in  the  penal  sum  of 

dollars,  to  the  paj'nient  of  which  sum,  well  and 

truly  to  be  made,  we  do  bind  ourselves,  our  heirs, 
executors,  and  administrators,  jointly  and  severally, 
lirmly  by  these  presents. 

Givenunder  our  hands  and  seals  this day  of 

,  18-. 

The  condition  of  this  obligation  is  such  that. 
Whereas  the  above-boundeu  [name  of  obligor],  in  re- 
sponse to  a  public  advertisement  and  notice  dated 

,  18—,  and  given  and  pulilished  by , 

United  States  Army,  has  made  and  presented  to 
,  United  States  Army,  a  formal  pro- 
posal,  in  writing,  whereliy  he   has   proposed   and 

airreed  to  enter  mto  a  contract  with , 

Uniteil  States  Army,  acting  for  and  representing  the 
said  United  States,"  to  ['i(re  nUite  in  brief  the  subject 
of  the  contra-l],  according  to  the  terms  and  condi- 
tions set  forth  in  said  advertisement  or  notice: 


PROSECUTOR. 


598 


PROVISIONAL  FORTIFICATION. 


Now,  therefore,  if  the  said  Iname  of  obligor]  shall 
make  and  shall  not  withdraw  bis  said  proposal 
within  sixty  daj's  from  the  date  of  opening  the  pro- 
posals, and  shall  within da}'S  from  the  date  on 

which  he  may  be  notified  that  his  said  proposal  has 
been  accepted  and  the  said  contract  awarded  to 
him  (provided  such  award  lie  made  within  the  sixty 
days  above  mentioned,  duly  and  formally  entered 
into  such  contract  agreeably  to  the  terms  of  his  said 
proposal,  and  into  such  bond  for  its  due  performance 
as  sliall  be  required  of  him,  or  if  his  proposal  shall 
not  be  accepted  and  such  contract  not  be  awarded 
him,  then  this  oblit;ation  shall  be  void ;  otherwise, 
that  is  to  say,  if  either  he  shall  -nithdraw  his  pro- 
posal within  said  sixty  days,  or  fail  to  enter  withhi 

said days  into  such  contract,  if  awarded  him, 

and  into  such  bond,  to  remain  in  full  force,  effect, 
and  virtue. 

"Witnesses : 

, ,  [L.  s.] 

, ,  [L.  s.] 

, ,  [L.  s.] 

(Executed  in  duplicate.) 

The  following  is  the  form  of  the  Justification  of 
the  Sureties  : 

State  of , 

County  of ,  m: 

I  [name  of  surety],  one  of  the  sureties  named  in 
the  within  bond,  do  swear  that  I  am  pecuniarily 

worth  the  sum  of dollars,  over  and  above  all  my 

debts  and  liabilities. 

[Signature  of  surety.] 

Before  me. 

[Signature  of  offlcer  administer- 
ing oath,  with  seal,  if  any.] 

PROSECUTOR.— In  Courts-ilartial  the  Judge  Ad- 
vocate is  usually  the  prosecutor;  but  it  an  officer 
prefers  a  charge,  he  sometimes  appears  to  sustain 
the  prosecution.  No  person  can  appear  as  prosecu- 
tor,'who  is  not  subject  to  the  Articles  of  War,  ex- 
cept the  Judge-Advocate. 

PROTRACTOR.— A  mathematical  instrument  much 
used  in  engineering  and  fortification  drawing.  Fig. 
1,  shows  tlie  protractor  in  common  use,   provided 


with  arms  and  verniers.  Crozet's  protractor  is  shown 
in  Fig.  2.  It  is  named  from  its  inventor,  an  officer  of 
the  t^nited  States  Engineer  Corps,  and  is  considered 
tlie  best  among  the  various  protractors  yet  devised. 
It  maybe  useclwith  the  T-rule  or  straight  edge.  The 
feather  edge  is  always  set  to  the  starting  point  and 
the  line  produced  without  puncturing  the  paper. 
The  feather  edge  is  the  only  metallic  bearing  upon 
the  paper,  small  ivory  projections  on  the  underside 
of  the  frame  keep  the  metal  from  contact  with  the 
paper  and  |in-vciil  soilinu;  it. 

PROVISIONAL  FORTIFICATION.— Broadly  speak- 
ing, provisional  works  may  be  divided  into  two  class- 
es" according  to  the  conditions  under  which  they 
may  be  e.vpeeted  to  be  employed.  1st.  Works  con- 
stnicted  after  the  beginning  of  a  campaign  on  sites 
not  previously  strategically  considered,  or  which 
have  become  important  in  consequence  of  strategic 
developments  not  anticipated.  In  such  cases  neitiier 
the  topographical  nor  geological  conditions  might  be 
fully  known,  aiid.whicli  is  alsoof  niucli  importance, 
theextent  of  the  resources  of  the  neighborhood  in 
labor  and  material  might  be  more  or  less  undetermin- 


ed.- 2d.  Works  constructed  at  the  declaration  of 
war. or  its  approach,  for  a  well  defined  and  previous- 
ly considered  object,  on  sites  perfectly  well  known, 
and  under  conditions  accurately  ascertained  before- 


FIl;.  ■-'. 

hand.  As  an  instance  of  works  of  tlie  first  class, 
Plevna  may  be'  cited ;  as  instances  of  the  second, 
Adrianople  and  Tschataldscha ;  as  an  instance  of  the 
possible  demand  for  the  second  class,  London.  The 
former  class  would  usually  have  to  be  carried  out  by 
Military  Engineers  capable  of  adapting  standard  de- 
signs to  varj'ing  conditions  and  full  of  resource,  so 
as  to  be  able  to  make  the  best  use  of  the  time  avail- 
able and  the  material  and  labor  forthcoming.  On 
the  other  hand,  works  of  the  latter  class  could  be 
designed  in  the  fullest  sense  during  the  calm  of  peace. 
Their  requirements  in  labor  and  material  would  be 
exactly  known.  The  resources  of  the  neighborhood 
woidd  have  been  accurately  gauged,  and  the  how 
and  the  whence  to  supply  deficiencies  would  have 
been  considered.  Moreover,  if  a  properly  elaborated 
design  existed,  the  execution  might  safely  be  left  to 
civif  labor  under  civil  supervision.  In  the  defense 
of  England  both  classes  of  fortification  would  pro- 
bably come  into  play.  Certain  strategic,  commercial, 
or  manufacturing  centers  would  appear  to  need  pro- 
tection under  any  circumstances,  others  would  call 
for  fortification  as  soon  as  the  landing  place  of  the 
invader,  or  his  subsequent  plan  of  operations,  had 
declared  itself. 

A  method  of  fortification,  in  which  forethought 
and  brain  power  applied  in  advance  may  save  enor- 
mous and  possibly  useless,  because  misdirected, 
expenditure,  appears  to  be  worth  very  careful  study; 
and  there  are  circumstances  which  make  provisional 
fortification  jiarticularly  applicable  to  England,  The 
sea  secures  her  time  and  a  fair  warning.  Her  re- 
sources in  labor  and  the  very  ordinary  materials 
required  arc  practically  luilimited.  I  ler  great  rail- 
way system  facilitates' the  rapid  concentration  at  any 
spot  "of  labor  and  material.  Moreover,  England 
possesses  in  her  Civil  Engineers  a  very  powerful 
force,  which  could  at  a  time  of  need  be  ajiplied  to 
the  defense  of  the  country.  There  is  a  very  cnnsider- 
able  body  of  young  and  able  Kngincers  who,  if 
provided  witli  proper  designs,  arc  perfectly  well 
able  to  ciirry  out  all  the  work  necessary  to  fortify  a 
position,  anil  who  have  great  experience  in  dealing 
with,  and  organizing  civil  labor  on  a  large  scale. 
In  any  time  of  real  necessity  the  per.ioniui  of  the 
Corps  would  have  demands  made  upon  it  which  its 
strength  could  scarcely  meet,  and  it  is  no  small  ad- 
vantage to  have  this  very  real  "reserve  force"  to 
fall  biiek  upon.    The  same  may  be  said  of  many  of 


PROVISIONAL  FORTIFICATION. 


5f)lt 


PROVISIONAi:  FORTIFICATION. 


the  colnnips,  and  it  rcnmiiiK  to  iircpiirc  in  jifiKu- 
liiiic  a  (•(iiiiplclc^  Hystciii  of  provi.^ioiml  defciisi-,  and 
liy  iiioilifyiiin  il  from  liini^  to  lime  to  kci-p  il  abn-asi 
of  llic  ailvaticiiii;  power  of  Hk;  attack.  A  paprr 
army  is  riuihtly  held  up  to  (■oiit<'mpt  as  a  spccticK  of 
deception,  wliicli  no  ureal  nations,  jealous  of  the 
iiiananenient  of  its  alTairs.  sliouhl  toleriit<':  l)Ul  a 
papiT  system  of  fortilii  alion  may,  it  ir.  conleiided, 
form  a  very  real  defense.  Only  this  papiT  system 
must  l)e  thorouj;h,  anil  the  liraiii  power  apprK'd  to  it 
unstinted.  A  very  little  relleetioii  serves  to  show 
that  the  desi{;n  of  a  provisional  work  is  a  task  of 
considerably  greater  ditlicidty  than  that  of  a  lield 
reih)\d)t.  The  restriction  to  two  or  three  days,  or 
less,  in  the  case  of  tlic  latter  introduces  a  very  sharp 
limitation  to  the  possiliilities  of  design.  K.\teiid  the 
lime  to  lliree  or  four  weeks,  or  even  longer,  postu- 
late an  ample  supply  of  timl)er,  of  railway  l)ars.  and 
even  perhaps  of  bricks  and  cement,  and  il  will  be 
evident  that  these  possiliilities  have  enormously 
widened,  and  that  very  consideral)le  variations  of 
trace,  profile,  and  {leneral  arran^jement  will  present 
themselves  for  consideration.  It  is  even  conlende<l 
that  the  design  of  a  good  jjrovisional  work  is  more 
dillicult  than  that  of  an  analogous  permanent  struc- 
ture, and  that  it  affords  more  scope  for  clever  and 
resourceful  engineering. 

The  drawing  shows  a  plan  of  a  typical  provisional 
work  for  the  defense  of  a  hill  top.     This  desiyu  was 


around  the  work,  and  the  front  lini'  is  broken  so  us 
to  form  two  bastioiii<l  fronts  and  also  two  places  of 
arms  at  the  shoulilers,  deliladed  by  four  traverBCS 
containing  casemates.  Brickwork  is  employed  in 
all  the  casemates  and  also  in  the  steps  leadini;  from 
the  ditch  down  Into  the  caponiers  and  up  to  the  cov- 
ercfl  way.  'I'he  total  length  of  the  line  of  lire  i.s 
about  (thO  yards  run.  and  to  man  ;l,  therefore,  at 
least  an  e(pial  munber   of  men    would    be    needed. 


Casemate  cover  for  20(1  men  is  provided,  and  niag- 
azine  accommodation  to  the  e.Ment  of  about  045 
s()uare  feet. 

The  most  salient  features  of  the  works  attributed 
to  Mluhm  are  thus:  1.  The  curved  trace  of  the 
cnst  of  the  main  work.  2.  The  polygonal  trace  of 
the  ditch  ;  tne  latlir  usually  untlanked.  3.  The 
combination  of  artillerv  and  infantry  lire  from  the 
work  itself  ;  the  emplovment  of  the  latter  only  from 
the  covered  way.  4.  'I'he  curved  defensible  traverse 
to  cover  the  gorge  ;  the  large  lateraJ  traverses  con- 
taining casemates  for  men  and  magazines,  p.  The 
employment  of  brickwork  as  nnicii  as  possible  for 
the  walls  of  the  casemates  and  for  steppi'd  ap- 
proaches. The  work  ajipears  t(]  have  several  merits. 
The  circular  or  elliptic  trace  cannot  well  be  enfiladed: 
it  affords  a  ma.xinium  of  interior  space  with  a  mini- 
miun  of  ])arapet  ;  there  are  no  undefended  angles. 
The  old  objection  to  circidar  re(lotd)ls— that  they 
tend  to  too  great  a  dispersion  of  lire— haa  now  less 


furnished  by  Bltihm  Pasha  to  Colonel  Ott  of  the 
Swiss  Engineers.  The  work  is  in  trace  a  circidar 
Sfgnient  (diameter  about  60  yards)  and  four  sides  of 
the  polygonal  ditch  are  flanked  l)y  caponiers  with 
two  tiers  of  fire,  formed  in  the  counterscarp  at  its 
front  ends.  These  caponiers  are  well  placed  for  pro- 
tection from  distant  artillery  tire,  hut  in  the  event  of 
the  enemy  gaining  and  maintaining  possession  of 
the  ditch  their  defenders  would  he  sacriticeil.  Ac- 
commodation is  provided  for  eight  overljankguns  in 
the  work  and  one  in  the  gorge  traverse.  The  latter 
is  really  a  segmental  lunette  partially  inclosing  a 
traverse  containing  a  shell-proof  casemate.  A  cov- 
ered way  affording  a  good  line  of  infantry  fire  runs 


weight,  since  a  omnller  number  of  hreeeh-londers  is 
as  effective  as  a  comparatively  large  nuiid)er  of  ihe 
old  rifles.  Nor  has  the  other  olijection — that  the 
circular  trace  is  suited  only  to  direct  defense,  and 
that  works  so  designed  have  no  self-flanking  power 
— c|uitc  its  old  force,  since  the  increased  range  of  ar- 
tillery enables  works  belonging  to  a  line  to  afTord 
eacii  other  more  elTectual  mutual  flank  defense  than 
formerly.  Moreover  redmdtts  would  frequently  be 
flanked"  by  detached  batteries  in  rear  of  the  general 
line  of  their  positions.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may 
perhaps  be  said  that  the  work  above  described  pro- 
vides insufflcient  cover  for  its  garrison,  that  the 
broad  berni  at  the  angles  of  the  ditch  aflords  a  good 


rKOVOST. 


600 


PEUSSIAN  GUN -LIFT. 


resting  place  for  an  assaulting  party  to  accumulate 
prior  to  the  final  rush  for  the  parapet,  and  tliat  tliere 
is  on  the  whole  too  little  storm-freedom.  The  latter 
objection  may,  however,  be  partiallj-  met  by  a  liberal 
use  of  obstacles.     See  Fortification. 

PROVOST. — Tlie  temporary  prison  in  which  the 
military  police  contiue  prisoners  until  they  are  dis- 
posed nt. 

PROVOST  CELLS.— In  the  British  service,  those 
certilied  cells  under  a  Provost  or  acting  Provost  Ser- 
geant, in  which  Court-Martial  prisoners  may  be  im- 
prisoned up  to  forty-two  days.  Also,  called  Regi- 
mental or  (Tiirrisnn  cells. 

PROVOST  MARSHAL.— An  oflScer  appointed  in  ev- 
ery army. in  tlie  tieUl, to  secure  the  prisoners  confined 
on  charges  of  a  general  nature.  .In  the  British  Army 
he  is  an  officer,  with  the  ranli  of  t'aptain,  appointed 
to  superintend  the  preservation  of  order,  and  to  be, 
as  it  were,  flie  head  of  the  police  of  any  particular 
camp  or  district.  He  has  cognizance  of  all  caiiip- 
foUovvers,  as  well  as  of  members  of  the  army.  His 
power  is  summary,  and  he  can  punish  an  offender, 
ta.\ien  flagrante  delicto,  on  X\\es-poX,  according  to  the 
penalties  laiil  down  in  the  Mutiny  Act. 

PROVOST  SEGEANT.— A  Sergeant  who  is  charged 
with  the  military  police  of  a  corps.  He  is  generally 
given  one  or  two  non-commissioned  oflieers  as  as- 
sistants. In  the  British  service  he  is  also  charged 
with  tlie  custody  of  all  prisoners  in  the  cells. 

PROWLERS. — Armed  prowlers.by  whatever  names 
they  may  be  called,  or  persons  of  the  enemy's  terri- 
tory, who  steal  witiiin  tlie  Hues  of  the  hostile  army. 
for  the  purpose  of  robbing,  killing,  or  of  dcstroj-ing 
the  mail,  or  of  cutting  the  telegraph  wires,  are  not 
entitled  to  the  privileges  of  the  prisoner  of  war. 

PEUSSIAN  BREECH-LOADER.— This  method  of  clo- 
sing the  breech  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Wn/trenr/orf 
Breech-loader.  The  leakage  of  gas  is  st<ii>ped  by  a 
valve  and  a  papier  mache  cup.  The  sliding  block  is 
set  up  by  a  wedffc  tightened  by  a  screw. 

PRUSSIAN  FUSE.— This  fuse  might  be  designated 
as  a  tim"-ci'iici(xxion-chemical  fuse.  It  consists  of  tliree 
parts.  1st.  The  body  of  the  fuse,  or  fuse-case,  which 
holds  the  other  parts,  and  is  screwed  into  the  eye  of 
the  shell,  the  top  being  flush  with  the  outer  surface. 
This  part  has  been  constructed  of  both  metal  (lironze 
and  cast  iron)  and  wood.  The  interior  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  both  cylindrical,  and  with  a  common 
axis.  The  onene.xt  tlie  outside  of  the  shell  is  much 
the  larger  in  diameter.  This  case  was  made  the 
same  size  for  all  calibers,  but  that  part  destined  for 
the  reception  of  the  fuse-composition,  is  longer  for 
fuses  v.-hich  are  to  be  tired  with  small  charges  tiianfor 
those  with  which  large  charges  are  to  be  used.  2d. The 
percussion  apparatus  consists  of  a  small  glass  tube, 
hermetically  closed  at  both  ends,  partly  'filled  with 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  wra]i"ped  with  cot- 
ton thread  soaked  in  a  composition  of  70  parts  (by 
weight)  of  chlorate  of  potassa,  10  parts  of  flowers  of 
sulphur  and  20  parts  of  white  sugar, pulverized. sifted, 
and  moistened  with  alcohol.  This  covering  is  put 
on  of  such  a  thickness  that  the  tube  can  just  be  in- 
serted in  a  paper  case  which  serves  it  as  an  envel- 
ope, and  wliich  fits  partly  into  tlie  siiialliT  o)iciiing 
in  the  fuse-case  and  partly  into  a  thiiuble-sljaped 
breaker  of  lead,  which  is  inserted  over  it  in  the  larsje 
part  of  the  opening.  3d.  The  composition  column. 
The  explosive  ajiparatus  being  in  position,  there  re- 
mains between  the  tiiimble  and  the  sides  of  the  fuse- 
case  a  vacant  space,  wliich  is  tilled  with  compressed 
meal-powder,  filled  in  by  means  of  a  hollow  drift, 
the  interior  diameter  of  which  is  a  little  irrrater  than 
the  diameter  of  the  thimble.  Wlicn  the  ((impiisi- 
tion  readies  tlie  top  of  the  thimhle.  iiiicompressed 
mealed  powder  is  tilled  in  to  thetoj)  of  the  case.  On 
being  fired,  the  thimble  or  lin'aker  being  supported 
by  the  composition  around  it,  is  not  disturbed. 
But  as  this  takes  fire  like  an  ordinary  fuse,  and 
burns  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  breaker,  it  leaves 
thi3  unsupported;  and  if  the  composition  is  all  con- 


sumed when  the  shell  strikes,  the  shock  overthrows 
the  breaker,  rupturing  the  glass  tube,  setting  free  the 
sulphuric  acid,  and  exploding  the  shell.  Experi- 
ments go  to  show  that,  in  this  fuse,  the  best  mater- 
ial for  the  fuse-case  is  beech-wood;  and  the  worst, 
cast  iron. 

PRUSSIAN  GUN-LIFT.— The  gun-lift  adopted  for 
service  in  the  Prussian  Army  cons>sts  of  two  tele- 
scopic hydraulic  jacks,  each  mounted  on  a  solid 
base,  and  carrying  suspended  from  the  heads  of  the 
two  upper  jacks  a  wrought-iron  cross-beam,  with  a 
double  hook  depending  from  the  middle  for  attach- 
ing the  load.  The  lower  jacks  areSj  inches  in  dia- 
meter, and  the  upper  ones  6J  inches,  each  having  a 
lift  of  3i  feet.  They  are  operated  by  means  of  a 
crank  on  an  axle,  which  rests  in  two  bearings  on  the 
lower  jack.  A  fly-wheel  with  a  handle  is  attached 
to  each  end  of  the  axle;  they  are  used  to  transport 
the  jack  from  place  to  place.  The  cross-beam  is 
built  up  of  two  rolled  plates  placed  vertically, 
strengthened  by  angle-irons,  and  joined  together  by 
a  top  plate  riveted  to  them.  A  cast-iron  block  is 
bolted  between  the  plates  at  the  middle  of  their 
length,  and  a  link  pa.sses  around  it  and  carries  the 
double-hook.  Length  of  cross-beam,  10  feet;  weight, 
1,430  pounds.  Capacity  of  the  lift,  ()2, 000  pounds, 
raised  7  feet. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  prepare  the  founda- 
tions for  the  jacks  to  set  on,  so  that  they  shall  not 
yield  unequally  when  the  weight  is  brought  upon 
them,  and  cause  the  jacks  to  upset.  If  the  ground 
be  soft,  the  foundations  may  be  made  of  timbers 
bolted  together  and  resting  on  piles.  The  jacks  are 
placed  on  the  bases  at  the  proper  distance  apart 
(depending  upon  the  length  of  the  cross-beam, 
which  is  usually  10  feet).  The  cross-beam  is  brought 
into  position  by  24  men.  the  ends  at  the  foot  of  the 
jacks.  A  chain  is  passed  through  the  stirrup  of  the 
upper  jack,  and  is  made  fast  to  the  end  of  the  cross- 
beam, which  is  raised  by  pumping  the  jack,  and  is 
rested  on  a  trestle  prepared  for  the  purpose.  The 
jack  is  now  lowered,  the  end  of  the  beam  is  secured 
in  the  stirrup,  and  the  trestle  removed.  The  same 
oi^eration  is  performed  with  the  other  end,  thus 
bringing  the  cross-beam  into  a  horizontal  position, 
and  the  heads  of  both  jacks  down.  The  cross-beam 
is  suspended  more  quicklj-  and  safely  by  using  two 
trestles  ;  raise  both  ends  of  the  cross-beam  at  the 
same  time,  rest  it  on  the  trestles,  lower  the  heads  of 
the  jacks,  and  suspend  the  cross-beam  in  the  stir- 
rups, then  raise  it  slightly  and  remove  the  trestles. 

The  cross-beam  is  placed  across  the  gun,  a  block 
of  wood  of  projier  shape  being  first  interposed  to 
protect  the  gun  from  injury.  The  first  jack  is 
placed  a  feet  from  the  axis  of  the  gun.  and  the  end 
of  the  cross-beam  is  inserted  in  the  stirrup.  The 
second  jack  is  set  up  in  a  corresponding  position  on 
the  other  side  of  the  gun;  a  chain  is  passed  through 


the  stirrup  and  made  fast  to  the  end  of  the  cross- 
beam, which  is  raised  by  pum]>iiig  the  jaik;  a  trestle 
is  jihu'ed  under  the  cross-beam  when  it  is  brought 
to  a  horizontal  position,  the  head  of  tlie  jack  is 
lowered,  and  the  stirrup  is  placed  over  the  end  of 


PRUSSIA 

AND 

NORTH  GERMAN  1 


eULE  OF  MILES 


See  also  Hap  of  Oerman  Empin 


2S              SO              75             100             US 
Hallrottda    '    ^  "^ 


10  Lon^tutle  Kast  12  from  Greeinvich 


FBUSSIAN  N££I)L£  CA£BXN£. 


601 


PnBUC  ANIMALS. 


the  cross -bpnin.     Tlip  slinirs  arr>  passfd  around  the  |  with  a  rorresponding  notfh  in  tlif  iipppr  Bnrfanc  of 

pun  Hiiil  honked  In  the  iloiil))!'  hiiok.  l$y  piiiiipin^;  j  the  bore  of  llic  hrccfh-lioil.  the  niuiii  Kpriu)^  is  coin, 
up  tlic-  jncks  the  weight  is  raisrd.  When  llic  >,'un-  pressed,  so  thul  wlien  lli<'  sear  is  piiNed  out  of  tlio 
lifl  eaniiol  l)e  set  up  over  tlie  wei^'lu  lo  be  raised  it  |  way  by  (lie  lriir;;fr,  llic  iiee<ne  luav  be  darted  for- 
luay  l)e  set  up  on  planks,  eillier  in  front  or  rear, and  ward,  and,  uui(led  by  aHUiall  holi:  fn  the  face  of  the 
then  niovecl  into  tlie  recpiired  po.sitioii  liy  means  of  bolt,  find  its  way  llirouL'h  llie  |)owderin  th<;  car- 
rollers.     The  lifl  id  taken  down  in  the  inverse  man-    Iriil^'e  lo  e.xplrxfe  the  fulminate  lyintr  in    llie  base    of 


Iter  of  setlini;  it  u|i. 

Tweiilyfour  men  transport  the  crossbeam  by  two 
lont;  haiidsi)ikes  run  ihrouLth  holes  in  the  beam  for 
thai  purjiose,  and  place  it  on  a  truck  or  carl.  The 
fly-wheels  are  use(i  as  truck-wheels  for  lrans|)ortiB}; 
the  jacks.  The  keys  which  fasten  them  to  thea.x'eH 
are  removed,  also  the  handles.  The  heads  of  the 
jacks  are  secured  by  ropes,  and  the  bolls  of  Ihca.vle- 
bearini;s  liirhlened.  The  jack  is  broUL'b'  down  inio 
a  nearly  bori/onlal  position,  and  Ihe  stirrup  is ])lace(l 
over  the  pintle-ho<ik  of  a  licld-limber  and  secured  by 
a  rope.     See  (liin-lift,  and  hntjip  lltni-lift. 

PRUSSIAN  NE£DLE  CARBINE.— A  brecch-loadinf: 
suiall-ariii.  haviiij;-  a  tl\<(l  chaiubcrclosed  by  a  mova- 
ble barrel,  wliich  rotates  aliout  an  axis   at  itO"  to  Ihe 
a.xis  of  Ihe  barrel,  and  vertical  ii\   \\w  plane  of  the 
axis  of  the    barrel.     It  is  opened    by   turnim:  a  lever 
back  anil   to    the  rii;ht:   in  so    doini;    thi'    barrel   is 
moved  forward  by  an  eccentric  as  far  as  Ihe  corres- 
pondini;  arm  of  a  b<'art-shaped  slot  in  the  tansrof  the 
receiver  will  iiermit  the  rear  iruide-stud  to  jxo.     Hy 
the  same    means   the   butt    of  Ihe    barrel    is   swuns 
around  to  the  riirht,  so  that  the  mouth  of  Ihe   cham- 
ber may  be   readily  reached  with  the  load.      As   the 
eccentric  turns,  an  eccentric  plate,  which  is  on   the 
same  shaft  with  it,  turns  also;  and  by  means  ofacon- 
nectini;  rod,  which   is  linked    at  its    forward  end  to 
the  eccentric  plate  anil    in  rear  to  the   cocking-bolt, 
slides  Ihe  latter  backward   asjainst  the    pressure  of  a 
spiral  mainsprinj;  surrounding  the  stem  of  the  needle- 
bolt,  against  Ihe   face   of  wliich  the  vertical  arm  of 
the  cocking-bolt  presses.      This  motion  is  so  timed, 
that  at  till'  moment  the  ])iece  is  fully  opened,  the  nose 
of  a  spring-sear  riding  over  the  beveled    shoulder  of 
a  tillel  on  the  needle-bolt,  catches  against  its  square- 
face  and  retains  the  bolt  against  the  pressure  of  the 
mainspring,  when,  in  order  to  load  the  jiiece,  the  re- 
sistance  of  the    hand  has   been   withdrawn.     It   is 
closed  by  reluming  the  lever  to  its  place  beneath  the 
barrel;  the   barrel  is  first  swung  around  in  the   pro- 
longation of  its  original  position,  and  is  then  drawn 
back  so  that  a  gas-plug  projecting  from  the  receiv- 
er shall  enter  the  moutli  of  tlie    chamber.     The  car- 
bine  is  tired  in  the   same  manner   as   the   Pru.ssian 
needle-gun,  and  in  case  of  a   failure   to  jignite   the 
charge,  the   piece,  without   opening   it,  may  be  re- 
cocked  in  the  same  manner.      The  arm  using  a  self- 
consuming  cartridge-case,  llie  extracting  or  ejecting 
apparatus  is  not  needed.     The  enormous  swell  left 
at  the  muzzle  of  this  piece,  it  is  supposed,  is  intend- 
ed to  protect  it  from  the  indentations  likely  lo  oc- 
cur in  common  use  in  the  mounted  service.     See  Nee- 
d'l'-quns. 

PRUSSIAN  NEEDLE-GUN.— A  breech-loading  gun 
(smiill-arm ),  having  a  tixed  chamber  closed  by  a  mov- 
able breech-block  wiiich  slides  in  the  line  of  the  bar- 
rel by  direct  action.  It  is  opened  by  releasing  a 
spring  catcli  by  pressing  down  upon  it,  and  then 
drawing  it  back  by  the  thumb.  This  slides  a  pro- 
jecting thumb-piece  of  the  lock-tube  out  of  its 
square  notch  in  the  receiver,  and  allows  the  handle 
of  the  l)reech-boU  to  be  raised  to  a  vertical  position 
and  Ihe  bolt  itself  to  be  withdrawn.  The  piece  may 
then  be  closed  by  reversing  the  movement  of  the  bolt, 
and  may  be  locked  bv  turnins  down  the  base  of  the 


Ihe  paper  sabot  which  surrounds  the  ball. 

The  cartridge  being  self-consiiming,  no  extracting 
or  ejecting  devices  are  reipiired.  The  butt  of  the 
barrel  is  chambered,  and  the  face  of  the  lireech-bolt 
is  counter-bored  at  the  same  angle,  so  as  to  make  a 
close  lit  and  to  prevent,'  as  far  as  possible,  the  es- 
cape of  gas.  The  recoil-sliouhh'r  on  the  receiver  ih 
inclined  lo  the  front,  so  that  as  tin-  ends  of  the  liar- 
rel  and  breech-bolt  wear  olf.  the  boll  may  lie  brought 
forward  to  supply  their  loss.  Tlie  arm  may  be 
cocked  indeiHiidenlly  of  the  bolt,  l)y  lirsl  withdraw- 
ing, and  then  shoving  forward  the  lock-tube.  The 
system  nuiy  lie  dismounteil  by  withdrawing  tlie 
bolt,  and  at  the  same  time  itidling  hard  on  the  trig- 
ger ;  this  causes  a  change  of  fulcrum  lo  Ihe  rear- 
most  of  the  scolloped  surfaces,  into  which  its  upper 
side  is  formed,  and  ])erniits  the  no.se  of  the  sear  to 
be  pulled  coniijlelely  out  of  the  waj'forllie  passage 
ofllwlioli.     See   An(ll(-r/iinit. 

PRUSSIAN  RULING.— The  Prussians  early  a<lopt- 
ed  anil  pciteiliil  [hf  mmpre/ixi/iff  sj/Hrm.  and  obtained 
great  accuracy  and  range  with  charges  of  one-tenth 
the  weight  of  the  projectile.  The  rilling  consisted  of 
numerous  shallow  rectangular  grooves.  The  shot 
was  encased  by  four  rounded  lead  l)andsor  liooj*, 
held  in  place  by  grooves  in  I  he  shot.  With  this  system 
the  shot  is  larger  than  the  bore,  and  is  sipieezed  or 
planed  to  lit  the  bore  by  the  lands  of  the  rifling. 
The  shot  must  therefore  be  entered  at  the  breech, 
into  a  chamber  larger  than  the  rest  of  the  bore  ;  and 
whatever  escape  of  gas  there  may  be  around  the 
breech-closing  apparatus  reduces  its  range  and  ve- 
locity. 

PRYCK  SPUR. — In  ancient  armor,  a  spur  having  a 
single  spike. 

PSILOI.— Among  the  Greeks,  Psiloi  were  the  light 
armed  men  who  fought  with  arrows  and  darts, "or 
stones  and  slings  ;  but  were  unlit  for  close  fight. 
They  were  in  honor  and  dignity  inferior  to  the  heavy- 
armed  soldiers.  The  Psiloi  performed  till  the  duties 
usually  devolved,  in  the  present  day,  upon  light  in- 
fantry, both  before  and  at  the  opening  of  an  engage- 
ment.    See  (Iplitiii. 

PUBLIC  ANIMALS.— The  animals  in  the  employ  of 
a  Government.  In  the  United  Stales,  the  following 
specifications  govern  in  purchasing  the  horses  and 
mules  for  the  military  service  : 

Cai'iilry  Ilnrsea — To  be  geldings,  of  Iiardy  colors. 
sound  in  all  particulars,  in  good  condition,  well 
broken  to  the  saddle,  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  liands 
lii^h,  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than  nine  years 
old,  and  suitable  in  every  respect  for  Cavalry  ser- 
vice. Whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  purchase 
the  half-breed  horses  of  California  or  Soutliem 
Texas,  the  standard  of  lieight  may  be  reduced  to 
not  less  than  fourteen  and  a  half  hands. 

Artillo-i/  II"i-Kt's — To  be  geldings,  of  hardy  colors, 
sound  in  all  particulars,  in  good  condition,  square 
trotters,  well  broken  to  harness,  from  fifteen  to 
sixteen  liauds  high,  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than 
nine  years  old,  tind  s.iitable  in  everj'  respect  for  Ar- 
tillery service. 

Miilex— To  be  strong,  stout,  compact  animals, 
sound  in  all  particulars,  in  good  condition,  well 
broken  to  harness,  not  under  fourteen  hands  high. 


handle  against  a  recoil-shoulder  formed  for  it  on  the  I  not  less  than  four  nor  more  than  nine  years  old,  and 


receiver.  In  the  act  of  closing,  Ihe  front  shoulder 
of  the  needle-bolt,  around  the  stem  of  which  the 
main  spring  is  coiled,  catches  against  the  nose  of  a 
sear,  and  pushes  the  lock-tube  out  to  the  rear  by 
means  of  the  main  spring  included  between  them. 
By  then  pushing  forward  with  the  hand,  tlie  base  of 


suitalile  in  every  respect  for  the  transportation  ser- 
vice of  the  army. 

When  work-horses  are  to  be  purchased,  they 
should  be  sound  in  all  particulars,  fifteen  and  one- 
half  hands  high  and  upwards,  strong  l)uilt,  well 
lirokeu  to  work  in  harness,  not  less  than  four  nor 


the  lock-tube  until  the  spring-catch  above  it  engages  ',  more  than  nine  years  old.    For  pack  purposes,  ths 


PUBLIC  EXIGENCY. 


602 


PUBLIC  PROPEKTT. 


Standard  of  height  may  be  reduced  to  thirteen  and  a 
half  hands,  if  tlie  anima!  be  in  other  respects  suita- 
ble. The  pack  mule  need  not  necessarily  be  broken 
to  harness. 

For  general  transportation  purposes  of  the  army, 
horses  cannot  be  advantageously  substituted  for 
mules.  For  draught  purposes  in  the  Northern  and 
Eastern  States,  and  at  depots  in  large  cities,  and  for 
saddle  purposes  of  wagon-masters,  messengers,  and 
expressmen,  horses  may  be  advantageously  used  in 
place  of  mules. 

The  following  weights  are  suggested  as  the  mini- 
mum, except  for  the  half-breed  horses  of  Texas  and 
Southern  California: 

Pounds. 

Artillery  wheel-horses 1,300 

Artillery  swing  and  lead  horses 1.100 

Cavalr3'  horses 9.50 

Horses  for  messengers,  etc 950 

Draft-horses  of  the  Quartermaster's  Department  1 .200 

Wheel-mules 1.200 

S  wing-  nudes 1 ,0.50 

Lead-mules 850 

At  the  headquarters  of  every  regiment  of  Cavalry, 
with  every  company  of  Cavalry  and  battery  of 
mounted  Artillery,  and  with  the"  records  of  every 
otBcer  in  immediate  charge  of  public  animals,  a  de- 
scriptive list  of  horses  and  mules  is  kept,  showing 
the  name,  age,  size,  color,  and  other  peculiarities  of 
each  animal,  how  and  when  acquired,  his  titness  for 
service,  how  long  he  has  been  in  service,  the  name 
of  his  rider  or  driver,  and  the  particular  use  to  which 
he  is  or  was  applied. 

PUBLIC  EXIGENCY. —The  term  "  PiiMic  Exigency." 
employed  in  section  3.700,  Revised  Statutes,  refers 
to  an  exceptional  and  urgent  necessity,  requiring  an 
immediate  supply  of  articles  for  military  use,  or  the 
immediate  performance  of  work  or  service,  such  as 
may  grow  out  of  the  pressure  of  an  existing  state  of 
war,  rebellion,  or  insurrection,  or  of  some  particular 
act  of  warfare  on  the  part  of  an  enemy,  or  may  be 
occasioned  by  any  unexpected  movement  of  troops; 
or  such  as  may  consist  in  the  destruction  or  loss  of 
supplies,  structures,  etc.,  by  fire  or  the  violence  of 
the  elements,  by  acts  of  rioters  or  trespassers,  by 
theft  or  waste,  by  the  negligence  of  common  carriers 
or  others,  by  the  "failure  of  contractors,  etc.  Exigen- 
cies are  sometimes  assumed  to  exist  where  none  have 
legitimately  occurred.  By  carefully  observing  the 
laws  regulating  contracts,  and  making  prompt  pro- 
vision for  the  future  supplies,  etc.,  of  the  command, 
recourse  to  purchases  in  open  market  to  meet  sup- 
posed emergencies  may  ordinarily  be  avoided.  In- 
formation can  generally  be  derived  from  the  proper 
records  as  to  tlie  average  quantity  of  supplies  requir- 
ed in  ye.'irs  past,  which  will  provide  against  the  hap- 
pening of  such  emergencies:  and  timely  advertise- 
ments should  be  made  accordingly.  But  that  sta- 
tute fthe  acr.  r>f  MarchS.  1861),  while  requiring  such 
advertisement  as  a  general  rule,  invests  the  officer 
charged  witli  the  duty  of  procuring  supplies  with  a 
discretion  to  dispense  with  advertising  if  the  exigen- 
cies of  the  public  service  require  immediate  delivery 
or  performance.  It  is  too  well  settled  to  admit  of 
dispute  attliis  day.  that  where  there  is  a  discretion 
of  tills  kind  conferred  on  an  officer,  or  lioiiril  of  of- 
ficers, anda  contract  is  made  in  wliicli  they  have  ex- 
erciseil  that  discretion,  the  validity  of  [tlie  contract 
cannot  be  made  to  depenil  on  tiie  degree  of  wisdom 
or  skill  which  may  have  a<'Companied  its  exercise. 

PUBLIC  MONEYS.  -All  otTicers  of  the  Quartermas- 
ter's Siibsislciice  and  I'ay  Departments,  the  Chief 
Medical  Purveyor  and  Assistant  Medical  Purveyors, 
and  all  Storekeepers  before  entering  upon  the  duties 
of  their  respective  offices,  give  good  and  sufficient 
bonds  to  the  United  Stales,  in  such  sums  as  llie  Sec- 
retary of  War  may  dir<'ct,  faitlifully  to  account  for 
all  jjuIiKk'  moneys"anil  property  which  they  may  re- 
ceive. The  President  may,  at  any  time,  increase 
tlie  sums  80  prescribed.     It"  is  the  diity  of  every  dis- 


bursing officer  having  any  public  money  intrusted 

to  him  for  disbursement  "to  deposit  the  same  with 
the  Treasurer,  or  some  one  of  the  Assistant  Treasur- 
ers, of  the  United  States,  and  to  draw  for  the  same 
only  as  it  may  be  required  for  payments  to  be  made 
by  "him  in  pursuance  of  law, and  to  draw  for  the  same 
only  in  favor  of  the  persons  to  whom  payment  is 
made  :  and  all  transfers  from  the  Treasurer  of  the 
United  States  to  a  disbursing  officer  are  by  draft  or 
warrant  on  the  Treasury,  nr'an  Assistant  Treasurer, 
of  the  United  States.  In  places,  however,  where 
there  is  no  Treasurer  or  Assistant  Treasurer. the  .Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  may,  when  he  deems  it  essen- 
tial to  the  public  interest, s"pecially  authorize  in  writ- 
ing the  deposit  of  such  public  money  in  any  other 
pirblic  depository,  or,  in  writing,  authorize  the  same 
to  be  kept  in  any  other  manner, "and  under  such  rules 
and  regulations  as  he  may  deem  most  safe  and  ef- 
fectual to  facilitate  the  payments  to  public  creditors. 
All  public  money  advanced  to  disbursing  officers 
of  the  United  States  must,  in  accordance  with  the 
law,  be  deposited  immediately,  to  their  respective 
credits,  with  either  the  United  States  Treasurer, 
some  Assistant  Treasurer,  or  Designated  Depositary, 
other  than  a  National  Bank  Depositary,  nearest  or 
most  convenient :  or,  by  special  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  with  a  National  Bank  De- 
positary, except— 1.  Any  disbursing  officer  of  the 
War  Department,  specially  authorized  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  War,  when  stationed  on  the  extreme  frontier 
or  at  places  far  remote  from  such  depositaries,  may 
keep,  at  his  own  risk,  such  moneys  as  may  be  in- 
trusted to  him  for  disbursement.  2.  Any  officer  re- 
ceiving money  remitted  to  him  upon  specific  esti- 
mates, may  disburse  it  accordingly,  without  waiting 
to  place  it  in  a  depository,  provided  the  payments 
are  due,  and  he  prefers  this  method  to  that  of  draw- 
ing checks.  Any  check  drawn  by  a  disbursing  of- 
ficer upon  moneys  thus  deposited,  must  be  in  favor 
of  the  partv,  by  name,  to  whom  the  payment  is  to 
be  made,  and  payable  to  "order"  or  "bearer",  with 
these  exceptions — 1.  To  make  p.ayments  of  individ- 
ual pensions,  checks  for  which  must  be  made  pay- 
able to  "order".  2.  To  make  payments  of  amouiiA 
not  exceeding  twenty  dollars.  "3.  To  make  pay- 
ments at  a  distance  from  a  depositary.  4.  To  make 
payments  of  fixed  salaries  due  at  a  certain  period. 
In  either  of  which  cases,  except  the  first,  any  dis- 
bursing officer  may  draw  his  check  in  favor  of  him- 
self or  bearer  for  such  amount  as  may  be  necessary 
for  such  payment,  l)ut.  in  the  last-named  case  the 
check  must  be  drawn  not  more  than  two  days  be- 
fore the  salaries  become  due. 

Whenever  a  United  States  disbursing  officer  serv- 
ing in  two  distinct  capacities,  and  having  moneys 
advanced  to  him  from  two  distinct  Bureaus,  depos- 
its his  funds  with  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States, 
an  Assistant  Treasurer,  or  United  States  Depos- 
itar_y,  separate  accounts  should  be  kept  of  such 
moneys,  and  the  balance  to  the  credit  of  each  should 
be  reported  separately  on  the  weekly  lists  of  dis- 
bursing officers'  balances.  These  instructions  are  in- 
tended to  apply  more  particularly  to  Quarter-masters 
serving  as  Commissarii's  of  SubsistencB,and  vic^  ver- 
M.     See  DhhxrsiiKi  Ojficm. 

PUBLIC  PROPERTY.— It  is  the  duty  of  all  officers 
to  guani  llic  pulilic  iiroperty  for  which  they  are  re- 
sponsible by  all  means  in  their  power.  Wlienever 
inforniiition  is  received  that  horses,  mules,  or  other 
property  belonging  to  the  United  States,  are  unlaw- 
fully in  the  possession  of  any  person  not  in  the  mili- 
tary service,  the  Quartermaster,  or  other  Sta IT  otlicer 
of  the  Department  to  which  the  Jiroperly  belongs, 
should  cause  proper  proci-edings  to  be  promptly  in- 
stituted and  diligently  prosecuted  before  the  civil 
authorities  for  the  recovery  of  the  (iroperly,  and.  if 
the  same  lias  been  stolen,  for  tlu^  arrest,  trial,  and 
conviction,  and  due  puiiishiiienl  of  the  thieves,  and 
of  all  those  who  aid  and  abet  them  by  receiving  the 
stolen  property,  or  otherwise. 


PUDDLED  STEEL. 


003 


PUGILISM. 


Upon  satisfactory  infcirinal ion  lliat  UniliMl  Stall's 
property,  in  unlawful  liands,  is  llki-ly  lo  \)C  taken 
away,  concealed,  or  otherwise  disposed  iif,  Ijcforc 
the  necessary  proccediuu^s  can  lie  iiad  in  the  civil  tri- 
bunals for  the  recovery  thereof,  the  post  or  detach- 
ment coiiinmnder  should  at  once  ord<'r  the  same  to 
be  seized,  and  hold  it  std)ject  lo  any  lei;al  proceed- 
ings that  may  he  inslituled  by  other  parties.  Per- 
sons cauiiht  in  the  act  of  stealiiii;  public  properly,  or 
of  makiiiv;  way  wilh  properly  receully  sloleii  fnini 
the  United  Slates,  an^  summarily  arresliMl  by  Ihi' 
troops,  and  turned  over  to  the  <-ivil  authorities  for 
.trial.  Quartermasters  are  authorized,  when  found 
['expedient,  after  failure  of  ordinary  means  of  recov- 
ery, to  olfer  for  recovery  of  any  lost  or  stolen  animal 
a  fewanl  of  $2!> :  and.  in  case  of  .itolcn  animals,  an 
additional  reward  of  f2.5for  each  thi<'f  arrcslcd.lrieil, 
and  convicted,  and  duly  sentenced  lo  punishmenl. 

Tlu-  clothes,  arms,  ndlilary  oullils.  and  accouter- 
ments  furnished  by  the  United  .Stales  lo  any  soldier, 
cannot  be  sold,  bartered,  e.\cliani;ed,  pled;j;ed,  lotmed, 
or  given  away;  and  no  person  not  a  soldier,  or  duly 
authorized  officer  of  the  United  Stales,  who  has 
possession  of  any  such  clothes,  arms,  military  out- 
fits, or  accouterments,  so  furnished,  and  which  have 
been  the  subjects  of  any  such  sale,  barler.  exchange, 
pledge,  loan,  or  gift,  can  have  any  right,  lille.  or  in- 
terest therein;  but  the  same  luiiy  be  seized  and  taken 
wherever  found  by  any  officer  of  flic  UniledStat<'s. civ- 
il or  military, and  should  I  hereupon  be  delivered  to  any 
Quartermaster,  or  other  officer  authorized  to  receive 
the  same.  The  possession  of  any  such  clothes,  arms, 
military  outfits,  or  accouterments  by  any  person  not 
a  soldier  or  officer  of  the  United  Stales  is  presumpt- 
ive evidence  of  such  a  sale,  barter,  exchange,  pledge, 
loan,  or  gift. 

PUDDLED  STEEL.  ~ A  variety  of  steel,  made  in  the 
puddling-furn;uc  by  a  modification  of  the  puddling 
process,  as  follows  :  Cast-iron  contains  from  three 
to  about  five  per  cent,  of  carbon  ;  ordinary  steel  con- 
tains from  three-fourths  to  one  ]ier  cent,  of  carbon  ; 
while  wrought-iron  contains  but  a  trace.  In  the 
changing  from  the  cast  to  wrought-iron  in  a  pud- 
ling-furnace,  the  pig-metal  passes  through  the  con- 
dition of  steel,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  steel  before  it  is 
wrought-iron.  Now,  making  the  puddled  steel  is 
simply  slopping  the  common  puddling  process  just 
at  the  moment  when  the  decarbonizing  mass  under 
treatment  is  in  the  state  of  steel.  Several  modifica- 
tions in  furnaces  and  processes  have  been  patented 
and  various  fluxes,  especially  manganese,  are  differ- 
ently used  by  different  mamifacturers.  See  Puddling 
and  Stivl. 

PUDDLING. — Although  the  process  of  puddling  is 
susceptible  of  considerable  modification  accordingto 
the  nature  of  the  pig-metal  employed  and  that  of  the 
iron  which  it  is  desired  to  produce,  it  may  be  gener- 
ally stated  to  include  the  following  oiKTiitious  ;  1st. 
Melting  down  of  the  charge  with  or  without  the  pre- 


vious heating.  2d.  Incorporation  of  oxidizing  fluxes 
with  the- charge  at  a  low  heat.  lid.  Elimination  of 
carbon  by  stirring  the  contents  of  the  furnace  at  a 
liigh  temperature.  Ith.  Consolichition  of  the  reduced 
iron  to  masses  or  balls  fit  for  hammering. 


The.'ommon  puildrmg-fiirnace  is  of  the  reverbera- 
tory  form,  one  iti  which  thc'  flame  is  made  to  pass 
over  a  bridge  and  then  beat  down  again, or  reverber- 
ate upon  a  hc-arth  or  surface  on  whir-li  the  matcrialH 
to  be  heated  are  placed.  It  is  shown  in  the  drawing, 
and  consists  of  an  oblong  casing  of  iron  plates  (irm- 
ly bound  together  by  iron  tii--bars.  and  lined  with 
fire-brick.  'I'hc  tirephuc,  F.  is  separated  from  the 
heart ii.  A.  by  a  ./i/v-/«-/V/i'/<'.  over  which  the  heated 
prriducls  of  combustion  with  a  surplus  of  oxygen 
phiy  upon  the  surface  of  the  molten  metal,  effecting 
its  conversion,  and  thence  pass  tlirougli  the  flue  to  a 
lofty  chimney,  C  in  which  is  suspended  a  metal 
danijicr-plate.by  which  the  draught  can  be:  regulated. 
The  firepla<-e  varies  in  depth  wilh  the  nature  of  the 
fuel  employed,  being  greatest  wilh  the  hard  kinds  of 
co;d. 

.The  fire-grate  is  made  of  plain  wrought-iron  bars. 
A  forced  draught,  produced  by  blowing  air  in  below 
the  grate  is  sometimes  used.  The  surface  of  the 
grille  slioulil  be  between  oni'-half  and  one-third  of 
tliat  of  th(^  bed  or  hearth.  The  charging  or  fire  hole 
is  about  a  loot  idiove  the  grate.  Th<'  bottom  of  the 
bed  is  formed  of  cast-iron  liearth-])lates  resting  upon 
cast-irf)n  beams.  Tlw  hearth  is  covered  wilh  cinders 
or  sand,  and  is  terminated  at  either  end  by  a  straight 
wall  or  bridge,  called  respectively  the_/i>*'-//r/'/i'e  anrl 
\\\e  Jitif-hrkh/r.  The  roof  of  the  furnace  is  curved  to 
a  flat  arch,  and  is  generally  made  to  slope  at  a  small 
angle  towards  the  flue,  which  slopes  towards  the 
stack.  The  sectional  area  of  the  flue  varies  with  the 
nature  of  the  fuel,  being  larger  for  soft  coal.  The 
main  working-door  is  maiie  of  brick  set  in  a  cast- 
iron  frame  ;  it  may  be  rea<lily  lifted  and  lowered  by 
means  of  a  lever.  It  is  only  opened  during  the  in- 
troduction of  the  charge  and  the  removal  of  the 
puddled  balls.  The  sill  of  lh<-  door  is  about  a  foot 
above  the  level  of  the  bed.  There  is  sometimes  a 
second  working-door  near  the  fi;ie  for  introducing 
the  cast-iron,  so  that  it  may  soften  slowly  till  it  be 
ready  for  drawing  towards  the  bridge.  A  small 
rectangular  or  arched  n<itcli.  called  the  stopper-hole, 
is  cut  out  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  door  for  the  in- 
troduction of  the  tool  used  in  stirring  the  metal,  and 
through  which  the  workman  can  observe  the  slate 
of  the"  furnace.  It  may  be  closed  »ir-tight.  The 
tap-hole,  through  which  the  .slag,  or  tap-cinder,  is 
withdrawn  from  the  hearth,  is  placed  below  the 
door-sill.  It  is  plugged  up  with  sand.  A  portion 
of  the  cinder  also  overflows  the  flue-bridge,  and  runs 
down  the  inclined  surface  of  the  flue  to  the  bottom 
of  the  stack,  h. 

When  charging  the  furnace,  pieces  of  metal  are 
successively  introduced  wilh  a  long  shovel,  and  laid 
one  over  another  on  the  sides  of  the  hearth  in  the 
fomi  of  piles  rising  to  the  roof,  the  middle  being  left 
open  for  puddling  the  metal  as  it  is  successively 
fused.  The  piles  are  kept  separate,  to  give  free  cir- 
culation of  air  round  the  metal.  The  working-door 
of  the  furnace  is  now  closed,  fuel  is  laid  on  the 
grate,  and  the  mouth  of  the  fireplace  is  filled  up 
with  coal;  at  the  same  lime  the  damper  is  en- 
tirely opened.  In  pu<idliug  refined  metal,  or  in 
dry  puddling,  the  furnace  is  charged  with  met- 
al alone;  but  in  juuldling  gray  metal— that  is, 
in  wet  puddling,  or  boiling,  as  it  is  termed — 
forge-cindfr  is  charged  along  wilh  the  metal. 
and  the  temperature  rises   much   higher.     See 

PUGILISM.— The  art  of  defending  one's  self 
or  attacking  others  wilh  the  weapons  which 
nature  has  bestowed — viz..  the  fists  and  arms. 
The  origin  of  boxing,  or  the  use  of  the  fists, 
is  likely  as  old  as  man  himself.  We  find  nu- 
merous allusions  lo  it  in  the  classic  authors. 
Pollux,  the  twin-lirotlier  of  Castor,  in  the  heathen 
mvtliolosy.  was  reckoned  the  first  who  obtained 
very  arreiit  distinction  by  the  use  of  his  fists, 
coniiuerins:  all  who  opposed  him.  and  obtaining, 
with  Hercules,  a  place  among  the  gods  for  his  spai- 


PULFORD  MAGNETIC  PAIMT. 


fi04 


PULLEY. 


ring  talents.  The  ancients  were  not,  hoTvever.  satis- 
fied with  the  use  of  the  weapons  of  nature,  but  in- 
creased their  power  bj-  the  addition  of  the  cestus, 
Witli  the  ancients,  pugilism  was  considered  an  es- 
sential part  in  the  education  of  youth,  and  formed 
part  of  the  course  of  training  practiced  in  their  g_ym- 
nasia:  it  was  valued  as  a  means  of  strengthening  the 
body  and  banishing  fear:  but  it  was  practiced  in 
public  rather  with  a  view  to  the  exhiliitiou  of  the 
power  of  endurance  than  for  mere  skillful  self-de- 
fense. The  earliest  account  we  have  of  systematic 
boxing  is  in  1740, when  public  exliibitions  of  Profes- 
sors of  the  Art  attracted  general  attention.  Up  to 
this  period,  the  science  of  self-defense  had  made  but 
little  progress,  and  strength  and  endurance  cousti- 
ti'ted  the  onh'  recommendations  of  the  prai-titioners 
at  Smithfield,  Moorfield,  and  Southwark  fair,  which 
had  long  had  booths  and  rings  for  the  display  of 
boxing.  Broughton,  who  occupied  the  position  of 
"  Champion  of  England  ".  built  a  theater  in  Hau- 
way  street,  Oxford  street,  in  1740,  for  the  display  of 
boxing :  advertisements  were  issued  announcing  a 
succession  of  battles  between  tirst-rate  pugilists,  who 
never  quitted  the  stage  till  one  or  other  was  defeated, 
the  reward  of  each  man  being  dependent  iipon,  and 
proportioned  to,  tlie  receipts.  Broughton  was  for  18 
years  Champion  of  England, and  with  him  commences 
the  first  scientific  era  of  pugilism.  He  propounded 
some  rules  for  the  regulation  of  the  ring,  and  these 
remained  in  authority  till  1838,  when  they  were 
materially  altered.  To  Broughton  also  is  due  the 
introduction  of  gloves  for  "sparring-matches." 
where  lessons  could  be  taken  without  injur}-.  The 
greatest  Professor  of  the  Art  was  Jackson,  who  was 
Champion  in  179.5.  He  was  not  only  the  most  scien- 
tific boxer  of  his  day,  but  he  gave  his  art  such  a 
prestige  and  popularit)'  that  half  the  men  of  rank  , 
and  fashion  of  the  period  were  proud  to  call  them-  j 
selves  his  pupils.  He  opened  rooms  for  tlie  prac-  | 
tice  of  boxing  in  Bond  street,  and  for  years  these 
were  crowded  by  men  of  note.  His  "  principles  of 
pugilism"  were,  that  contempt  of  danger  and  confi- 
dence in  one's  self  were  the  first  and  best  quiilities  of 
a  pugilist;  that  in  hitting,  you  must  judge  well  your 
distances,  for  a  blow  delivered  at  all  out  of  range, 
was  like  a  spent  shot,  and  valueless;  that  men  should 


Fig.  1. 


fight  on  most  occasions  with  their  legs,  using  all 
possible  agility,  as  well  as  with  their  hands-  and 
that  all  stilTness  of  style  and  position  was  radically 
wron".  Jackson  is  still  regarded  by  many  as  the 
best  theorist  on  the  "Noble  Art,"  and  since  his  time. 


it  has  received  no  essential  improvement.  Sha-w, 
the  Life-guardsman,  who  immortalized  himself  at 
Waterloo,  was  a  pupil  of  his,  and  ''  orowess  which 
he  so  brilliantly  displayed  c  '  >.  .^casion,  was  ow- 
ing as  much  to  his  scien*'.-„  training  as  to  his  great 
strength.  At  this  period,  pugilism  was  actively  sup- 
ported by  many  persons  of  high  rank — the  Dukes  of 
York  and  Clarence,  the  Earls  of  Albemarle,  Sefton, 
etc..  Lords  Byron,  Craven,  Pomfret.  The  art  of 
boxing,  a.-  an  active  and  healthy  exercise,  is  likely 
to  be  maintamed;  and  the  display  of  science  between 
two  accomplished  boxers  is  very  interesting,  while 
it  is  deprived  of  all  the  horrors  of  the  prize-ring;  the 
rapidity  of  tlie  blows,  the  facility  w-:th  w-hicli  they 
are  mostly  guarded  or  avoided  by  moving  the  head 
and  arms:  die  trial  of  skill  and  maneuver  to  g:dn  a 
trilling  advantage  in  position,  all  give  a  wonderful 
interest  to  the  spectator,  who  can  watch  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  art  devoid  of  the  brutalities  of  the  ring. 
The  pugilists  of  the  present  day  are  mostly  publicans; 
their  friends  and  the  patrons  of  the  "  fancy  "  meet 
at  their  houses  for  convivial  evenings,  sparring 
matches,  ratting,  and  the  like.  It  has  con.stantly 
l)eeu  urged  in  defense  of  pugilism  that,  were  it  abol- 
ished, the  use  of  the  knife  would  increase  and  Eng- 
lishnien  would  lose  their  present  manly  system  of 
self-defense.  This  may  be  true,  if  the  use  of  the  fist 
in  self-defense  depended  on  the  mercenary  exhibition 
of  pugilistic  encounters,  w-hich,  however,  is  mere  as- 
sumption. 

PULFORD  MAGNETIC  PAINT.— A  paint  now  uni- 
versally used  instead  of  anti-cfirrosion  paint  for  lac- 
quering iron  ordnance  aud  projectiles.  It  is  an  o.x- 
ide  of  iron.  This  paint  is  called  ' '  magnetic  "  from  the 
property  of  being  attracted  by  a  magnet. 

PULK.  A  term  chiefiy  used  in  Russia  to  denote  a 
tribe  or  a  particular  body  of  men;  as.  a  pulk  of  Cos- 
sacks. 

PULLEY. — One  of  the  mechanical  powers,  consist- 
ing usuallj- of  a  wheel  with  a  groove  cut  all  round 
its  circumference,  and  movable  on  an  axis :  the 
wheel,  which  is  commonly  called  a  s/ieave,  is 
often  placed  inside  a  hollow  oblong  mass  of  wood 
called  a  //lock,  aud  to  the  sides  of  this  block  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  sheave's  axle  are  fixed  for  support ; 
the  cord  which  passes  over  the  circumference  of  the 
sheave  is  called  the  triekk.  Pulle3-3 
may  be  used  either  singly  or  in  com- 
bination;  in  the  former  case,  they 
are  either  fixed  or  movable.  The 
.fixed  jmlley  gives  no  mechanical  ad- 
vantage ;  it  merely  changes  the  di- 
rection in  which  a  force  would  na- 
turally be  applied  to  one  more  con- 
venient. The  .single  moradle  pvlley, 
with  parallel  cords,  gives  a  mechani- 
cal advantage  =  2,  for  a  little  con- 
sideration will  show  that  as  the 
w-eight,  W,  is  supported  by  the  two 
strings,  the  strain  on  each  string  is 
AW,  and  the  strain  on  the  one  being 
supported  by  the  hook,  the  power, 
P,  requires  merely  to  support  the 
strain  on  tin-  other  string.  The  fixed 
jjulley,  is  only  of  service  in  clianging 
the  naturally  upward  direction  of 
the  power  into  a  downw-ard  one. 
If  the  strings  in  tlie  single  movable 
pulley  are  not  parallel,  there  is  a 
diminution  of  mechanical  advantage 
— /.  ('.,  P  must  he  more  than  half  of 
Wto  produce  onexiict  counter|)oise  ; 
if  tlie  auirle  made  liy  the  strings  is 
120'\  P  must  lie  e(|ual  to  W;  and  if 
the  angle  be  greater  than  this,  there 
is  a  great  inecliaiiic:il  disadvantage,  or  P  must  be 
greater  than  W.  The  following  are  examples  of  dif- 
ferent combinations  of  ])ulleys.  nciicmlly  known  as 
the  tirst,  second,  and  third  systems  of  pulleys.  In 
the  first  system,  one  end  of  each  cord  is  fastened 


22                                                                                 13  14 

Pru.EY.  etc.     1.  Steam  winch.     2.  Coinpouud  pulleys.      3,12.  Movable  cranes.     4.  Joints  crane.  5.  Hydi 

toot IhmI  jack.    11.  Jack-screw.    12,  Movable  double  compound  crane.    13.  Compound  pulley.  14.  FulU 
XII-270. 


:k.     6.  Winch.     7.  Stationary  steam-crane.     8.  Transportable  steam-crane.    9.  Sea-crane.    10.  Cog- 
iudlass.    15.  Platform  crane.    16.  Friction  windlans. 


PULLEY. 


no5 


PULLET. 


tea  lixcil  support  iibovc  ;  cacli  conl  iIcsccikIh.  piiHScn 
round  a  pulley  do  the  lowest  of  which  Ihcweit'lit  W 
is  fiisteuech,  iilid  is  fiisleiied  to  the  block  of  the  next 
Jjldley,  with  the  exception  of  the  lust  cord,  which 
jKisses  round  ii  tixcd  pulley  uhove.  and  is  attachid  to 
the  counterpoise,  J'.  The  tension  of  a  strini;  beini; 
the  same  in  all  its  parts,  the  tension  of  every  part  of 
the  slrinij;,  over  two  pulleys,  is  that  which  is  produc- 
ed l)y  the  weight  of  1',  conse(|ueMtly,  as  the  last  niov- 
al)le  ipulley  is  supported  on  both  sides  by  a  string 
havini;  a  tension  I',  the  tension  applied  in  its  sup- 
port is  21'.  'I'he  tension  of  the  sirin;;  is  therefore  21', 
anil  the  second  nioval)le  pulley  is  su^iportcd  by  a 
force  ecpml  to  41'.  It  inaj'  similarly  be  shown  tliat 
tlic  force  applied  by  the  strinifs  in  support  of  tlie 
last  or  fourth  pulley  ( wiiicli  is  attached  to  \Vj  is  HP. 
Hence  we  see,  that  according  to  this  arrangetnent,  1 
lb.  can  support  41bs.,  if  two  movable  pulleys  are 
\ised  ;  Hlbs.,  if  there  are  ;i  movable  jiulleys  ;  Ki  lbs., 
if  there  are  4  moval)le  ])ulleys  ;  and  if  there  are  « 
movable  pulleys,  llli  can  support  2"  lbs.  It  must  be 
noticed,  however,  that  in  practice,  the  weight  of  the 
fords,  mid  cifihe  i)ullevs,and  the  friction  of  thecnrd 
on  the  pulleys,  nuist  be  allowed  for;  and  the  fact 
that  in  this  system  all  of  these  resist  the  action  of 
the  power  P,  and  that  to  a  large  extent,  has  render- 
ed it  of  little  use  in  ])ractice. — The  second  system  Ls 
much  inferior  in  jiroducing  a  mechanical  ailvantage, 
but  it  is  found  to  be  mm  h  more  convenient  in  gener- 
al practice,  and  is  conveniently  modified  acccjrding 
to  the  i)urpose  for  which  it  is  intended  to  l)e  used.  In 
this  system,  one  string  passes  romid  all  the  p\Uleys. 
and  as  the  tension  in  every  part  of  it  is  that  produced 
by  the  weight  of  P,  the  whole  force  applied  to  ele- 
vate the  lower  l)lock  with  its  attached  weight,  \V.  is 
Ihe  weight  I'  multiplied  l)y  tln^  luiniber  of  strings 
attached  to  the  lower  block;  the  ])ullevs  in  the  up- 
per block  being  only  of  use  in  changing  the  direction 
of  the  pulling  force.  This  system  is  tlie  one  in  com- 
mon use  in  mechanical  numeiivcrs  in  dockyards  and 
on  board  ship,  and  various  modifications  of  it— such 
as  White's  pulley.  Smeaton's  pulley,  etc.,  have  been 
iutroducBd  ;  but  the  simpler  forms  have  been  found 
to  answer  best. — Tlie  third  system  is  merely  the  tirst 
Rystein  inverted,  and  it  is  a  litth'  more  powerful,  be- 
sides having  tlie  weight  of  the  pulleys  to  support  the 


in  one  combination,  Ihe  greater  )«  the  meclianical 
advantage  allordr'd  :  liut  Ihe  enormoiiH  friction  pro- 
duced, and  tlie  want  of  pirfect  flexibility  in  llic 
ropes,  pri-vint  any  great  inrrease  in  the  nunilier  of 
pulleys.  In  Fig.  1,  we  illustrate  Ihe  pulleys  coun- 
terpoised,  and  the  manner  of  emplriying  them  in  the 
mechanical  muneuvcTS.  1.  Fixed  pulley,  power  and 
weight  equal.  2.  One  fixed  and  one  movabli-  pul- 
ley, jiower  and  weight  ,1:2.  .3.  One  fixed  and  two 
movabli-  pulleys,  power  and  weight,  I  :  2  and  1  :  4. 
4.  One  fixed  block  of  three  pulleyH  of  dilTerent  sizes, 
and  one  movul)le  pulley  of  same  cliaraiter,  power 
and  weight,  I  :  (!.  r>.  ()nefixeil  block  with  four  pul- 
leys of  same  size,  and  one  movable  of  .same  kind, 
power  and  weight,  1:8.  0.  Wheel  and  axle,  three 
radii  in  iiroportion  of  1.  2,  and  4.  7.  Capstan,  cord 
utiached  to  first  system  of  pulleys. 

Pulleys  without  blocks  or  carriers  are  projierly 
k/wjivi'h  or  j)iillij/-<r/ifilH^  which  are  mounterl  in  va- 
rious wjiys,  according  to  Ihe  purpose  for  wliicli 
they  are  designed.  The  simplest  form  is  that  of  a 
wheel  with  a  nearly  Mat  face,  over  which  a  band 
passes.  This  is  tlu'  common  niacliine-piilley  used 
on  shafting,  which  is  ordinarily  supported  by  hang- 
ers from  the  ceiling  of  the  shop.  Couplings  and 
hangers  are  carefully  arranged  in  all  arsenals  and 
armories.    Pulleys  so  mounted  are  ;  Fnxt,  being  firm- 


Fig.  a. 

ly  attached  to  their  shaft,  from  which  they  receive, 
or  to  which  they  communicate,  motion  :  fj"<)xf,  run- 
ning free  on  the  shaft,  to  receive  the  belt  and  allow 
it  still  to  traverse   without  being  affected  bv,  or 


power,  instead  of  acting  in  opposition  to  it,  as  in  the 
former  case.  By  this  time,  it  will  h;ive  been  evident 
to  the  reader  tli;it  the  niecb:inical  advantaije  is  not 
produei'd  by  tlie  [uilleys,  but  by  the  strinirsi  and  that 
the  pulleys  are  merely  useful  in  keeping  the  strinirs 
in  a  certain  iiosition,  changing  with  as  little  fri<'tio!i 
as  possible  the  direction  of  the  imll,  iind  alfordins  ;i 
convenient  means  of  attaching  the  weiirht.  Theor- 
etically, the  larger  the  number  of  movable  pulleys 


affecting  the  motion  of.  the  shafting :  Spred.  having 
a  number  of  faces  or  grooves  of  different  diameter, 
so  as  to  communicate  varying  speeds  with  a  given 
rate  of  motion  of  the  belt  or  cord.  This  is  common 
in  lathes  and  analogous  machines,  and  i.s  sometimes 
called  a  m/zf-pu'lev.  Fi:r.  2  shows  iin  improvini 
loose  pulley,  at  present  used  on  most  machines,  with 
Ihe  advantaire  of  savins:  Ihe  wear  of  pulley,  shaft, 
and  belt.    The  loose  i)ulley  is  one  inch  less  iliameler 


PULLING  JACK. 


GOG 


PULSOMETEE. 


than  the  tight  pulley,  andthus  relieves  the  tight  ten- 
sion of  belt  when  running  idle.  A  bevel  tlange 
connects  the  pulley  faces,  and  the  belt  ships  with 
perfect  ease.  In  Fig.  3  is  shown  what  is  known  as 
the  mule  pulley,  a  most  useful  combination  for  the 
general  work  of  the  arsenal.  Lines  of  shafting  in 
the  same  plane,  but  at  an  angle,  one  to  the  other,  to 
run  quickly  and  noiselessly,  should  be  driven  by  a 
belt  running  over  mule  pulleys,  on  a  shaft  stepped 
and  stayed  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  If  the  mule  pulleys 
are  not  too  small,  and  if  they  liave  long  hubs,  they 
will  run  with  little  friction  and  wear.  For  the  sake 
of  an  adjustment  wliich  is  required  only  in  special 
cases,  mule  pulleys  are  commonly  placed  on  ex- 
pensive arrangements  of  castings,  which,  through 
not  permitting  the  use  of  pulleys  sufficiently  large, 
and  through  not  being  properly  stayed,  cause  much 
trouble  and  loss  of  power.  These  disadvantages  are 
obviated  by  the  arrangement  sho'ivn  in  the  drawing. 
The  following  table  gives  the  weight,  principal  di- 
mensions, etc.,  of  pulley-blocks,  complete,  as  used 
in  the  more  common  mechanical  maneuvers.  See 
Blocks.  Mechanical  Maneuvers,  Rii-pe,  and  Tackles. 


PVLL-OFF.— In  musketry,  the  test  applied  to  the 
trigger  of  all  small-arms.  The  te.st  is  regulated  so  as 
to  require  a  mean  weight  of  about  7  lbs.  to  be  ap- 
plied to  the  tinger-piece  of  the  trigger,  in  order  to 
release  the  sear-nose  from  the  top-bent;  this  result  is 
obtained  only  when  the  lock  and  trigger  are  perfect- 
ly clean  and  free  from  dried-up  oil,"  or  other  matter 
causing  obstruction  to  the  free  working  of  the  vari- 
ous parts.  As  a  rule,  the  pull-off  of  the  small-arms 
in  use  will  be  found  to  be  influenced  mainly  by  the 
condition  of  cleanliness  of  the  lock  and'  trigger. 
Should  the  lock,  after  having  been  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  oiled,  be  found  to  pull-off  either  light  or 
heavy,  i.e.  below  6  lbs.  or  above  8  lbs.,  it  may  easily 
be  regulated  by  squaring  the  sear-nose  and  top-bent 
in  the  tumb'er,  care  being  taken  to  preserve  the  same 
ansrlcs. 

iPULSOMETEE  —A  steam  pump  of  considerable  mil- 
itary' importance,  which  requires  but  little  steam  for 
its  operation.  When  the  water  has  been  displaced 
by  the  steam  which  follows  the  water  through  the 
opening  to  the  discharge  chamber,  it  will  suddenly 
condense  by   passing  under  the   water,  and  the  va- 


Kind  of  blocks. 


1  sheave. 


Weight   of  block,  complete, 

pounds 35 

Total  length  of   block  over 

all.  inches SS..") 

Total   width   of  block   over 

all,  inches 

Total   deptli   of  block   over 

all,  inches 

Greatest  diameter  of  sheaves, 

inches 

Largest     rope     used     with 

block,  inches i  4.75 


30 
19.5 

7.5 

8.5 

6.375 

3.25 


3  sheaves. 


19.5 
7.5 
5.25 
G.375 
3.25 


80 
2g.5 


7.25 
4.75 


3  sheaves. 


100 
25.5 
8 
9 

7.25 
4.75 


134 
26 

9 
10.5 

7 

6.25 


191 
33 
10 
11 

9 

G.25 


201 
31.5 
12 
11.5 
10 
6.25 


4  sheaves. 


120 

25.5 
8 

11 

7.35 
4.75 


165 
26 

9 
13 

7 

6.25 


226 
32 
10 
13.75 

9 

6>35 


270 
31.5 
13 
14 
10 
625 


PULLING-JACK.— A  variety  of.  jack  much  employ- 
ed for  artillery  purposes.  To  nse  it,  screw  one  end 
to  some  fixed  object  (that  end  nearer  the  pump  is 
preferable);  unscrew  the  valve  in  the  pump  by  two 
or  three  turns  with  the  key,  and  stretch  the"  jack 
apart;  attach  the  free  end  of  it  to  the  object  to  be 
moved;  shut  the  valve  by  screwing  Ijack  the  two  or 
three  turns  that  were  unscrewed;  attach  the  long  le- 
ver and  pump  away  at  it  until  the  object  is  moved  as 
desired.  When  there  is  not  room  for  the  long  lever, 
tlie  pump  can  be  worked  by  the  short  lever.  If  the 
jack  does  not  start  at,  once,  slack  the  screw  in  the 
cylinder  close  to  the  pump  (which  the  same  key  fits) 
until  a  drop  or  two  of  the  fiiud  comes  out ;  as  soon 
as  this  occurs,  turn  the  .screw  immediately  back.  If 
the  piston  or  ram  will  not  run  out  to  its  entire  length 
or  stroke,  place  the  jack  in  a  horizontal  position, 
take  out  the  screw  at  each  end  of  the  cylinder,  and 
till  through  both  holes  witli  the  usual  liquid. 

The  pulling-jack  can  be  used  to  pull  or  lift  at  any 
angle  l)etween  the  horizontal  and  the  iicrpendicidar, 
but  the  direction  of  its  force  must  be  in  a  straight 
line,  and  the  force  punii)  always  at  the  lower  end 
when  the  jack  is  used  in  any  other  way  than  hori- 
zontally. When  the  pulling-jack  is  in  lise,  the  lever 
joints  must  be  well  oiled  and  kept  free  from  dirt; 
when  not  in  use,  the  piston-rod  must  be  kept  in;  anci 
when  hung  up,  th<-  end  where  the  pump  is  nmsi  al- 
ways be  downward. 

No  greater  force  than  that  of  one  man  (provided  \ 
lie  applies  a  power  of  al)oul  1.50  pounds)  need  ever 
l)e  applied  to  the  lever  of  either  the  lifting  or  the 
pulling-jack,  since  that  force  is  amply  sulliclent  to 
work  the  jack  to  its  full  ca[)acity.  See  Uiiilraiilic 
Jack. 


cuum  thereby  formed  will  cause  the  steam  ball  to 
change,  shut  off  the  steam,  and  transmit  the  pres- 
sure to  the  opposite  cylinder,  and  at  the  same  time 
induce  the  water  to  fill  the  chamber  in  place  of  the 
condensed  steam.  Thus  will  they  alternate..keep- 
iiig  up  very  nearly  a  continuous  stream,  as  long  as 
there  is  steam  supplied  and  water  to  be  pimiped. 

The  machine,  a  section  of  which  is  shown  in  the 
drawing,  consists  principally  of  two  bottle-shaped 
chambers.  A,  A,  joined  together  side  hy  side,  with 
tapering  necks  bent  towards  each  other,  to  which  is 
attached,  by  means  of  a  flange-joint,  B,  a  contin- 
uou  passage  from  each  cjlinder  leading  to  one  com- 
mon upright  passage,  into  which  a  small  ball,  C,  is 
fitted  so  as  to  oscitlate  with  a  slight  rolling  motion 
between  seats  formed  in  the  junction.  These  cham- 
bers also  connect  by  means  of  openings  with  the 
vertical  induction  passage,  D,  which  openings  are  so 
formed  that  the  valves,  E,  E,  consisting  of  pure  vul- 
canized rubber,  and  their  seats,  F,  "&.  constructed 
so  as  to  sustain  the  valves,  maj'  be  easily  inserted. 
The  delivery  passage,  II,  which  is  common  to  both 
chambers,  is  also  constructed  so  that  in  the  openings 
that  connnunicate  with  each  cylinder  are  placed 
valve-seats,  G,  G,  fitted  for  the  reception  of  the  same 
style  of  valves  as  in  the  induction  passage.  I,  I,  are 
valve-guards  to  prevent  the  valves  from  opening  too 
far,  I'o  facililiUc  the  re;uly  removal  of  the  valves 
and  valve-seats,  it  will  be  observed  the  flanges  that 
cover  the  openings  are  slotted  to  receive  the  bolts, 
the  inits  of  which  being  loosened  they  are  readily 
removed  and  the  covers  displaced.  J,  represents  the 
vacuum  chamber,  cast  with  and  between  the  necks 
of  chambers  A,  A,  and  connects  only  with  the  induc- 
tion passage  below  the  valves  E,  E.  K,  K,  are  llanges 


PULSOMETER. 


607 


FUL801I£TEB. 


(■(ivcrinir  (lie  openings  to  llic  respective  elianiliers, 
wliicli  niiiy  lie  rcinoveil  fur  llie  repair  iir  renewal  of 
valves  and  seats,  when  necessary.  V<'nt  plu^s  are 
inserted  into  these  flanges,  for  llie  purpose  of  draw- 
ing oir  the  water  lo])revenl  freezing.  L,  L,  ar<!  rods 
extending  from  tiic  valve-guiirils  to  tlic  set-screws 
M,  M,  li#  which  the  siielion  seals,  valves  and  guards 
are  lightly  pressed  loplace.  N,  N,  are  hrass  s<icket- 
lieailiMl  holts  by  whi(-'li  the  disehargi'  seats,  valves 
and  guards aredrawii  down  to  place.  A  small  hrass 
air  check-valve  is  screweil  into  Ihe  neck  of  each 
chamher,  A.  A.   ami   one  irilo  the  vacuum  elunuher 


J,  so  that  their  stems  hang  downwarc 
valve  in  the  neck  of  each  chamber, 
small  quantity  of  air  to  cnler  above 
prevent  the  steam  from  agitating  it 
trance,  and  thus  forms  an  air  piston 
condensation.  The  check-valve  in  the 
ber,  J,  serves  to  cushion  the  ramniin 
water  consequent  upon  the  tilling  of 
alternately. 

The   pulsometer. when  titled  with  a 
ber  ball  valve,  seat,  and  guard,  is  espi 


I.  The  clieck- 
A,  A.  adows  a 
the  water,  to 
on  its  first  en- 
for  preventing 
vaiuumcham- 
g  action  of  the 
each  chamber 

very  hard  rub- 
■ciaily  adajited 


l>ulsomeli-r,  D-inch  sut'tion  CIO  feel;,  and  ;t-inili  din- 
charge  will  readily  raise  water  ■'iO  feel  out  of  a  well. 
A  braii<;h  from  the  discharge  pipe  leads  into  a  hogs- 
head  or  tank,  ami  supplies  water  to  charge  the  pump 
before  turning  on  steam  to'slartil.  and  for  furnishing 
walc-r  to  the  inji'clor  for  feeding  the  boiler.  The 
leading  of  a  i)ipe  from  a  reservoir  or  water  pipe  to 
the  middle  chandiir  of  the  pump  for  charging  will 
be  fouml  very  convenient  in  other  situations,  espec- 
ially whi-re  tiu'  |)unip  is  lial)le  to  loose  its  charge 
from  sediment  getting  under  the  valves.  The  chief 
point  to  l>e  observed  in  working  the  iiulsorneter  on 
arlesian  wells  is  to  select  a  size  pump  that  the  well 
will  supply  with  water.  If  not  a  flowing  well,  a 
))ump  of  smaller  suction  than  the  [>]]»■  in  the  well 
should  be  applied  Oiw  raising  300  gallons  per  uun- 
ute   will   fail  to  work  on  a  well  giving  but  100   gal- 


lons. A  Ko.  5  (175  gallons  per  minute)  usually  re- 
([uires  a  chain  of  at  least  five  two-inch  pipes,  con- 
nected with  a  three  or  four  inch  nuiin  to  supply  it  with 
water.  In  cases  where  Ihe  water  does  not  raise  to 
within  ten  feet  of  the  surface,  it  will  be  found  ad- 
vantageous to  lower  the  pump  a  litth'  in  order  to  ob- 
tain tiie  water  freely.  If  the  pump  is  found  to  be 
large  at  times,  the  "remedy  may  be  had  by  making  a 
connection  from  the  discharge  pipe  back  into  the 
pump  and  regulated  by  a  globe  valve  as  shown  in  tlie 
above  drawing. 

The  remaining  applications  of  the  pidsometer  are 
numerous:  1.  For  policing  ])urposes  an<i  as  a  lire  ex- 


to  cofTer-dani  work,  sinking  wells,  sewers,  excava-   tinguisher,  it  has  no  ecpial.      The  absence  of  all  ma- 


tious.  foundations,  etc.,  where  all  the  water 
pmnped  contains  more  or  less   sand,  gravel. 


to  be 
mud , 
and  "other  sediment  that  would  clog  tlic  grid   valve 
seat  and  disc  valve  usually  used  in  tin-   pumps.       .\ 


chinery,  its  simple  arrangement  of  valves,  the  easy 
manner  in  which  they  can  be  replaced  without  skill- 
ed labor,  their  inability  to  clog  from  sediment,  and 
the   certaintv  in  which  il    can   be   started  marks  a 


PULTUH. 


608 


PUMPING  ENGINE. 


strong  contrast  to  the  ordinary  donkey  pump.  2. 
As  a  pumping  engine  in  garriscjns,  to  be  on  lianii  at 
short  notice  for  pumping  out  flooded  casemates,  cel- 
lars, excavations,  wells,  and  other  inundated  places. 
The  pump  can  be  detached  from  the  carriage  and 
lowered  to  places  too  low  down  /or  suction  from  the 
engine,  steam  being  carried  to  it  from  the  boiler 
through  tlexible  steam-hose.  3.  As  a  mine  pinup, 
there  being  no  exhaust  steam  to  dispose  of.  It  is  es- 
pecially adapted  for  lifting  water  from  one  level  to 
another.  For  use  underground  in  mines,  colleries, 
etc.,  where  lifts  do  not  exceed  60  to  90  feet,  its  use 
has  been  fully  proved.  For  a  greater  height  one 
can  be  used  above  another.  4.  For  tilling  water 
tanks  in  foundries,  etc.,  it  is  very  handy,  and  may  be 
so  located  as  to  till  the  tanks  directly  from  a  contigu- 
ous pond,  stream,  or  well,  by  using  the  steam  from 
the  working  engines.  B\-  having  a  flexible  steam 
connection  readj'for  instant  application,  it  would  do 
away  with  the  necessity  of  water  tanks,  separate 
boiler,  and  the  expenses  of  a  special  engineer.  5.  As 
an  irrigating  pump  for  post  and  company  gardens, 
its  simplicity,  strength,  durability  efficiency  and  econ- 
omj-  are  all  in  its  favor.  G.  For  tilling  tanks  on 
buildings,  for  use  with  elevators,  or  in  case  of  fire. 
The  pipe  leading  down  from  upper  tank  has  hose 
connections  on  each  floor,  from  which  a  hose  should 
be  connected  and  ready  to  run  out  to  extinguish  a 
fire  within  a  few  seconds  from  time  of  discovery,  and 
long  before  an  alarm  could  be  made  to  the  depart- 
ment. Hose  connections  are  also  made  from  dis- 
charge pipe  of  pump  on  the  upper  floors. 


cai  composition,  it  agrees  with  obsidian,  of  which  it 
may  be  regarded  as  a  ])eculiar  form,  rapidly  cooled 
from  a  melted  and  boiling  state.  It  is  of  a  white  or 
gray  color,  more  rarely  yellow,  brown,  or  black  ; 
but  so  vesicular,  that  in  mass  it  is  lighter  than  wa- 
ter, and  swims  in  it.  The  vesicles,  or  cells,  are  often 
of  a  much  elongated  shape.  Pumice  often  exhibits 
more  or  less  of  a  filamentous  structure,  and  it  is  said 
to  be  most  filamentous  when  silica  is  most  abundant 
in  its  composition.  It  is  very  hard  and  very  brittle. 
It  is  much  used  in  arsenals  for  polishing  wood,  me- 
tals, lithographic  stones,  etc.,  and  in  the'preparation 
of  vellum,  parchment,  and  some  kinds  of  leather. 

PUMMEL.— The  hilt  of  a  .sword,  the  end  of  a  gun, 
etc. 

PUMPING-ENGINE.— An  engine  especially  de- 
signed for  pumping,  and  much  used  for  military  pur- 
poses. A  pump  may  he  driven  by  an  ordinary 
steam-engine  which  also  drives  other  machinery,  but 
in  the  pumping-engine  the  pump  and  steam-engine 
are  inseparably  connected,  and  are  confined  to  the 
act  of  pumping.  There  are  a  good  many  smaD  ma- 
chines of  this  kind  which  only  pump,  but  they  are 
not  commonly  called  pumping-engines,  that  term  be- 
ing applied  only  to  large  works.  The  first  steam- 
engines  were  pumping-engines  ;  that  of  Newcomen, 
which  was  driven  by  atmospheric  pressure  (steam 
being  used  only  to  create  a  vacuum),  and  Watt's, 
and  the  Cornish  engine,  which  used  steam  as  the 
motive  power.  There  has  been  much  improvement 
in  the  duty  of  piuuping-engines  since  the  Newcomen 
engine.    Estimating  the  work  done  by  the  number 


^^ 


PULTUN.— An  Indian  term  for  a  regiment  f)f  iiifan-    of  poimds  raised  one  foot  by  a  bushel  of  Welsh  coal 


try 

PULVERMASSEN.— The  German  name  for  a  kind 
of  h.iMrick  with  wooden  powder-tubes. 

PUMICE.  .V  mineral  found  in  volcanic  CdUiitries 
gem  rally  with  obsidian  and  porphyries.     In  chemi- 


('.14  lbs.),  the  following  notes  show  the  improvenu'nt 
which  has  been  made:  Newcomen  engine  (1760 ),,'>, ."iOO 
(KIO;  the  same  improved  by  Smeaton  (1772),9,.'")00,- 
000.  Watt's  engine  {1778  to  IHl.")),  20.000,000.  Cor 
uish  engine  (1820),  28,000,000;    the  same  '1820),  30,- 


PUMPING-ENOINK. 


609 


PUMPING  ENGIME. 


THE    LEAM:TT    PrMPING-EXGI>rE 

UriLT    BY 

I.  P.    MORRIS  &  CO., 
POET  RICHMOND   IKON   WOKKS,    PHILADELPHIA. 


PUNCHING. 


610 


PUNCHING. 


000.000;  same C182S),  .37,000,000;  same  (1829),  41,000.- 
000;  same  (1839),  54.000,000;  same  (18.50),  60,000,000. 
Consolidated  mines,  highest  duty  (182T),  67,000,000. 
Fo%yey  consols,  Cornwall,  hisrliest  duty  (1834),  97,- 
000,000.  United  mines,  highest  duty  (1842).  108,- 
000,000.  Among  the  largest  pumpiug-engines  in  the 
world  are  tlie  three  wliicll  were  employed  in  the 
drainage  of  Haarlem  Lake  inHolland.  Each  engine 
worked  several  pumps,  and  had  an  average  duty  of 
75,000.000  lbs.,  raised  one  foot  by  94  lbs.  of  Welsh 
coal.  One  of  these  engines  is  described  as  follows  : 
two  steam  cylinders  are  placed  concentrically,  the 
diameters  being  144J  and  84t  inches.  They  are 
united  at  the  boUom.  jjut  there  is  a  space  of  nearly  \h 
in.  between  the  inner  cylinder  and  the  top.  The 
areas  of  the  pistons  are  as  1  to  2.8.5,  and  are  con- 
nected to  a  common  cross-head  or  cap  by  one  prin- 
cipal and  four  small  piston-rods.  This  engine  works 
11  pumps,  each  of  <13  in.  (.5j  ft.)  diameter.  The 
measured  delivery  of  all  the  11  pumps  at  each  stroke 
is  63  tons.  The  steam  is  cut  off  in  the  small  cylin- 
ders at  from  one-quarter  to  two-thirds  the  stroke, 
and  after  expanding  through  the  remainder  it  is  fur- 
tlier  expanded  in  the  large  cylinder. 

Tlie  drawing  shows  in  section  the  horizontal  com- 
pound-cylinder pumping-engines.   of   the  tvpe    de- 
signed by  Jlr.    H.  F.  Gaskill,  an  America'n.     The 
novel  feature  by  which  this  type  of  engine  is  distin- 
guished is  the  location  of  thehigh-pressure  C3iinder 
on  the  top  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder,  giving  short 
steam  communication.     This  arrangement  requires 
the  pistons  in  the  two  cylinders  to  move  in  opposite 
directions.     These  are  connected   with  each  other, 
and  the  pressure  of  steam  upon  them  is  transmitted 
to  the  plunger  of  tlie  pump  in  the  following  manner; 
The  latter  is  set  in  line  with  the  low-pressure  cylin- 
der, and   so   receives   the   thrust   produced   by  the 
pressure  in  that  cylinder  directly.     The  low-pressure 
piston  is  provided  with  two  rods,  which  are  extend- 
ed to  the  length  of  teufeet  tothecro.ss-headby  which 
they  are  connected  to  the  rod  of  the  pump  plunger. 
Midway  in  their  length,  another  cross-head  is  se- 
cured upon  tliem.   which    runs  on  a   guide.     The 
rod  from  the  high-pressure  piston  is  keyed  into  a 
cross-head  corresponding  to  this.     The  connection 
between  these  cross-heads  is  made  by  means  of  a 
short  vertical  beam  and  connecting  links,  through 
which  also  the  force  exerted  in  the  high-pressure 
cylinder   is   transmitted.     A   shaft   carrying  a   fly- 
■wheel  revolves  in  bearings  which  are  set  iqjon  the 
delivery  chambers  of  the  two  pumps.     The  two  en- 
gines are  connected  through  this  shaft  by  means  of 
cranks  set  on  either  end  of  It,  at  right  angle's  with  each 
other,  and  connecting  rods  from  these  cranks  to  the 
upper  enils  of  the  beams.     The  cranks  determine  the 
length  of  the  stroke,  control  the  movements  of  the 
pistons  and  plungers,  maintaining  those  of  the  two 
engines  and  pumps  in  a  constant  relaiion  witli  each 
other,   and  give   motion    to   the   valve  gear.     The 
steam  is  admitted  to  the  liigh-pressure  cylinders  by 
double-seated  poppet-valves.     A  cut-off  mechanism 
is    introduced   into   the    motion    of    these   valves, 
vvhicli  is  adjustable  to  cut  the  steam  off  at  anv  point 
in  the  length   of   the  stroke.     The    point    of   cut-off 
jnay  be  fixed  liy  hand,  or  by  the  action  of  the  gov- 
ernor  wlieu  the  latter  is  thrown    into    gear.     'The 
.governor  is  constructed  to  be  operated  by 'changes 
in  the  pressure  of  water  iv   the  delivery  main,  and 
acts  to  correct  the.se  changes  by  varying' the  point  of 
cut-off,  and  thus  the  speed  of  the  engiiie,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  variations  in  the  demand  for  water. 
The  conmiuiiicating  valves  between  the   high  and 
low   pressure  cylinders  and  the  exhaust  valves  are 
gridiron  slides. 

Tlie  engraving  on  the  iireceding  page  gives  a  per- 
spective view  ol  a  pviraping-engine,  having  a  remark- 
able capacity  and  duty,  built  by  the  I.  I'.  Morris 
C'om])any,  I'hil.adelphia.  It  is  a  (■()nipouiiil  beam  en- 
wine,  the  steam  cylinders  of  which  are  inclined  out- 
i^ardly  at  the  top  to  connect  with  opposite  ends  of 


the  working  beam.     The  cylinders  are  jacketed  on 

the  sides  and  heads,  steam  of  boiler  pressure  being 
u.icd  in  the  jacket  of  the  high  pressure  cylinder,  and 
steam  of  a  reduced  pressure  in  the  other  jacket. 
The  drainage  from  these  jackets  is  ordinarily  re- 
turned directly  to  the  boilers.  The  steam  and  ex- 
haust valves  are  gridiron  slides  giving  large  open- 
ings with  small  movements.  The  valves  are  ac- 
tuated by  cams,  whicli  are  driven  b_y  gearing  from 
the  crank-shaft,  and  a  centrifugal  governor  adjusts 
the  cams,  operating  the  steam  valves  of  the  hiL'lx 
pressure  cylinder  so  as  to  vary  the  point  of  cut-off 
and  maintain  a  constant  engine  speed.  The  pump  is 
driven  by  a  connecting  rod  attached  to  one  end  of 
the  working  beam.  The  pump  consists  of  a  plunger, 
to  which  is  attached  a  bucket  with  valve  opening 
upward.  There  are  seven  receiving  valves,  and  four 
delivery  valves,  in  addition  to  the  valve  in  the  buck- 
et, the  water  being  discharged  from  the  pump 
through  two  delivery  pipes,  above  and  below  the 
bucket  respectively."  Tlie  pump  valves  consist  of 
loaded  rubber  discs  with  central  guiding  stems. 
The  original  valves  were  of  metal,  double  beat,  and 
the  introduction  oI  the  present  form  has  greatly  in- 
creased the  pump's  efficiency. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  the  dtit^  trial  of 
this  engine  : 

Pounds  of  wood  used  to  start  fires,  400.  Pounds 
of  coal  put  into  furnaces,  3.  .500.  Pounds  of  coal 
withdrawn  from  furnaces  at  end  of  trial,  27.  Pounds  of 
coal  wholly  consumed  (400x0.4-)-3,500— 27)=3,633. 
Pressure  on  main  by  gauge  (lbs.  per  sq.  inch),  64. 
Water  level  in  well  befow'gauge  (ft.).  29.05.  Water 
pressure  (lbs.  per  sq.  in.)";  29.05x0.433-1-64=76.0. 
Area  of  pump  bucket  (sq.  in.),  .536.0465.  Revolu- 
tions of  engine,  12.337.  Duty  of  engine,  (ft-lbs.,  per 
100  lbs.  of  coal), 

536.0465  X  8  X  12,337  X  76.6  x  100 
= =111,548,935. 


3.633 
-When  any  heavy  beam  of  wrought- 


PUNCHING. 

iron — one,  say,  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  square — 
is  struck  by  a  heavy  shot  at  high  velocity,  the  beam 
snaps  short  off.  as  though  it  were  cast-iron  The 
same  shot,  striking  a  wrought-iron  plate  backed  in 
the  usual  manner  of  armor,  penetrates  or  perforates 
it  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  action  of  a  hand-punch 
on  a  sheet  of  iron  laid  on  a  block  of  wood.  The  ef- 
fect is  entirely  local ;  the  hole  is  made  without  bend- 
ing or  twisting  the  plate  in  one  case,  or  the  sheet  in 
the  other.  The  same  projectile,  propelled  with  a 
low  velocity,  will  bend  the  beam  and  produce  the 
ordinary  fracture  of  wrought-iron,  and  in  case  of  the 
plate,  the  latter  will  be  distorted,  strained,  and  loos- 
ened from  its  fastenings.  A  simple  way  of  explain- 
ing these  phenomena  is  as  follows  :  In  the  case  of 
the  high  velocity  the  effect  is  wliolly  local,  liecause 
the  surrounding  material  has  not  time  to  propagate 
the  vibration  of  impact  throughout  the  mass.  In  other 
words,  the  cohesion  of  the  material  is  not  sufficient, 
in  the  time  allowed,  to  overcome  the  inertia  of  the 
surrounding  mass.  The  distributian  of  the  eff'ect  in 
the  other  case  is  due  to  the  low  velocity,  wlierein  a 
certain  length  of  time  is  consumed  in  accomplishing 
the  blow.  During  this  interval,  all  surrounding  par- 
ticles of  iron  have  time  to  sustain  the  point  struck; 
tlu!  force  of  the  blow  is  thus  sjiread  over  a  large  sur- 
face,and  the  cohesion  of  the  jjarticles  is  undisturbed, 
since  each  particle  is  enabled  to  contribute  the  force 
of  its  attraction  towarils  uniting  the  whole.  These 
two  distinct  cfl'ects  are  called,  respectively,  ?)»»(,7im^ 
and  rackiitij.  The  work  done  by  a  shot  is  represent- 
ed by  its  weight  multi|ilied  by  the  square  of  its  ve- 
locity at  th('  moment  of  impact  ;  from  which  it  will 
be  seen  thai  a  small  projectile  moving  with  great  ve- 
locity is  capable  of  doing  the  same  amount  of  work 
as  a  large  projectile  with  low  velocity.  The  rhararter 
of  the  work  is,  however,  as  above  explained,  entire- 
ly dilTereiil.     In  case  of  a  given  projectile,  whatever 


PUNCHIHG  MACHINE. 


on 


PUHIC  WABS. 


powpr  is  pmplnypfl  in  rackinj;  tlio  Bide  of  the  vrtisd 
doi'H  iKitliiii!;  towards  prni'tnilion,  iind  virrvrmd. 

The  theory  in  ftivor  of  punchiiit;  is,  that  tlie  vital 
parts  of  the  vessel  and  tlie  active  enemj  within-  the 
men,  puns,  and  machinery— arc  reached  at  once. 
A  projectile  picrcini;  (lie  armor  of  a  vessel  carries 
with  it  portions  of  the  tiroli<'n  ]ilate,  which,  toj;etli- 
er  with  bolts,  nuts,  and  frai^mi'iits  of  wooit  from 
tlie  liiiekin^',  form  a  species  of  biii(jriiiii\  the  cITect  of 
which  is  not  less  to  lie  feared  on  a  crowded  deck,  or 
in  a  turret, than  the  explosion  of  the  most  formiilalile 
shell.  I5ut  to  i)rodiice  this  result  the  jirojectile  must 
penetrate  entirely  through.  A  projcctih^  movinj;  with 
a  punchini;  velocity  has  oidy  local  eflcct,  penetrat- 
ini;  without  rackini;  the  armor.  If  it  ;;oes  hut  partly 
throufih.it  does  no  daniafje  either  to  the  ship  or  lo  the 
enemy  within.  'I'liercfore,  whether  from  the  i;reat- 
ness  of  ran!je,the  thickness  of  the  armor,  or  want  of 
power  in  the  gun, entire  perforation  cannot  \iv  elTcct- 
ed,  it  is  only  a  waste  of  ammunition  to  use  it  in  sim- 
ply indenting  armor.  Although  as|)herical  iirojectile 
may  have,  >ipon  starting,  greater  velocity  thanarille 
projectile  of  equal  calil)cr,  and  conse(iuently  may 
have  greater  punching  power  stored  up  in  it  at  this 
part  of  its  tlight,  nevertheless,  owing  to  its  greater 
cro.ss-sectional  areu, in  proportion  to  its  weight, it  will 
lose  its  velocity  more  rapidly,  and  the  rillc  projectile 
will  soon  overtake  it  in  its  lligUt  and  go  far  beyond 


.inch  objects  as  armor-plates,  steam-boilers,  iron- 
ships,  bridges,  an<l  (/tlier  gn'at  works,  would  have 
been  so  great  as  to  have  (•Ifeetiially  prevented  tliem 
from  lieing  undertaken.  The  piincliing-muchine  in- 
vented by  .Messrs.  Kol)erls  anrl  N'usmyth,  willi  re- 
cent moditi<ations  and  improvement.s,  is  in  very 
general  iiscf  in  all  our  great  engineering  works  and 
arsenals;  its  issential  [larts  are  the  punch,  levir, 
anil  the  spring.  The  punch  is  simply  a  piece  of 
tough,  hard  steel  of  a  eylindrieal  form,  and  of  the 
size  of  the  intended  holes;  it  fits  into  a  socket, 
which  is  suspended  over  a  fixed  iron  plate  or  bench, 
which  has  a  hole  exactly  under  the  punch,  and  ex- 
actly tilling  it.  In  tlie  socket  which  holds  the  punch 
is  a  coiled  iron  spring,  which  holds  up  the  punch, 
and  allows  it  to  descend  when  the  power  is  applied, 
and  returns  it  w  lien  llie  pressure  is  relieved.  The 
lever,  wlien  in  action,  presseson  the  top  of  the  punch, 
and  the  plate  of  metal  which  is  to  be  perforated  be- 
ing placed  on  tlu^  iron  liencli,  receives  the  pressure 
of  Ww.  punch  with  sutHcient  force  to  press  out  a  disk 
of  metal  e.Mictly  the  diameter  of  the  punch,  which 
falls  through  the  hole  in  the  iron  bench.  The  lever 
is  moved  by  a  cam  on  a  very  powerful  wheel,  which 
presses  uiion  it  until  it  can  pass;  then  the  lever  be- 
ing relieved,  the  punch  is  drawn  up  by  the  spring  in 
its  socket,  ready  to  receive  the  action  of  the  cam 
when  the  revolution  of  the  wheel  again  brings  it  to 


it  in  range.  At  the  distances  that  iron-clads  usually 
engage  land  batteries,smooth-bore  projectiles  would 
possess  no  punching  power  ;  therefore  for  this  kind 
of  work  rifles  are  the  only  suitable  armament  for 
such  batteries.  They  should  be  powerful  enough  to 
do  the  work  effectually.  When  heavy  enough  for 
this,  all  additional  weight  is  rather  a  detriment  than 
an  advantage,  from  the  fact  that  light  guns  are  less 
cumbersome,  can  be  tired  more  rapidly,  are  more 
easilj'  replaced,  when  disaliled,  and  less  costly  in 
ammunition.  They  likewise  stand  greater  relative 
charges  and  yield  higher  velocities  with  safety.  The 
8-inch  rifle, carrying  a  projectile  18.5  pounds  in  weight, 
fired  with  a  charge  of  35  pounds  hexagonal  powder, 
is  the  minimum  caliber  that  can  be  successfully  used 
against  tlie  present  style  of  sea-going  iron-clatls.  See 
Rarking. 

PUNCHIHG  MACHINE.— The  enormous  develop- 
ment of  our  iron  manufactures  has  necessitated 
the  use  of  machine  tools  in  the  place  of  those  made 
for  the  hand,  and  none  of  the  very  ingenious  in- 
ventions for  this  purpose  have  played  a  much  more 
important  part  thanthe  punehing-marhhie.t,  for  with- 
out them  the  labor  of  drilling  holes  in  iron  plates  for 


bear  on  the  lever.  The  punch  itself  is  always  solid, 
differing  entirely  in  this  respect  from  the  hand-tools. 
This  useful  machine  will  perforate  thick  plates  of 
iron,  such  as  are  used  for  ship-building,  almost  as 
quickly  as  a  workman  with  an  ordinary  liand-punch 
could  perforate  thin  plates  of  tin  ;  tlie  holes  made 
are  quite  true,  and  are  ready  to  receive  the  rivets. 
The  drawing  represents  the  improved  machine,  hav- 
ing sufficient  power  to  punch  an  inch  hole  tlirough 
half  inch  iron  ;  it  is  driven  by  an  eccentric  and  slid- 
ing box,  civing  IJ  in.  movement  to  the  punch  bar  ; 
it  "has  a  clutch  on  the  eccentric  shaft  for  stopping  it 
without  shifting  the  belt. 

There  are  both  fast  and  loose  pulleys  on  the  driving 
shaft,  so  that  the  countershaft  is  not  needed.  The 
weisht  of  the  machine  is  0.850  pounds. 

PUNCTO.— A  term  applied  to  the  point  in  fencing. 

PUNIC  WAES.— The  name  commonly  given  to  the 
three  creat  wars  waged  for  supremacy  between 
Rome  and  Carthage.  The  Latin  word  punicuD,  or 
pcFnietm.  was  the  name  given  by  the  Romans  to  the 
Carthaginians,  in  allusion  to  their  Phenician  descent. 
The  Romans,  who  believed,  not  without  reason,  that 
the  Carthasinians  never  sincerely  meant  to  keep  any 


PtJKISHMENTS. 


612 


puEsurr. 


treaty  of  peace,  employed  the  phrase  punicn  ficks, 
'•  Punio  failli."  to  denote  a  false  and  faithless  spirit. 

PUNISHMENTS.— Sentences  awarded  by  Courts- 
Martial  or  t'onimauding  Officers  for  crimes  commit- 
ted b}'  officers  or  soldiers.  They  are  detailed  in  the 
Articles  of  War.  They  consist  of  death  by  hanging 
or  shooting,  according  to  the  offense,  and  of  flogging. 
These  are  Uie  punishments  for  the  most  aggravated 
and  flagrant  form  of  offenses.  The  minor  punish- 
ments include  imprisonment,  loss  of  gooil-conduct 
stripes,  degradation  of  rank,  loss  of  appointments, 
extra  drill,  stoppage  of  pay.  and  confinement  to  bar- 
racks. An  otHcer  can  be  sentenced  by  General  Court- 
Martial  to  death  (in  time  of  war),  cashiering,  or  dis- 
missal from  the  service,  according  to  the  crime  lie  is 
guilty  of.  In  the  British  service,  military  punish- 
ments include  death  by  shooting,  if  for  any  olTense 
against  discipline — or  by  hanging,  if  for  a  disgrace- 
ful olTense :  for  serious  crimes  in  the  field  against 
discipline,  flogging,  not  exceeding  50  hashes,  with 
the  cat-o'-nine-tails,  for  minor  offenses,  degradation 
of  rank,  imprisonment,  extra  <lrill,  stoppage  of  grog, 
loss  of  good-conduct  pay,  stoppage  of  leave,  etc. 
Death,  degradation,  and  loss  of  leave  are  the  only 
punishments  of  those  named  above  which  can  be  in- 
flicted on  an  officer.  An  officer  can  only  be  punish- 
ed by  sentence  of  a  Coiirt-Martial ;  he  may  be  cash- 
iered, dismissed  the  service,  deprived  of  his  regiment 
or  ship ;  or,  in  the  navy,  reduced  in  rank  by  being 
placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  list  of  officers  of  his 
grade.  In  certain  of  the  German  armies,  punish- 
ment is  inflicted  on  the  men  in  the  form  of  strokes 
with  a  cane  or  with  the  flat  of  a  saber.  The  punish- 
ments established  by  law  or  custom  for  United  States 
soldiers  by  sentence  of  Court-Martial,  according  to 
the  offense,  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  are: 
deatu;  stripes  for  desertion  only;  confinement  ;  hard 
labor;  ball  and  chain  ;  forfeiture  of  pay  and  allow- 
ances ;  and  dishonorable  discharge  from  service, 
with  or  without  niarking.  It  is  regarded  as  inhu- 
man to  punish  by  solitary  confinement,  or  confine- 
ment on  bread  and  water  exceeding  14  days  at  a  time, 
or  for  more  than  84  days  in  a  year  at  intervals  of  14 
days. 

PUPPET-HEAD.— A  sliding  device  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  bed  of  a  lathe  or  boring-machine.  It 
holds  tlie  back  center,  and  may  be  fixed  at  any  re- 
quired distance  from  the  front  center.     See  Lathe. 

PURCHASE. — A  nuchauical  power  to  increase  the 
power  ajiplied.  The  names  are  various  ;  some  indi- 
cate a  difference  in  character;  others  merely  in  ap- 
plication. Among  them  are  :  irhi'i),  irhip-npun-irhip, 
liiff-tdcklr,  li/ff-upou-luff,  runner,  dimhle-runner ,  bar- 
ton, jeer,  viitl,  gun-tackle ;  as  well  as  icinclt,  gin,  jnck, 
ih  rri'ik,  erah,  i-apgtiin,  windlans,  etc.  See  Block,  Piil- 
//.(/.  and   T.f.kl,. 

PUKCHASE  SYSTEM.— A  highly  unpopular  and 
much-misunderstood  arrangement  in  tlie  British 
army;  by  wliich  a  large  prciporlion — more  than  half 
— of  the  first  appointment  of  officers  and  their  subse- 
quent promotion  used  to  be  effected.  It  dates  from 
the  first  formation  of  an  English  standing  army,  and 
was  fornmlly  recognized  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne. 
The  system  itself  was  vcr_v  simple.  A  price  was  fix- 
ed by  regulation  for  each  subsliinlive  rank,  vi/.: 

Pric(^        Difference. 

Lieutenant-colonel i'4.500  £i:iOO 

Major :«00  1400 

Oaptain IHOO  1100 

Lieutenant 700  2.'50 

Cornet  or  Ensign 4.')0 

Wlien  any  officer  holding  one  of  lliese  regimental 
comnussions  desired  to  retire  from  the  army,  he  was 
entitled  to  sell  his  conunission  for  the  price  slijiuliiled 
in  the  above  table — £i,hM  in  the  case  of  a  Lieuten- 
ant-colonel. This  sum  was  made  up  by  the  senior 
Jliijor,  w'ho  was  willing  and  able  to  purcliase,  buy- 
ing tlie  rank  of  Lieulenanl-colonel  for  t'l.IiOO:  Ihc 
senior  Captain,  willing  and  able  to  purchase,  buying 
a  Majority  for  XI, 100;    u  Lieutenant  purchasing"  his 


company  for  £1.100;  a  Cornet  or  Ensign  becoming 
Lieutenant  on  payment  of  £350;  and  lastly,  by  the 
sale  to  some  young  gentleman  of  an  Easigucy  or 
Cornetcy  for  £1.50.  In  practice,  fancy  prices  higher 
than  the  above  were  usually  given,  according  to  the 
popularity  of  the  regiment,  and  vested  interest  in 
tliese  over-regulation  prices  caused  most  serious 
complications  whenever  the  Government  made  any 
cliange  affecting  the  promotion  of  Purchase  Officers. 
Tlie  value  of  commissions  in  the  Guards  was  iUso 
greater;  but  as  they  constitute  but  ;i  few  regiments, 
and  are  mostly  officered  from  the  Xohility.they  do 
not  need  particular  description.  No  commission 
coidd  be  purchased  by  one  officer  unless  another 
officer  vacated  his  position  by  its  sale.  Death  va- 
cancies, vacancies  caused  by  augmenting  any  regi- 
ment, vacancies  residting  from  the  promotion  of 
Colonels  to  be  Major  G^enerals,  were  filled  without 
purchase,  usually  by  seniorit\-.  No  rank  above  Lieu- 
tenant-colonel could  be  purchased. 

It  is  alleged  with  truth  that  purchase  enabled  the 
rich  man  to  step  over  the  head  of  the  poorer  but  per- 
haps better  qualified  Non-purchasing  Officer  :  and 
that  monej'  decided  where  merit  should  be  the  only 
guide.  These  disadvantages,  however,  it  is  replied, 
were  not  unmixed.  Purchase,  it  is  argued,  intro- 
duced into  the  army  men  of  a  very  high  class  in  so- 
ciety, who  gave  a  tone  to  the  whole  of  military  life. 
A  great  proportion  of  these  wealthy  men  entered 
with  the  intention  of  merely  spending  a  few  years  in 
the  army.  This  tended  to  keep  the  officers  young — 
a  great  advantage ;  and.  further,  provided  in  the 
cotmtry,  among  its  gentlemen,  a  body  of  men  well 
adapted  for  commands  in  the  militia  and  volunteers. 
Moreover,  selection  exercised  arbitrarily,  as  it  must 
be  when  the  men  from  wdiom  the  selection  is  to  be 
made  are  scattered  all  over  the  world,  away  from 
the  selecting  power,  isliableto  create  dissatisfaction. 
LTnder  purchase,  exchange  was  a  common  thing ; 
for  the  rich  officers,  for  private  reasons  of  locality, 
etc.,  were  glad  to  change  frequently  from  regiment 
to  regiment,  entering  in  each  case  at  the  butUnn  of 
the  list  of  officers  of  their  rank  in  their  new  regi- 
ment. This,  of  course,  was  an  advantage  to  the 
Non-exchanging  Officer,  as  it  pushed  him  to  the  top ; 
and  the  first  death  or  other  non-purchase  promotion 
then  fell  to  him.  An  officer  who  had  not  purchased 
at  all  might,  nevertheless,  sell  his  commission  for  its 
full  value  if  he  had  served  20  years,  or  for  a  sum 
less  than  the  regulated  price  after  shorter  service. 
Tins  was  also  a  spur  to  proinotion.  On  the  whole, 
though  exposed  to  the  disadvantage  and  annoyance 
of  being  passed  over  \>y  younger  officers,  the  non- 
purchasing,  /.  e.  the  poor  officers'benefited  pecuniarily 
by  the  purchase-system.  This  is  proved  by  the  slow 
progress  officers  made  in  corps  where  purchase  did 
not  exist,  as.  for  instance,  in  the  Royal  JIarines. 
Few  would  counsel  the  formation  of  a  new  army  wiUi 
such  a  system  as  purch;ise;  but  (m  the  other  hand,  it 
had  its  advantages  in  its  workings.  Purchase  did  not 
exist  in  the  artillery,  engineers,  marines,  19th  to  21st 
regimeuts  of  cavalry,  101st  to  lOOtli  regiment.s  of 
foot.  The  purchase-system  was  abolished  by  Koyal 
Warrant  in  .July.  18T1;  and  by  the  regulation  of  the 
Forces  Act  of  the  same  year.  P;irli;niu'iU  laid  down 
a  scheme  for  the  gradual  compens;ition  of  officers 
wlio  had  lost  the  selling  rights.  Under  that  scheme 
It  is  expected  that  a  sum-total  amounting  to  nearly 
£8, 000, OIK)  will  be  re(|uired. 

PURPLED.— A  term  in  Heraldry,  used  with    refer- 
ence to  file  lining,  bordering,  iir  garnishing  of  robes, 
or  (iriiumentaliou  of  armor.     Of- 
ten   written    J'lir/li  ired. 

PURPURE.—In'lleraldry, the  co- 
lor jiurple, expressed  in  engravings 
by  lines  in  bend  sinister.  It  is 
oif  infrequent  occurrence  in  British 
ller.'ihlrv. 

Purpuro.  PURSUIT.— A  victory,  by  which 

the  enemv  isonlv  forced  from  the  battle-field,  is  for 


PURSUIVANT. 


013 


PUTNAM  NAIL. 


tho  most  part  hut  a  half  sucrpflH,  if  such  it  might  be 
called,  lis  the  losses  uiiilcr  (in-  un-  tiiil.  very  siimll 
ooiiiparcd  to  those  arisini;  from  llic  (leiiiondi/alion 
of  a  lirokcii  anil  dispersed  army.  A  protiipt  and 
vinorous />'/;'/i'/rt  is  tlie  only  mli'utih  of  insiiriiii;  coiii- 
pl()l(^  success.  Defealed  and  disorf;ani/.ed,  the  oidy 
hope  that  remains  lo  the  enemy  is  llial  he:  nniy  have 
time  to  rally  and  concenlrate  his  scattered  troops. 
Tlie  only  way  to  frustrate  this  hope  is  to  pursue  these 
disorf;ani7.ed  nuisses,  which  are  in  no  condition  to 
resiirt  a  very  inferior  force  if  it  assails  them  in  i|;ood 
order.  Under  these  circumstances  we  nniy  separate 
our  army  into  corps,  forcing  the  enemy  thus  upon 
diver^'cnt  lines  of  retreat,  and  preventini;  all  co- 
operation between  them.  In  doinf;  this,  we  must, 
however,  be  very  careful  not  to  drive  the  enemy  in 
such  directions  as  will  lead  to  his  concentration  on 
any  one  point. 

If  the  enemy  retires  in  good  order,  covering  his 
line  of  retreat  from  our  attempts  to  turn  it.  nothing 
remains  to  be  done  l)ut  lo  pusli  him  back  with  our 
entire  force;  keeping  close  upon  his  heels,  and  giving 
him  no  time  to  take  advantage  of  deliles  or  other 
.strong  points  to  check  us,  so  us  to  nuike  us  lose 
time,  and  give  the  opportunity  to  him  to  receive  re- 
inforcements. When  he  attempts  to  do  this  we 
should  hold  him  in  check  on  the  main  road,  whilst 
we  attempt  to  turn  his  Hank,  ami  endeavor  to  gain 
his  rear.  By  this  promptilude  and  vigor  of  action 
our  forces  will  hardly  be  relarded,  but  will  be  al- 
ways in  position  to  turn  any  point  upon  which  he 
attempts  to  make  a  stand,  and  thus  force  him  to  fall 
back  continually  as  we  push  forward. 

When  we  have  come  up  with  the  enemy,  we  have 
one  of  two  courses  open  to  us :  either  to  tlirow  our- 
.selves  across  his  line  of  retreat,  or  else  to  leave  this 
open  to  him.  whilst  we  take  a  position  on  his  flank. 
Tins  last  course  is  usually  the  more  prudent,  for, 
however  weakened,  it  is  a  very  dangerous  tiling  to 
reduce  an  enemy  to  despair, and  thus  <all  forth  heroic 
efforts,  where  but  a  moment  liefore  lliere  was  nothing 
but  discouragement  and  a  willingness  to  get  away 
at  any  cost,  even  honor.  With  great  superiority  of 
force,  by  barring  the  way  to  the  rear,  and  pressing 
on  vigorously  in  front,  we  may  hope  "  <"  !ing"  the 
entire  army  ;  in  all  other  cases,  it  is  more  certain  to 
limit  ourselves  to  operating  on  the  Hank,  and  thus 
secure  a  part,  with  but  little  loss  to  ourselves,  but 
with  great  demoralization  of  the  enemy. 

Having  dispersed  and  demoralized  the  enemy's 
forces,  the  more  ditlicult  problem  remains  of  hold- 
ing Uie  conquered  territory.  This  becomes  the  more 
ditlicult  when  the  enemy's  territory  has  no  fortified 
phices  that  we  have  been  able  to  seize, and  thus  hold 
as  rallying  points  for  our  own  troops.  All  that  re- 
mains then  to  be  done  is  to  occupy  strong  strategical 
and  populated  points,  by  detachments  of  sufficient 
slreaigth  to  keep  the  enemy  quiet.  This  brings  about 
numerous  inconveniences  :  first,  as  these  points  must 
be  strengthened  by  field  works,  and,  in  the  second 
place,  the  main  army  must  be  greatly  weakened  by 
the  detachments  that  this  system  renders  necessary. 
In  the  mean  lime  the  enemy's  broken  forces  having 
retired  towards  the  interior,  are  there  reorganized, 
recruited,  and  concentrated, until,  at  last,  an  equili- 
brium between  the  two  contending  forces  is  brought 
about,  and  the  struggle  is  recommenced  to  go,  per- 
liaps,  through  the  same  phases. 

"These  inconveniences  may,  in  a  great  degree,  be 
avoided  by  having  a  rexerve  force  in  rear  of  the  mov- 
able army,  charged  with  the  sole  duty  of  holding 
the  territory  occupied.  This  reserve,  which  should 
not  be  further  than  a  few  days'  march  from  the 
front  of  operations  of  the  movable  forces,  should  be 
dispersed  over  as  great  an  extent,  parallel  to  this 
line,  as  practicable;  thus  enlarging  the  base  of  oper- 
ations, collecting  supplies  on  a  greater  extent,  and 
keeping  a  larger  amount  of  population  quiet.  This 
reserve  may  be  composed  of  new  levies,  and,  being 
held  in  all  points  subordinate  to  the  active  army,  it 


will  be  ready  to  co-operate  with  it  in  anyway  deemed 

besl. 

PURSUIVANT.— The  third  and  the  lowest  order  of 
heraldic  olllccrs.  The  olHce  was  instituted  as  a  no- 
vitiate,or  slateof  probation  IhroUL'h  wliich  tin-  olllces 
of  ilerald  and  King-al-.\riiis  were  ordinarily  to  be  at- 
tained, though  it  has  been  held  that  a  Herald  or 
King-at-Arms  may  be  made  per  mKtum,  There  are 
four  pursuivants  fjclongint  to  the  English  (,'ollegc  of 
Arms:  J{'>uge  droix,  the  oldest,  ho  named,  from  the 
cross  of  St.  (leorge;  lilue  Mantle,  instituted  either 
by  Edward  III.  or  llcmry  V.,  and  named  in  allusion 
to  the  robes  of  the  Order  of  the  (iurter,  or  perhaps  to 
the  color  of  tlie  arms  of  France;  Jtouije  JJriigvn,  du- 
riving  his  title  from  King  Henry  VII. 's  dexter  sup- 
porter, a  red  dragon,  assumed  in  allusion  to  his  de- 
scent from  C'adwaladyr;  and  Portculih,  named  from 
a  badge  of  the  same  >fonarch.  There  are  six  fiursui- 
vants  in  the  heraliiic  establishment  of  Scotland, 
known  by  the  nariii'S  of  Dinyirall.  llute,  Carrick,  Or- 
iiuiitd,  l\i:itj/ri',  and  I ' nifurn —i\\.U:n  which,  as  well 
as  tlio.se  of  the  Heralds,  seem  to  have  originated  in 
the  reign  of  James  III.  The  Scottish  pursuivants 
take  precedence  according  to  seniority  in  olTlce. 

In  ancient  times,  any  great  nobleman  might  insti- 
tute his  own  pursuivant  with  his  own  hands  and  by 
his  single  authority.  The  Uukes  of  Norfolk  had  a 
pursuivant,  called  lUawh  Lyon,  from  the  white  lion 
in  their  arms;  the  pursuivant  of  the  Dukes  of  Xorth- 
umberland  was  styled  Eaperance,  from  the  Percy 
motto;  and  Richard  Nevil,  Earl  of  Salisbury,  had  a 
pursuivant  called  Kgle  Vert.  We  even  find  Sir  John 
Lisle  in  1443  making  Thomas  de  Laiiney  his  pursui- 
vant, by  the  title  of  lUiinrh  Snuglier.  The  ancient 
costume  of  a  pursuivant  of  the  King  was  a  surcoat, 
embroidered  with  the  Koyal  Arms,  and  worn  with 
one  sleeve  hanging  down  in  front,  and  another  be- 
hind. In  1.57(5  Houge  Croix  was  severely  censured 
for  wearing  his  coat  as  a  Herald.  In  later  times, 
however,  a  pursuivant's  coat  is  worn  exactly  as  a 
Herald's,  the  latter  officer  being  distinguished  by  the 
collar  of  SS. 

PURVEYOR. — Anoflicerwho  is  charged  with  super- 
intending the  civil  affairs  of  army  hospitals,  as  the 
payment  of  men,  procuring  provisions,  medical  com- 
forts, bedding,  etc.  The  Purveyor  acted  independ- 
ently of  the  Medical  Officer,  and  was  responsible 
through  the  Purveyorin-Cliief  to  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  War.  The  Department  consisted  of  a 
Purveyor-in-Chief,  Principal  Purveyors,  Purveyors, 
Deputy-Purveyors,  and  Clerks.  The  Purveyor-in- 
Chief  ranked  with  a  Colonel  in  tlie  army,  and"  had  a 
salary  of  £.547  per  annum,  rising  to  i-'TyO  after  long 
service.  In  1808,  the  Department  was  merged  with 
others  in  the  Control  Department  ;  and  on  the  abo- 
lition of  the  latter  in  187.5,  its  functions  passed 
to  the  Commissariat  and  Transport  Department. 
In  the  United  States  Service,  the  Chief  lledical  Pur- 
veyor is  the  chief  purchasing  and  disbursing  officer 
of  the  Medical  Department ;  and  under  the  direction 
of  the  Surgeon  General,  he  is  charged  with  the  sup- 
ervision and  distribution  of  all  medical  and  hospital 
supplies.     See  Medifal  Department. 

PUSH-PICK. — An  implement,  fiat  and  pointed, used 
to  place  the  frames  and  sheeting,  when  constructing 
a  mine. 

PUTNAM  NAIL.— .V  hot-forged  and  hammer-poin- 
ted horse-shoe  nail  recently  introduced,  and  regard- 
ed by  the  military  authorities  as  the  best  machine- 
made  nail  manufactured  at  the  present  lime.  These 
nails  are  forgeil  separately  from  the  rods,  the  iron 
when  nearly  at  a  welding  heat  being  drawn  out  un- 
der four  hammers,  by  use  of  petroleum  gas  (thus 
avoiding  all  sulphur},  by  which  means  a  firmer, 
tougher^  and  more  compact  nail  is  made  than  is 
possible  by  any  other  process.  In  the  pointing  as 
well  as  in  the  making,  an  endeavor  has  been  made 
to  follow  the  old  ha'nd  process  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible. All  lameness',  temporary,  or  eveii  perma- 
nent, often  results  from  a  sliver  or  thin  shell  of  the 


POTTT-POWDEE. 


614 


PYBOHETEB. 


nail  entering  the  quick  when  driven  into  the  hoof, 
causing  great  inconvenience  and  sometimes  pecun- 
iary loss, butinthcsenailsgreatstiffness  and  ductility 
has  been  maintained,  the  tibcr  of  the  iron  is  kept  un- 
injured, and  it  is  impossible  to  cause  them  to  sliver. 
The  drawing  represents  a  section  of  a  horse's  foot, 
and  shows  the  frequent  effect  of  driving  cold-cut 
horse-nails  that  are  liable  to  sliver  in  driving.  1,  is 
the  coronet  bone:  2,  is  the  colBn-bone;  3,  is  the 
navicular  bone:  4,  is  one  blade  of  a  slivering  nail, 
passing  through  the  quick,  or  sensitive  sole,  into  the 
coffin  bone:  fi,  is  the  other  blade  of  the  nail  passing 
out  of  the  wall  of  the  hoof  for  clinchins.     The  other 


parts  may  be  represented  as  follows: — n.  The  wall.  t>. 
The  sole.  c.  The  cleft  of  the  frog,  d  d.  Tlie  frog. 
e  e.  The  fatty  frog,  or  elastic  cushion.  /.  The  sensi- 
tive .sole.  g.  The  sensitive  sole,  h  h  h.  The  ten- 
dons of  the  muscles  which  bend  the  foot.  /.  Part  of 
the  pastern-bone,  k  k.  The  tendons  of  the  muscles 
which  e.xtend  the  foot.  i.  The  coffin-joint,  m.  The 
navicular  joint.  ?i.  The  coronary  substance,  o. 
The  sensible  laminse,  or  covering  of  the  coffln-bone. 

It  requires  but  little  observation  and  reflection  to 
arrive  at  the  conclusion  as  to  the  kind  of  nails  to  be 
used  in  the  horse's  foot,  whether  a  mangled  piece  of 
iron,  rendered  dangerous  by  improper  manipulation, 
or  one  made  from  the  rod  at  a  welding  heat,  where 
all  the  fibers  remain  intact,  and  afterwards  hammer- 
pointed.  The  foot  is  an  important  member  of  the 
animal's  body,  and  demands  the  greatest  care  and 
attention,  for  when  it  becomes  injured  or  diseased, 
no  matter  how  perfect  the  other  parts  may  be,  the 
horse's  services  are  diminished  or  altogether  lost. 
Hence  the  value  of  a  horse  depends  upon  the  condi- 
tion of  his  feet. 

From  the  days  of  Tubal  Cain  to  the  present  time 
fire  has  been  the  only  sure  element  with  which  iron 
could  be  properly  wrought.  Every  other  method 
has  resulted  in  producing  articles  of  great  inferiority 
where  strength  and  durability  are  required,  and  in 
no  place  are  these  two  requisites  more  necessary 
than  in  the  horse's  shoe-nail.  The  ancients  used 
only  charcoal  in  the  working  of  iron,  thus  avoiding 
all  sulphurous  gases,  hence  the  superiority  of  their 
weapons.  Tlie  old  Damascus  blades  owe  "their  su- 
periority in  part  to  the  use  of  asphalt  when  being 
forged,  thus  avoiding  the  presence  of  sulphur,  which 
is  so  ruinous  to  all  kinds  of  iron  and  steel.  I'rofil- 
ing  by  this  knowledge,  the  manufacturers  of  tliis 
nail  have  abiuidoned  the  use  of  coal  and  coke  in  the 


forging,  and  use  only  pure  carbon  gas  made  from 
petroleum,  and  are  tliereby  enabled  to  obtain  a  much 
higher  temperature  in  the  working  of  the  iron.  Tlie 
Putnam  niiil  is  drawn  down  to  a  point  from  the  rod 
of  iron,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  and  receives  about 
sixty  (juick,  successive,  sharp  blows,  at  a  welding 
heat.  It  is  then  sealed  by  the  water  process,  no 
acids  being  used,  and  ;ifterw:ir(ls  liamnier-jiointeil. 
It  is  to  all  intents  and  jmrposes  the  same  as  the  old- 
fasliioned  haud-mude  and  hammer-pointed  nail. 


PUTTY- POWDER.— A  material  consisting  of  perox- 
ide of  tin,  in  great  use  for  polishing  small-arms  and 
metal  work.  It  is  also  used  as  a  coloring  mate- 
rial for  white  glass,  and  for  the  white  enamels  of 
porcelain,  etc.  It  is  made  by  melting  tin ;  as  the 
.surface  o.xidizes,  the  scum,  which  is  the  peroxide, 
is  raked  off.  and  when  cold,  is  reduced  to  a  fine  pow- 
der, which  is  white  in  color,  and  the  particles  are 
extremely  hard.     See  Polishing. 

PTKGI. — Movable  towers,  used  by  the  Greeks  in 
scaling  the  walls  of  besieged  towns.  They  were 
driven  forward  upon  wheels,  and  were  divided  into 
different  stories,  capable  of  carrying  a  great  number 
of  soldiers  and  military  engines. 

PTKITES. — A  common  name  for  the  ancient  vhed- 
lock,  used  before  the  invention  of  the  flint-lock. 

PYKOBOLI.— Fireballs,  used  both  by  the  Greeks 
and  Komaiis.     Frequently  called  Malleoli. 

PYROMETER. ~A  term  originally  applied  by  Mus- 
chenbroek,  in  1731,  to  an  instrument  which  he  invent- 
ed for  measuring  all  the  changes  produced  in  the 
dimensions  of  solid  bodies  by  the  application  of 
heat.  It  is,  however,  now  applied  to  any  instrument 
the  object  of  which  is  to  measure  all  gradations  of 
temperature  above  those  that  can  be  indicated  by 
the  Mercurial  Thermometer.  DesaguHers  gives  a 
description  of  Muscheubroek's  instrument,  as  im- 
proved by  liimself,  in  his  Expetimental  Philoi,<tphy. 
Numerous  pyrometers  have  since  been  invented, 
amongst  which  may  be  noticed  those  of  Ellicott  (des- 
cribed in  the  Pliilosoplucal  Transactions  for  1736  and 
1751),  Graham  (in  Do.  for  1754),  Wedgwood  (in  Do. 
for  1782,  1784and  1786)  and  Guyton  (in  the  Annales, 
de  Chimie.  tome  46).  None  of  these  instruments, 
however,  gave  accurate  results  for  very  high  tem- 
peratures; and  it  was  not  till  the  j-ear  1821  that  Pro- 
fessor Daniell  announced  the  invention  of  his  pyro- 
meter, which  has  supplanted  all  others,  and  for 
which,  in  an  unproved  form,  he  received  the  Rum- 
ford  Medal  from  the  Royal  Society. 

The  method  by  shrinkage  having  been  adopted  for 
the  insertion  of  the  tube  of  the  8-inch  breech-load- 
ing rifle,  it  at  once  became  important  to  provide 
some  reliable  means  for  measuring,  from  time  to 
time,  the  expansion  of  the  cast-iron  casing  while 
undergoing  heating.  It  was  deemed  most  desirable, 
also,  m  connection  with  these  measurements,  to 
determine  accurately  the  corresponding  tergpera- 
turcs,  in  order  to  acquire  trustworthy  data,  which 
might  serve  for  reference  in  future  operations  of  this 
nature.  The  instruments  prepared  for  the  above 
purposes  were  as  follows  : 

1.  For  the  measurement  of  the  expansion.  In  this 
operation,  since  the  instrument  would  require  to  be 
inserted  within  thebore  of  the  heated  casing,  it  was 
deemed  necessary  to  emplo)'  a  measuring  tool  of 
such  poor  conducting  material  as  would  undergo 
itself  as  little  change  from  the  heat  as  possible. 
Accordingly,  a  number  of  wooden  measuring-rods, 
with  steel  points  screwed  into  the  ends,  were  con- 
structed. The  lengths  of  these  rods  were  then  ad- 
justed by  a  vernier  rule,  reading  to  0".001,  so  as  to 
form  a  series,  gradually  increasing  bv  0".005,  from 
22". 00  to  22". 09,  or  to  a  little  be.yond  the  re(iuired 
expansion.  The  length  of  each  measuring-rod  was 
stamped  upon  it,  and  a  stiff  wire  attached  to  it  at 
tlie  middle,  by  which  to  handle  it  in  taking  a  meas- 
urement. By  means  of  these  rods,  using  a  longer 
and  longer  one  till  one  was  found  that  would  just 
enter  the  casing,  the  measurements  of  the  inlerior 
diameter  of  the  healed  casing  were  rapidly,  and,  it  is 
thought,  quite  accurately  made.  The  lengths  of  the 
measuring-rods,  as  verified  by  the  vernier  rule,  im- 
medi;ilely  after  being  withdrawn,  showed  no  sensi- 
ble change.  This  mode  of  measurement  was  devised 
by  the  South  Boston  Iron  Company. 

2.  For  the  measurement  of  the  temperature.  For 
the  delcrmination  of  the  teniperalure  it  was  decided 
tociii|iloy  a  pyrometer  of  the  form  usually  known  as 
the  hydro-pyrometer;  in  which  the  temperature  i8  as- 


PTROPHORE  STIRRUP. 


615 


PTHOTECHNY. 


ccrtainc'd   by  f.xpoMing  to  the  action  of   the   heat 

ivhicli  is  lo  !)('  iiicaHiircrl  a  dctinitc  wcifjhl  of  some 
liiclal.  as  plaliiiiiiii.  slcrl.  copper,  elc,  ami  then 
iiueiieliin'.;  Ilie  same  ill  a  kn.iwii  weifjlil  of  water, 
and  iioliiii;  the  rise  in  teniperatiire  of  the  latter. 
From  lliis  data,  and  the  specilie  heal  of  the  metal 
employed,  the  initial  temperature  of  the  metal, 
whieli  is  till'  temperaiure  reipiired,  ean  he  readily 
oMiiiiied.  Tims,  if  a  piece  of  platiimm  weiLrhiiiir 
1,0(111  '.Tains  should,  when  immersed  in  2.0(10  j;rains 
of  water  at  a  Icmpcradire  of  (iO"  Fahrenheit,  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  latter  to  'JO",  then  90"— 00" 
=30",  multiplied  liy  2  hecaii.se  the  weight  of  the 
•.vat<'r  is  twice  that  of  the  platinum,  uives  00",  the 
temperature  to  which  a  wci;;lil  of  water  equal  to 
the  |>latiiiuni  would  have  liccn  raised.  Tu  obtain 
from  this  the  initial  temperature  of  the  platinum,  in 
F.ihreiihcit  degrees,  we  multiply  by  31  \.  the  spceitie 
heat  of  water  as  compared  willi  ]ilatiimm,  that  of 
the  latter  being  1,  and  to  Die  result  add  the  tem- 
Iieratnre  of  the  water.  Therefore  (00  X  31 1 J  -f  90 
=  l'.t(i5  is  the  temperature  re(piired.  The  principle 
may  otherwise  be  stated  as  follows:  A  body  of 
known  weight  W  is  raised  to  a  final  temperature  T, 
and  then  ])liiiiged  into  a  quantity  of  water  of  weight 
W'  and  lein])eratur<'  t.  which  is  contained  in  a  cop- 
per vessel  called  a  "calorimeter."  .\s  T  is  sujiijosed 
to  exceed  t.  the  water  gains  in  temperature  by  the 
immersion  of  the   body,  and  finally  attains  a  maxi- 


case  con  be  easily  written  down,  since  it  in  onlj'  nec- 
essary loexpressthat  Iheqnanlity  of  heat  given  up  by 
the  heated  liody  H  equal  lotlial  gained  by  the  water, 
the  caloriiiielrr.  tlermomelir,  iiii.xer.  etr-. 

Ijet  W  denote  tlu'  weight  of  the  hod}- :  T  its  initial 
temperature  ;  a;  itH  specilie  heat :  H'' the  weight  ol 
the  water  in  the  calorimeter;  m' the  weight  of  the 
calorimeter;  a;*  its  specific  heat  ;  w"  the  weight  of 
th<'  mixer,  and  a-"  its  speeide  heat  :  w'"  the  weight 
of  the  tljcrinometer-liibe  immersed  in  the  water;  y 
its  specilie  heat,  and  if'^'  the  W(-ight  of  the  mercury 
in  the  thermometer-tube,  and  x'*'  its  specific  heat. 

Then 

Wx  ('T—A)='W'  -j-  ir'y  +  w"x"  -|-Mi"'a:"'4-»/-lvxiv) 
{A—t),  and 

(W  +  w'x'  +  w"x"-\-w"'i!"  -\-  wiva-iv)  Cyl — t) 

T= -f  A 

Wi 

In  the  above  expression  the  coefficient  tti{A—t)  is 
called  the  vater  ((juiraUnt  nf  the  rah,rivuter,  and 
evidently  represents  a  mass  of  water  such  that,  sup- 
posing it  to  receive  exclusively  all  the  heat  given  up 
in  the  exjierimert.  a  therniomiter  placed  in  it  would 
indicate  the  variation  of  temiierature  actually  ob- 
si'rved.  To  determine  this  value  for  the  particular 
case  under  consideration,  take  the  following  sched- 
ule : 


Parts. 

Material. 
Copper. 

Weight,  ozs. 

"o 

C 

•so 

CO 

a 

O 

So. 

Numerical 
value. 

Ball. 

5.012 

W. 

.1013. 

x. 

t'" 

x" 

Wx. 

.50772 

Water 

34.192 

11.23 

1.51 

.25 

.30 

W' 

w" 
w'" 

JO'V 

1. 

.1013 
.1002 
.199 
035 

W' 

w'x' 

w"x" 

w"'x"' 

Ujivxiv 

34.192 

1.137G 

.1513 

.0498 

0105 

Calorimeter 

Mixer  

Tliermometer-tube 

Copper 

Brass 

Glass 

W'-l-wiV  4-  w"x"  +  (r"V+"''^'*''^'= 

.50772 

35  .5412 

^         ^            ^             ^                                             1 

mum  temperature  .1,  which  is  noted.  In  the  change 
from  t  to  -i,  the  water  has  gained  a  quantity  of  heat 
equal  to  W  (.1  —  0.,Mnd  the  t)ody  immersed  has 
lost  a  (juantity  equal  to  Wx  (T — -4);  x  being  the  spe- 
cific heat  of  the  body,  that  of  water  being  equal  to 
1.     Equating  these  two  quantities  we  have 

"W'  (.4  — 0  =  Wj(T  — -1) 
Solving  in  reference  to  T.  we  obtain 
W'  {A—t) 

T  = h  .1 

Wj 
This  metliod  of  pyrometric  measurement  was  first 
adopted  by  Clement-Desormes  and  Schwarz,  for  the 
measurement  of  the  heat  of  furnaces  ;  it  was  after- 
ward employed  by  Regnault  in  the  determination  of 
the  specific  heats  of  various  substances,  liquid  and 
solid,  and  by  Dr.  Siemens  in  some  delicate  experi- 
ments up<m  the  varying  electrical  conductivity  of 
telegraph  wire  under  different  degrees  of  tempera- 
ture. The  above  equation  assumes  that  the  only 
exchange  of  heat  is  between  the  water  and  the  heat- 
etX  body,  which  is  not  actually  the  case.  The  heat 
of  the  body  is  not  given  up  exclusively  to  the  water 
in  the  calorimeter,  but  partly  to  the  calorimeter  it- 
.self,  to  the  thermometer,  the  mixer,  and  such  other 
instruments  as  may  be  employed  in  the  experiments 
and  come  in  contact,  directly  or  indirectly,  with  the 
heated  body. -4     The   equation  for  the  most  general 


From  which  we  determine — 

W'4-«>'a;'-|-M"j"-|-tp"V-|-Kiiva;'v    35.5412 
Wx  ^  50772' " 


=70. 


for  the  wafer  equivalent  of  the  pyrometer,  or  the 
value  of  each  degree  in  the  difference  between  the 
temperature  of  the  water  before  and  after  the  im- 
mersion of  the  heated  coppc. .  The  expression  fot 
the  temperature  thus  becomes  T=70  (A — t)-\-A.  See 
Tliermnmftfr. 

PYROPHORE  STIRRUP.— .V  stirrup  in  ver>-  ancient 
times  provided  with  a  lantern,  which  gave  light  and 
warmed  the  feet  of  the  rider. 

PYROTECHNY.— The  art  of  making  fireworks,  and 
of  unknown  antiquity.  It  was  practiced  among  the 
Chinese  from  th:-  earliest  times. and  has  attained  with 
them  a  perfection  unknown  in  other  countries  So 
much  is  this  the  case,  that  they  treat  as  insignificant 
the  most  brilliant  of  other  displays.  In  their  fire- 
works they  introduce  many  surprises,  such  as  figures 
of  men  and  animals  darting  out.  but  they  are  some- 
what deficient  in  the  mechanical  arrangements.  Fire- 
works, as  the  name  is  now  understood,  were  hardly 
known  in  Europe  until  the  discovery  of  the  com  posi- 
tion of  gunpowder,  and  for  a  long  time  only  very 
simple  pyrotechnic  contrivances  were  used.  At  pres- 
ent they  may  be  divided  into  two  kinds — the  simple 


PYEOXYLE. 


61G 


PYKHHIC  DANCE. 


hand-pieces,  such  as  squibs,  crackers,  rockets  etc.; 
and  the  other,  the  fixed   contrivances  whicli  have 
often   very  ingenious  mechanical  arrantrements  for 
making  some  of  their  parts  revolve  rapidly  wlieu  be- 
ing discharged.       The  materials  used  are  gunpow- 
der, sulphur,  charcoal,  saltpeter,  filings  of  steel,  iron- 
copper,  etc.,  and   several   salts:  such  as  nitrate   of 
atrontian,  acetate  of  copper  common  salt,  etc.     The 
in'^redients  of  tireworks  arc  usually  filled  into  pa- 
pe'r  cases,  made  by  rolling  pasted  paper  round  a  cy- 
linder of  wood,  of  the  proper  diameter,  until  the 
case  is  of  suflicient  thickness,  and  then  cutting   the 
paper   tube   so    formed   into  the   required   lengths 
for   squibs,  Roman  candles,  small  rockets,  and  simi- 
lar articles ;  they  seldom   exceed   ten  inches ;    one 
end  of  each  is  closed  by  drawing  a  piece  of  string 
tii'htly  round,  so  as  to  pinch  it  in. or  choke  it,  as  it  is 
te'chuically  called,  and  then  dipping  it  into  melted 
resin,  which  effectually  seals  it.      the  combustible 
ingredients  are  filled  in"at  the  open  end, and, if  neces- 
sary, are  rammed  down  with  a  wooden  ramrod  ;  the 
opening  is  afterward  covered  with  a  piece  of  touch- 
paper,  to  prevent  the  composition  falling  out,  and  to 
ignite  it  by.     The  effects  produced  by  fireworks  are 
either  streams   of  fire  issuing   straight   out  of   the 
cases,  and  much  varied  witii  sparks  in  the  form  of 
stars, etc., and  col'ired  with  brilliant  colors,  or  wheels 
of  beautiful  sparks  produced  by  making  the   cases 
revolve  rapidly.    Revolving  pieces  are  made  by  coil- 
ing the  paper  tube,  when  not  too  tightly  filled, around 
a  Sat  wooden  center;  the  force  with  which  the  com- 
bustion of  the  materials  is  carried  on,  is  sufficient  to 
make  the  board  revolve  with  great  rapidity.     Small 
wheels  of  this  kind  are  called  ("'atheriae  mlieelx.  fb'guihx 
or  serpents  are  made  by  filling  tubes,  eight  to  ten 
inches  in  length, with  a  composition  of  1  lb.  of  niter, 
2  oz.  of  charcoal  powder  (rather  coarse  1,4  oz.  of  gun- 
powder, 4  oz.  of  sulphur,  and  6  oz.  of  steel  filings. 
The  last  is  an  important   ingredient  in  many  fire- 
works,  producing    brilliant,"  feather-like    corusca- 
tions, which  are  the  more  beautiful  the  larger  and 
cleaner  the  filings  are.   Rm-kets  are  tied  to  a  wooden 
stick.     When  they  are  about  to  be  discharged,,    this 
stick  is  stuck  in  the  ground,  and  in  that  position  the 
io-niting  point  of   the   rocket   is   downward ;  when 
lighted,  it   rushes   into   the  air   with    great     velo- 
city  and  reaches  a  consideriible  height,  discharging 
as  "it  goes  a  brilliant  stream  of  sparks.     Rockets  re- 
quire a  hollow  center  all   down   the   tube  ;   without 
this  they  will  not  rise.     At  the  end  of  their  course, 
they  often  discharge  very  brilliant  clusters  of  golden, 
ruby  .  emerald,    sapphire-like   stars,  or   showers   of 
golden  or  colored  rain,  or  of  fiery  serpents.     This  is 
produced  by  a  supplementary  part,  called  i\\e  gnrni- 
ture  of  the  rocket,  consisting  of  a  shorter  and  broad- 
er paper  tube,  called  the  p"(,  attached  to  the   end  of 
the   fusee  part  of  the  rocket,  and   filled  with  a  com- 
position made  into  paste  with  pure  alcohol,  and  cut 
into  stars,  or  granulated  into  small,  round  bodies  for 
drops.     The  serpents  for  rockets   are   small   tusees, 
with  the  same  composition  as  scjuibs  ;  they  are  so 
packed  as  to  ignite  all  at  once.  The  white  stars  are 
made  of  niterV  16  parts  ;  .sulpluir,  8  parts  ;  gunpow- 
der, 3  or  4  parts  ;  nitrate  of  strontian  added,  makes 
them  ruby  red  ;  sulphur  or   acetate   of  copper,  and 
sulphate  "and  carbonate  of  barytes,  green;   zinc  fil- 
ings give  a  blue  color.     YiUinc  stm-s  and  ylloir  s/ioir. 
#rii  are  made  of  niter,  10   parts,  10   of  sulphu;-,  4  of 
charcoal,  16   of  gimpowder,  and   2  of  lamp-black. 
A  deeper  and  richer  golden  color   is   produced  by  a 
very   slight   variation   in   the   composition— viz.,   2 
parts  less  of  sulpluir  and  charcoal,  and  4  additional 
of  gunpowder.     .Many  other  ingenious   devices    are 
used  by  masters  in  the  art  of   jjyrotechny,  but    they 
are  loo  numerous  and  too  technical   to  come  within 
the  limits  of   this    work.     The    Itnmnn   cii/idle   is   a 
favorite  firework  ;   it  is  a  tube  which  is  held  on    the 
ground,  and  discharges  upward  a  continuous  stream 
of   blue    or   wliite    stars     or    balls.       Hini/itl    lights 
are  cases  of  about  an  inch  or  more  in  dumu'ter.filled 


with  a  composition  of  7  parts  niter,  2  of  sulphur, 
and  1  of  antimony.  These  are  much  used  as  sig- 
nals at  sea  ;  they  diffuse  an  immense  glare  of  bluish- 
white  light.  Chinese  or  j<i.iemine  ft'/v,  which  is  used 
bj' itselfor  in  combination  with  other  mixtures,  con- 
sists of  16  parts  of  gunpowder,  8  of  niter,  3  of  finely- 
powdered  cliarcoai.3  of  sulphur, and  10  of  small  cast- 
iron  borings  ;  the  last  must  be  finer  or  coaser  in  pro- 
portion to  the  bore  of  the  case  to  be  filled.  The  com- 
pound devices  in  fixed  fireworks,  such  as  are  seen  at 
publio  entertainments,  are  very  complicated  in  their 
structure, and  are  varied  more  or  less  by  every  artist. 
One  nice  point  in  the  arrangement  is  to  insure  sim- 
ultaneous ignition  of  all  the  various  parts.  See  Fire- 
icorks. 

PYROXYLE— FYKOXYLIN.— The  action  of  nitric 
acid  on  such  vegetable  substancesas  saw-dust,  linen, 
paper,  ami  cotton,  is  to  render  them  very  combusti- 
ble. In  their  natural  state  these  substances  are  al- 
most entirel}'  composed  of  Uynine,  the  constituents 
of  which  are  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon  ;  nitric 
acid  furnishes  nitrogen,  a  substance  which  enters 
into  the  composition  of  nearly  all  explosive  bodies. 
Pj-roxyleor  gun-cotton  has  the  composition  indicat- 
ed by  the  symbol  C„H,(NO,)305,  or  C.;H,N30, _,, 
and  is  formed  by  the  action  of  concentrated  nitric 
acid  on  cotton.  The  reaction  consists  in  the  sub- 
stitution of  nitrogen  and  o.xygen  in  feeble  combina- 
tion for  part  of  the  hydrogen  in  the  cotton  or  cellu- 
lose, and  is  therefore  similar  to  the  one  by  which 
nitro-glycerine  is  produced.  The  equation  illustrat- 
ing tlie  reaction  may  be  thus  written  : 

CeHioOs  -f  3HN0,  =   CeH,(N0s,)305  +  3  H^O 

Cotton  or  Nitric  acid.  Nitro-cellnlose  or  Water. 

Cfllulose.  gun-cotton. 

A  number  of  these  substitution  products  are 
known,  but  only  one  is  used  as  an  explosive  agent. 
Some  of  the  others  are  largely  employed  for  making 
collodion. 

Pyroxylc  was  discovered  by  Prof.  Schonbein, 
and  published  to  the  world  in  1840.  His  method  of 
preparing  it  consists  of  mixing  three  parts  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  sp.  grav.  1.85,  with  one  part  of  nitric 
acid,  sp.  gr.  1.4.5  tol..50;  and  when  the  mixture  cools 
down  to  between  50'^  and  60°  Falir.,  clean  rough 
cotton,  in  an  open  state,  is  immersed  in  it;  when 
soaked,  the  excess  of  acid  is  poured  off,  and  the 
cotton  pressed  tightly  to  remove  as  much  as  possi- 
ble of  what  remains.  The  cotton  is  then  covered 
over  and  left  for  half  an  hour,  when  it  is  again 
pressed,  and  thoroughlj'  washed  in  running  water 
to  remove  all  free  acid.  After  being  partially  dried 
by  pressure,  it  is  washed  in  an  alkaline  solution 
made  by  dissolving  one  ounce  of  carbonate  of  potash 
in  a  gallon  of  water.  The  free  acid  being  thus  expelled, 
it  is  placed  in  a  press,  the  excess  of  alkaline  solution 
expelled,  and  the  cotton  left  nearly  dry.  It  is  then 
washed  iu  a  solution  of  pure  nitrate  of  potash,  one 
ounce  to  the  gallon,  and  being  again  pressed,  is  dried 
under  a  temperature  of  from  150*^  to  ITO''.  The  sul- 
phuric acid  has  no  direct  action  on  lignine,  its  use 
in  the  preparation  of  pj'roxyle  being  to  retain  the 
water  abstracted  from  the  cotton,  and  prevent  the 
solution  of  the  compoimd,  which  would  take  place, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  in  nitric  acid  alone.  See 
(fun-cott'in 

PYRRHIC  DANCE.— The  most  famous  of  all  the 
war-dances  of  antitiuity,  said  to  have  received  its 
name  from  one  Pyiriclios,  or,  according  to  others, 
from  Pyrrhus  or  Neo|itolemus,  the  son  of  Achilles, 
Orilical  scholars,  however,  content  themselves  with 
a  general  inference  deduced  from  the  substanlial  har- 
mony of  the  various  niythi(;il  or  legendary  accounts 
given  of  its  origin — viz..  thiit  it  w;is  a  Doric  inven- 
tion. It  w;is  d:inced  to  the  llute.  and  its  time  was 
both  quick  iuid  light,  as  niiiy  be  seen  from  the  Pvrr- 
hic  foot,  composed  of  two  shorts  (-  -),  and  the  t'ro- 
keleusmatic,  orchallenging-foot.  of  twoilouble  shorts 
(-■--'-).  According  to  Plato,  it  aimed  to  represent 
the  nimble  motions  of  a  warrior  cither  avoiding  mis- 


QUACEENBUBH  AIB  OUN. 


617 


QnAKTE. 


siles  and  blows,  or  assniilting  the  nnemy;  and  in  tlie  Julius  CccBar  introdurfd  it  at  Rnmr?,  where  it  borame 
Doric  Statr's,  it  was  as  murh  a  picfo  of  military  train-  a  great  favorite.  The  Hirmnika,  Htill  danced  in 
iiii;  as  an  aniuHcinent.  KIscwIiitc,  in  (Jricci',  it  was  Grccrcc,  is  saifl  lo  be  a  inorlcrn  relic  of  the  ancient 
purely  a  mimetic  dance,  in  « liidi  the  parts  \vcr<r  i  I'yrrhic  dance;  but  if  Dr.  Corrigan's  deHcription  of  it 
Bomctimcs  represented  by  women.  It  formed  part  C  Ten.  Dayn  in  Athenn,  18G1J  Ih  correct,  it  is  not  easy 
of  the  public  eulcrtaiumtut  at  I^auatheuaic  festivals.  ■  to  sec  the  resemblance. 


Q 


QUACKENBUSH  AIE  GUK.— The  moBt  perfect  and 
efTeclive  i^iin  of  its  cla^s,  at  present  made.  Being 
a  hard-sliooter,an<l  easily  iuanipulaled.it  is  well  suit- 
ed for  practice  at  short  range:  and  is  very  extensively 
us<'d  hy  N'cruits  wlien  learning  the  principles  of  aim- 
ing and  firing.  Tlie  ilrawing  shows  its  workiuL' 
parts.  Pulling  Ihe  tri^'ger  releases  the  piston  iV). 
which  is  then  thrown  foward  hvthc  spriiiir.  c.xpellinL' 
the  air  from  the  chamber (Cj.  through  the  barrel (15;i 
with  great  force,  carrying  tlie  dart   or  bunet  before  | 


an  instrtiment  employed,  like  the  spirit-level  quad- 
rant, to  give  angles  of  elevation  or  (lepression  when 
there  are  no  sights  to  a  gun.  or  when  they  cannot  be 
used.  It  dilTers  from  the  spirit-level  quadrant  in 
having  no  spirit-level, but  a  plumb-line  which  is  sus- 
pemled  from  the  rit'lil  angle. 

QUADRANT  ANGLE,  llu^  angle  which  the  axis  of 
the  |iiece,  when  laid,  makeswiththe  horizontal  plane. 
It  is  termed,  rpiadriuit  elevatii/n  or  gurulrant  dfjrrex- 
xliin,  according  as  the  piece  is  laid  above  or  below 


it.      To  Imid  the  gun.  the  barrel  (3)  is   pushed  into  j  the  horizontal  plane, 
the  cylinder  ("C).  which  re-sets  the  pistim,  compresii- i      QUADRATE. — In  gunnery,  a  term  meaninc  to  as- 
es   the  spriiijr,  and   allows  the   dart  or  bullet  to   be    certain  if  .a  piece  of  ordnance  is  properly  placed  on 
inserleil  through  the  opening  (A),   after  which   the  i  its  carriaL'e,  and  the  wheels  are  of  ef|inil  height, 
barrel  is  drawn  forward  to  the  stop  as  shown.    It  |     QUADKILATEHAL.— In  military  language,  an  ex- 


will  be  observed  that  the  spring  guard  ffl)  can  be 
drawn  back  instantly  to  remove  the  barrel  for  [lack- 
ing, etc.;  andthat  tlu'  whole  length  of  the  Ijarrel  is 
effective,  there  being  no  waste  space  to  occasion  a 
loss  of  air.  The  barrel  is  easily  pushed  into  the 
chamber,  by  placing  the  muzzle  upon  the  floor  or 
against  some  tirm  ooject.     .See  Air-gnn. 

QUADI. — An  ancient  people  living  in  south-east 
Germania  ;  of  the  Suevic  race,  and  inhabiting  that 
part  of  what  is  now  Bohemia,  Lower  Austria,  and 
Moravia,  which  lay  between  the  Sarmatian  moun- 
tains and  Ilcrcynian  forests  and  the  Isteror  Danube. 
They  were  Allies  of  the  Marcomanni,  their  neigh- 
iDors  on  the  north-west.  The  Roman  Emperor  Ti- 
berius established  a  king<lom  of  the  Quadi,  and  made 
Yannius,  one  of  his  generals,  King.  In  174  b.  c.  the 
Quadi,  rose  against  the  Empire  in  confederation 
with  other  Germanic  races,  and  it  was  only  after 
stubborn  resistance  that  they  were  overcome. 

QUADRANT.  — In  gunnery,  an  instrument,  gcner- 
all)'  nuide  of  brass,  for  ascertaining  or  adjusting  the 
elevation  of  ordnance,  particidarly  mortars,  which 
have  no  tangent  scale.  The  quadrant  is  graduated 
into  degrees  and  parts  of  a  degree, having  a  movable 
index,  with  a  spirit-level  and  vernier  attached  to  it. 
When  the  instrument  is  used,  the  limb  or  bar  of  the 
quadrant  is  inserted  into  the  bor<'  of  the  piece;  the 
index  which  is  attached  to  tlie  graduate<l  arc  is  then 
tixed  to  the  particidar  elevation  re(piired.  and  the 
piece  elevated  or  depressed  until  the  s])irit-level  is 
horizontal,  which  is  shown  by  the  air  bubble  run- 
ning to  the  center.  Another  pattern  iiuadrant  to 
that  hitherto  in  use  has  been  introduced.  It  differs 
from  the  one  generally  known  in  being  altogether  of 
a  str<mger  form  ;  the  bar  or  limb  has  been  reiluced 
to  13  inches  in  length;  the  base  is  broader,  and  is 
fitted  with  a  stop  to  prevent  its  slipping  iuti>  the 
chamber.  The  counterbalance  weight  is  arranged  ' 
so  as  to  ensure  the  quadrant  lying  flat  on  the  bottom 
of  the  bore  of  the  piece.     A  'Guriner'n  Quadrant  is 


pression  denoting  a  combination  of  four  fortresses,  not 
necessarily  connected  together,  but  mutuallv  sup- 
porting each  other;  and  from  the  fact  that  if  one  be 
attacked,  the  garrisons  of  the  others,  unless  careful- 
ly observed,  will  harass  the  besiegers,  rendering'  it 
necessarj'that  a  very  large  army  should  be  employed 
to  turn  the  combined  position."  As  a  remarkable"  in- 
stance, and  a  very  powerful  one,  may  be  cited  the 
Venetian  Quadrila"teral  (Austrian  till  I'SGG),  compris- 
ing the  four  strong  posts  of  Mantua,  Verona,  Pesch- 
'  iera.  and  Legnago.  These  form  a  sort  of  outwork 
to  the  bastion  which  the  southern  mountains  of  the 
Tyrol  constitute,  and  divide  the  north  plain  of  the 
Po  into  two  sections  by  a  most  powerful  banier. 
Napoleon  III.,  in  18.59.  even  after  the  victories  of 
Magenta  and  Solferino,  hesitated  to  attack  this  quad- 
rilateral. 

QUADRILLE.— Small  parties  of  horse  richly  capari- 
soned, etc..  in  tournaments  and  at  public  festivals. 
The  quadrilles  were  distinguished  from  one  another 
by  the  shape  or  color  of  the  coats  which  the  riders 
wore. 

QUAKER  GUNS.  —Old  wooden  pieces  of  ordnance 
which  were  made  to  resemble  the  real  artillery,  and 
placed  in  the  embrasures  of  forts,  in  order  to  deceive 
the  enemy. 

QUARREL. — The  missiles  used  for  all  cross-bows, 
witli  the  exception  of  the  rrnxs-hoir  n  galet.\rcTe  call- 
ed qninreh  or  bolts;  and  often  written  quarry.  One 
kind  of  quarrel  (!;/rf^<«)  was  feathered  so  as  to  reg- 
ulate the  movement  by  giving  a  rotatorj-  motion. 
Another  kind  {matras)  ended  with  a  round  knob, 
which  killed  without  shedding  blood.  See  Articles 
of  \\',ir.  24. 

QUARTE. — In  tactics,  a  word  of  command  given 
in  the  bayonet  exercise;  as  quarte  parry,  wliich  is 
executed  as  follows:  3Iove  the  piece  quickly  to  the 
left,  the  small  of  the  stock  passing  imderthe  left 
elbow,  the  piece  covering  the  left  shoulder;  the  bar- 
rel to  the  left,  bayonet  in  front  of,  and  higher  than  the 


QUARTEB. 


618 


QUARTERMASTER  OF  CADETS. 


shoulder,  the  left  forearm  on  the  right  of  the  piece, 

the  elbow  touching  the  right  wrist,  the  tingers  on  the 

stock, 
j      QUARTER.— 1.  In    Heraldry,  a   subordinary    con- 
I  sisting  of  the  upper  de.\ter  fourth  part  of  the   shield, 
1  cut  off  by  a  vertical  and  a  liorizontal  line  meeting  in 

the  center  of  the  shield.     When  two   or  more  coats 

are  marshaled   together  on   a   shield   divided   into 

squares  for  their  reception,  such  divisions  are  also 

called  quarters.     See  Qiuirtering. 
2.  In   war,  the  sparing  of  the  life  of  a  vanquished 

enemy,  which  bj-  the  laws  of  war   is  forfeit  to  the 

victor.     The  expression   seems  to  be   derived  from 

the  use  of  the  word  "quarter"  to  designate  the  lodg- 
ing of  the  particular  warrior ;  to  give  quarter  to  a  pri- 
soner being  to   send   him  to  his  captor's  quarter  for 

liberation,  ransom,  or  slavery.  The  refusal  of  quart- 
er is  a  terrible   aggravation  of   the  horrors  of   war. 

and  is  only  at  all  justifiable  towards   an  enemy  who 

has  been  guilty   of  atrocious  cruelty   himself,  or  of 

some  flagrant  breaclx  of  faith. 

It  is  against  tlie  usage  of  modern  war   to  resolve, 

in  hatred  and  revenge,  to  give  no  quarter.     No  body 

of  troops  has  the  right  to  declare   tliat   it  will   not 

give,  and  therefore   will  not  expect,  quarter  ;  but  a  :  third  quarter  of  the  shield,  and  the  paternal  arms  the 


Castile  and  Leon,  and  first  wife  of  Edward  I.,  as  re- 
presented on  her  tomb  in  Westminster  Abbev— the 
Castle  of  Castile  occupying  the  flrstand  fourtli  quar- 
ters, and  the  Lion  of  Leon  the  second  and  third.  The 
arms  of  England  and  Ponthieu  are  similarly  quar- 
tered on  the  same  monument,  and  on  the  "crosses 
erected  to  queen  Eleanor's  memory.  The  received 
rule  regarding  the  quartering  of  theensignsof  differ- 
ent states  is,  that  precedence  is  given  To  the  most 
ancient,  unless  it  be  inferior  in  importance.  Feudal 
arms  are  sometimes  quartered 
intlie  same  way  by  subjects.  2. 
Arms  of  augmentation,  or  spec- 
ial concession  accorded  to  a 
subject  by  his  Sovereign,  by 
way  of  honor,  are  sometimes 
granted  to  be  borne  quarterly 
with  the  paternal  arms.  Tliese 
contain  a  portion  of  the  royal 
insignia,  and  have  precedence 
of  the  paternal  coat.  3.  The  most  unusual  reason 
for  quartering  is  to  indicate  descent  from  an  heiress 
who  has  intermarried  into  tiie  family.  Where  there 
is  but  one  heiress,  her  coat  occupies  the  second  and 


commander  is  permitted  to  direct  his  troops  to  give 
no  quarter,  in  great  straits,  when  his  own  salvation 
makes  it  impnmble  to  cumber  himself  with  prisoners. 
Troops  that  give  no  quarter  have  no  right  to  kill  ene- 
mies already  disabled  on  the  ground,"  or  prisoners 
captured  b)'  other  troops.  Alt  troops  of  the  enemy 
known  or  discovered  to  give  no  quarter  in  general, 
or  to  any  portion  of  the  army,  receive  none. "Troops 
who  fight  in  the  uniform  of  their  enemies,  without  any 
plain,  striking,  and  uniform  mark  of  distinction  (if 
their  own,  can  e.xpect  no  quarter. 

If  American  troops  capture  a  train  containing  uni- 
forms of  the  enemy,  and  the  commander  considers 
It  advisable  to  distribute  tliem  for  u.se  among  his 
men,  some  striking  mark  or  sign  must  be  adopted 
to  distinguish  the  American  soldier  from  the  enemy. 
The  use  of  the  enemy's  national  standard,  flag,  or 
other  emblem  of  nationality,  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
ceiving the  enemy  in  battle,  is  an  act  of  perfidy  by 
which  they  lose  all  claim  to  the  protection  of  the 
laws  of  war.  Quarter  having  been  given  to  an  ene- 
my by  American  troops,  under  a  misapprehension 
of  his  true  character,  he  may,  nevertheless,  be  or- 
dered to  suffer  death  if,  within  three  days  after  the 
l)attle,  it  be  discovered  that  he  belongs  to  a  corps 
wliich  gives  no  quarter. 

QUARTER  ARMS.— A  term  in  Heraldry, meaning  to 
place  the  arms   of  other   families   in  the  compart- 
ments of  a  shield,  which  is  divided  into  four  quar-  I 
ters,  the  family  arms  being  placed  in  the  first  quarter 


first  and  fourth.  Where  there  are  more  than  one, 
they  are  marshaled  in  the  successive  quarters  in  the 
order  of  the  intermarriages.  Where  more  than  four 
coats  have  to  be  marshaled,  the  nimiber  of  vertical 
lines  is  increased,  and  the  divisions,  though  more 
than  four,  are  still  called  quarters.  Where  there 
is  an  odd  number  of  coats,  the  last  quarter  is  usual- 
ly filled  up  by  repeating  the  first.  One  of  tlie  quar- 
ters may  itself,  be  quartered,  when  the  heiress  was 
entitled  to  bear  a  quartered  coat ;  the  shield  is  then 
said  to  be  counter-quartered,  and  its  primary-  quar- 
ters are  called  grand  quarters.  Quarterings  are  not 
allowed  to  be  added  to  the  paternal  coat  without 
the  sanction  of  the  heraldic  authorities.  The  expres- 
sion "  quarterings"  is  often  loosely  used  for  dfsc-ents 
in  cases  where  tliere  is  no  right  to  quarter  from  rep- 
resentation. The  eightVr  sixteen  quarterings  which 
are  sometimes  ranged  around  the  Scottish  funeral 
escutcheon,  and  which  are  still  important  for  many 
purposes  in  Germany,  have  no  reference  to  repre- 
sentation, but  simply  purity  of  blood  for  four  or  five 
generations;  i.e.,  that  the  father  and  mother,  the 
two  grandmothers,  and  four  great-grandmottiers, 
as  also  in  the  case  of  sixteen  quarterings,  the  eight 
great-great-grandmothers,  have  all  been  entitled  to 
coat-armor.     See  Quarter. 

QUARTERLY.— A  term  in  Heraldry,  meaning  in 
quarters  or  (juarterin'js  :   as,  to  bear  arms  quarterly. 

QUARTERMASTER.— A  regimental  Staff  Officer,  "of 
the  relative   rank  of  Lieutenant,  wiiose  dutv  is  to 


when  more  than  three  other  arms  are  to  be  quartered  1  look  after  the  assignment  of  quarters,  the  provision 
with  the  family  arms,  it  is  usual  to  divide  the  shield  j  of  clothing,  forage,  fuel,  and  all  other  Quartermas- 
into  a  suitable   number  of  compartments;  and  still  j  ter's  supplies :  and  when  on  the  march  he  superin- 


the  arms  are  said  to  be  quartered. 

QUARTER  BLOCKS.  —Small  blocks  used  for  v.arious 
purposes  in  meclianical  maneuvers.  They  are 
usually  20  inelies  long,  6  Inches  wide,  and  2  inches 
thick." 

QUARTER  GUARD.— A  guard  mounted  in  camp, 
mimediately  on  the  arrival  of  each  corps  on  its 
grounil.  [t  is  placed  in  front  of  the  center  of  the 
camp,  at  about  eiglity  paces  from  it  and  is  charged 
■with  special  <luties 

QUARTER  HUNG.  -A  term  emi)loyed  when  speak- 
ing of  a  gun  whose  trunnions  have  tlui.  axis  below 
the    line  iif    bore. 

QUARTERING.  In  Heraldry,  the  bearing  of  two 
or  more  coals  on  a  sliield  divided  by  horizontal  and 
perpendicular  lines,  a  practice  not  to  be  found  in  the 
earlier  heraldry,  and  little  in  use  till  the  l.'ith  century. 
Arms  may  be  ([uartered  for  various  reasons.  1. 
To  indicate  dominion.  A  Sovereign  quarters  the  en- 
signs of  his  different  States.  The  earliest  instance 
of  quartering  in  Kngland  is  fouml  in  the  |)alernid 
arms  of  Eleanor,  daughter  of  Frederick  III.,  King  of 


tends  the  marking  out  of  camp.  He  is  appointed 
by  tlie  Colonel  of  the  regiment,  subject  to  the  ap- 
[jroval  of  the  Secretary  of^  War.  He  vacates  his 
Staff  position  wdien  promoted  to  the  rank  of  C'aptain, 
or  at  tlie  discretion  of  the  Colonel.  In  the  British 
service,  the  regimental  Quartermaster  rises,  with  few 
exceptions,  from  the  ranks.  His  duties  are  to  su- 
perintend, assign  to  their  respei'tive  occupants,  and 
have  charge  of,  quarters,  barracks,  tents,  clothing, 
etc.,  used  bj'  the  regiment.  He  is  also  regimental 
storekeeper.  The  Quartermaster  lias  no  further  pro- 
motion to  look  forward  to;  but  after  ;iO  years' ser- 
vice in  all — incluiliug  10  as  an  <inicer— he  may  retire 
with  the  honorary  rank  of  Captain.  He  ri'ceives 
lOs.  2d.  a  day  in  the  cavalry,  and  Us.  2d.  in  the  in- 
fantry, rising  by  length  of  service  to  l.'is.  2d.  and 
lys.  'id.:  with  slightly  dilTerenf  rales  in  the  guards, 
engini'ers.  etc.  He  is  mil  n'quired  In  jciiii  the  Mess 
QUARTERMASTER  AND  COMMISSARY  OF  CADETS. 
— .\n  Ollicer  of  the  Army,  detailed  liy  the  Secretary 
of  War.  and  assigned  to  duty  as  t^uartermaster  and 
Commissary  of  Cadets  at  the  C  S.  Military  Academy. 


QUARTERMASTER  GENERAL. 


(;i!) 


QUATliENIONB. 


litis  charged  willi  all  matters  relatinp  to  clothing, 
(■(|iiipjiicnt,  liiid  sulisisli'iifc  of  I  lie  CiKlctH,  inchiding 
jiiirvi  viiit;  and  supiTvision  of  I  he  ('adds'  Mchh. 

A  Hoard  of  Iiispcclors,  coiisisliiii;  of  tlirce  oltk-crs 
appointed  liy  llie  Superintendent, cxaniirics  and  com- 
l)ares  «ilh  approveil  jjatterns  all  uriieles  of  (,'adets' 
clotldni;,  an<l  materials  for  makiiii;  the  siimc  ;  and 
also  examines  all  otIuT  supplies  fiirnislied  liy  the 
Quartermaster  and  Commissarv  of  Cadets,  and  re- 
ports to  the  Superintendent,  at  such  times  as  he  ap- 
points on  the  qualit}-  andsuitableness  of  the  articles  ; 
'  but  the  Superintendent  may  assign  an  oflicer  to  in- 
spect clothini;  and  shoes  furnished  for  issue.  No 
cIothlDK  or  other  article  is  issued  or  sold  to  the  Ca- 
dets without  heins;  tirst  inspected  and  approved. 
After  every  muster  this  Hoard  carefully  audits  the 
accounts  for  clothing,  and  all  other  authorized 
charges  asiaiiist  Ciiili'ls. 

QUARTERMASTER  GENERAL.— A  Slalf  Officer  in 
the  United  States  Army,  wlio  has  the  rank  of  Briga- 
dier General,  and  is  at  the  head  of  the  (^uarlerinas- 
ter's  Department.  In  the  British  army  he  is  a  Stall 
Oflicer  uf  lugh  rank,  whose  duty  it  is  to  arrange  the 
marches,  quarters,  anil  internal  arrangements  of  the 
army  to  which  lie  l)clougs.  Kvery  army  lias  some 
officer  of  this  Department;  from  a  lirigade  with  a 
Deputy  Assistant  Quartermaster  General,  receiving 
£173  7s.  (id.  a  year,  besides  regimental  pay,  up  to  a 
complete  army  under  a  Commander-in-Chief,  with  a 
Quartermaster  General,  who  is  usually  a  general 
officer,  and  receives  .£'(iS)l  IDs.  7d.  per  annum,  be- 
sides his  other  pay.  At  headquarters  there  is  a  per- 
manent Quartermaster  General,  responsilile  for  all 
the  movements  of  the  army,  the  organization  of  ex- 
peditions, camps  of  instruction,  etc.  He  receives 
i'l  ,.500,  besides  his  pay  as  a  general  officer,  and  has 
a  Sub-Department  at  the  War  Oflice,  witli  clerks, 
etc.  He  is  under  the  officer  commanding  in  chief, 
and  the  Adjutant  (leiieral. 

QUARTERMASTER'S  DEPARTMENT.  Department 
is  charged  with  the  duty  of  providing  the  means  of 
transportation,  b.v  land  and  water,  for  all  troops, 
and  all  material  of  war,  It  furnishes  the  horses  of 
the  artillery  and  cavalry,  and  horses  and  mules  for 
the  trains.  It  provides  and  distributes  clothing, 
tents,  camp  and  garrison  equipage,  forage,  lumber, 
and  all  material  for  cam]is  and  for  shelter  of  troops 
and  of  stores.  It  builds  liarracks,  storehouses,  hos- 
pitals; provides  wagons  andaiiibulaiices;iiid  harness, 
except  lor  cavalry  and  artillery  horses:  builds  or 
charters  ships,  steamers,  and  boats,  docks,  and 
wharves;  constructs  and  repairs  roads,  railways,  and 
bridges;  clears  out  olistructions  in  rivers  and  har- 
bors, when  necessary  for  military  purposes:  provides, 
by  hire  or  purchase,  grounds  for  military  encamp- 
tiients  and  buildings;  pays  generally  all  expenses  of 
military  operations  not  by  law  expressly  assigned  to 
some  other  Department;  and,  linsUly,  it  provides  and 
maintains  military  cemeteries,  in  which  the  dead  of 
the  army  are  buried. 

The  following  are  general  depots  of  the  Quarter- 
master's Department  in  theUnited  States, and  the  offic- 
ers in  charge  thereof  report  directly  to  the  (Quarter- 
master General:  New  York.  Philadelphia,  and  Schuyl- 
kill Arsenals,  Washington,  D.  C,  JelTersonville,  lud.. 
and  San  Francisco,  Cal.  All  other  depots  are  under 
the  orders  of  the  Commanding  Generals  of  the  Mili- 
tary Departments  in  which  tluy  are  situated.  The 
Commander  of  the  Military  Division  of  the  Pacilic, 
however,  for  all  purposes  of  his  command,  has  au- 
thority over  the  depot  of  San  Francisco  as  over  De- 
partment depots;  but  in  matters  relating  exclusively 
to  the  collection  and  manufacture  of  military  suj)- 
plies,  the  officer  in  charge  of  that  depot  communi- 
cates directly  with  the  Quartermaster  General  of  the 
army. 

The  present  organization  of  the  Quartermaster's 
Department  consists  of  one  (Jmirtermaster  (ieneral, 
with  the  rank  of  Brigadier  General;  four  Assistant 
Quartermaster  Generals,  with  the   rank  of  Colonel: 


eight  Deputy  QuartermaHter  (iencrals,  with  tlie  rank 

of  Lieutenant  C(j|onel:  fourteen  (Quartermasters,  with 
'  the  rank  of  Major;    and    thirty  Assistant  Quarter- 
masters, with   tlie  rank  of  Captain. 

QUARTERMASTER  SERGEANT.— A  Non-commin- 
sioiied  Olllcer  who  assists  tlie  (Quartermaster  in  his 
vari<ius  duties.  He  ranks  among  the  regimi-ntal 
Non-commishioned  Statl,  and  is  appoinli'd  by  llic 
Colonel  of  the  regiment  upon  the  recommendation  of 
the  (Quartermaster.  In  the  British  service,  he  re- 
ceives daily  4s.  .'id.  in  the  cavalry,  4s.  in  the  artille- 
r3",  2s.  lid.  in  the  infantrv  of  the  line. 

QUARTER  OF  ASSEMBLY.  -A  rendezvous  or  place 
where  llie  tn.i.jis  lueei  to  march  from  in  a  boily. 

QUARTERS.-  1.  'riKMiicampmcnt  on  one  of  the 
l)riiHip;il  passages  round  a  place  besieged, to  prevent 
relief  and  intercept  convoys. 

2.  In  military  affairs,  ((uarters  are  generally  the 
positions  assigned  to  persons  or  bodiesof  men.  In  a 
more  special  sense,  the  quarters  in  the  army  are  the 
places  of  lodging  assigned  to  olhcers  or  men,  when 
not  actually  on  duty.  At  all  posts  and  stations  where 
tliere  are  public  quarters  in  buildings  belonging  to 
the  United  Sl;ites.  olhcers  may  be  furnished  with 
quarters  in  kind  in  such  public  buildings  by  the 
(Quartermaster's  Deiiartment.  There  is  allotted  by 
the  (Quartermaster  at  the  station. under  the  direction 
of  the  Commanding  OHicer.to  each  officer  such  num- 
ber of  rooms  as  is  allowed  to  his  grade  by  the  Kegu- 
lations  of  the  Army.  When  assigned  to  duty  with- 
out troops. or  temporarily  and  involuntarily  awaiting 
orders, under  com])etent  authority,  officers  are  entitl- 
ed to  the  prescribed  allowance  of  quarters.  But  in  no 
case  is  an  officer  furnished  with  quarters  at  two  dif- 
ferent stations  at  the  same  time.  Application  .should 
be  made  to  the  Quartermaster  on  the  arrival  of  the 
officer  at  the  place  where  (juarlers  are  to  be  provid- 
ed.    See  All'tirance  of  (Jnartem. 

QUARTER  SIGHTS.—  In  gunnery,  divisions  marked 
on  the  upper  quarters  of  the  base-ring,  commencing 
where  it  would  be  intersected  by  a  plane  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  piece,  and  tangent  to  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  trunnions.  These  sights  are  used  for 
giving  elevations  up  to  3".  The  mode  of  elevating 
the  gun  is  by  bringing  the  division  on  the  base  ring 
expressing  the  required  degree  of  elevation  and  the 
notch  on  the  aide  of  the  muzzle  in  direct  line  with 
the  object;  the^un  will  then  have  the  proper  degree 
of  elevation.  To  lay  the  gun  point-blank,  the  low- 
est notch  on  the  base  ring  and  that  on  the  side  of  the 
muzzle  are  brought  directly  in  line  with  the  object, 
and  though  the  gun  may  have  been  laid  point-blank 
with  reference  to  the  object,  it  may  have  several 
degrees  of  elevation  or  depression  with  regard  to  the 
ground  or  plane  of  the  horizon. 
"  QUARTERS  OF  REFRESHMENT.— The  place  where 
the  troops  that  have  been  much  harassed  are  put 
to  recover  themselves,  during  some  part  of  the  cam- 
pa  ii:n. 

QUARTER  STAFF.— Formerly  a  favorite  weapon 
with  the  English  for  hand-to-hand  encounters,  being 
a  stout  pole  of  heavy  wood,  about  6i  feet  long,  shod 
with  iron  at  both  ends.  It  was  grasped  in  the  mid- 
dle by  one  hand,  and  the  attack  was  made  by  giving 
it  a  rapid  circular  motion,  which  brought  the  loaded 
ends  on  the  adversarj'  at  unexpected  points. 

QUATERNIONS.— the  name  given  by  its  inventor. 
Sir  W.  R.  Hamilton,  to  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
the  mathematical  methods  of  calculi,  which  have  so 
enormously  extended  the  range  of  analysis,  while 
simplifying  its  application  tc  the  most  formidable 
problems  in  geometry  and  gunner)-.  It  would  be 
inconsistent  with  our  phmto  give  even  a  complete 
though  elementary  analytical  view  of  this  calculus; 
but  it  is  possible,  by  means  of  elementary  geometry 
and  algebra  alone,  to  give  the  reader  a  notion  of  its 
nature  and  value,  i'or  this  purpose,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  consider  some  very  simple,  but  im- 
portant ideas  with  reference  to  the  relatire  jumtion, 
of  points  in  space.     Suppose  A  and  B  to  be  any  two 


QUATEKNIONS. 


620 


QUATEBNIONS. 


Stations,  one,  for  instance,  at  the  top  of  a  mountain, 
the  other  at  the  bottom  of  a  coal-pit.  Upon  how 
many  distinct  numbers  dtjes  their  relative  position  de- 
pend? Tliis  can  be  easily  answered  thus:  B  is  so 
many  degrees  of  longitude  to  the  east  or  west  of  A, 
so  many  degrees  of  latitude  to  the  north  or  southof  A, 
and  so  many  feet  above  or  below  the  level  of  A. 
Tliree  numbers  suffice,  according  to  this  mode  of 
viewing  the  question,  to  determine  the  position  of 
B  when  that  of  A  is  given.  Looking  at  it  from  an- 
other point  of  view,  suppose  A  to  be  the  eartli.  B  a 
fixed  star.  To  point  a  telescope  at  B,  we  require  to 
know  its  altitude  and  azimuth,  its  latitude  and  lon- 
gitude, or  its  right  ascension  and  declination.  Any 
of  these  pairs  of  numbers  will  give  us  the  direction 
of  the  line  AB,  but  to  determine  absolutely  the  po- 
sition of  B,  we  require  a  third  number— viz.,  the 
length  of  AB.  Hence,  it  appears  tliat  any  given 
line  AB,  of  definite  length  and  direction,  is  com- 
pletely determined  by  three  numbers.  Also,  if  the 
line  at  be  parallel  and  equal  to  AB,  it  evidently  de- 
pends on  the  sapie  three  numbers.  Hence,  if  we 
take  the  expression  (AB)  to  denote  {not.  as  in  geom- 
etrv,  the  lengtli  of  AB  merely,  but)  the  length  and 
direction  of  ^AB;  we  see  that  there  will  be  no  error 
introduced,  if  we  use  it  in  the  following  sense  : 

A  +  (AB)  =  B ; 
i.e.,  if  beginning  with  A,  we  take  the  step  repre- 
sented by  (AB).  we  shall  find  ourselves  at  B.    From 
this  it  follows  at  once  that,  if  C  be  anv  third  point, 

A  +  (AB)  -f  (BC)  =  C: 
i.e..  beginning  at  A,  and  taking  the  successive  steps 
(ABj  and  (BC),  we  are  finally  brought  to  C.     But 
we  have  also 

A-|-(AC)=C, 
by  taking   the   step  from  A  to  C  at   once.     Hence, 
■with  the  present   signification  of  (AB),  etc..   we  see 
that 

(AB)+(BC)  =  (AC), 
which  shows  that  lines,  when  their  length  and  direc- 
tion are  huth  considered,  are  to  be  added  or  compound- 
ed according  to  the  same  law  as  velocities  or  forces. 
In  this  sense,  a  line  is  called  by  Sir  W.  R.  Hamilton 
Avectur.     Again,  we  have  evidently 

A  +  (AB)  +  (BC)  +  (CA)  =  A, 
because  the  three  successive   steps  bring  us  back  to 
the  starting-point.     Hence 

(AB)-f  (BC)  =  -(CA), 
and  therefore  (AC)  =:  —  (CA),  or  the  sign  (only)  of  a 
vector  is  changed  if  its  direction  be  reversed.  The 
rules  for  the  addition,  and,  therefore,  for  the  sub- 
traction, of  vectors  are  thus  extremely  simple  ;  and, 
without  any  further  preface,  we  are  in  a  position  to 
solve  a  great  many  geometrical  problems,  some  of 
which  are  of  no  common  difficulty.  A  comparative- 
ly simple  one  must  suffice  ;  let  us  prove  Euclid  i.  33 
i'.  c .  if  AB  lie  parallel  and  equal  to  CD,  AC  is  paral- 
lel anil  equal  to  BD.  In  vectors,  given  (AB)=(CD), 
prove  (AC)=(BD).  We  have  at  once,  by  going  di- 
rectly from  A  to  C,  and  then  by  the  course  A,  B, 
D,C, 

(AC;  =  (AB)  +  (BD)  +  (DC). 
But  (AB)  =  (CD)  =  — (DC)   by  what  we  have  just 
proved.     Hence  the  first  and  lliird  terms  of  the  ex- 
pression for  (AC)  are  equal   and  of   opposite  signs, 
and  therefore 

(AC)  =  (BD), 
This  example  has  been  chosen  from   its   simplicity, 
and  gives  an  extremely  inadequate  idea  of  the  grasp 
whicli  vectors  take  in  common  geometr}-. 

So  far,  we  have  not  advanced  much  beyond  com- 
mon geometrical  methods;  but  we  noir  come  to  the 
Step  in  which  (|uatiriiions  proper  are  introduced,  a 
vector  being  merely  a  degradeil  species  of  quaternion. 
This  new  step  contains  Hamilton's  answer  to  the 
question,  answered  over  and  over  again  during  the 
last  50  vears  in  forms  of  the  most  uncouth  complex- 
ity, "  flow  to  express  the  product,  or  the  <jUotient,of 
tiro  vectors,  or  directed  line.i."    In  other  words,  keep- 


ing to  one  part  of  the  question  only,  what  is  the 
nature  of  the  factor  g  in  the  equation 
(AC)  =  }(AB). 
where  A,  B,  C  are  any  three  points  ?  Let  us  first 
consider  on  hmc  many  independent  nwmbers  does  it 
depend?  It  might  at  first  sight  appear  to  depend 
upon  six,  for  (AB)  and  (AC),  as  we  have  alreaay 
seen  each  contain  tlree.  But  let  us  analyze  the  pro- 
cess of  passing  from  the  one  vector  to  the  other, 
much  as  we  have  already  analyzed  the  vector  step 
of  passing  from  one  point  to  another.  To  sim- 
plify  the  idea  of  the  process,  let  us  suppose  it  to 
be  effected  by  a  species  of  rotation.     First,  then,  in 


order  that  (AB)  may  be  turned  so  as  to  coincide  in 
directiim  with  (AC)  it  must  be  ttirned  about  an  axis 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  triangle  ABC, 
and  through  an  angle  BAC.  Now,  the  direction 
of  a  line  always  depends  on  tiro  numbers,  as  we  have 
seen  above;  hence,  we  will  have  two  for  the  direc- 
tion of  the  axis,  and  one  for  the  angle  through 
which  AB  is  turned.  But  AB  and  AC  are  not.  in 
general,  of  equal  length;  hence,  after  their  direc- 
tions have  b_v  turning  been  made  coincident,  AB 
must  be  compressed  or  stretched  till  its  length  is 
the  same  as  that  of  AC.  Thus,  a  fourth  number 
is  required  for  the  complete  description  of  the  pro- 
cess, and,  therefore,  q  depends  upon  four  indepen- 
dent numerical  guantities ;  hence  its  name,  quater- 
nion. A  similar  investigation,  but  somewhat  less 
elementary,  shows  that  The  product  of  two  vectors 
also  depends  on  four  distinct  numbers.  This  will 
be  proved  analytically  further  on  in  the  article. 
Now,  suppose  AB  and  AC  to  be  egual  to  each  other, 
and  at  right  angles ;  and  suppose 
9(AB)  =  (AC) ; 
i.e.,  suppose  that  g  turns  AB  through  a  right  ange 
in  a  given  plane  without  altering  its  length.  Apply 
the  operation  denoted  by  g,  a  second  time,  and  we 
have 

?.  .?(AB=?(AC).  g 
Now  ?(AC)  must  represent  a  vector  equal  to  AC 
in  length,  but  turned  through  a  right  angle  in  the 
plane  BAC.  It  must  therefore  be  in  the  direction 
of  BA  produced  through  A,  and  equal  in  length  to 
AB.  Hence,  by  a  previous  remark,  it  may  be  ex- 
pressed by 

— (AB),  or  by  (BA). 
Hence,  g.  9(AB)  =  — (AB),  or  g.g=  —  1. 
The  particular  quaternion,  therefore,  which  turns 
a  vector  through  90'^  without  altering  its  length,  has 
its  square  equal  to  — 1.  Though,  of  course,  they 
are  essentially  a  real  geometrical  conception,  this 
result  shows  how  closely  quaternions  are  connected 
with  what  are  called  imaginary  (luantities  in  analy- 
tical gcimietryand  algebra.  Now  it  is  found,  by  a 
careful  examination  of  all  the  consequences  involv- 
ed, that  we  are  at  liberty  to  represent  by  a  vector  of 
unit  length,  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  two  equal 
lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  the  quaternion 
which,  employed  as  a  mvdtiiilier,  changes  one  of 
these  lines  into  the  other.  This  result  we  nuist  as- 
sume ;  as  its  proof,  thougli  not  in  any  sense  difficult, 
woulil  rcquin-  tlie  free  use  of  analytical  symbols  to 
condense  it  within  our  assigned  limits.  Hence  tiiree 
vectors,  each  of  tmit  length,  and  each  perpendicular 
to  the  other  two,  have  the  pro])erty  that  the  product 
of  anv  two,  taken  in  the  proper  order,  is  the  third. 
For  illustration,  suppose  these  to  be  drawn  eastward, 
northwaril,  and  upward,    and  lit  them  l)e  represent- 


ftOATREFOIL. 


(iL'l 


QUICK  MATCH. 


ed  (according  to  Hamilton's  notation)  by  /,  j,  k.  run- 
pectivcly  ;  we  have   tlu^  following  ('(nmtlons  among 

tlU'Ill  t 

i.j  =  /.%j.  /.■  =  /,  k.  i=j  ; 
when-  it  isto  Ih'oIjsitvciI  llml  Ilii-onlcr  of  the  alplia- 
bet  is  inainlaiiicil   llirouglnnii.     Also,  as  before.  «■<■ 
sec  that  i'  ^j-  =  k'  —  —  1. 

'C'onsiilcriiig  them  for  a  moment  as  handles  to  be 
laid  hold  of  to  turn  the  whole  system  alioiit  one  of 
them,  we  see  that  /  turns  ,/  ijilo  the  |)osiliou  of/-; 
that  is,  llie  operation/  may  bcelTeeled  liy  a  leflhand- 
ed  (|uadianlal  rolalion  alioul  llie  eastward  line  /. 
What.  Ihen,  is  the  resuh,  uiion  the  veelor  /  of  the 
rotation  symbolized  by  ;'?  Layiui:  hold  (if  IheiKirlh- 
ward  line;',  use  it  as  an  axis  of  left-handed  (inadran- 
tal  rotation,  and  the  efTeet  on  lh<'  system  will  be  not 
(mly  (as  above,, ;'/■=  0 'o  make  the  upward  line  an 
eastward  one,  but  to  make  the  eastward  line  a  limrn- 
wird  one  ;  in  symools, 

j.  i=—k. 
Comparing  this  with 

'•./  =  k. 
we  see  that  in  quaternions,  the  commvtatire  Imr  of 
7nulti/iliC(Ui»ii  (/"C.1  n"t  hold;  i,  r..  that  the  proiliiet  de-  [ 
pends  not  only  on  the  faetors,  as  in  arithmetic  ami 
algebra,  but  upon  the  nrdfr  in  which  the  multipliia- 
tion  is  elfected.  Tliis  is.  of  course,  a  litlh/  jierplex- 
ing  to  the  beginner,  but  is  eii-.ily  gut 
over;  and  the  mere  consideration  of 
this  fact  is  often  sutticient  for  the 
proof  of  theorems  regarded  in  gene- 
ral MS  (if  11(1  (irdiiiary  dillieulty. 

QUATREFOLL.— A    heraldic    bear- 
ing meant  to  reiiresent  a  Hower  with 
four   leaves.     It  is   not   represented 
Qoatre&il.  ^^■n\^  ^  ^^.^\\^  unless  lila/oned  as  Klip- 

pfd,  in  which  case  the  stalk  joins  the  lower  leaf. 

QUEEN. — In  its  primary  signification,  the  King's 
Consort,  who  has  in  all  countries  been  invested  with 
privileges  not  belonging  to  other  married  women. 
The  English  tjiieen.  unlike  other  wives,  can  make  a 

§rant  to  her  husband,  and  receive  one  from  him. 
he  can  sue  and  be  sued  alone,  and  purchase  land 
witlidiit  the  King's  concurrence.  Tlie  statute  of 
treasons  makes  it  treas(,)n  to  compass  her  death,  or 
to  violate  her  chastity,  even  with  her  consent,  and 
the  Queen  consenting,  is  herself  guilty  of  treason. 
If  accused  of  treason,  the  Queen  is  tried  by  the  Peers 
of  the  Realm.  A  duty,  amounting  to  one  one-tenth 
of  the  value  of  lines  on  grants  by  tlie  Crown,  was  in 
former  times  due  to  the  Queen,  under  the  name  of 
queen-nold.  Charles  I.  purchased  it  from  his  Con- 
sort, Henrietta  Maria,  in  Ida."),  for  X10,0()i),  but  it 
■was  not  renewed  at  the  restoration.  The  Queen's 
Consort  is  c.\empt  from  paying  toll,  and  from  n- 
mercements  in  any  court.  She  has  a  household  of 
her  own,  consisting  of  six  I.adies  of  the  Bedchamber, 
a  Lord  Chamberlain.  Vice-chamberlain.  Mistress  of 
the  Robes,  blaster  of  the  Horse,  and  three  E(|uerries, 
as  also  her  Attorney  (leneral  and  Solicitor  (Jencral. 
distinct  from  those  of  the  King,  who  are  entitled  to 
take  a  jilace  witliin  the  bar  along  with  the  King's 
counsel,  and  prosecute  suits  in  law  and  e(iuity  for 
the  Queen.  It  has  been  the  usual  practice  to  Crown 
the  Queen  Consort  with  solemnities  similar  to  those 
in  the  coronal  ion  of  the  King.  In  the  case  of  the 
Qiiteii  /^<((c,f(7<v  is  the  widow  of  the  deceased  King. 
She  retains  most  of  the  privileges  which  she  enjoyed 
as  (^ueen  Consort,  nor  does  she  lose  her  dignity  by 
re-marriage ;  but  it  has  been  held  that  no  one  can 
marry  the  Queen  Dowager  without  permission  from 
the  King.on  pain  of  forfeiture  of  lands  and  goods.  On 
the  marriage  of  a  King,  or  accession  of  an  unmar- 
ried Prince,  Parliament  makes  provision  for  the 
Queen's  maintenance,  in  case  of  her  siirvivance. 
An  income  of  iUID.dOO  a  year,  with  two  residences, 
was  settled  on  the  Queen  of  George  III.;  and  the 
same  provision  was  made  for  the  late  Dowager  Queen 
Adelaide,  at  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of 
William  rV.     The  Queen-Dowager.  when  mother  of 


the  reigning  Sovc-rcign,  U  styled  the  Qiiccn-Mutlicr. 

Until  tiie  time  of  (Jeorge  If,  Qneenii  Consort  bore 
the  arms  of  the  King  impaled  with  their  paternal 
coat,  with  the  King's  dexter  and  their  jmternal  sin- 
isler-supporler;  since  that  period,  they  have  uwd 
both  royal  siiiiiiorters.  It  is  not  usual  to  place  the 
arms  of  the  Queen  Consort  within  the  tarter. 

'i'he  Qiifen  Jl'ynarU  is  a  Sovereign  PrlnceKH  who 
has  succeeded  to  the  kingly  power.  In  modern  tinicn, 
in  those  countries  where  the  Salic  law  does  not  pre- 
vail, on  failure  of  nudcH.  a  female  succeeds  to  the 
throne.  Hy  an  act  of  (^ueen  .Mary,  the  tlrst  ({iieen- 
Kegnant  in  Kngland,  it  was  declared  '•  thai  the  regal 
]iower  of  this  realnie  is  in  the  Queen's  mujestie  us 
fully  and  absolulelv  as  ever  it  wu.s  in  any  of  lier  most 
noble  progenitors  kings  of  this  realme:"  and  it  Iiuh 
sin('e  been  held  that  the  powers,  jirerogalives,  and 
dignities  of  the  (^ueen  Ketrnant  dilTer  in  no  respect 
from  those  of  the  King.  The  husband  of  the  t^iieen- 
Regnant  is  her  subject;  but  in  the  matter  of  conjug- 
al intidelily,  he  is  not  subjected  to  the  same  penal 
restrictions  as  tli<'  (^ueen  Con.sort.  lie  is  not  endow, 
ed  by  the  constitution  with  any  political  rights  or 
privileges,  and  his  lionors  and  precedence  must  lie 
derived  from  tliet^iieen.  A  t^ueen  Regnant  is  the  only 
woman  who  is  in  her  own  right  entitled  to  bear  her 
arms  in  a  shield  and  not  in  a  lozenge.  She  is  also 
entitled  to  the  exteriorornaments  of  lielmet. mantling, 
crest,  and  motto,  and  may  surround  her  shield  with 
the  garter,  and  tlie  collars  and  ribbons  of  all  other 
Orders  of  Knighthood  of  which  she  is  Sovereign. 

QUEEN  ANNE'S  POCKET  PIECE.— An  ancient  IH- 
pounder  (■•■iimou  ;it   Dover.  England.     This  piece  is 

more  thilll  L'S  feel    ill  IcllL'tll. 

QUEEN'S  ALLOWANCE.— An  allowance  in  Eng- 
land, in  aid  of  the  expenses  of  the  officers'  mess. 
It  is  applied  towards  reducing  the  cost  of  wine  and 
diminishing  the  daily  expenses  of  the  mess,  in  equal 
proportions,  viz.,  one-half  for  wine  and  one-half  for 
mess  expenses.     This  grant  isalso  knownas  Hegml'ii 

Atb'irillifi  . 

QUEEN'S  COLOR.— In  the  British  service,  the  color 
carried  on  the  right  of  the  two  colors  of  a  battalion 
of  infantry.  It  is,  in  the  line,  the  great  Union  or 
Union-jack,  with  the  Imperial  crown  in  the  center, 
and  the  number  of  the  regiment  in  gold  Roman 
characters  below  the  crown.  In  the  guards,  the 
Queen's  color  is  crimson,  with  various  devices  on  it. 

QUEEN'S  REGULATIONS.  —  Tho.se  collections  of 
orders  and  regulations  in  force  in  the  English  Army, 
which  serve  to  guide  commanding  and  other  officers 
in  all  matters  of  discipline  and  personal  conduct. 
Financial  matters  are  left  to  the  War  Office  regula- 
tions. The  Regulations  for  the  army  were  first  col- 
lectetl  in  1788,  since  when  .several  editions  have  been 
issued,  the  last  being  in  1873.  The  current  Regnla- 
titms  are  supplemented,  corrected,  and  canceled  by 
numerous  circulars  and  addenda;  so  that  they  never 
re|iresent  the  whole  body  of  military  rules  for  many 
d;iys  together. 

QUEUE.— A  tail-like  twist  of  hair  formerly  worn 
at  the  iKick  iif  the  head  by  soldiers. 

QUEUES  D'HIRONDE.— In  fortitication.  lines  com- 
posed of  projecting  tenailles,  or  works,  which,  from 
the  facility  with  which  an  enemy  can  enfilade  their 
long  branches,  are  considered  extremely  defective, 
and  C(inse(|ueiitly  are  seldom  employed. 

QUICK-MATCH.-  Cotton  yarn,  of  "several  strands, 
saturated  and  covered  with  an  inflammable  composi- 
tion. It  is  used  for  communicating  fire  from  point  to 
point  in  fireworks,  etc.  The  following  materials  are, 
required  in  manufacture  :  MfdUdpoirder:  rott'-u  i/urn 
wound  in  loose  balls  of  convenient  size  (say  1  pound, 
which  will  measure  about  l,Ot)0  yards),  such  as  is 
used  for  candle-wick.  AVhen  doubled  and  slightly 
twisted  in  the  fingers  it  should  be  about  .07  inch  in 
diameter.  Gummed  Irrandj/  or  irkij>kj/.  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  ounce  of  gum  to  i  gallon  of  spirits. 
The  gum  is  first  dissolved  in  the  smallest  quantify  of 
hot  water  or  vinegar,  and  afterward  mixed  with  the 


QUICKNESS  OF  BURNING. 


622 


BACKAHOCK. 


whisky.  Strips  of  paper  ;  thread.  One  thousand 
yards  of  quick -match  require  1  pound  cf  cotton 
yarn,  8  pounds  of  mealed  powder,  \\  gallons  of 
spirits,  and  2\  ounces  of  gum  arabic.  Weight  when 
dried,  9  pounds.  The  following  utensils  are  used  in 
preparing  the  quick-match  :  Wooden  or  cupper 
buirbt ;  1  quart  measure ;  funnel  or  jrame  ;  reel. 
Steep  the  balls  of  yarn  in  the  gummed  whisky  until 
they  are  quite  thoroughly  saturated.  Make  a  good 
paste  of  mealed  powder,  by  mixing  1  quart  of  gummed 
whisky  to  2  pounds  of  powder,  and  put  a  layer  of  it 
about  i  inch  deep  in  the  bowl ;  on  tliis  spread  a  roil 
of  the  cotton  by  unrolling  the  ball  and  distributing  it 
equally  on  the  surface  of  the  paste  until  there  are 
5  or  6  yarns  over  one  another ;  put  another  layer  of 
the  paste.and proceed  in  this  manner  until  the  bowl  is 
full,  taking  care  not  to  entangle  the  strands;  the  last 
layer  of  this  paste  should  be  a  little  deeper  than  the 
others.  After  the  cotton  has  been  3  or  4  hours  in 
the  bowl,  wind  it  on  a  reel,  or  stretch  it  on  nails  40 
or  .50  feet  apart,  making  it  pass  through  a  funnel,  or 
the  hand,  tilled  with  the  paste,  and  taking  care  tliat 
the  several  turns  of  yarn  do  not  touch  each  other. 
Before  it  is  dry  dredge  it  with  mealed  powder  ;  let  it 
dry  slowly,  then  cut  it  off  from  the  reel  or  nails  and 
put  it  in  bundles.  During  the  winter  quick  match 
should  be  made  in  a  warm  room.  Match  thus  pre- 
pared should  be  hard  and  stiff,  and  the  composition 
should  hold  flrmh'  on.  One  yard  burns,  in  tlie  open 
air,  13  seconds.  By  using  rinrgar,  a  match  is  made 
which  burns  less  rapidly,  in  the  proportion  of  4  to  -5: 
and  with  pure  water,  in  the  ratio  of  4  to  6.  Alcohol 
makes  a  quicker  match,  but  it  cannot  be  gummed, 
and  the  composition  does  not  stick.  A  slow  kind  of 
match  is  made  by  adding  sulphur  to  the  mealed 
powder.  With  J  of  sulphur,  one  yard  of  match 
burns  23  seconds;  with  5,33  seconds;  with  \,  53 
seconds  ;  with  ^,  163  seconds.  Quick-match  carefully 
inclosed  in  tubes  burns  much  more  rapidlv  than  in  the 
open  air,  and  more  so  in  proportion  as  the  tubes  are 
made  smaller.  To  communicate  tire  very  rapidlv,  it 
is  inclosed  in  paper  tubes,  callled  leaders.  See  t^ire- 
tcorkx. 

QUICKNESS  OF  BURNING.— The  relative  quickness 
of  burning  of  two  dillerent  powders  may  be  deter- 
mined by  burning  a  train  laid  in  a  circular  or  other 
groove  which  returns  into  itself,  one-half  of  the 
groove  bein^  filled  with  each  kind  of  powder,  and 
lire  communicated  at  one  of  the  points  of  meeting  of 
the  two  trains;  the  relative  quickness  is  readily  "de- 
duced from  observation  of  the  point  at  which  the 
flames  meet. 

QUICKSTEP.— ,\  lively,  spirited  march  frequently 
played  by  military  bauds. 


QDICK  TIME.—  In  tactics,  the  length  of.the  direct 

step  in  quick  time  is  38  inches,  measured  from  heel 
to  heel;  the  cadence  is  at  the  rate  of  110  steps  per 
minute,  or  2  miles  1G13  yards  in  an  hour.  See  On 
di  iicf  and  Step. 

QUILLED. — In  Heraldry,  a  term  used  in  describ- 
ing a  feather,  to  indicate  that  the  quill  differs  i,n 
tincture  from  the  rest. 

QUILLON. — The  ordinary  cross-guard  of  a  sword. 
See  '  'ross-f/unrd. 

QUILTED  GRAPE.— The  old  pattern  grape-shot, 
which  consisted  of  a  round  iron  plate  or  bottom, 
having  an  iron  pin  in  its  center,  around  which  the 
small  shot  were  piled,  quilted  with  canvas,  and  tied, 
so  as  to  appear  in  form  something  like  a  bunch  of 
grapes. 

"  QUINAN  BREECH-SIGHT.— An  improvement  on 
the  pendulum  hausse.  It  is  fixed  in  a  socket  on  the 
right  side  of  the  breech.  The  scale  has  a  spirit-level, 
by  means  of  which  it  is  made  vertical.  Tlie  front 
sight  is  a  sliort  tube  with  cross-hairs  fixed  in  it.  The 
advantages  claimed  over  the  hausse  are  increased 
steadiness  and  accuracy. 

QUINTE. — An  important  guard  in  fencing.  Usu- 
ally the  fifth. 

QUINTIN. — An  instrument  used  in  the  ancient  prac- 
tice of  tilting  on  horseback  with  the  lance.  It  con- 
sisted of  an  upright  post,  surmounted  by  a  cross-bar 
turning  on  a  pivot,  which  had  at  one  end  a  fiat 
board,  at  the  otlier  a  bag  of  sand.  The  object  of  the 
tilter  was  to  strike  the  board  at  such  speed  that  the 
rider  was  past  before  the  bag  of  sand,  as  it  whirled 
round,  could  hit  him  on  the  back.  Also  written 
Quintain. 

QUIRITF.S. — A  term  applied,  in  ancient  Rome,  to 
the  citizens  as  distinguished  from  the  orgnaized  sol- 
diery. 

QUISCHENS.— Tlie  old  term  for  Cuisses.  the  pieces 
of  armor  wliicli  protected  the  thighs. 

QUITTING  GUARD.— The  Articles  of  War  provide 
that  an_v  otficer  or  soldier  who  quits  his  guard,  pla- 
toon, or  division,  without  leave  from  his  superior 
officer,  except  in  a  case  of  urgent  necessity,  shall  be 
punLshed  as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct.  Quitting 
any  post  or  duty  without  having  received  any  pre- 
vious order  for  that  purpose,  is  severely  punished  in 
the  arm)'. 

QUIVER. — A  case  or  sheath  for  arrows,  formerly 
woni  Ijy  archers  or  bowmen. 

QUOIN. — A  large  wedge,  used  in  place  of  an  eleva- 
ting screw  under  the  chase  of  mortars  and  the  breech 
of  short  howitzers,  to  keep  them  in  the  proper  posi- 
tion when  elevating.  It  has  a  handle  on  the  large 
end,  by  which  it  is  moved. 


R 


RABINET. — A  small  piece  of  ordnance  formerly 
in  use.  It  weighed  but  300  lbs.,  and  fired  a  small 
ball  of  IJ  in.  diameter,  with  a  very  limited  range. 

RACERS.— Circular  rails  of  metal  located  in  the 
ground  on  which  the  trucks  of  traversing  platforms 
run.  The  racers  used  witli  wooden  platforms  arc 
made  of  wrought-iron,  laid  with  the  iipper  surface 
rai.sed.  For  wrought-iron  traversing  platforms  on 
which  heavy  muzzle  loading  rified  guns  of  less  size 
than  the  10-inch  stand,  flanged  racers  of  wrought-iron 
are  used,  but  for  the  guns  of  a  larger  size  steel  is  sub- 
stituted for  wrouL'ht-iron. 

EACHAT  DES  CLOCHES.— Formerly,  in  France, 
wlieii  a  ftjrtitieil  i)lace  was  taken,  the  bells  became 
the  property  of  the  Master  General  of  Artillery, 
wliieh  were  usually  redeemed  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  place  at  a  certain  price  ;  it  was  necessary   that 


the  place  should  be  attacked  by  artillery  in  order  to 
secure  tliis  right  over  the  bells. 

RACK.— A  straight  bar,  with  cogs  or  teeth  placed 
along  it,  so  as  to  correspond  with  similar  cogs  or 
teeth  placed  on  a  wheel,  thus:  If  the  bar  is  not 
movable,  the  wheel  is  attached  to  a  traversing  frame, 
and  as  it  revolves,  is  moved  along  by  the  resistance 
of  its  teeth  to  those  on  the  bar.  'It  was  in  this  way 
that  the  formation  of  a  railway  was  first  projected, 
the  rail  and  the  driving-wheel  of  the  engine  to  be 
both  furnished  with  corresponding  teeth.  In  me- 
chanics, rack-work   has   innumerable   application.s. 

RACKAHOCK.— The  name  given  to  a  blasting  pow- 
der formed  by  the  imion  of  two  ingredients,  one  a 
solid  and  the  "other  a  lluid,  both  being  absolutely  in- 
explosive  until  combined  by  the  consumer.  Many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  prepare  ingredients  that 


RACKING. 


023 


EACKINO. 


would  form  an  cfTet'tivt'  explosive  immt'dmU'lyiipon 

mixture,  lint,  nearly  nil  the  jihiiiM  proposed  Imve 
j)rovcil  iiii|inieliealile  friirii  ilillieiilty  or  ilaiij;er.  The 
l{e?i(lr(iek  I'dwder  (jo.,  of  New  York,  have  on  the 
market  a  powder  named  as  above,  the  invention  of 
.Silas  H.  Divine.  It  has  heeii  most  elTeetivi'ly  used 
in  !i  ureal  variety  of  oi)erations  in  tumielinK  and 
niininu.  and  has  jiroved  to  he  an  explosive  of  Kfeat 
power-  rivalinu;  nitro-ulyeerine  in  Ihat  respect- «n(l 
safer  than  most  other  hifih  explosives,  even  after  the 
Beparati-  in^redienls  have  heen  eoinliined  ready  for 
use  ill  hlaslini;.  In  manufacture,  trans|iortalion'  and 
Htoraue,  there  can  of  course  be  no  daiij;er,  as  the 
materials  are  kept  sei)arate  until  wantid  for  imme- 
diate use.  A  dry  oxyiren-yieldini;  salt,  in  a  linely- 
pnlveri/ed  condition,  is  packed  in  cylindrical  muHlin 
biii^s.  which  form  the  cartridiies.  'Vhese  arc  (npped 
into  a  suitable  lluid  hydrocarbon-  iireferably  nitrat- 
ed, as,  for  instance,  nitro-benzole  -and  allowed  toab- 
.sorb  a  certain  amount,  which  c'an  be  made  delinile 
by  timiiii;  the  immersion,  or  by  wcii^hiin;  the  car- 
tridges bcfiire  they  are  ili|)pcd,and  arrestini;  the  ah- 
sorption  when  they  have  ac(juired  the  requisite  in- 
crease in  weiirht.  The  jxirous  envelope  or  cartridge 
of  muslin  is  an  inixcnious  device.  The  idea  of  inuk- 
iuij;  explosives  by  puttini;  the  oxyi;en  salt  in  porous 
cartridi^cs  and  then  saturating  them,  seems  simple 
eniiuixh  after  it  has  once  been  done,  the  same  as 
Howe's  idea  of  [mttinir  the  eye  of  the  needle  near 
the /)"('«<,  instead  of  in  the  blunt  end,  seemed  sim- 
ple after  it  was  once  disclosed,  but  the  ])erfection  of 
the  invention  in  both  ceases  was  only  reached  after 
hard  study.  Like  the  invention  of  the  sewing-ma- 
chine needle,  it  became  necessary  to  reverse  the  old 
processes.  The  old  way  in  explosives  was  to  make 
the  cartridijc  Huid-proof— the  new  way  is  to  make  it 
porous.  It  allows  the  free  jiercolation  of  the  lluid  to 
the  powder,  and  when  the  interstices  of  the  envelope 
are  tiKed  with  an  oil  or  lluid  that  will  not  mix  with 
water,  it  resists  i\u:  entrance  of  the  latter  to  the  solu- 
ble .salt  inside.  When  the  muslin  cartridges  were 
first  used,  they  were  fully  saturated,  and  removed 
from  the  lluid  in  a  dripping  condition,  and  theexcess 
of  oil  s(pieezed  out  by  wringing  the  cartridges.  This 
method  was  tedious  and  laborious.  At  length  it  was 
found  that  by  allowiiii;  a  little  lime,  a  small  ([uantity 
of  fluid  would  eciually  diffuse  throuLdi  the  whole 
mass  of  i)owder  contained  in  the  cartridges  by  capil- 
lary attraction.  It  is  desirabU^  not  to  oversatnrate 
the  powder,  as  there  may  be  too  much  hydrocarbon 
for  complete  combustion  with  the  oxygen  furnished 
by  the  dry  salt.  An  excess  of  hydrocarlxm  will  can.se 
more  smoke  when  the  powder  is  exploded,  and  will 
not  give  so  high  a  result  dynamically. 

In  practice,  the  cartridges  are  placed  in  a  wire 
basket  and  lowered  into  a  pail  or  vessel  containing 
the  fluid,  and  allowed  to  remain  a  certain  number  of 
seconds,  depending  upon  the  diameter  of  the  cart- 
ridges. 

For  l+-inch  cartridges,  about  6  seconds. 
"     ij-    "  "  "        8 

"     i|.    "  "  "      10 

The  cartridges  saturated  as  above,  if  cut  open  after 
saturation,  will  present  in  the  center  of  the  cross  sec- 
tion, an  area  about  the  size  of  the  end  Of  a  lead  pencil 
which  is  not  wet,  but  which  will  be  wet  if  the  car- 
tridges are  allowed  to  stand  a  few  minutes  before 
using,  as  the  oil  will  eiflially  diffuse  by  capillary  at- 
traction. When  this  mode  was  tirsl  adopted  the 
wire  basket  containing  the  cartridges  was  hung  on  a 
spring  balance  and  alternately  dipped  and  w  ithdrawu 
until  the  desired  increase  in  weight  was  obtained. 

Mr.  A.  V.  Hand  proposed  to  secure  the  right  pro- 
portions by  immersion  for  a  certain  detiuite  time  for 
each  size  of  cartridge.  This  plan  was  successful  in 
practice,  and  has  been  in  constant  use  since  its  adop- 
tion. Another  mode  of  securing  proper  proportions 
of  dry  salt  and  combu.stible  liipiid  has  been  introduced 
by  the  manufacturers  of  Hackarock.  This  is  to  mix 
a  very  volatile  liquid  like  carbon  disulpliide,  with  a 


fixed  oil  like  nitrobcnzolc,  and  allow  the  cartridges 

to  becoriK!  completely  saturated.  Then  tliey  are  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  the. oprn  air  until  the  voliitile  in- 
gredieiit  has  rvaporated,  leaving  tlie  proper  iiiMoiiiit 
of  lixed  oil  in  the  powder.  'Ibis  iiinde  ha»  also  been 
successful  ill  prailice.  With  reference  tr)  the  use  of 
nitratid  hydrocarbons,  it  may  be  slated  that  the 
greater  Ihi'  (juantity  of  oxygen  that  is  conlainiil  the 
less  the  relative  weight  of  the  oil  that  is  to  be  mixed 
with  the  oxygen  yielding  salt.  When  the  liydrocur- 
boii  is  present  in  such  (|uanlity  that  the  carbon  can 
only  be  burned  to  carbonic  oxide  instead  of  carbonic 
acid,  the  mechanical  result  Is  not  so  great,  and  more 
smoke  is  evolved  on  exjiloslon.  The  cartrirlges  when 
properly  prei)aredare  practically  wati-rproof.  and  re- 
nndn  good  for  some  days  in  wet  drill-holes,  as  the  oil 
repels  the  water  and  prevents  its  permeating  the  pow- 
der through  the  muslin.  The  consistence  of  the  pre- 
jiared  powder  is  like  that  of  damp  brown  sugar,  and 
it  may  bi^  closely  packed  in  the  drill-hole,  especially 
if  till-  muslin  is  slit  before  the  cartridges  are  dropped 
',  in  and  rammed. 

The  s])ecitic  gravity  of  the  powder  is  from  1 .7  to  2 
and  its  density  allows  the  concentration  of  great 
power  in  a  small  space.  It  gives  the  highest  resullA 
in  hard  compact  rock,  and  is  tnucli  useilin  tunnelw, 
drifts,  and  shafts,  where  the  rock  is  (irmly  bound.  The 
gases  produced  during  combustion  are  not  sickening 
like  those  from  nitroglycerine- and  the  dynamites. 

The  sensitiveness  of  Hackarock  can  be  increased  or 
decreased  by  special  means  employed  bv  the  manu- 
facturers, and  one  variety  that  has  been  largely  used 
will  not  explode  with  a  fulminating  cap  without  con- 
linement.  In  the  oijen  air  at  common  temperatures 
the  powder  will  be  scattered  about  without  exploding 
when  a  fuse  and  cap  are  inserted  in  a  cartridge  and 
tired.  But  when  contined  in  a  drill-hole  the  powder 
receives  an  impact  from  the  detonating  primer  that 
causes  the  whole  mass  to  explode. 

RACKING. — It  has  been  shown  that  the  penetration 
of  a  projectile  depends  more  upon  velocity  than 
weight,  and  thai  the  elongated  is  a  better  form  than 
the  spherical  for  mere  penetration  or  punc/n'ng.  It 
must,  however,  be  remembered  tlnxt  very  heavy  shot, 
tired  with  velocities  which  might  not  enable  them  to 
penetrate  or  punch  holes  in  iron  armor,  may  still  do 
great  damage,  especially  if  many  are  tired  succes- 
sively, by  breaking  bolts  and  shaking  the  whole  fab- 
ric  ;  also,  that  a  spherical  shot,  having  a  larger  di- 
ameter than  the  elongated  projectile,  may  often  do 
more  damage  in  cracking  or  shattering  a  plate,  than 
the  latter  in  jmnehiitg  it,  the  irork  done  by  the  ball 
being  distributed  over  a  larger  area.  The  same  ar- 
gument will  apply  to  the  case  of  two  elongated 
projectiles,  having  different  diameters,  striking  a 
target  witli  the  .same  force,  as  measured  by  irr'. 
Hence  there  are  two  general  methods  of  attempting 
the  deslniction  of  iron-clad  vessels,  termed  respect- 
ively nvking  and  punching.  The  American  shave 
shown  a  preference  for  the  racking  system,  which 
requires  heavy  projectiles  of  large  diameters,  lireil 
with  low  velocities,  to  destroy  and  shake  off  the  ar- 
mor by  repeated  shocks  without  penetration,  and 
thus  to  expose  the  vessel  to  the  effects  of  ordinary 
projectiles.  It  is  believed  that  the  two  forces  may 
prepare  the  way  for  each  other,  so  as  to  produce  a 
more  formidable  result  than  when  they  are  inde- 
pendently exercised.  The  defect  of  the  light-shot 
system  when  the  range  is  very  long  or  the  armor 
very  thick,  and  of  the  heavy-shot  .system  when  the 
range  is  even  very  short  and  the  armor  is  laminated, 
or  so  constructed  as  to  suffer  little  from  racking  and 
shaking,  is  the  waste  of  power  in  producing  local 
effect,  that  is  fruitless  becau.sc  it  is  incomplete.  By 
combining  the  two  systems,  the  light  fast  shot  may 
weaken- tlie  armor  by  the  loss  of  substance  and  con- 
tinuity, until  the  heavy  shot  can  earni-  in  a  large 
section  of  it  bodily  ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  gen- 
eral straining  and  cracking  of  plates  produced  by  the 
heavy  shot  will  make  punching  all  the  easier. 


BACKING  DOWN. 


624 


KAILROADS. 


The  tlieory  in  favor  of  the  racking  system  is,  tliat 
heavy  projectiles  may  be  lired  with  low  velocites 
■without  straining  the  gun  ;  that  blows  given  in  this 
way  waste  no  power  in  puncliing  mere  holes,  but  that 
the'entire  work  will  be  expended  in  straining,  loosen- 
ing, and  dislocating  the  armor  and  breaking  its  fast- 
enings, tearing  it  off  and  exposing  unprotected  spots 
easily  vulnerable  to  shells,  at  the  same  time  racking 
and  breaking  the  ribs  and  sides  of  the  vessel  to  such 
extent  as  to  render  her  unseaworthy.  ^For  produc- 
ing these  effects  the  15-inch  gun,"  throwing  solid 
cast-iron  balls,  is  quite  as  formidable  as  the  powerful 
ritle  expending  costly  bolts  ;  but  the  accuracy  of  tire 
from  the  rifle  is  so  greatly  superior  to  that  from  the 
smooth-bore,  as  to  leave  a  large  margin  in  its  favor. 
Spherical  shot,  and  slow  shot  of  any  form,  will  do 
very  little  execution  under  water.  The  concussion 
from  racking  blows,  although  it  may  not  seriously 
injure  the  vessel,  stuns  and  temporarilj'  paralyzes 
many  of  the  crew,  and  spreading  terror  to  all,  great- 
ly interferes  with  the  efficient  working  of  the  ship 
and  of  her  armament.  See  Armor-plates  and  Puncli- 
inrj. 

RACKING  DOWN.— An  operation  performed  with 
the  aid  of  rnck-laxhing  in  laying  a' gun  or  a  mortar 
platform,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  flanks  and 
the  ribands  of  the  platform  together,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent them  from  moving. 

EACK-STICK  AND  LASHING.— A  piece  of  two-inch 
rope,  about  C  feet  long,  fastened  to  a  picket  about  !'-> 
inches  long,  having  a  hole  in  its  head  to  receive  the 
rope.  Rack-lashings  are  used  for  securing  the  planks 
of  a  gun  or  mortar  platform,  between  the  ribands  and 
the  slee]iers. 

EACKUMITICK.— A  large  javelin  skillfully  used  by 
the  Hottentots.  With  this  weapon,  they  venture  to 
attack  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  and  even  tlie  lion. 

EADIAL  DEILL. — An  upright  machine,  designed 
for  drilling  a  series  of  holes  without  changing  the 
position  of  the  work.  The  value  of  a  radial  drill  in 
the  armory  consists,  primarih-,  inthe  readiness  with 
which  the  drill  can  be  moved  to  the  work,  or  shifted 
over  the  various  parts  of  the  work,  requiring 
to  be  drilled.  In,  the  use  of  radial  drills  having  the 
swinging  arm  at  one  fixed  and  unalterable  height 
above  the  floor  plate. the  work  must  either  be  blocked 
up  to  suit  the  height  of  the  machine,  or  extension 
pieces  must  be  used  to  lower  the  drill  to  the  work. 
In  Sellers'  machines  the  swinging  arm  is  raised  and 
lowered  by  power,  and  thus  quickly  adjusted  to  the 
proper  height,  so  that  the  work  to  be  drilled  has 
only  to  be  brought  under  the  drilling  machine  in 
any  convenient  ])osition  and  height,  and  the  drill  is 
then  quickly  set  to  suit  the  height  of  the  work, 
thus  saving  nuich  time.  Too  much  s:ress  cannot  be 
laid  on  this  feature  of  these  drills,  jis  the  saddle 
carrying  the  swinging  arm  is  so  litted  and  of  such  a 
length  as  not  to  require  any  bolting  to  place,  this 
adjustment  of  height  is  rendered  simple  in  the  ex- 
treiue.  The  feed  motion  is  obtained  tlirough  adjust- 
able feeil  discs.  It  has  a  wide  range  through  two 
series,  one  for  the  single  gear,  the  other  for  the  dou- 
ble gear,  and  can  be  put  on  or  off  instantaneouslj' 
by  a  tap  of  the  hand  on  a  lever  close  to  the  hand- 
wheel.  All  tlie  adjustments  of  the  machine  are 
quickly  made,  the  shifting  of  the  back  gear  into  or 
out  of  use  being  as  readily  done  as  on  any  well- 
made  turning  laihe.  A  convenient  clamp  is  arranged 
at  the  biiltoin  joint  of  tlie  swinging  arm  to  <'nalile 
thc'  radial  arm  to  be  sec\ired  in  positiim;  but  if  the 
drills  used  are  correctly  formed  and  run  true,  the 
arm  needs  no  clamping  to  place. 

EADII  OF  KUPTURE.  In  military  mining,  to  ef- 
fi'ct  all  (Wplosion  of  the  surrounding  ground,  a 
charge  nf  gunpowder  is  used,  which,  according  to 
its  .strength,  and  the  nature  of  the  grounil.  and  the 
depth  at  which  it  is  placed,  more  or  less  affects  the 
quantity  of  earlli  to  be  displaced.  Such  an  explo- 
si(m  raises  and  scatters  a  portion  of  the  superincum- 
bent earth,  and  causes  a  hollow  or  crater.      Besides 


this  effect,  an  internal  commotion  is  caused,  capable 
of  injuring  or  destroying  shafts  or  galleries  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood.  The  distances  from  the 
charge  to  which  this  commotion  extends  are  called 
radii  (if  rupture. 

RADIUS.— 1.  In  fortification,  a  term  applied  to  a 
line  drawn  from  the  center  of  the  polygon  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  exterior  side.  There  are  the  exterior, 
the  interior,  and  the  rigid  radii.  2.  In  geometry, 
the  radius  is  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the  center  to 
the  circumference  of  a  circle.  In  trigonometry, 
the  radius  is  taken  as  unity,  and  the  sines,  cosines, 
etc..  are  expressed  in  terms  of  it.  In  astronomy  the 
same  term  is  employed  in  a  slightly  different  sense; 
and  to  prevent  confusion  it  is  changed  to  radius-vec- 
t<:rr.  The  radius-vector  is  a  straightTline  drawn  from 
the  center  of  force  to  tlie  position  of  a  body  which 
describes  its  orbit  round  the  center;  if  the  orbit  is  a 
circle,  the  radius-vector  is  invariable  in  its  length, 
but  constantlj'  changes  if  the  orbit  be  any  of  the 
other  conic  sections.  F-om  astronomy  the  term  has 
been  transferred  to  what  are  callad  ]x>lar  eqiiati'ins  in 
the  higher  matliematics.  To  express  a  curve  by  this 
method  a  point  is  taken  for  the  pole;  through  this 
point  a  line,  the  axis,  is  drawn,  indefinite  in  length 
and  arbitrary  in  direction;  then  as  one  end  of  the  ra- 
dius-vector is  at  the  pole,  its  inclination  to  the  axis, 
and  its  length  at  this  inclination,  will  give  a  point  in 
the  curve.  Equations  of  curves,  when  thus  express- 
ed in  terms  of  the  radius-vector,  and  its  inclination 
to  the  axis,  are  ciiWedpolar  co-ordinates,  and  are  gen- 
erally much  simpler  in  form  than  when  exnressed  by 
rectangular  co-ordinates. 

EAFTS. — Baulks  of  timber  lashed  together  to  form 
a  bridge  for  crossing  a  river  or  stream,  when  more 
perfect  means  are  not  at  hand.  From  their  low  de- 
gree of  buoyanc}',  however,  they  are  se'dom  employ- 
ed. Fir,  pine,  hazel,  poplar,juniper.  larch. and  wil- 
low,being  the  lightest  woods,  are  the  best  for  mak- 
ing timl)er  rafts. "Rafts  of  timber  should  not  be  used 
in  rivers  where  the  velocity  of  the  current  exceeds  6 
feet  per  second,  or  4  miles  per  hour.  Good  rafts 
can  be  made  of  casks  or  barrels,  and  form  a  better 
bridge  than  baulks  of  timber.     See  JSr.'dges. 

BAGULED.— In  Heraldry,  jagged  or  notched  in  an 
irregtdar  manner.  A  rnguled  cross  is  one  made  of  two 
truiJks  of  trees  without  their  branches. of  which  only 
the  stumps  appear.     Also  written  Rnggued. 

EAGULY.— In  Heraldry,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  an  ordinary  whose  bounding 
lines  are  furnished  with  serrated  pro- 
jections. 

BAID. — A  hostile  or  predatory  in- 
cursion, especially  an  inroad  or  iu- 
.  cursion  of  mounted  men;  any  sudden 

Bagtily,  jijjj^j  rapid  invasion  bj- a  cavalry  force. 

EAH/LON. — The  French  term  for  a  short  arrow  or 
quarrel. 

BAIL -PLATFORM. — This  platform  for  siege-mor- 
tars consists  of  three  .sleepers  and  two  rails  for  the 
cheeks  of  tlie  mortar-bed  to  slide  on,  instead  of  the 
deck-plank,  and  is  very  strong,  and  easily  cim- 
structed  and  laid.  The  pieces  being  notcheil  to  fit, 
are  driven  together  at  the  battery,  the  distance  bet- 
ween the  center  lines  of  the  rails  being  equal  to  that 
between  the  center  lines  of  the  cheeks.  The  earth  is 
excavated  eight  and  a  half  inches,  the  depth  of  the 
.sleepers,  and  the  bottom  made  perfectly  level.  The 
directrix  being  exactly  marked  by  stakes,  the  plat- 
'  form  is  placed  in  position,  its  center  line  coinciding 
with  a  cord  stretched  between  the  stakes  marking 
the  line  of  fire.  The  earth  is  filled  in  as  high  as  the 
upper  surface  of  the  sleepers,  and  finiily  rammed; 
and  the  stakes  are  driven  in  the  rear  angles  formed 
liy  the  slceiH-rs  and  rails,  and  one  at  the  rear  end  of 
eaeli  rail. 

RAILROADS.— Railroads  have  played  an  impor- 
tant part  in  recent  wars.  Beginning  with  the  Cri- 
mean war  of  l.H.'i.'"!,  and  ending  with  the  late  wars  in 
Europe,  the  military  student  will  be  stnuk  with  the 


BAILBOADS. 


r,25 


EAILEOADS. 


cnt.  Thr  parts  moHl  liable  to  he  <liBlrovi''l  or  iiijiirci] 
arc  the  briilijtH  aiiillNiini-lH.  (jiiiinlH  hIioiiIiI  Ik-  mU. 
tioncil  mar  tlii'sc  poiiilH,  and  Ijc  prolcctid  l»y  Orld- 
works  or  hlrx^k-lioiiHcH.  Tlw  ^'ciiiral  tra<  k  of  tin- 
road  Klioulrl  l)c  furcfully  walclicil  by  tra<  kiiiiii  and 
patrols.  Cavalry  dctaf'liiticiits  slioiilrl  ncour  llii-  ap- 
proaclifH  ill  cvcr^y  dircflioii,  to  );iv(;  limi'ly  notice  of 


importance  of  this  rlass  of  coriiMiiiiiiialiojis  iji  llie 
elticient  Hupplyiiiii;  of  iiii  army,  anil  in  tlic  eoneenlra- 
tion  of  troopH.  liy  llicir  use,  nnMjbcrsare  concren- 
trate<l  and  snpplied  in  a  ^  pace  of  lime  wliieli  was  not 
dreamed  of  in  tlK'beijinninic  of  llie  i>resent  eenlnrv. 
It  is  safe  to  predict  that,  in  all  future  wars  in  civil- 
ized eountri<s,  the  railroad  will  he  the   line  of  com. 

innnicalion  for  an  army.  If  a  system  of  rHilroa<lH  ap[iroacliinn  raids,  and  to  arrest  ^iispiciuUK  pcrHonB 
already  exists,  this  system  will  ]><■  used  ;   if  not,  tern-  ,  in  llje  vicinity  of  the  railroad. 

porary  lines  of  riiilroad  will  he  eonslrncled.  It  has  ,  'I'hc  destruction  of  a  railroad,  or  an  injury  intliclcd 
now  becomes  an  imi)orliuil  p;irt  of  an  ollicer's  <-dnea-  I  upon  it  so  that  it  cannot  he  <|uiekly  repai'ri-d,  may 
tion  to  uiulersland  the  princii)les  of  const  ruction,  and  form,  at  times,  the  special  duly  of  any  oflieer.  There 
the  working;,  of  railroads,  to  know  how  they  can  he  arc  two  general  casts;  one,  where  flic  injuries  in- 
preserved,  and  how  they  may  be  destroyed.  The  !  flieted  are  to  prevent  its  use  by  an  enemy  ;  and  the 
construction  of  a  railroad  for  niililary  purposes  dif- j  other,  where  it  is  desired  to  (fo  as  much  injury  aB 
fcrs  from  tliat  intended  for  jieaiM-ful  traltlc  only  in  the  possible,  and  render  the  wi'rk  irreparable,  compclU 
decree  of  its  very  i;reat  excellence.  Kcononiy  an<i  inf;  an  actual  reconstruction  of  the  road.  The  llrsl 
rapidity  are  the  most  essential  ((ualilics  looked  for  j  consists  in  removin<^  parts  of  the  rollin/^j-slock  and 
in  the  construcliou  of  a  military  railroad.  The  prin-  !  Iifdinj;  them,  or,  where  rails  cannot  he  obtained,  in 
cipal  thini;s  in  its  construction  are  the  i;radini;  and    removini;  the  track  at  various  intervals. 


the  laying  of  the  track.  (Jradesand  curves  are  nec- 
essary evils  incident  to  railroads,  and  a  proper  selec- 
tion of  them  requires  an  exercise  of  good  judfiment, 
in  many  cases.  Sometimes,  the  track  may  he  laid  on 
the  naturalsurfaceof  the  ground,  or  with  so  little  lill- 
iiii;  and  excavation  as  to  amount  to  the  same  thing. 
The  placing  of  the  cross-tics,  the  spiking  of  the  rails, 
and  the  general  linishiug  of  tlie  road  are  better  done, 
when  men  used  to  this  kind  of  labor  can  l)e  procured. 
Usually  there  can  be  found  among  the  troops,  a  great 
many  who  have  a  practical  knowledge  of  this  class  of 
construction,  and  these  men  can  he  profitably  used  as 
foremen  and  superintendents  of  I  he  working  parties. 
The  successful  working  of  a  railroad  re(|uires  an 
etticient  superintendent,  as  much  as  it  requires  sulli- 
cient  rolling-stock  and  good  locomotives.  A  good 
man  for  superintendent  can  generally  be  obtained 
from  some  of  the  railroad  companies,  hut  he  has  the 
defect,  as  a  rule,  of  knowing  nothing  of  the  peculiar- 
ities of  military  service,  Nevertheless,  his  exper- 
ience and  knowledge  will  be  of  great  service  to  the 
military  olHcerin  charge  of  the  road,  and  the  working 
may  thus  hemadesuccessfid.  From  the  numbers  em- 
ployed upon  the  railroads  in  the  United  States,  there 
will  be  no  difliculty,  in  future  wars,  in  the  goveni- 
ment  obtaining  as  many  men  as  may  be  necessary, 
who  will  be  thoroughly  cognizant  of  the  duties  that 
may  be  required  of  them.  In  the  beginning,  there 
will  be  some  friction  and  irregularities,  but  these  will 
wear  off,  and  an  efficient  corps  of  trained  men  can 
soon  be  formed.  It  would  be  better,  however,  if  "lime 
were  taken  by  the  forelock, "and  a  skeleton  organiza- 
tion formed  in  advance.  Engineer  otflcers  should  paj' 
particular  attention  to  this  part  of  their  profession, 
and  on  short  notice  organize  bodies  of  workmen 
whose  special  duties  will  be  those  assigned  to  con- 
struction, working,  and  preservation  of  railroads. 
And  since  the  other  officers  of  the  army,  are  more  or 
less  liable  to  be  assigned  to  duties  connected  with  the 
preservation,  as  well  as  the  construction,  of  these 
roads,  it  is  equally  incumbent  on  them  to  acquire 
this  knowledge  and  be  able  to  put  it  to  a  practical  use. 
Tlie  movement  of  troops  by  railroad  may  be  divid- 
ed into  five  distinct  parts,  viz: —  1  The  march  to 
the  point  where  the  troops  are  to  get  into  the  cars. 
2.  The  embarkation.  3.  The  journey.  4.  Leav- 
ing the  train  at  the  end  of  the  journey.  ■">.  The 
march  from  this  point  to  the  pl.ice  of  camping.  A 
careful  examination  made  beforehand  of  each  por- 
tion of  the  movement  will  add  greatly  to  the  sol- 
dier's comfort,  and  prevent  mucli  confusion,  delay, 
and  annoyance.  Elaborate  rules  are  laid  down,  both 
in  the  Prussian  and  French  services,  for  moving 
troops  by  rail,  and  it  is  recommended  that  these  be 
read  bv  officers  who  desire  to  inform  themselves  on  i 


riie  following  is  a  method  of  removing  the  track 
to  render  the  road  temporarily  useless:  Select  a  part 
of  the  track  laid  on  a  higli  embankment.  Tear  up 
the  rails  of  the  extremities  of  the  part  to  be  remov- 
ed. Line  the  outside  of  the  track  with  men  for  the 
whole  length  of  the  portion  to  be  taken  up. and  have 
the  men  to  face  inwards.  At  a  given  signal  the  men 
seize  the  rail  next  to  them;  and,  at  another  signal. all 
lift  the  rail,  raising  it  and  the  ties  to  a  vertical  posi- 
tion,  when  they  let  the  whole  fall  over  the  embank- 
ment. If  the  road  is  ballasted,  the  men  must  pro- 
vide themselves  with  levers  to  lift  the  track.  The 
portion  thrown  over  the  embankment  cannot  be  re- 
placed until  the  rails  arc  unfastened  from  the  ties, 
and  tills  takes  time.  The  second  case  consists  in  re- 
moving the  rails  and  bending  and  twisting  them  so 
as  to  render  them  unfit  for  use  in  repairing  the  road; 
in  burning  or  blowing  up  the  bridges ;  destroying 
the  tunnels;  disabling  the  rolling  stock,  etc.  Loco- 
motives can  be  temporarily  disabled  by  removing 
parts  of  the  machinery.  They  may  be  permanently 
disabled  by  tiring  a  round  shot  through  the  boiler. 
Another  way,  is  to  let  out  all  the  water  in  the  boiler 
and  then  build  a  large  fire  in  the  tire-box :  the  fire 
soon  destroys  the  flues.  All  other  kinds  of  rolling- 
stock  may  be  temporarily  disabled  by  removing  parts, 
or  permanently  injured  by  burning  them. 

Some  labor  is  required  to  bend  and  twist  the  rails, 
as  it  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  remove  the  rails  from 
the  ties.  Workmen  have  special  tools  for  drawing 
out  the  spikes  and  unscrewing  the  nuts,  but  these 
tools  are  too  heavy  to  be  carried  upon  a  raid,  where 
time  is  so  important  an  element.  But  when  the  rails 
have  been  taken  up,  and  there  is  time,  it  is  recom- 
mended to  form  the  ties  into  heaps,  and  set  them  on 
lire.  Then  to  place  the  rails  on  the  burning  heap, 
loading  the  ends  with  other  ties.  As  the  rails  be- 
come red  hot, they  will  bend  under  the  load,  and  can- 
not be  used  again  until  they  are  straightened.  This 
bending  may  also  he  done  by  men  catching  the  ends 
of  the  rail  and  bending  it,  while  heated,  against  a  tree' 
or  telegraph  pole.  Kails  which  are  simply  bent  can 
easily  be  straightened  by  re-heating  and  hammering. 
Where  only  slightly  bent,  they  can  be  straightened 
without  even  being"  re-heated.  To  make  them  use- 
less, it  is  necessary  to  give  the  rail  a  twist.  A  twist- 
ed rail  can  only  be  used  again  by  bein"  re-rolled. 

Wooden  bridges  may  be  destroyed  by  burning. 
A  simple  device"  called"  a  torpedo  was  used  in  our 
late  war  for  destroying  wooden  bridges,  where  time 
was  of  importance."  A  bolt  of  j  inch  iron.  8  inches 
long,  with  head  and  nut,  was  used.  The  head  was 
2  imhes  in  diameter,  and  abovit  1  inch  thick.  A  tin 
cylinder,  IJ  inches  in  diameter,  open  at  both  ends, 
e"nolosed  the  bolt,  and  was  held  in  place  by  the  head 
md  the  nut.     A  washer  between  the  bead  and  the 


this  subject.     A  line  of  railroad  used  as  a  line  of    

communication  of  an  army  with  its  base,  is  protected  '  cylinder  made  it  tight  at  that  end.  The  cylinder  was 
in  a  great  measure  by  the  army  itself.  It  is,  however.  ^  filled  with  powder  ."and  an  arrangement  made  for  a 
liable  to  injury  from" cavalry  raids  of  the  enemy,  and  i  fuse  near  the  nut.  A  fvise  was  inserted  and  the  nut 
from  the  acts" of  a  hostile  population,  if  they  be  pres-  Iscrewed  on,  and  the  torpedo  was  ready  for  use. 


BAILWAT   COaiMUNICATION. 


626 


BAILWAT    COMMUKICATIOir. 


In  using  it.  a  hole  was  bored  into  the  timber  witli  !  different  sizes  and  weights,  giving  much  additional 
an  augur.     The  head  of  the  bolt  was  inserted  and  |  labor  and  loss  of  time  in  laying.     For  rolling  stock 


was  driven  by  a  hard  blow  into  the  hole.  The  fuse 
liglited,  anil  the  explosion  tore  the  timber  in  pieies. 

As  the  railroad  bridges  to  be  destroyed  were  ordi- 
nary truss-bridges,  it  was  only  necessary  to  insert  a 
torpedo  in  one  of  the  main  braces,  or  if  these  braces 
were  in  pairs,  in  tlie  two  pieces  forming  a  pair. 
The  destruction  of  these  braces  at  one  end.  or  on 
one  side,  was  sufficient  to  wreck  the  bridge. 

The  importance  of  guarding  a  railroad,  and  of  hav- 
ing a  good  construction  corps  thoroughlj'  organized 
to  repair  the  damages,  was  illustrated  in  the  war  of 
1861-5.  This  war  illustrated  the  uses  of  the  systems 
of  railroads  already  in  existence  for  military  purpo- 
ses, and  also  the  great  advantages  of  temporary  rail- 
roads to  perforin  a  given  service. — See  Railway 
Com  ifi  n  nicath'ii. 

RAILWAY  COMMUNICATION.— In  looking  for  the 


four  contractors'  tank  locomotives,  which  had  been 
much  u.sed,  were  supplied :  half  of  them  were  con- 
stantly under  repairs.  The  material  for  making 
bridges  consisted  of  rolled-iron  floor-joists  for  bar- 
rack buildings,  which  were  procured  from  Aden. 
One  great  advantage  of  a  railway  at  a  point  of  debark- 
ation was  noticed  on  this  occasion— the  saving  of 
labor  that  was  effected  by  being  able  to  run  the  trucks 
on  rails  into  the  water, so  that  boats  with  stores  from 
the  transport  vessels  could  be  unloaded  directly  into 
the  trucks.  For  the  war  in  Ashantee,  where  the  ob- 
jective was  to  force  the  troops  over  many  miles  of 
the  wildest  African  bush  coimtry.some  steam-sappers 
(road  traction  engines),  adapted  for  running  on  rails, 
were  sent  from  England, and  light  rails  were  shipped 
for  making  a  raihvay  of  4  ft.  8^  in.  gauge.  This 
plant  could  not   be  well  utilized   for  the  following 


quickest  and  simple>t  metho.l  to  make  a  railway  for  j  reasons :  It  was  diffleull  to  land  heavy  stores  on  a 
■      ■        ■  '    beach  that  had  a  surf  constantly  rolling  on  it;  the 

amount  of  labor  required  to  clear  a  track  for  so  wide 
a  gauge  through  the  bush  would  have  been  excessive; 
and  the  period  of  fair  season  at  the  disposal  of  the  Gen- 
eral for  the  accomplishment  of  his  enterprise  was  too 
limited  for  making  a  field  railway  of  the  full  gauge 
of  4  ft.  8i  in.  A  light  portable  surface  tramway 
(such  as  is  hereafter  described),  with  light  trucks 
that  could  have  been  pushed  by  manual  labor,  might 
have  answered  in  Ashantee  for  transporting  stores 
and  provisions  better  than  the  swarms  of  carriers 
that  had  to  be  employed  for  supplying  the  force  that 
went  on  to  Coomassie.  A  tramway  of  this  class 
could  have  been  laid  quite  as  fast  as  the  troops  cut 
their  path  through  the  bush.  These  are  the  attempts 
that  have  been  made  by  England  to  construct  and 
utilize  railways  for  troops  in  the  field.  They  have 
not  been  very  successful,  owing  to  the  plant  used  for 
them  being  unsuited  for  military  requirements  and 
being  hastily  got  together.  The  4  ft.  8^  in.  gauge 
of  the  ordinary  permanent  railways  is  adapted  speci- 
ally to  heavy  and  rapid  traffic;  its  carrying  capacity 
is  greatly  in  excess  of  what  is  likely  to  be  required 
for  a  force  operating  in  an  enemy's  country.  The 
plant  is  heavy,  and  it  takes  a  long  time  to  make  a 
line  of  this  gauge,  which  must  be  well  and  truly  laid 
to  take  the  rollmg  stock  adapted  for  it.  The'  rails 
should  be  78  lbs.  to  the  yard;  a  mile  of  line  of  single 
rails  weighs  273  tons,  and  costs  about  £1,700.  The 
ordinary  plate-laying  gang  of  three  superintendents, 
thirty  plate-layers,  and  forty  laborers,  can  only  lay  a 
mile  of  this  track  in  thirty  hours.  A  field  railway 
is  only  a  similar  line  to  the  above, with  a  very  much 
lighter  rail  of  about  43  lbs.  to  the  yard;  it  weighs  131 
tons  and  costs  on  an  average  of  £1Z1  to  the  mile. 
The  same  plate-laying  party  can  make  a  mile  of 
field  railway  in  twelve  hours.  In  its  construction 
nearly  the  same  curves  of  large  radius  are  required, 
and  the  gradients  cannot  be  made  steeper,  while 
the  rate  of  traveling  on  it  is  much  .slower  than  on  a 
permanent  line  of  the  same  gauge.   In  India  a  meter- 


military  communications  in  a  strange  country,   and 
for  themost  suitable  material  and  plant  to  use  in  its 
construction,  it  is  well  to  have  a  description  of  the 
various  gauges  of  which  railways  are  usuallj'  made; 
to  study  the  powers  and  capacfty  of  different  loco- 
motives and  rolling  stock  for  these  lines  ;  and  to 
consider  the  time,  labor,  and  cost  of  making  a  rail- 
way.    Before  commencing  a  study  of  these  three 
subjects  a  statement  will  be  given  of  what  has  been 
done  in  making  railways  in  war  time,  excluding  any 
account  of  their  construction  for  the  same  purpose 
in  civilized  countries,  such  as  the  case  of  the  Prus- 
sians,   who  made  a  raihvay  round  the  fortress  of 
Metz,  and  at  the  destroyed  tunnel  of  Nanteuil;  or 
the  railways  made  by  the  Russians  from  Bender  to 
Galatz,   and  from   Fratesi   to   Zimnltza.      After  a 
season  of  great  siiSeriug  to  the  troops  engaged  in 
the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  caused  partly  by  the  diffi- 
culty of  communicating  with  their  base  at  Balaclava, 
a  railwav  was  constructed  of  the  ordinary  gauge  of 
4  ft.  8|  in.     About  31  miles  of  track  were  made  of 
single  line:  civil  engineers  with  a  working  staff  of 
natives  were  employed   in  its   construction.      The 
rolling  stock  consisted  of  five  locomotives  of  12  to 
18  tons  weight,  and  about  40  ordinary  side-tip  bal- 
last trucks;  one  of  the  locomotives  was  worked  as 
a  stationary  engine  to  haul  trains  up  a  short  incline. 
This  railway  never  had  the  capacity  for  transporting 
all  the  supplies  required  by  an  army  engaged  in  a 
siege.      It  did  a  fair  amount  of  work  at  the  re-em- 
barkation of  the  troops  on  the  conclusicm  of  peace, 
but  it  would  have  been  of  no  use  if  hostilities  had 
been   continued  on  a  different  line  of  operations. 
It  must  not  be  attributed   to  any  failing  of  the 
Army  Works  Corps  that  better  results  were  not  ob- 
taint"d  from  this  line,  for  it  was  composed  of  a  staff 
thoroughly  practiced  in  railway  construction  ;    the 
mistake  was  in  having  only  one  line  of  rails  instead  of 
n  double  line,  which  is  indispensable  to  insure  unin- 
terrupted traffic;  and  in  tlie  plant  being  cumbersome 
and  quite  unsuited  for  military  requirements.     For 
the  Abyssinian    campaign   materials  for  a   railway 
were  collected  in  India  from  the  public  works  and 
other  sources, and  a  works  corps  of  nalives  for  laying 
the  line  was  raised   in  Bombay.     In  the  mouth  of 
November.Government  came  to  the  decision  of  s«'nd- 
ing   railway  plant  to  Abyssinia  ;  in   the    following 
January,  work  was  comnu-nccd  at  the  landing  place 
in  the  Ked  Sea,  at   Zoulla;  and   about  the  mil  of 
March,  13  miles  of  the  line  were  opened  for  traffic, 
giving  a  rale  of  progress  in  constructing  of  one  mile 
a  week.  As  the  railway  took  so  hmg  to  make  it  was 
not  of  much  n.se  to  the  expedition.  The  chief  causes 
of  delay  in  making  this  railway  miiy  be  attributed 
to   the  maleri.ils   having  been  shi])ped  from   India 
■without  any  system,  any  tran.;port  vessel  that  could 
afford  space  being  employed.     The  l)lant  was  all  for 
the  Indian  standard  gauge  of  5  ft.  (!  in.,  which  was 


Fig.  1. 

pauije  has  been  adopted  on  some  of  the  Government 
lines  :  it  is  li  ft.SJ  in.  wide  ;  rails  of  3(1  lbs.  to  the  yard 
may  be  used  for  it  ;  the  line  weighs  about  10(1  tona 
i'.nd  costs  £51)0  to  the  n)ile.     Hallways  of  this  gauge 


heavy  and  difficult  to  handle  under  tmfavorablc  i^on-  i  are  made  for  (piick   tratlic.  and  recpiire   to  be  laid 
ditious  of  lauding  appliances  ;  the  rails  were  also  of  ]  nearly   as  well   us  wider  liaes.      Tlie  rolling-stock 


BAILWAT  COMMUNICATION.  g27 


EAII.WAY  COMMDNICATIOH 


wliicli  is  madcin  Kn;;Iiin(l  niid  sent  oiil  to  Iniliii,  is 
of  a  liciivy  nature  ;  the  IdcoiMotivc.'S  wcij^li  10  tons, 
anil  lli(^  carriugcrt.  vvliicli  ur('  iron-fraiiii'ii,  weigh 
about;!!  tons.  The  Uniled  States  have  lately  adopt- 
ed llie  II  ft.  K"".'?*'  '"  '^  .t,'real  many  lines,  which  an- 
swer their  jjurpoHes  just  as  well  as  Ihi'  wiijir  perrna- 
iienl  railway.  They  ean  construct  the  lini's  with 
great  rajjidity,  ])rof;rcssin,!;  as  much  as  four  miles  in 
one  day,  includini;  formint;  the  earthwork.  The 
Americans  carry  these  light  railways  over  the  most 
ditllcult  country,  and  tij)  ravines  and  over  moun- 
tain passes  where  it  seems  almost  impraclicable  to 
make  any  sort  of  road.  There  are  ])ortable  railway.s 
made  in  Englaml  as  well  as  in  France,  which  pos- 
sess  all  the  requircmcnls  of  a  military  line.  Tliey  are 
of  various  !;au;;es,  but  tlie  2  ft.  15  in.  wide  has  advant- 
ages over  the  narrower  gauges — such  as  the  power 
and  speed  of  the  locomotive,  the  capacity  of  rolling 
stock,  and  the  great  simplicity  of  parts.  The.se  seem 
to  point  to  this  gauge  being  more  suitable  for  mili- 
tary purposes  than  the  narrowerones.  The  rails  are 
of  steel,  of  30  lbs.  to  the  yard,  fixed  in  lengths  of  12 
ft,  to  the  sleepers;  the  sleepers  are  also  of  steel, 
made  of  various  sections.  The  most  convenient 
seems  to  be  the  U-shaped  Fig.  1 ;  these  can  be  placed 
at  any  distance  apart  to  suit  the  nature  of  soil.  One 
section  of  rails  of  this  tramway  of  1'2  ft.  weighs  310 
lbs.,  and  forms  an  easy  load  for  four  men  to  handle 
in  laying  the  line,  which  is  intended  to  be  a  surface 
line.  It  can  be  laid  very  fast  by  inexperienced  men 
— about  nine  miles  in  a  day.  It  is  easily  taken  up,  re- 
moved, and  relaid  in  another  situation."  The  plant  for 
the  track  is  complete  in  all  its  parts,  such  as  curves, 
points,  and  crossings ;  it  is  also  very  compact  for 
shipment,  borne  very  narrow-gauge  railways  have 
been  made  in  North  Wales;  the  line  to  Festiniog  is 
1  ft.  lU  in.  wide;  passenger  and  mineral  Iratlichave 
been  running  on  it  regularly  for  some  time.     This 


railway  is  13J  miles  long  and  rises  700  ft.  the  gra- 
dients  are  from  1  in  70  to  1  in  180,  and  the  curves  of 
2  to  30  chains  radius;  the  locomotives,  which  are  of 
Farlie's  pattern,  weigh  about  8  tons,  and  can  draw 
trains  of  120  tons  at  an  average  speed  of  12  miles  an 
hour;  the  rails  are  30  lbs.  to  the  yard,  and  the  sleep- 
ers are  of  wood.  Railways  are  made  of  an  even 
narrower  gauge,  18  in.;  they  are  much  used  in  H. 
M.  Dockyards  and  the  Royal  Arsenal.  This  gauge 
has  been  adopted  in  the  service  for  a  tramway  to 
run  along  trenches  and  parallels  to  supply'  the  ar- 
tillery and  engineer  requirements  of  sieges.  There 
are  two  types  of  this  tramway — one  with  rails  on 
■wooden  sleepers,  and  the  oilier  of  a  portable  des- 
cription. The  first  is  that  which  has  been  taken  for 
the  service;  it  is  designed  for  laying  down  without 
noise  at  night,  this  being  a  necessary  requirement 
in  making  a  tramway  in  siege  trenches;  the  sleepers 
are  of  wood,  3  ft.  G  in.  long,  7  in.  wide,  by  3  in.  deep: 
the  rails  are  fixed  to  these  sleepers  by  T-headed 
coach-screws.  With  rails  of  24  lbs.  to  the  yard.  14 
men  can  la)'  100  yards  of  trench  tramway  in  tlw 
dark  m  an  hour.  The  other  description  of  portable 
tramway  of  the  same  gauge  is  made  of  steel  rails, 
18  lbs.  to  the  yard,  secured  in  lengths  of  10  ft.  to 
steel-plate  sleepers.  Fig.  2.  it  is  a  handy  line  for 
laying  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  is  much 
used  for  agricidtural  and  the  numerous  manufac- 
turing purposes.  Each  section  of  10  ft.  of  rails, 
with  all  the  sleepers  attached,  weighs  about  180  lbs., 
so  that  two  men  can  very  easily  carry  it ;  a  party 
of  14  men  can  laj-  400  yards  of  this  nature  of  tram- 
way in  an  hour.    The  end  sleepers  are  made  to  lock, 


NO  that  llie  joint  at  the  rail  ends  is  quite  Kecurc;  with 
wooden  sleeperH,  llHliplatirs  should  be  used  to  fallen 
the  ends  of  the  rails;  this  is  very  neccHsary  on  all 
roughly-laid  lines.  It  would  be  thought  that  thiM 
gauge  of  tramway  would  be  suitable  for  all  military 
reijuiremints  besides  sir'ge  work  ;  but  it  is  only  np- 
|)licalile  on  very  Mat  sites,  and  the  engines  for  it  have- 
so  little  power  that  they  would  not  lie  erpial  to  llic 
wants  of  keeping  uninterrupteil  communiimtion  for 
an  army.  Tlu-y  answer  perfectly  in  the  iJockyardo 
and  the  Arsenal,  and  are  admirably  adapted  for  lay- 
ing in  a  trench  ;  the  engines  would,  however,  fail  in 
the  event  of  a  long  line  being  required,  or  one  over 
a  rough  country. 

Systems  of  litrht  tramways  on  slructurcH  raiiicil 
from  the  ground  have  been  suggested  for  Die  use  of 
armies.  One  of  these  tramways,  designed  by  Mr. 
Fell,  Fig.,  3.  has  been  experimented  with  at  Alder- 
shot.  It  consists  of  rails  on  the  edges  of  beams  sup- 


Fig.  .3. 

ported  on  trestles  of  various  heights  to  overcome 
the  inecjualities  of  ground,  the  principle  being  to 
<lispetise  with  cuttings  and  embankments  as  far  as 
pos.-.ible,  and  to  use  trestles  whenever  the  earthwork 
exceeds  3  or  4  feet  in  height.  Jlr.  Fell  has  worked 
his  st;hcme  out  still  further,  and  .suggests  the  adop- 
tion of  iron  lattice-girders  on  posts  of  a  quite  simi- 
lar construction  for  raising  the  track  over  hollows, 
or  those  places  wherever  the  rails  cannot  be  laid 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  There  are  advan- 
tages in  this  method  of  making  a  railway ;  the  raised 
portions  of  the  work  keep  the  line  above  the  influ- 
ence of  rains,  and  make  tlie  least  disturbance  of  nat- 
ural watercourses.  It  requires  time,  however,  to 
put  together  elevated  iron  or  wooden  structures. and 
a  great  deal  of  material  is  necessarj- ;  for  instance, 
one  mile  of  modern  structure  for  this  railway, 
with  an  average  height  of  trestles  of  3  ft.  9 
in.,  takes  250  tons  weiglit  of  material.  The  re- 
sults of  the  trials  of  Mr.  Fell's  railway,  which  was 
erected  at  Aldershot,  were  as  follows  :  An  engine 
weighing  4i  tons,  took  2.5  tons  of  load  up  an  incline  , 
of  1  in  50 ;  at  a  speed  of  25  miles  an  hour  trestles.  20 
feet  high,  were  quite  steady.  It  was  found  that  500 
soldiers  could  lay  two  miles  of  this  class  of  tram- 
way, after  a  little  practice,  in  a  day  of  10  hours. 
Another  style  of  raised  tramway  has  been  de- 
signed by  Mr.  Hadden,  Fig.  4.  The  structure  can 
be  made  of  wood  or  iron  ;  itconsists  of  a  single  upper 
rail  or  beam,  fixed  on  posts  7  feet  high,  let  into  the 
ground  3  feet ;  there  are  also  lower  or  grip  rails 
made  of  wood,  which  are  halved  and  let  into  the 
posts.  These  have  saw-cuts  in  them  to  admit  of 
their  bending  to  take  curves  in  the  line  of  100  ft. 
radius.  The  breaking  strength  of  the  structure  is 
estimated  to  be  20  tons.  The  materials  for  one  mile 
of  this  tramway  are  stated  to  measure  40  cubic  ft. 
and  to  weigh  80  tons.  The  rolling  stock  consists  of 
pairs  of  boxes  of  panniers  suspended  on  the  upper 
rail  or  beam  by  means  of  central  wheels  or  rollers 
with  V-shaped  tires ;  they  also  often  have  horizontal 


RAILWAT  COMMUNICATION. 


628 


HAILWAT  COMHUNICATIOir. 


wheels  acting  on  a  lower  or  grip  rail.  These  boxes 
are  ingeniously  contrived  to  take  stores,  horses,  and 
passengers,  and  may  be  used  as  pontoons  for  taking 
loads  across  rivers.  By  employing  long  ropes, trains 
may  be  drawn  by  animals  towing  alongside  of  the 
raised  tramway.  The  locomotives  to  be  used  on  this 
raised  tramway  are  reported  by  Mr.  Hadden  to  be 
capable  of  drawing  a  load  of  100  tons  up  an  incline 
of  tin  10  ;  they  are  said  to  gain  the  necessary  power 
by  acting  on  the  grip  principle  instead  of  by  gravity 
and  traction  like  ordinary  locomotives.  The  driving 
machinery  is  located  on  a  carriage  by  itself,  and  the 
power  is  very  conveniently  applied  to  one  pair  of 
the  horizontal  wheels  on  one  side  of  the  grip  rail ; 
the  steam  is  generated  in  two  boilers,  placed  in  front 
and  behind  the  engine  truck.  It  is  further  stated  by 
the  inventor  that  an  endless  rope  or  chain  attach- 
ment can  be  applied  to  all  the  wheels  on  one  side  of 
a  train,  giving  continuous  grip  power  for  ascending 
gradients  and  break  power  for  descending  steep  in- 


CUpReOt. 


Fig.  4. 

clines.  The  draw-bars  connecting  the  trucks  of  a 
train  are  devised  to  work  automatically  on  tlie  driv- 
ing action  of  the  wheels,  increasing  or  diminishing 
their  grip  or  break  power  according  as  the  strain  on 
the  draw-bar  is  augmented  or  decreased  by  varia- 
tions in  the  gradients  the  train  is  traveling  over. 
Whether  the  engine  and  the  draw-bars  can  be  perfect- 
ed and  made  to  perform  these  various  duties  remains  to 
be  proved  by  experiment.  With  regard  to  raised 
railways,  it  should  be  observed  that  they  obstruct 
traffic  crossing  them — this  is  objectionable  in  a  mili- 
tary point  of  view;  they  do  not  lend  themselves  to 
the  drawing  of  loads  by  manual  labor  or  by  animal 
power  as  favorably  as  surface  lines  ;  sidings  are  not 
easily  managed  on  raised  structures ;  separate 
bridges  are  required  for  the  passage  of  rivers  when 
the  carriages  cannot  be  run  on  rails  on  the  roadway 
of  pontoon  or  other  field  bridges ;  they  require  a 
great  deal  of  time  to  construct,  and  take  much  mate- 
rial ;  and  they  are  not  so  easy  to  take  up  and  relay  as 
surface  lines,  and  are  more  destructible. 

In  treating  of  lines  of  railway  for  military  pur- 
poses, the  use  of  locomotives  upon  them  must  be 
taken  into  consideration  ;  for  although  the  line  may 
at  first  be  worked  by  horse  or  by  other  means  of 
draught,  it  must  eventually  be  adapted  to  engines  to 
make  it  of  any  use  for  keeping  up  the  supplies  of 
an  army  in  the  field.  It  will  be  advisable  to  look  at 
the  different  natures  of  locomotives,  and  to  see 
which  appear  to  give  tlie  best  results  of  work  under 
the  special  conditions  of  service  in  a  strange  coun- 
try. 

Taking  the  ordinary  passenger  or  goods  engine  of 
permanent  lines,  it  will  be  seen  to  be  a  very  heavy 
machine  to  handle, particularly  in  situations  deficient 
of  appliances  for  landing  such  engines.  Tlicy  pos- 
sess great  power  and  sjieed,  but  are  tooc\imbcrsome 
to  be  used  on  a  light  line  ;  they  require  the  railway 
to  be  laid  with  care  and  to  be  nearly  level,  that  is 
with  gradients  not  exceeding  1  in  70 ;  and  they  can- 


not work  round  sharp  curves,  15  chains  being  the 
maximum  thut  can  be  safely  got  round  with  engines 
of  this  class.  The  weight  on  each  pair  of  driving 
wheels  is  so  great,  10  to  15  tons,  that  the  rails  re- 
quire to  be  heavy  to  stand  the  traffic.  There  are 
contractor's  and  tank  engines  which  are  very  suitable 
to  roughly-laid  lines ;  they  weigh  about  16  or  18 
tons ;  they  seem,  however,  beyond  the  limit  of 
weight  that  should  be  adopted  for  military  lines. 
The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  class  of  engines  that 
are  used  for  the  meter-gauge  lines ;  they  weigh 
about  IG  tons,  giving  6  tons  on  each  pair  of  wheels, 
and,  like  the  others,  are  constructed  for  quick  speed  ; 
they  are  also  not  easy  to  handle  under  difficulties. 
The  small  engines  made  by  Manning,  Wardle  &  Co., 
and  which  are  extensively  used  in  H.  M.  Dockyards 
and  the  Royal  Arsenal,  are  not  powerful  enough  to 
take  a  load  up  a  steep  gradient ;  they  are  very  well 
adapted  for  the  18-iu.  gauge  of  rails  on  level  sites  ; 
tliBy  will  take  sharp  curves  and  have  good  speed  ; 
but  the  lines  of  these  locomotives  must  be  well  laid 
and  almost  level ;  that  is  the  reason  why  such  good 
results  have  been  obtained  from  these  engines  in  the 
dockyards  and  the  arsenal,  where  the  rails  are  gen- 
erally cast  in  solid  iron  plates  and  the  sites  are  per- 
fectly level.  The  Royal  Engineer  Committee  de- 
signed an  engine  for  the  18-in.  trench  tramway, 
which  has  some  advantages  over  the  locomotives 
last  described.  It  possesses  the  following  character- 
istics: The  working  weight  of  the  locomotive  is  8 
tons ;  the  driving  wheels  are  on  a  rigid  base  of  only 
3  ft.,  admitting  of  its  traveling  on  very  sharp  curves; 
the  engine  is  furnished  with  a  "rail-clip"  con- 
structed on  the  Handyside  principle,  and  has  also 
a  winding  drum  on  the  part,  with  400  yds.  of  very 
strong  steel-wire  rope  worked  by  a  distinct  pair  of 
engines  to  the  ones  required  for  driving  the  locomo- 
tive; the  last  two  appliances  enable  it  to  get  up  a  very 
steep  gradient;  by  sending  the  engine  up  by  itself, 
and  then,  by  clipping  the  rails,  it  can  draw  the  train 
after,  it  by  means  of  the  rope.  In  trials  made  with 
this  locomotive,  25  tons  were  drawn  on  the  level  on 
a  very  roughly-laid  surface  line  ;  up  a  slope  1  in  25, 
7  tons  could  be  drawn  by  the  engine  attached  in  the 
ordinary  way  ;  this  incline  had  a  curve  in  it  of  25  ft. 
radius;  the  engine  could  just  steam  up  a  slope  of  1 
in  11,  and  draw  10  tons  up  the  same  by  means  of  the 
"  rail-clip"  and  the  winding  drum.  There  is  another 
method  of  applying  winding  power  to  an  engine  ;  it 
is  a  suggestion  of  Sir.  Russell  Shaw,  C.  E.,  and  con- 
sists of  a  chain  securely  fixed  at  the  top  of  an  incline, 
and  the  locomotive  is  furnished  with  a  clip-drum  that 
j  can  catch  up  the  chain.  The  steam-power  generated 
in  the  boiler  will  serve  to  wind  up  a  loaded  train  by 
means  of  this  chain  and  drum,  and,  by  reversing  the 
action,  the  chain  can  be  made  to  break  the  descent 
of  the  train  down  the  same  incline.  It  would  be 
well  to  convert  one  of  the  Royal  Engineer  Commit- 
tee locomotives  to  this  system  of  haulage,  eo  as  to 
test  the  appliance. 

To  afford  means  of  crossing  wide  rivers  with  a 
tramway,  steel  boats  of  the  same  description  as  were 
advocated  by  General  Sir  Lintorn  Simmons,  G.  C.  B., 
could  be  employed  as  pontoons  for  a  floating  bridge. 
The  locomotives  would  have  to  be  taken  over  the 
water  on  rafts  made  of  these  steel  boats,  for  use  with 
trains  on  the  opposite  side  of  tlie  stream,  as  it  is 
doubtful  whether  they  could  be  steamed  across  a 
river  on  any  sort  of  floating  structure.  As  floating 
bridges  for  a  double  line  of  rails  would  have  to  re- 
main some  time  in  position,  the  steel  pontoons  advo- 
cated would  be  more  suitalile  than  the  service  pon- 
toon bridge,  and  besides,  the  pontoon  train  would 
have  their  own  functions  to  perform  in  the  front 
with  the  troops.  An  idea  of  the  sort  of  steel  pontocm 
tramway  wagon  on  bogies  is  given  in  Fig.  5.  The 
boats  are  made  to  rest  on  the  frame  which  forms  the 
longitudinal  bearers  or  superstructure  of  the  bridge 
for  the  rails  of  the  tramway;  when  the  boats  are  not 
required  to  form  a  bridge,  they  would  thus  be  avail- 


EAILWAY   COMMUNICATION. 


629 


KAILWAY    COMMUNICATION. 


able  for  freiglit  wagons.  Whatever  kind  of  rolling 
slock  is  ailopteil  for  military  Hervi<-i',  it  i«  ul)Soliil(fly 
necessary  tliat  every  (■arria>;e  sIiijiiI<1  liave  its  lireak 
to  render  ])<Tfcctly  Niifc  the  drawiiii;  of  wii^joiis  iniii- 
vidiially  l)V  animal  draiii^^ht,  and  also  to  have  com- 
plete control  over  a  train  desccndinj;  inclines.  The 
"Uuberleiu"    continnous  break  is  well  suited  for 


■-■---;tf--y</v>^-H-^----"-"----'-^ 


>  i 

:  I 


'iMi  [^)f 


the  mugazincH  on  thenc  platform  wsgonii ;  and  now 
that  the  main  artillery  maga/ines  have  to  be  eHlab- 
lished  at  a  niiich  jjreater  distunee  from  a  fortreBO 
than  formerly  was  llie  case,  a  very  great  having  of 
lalior  is  made  by  moving  tlie  lieuvy  shot  and  shell 
on  tram-trucks  instead  of  the  old  trench  cart,  Kig.  8. 
Wagons  also  for  siege  A'ork  have  heen  designed 


.'■A.. 


J      C 
J      [ 


\\w))[^))'    'i.c^jj  i(W)j' 


^y^^jK^j) 


this  purpose.  It  can  be  apiilii'd  !>ythe  enjjine  driver 
of  the  train  or  by  the  ijuani.  and  can  also  be  put  on 
by  a  jicrson  on  the  siiU-  of  tlic  wagons.  It  shoulil  lie 
observed  Ihiil,  Ihuui^h  the  l)(ii;ic-;ruck  syst<'m  is  re- 
commended for  mililary  rollin;;  stock  as  bcin;;  the 
safest  to  travel  on  roUij;hly-laiil  lines,  and  as  giving 
the  power  to  make  sharp  curves  on  a  railway,  tliere 
is  another  plan  of  "  tlexible  wheel  base,"  invented 
by  Mr.  James  Cleminson,  which  has  all  the  advan- 
tages of  bogies.  By  this  method  the  detects  of  a 
rigid  wheel  base  are  overcome,   the  carriages  travel 


Waxforv  locuded.  "^ 


that  make  andjulances  for  wounded  men,  and  can 
laki"  them  from  the  trenches  to  the  riar  wilh  ease 
and  comfort,  Fig,  '.I  :  the  platforms  that  an-  used 
for  general  work  arc  lajiahle  of  l)eing  converted 
into  andjulances  so  as  to  utilize  the  empty  return 
trucks.  These  trench  tramway  wagons  weigh  only 
H  ton,  and  are  c'lual  to  a  load  of  three  tons.  In 
nniking  a  comparison  between  transport  by  wheeled 
wagons  and  by  means  of  a  railway,  the  (fuanlity  of 
forage  and  fuel  for  the  two  systems  must  be  taken 
into  account.      The  conditions  under  which  frjrage 


smoothly  and  safely  round  sharp  curves,  and  the 
rolling  s"tock  can  be  made  much  lighter  in  weight 
than  ordinary  railway  carriages.  They  have  been 
constructed  to  take  ten  passengers,  or  tliree  tons  to 
every  ton  weight  of  the  carriage,  giving  about  two 
tons  on  each  pair  of  wheels  on  the  rails.  Thi'  rolling 
Stock  that  lias  been  approved  for  tlie  trench  tram- 
way is  on  the  same  principle  as  is  advocated  for  mili- 
tary railways;  it  consists  of  platform  wagons  18  feet 
long  Fig.  3i  6,  and  7.  which  are  well  suited  for  trans- 
porting'the  requirements  of  troops  at  sieges,  such  as 
fascines,  rails,  and  timber  for  gun  platfonns  and 
splinter  proofs.  These  platform  wagons  run  on 
bogie  trucks,  they  are  easily  drawn  by  men  and  by  a 
horse  pulling  at  the  side  of  "the  wagon,  and  are  made 
low  so  as  not  to  be  seen  by  the  enemy  over  the  earth- 
work of  the  parallels.  Trucks  for  siege  purposes  have 
been  made  for  the  transport  of  artillery  to  the  bat- 
teries; they  are  particularly  suitable  for  this  work, 
saving  the  very  heavy  labor  to  the  artillery  of  arm- 
ing their    batteries   by  transporting  the  guns  over 


£oaA3  Tons. 


Supply  in ff  _^ 

^nununition/ia  Ja2^. 


Fig.  8, 

the  open  country  during  the  night.    The  weights  of 
the  siege  guns  of  the  present  day  would  make  this 
operationonc  of  grf  at  difticvdty  if  a  tramway  in  the 
parallels  were  not  available. 
The  ammunition,  too,  can  be  readil}'  supplied  to 


may  be  procured  vary  greatly  with  the  different 
localities :  but  in  most  cases  transport  columns 
nuist  move  with  a  certain  number  of  days'  forage  for 
the  draught  or  pack  animals  employed,  and  in  the 
same  way  a  locomotive  must  take  its  fuel  along 
with  it.  Taking,  as  an  example,  the  transport  of 
100  tons  of  stores  for  200  miles,  the  following  table 
shows  appro.ximately  the  (luantity  of  fuel,  forage, 
and  time  that  would  be  required.  The  calculations 
of  this  table  are  based  upon  the  employment  of  gen- 
eral service  wagons,  taking  1\  tons,  4  horses  to 
draw,  and  2  drivers  to  each  wagon,  with  proportion 


-     JS 


Fig.  9. 

of  non-commissioned  officers:  for  the  pack  animals 
the  load  is  taken  at  200  lbs. for  the  good  horses,  with 
one  attendant  to  6  horses,  and  non-commissioned 
officers  in  proportion.  The  trucks  for  the  railway 
are  loaded  to  li  tons,  and  the  road  wagons  of  the 
••  steam-sappers"  to  4  tons. 

The  column  of  cross  weight  s  estimated  on  the 
load  of  100  tons  with  the  weight  of  the  wagons,  the 
horses,  the  locomotives,  the  trucks,  and  the  forage 
or  fuel,  accordins  to  the  numbers  and  quantities  in 
each  case.  To  the  railway  means  of  tr.insport  has 
been  added  the  wciirht  of  tlie  plant  that  is  necessary 
for  making  the  railwav:  if  2  ft.  6  in.  gauge  is  em- 
ployed, the  weight  of  100  miles  of  single  line  will 
be  6,100  tons. 


EAILWAY  STAFF  VOLUNTEER  COKPS. 


630 


EAIN  GAUGE. 


Means  of  Transport. 


Horse  drauffht 180 

Pack  animals 1,200 

Steam     traction     on  •   I 
railways > 

Steam-sappers 


80 
230 


25 


Wagons  or 
trucks. 


40  G.  S.  wagons... 


(3  locomotives. 

'(18  trucks 

( 5  steam-sappers. 
■J  25  road  wagons. 


Time. 

^ 

■c 

X  ^ 

t^ 

'>>£? 

c 

5   C3     03 

c 

Q  s 

te 

^ 

Miles 

Total 

8 

2 

10 

10 

3 

13 

<     . 

(      ' 

s 

\n 

H 

o  = 


Tons. 
Forage,  30 
Forage,  120. 

Steam  coal,  5. 
Steam  coal,  20, 


O 


Remarks. 


Tons 

253  2.5-mile  march. 

820  30-mile  march. 
•  At  15  miles  an 
"(         hour. 
(At  4  miles  an 
\         hour. 


6,290 
225 


See  Tron-i'lad   Triii'us. 

EAILWAY  STAFF  VOLUNTEER  CORPS.— A  Corps 
whose  object  is  to  secure  unity  of  action  among  the 
Railway  Companies  in  time  of  war.  It  consists  of 
three  classes  —  namely.  Eminent  Civil  Engineers, 
the  General  ^Managers  of  Railway  Companies, ami  the 
leading  Contractors.  Their  duty"is  to  consider  points 
relating  to  the  transport  of  troops,  the  formation  of 
lines  oif  railway,  etc.,  and  to  meet  any  exigency  in 
time  of  war,  all  which  information  would  prove  of 
great  value.  In  Germany  the  railways.as  far  as  they 
are  employed  for  military  purposes,  are  under  tlie 
control  of  the  Great  G"eneral  StatT  at  Berlin,  a 
special  section  of  that  department  being  entirely 
devoted  to  collect  and  arrange  systematically  all  in- 
formation on  railways.at  home  and  abroad,  especial- 
ly with  regard  to  their  capacity  for  carrying  troops. 
This  branch  of  the  Staff  works  out  the  instructions 
given  for  the  transport  of  troops  and  munitions  of 
war,  examines  all  projects  of  railways,  and,  lastly, 
prepares  plans  for  the  transport  of  German  troops 
under  different  circumstances,  so  that  tn  the  event 
of  war  they  can  be  concentrated  with  the  greatest 
possible  speed  on  any  given  point.  The  Railway 
Battalion, which  was  organized  after  the  war  of  1870- 
71,  and  which  is  now  in  full  working  order,  is  under 
the  superintendence  of  this  section.  This  Battalion 
is  composed  in  time  of  peace  of  four  companies,  re- 
cruited from  among  the  employes  and  officers  of  ex- 
isting railways.  The  men  are  taught  by  very  prac- 
tical lessons  how  to  construct  and  work  a  line, being 
employed,  while  learning  the  tirst  dutj%  on  the  State 
Railways,and  afterwards  on  a  special  line, called  the 
"  Military  Railway,"  running  from  Berlin  to  the  ar- 
tillery practice  ground  at  Zossen.  On  war  breaking 
out,  "the  Battalion  is  mobilized,  and  consists  then  of 
eight  i-oiutnuting  and  four  irnrking  companies.  The 
duties  of  the  former  are  to  make  impromptu  lines, and 
for  that  purpose  each  company  is  provided  with  a 
train  of  its  own,  containing  all  the  necessary  imple- 
ments. The  four  working  companies,  taking  up  the 
line  as  it  is  made,  will  begin  to  put  it  in  running  or- 
der, manning  it  with  drivers,  guards, stokers,  points- 
men, and  telegraph  clerks  from  their  own  num- 
ber, and,  after  the  service  is  regularly  establi>*hed, 
handing  it  over  to  the  ordinary  Civilian  Staff, 
while  tliey  pass  forward  to  make  a  frcsli  section 
on  ahead.  This  Batlalion  includes  tlirce 
classes:  Line, Reserve,  and  Lnndirehr;  the  two  latter 
being  at  present  supplemented  by  a  list  of  ordinary 
railway  servants,  engaged  for  enrollment  in  time  of 
need.  In  Russia,  a  system  has  been  organized  closely 
resembling  that  ado|)le<l  by  (iermauy.  Every  year 
picked  men  and  ollicers  are  sent  on  all  tlii'  Railway 
Lines,  the  former  to  study  the  theory  of  all  that  con- 
cerns the  working  and  managing  of  railways,  the 
latter  to  fulfill  the  duties  of  Station  .Masters.  Ii"i  1871. 
after  two  year.?'  practice,  these  men  (4;!3  and  8  offi- 
cers), together  with  a  divisitm  of  infantry,  and  a 
battalion  of  engineera,  constructed  in  seven  days  a 


line  of  5  miles  in  lengtli,  with  two  stations  and  ten 
bridges,  one  of  them  of  54  yards  span.  Tlie  cost  of 
the  line  was  valued  at  £31,200.  and  was  so  well  con- 
structed that  it  has  remained  in  use  ever  since.  By 
an  Imperial  Ukase  promulgated  in  1870,  all  the  Rus- 
sian Railwa}'  Companies  have  to  provide  a  certain 
number  of  carriages  for  the  wounded,  fitted  up  with 
litters,  and  well  ventilated,  and  a  number  of  carriges, 
wagons,  and  trucks,  speciallj'  devised  for  military 
purposes.  France  has  also  introduced  a  Railway- 
Battalion  under  her  new  militarj'  organization.  The 
men  of  this  Battalion  will  be  in  time  of  war  asso- 
ciated with  the  Civil  Railway  Staff,  and  are  classed 
in  three  categories:  The  first  (two-thirds  of  annual 
Contingent)  is  incorporated  in  the  Active  Battalion, 
and  instructed  as  sappers  and  miners,  or  as  soldiers 
of  the  engineer  train.  The  second  (one-sixth  of  the 
Contingent)  serves  one  year  only  in  the  Active  Bat- 
talion; after  which  it  is  distributed  among  certain  of 
the  principal  Railwaj'  Companies,  in  order  to  learn 
the  working  and  managing  of  the  lines,  their  con- 
struction,and  restoration.  The  third  (one-sixth  of  the 
Contingent)  serves  only  one  year  in  the  Active  Bat- 
talion, and  is  then  transferred  to  the  depots.  This 
carries  on  operations  witli  torpedoes,  and  is  prac- 
ticed generally  in  the  destruction  of  rail  waj's, bridges, 
etc.  A  very  similar  organization  of  the  Military 
Railway  Department  has  been  established  in  Italy. 

RAIN-GAUGE. — The  use  of  rain-gauges  is  to  as- 
certain the  amount  of  rain  which  falls  at  any  given 
place.  The}'  are  of  various  constructions.  The 
simplest  is  that  which  consists  of  a  metallic  cjdinder, 
from  the  bottom  of  which  a  glass  tube,  divided  into 
inches  and  parts  of  an  inch. projects  downwards.  It  is 
provided  with  a  funnel,  inserted  within  at  the  top,  to 
prevent  evaporation,  and  the  rain-water  is  emptied 
out  by  means  of  a  stop-cock  at  the  bottom,  or  still 
simpler,  by  a  hole  pierced  in  the  funnel  at  the  top. 
As  this  form  of  gauge  is  objectionable  on  account 
of  the  frequent  breakage  of  the  glass-tube  by  frost, 
a  float  is  used  instead,  which  is  raised  by  the  water, 
and  a  scale  is  attached  to  it,  to  show  tlie  quantity  of 
rain  received.  As  this  gauge  does  not  admit  of  very 
nice  readings,  another  sort  is  frequently  employed, 
viz..  a  receiving-vessel  and  a  glass  mciisure  of  much 
smaller  diameter,  which  thus  admits f)f  as  nice  grad- 
uaticui  as  may  lie  desired.  As,  praclieally,  there  is 
often  great  dillicully  or  trouble  experienced  in  re- 
placing the  glass  measure  when  it  chances  to  get 
broken,  the  late  G.  V.  .lagga  Rao,  a  wealthy  zemin- 
dar of  Vizagapatam,  proposed  a  gauge  in  tlie  form 
of  a  funnel  hiivinga  dianu'ter  of  4'(i!l7  inches,  or  an 
area  of  17-l!8  squ:ire  inelies.  .\s  a  fluid  ounce  contains 
1-733  cubic  inclies.it  follows  that  for  every  lluid 
ounce  collected  by  this  gauge,  the  tenth  of  an  inch  of 
rain  has  fallen.  This  measure  can.  of  course,  be 
graduated  to  any  degree  of  nicety,  and  may  be  re- 
produced at  jileasure.  Self-registering  rain-gauges 
have  been  invenled  by   Osier,    Crosley,  and  Beckly, 


EAIN  OF  FIKE. 


631 


BAJP00T8. 


but  they  are  too  cxpcnsivi!  to  come  into  very  com- 
mnn  use.  TIk'  (iniwiii!;  reprt'scnts  the  ContiDcntul 
Siumil    Service  niiii-(;iiiii;c. 

A  iiKiHl  importiuit  point  with  regiinl  to  tlio  rain- 
gmiiic  is  ils  hei;;hl  above  the  f^roiind.  I'rofcsHor 
Phillips  found  the  fall  of  rain  at  York,  for  12  nionllis 
in  lH;i:i  1h:)4,  to  be  H'.in  inches  at  a  height  of  213 
feet  from  the  ground;  Wt-H't  inches  at  44  feet;  and 
25'71  inches  on  the  fj;rou!id.  This  n'niarkable  fact 
— vi/..,  that  dilTcrcnt  i|uarililies  are  collected  at  dif- 
ferent heijilits,  the  amount  beini;  always  creater  at 
the  lower  level,  has  l)C<n  confirmed  wherever  the 
experiment  has  been  made.  No  perfectly  satis- 
factory account  h;is  yet  been  given  of  this  siniruhir 
plienomenon.     Tlie  condensing  of  tlie  vapor  of  tlnj 


atmosphere  on  the  surface  of  r;iindrops  as  they  fall 
— the  rebound  of  the  finer p;irlicl(s  into  which  ninny 
of  the  drops  break  themselves  !us  they  strike  with 
violence  on  the  ground  and  the  eddies  and  currents 
which  prevail  most  and  strongest  around  isolated 
objects  raised  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  to  a 
large  extent  account  for  the  pheuomenon.  Of  these 
three,  the  greatest  weight  is  to  be  given  to  the  last 
two;  and  this  is  confirmed  l.iy  the  fact,  that  ;i  gauge 
placed  on  the  roof  of  a  building  that  iKippens  to  be 
flat,  of  considerable  area,  and  'with  few  or  no  chim- 
ney-stalks to  disturb  the  air-currents,  collects  an 
aniount  equal  to  th;it  collected  at  tlie  same  time  by 
a  gauge  on  the  grouud.  The  proper  size  and  shape 
ofthe  rain-gauge,  and  its  height  above  the  ground, 
so  as  to  measure  witli  the  greatest  exactness  possible 
the  real  quantity  of  rain  that  falls,  about  all  of  which 
much  diversity  of  opinion  exists,  luive  been  ably  in- 
vestigated by  a  series  of  extensive  experiments  eon- 
ducted  by  Jtajor  AVard.  Mr.  iSymons,  Rev.  Charles 
Griffith,  and  others,  and  tlie  results  have  been  pub- 
lished auniially  in  Symons'  British  Hniiifall. 

BAIN  OF  FIRE.— -\  decoration  for  roekets,  made 
■with  paper-cases  -f^  iucli  in  diameter,  and  2  inches 
long,  two  thicknesses  of  paper  being  suflicient.   The 


end  of  the  ease  Ih  eloM'd.  and  it  in  ehar(;ed  ar.ii  primed 
like  that  for  a  serpent,  except  the  jxjwder  for  a 
cracKcr.  I  lie  eompoKJlion  it  It)  rmrlHor  riieahd  pow- 
der and  about  0  of  chari-oai.  Another  eompohiiion 
which  shows  in  sparks,  is  made  of  1(1  partH  euniphor, 
8  of  nitre.  H  of  mealed  powder,  and  S  of  low 

RAISING  AHMIE8.-  Armies  are  ruinfil  in  two  wuyH: 
Either  liy  vobiniary  engagi'menls.  or  by  lot  or  con- 
script  ion.  The  (jreek  and  I<o:iian  levieo  were  the 
result  of  a  rigid  fvstem  of  conscri[)tir>n.  The  VIk!- 
gotlis  practiced  a  general  conscri|)lion  ;  poverty,  old 
age  and  sickness  wcTe  the  only  reasons  udmilled  for 
exemption.  Subseqiientlv.the  feudal  military'  tenures 
had  superseded  that  earlier  system  of  public  defense, 
which  calli'd  upon  every  man,  and  espieially  upon 
every  landholder,  to  protert  his  country.  The  rela- 
tions of  a  vassal  cami-  in  place  of  those  of  a  subjeet 
and  a  citizen.  This  was  the  revolution  fif  tlie  'Jth 
century.  In  the  12lh  an<l  ll'th  another  innovation 
rather  more  gradually  iirevailed.  and  marks  the 
third  period  in  the  mili'iary  history  of  Europe.  Mer- 
cenary troops  were  subsliliile<l  for  the  Feudal  Militia. 
These  military  adventurers  played  a  more  remark- 
able part  in  Italy  than  in  France,  though  not  a  little 
troublesome  to  the  latter  country.  A  necessary  ef- 
fect of  the  formation  of  JIer(;enaries  was  the  central- 
ization of  authority.  Money  became  the  sinews  of 
war.  The  invention  of  fire-arms  caused  it  to  be  ac- 
knowledged that  skill  was  no  less  essential  for  war- 
like operations  than  strength  and  valor.  Towards 
tlie  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  power  of  Princes 
was  calculated  by  the  number  and  quality  of  paid 
troops  tliey  could  support.  France  first  set  the  ex- 
ample of  keeping  troops  in  time  of  peace.  Charles 
VII..  foreseeing  the  danger  of  invasion,  authorized 
the  a.sseniblage  of  Armed  Mercenaries  called  Cum. 
pagmen  d^<)rd"nnancf.  Louis  XI.,  dismissed  these 
troops.but  enrolled  new  troops  composed  of  French, 
Swiss,  and  Scotch.  Under  Charles  VIII.,  German« 
were  admitted  in  the  French  army,  and  the  highest 
and  iiiost  illustrious  Noliles  of  France  regarded  it 
as  an  honor  to  serve  in  the  <!enn  (rArmeji.  !Moral 
qualifications  not  being  exacted  for  admission  to  the 
ranks,  the  restraints  of  a  barbarous  di-scipline  be- 
came necessary,  and  this  discipline  divided  widely 
the  soldier  from  the  people.  The  French  Hevoliition 
overturned  this  .system.  Now  Mercenary  Troops 
have  completely  disappeared  from  Continental  Eur- 
ope. England  only  now  raises  armies  by  the  system 
of  lierrii/U'r.i.  The  last  wars  of  Europe  have  been  wars 
of  the  people  and  have  been  fought  liy  nationalities. 
After  peace  armies  remain  national. for  their  elements 
are  taken  from  the  people. and  are  returned  to  the  peo- 
ple by  legal  liberations.  The  institution  of  conscrip- 
tion is  evidently  the  most  important  of  modern  limes. 
Among  otlier  advantages,  it  has  bridged  the  other- 
wise impassable  gulf  bet  weea  the  citizen  and  soldier, 
who,  children  of  the  same  family,  are  now  united  in 
defense  of  their  country.  Pernianent  armies  have 
ceased  to  be  the  personal  guard  of  Kings,  but  their 
sympathies  are  always  with  the  people,  and  their 
jiist  title  is  that  of  skillful  warriors  maintained  as  a 
nucleus  for  the  instruction  of  their  countrymen  in 
the  liiL'hest  school  of  art. 

RAJA— KAJ AH.— Originally  a  title  which  belonged 
to  those  princes  of  Hindu  races  who.  either  as  inde- 
pendent Sovereigns  or  as  Feudatories,  governed  a. 
Territory;  it  then^  however,  became  a  title  given  by 
the  native  governments,  and.  in  later  times,  by  the 
British  government  to  Hindus  of  rank,  and  it  is  now 
not  uncommonly  assumed  by  the  Zeinimlars  or  Land- 
holders: the  tit'le  Jlahrtriijah.  or  'Great  Kajah."  be- 
ing, in  these  davs.  generally  resers-ed  to  Ibe  more  or 
less  independent  native  Princes.  According  to  the 
ancient  social  system  of  India,  the  Kajah  belongeil 
to  the  Kshatlriva  or  Military  Casle:  now,  however. 
the  title  is  given  to,  and  assumed  by,  members  also 
of  an  inferior  Cast<'. 

RAJPOOTS  RAJPUTS.— The  name  of  various  tribes 
in  India  wliieh  are  of  .Vryau  origin,  and  either  de- 


BAKE. 


632 


BAMPABT  GBERASE. 


scended  from  the  old  royal  races  of  the  Hindus,  or 
from  their  Kshattriya  or  Warrior  Caste.  At  all  per- 
iods they  seem  to  have  played  a  conspicuous  part 
in  the  history  of  India  ;  and  all  over  Hindustan  there 
are  many  families  who,  rightly  or  vcrongly,  claim  the 
title  of  Kajputs.  At  present  they  occupy  chiefly  the 
country  known  as  Rajasthan  or  Rajputana.  includ- 
ing, among  other  States,  those  of  Mewar,  Jlarwar, 
Jeypur,  Bikanir,  Jessulmir,  Kotah,  and  Bundi.  Be- 
fore the  invasion  of  Mahmiid  the  Ghiznevidc,  four 
great  kingdoms  were  under  the  dominion  of  Rajput 
families — viz.,  Delhi,  Kanoj,  Mewar,  and  Anhulvar- 
ra ;  and  all  the  Kings  mentioned  in  the  Rdjntaranji ■ 
ni  of  Kalhana  were  of  Rajput  origin. 

RAKE. — A  term  meaning  to  enfilade,  or  to  fire  in 
the  direction  of  an  enemy's  ranks.  To  rake  a  ship 
is  to  bring  gims  to  bear  so  as  to  fire  them  along  her 
deck  from  end  to  end;  this  is  the  most  disastrous 
thing  that  can  happen  to  a  vessel  in  action,  and  it  is 
the  object  of  all  good  seamanship  to  avoid  it.  When 
a  ship  is  raked  at  short  range,  grape  can  be  used 
with  great  and  fatal  effect. 

HAM.  — In  fortification  the  act  of  compressing,  by 
means  of  rammers,  the  loose  earth  used  in  building 
parapets  and  in  filling  gabions.  Althougli  a  parapet 
of  loose  earth  is  less  injured  by  shot  than  a  rammed 
one,  ramming  is  essential  for  the  stability  of  the  ram- 
parts and  parapets,  as  they  might  be  scriouslj-  injured 
by  a  continuance  of  bad  weaUier.  To  ram  is  also  a 
term  used  in  thrusting  home  the  charge  into  a  piece 
of  ordnance.     Hence  "to  ram  home"  a  charge. 

EAMMEfi.— 1.  The  rod  by  which  the  charge  of  a 
small  arm  is  forced  home.  2.  A  staff  having  a 
cylindrical  or  conoidal  head  attached,  used  in  can- 
non for  the  same  purpose.  The  rammer-head  is 
made  of  beech,  maple,  or  other  hardwood  not  easily 
split,  and  is  bored  for  about  two-thirds  of  its  length 
to  receive  a  tenon  on  the  staff.  For  rifled  guns,  or 
for  hollow  projectiles,  its  face  is  countersunk.  Ram- 
mers for  large  guns  are  technically  termed  rammers 
and  stares.  For  field  artillery,  a  sponge  is  attached 
to  the  other  end  of  the  staff,  and  the  combinea  im- 
plement is  called  a  sponge  and  rammer. 

BAHMER-HEAD. — An  instrument  employed  in  the 
inspection  of  cannon  for  ascertaining  the  interior 
position  of  the  vent  A  head  of  well-seasoned  wood, 
which  fits  the  chamber,  is  attached  to  a  wooden  disc 
of  the  diameter  of  the  main  bore.  The  surface  of  the 
head  corresponds  with  a  longitudinal  central  section  ,, 
of  the  chamber;  at  the  point  where  the  projection  of 
the  vent  would  meet  it  a  piece  of  hard  wood  is  in- 
serted. A  central  line  drawn  through  its  length, 
crossed  at  aright  angle  by  another  line  at  any  known 
point  from  the  smaller  end,  will  afford  convenient 
points  to  measure  from.  A  stout  wooden  staff  is 
attached  to  the  axis  of  the  head ;  at  a  distance  equal 
to  the  length  of  the  bore,  the  end  is  jogged  into  the 
center  of  a  half-disc  of  wood,  which  is  fitted  to  the 
bore.  The  whole  is  so  constructed  that  the  straight 
edge  of  the  half-disc  (or  the  chord)  is  in  the  same 
plane  as  a  hori/.ontal  section  of  the  head.  A  few 
holes  are  bored  tlirougli  the  discattached  to  the  half- 
head,  to  allow  tlie  instrument  to  pass  freely  into  the 
giui  and  out  of  it.  A  wire  of  uutcmpered  steel,  of 
thesize  of  the  vent,  withasharp,  well-crntcred  point, 
and  a  small  spirit-level,  are  reijuired  to  use  with  this 
tnstruincnt. 

The  gun  being  leveled,  and  the  instrument  being 
pushed  to  the  bottom  of  the  bore,  the  upper  edge  of 
the  half-di.sc  near  the  outer  end  of  tlie  staff  is  then 
brought  to  a  level.  The  surface  of  the  half-head 
then  corresponds  with  the  horizontal  central  section 
of  the  chamber.  The  point  of  the  wire  being  pushed 
gently  to  meet  it,  will  show  very  accurately  the  inter- 
ior positiciii  of  tlic  vent.  See  /ns/ieflion  "fOrd/iaiice. 
EAMMEES.  —Large  l)locks  of  wood, very  commonly 
used  ill  military  works,  for  the  ramming  of  loose 
earth.  Th(^  word  rammer  is  also  applied  to  the  man 
employed  in  tliat  duty. 

RAMP. — in  fortification,  a  gradual  slope  by  which 


approach  is  had  from  the  level  of  the  town  or  inter- 
ior area  to  the  terreplein  orgeneral  level  of  the  forti- 
fications behind  the  parapet.  The  width  of  ramps 
at  top  for  the  service  of  the  artillery  and  other  vehi- 
cles may  be  from  10  to  10  feet,  and  their  inclination 
from  J  to  i'e,  or  less,  depending  on  the  difference 
of  level  to  be  overcome.  They  are  usually  placed  in 
positions  where  they  will  occupy  the  least  room  of 
the  parade.  As  a  general  rule,  their  side  slopes  are 
of  eartli ;  Imt  where  it  is  desirable  to  economize 
room  on  the  parade  the  side  slopes  are  replaced  on 
one  or  both  sides  by  a  wall  which  sustains  the 
earth  of  the  ramp.  When  ramps  serve  for  infantry 
alone  their  width  may  be  reduced  to  6  feet,  and  in 
some  cases  to  4  feet.  See  Vvmimmicatii.ms. 
RAMPANT.— In  Heraldry,  an  epithet  applied  to  a 
[  lion  or  other  beast  of  prey  when  placed  erect  on  the 
;  two  hind-legs,  with  only  one  of  the  fore-legs  eleva- 
''  ted,  the  head  being  seen  in  profile.  When  the 
face  is   turned  toward  the  spectator,  the  attitude   is 


Bampanti 

called  rampant  gardant,  and  when  the  head  is  turn- 
ed backwards,  rampant  ngardiint.  A  lion  counter- 
rampant  is  one  rampant  towards  the  sinister, instead 
of  towards  the  dexter,  the  usual  attitude.  Two 
lions  rampant  coutrarj'-waysin  saltier,  are  sometimes 
also  said  to  be  counter-rampant. 

RAMPANT  PLANE.— In  the  earlier  methods  of  de- 
filement, a  line  was  taken,  the  position  of  which  was 
determined  by  a  series  of  trials,  having  for  their  ob- 
ject to  obtain  satisfactory  results  both  as  to  the  econ- 
omy of  the  requisite  embankments  and  the  disposition 
of  command  of  the  various  parts  at, or  in  the  rear  of,the 
gorge  of  the  work  to  be  defiled;  this  position,  coin- 
ciding with  the  natural  surface,  or  being  above  or 
beneath  it  as  the  case  required.  Through  this  line  a 
plane  was  passed  tangent  to  the  dangerous  ground. 
This  plane,  termed  a.  Rampant  Plane,  was  taken  as 
the  artificial  site  of  the  work,  in  reference  to  which 
the  relative  command  of  all  the  parts  was  arranged 
upon  a  horizontal  site.  Or,  in  other  words,  there- 
sult  was  nearly  the  same  as  if  the  works  had  been 
arranged  on  a  horizontal  site,  and  then  the  whole 
combination  turned  around  some  fixed  line  of  this 
site,  until  it  was  brought  into  the  position  of  the  re- 
quired rampant  plane.  The  defects  of  this  method 
are  evident  at  a  glance.  It  preserves  the  relations  of 
defense  of  the  various  works  the  same  as  in  a  hori- 
zontal site  ;  but,  to  a  great  extent,  it  leaves  out  of 
consideration  the  bearing  of  the  command  on  the 
exterior  ground,  and,  in  many  cases,  may  lead  to  ex- 
cessive excavations  and  embankments  which  the 
method  now  followed  enable  the  engineer,  for  the 
most  part,  to  avoid. 

RAMPART. — A  structure  forming  the  substratum 
of  every  permanent  fortification.  It  constitutes  the 
enceinte,  and  is  constructed  immediately  within  the 
main  ditcli  by  throwing  up  tlie  soil  excavated  from 
it.  On  the  front  of  tlie  raiiijiart  the  parapet  is  raised, 
and  widtli  sliould  he  left  behind  it  to  allow  of  guns, 
wagons,  and  triKjps  passing  freely  on  the  top  of  the 
rampart.  Thi'  lieiglit  of  the  rampart  is  dependent  on 
the  relief  (height)  of  the  buildings  to  be  defended, 
and  on  the  positions  in  the  neigiiborhood  which  an 
enemj'  might  assume.  Also  wrMenr ampler,  and  ram- 
pire.     See  Permanent  Ju/rt/Jiration. 

RAMPART  GRENADE.-  Rampart  grenades  are  in- 
tended to  be  rolled  down  tlie  rampart  of  a  work,  to 
protect  a  breaeli  against  the  attack  of  any  storiiiing 


EAMPART  GUN. 


iV. 


HARK. 


column.  Shells  of  any  size  will  answer  for  Ihis  pur- 
poBc,  and  piirlicularly  those  which  ari'  iiiiHi-rviccahle 
for  oriliiiary  purposes.  (jrcniuiiH  arc  lllh-il  wilh  a 
burslini;  charge,  anil  arc  ariiicd  with  a  .sliurl  fii>i<-', 
wliich  is  linhtcil  l)y  a  match  in  the  liaiiils  of  ihcf;rcn- 
adicr  iMimcdiatcl^'  before  il  \h  lliriiwn.  They  act  by 
the  force  of  their  explotdori  alone.  Bee  (Jreiiade, 
Hand  firtiiiirli',  and  /'nijtrtilei, 

RAMPART  GUN.  A  lari;e  nun  fitted  for  rampart 
use.  and  not  nsed  for  licld  purpoHcs. 

RAMROD.  A  loiif;,  slender  piece  of  steel,  employ- 
ed in  mn/./ledoadiiii;  arms,  to  push  the  cliarf;e  toils 
])roper  place,  and  to  wipe  out  llie  barrel.  It  is  car- 
ried in  a  groove  cut  into  tlie  under  side  of  the  stock, 
and  it  is  ke])!  in  its  place  by  the  ])ressure  of  the  «iri'U 
against  the  tiji  of  lh<'  stock.  The  /iinil  of  the  rod  is 
countersunk  to  lit  the  point  of  the  projectile  ;  and  the 
point  has  ascrew  to  receiveihe  wijirr  and  liUl-nrmr — 
implements  that  are  used  to  clean  and  remove'  ob- 
structions fi(un  the  bore.  The  temper  of  the  ram- 
r<id  may  be  tested  by  s])rin;;inii  >l  i"  four  direi-l ions, 
witli  the  point  resting  on  the  Moor.  When  the  mus- 
kel-rod  is  bent  si.\  inches  out  of  line,  it  sliould  spring 
back  perfectly  straight  without  setting.  Its  sound- 
ness may  be  tested  by  striking  it  with  u  piece  of 
metal,  or  by  bending  it  over  the  edge  of  a  block  of 
wood;  in  the  first  case  the  sounil  emitted  should  be 
clear,  and  in  the  second  case  the  Hawsor  cracks  will 
bcopened.  The  screw  on  the  point  of  the  rod  should 
be  properly  cut ;  it  shoidilbear  [jroperly  in  its  groove, 
neither  too  light,  nor  too  loose.  The  point  should 
rest  on  the  stop. 

RAMROD  CROSS  BOW.— A  very  heavy  and  compar- 
atively  useless  weapon  of  the  time  of  Louis  XIV. 

RAMSHORNS. — In  fortification,  are  semicircular 
works  of  low  profile  in  the  ditch,  widch  they  sweep, 
being  themselves  commanded  by  the  main  works. 
They  were  invented  by  M.  Helidor,  a  great  French 
engineer,  and,  when  used,  take  the  place  of  tenailles, 

RANCHEROS. — A  name  given  in  Mexico  to  a  mi.xed 
breed  of  8|)anisli  and  Indian  blood,  who  inhabit  the 
country,  and  may  almost  be  said  to  live  in  the  saddle 
from  their  youth,  are  splendid  riders  and  hunters, 
and  form  the  brav('st  part  of  the  Mexican  army  -its 
irregidar  cavalry.  The  importance  of  their  services 
was  seen  in  the  wars  wilh  the  I'nited  States.  The 
Rancheros  are  lank  in  frame,  with  brown,  weather- 
stained  faces  and  muscular  limbs,  hardy,  temperate, 
and  always  ready  for  the  boldest  enterprises. 

RANCON. — The  name  of  an  old  weapon,  consisting 
of  a  long  stake  with  a  sharp  iron  point  at  one  end, 
and  two  blades  or  wings  bent  backwards,  and  ex- 
tremely keen. 

HANDING.— In  fortification,  a  kind  of  basket-work, 
formed  in  making  gabions.  One  rod  only  is  used, 
and  an  odd  number  of  pickets,  in  forming  the  bas- 
ket the  rod  being  passed  alternately  inside  and  out- 
side the  pickets. 

RANDOM.  -Want  of  direction  in  firing  a  gun  or 
musket :  hence  the  expression,  V>  fire  at  naidom.  A 
random  xhot  is  a  common  expression  when  a  fire-arm 
has  been  discharged  without  aiming  in  any  particular 
direction. 

RANGE. — In  gunnery,  the  distance  between  a 
point  on  the  ground  vertically  below  the  muzzle  of 
the  piece  and  the  point  on  the  same  level  at  which 
the  projectile  touches  in  its  descent.  The  point- 
blank  range  is  when  the  piece  is  fired  in  a  horizontal 
position  ;  the  range  then  increases  with  the  eleva- 
tion ;  and  if  the  air  did  not  oppose  resistance,  the 
greatest  range  would  be  attained  with  the  piece  ele- 
vated at  an  angle  of  4.")^  ;  but  in  practice  this  angle 
is  found  to  be  on  an  average  a  little  over  SC.  As 
the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere  increases  as  the 
square  of  the  velocity  of  the  shot,  being  also  in  the 
direct  ratio  of  its  front  section,  while  the  momentum 
is  as  the  velocity  multiplied  by  the  weight ;  it  follows 
that  a  heavy  shot  should  have  a  greater  range  than  a 
light  one  ;  and  that  of  two  shots  of  the  same  weight, 
an  elongated  cylinder  of  small  diameter  will  have  a 


longer  range  tliiin  a  fiphcrlcnl  ball  of  ^eater  diameter. 
On  the  other  hand,  .roni  the  rapid  mcreawr  in  u  du- 
plicat(^  ratio  of  the  resistaucc,  uh  coinparcfd  with 
the  initial  velocity,  the  rang".'  only  incrr'UHeK  to  aci-r- 
tain  point,  in  consei|uence  of  a  more  rapid  lliglit  of 
the  projectile.  The  loMgest  range  yet  attained  lia« 
been  by  Sir  Joseph  Whitwortli,  wilh  a  U-incli  rillMl 
gun,  with  which  he  sent  a  bolt  a  distance  of  l],:M:i 
yards,  or  (J  miles  and  fW3  yards.  See  (Junntry,  and 
TrajecUtri/ . 

RANGE  BOARD.-  This  nature  of  board  in  intended 
for  guns  in  fortresses,  from  tlii'  "-inch  citbher  up- 
wards; it  is  placi'd  in  a  conveiuent  |)OHition  in  the 
fortress  where  il  can  be  seen  and  consulted.  It  haH 
the  distances  painted  on  il  of  i>roniinent  objecls  with- 
in  the  raii'.'i'  of  tlie  guns  moimted  on  the  works. 

RANGE  CURVE.  -  The  ranges  corresponding  to  the 
angles  of  elevation  given  in  tables  are  delerinined 
by  means  of  a  Jiany  Ciirti-.  which  is  conHlriicted 
from  the  results  of  practice.  Having  traced  thi; 
curve  through  several  points  delennined  by  experi- 
ment, it  is  eiisy  to  find  a  series  of  ranges  for  inter- 
mediate ;inL'l(s  ajiii  minutes. 

RANGE-FINDER.  An  instrument  for  determining 
ranges.  There  are  several  different  principles  which 
may  be  used.  The  distance  may  be  measured-  1st, 
by  the  visual  angle  subtended  by  objects  of  known 
height;  2d,  by  the  velocity  of  sound;  3d,  the  in- 
strument may  furnish  a  base  line  in  itself,  and  solve 
a  triangle  in  which  the  base  and  two  adjacent  anirleg 
are  given.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  instrumenlii 
used  to  solve  a  triangle,  the  base  of  which  is  obtained 
by  outside  means.  The  various  range-firutem  are 
described  under  appropriate  headings  in  this  work. 
See   WdtkiiiH  lliinf/t-Jiiukr. 

RANGE  PLATES.  — I'lates  of  brass  attached  to  the 
brackets  of  the  Knglish  lli-pr.  and  Jl-pr.  wrought-iron 
field  carriages.  They  are  marked  with  three  cobnnns 
of  figures,  showing  the  range  in  yards  from  100  to 
4,000  for  16-prs.  andfrom  100  to  3,.500  for  yi)rs.,  with 
the  corresponding  elevations  and  tenths  of  fuse. 

RANGER.-  One  of  a  body  of  mounted  troops,  who 
were  formerly  armed  with  short  muskets,  and  who 
ranged  over  the  country,   often  fighting  on  foot. 

RANGE-TABLES.— .\.  properly  constructed  gauge- 
table  for  a  particular  i)iece  contains  the  range  an<I  tlie 
time  of  Hight  for  each  elevation,  charge  of  powder, 
and  kind  of  projectile.  Its  object  is  to  serve  as  a  guide 
in  pointing,  without  waste  of  time  and  ammunition, 
and  also  when  the  effect  of  the  projectile  cannot  be 
seen.  It  aids  in  securing  good  practice.  The  Ord- 
nance Instructions  contain  approximate  range  tables 
for  the  service  cannon.  It  is  with  great  diHiculty  that 
tables  are  constructed  from  results  of  the  most  careful 
experiments, owing  to  the  different  ranges  and  deflec- 
tions obtained  in  firing  projectiles,  even  from  the 
same  gun  with  similar  charges  and  elevations.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  any  practice  table  will  only 
serve  as  a  general  guide,  and  that  small  alterations 
in  elevation  or  detlection  are  required,  according  to 
the  force  and  direction  of  the  wind,  the  position  of 
the  piece  with  respect  to  the  object,  the  quality  of 
the  powder,  and  several  other  circumstances. 

RANK. — 1.  A  line  of  soldiers  drawn  up  side  by 
side  in  one  row ;  opposed  to  fiU.  2.  The  relative 
position,  in  the  army,  which  officers  and  men  hold 
with  respect  to  each  other,  or  to  military  things  in 
general.  In  the  English  Army,  rank  is  .somewhat 
confusing  from  its  varieties,  and  from  the  fact  that 
the  same  officer  niaj*  hold  at  once  three  different 
ranks.  The  first  and  only  rank  up  to  the  grade  of 
Captain  is  regimental  or  mibntantatite  rank.  Above 
this,  officers  may  advance  in  two  ways  :  First  up  to 
rank  of  Lieutenant  Colonel  by  substa'ntative  or  regi- 
'  mental  rank  ;  second,  up  to  Colonel  by  obtaining 
'  rank  in  the  army,  generally  called  hrerH  rank,  and 
above  that  by  army  rank  through  the  several  grades 
of  general  officers.  In  his  regiment,  the  officer 
holds  only  his  regimental  rank,  whatever  his  brevet 
rank  maybe;  but  among  officers  of  the  army  gener- 


BANS. 


634 


BANK. 


ally  he  takes  precedence  according  to  his  brevet 
rank.  In  describing  an  officer  wliolias  brevet  rank, 
his  regimental  rank  is  placed  first —  as.  Captain  and 
brevet  Lieutenant  Colonel  Brown,  which  means  that 
an  officer  named  Brown,  who  holds  rank  in  a  regi- 
ment as  Captain,  has  for  his  services  been  promoted 
in  the  army  to  be  Lieutenant  Colonel.  Officers  of 
the  foot-guards  have  higher  rank  in  the  army.  Ano- 
ther class  of  rank  is  relative  rank,  which  attaches  to 
certain  officers.  Thus  Captain  Brown  aforesaid,  in 
addition  to  regimental  rank  as  Captain,  and  army 
rank  as  Lieutenant  Colonel,  may  possibly  hold  a 
staff  appointment  which  confers  on  him  the  relative 
rank  of  Colonel.  Local  rank  is  a  common  expedient 
for  advancing  comparatively  junior  officers  to  im- 
portant duties,  a  higher  rank  than  that  properly 
held  in  the  army  being  assigned  to  an  individual 
within  certain  geographical  limits,  as  in  the  East 
Indies,  the  Crimea,  etc.  Temporary  rnnk  is  simi- 
larly limited  by  time,  and  is  conferred  usually  for 
the  period  during  which  some  appointment  is  held, 
as  the  officer  acting  as  director  of  ordnance  ranks 
as  Major  General  while  so  employed.  Honwnry 
rank  carries  neither  duty  nor  emolument;  it  is 
commonh'  given  to  the  amount  of  one  step  to  an  offi- 
cer who  has  served  the  time  necessary  for  retirement; 
thus,  a  Captain,  after  thirty  years'  service,  may 
retire  (on  the  pay  of  Captain)  with  the  honorary  rank 
of  Major.  Officers  who  have  quitted  the  army  are 
also  allowed  to  retain  as  honorary  the  last  rank  they 
held. 

In  the  L'nited  States,  officersof  the  Regular  Army, 
of  the  Marine  Corps,  and  of  Volunteers,  wheu  com- 
missioned or  mustered  into  the  service,  being  upon 
equal  footing,  take  precedence  in'each  grade  by  date 
of  commission  or  appointment.  Officers  serving  by 
commission  from  any  State  of  the  Union  take  rank 
next  after  officers  of  like  grade  by  commission  from 
the  United  States,  except  commissions  issued  by  the 
President  to  officers  of  Volunteer  regiments,  which 
are  considered  the  same  as  if  issued  by  Governors  of 
States.  Militia  officers,  when  employed  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Regular  or  Volunteer  forces  of  the 
United  States,  take  rank  next  after  all  officers  of  like 
grade  in  those  forces.  In  fixing  relative  rank  between 
officers  of  the  same  grade  and  date  of  appointment 
and  commission,  the  time  which  each  maj-  have  ac- 
tually served  as  a  commissioned  officer  of  the  United 
States,  whether  continuously  or  at  different  periods, 
is  taken  into  account.  And  in  computing  such  time 
no  distinction  is  to  be  made  between  service  as  a 
commissioned  officer  in  the  Regular  Army  and  ser- 
vice since  the  19th  day  of  April,  1861,  in  the  Volun- 
teer forces,  whether  under  appointment  or  commis- 
sion from  the  President  or  from  the  governor  of  a 
State.  Wliere  periods  of  service  are  equal,  prece- 
dence is  determined  between  ofl[icers  of  the  same  re- 
giment, corps,  or  department,  by  the  order  of  ap- 
pointment. Between  officers  of  different  regiments : 
1st.  Rank  in  actual  service  when  appointed  ;  2d.  For- 
mer rank  in  the  Regular  Army,  in  the  JIarine  Corps, 
or  in  the  Volunteer  service  ;  3d.  By  lot  among  such 
as  have  not  been  in  th."  military  service  of  the  United 
States.  The  rank  of  officers  and  non-conmiissioned 
officers  in  the  service  is  as  follows  : — 1 .  General.  2. 
Lieutenant  General.  3.  Major  General.  4.  Hrigadier 
General.  .'>.  Colonel.  6.  Lieutenant  Colonel.  7. 
Major.  8.  Captain.  9.  First  Lieutenant.  10.  Second 
Lieutenant.  11.  Cadet.  12.  Sergeant  Major  and 
Veterinary  Surgetm.  13.  Quartermaster  and  Saddler 
Sergeant  (regimental).  14.  Onlnaure  and  Coinnus- 
sary  Sergeant  and  Hospital  Stcw;ird  of  tlie  tirst  class. 
l."!.  First  Sergeant.  16.  Sergeant  iinii  Cnmpaiiy  (Quar- 
termaster Sergeant.  17.  Corporal.  In  each  grade 
these  rank  by  date  of  commission,  appointment,  or 
warrant.  Chai>lains  have  the  rank  of  Cajjtains  of 
Infantry  without  command.  On  parade,  orother  oc- 
casions of  ceremony,  troops  of  dilTerent  arms  are  ar- 
ranged from  right  to  left  in  the  following  order:  first, 
Infantry;  second,  mounted  Artillery;  third,  Cavalry. 


Artillery  not  mounted  and  Engineers  serving  as  In- 
fantry are  p  isted  as  Infantry.  Engineers  serving  as 
such  are  posted  on  the  right  of  the  Infantry.  Marines 
and  dismounted  Cavalry  are  on  the  left  of  the  In- 
fantry. In  the  same  arm,  Regulars,  Volunteers,  and 
Militia  are  posted  in  line  from  right  to  left  in  the 
order  named.  On  all  other  occasions  troops  of  all 
classes  are  posted  at  the  discretion  of  the  General  or 
senior  Commander. 

Questions  as  to  the  positive  or  relative  rank  of  offi- 
cers may  often  be  of  the  greatest  importance  at  law, 
in  consequence  of  the  rule,  that  every  person  who 
justifies  his  own  acts  on  the  ground  of  obedience  to 
superior  authority  must  establish,  by  clear  evidence, 
the  sufficiency  of  the  authority  on  which  he  so  re- 
lies. There  may  also  be  many  occasions  on  which 
the  propriety  of  an  officer's  assumption  of  command, 
or  his  exercise  of  particular  functions,  or  his  right  to 
share  with  a  particular  class  of  officers  in  prize-mon- 
ey, bounties,  grants,  and  other  allowances,  may  de- 
pend on  the  correctness  of  the  view  taken  by  him- 
self or  others  of  his  right  to  a  specific  rank  or  com- 
mand ;  and  an  error  in  this  respect  may  expose  him 
to  personal  loss  and  damage  in  suits  before  the  civil 
tribunals.  The  regulation  of  military  rank  is  vested 
absolutely  in  Congress,  which  confers  or  varies  it  at 
pleasure.  The  will  of  Congress  in  this  respect  is 
signified  by  the  creation  of  different  grades  of  rank; 
by  making  rules  of  appointment  and  promotion  ;  by 
other  rules  of  government  and  regulation  ;  or  is  by 
fair  deduction  to  be  inferred  from  the  nature  of  the 
functions  assigned  to  each  officer;  for  every  man 
who  is  intrusted  with  an  employment,  is  presumed 
to  be  invested  with  all  the  powers  necessary  for  the 
effective  discharge  of  the  duties  annexed  to  his  office. 
Rank  and  Grade  are  sjnonymous,  and  in  their  mili- 
tary acceptation  indicate  rights,  powers,  and  duties 
determined  b}'  laws  creating  the  different  degrees  of 
rank,  and  specifying  fixed  forms  for  passing  from 
grade  to  grade ;  and  when  rank  in  one  body  shall 
give  command  in  another  body  ;  and  also  when  rank 
in  the  army  at  large  shall  not  be  exercised.  Rank  is 
a  right  of  which  an  oflieer  cannot  be  deprived,  ex- 
cept through  forms  prescribed  b_v  law.  AVhen  an 
officer  ii'  on  duty,  his  rank  itself  indicates  his  relative 
position  to  other  officers  of  the  bod}'  in  which  it  is 
created.  It  is  not,  however,  a  perpetual  right  to  ex- 
ercise command,  because  the  President  may,  at  any 
time  relieve  an  officer  from  duty  ;  or  an  officer  may 
be  so  relieved  by  arrest  duly  made  according  to  law; 
or  by  inability  to  perform  duty  from  sickness,  or  by 
being  placed  by  competent  authority  on  some  other 
duty.  But  whenever  an  officer  is  on  duty  his  rank 
indicates  his  command.  Struggle  as  commentators 
may,  who  desire  to  subject  rank  to  executive  caprice, 
rather  than  have  its  powers  and  duties  defined  by 
law,  as  the  Constitution  requires  in  giving  to  Con- 
gress the  power  to  make  rules  for  the  government 
and  reguUitUin  of  tlie  army,  tlie  rights  of  rank  cannot, 
without  usurpation,  be  varied  at  the  will  of  the  Pres- 
ident. The  law  has  created  rank.  Rank  means  a 
range  of  subordination  in  the  particular  body  in 
which  it  is  created.  It  is,  therefore,  effective  in  that 
body,  without  any  further  legislatiim,  and  its  etl'ect, 
when  the  officer  is  present  for  duty,  is  <'Xtended  be- 
yond that  particular  portion  of  the  army  in  whi<-h 
the  orticcr  holds  rank,  or  its  exerci.se  is  restri<'ted 
within  a  Corps  only  by  legislation.  Executive  au- 
thority <'annot  make  rank  vary  at  will,  but  what- 
ever authority  the  executive  has  over  nuik  must  be 
determined  by  law.  A  reference  to  the  Articles  of 
"War  will  show  that  the  President  is  given  the 
authority  to  limit  the  discretion  of  Comnuuiding 
Officers,  in  special  cases,  in  respect  to  what  is  need- 
ful iov  the  service,  and  also  to  relieve  the  senior 
officer  from  any  command,  so  that  the  conunand  may 
fall  upon  the  next  officer  in  the  Line  of  the  Army, 
Marine  Corps,  or  Militia,  "by  commission  there  on 
duty  or  in  (luarters,"  or  assign  some  senior  to  duty 
with  troops,  in  order  that  such  officer  may  become 


BANK  AND  FILE. 


635 


BABALDAB. 


entitled  to  commnnd.  Any  power  of  twm'gnment 
cliiiiiK'il  for  llic  f'rcMidiiit  bcyinid  lliis  is  not  iirid 
oiii^lil  ricil  Id  I)('  siiiicl ioiii'd  liy  law.  'I'lic  li'^^iNlation 
on  l.'ic  siilijcci  of  ninU  is  lliiis  <'<>iii|ili'i('.  OlllciTS, 
wiicn  scTvin;;  <jnly  willi  llifir  own  ri'fxinirni,  serve 
iiccoriliim  to  llic-ir  rcniiMcnlai  nmli ;  hut  wlicn  witli 
other  corps.  Ilic  senior  liy  coniniission  in  the  line, 
whether  hy  l)revet  or  otherwise,  is  eiilitled  to  eoni- 
nunid.     See  <  ''luiiminfK 

RANK  AND  FILE.  -Tlio  body  of  stildlers  constitu- 
tirii;  tlie  ureal  mass  of  the  Army,  ineliidinK 'j'orpor- 
llls,  Homliardiers,  and  I'rivales.  'I'lie  Hiink  utiil  Jili 
means  lilerally  the  lines  of  men  from  side  to  side, 
and  from  front  to  hack  a  raidv  lieim;  a  row  of  mi-n 
standini;  side  hy  side,  and  a  lile  of  soldiers  a  line  of 
men  slanilini;  one;  lieliind  anolher.  The  strength  of 
a  force  is  reckoned  hy  its  Hunk  ah'l  Jile:  the  JS'on- 
Cf)tninissioned  anil  ("oinmissioncd  Olllcers  fornnnj; 
the  supernumerary  ranks  cliari;ed  with  tlie  direction 
of  the  mass. 

RANKER.-  A  Non-comnussioned  Ollicer  who  rises 
to  lie  a  Cnmniissioned  Ollicer. 

RANKS. — The  order  of  common  soldiers.  Non- 
commissioned Oilicers  are  frequently  reduced  to  the 
rankn.  The  term  is  variously  ajiplied — Tn  fill  tlif 
rrt/iA.iisto  supply  the  authorized  or  competent  num- 
ber of  men.  Td  tnke  niiik  '^' is  lo  enjoy  precedence 
over,  or  to  have  the  riL;ht  of   takin;;  a    liiirh<'r  place. 

RANSEUR.  A  kind  of  piirtitnii,  well  known  in 
Germany  durins^  tlie  \'A\\  century.  It  came  orii^i- 
nally  from  Corsica,  and  has  been  callcilboth  ci/mrjue 
ami  niiiniiil  by  some  authors. 

RANSOM. — The  price  paid  hy  a  prisoner  of  war,  or 
paid  on  his  Iiehalf,  in  consideration  of  Ids  being 
granted  libertyto  return  again  toldsown  country.  In 
early  times,  when  arnues  received  little  or  no  res^u- 
lar  pay,  the  soldier  lonked  for  his  reward  in  the 
booty  he  inii;ht  ca[)ture,  and  this  l)Oot)'  included  the 
bodies  as  well  as  Ihe  chattels  of  the  vancpiished. 
The  con(|ueror  had  the  option  of  slaying  his  pri.soner; 
but  for  his  ])rotit,  ho  would  make  inm  his  slave,  or 
sell  him  into  slavery.  The  transition  wouhl  be  na- 
tural to  accepting  compensation  from  the  prisoner 
himself,  and  setting  him  at  lilierly.  In  feudal  war- 
fare, the  ransoms  formed  a  large  portion  of  a  soldier's 
gains;  those  for  persons  of  low  degree  belonging  to 
the  indivulual  eajjlors:  but  those  for  Princes  or 
Great  Nobles,  to  the  King.  Kansom.s  were  some- 
times of  large  amount,  more  than  the  immediate 
family  of  the  captive  could  pay.  His  retainers  were 
then  required  by  feudal  usage  to  contribute;  as  in 
the  case  of  redeeming  King  Hichard  I.  for  ilOO.OOO, 
when  twenty  shillings  wasassessed  on  every  Knight's 
Fee,  and  the  Clergy  subscribed  liliemlly.  IJavid 
Bruce,  of  Scotland,  was  ransomedfor  11)0,000  marks, 
and  King  John,  of  France. for  i.'.'jOOiOOO,  payable  in  in- 
stalments. In  modern  warfare,  wdiere  Ihe  lighting 
is  performed  by  professimial  soldiers,  pecuniary  ran- 
soms are  scarcely  ever  resorted  to,  freedrm  lieing 
granted  to  prisoners  in  exchange  for  others  of  corre- 
Bixinding  rank  captured  on  the  opposite  side. 

RAPIDITY  OF   FIRE.— The    rapidity   witli   wliich 
cannon  can  be  loaded  and  discharged  depends  on  the 
size  of  the  piece,  the  construction   of   the  carriage, 
and  the  care  required  in  aiming.     Field-cannon  can 
be  discharged  with   careful   aim,   about   tw'ice  per 
minute  ;  in  case  of  eniergenc)',  wdien  closely  i>ressed  i 
by  the  enemy,  canister-shot  m;u'  be  discharged  fiuir 
times  per  minute.     The  1'2-pdr.  boat-howitzer  of  the 
Navy,  with  experienced  gunners,  can  lie  discharged  i 
at  the  rate  of  sixteen  times  per  minute.     Siege-guns  | 
are  generally  dischargcil  twelve  times  per  hour  ;    if 
necessary, they  can  be  discharged  as  rapidly  as  twen-  | 
ty  times  per  hour.  Iron  cannon  can  be  tired  more  rap-  | 
idly  than  bronze,  as  the  latter  meUil   is  softened  by 
hciit,  and  the  piece  is  li:ible  lo  bend.     Siege-mortars  ! 
can  be  Hrcd  twelve  times  per  hour,   and  more  rap- 
idly than  this   if   the   obji'ct    he  large,    as    a   city. 
Siege-howitzers  can  lie  tired  eight  times  in  an  hour.  . 
Ttie  tire  of  a  sea-coast  cannon   depends  much  on  | 


the  ease  with  which  Iih  carriage  can  be  maneuvered. 

[The  lieaviest,  or  l/i-iti.  gun,  nioiiiited  on  llie  new. 
iron  earriat'e,  can  belmiderl  and  (Ired  in  1'  10";  the 
timereipnred  in  aiming  depinds  on  theiinirlr-  Ihrongh 
which  tlir'  chassis  is  to  be  IraverHed.  and  jdece  ele. 
vated,  or  depressed  ;  it  can  be  traver«ed  through  un 
angle  of  1)0"  in  2' 20".  .Muzzledouding  hnml|.Hrm» 
can  be  discharged  two  or  three  linicH  in  a  minute, 
and  breech-loading  arms  about  ten  limcH  ;  the  revol- 
ver  can  be  discharged  much  more  rapidly  for  nix 
shots.  •  This  quality  of  a  military  fire-arm  uliould  l»c 
carefully  guanleil,  as  il  is  finind  llial  Holdiern  arc 
prom;  to  discharge  Ihi-ir  pieceH  in  (he  excitement  of 
battle  without  taking  proper  aim,  and  conitequently 
to  waste  their  ammnnition. 

The  calculations  of  the  power  of  gunn,  by  Colonel 
Maitland  in  his  very  valuable  paper  on  "  Tlie  Heavy 
Guns  of  1881,"  lately  read  at  the  L'niied  .Service  In- 
stitution, are  utterly  misleading,  as  they  leave  out  of 
account  all  consideration  of  rapidity  and  safely  of 
tiring;  in  fact,  they  give  onlv  the  edleieiicy  of  Ihe 
gun  for  a  single  round,  thus  pfacing  a  gun  thai  could 
be  fired  only  one  round  p(  r  hour  on  an  e(|ualilv  with 
another  gun  firing  a  hundred  similar  rounds  per  hour. 
The  Krupp  gun  is  calculated  to  fire  one  round  every 
ten  minutes  from  his  large  guns  on  the  practice 
ground  at  Meppen.  and  Captain  Filzirerahl,  I{.  N., 
slated  in  his  lecture  at  Ihe  1  idled  Service  Inslilution 
that  the  Knglish  100-ton  breecli-loa<ling  gun  could  be 
fired  only  once  in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  He 
institutes  the  following  comparison  to  show  the  ilif- 
ference  between  a  gun  firing  six  shots  an  hour  and 
an  ideal  gun  ("Gun  of  1880")  supposed  to  fire  20 
shots  in  the  same  time ; 


Data. 

Elswick  Gun  of 
1884. 

Gun  of  1886. 

Diameter  of  bore 

16.35 

16.25 

Weight  of  gun... 

110  Ions 

120  tons. 

"    of  charge.. 

900  lb. 

!)(K)  lb. 

"     ofpr'jectile 

1,800  lb. 

l.HOO  lb. 

Muzzle    velocity 

of  projectile ... 

2,020  ft.  per  sec. 

2,020  ft.  per  sec. 

Muzzle  energy  of 

projectile 

50.924  ft.  tons. 

50,924  ft.  tons. 

Muzzle  energy  of 

projectile   per 

ton  of  gun 

513  ft.  tons. 

424.3  ft.  Ions. 

No.  of"  rounds 

fired  per  hour. 

6 

20 

Total    power  of 

gun 

305,544  ft.  tons. 

1.018,480ft.  tons. 

Power  per  ton 

weight  of  gun. 

2,777  ft.  tons. 

8.487.5  ft.  tons. 

The  above  shows  that  the  more  rapid  firing  cun.  al- 
though not  10  per  cent,  heavier  than  the  filswick 
gun,  is  over  200  per  cent,  more  powerful  for  destnic- 
tive  purposes.    Sec  Ordnancf. 

RAPIER.— This  word  is  said  to  have  had  distinct 
meanings  at  different  times,  and  in  ancient  fencing 
to  have  been  a  long  culling  broadsword;  but  fur  Ihe 
last  century  at  least  the  rapier  has  been  a  light,  high- 
ly-tempered, edgeless,  thrusting  weapon,  finely 
pointed,  and  about  3  feet  in  length.  Il  was  for  a 
long  lime  the  favorite  weapon  in  dueling,  and  was 
worn  by  every  gentleman.  At  present  it  is  worn 
only  on  occasions  of  court  ceremonial,  and  answers 
no  other  purpose  than  to  incommode  Ihe  wearer.  In 
war  a  nipier  could  never  have  been  of  any  ser\-irc. 

RAPPAREE.— A  wild  Irish  plunderer'  so  called 
from  his  being  generally  armed  with  a  r'tptiry.  or 
half-pike.  The  term  was  in  common  use  in  the  17tli 
century.     See  Xotoi  and  Qwrif.s.  August  IT.  1861. 

RAPPEL.  —The  beat  of  the  drum  to  call  soldiers  to 
arms 

RASALDAR.  In  the  E;ist  Indies,  the  name  applied 
to  the  Comiii:inder  of  liasallah,  which  is  10,000  arm- 
ed horsemen. 


BASANTE. 


636 


EATION  BETTJHNS 


EASANTE.— A  French  term,  applied  to  a  style  of 
fortification  in  which  the  command  of  the  works 
over  each  other,  and  over  the  countrj',  is  kept  very 
low,  in  order  that  the  shot  may  more  effectually 
sweep  or  graze  the  ground  before  them.  Also  writ- 
ten Raiant. 

EASP. — Tlie  rasp,  like  the  file,  's  an  abrading 
tool,  but  differs  in  that  its  surface  is  studded  by  pro- 
truding, isolated  teeth,  instead  of  chisel-cut  teeth. 
The  teeth  of  rasps  are  formed  by  a  pointed  tool  call- 
ed a  punch.  The  point  of  this  punch  is  geherally 
of  a  triangular  pyramidal  form,  whose  triedral  angles 
vary  in  size  according  to  the  effect  required  to  be 
produced.  The  spaces  between  the  teeth  are,  com- 
paratively, wider  than  those  for  files.  The  appar- 
ently irregular  intermingling  of  the  teeth  is  such  as 
will  produce  the  smoothest  surface  for  the  number 
of  teeth  on  the  rasp. 

The  classification  of  rasps  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  files.     Rasps  have  different  degrees  of  coarseness. 


tine  or  star  candles  ;  four  pounds  of  soap ;  four 
pounds  of  salt ;  four  ounces  of  pepper ;  and  to 
troops  in  the  field,  when  neces.sary,  four  pounds  of 
yeast-powder  to  the  one  hundred  rations  of  flour. 

Fresh  mutton  may  be  issued  in  lieu  of,  and  at  the 
same  rate  as,  fresh  beef,  when  the  cost  of  the  former 
docs  not  exceed  that  of  the  latter.  Fourteen  oimces 
of  dried  fish,  or  eigliteen  ounces  of  pickled  or  fresh 
fish,  may  be  issued  in  lieu  of  the  meat  components 
of  a  ration.  Molasses  or  syrup  may  be  issued  in  lieu 
of  sugar,  at  the  rate  of  two  gallons  to  fifteen  pounds 
of  sugar.  When  it  is  impracticable  for  troops  in 
the  field  or  those  traveling  upon  cars  or  transports, 
to  draw  or  cook  beans  or  rice,  equivalents  in  money 
value  of  bread  or  meat  may  be  issued;  the  value  (in 
detail)  of  the  stores  not  drawn,  and  those  is.sued  in 
lieu  thereof,  must  be  entered  upon  the  abstract  of 
issues.  The  following  issues  may  be  made  to  troops  : 
Per  100  rations,  in  lieu  of  the  usual  meat  portion  of 
the  ration,  75  pounds  canned  fresh  beef  ;  or  about  75 


and  the  cuts  are  usually  classed  as — coarse,  bastard, 
second-cut,  and  smooth.  The  coarse-cut  is  that  used 
by  horsc-shoers;  the  bastard  by  machinists,  carriage- 
makers,  and  wheelwrights;  while  the  second  cut  is 
applied  to  shoe-rasps,  and  the  smooth  to  cabinet- 
makers, etc.  The  rows  of  teeth  range  obliquely  from 
left  to  right,  or  from  right  to  left,  and  sometimes  in 
circular  arcs.  The  planes  of  the  cutting  faces  of  the 
teetli  are  generally  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  axis 
of  the  file;  but  occasionally  they  are  made  with  a 
slight  obliquity,  alternately  to  the  right  and  left,  for 
the  purpose  of  allowing  the  teeth  to  clear  themselves 
more  freely  from  particles  of  stock.     See  File. 

EATCHET.— A  small  piece  of  metal,  so  placed  with 
one  end  on  a  pivot  that  the  other  can  fall  into  the 
teetli  of  a  wheel.  Being  perfectly  free  to  move  up 
and  down,  its  own  weight  makes  it  drop  into  tooth 
after  tooth  as  the  wheel  revolves. — But,  from  the 
peculiar  shape  of  the  teeth,  which  have  the  form  of 
an  inclined  plane  on  one  side,  and  a  perpendicular 
face  on  the  other,  the  wheel  can  only  revolve  in  one 
direction. 

RATCHET-POST.— A  cast-iron  post  at  the  head  of 
large  Hodman  guns  to  serve  as  a  fulcrum  for  the  bar 
used  in  elevating  the  gun. 

EATCHET-SABOT.  —  A  copper-cupped  plate,  at- 
tached to  the  base  of  a  projectile,  and  firmly  held  in 
its  place  by  radial  grooves. 

EATCHET-WHEEL.— A  wheel  with  pointed  aud 
angular  teeth,  against  which  a  ratchet  abuts,  used 
either  for  converting  a  reciprocating  into  a  rotatory 
motion  on  the  shaft  to  which  it  is  fixed,  or  for  ad- 
mitting of  its  motion  in  one  direction  only.  Sec  Me- 
ch'ini'ful  Maneuvers. 

BATE  BOOK. — A  priced  vocabulary  of  government 
stores,  by  which  officers  and  soldiers  are  debited  for 
the  loss  of,  or  injury  done  to,  government  property 
under  their  charge,  if  committed  through  careless- 
ness, etc. 

EATION.  -The  established  daily  allowance  of  food 
for  one  person.  For  the  United  States  Army  it  is 
now  composed  as  follows  :  Twelve  ounces  of  pork  or 
bacon,  or  one  i>oun(i  andfour  ounces  of  fresh  beef, 
or  twenty-two  ounces  of  salt  beef;  eiglitccii  ounces 
of  soft  bread  or  of  flour,  or  about  sixteen  ounces  of 
liiird-bread,  or  one  pound  and  four  ounces  of  corn 
UK'al.  To  every  one  hundred  rations,  fifteen  |)(iunds 
of  beans  or  of  peas,  or  ten  pounds  of  rice  or  lioniiny  ; 
ten  i)ounds  of  green  coffee  or  about  eight  jioiiuds  of 
rnasti'd  for  roastc<i  ami  ground)  coffee,  or  about  two 
pounds  of  lea;  liftccM  jiounds  of  sugar  ;  four  cpiarts 
of  vinegar  ;  one  pound  and  eight  ounces  of  ailaman- 


pounds  canned  com  beef.  Per  100  rations,  in  lieu 
of  the  dry- vegetable  portion  of  the  ration,  33  I- 
pound  cans  baked  beans ;  or  30  2-pound  cans  baked 
beans  ;  or  1.5  3-pound  cans  baked  beans  ;  or  .5  1-gal- 
lon  cans  baked  beans  ;  or  25  pounds  cheese.  Six- 
pound  cans  of  beef,  and  gallon  or  three-pound  cans 
of  beans  should  be  issued  in  all  cases  when  con- 
venient ;  one  and  two  pound  cans  of  beans,  and  two 
and  four  pound  cans  of  beef,  to  be  issued  only  when 
it  is  inconvenient  to  issue  the  larger  cans,  or  but 
small  amounts  are  to  be  issued. 

The  army  ration,  in  England,  at  home,  is  f  lb.  of 
meat,  and  1  lb.  of  bread  ("best  seconds")  if  in  bar- 
racks, or  J  lb.  of  meat  with  li  lbs.  of  bread  if  in 
camp.  If  a  grocery  ration  is  also  issued,  Hd.  for 
each  such  ration  is  deducted  from  the  pay  of  the 
recipient.  When  men  are  not  supplied  with  rations, 
an  allowance  of  6d.  per  diem  is  granted.  Abroad, 
the  Ration  is  1  lb.  of  bread,  or  J  lb.  of  biscuit,  and 
1  lb.  of  fresh  or  salt  meat,  except  at  certain  stations, 
where,  for  climatic  reasons,  a  different  Ration  is 
specially  provided.  The  bread  ration  may  be  in- 
creased during  operations  in  the  field,  though  not 
above  1^  lbs.  of  bread  or  1  lb.  of  biscuit.  During 
active  operations,  the  officer  commanding  maj'  di- 
rect the  issue,  in  addition  to  the  above,  of  wine, 
spirits,  or  any  other  article  of  subsistence  equiva- 
lent thereto.  The  stoppage  for  this  foreign  ra- 
tion is  Id.  The  families  of  soldiers  accompanying 
them  abroad  are  allowed  the  following  rations:  the 
wife  (married  under  regulation),  half  a  ration:  each 
legitimate  child  under  7,  a  quarter  ration :  from  7 
to  14,  a  third  part  of  a  ration.  When  officers  re- 
ceive a  colonial  allowance  in  lieu  of  rations  in  kind, 
each  is  subjected  to  a  daily  stoppage  of  2Jd.  A  Ra- 
tion of  forage  at  home  C(msists  of  10  lbs.  of  oats,  12 
lbs.  of  hay.  and  8  lbs.  of  straw  for  each  horse.  Ca- 
valry soldiers  receive  this  without  stoppage;  but  their 
officers  suffer  a  deduction  of  8kl.  per  ration.  Staff 
officers  and  mounted  officers  of  infantry  provide 
their  own  forage,  and  are  granted  a  pecuniary  allow- 
ance of  Is.  lOd.  per  day  to  enable  them  to  do  so.  See 
Fixiil. 

RATION  RETUENS.  — The  is.sues  of  subsistence  are 
made  to  troops  on  ration  returns,  signed  by  their 
immediate  Commander  and  approved  by  the  com- 
manding officer  of  the  post  or  station.  These  returns 
call  for  only  such  liuiit<'d  ipiantity  of  stores  as  can  be 
received  iiiid  properly  cared  for  by  the  troops  draw- 
ing, and  will,  ordinarily,  be  made  fur  a  few  days  at 
a  time.  They  are  consolidaleil  f(ir  the  post  or  regi- 
ment when  practicable,  and  embrace  only  the  niim- 


AATIOS. 


637 


HATI08. 


bir  (if  enlisted  men,  authorized  Ia\indrcRBefl, and  liog-    square,  but  legs  than  the  circle;  the  regular  polygon 

I)il!il  iimlroiiH  ficliiiUly  prcHciit.  At  IIkm-iuI  of  iho  1  of  10  hIiIch  greater  than  thi- orla^^on,  but  lens  tlian 
<-iil(li(i(r  Mionlli,  the  CunirniMsnry  ciili  rH  (in  Hcpiiritle  \  the  circle:  and  so  (in,  conntimlly  doiitilinjf  llic  niim- 
iilislracls.for  eiicli  cliiss  (if  lri"i|iH.  every  reliirn  i]|i(iii  her  of  sides.  IJijt  it  cun  he  shown  that  the  dilTcrcnce 
wliicli  lie  lias  issued  pnivisidris  in  llml  nionlli:  wjiicli  of  area  lielween  llie  [lolv^'on  and  llie  circle  niav  he 
abslracls  tlieCoinniandin^^Olticcrconipares  willi  llic  made  as  small  a  pcrceniagc  of  the  area  of  the  circle 
original  ration  returns,  and   if  correct,  so  certifies.  I  as  we  please,  by  making  the  sides  of  the  polygon 

liatioTi-Ueturn  of Virmpany  ■ Regiment  of ,  ntationtd  at  fur  ^'V,  "O""- 

mencing  tlie d/iy  of ,  188 —  and  ending  the day  of ,  188—. 


1    KuMiliir  i.f  mill. 

1             1   Number  of  days. 

1                 Number  of  women. 

Number  of  ration'-. 

1              1    Total. 

Total. 

Number  of  rations  of- 


i{i,-marki. 


Pork. 

1   Peas.                                          ; 

Bacon. 

1                Rice. 

Salt  Beef. 

1              1    Hominy. 

Fresh  beef. 

1              I    Cheese. 

Mutton. 

1                 Coffee. 

Fresh  beef,  canned. 

1                 Tea. 

Corned  beef,  canned. 

Sugar. 

Fish,  dried. 

Vinegar. 

Fish,  pickled. 

Adamantine  candles. 

1   Flour. 

Soap. 

1    Hard  bread. 

Salt. 

Corn-meal. 

Pepper. 

1    Beans. 

Yeast-powder. 

1              1    Baked  beans,  canned. 

The  A.  A.  C.  S.  will  issue  on  the  above  return. 


JRegt.  of- 


Comd'g  Post. 


-Regt.  of- 


EATI08.— There  can  be  little  doubt  that  Newton 
discovered  b}'  means  of  fiu.xions,  of  which  he  was  in 
possession  at  a  very  early  age,  the  greater  part  of 
that  extraordinary  series  of  theorems  regarding  mo- 
tion, etc,  which  he  first  published  in  the  I'rincipi'a. 
He  had,  however,  a  great  partialitj-  for  the  .synthetic 
form  of  demonstration  emplojed  with  such  success 
by  the  Greek  geometers;  and  the  consequence  was 
that,  in  the  Principia,  he  avoided  entirely  the  use  of 
analysis  by  fluxions,  and  invented  for  synthetical  ap- 
plications the  closely  allied  method  of  Prime  and 
Ultimate  Ratios.  The  fundamental  idea  involved  in 
fluxions,  prime  and  ultimate  ratios,  and  the  differen- 
tial calculus,  is  the  same,  that  of  a  Limit.  To  give 
an  idea  of  the  nature,  as  well  as  to  show  the  real 
origin  of  the  name  of  the  method,  we  may  take  a 
very  simple  case.  Let  a  particle  be  projected  in  any 
direction;  it  will  move  uniformly  in  that  direction 
forever,  unless  deflected  from  it  by  some  external 
force.  Suppose  that  gravity  alone  acts  upon  it,  then 
it  will  describe  a  parabolic  path,  to  which  the  origi- 
nal direction  is  the  tangent  at  the  origin:  and  the 
line  which  joins  the  disturbed  and  undisturbed  posi- 
tions of  the  particle  at  any  instant  is  vertical.  Now, 
the  original  and  secondary  distances  of  the  particle 
from  the  origin  are  not,  in  general,  e(iual,  but  they 
are  more  and  more  nearly  equal  as  both  are  smaller: 
and,  by  taking  each  small  enough,  we  may  m;ike 
the  percentage  of  difference  between  them  as  small  as 
we  choose.  In  other  words,  their  prime  ratio,  just 
atJthe  origin,  is  unity.  Again,  the  inscribed  square 
is  less  than  a  circle;  the  octagon  is  greater  than  the 


jComd'g  Company. 

numerous  enough.  Hence,  the  ultimate  ratio  of  the 
areas  of  the  circle,  and  inscribed  polygon  with  an  in- 
definitely great  number  of  equal  sides,  is  unity.  The 
basis  of  the  method,  which  is  implicitly  involved  in 
the  foregoing  illustrations,  is  Newton's  first  Umma, 
which  is  thus  stated:  "  Quantities,  and  the  ratios 
of  quantities,  which  lend  constantly  to  equnlily,  and 
may  be  made  to  approximate  to  each  other  by  less 
than  any  assignable  difference,  become  ultimately 
equal."  In  other  words,  if  we  can  make  ihe  perctn. 
tage  of  difference  of  two  quantities  as  small  ns  we 
choose,  we  must  produce  tdlimate  equality.  From 
this,  in  his  second  and  third  lemmas.  Newton  proves 
the  fundamental  principle  of  the  integral  calculus  as 
applied  to  the  determination  of  the  areas  of  cur\-es, 
by  showing  that  if  a  set  of  parallelograms  be  inscrib- 
ed in  any  curvilinear  space,  the  percentage  of  differ- 
ence between  the  sum  of  their  areas  and  that  rif  the 
curve  may  be  made  as  small  as  we  please  by  dimin- 
ishing indefinitely  the  breadth  of  each  parallelogram 
and  increasing  their  number  proportionally.  Next, 
he  shows  how  to  compare  two  curvilinear  spaces, 
by  supposing  them  filled  with  such  parallelograms, 
each  of  the  first  bearing  to  one  of  the  second  a  con- 
stant ratio.  Next,  that "^the  homolocous  sides  of  sim- 
ilar r!/rri7''n<-ar  figures  are  proportional.  The  sixth 
lemma  is  mereh'  a  definition  of  continuous  curva- 
ture in  a  curve."  as  distinguished  from  abrupt  change 
of  direction.  The  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  lemmas 
\  are  of  very  great  importance.  The  general  ;irin- 
cipleinvolvedlin  their  proof  is  this— to  examine  what 
always  occurs  in  indefinitely  small  arcs. by  drawing :: 


EAVELIN. 


638 


REACTION. 


magnified  representation  of  them  such  as  always  to 
be  on  a  finite  scale,  however  small  the  arcs  them- 
selves may  he.  Thus,  to  show  that  the  chord  of  a 
small  arc  "is  ultimately  equal  to  the  arc— of  which  we 
have  in  trigonometr}",  as  a  particular  case,   the  ulti- 


Fig.  1. 

mate  equality  of  an  arc  and  its  sine — he  proceeds 
somewhat  as  follows:  Let  AB,  (Fig.  1)  be  an  arc  of 
continued  curvature,  AC  the  tangent  at  A.  Produce 
the  chord  AB  till  it  has  a.  finite  length.  A*.  Describe 
on  A4,  as  chord,  an  arc  similar  to  AB.  This,  by  a 
previous  lemma,  will  touch  AC  at  A.  Now,  as  B 
moves  up  to  A,  let  the  same  construction  be  perpet- 
ually made,  then  b  will  approximate  more  and  more 
closely  to  AC  (because  the  arc  AB  is  one  of  con- 
tinuous curvature),  and  the  magnified  arc  will  con. 
stantly  lie  between  AC  and  A*.  Hence,  ultimately, 
when  A*  and  AC  coincide  in  direction,  the  arc  Kb 
(which  is  always  between  them)  will  coincide  with 
Ah.  Similarly",  AD  being  any  line  making  a  finite 
angle  with  AC,  draw  DBE"  cutting  off  a  finite 
length  from  AD ;  this  process  enables  us  to  prove 
that  the  triangles  AED,  and  the  rectilinear  .and 
curvilinear  triangles  ABD,  are  all  ultimately  equal. 
Finally  (and  this  is  the  step  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance in  the  dynamical  applications),  if  the  lines  AD, 
DE.  D'E'  (Fia;.  2)  be  drawn  under  the  above  restric- 
tions, the  ulffmate  ratio  of  the  curvilinear  or  rectili- 


Fig.  2. 
near  triangles  AEB,  AE'B'  is  that  of  the  squares  of 
corresponding  sides.  Prom  this,  in  the  ninth  and 
last  lemma,  it  is  easily  shown  that  the  spaces  de- 
scribed under  the  action  of  a  finite  force  have 
their  prime  ratios  as  the  squares  of  the  times : 
■whence  we  pass  at  once  to  the  ever-memorable  in- 
vestigations of  the  Prindpia  regarding  the  orbits 
described  imder  the  action  of  various  forces.  The 
metho  of  prime  and  ultimate  ratios  is  little  used 
now  (except  in  Cambridge,  whicli  does  honor  to 
itself  in  making  part  of  tlie  Prlncipin  a  subject  of 
study),  as  the  diflerential  and  integral  calculus  help 
us  to  the  required  results  with  far  greater  ease.  But 
to  the  tru(?  student  of  gunnery,  the  synthetic 
metho<l  of  Newton  is  of  very  great  value,  as  it  show.s 
him  clearly  at  I'very  step  the  nature  of  the  process  he 
is  carrying  out,  wliich  is  too  apt  to  be  lost  sight  of 
entirely  in  the  semi-mechanical  procedures  common 
to  all  forms  of  symbolical  reasoning. 

EAVELIN.-  In  fortification,  a  triangular  work  of 
less  elevation  tliau  the  main  defenses,  situated  with 
its  salient  angle  to  the  front  before  the  curtain, 
which  with  tlie  shoulders  of  the  adjoining  bastions  it 
serves  to  protect.  It  is  open  at  the  rear,  so  as  to  be 
commanded  by  the  curtain,  if  taken,  and  is  separat- 
ed from  that  work  bv   tlie  main   ditch    while  in   its 


own  front  the  ditch  of  the  ravelin  intervenes  be- 
tween itself  and  the  covered-way.  The  guns  of  the 
ravelin  sweep  the  glacis,  and  perform  a  very  im- 
portant function  in  commanding  the  space  imme- 
diately before  the  salient  angles  of  the  two  next 
bastions,  ground  which  the  guns  of  the  bastions 
themselves  cannot  cover.  The  bastions,  on  the  other 
band,  flank  the  ravelin.  In  the  fortifications  of 
Alessandria,  designed  by  Bousmard,  in  1803,  the 
ravelins  are  placed  in  front  of  the  glacis.  The  origi- 
nal name  of  the  ravelin  was  ritelUno,  which  indi- 
cates a  derivation  from  vegliare,  to  watch,  the  rave- 
lin having  probably  been  at  first  a  watch-tower,  an- 
swering to  the  still"  earlier  barbacan. 

RAVINE.— In  field-fortification,  any  deep  hollow, 
usuall}'  formed  bj'  a  great  flood,  or  a  long-continued 
running  water ;  frequently  turned  to  advantage  in 
the  field.     See  Dimde. 

RAW  HIDES.— Hides  not  tanned.  They  are  used 
to  cover  the  revetments  of  embrasures  in  fieldworks. 
The  hides  are  doubled,  the  hair  inwards,  two  to  each 
cheek  of  the  embrasure,  and  fixed  by  pickets  driven 
through  them. 

RAW  PIG. — The  iron,  as  it  comes  from  the  smelt- 
ing-furnace,  is  termed,  -'Raw  Pig,'"  and  is  a  first  fu- 
sion. The  second-fusion  iron  (as  understood  by 
founders)  is  produced  by  a  combination  of  raw  pig 
and  second-fusion,  melted  in  an  ordinary  air-furnace, 
and  then  run  out.  These  pigs  are  usually  of  a  differ- 
ent shape  than  the  raw  pig,  but  to  prevent  confu- 
sion, and  at  the  same  time  to  distinguish  different 
second-fusion  irons  one  from  another,  each  should 
be  distinctly  marked  and  piled  separately.  The  ob- 
ject of  using  a  second-fusion  iron  in  a  casting  is  to 
obtain  greater  density  than  can  be  produced  from 
the  rawpig  alone;  it  moreover  increases  the  tensile 
strength.  In  the  casting  of  the  XV-inch  gun,  the 
furnaces  are  charged  as  follows: 

Bloomfield  raw  pig 21,143  lbs. 

Bloomfield  second-fusion  (red-dot) 13,214    " 

Bloomfield  second-fusion  (red-cross) 3,643  " 


37,00n  " 

Total  in  both  furnaces 74,000   " 

The  second-fusion,  marked  "red-dot,"  consists  of 
the  followinc;  combinations,  viz.; 

Bloomfield  raw  pig 50,000  lbs. 

Bloomfield  second-fusion 19,575  " 


Run  into  pigs  and  marked  "red-dot" 69,575  " 

The  proportions  of  the  other  grade,  marked  "  red- 
cross,"  are  as  follows,  vis.; 

Bloomfield  raw  pig 29,410  lbs. 

Bloomfield  second-fusion 32,590   " 

Run  into  pigs  and  marked  '•  red-cross  "...62,000"' 

The  second-fusion  iron  used  in  these  combinations 
is  produced  by  melting  two  parts  of  raw  pig  with 
one  of  second  fusion.     See  Casting  and  Iron. 

RAW  TROOPS. — Inexperienced  soldiers  or  men 
who  have  been  little  accustomed  to  the  use  of  arms. 

RAZED.- A  term  applied  to  works  or  fortifications 
when  they  are  totally  demolished. 

RAZZIA. — A  plundering  and  destructive  incursion. 

REACTION.— A  term  used  in  reference  to  the  pol- 
itical history  of  a  Nation,  to  designate  that  tendency, 
often  showi"ng  itself,  to  recoil  from  the  effects  of  Re- 
form or  Reviilution,  and  to  seek  a  restoration  of  the 
previous  state  of  things,  or  one  still  more  antiquated 
and  despotic.  The  causes  that  lead  to  reaction  are 
various.  Sometunes  it  springs,  partly  at  least,  from 
mere  disappointment  at  thesmallness  of  the  rinible 
results  of  those  changes  advocated  with  so  much 
eloquence,  and  waited  for  with  so  much  enthusiasm 
and  hope.  The  inconsiderate  imagination  of  tho 
people  <'xppcts  a  millenium  to  follow  every  import- 
ant change  ;  and  when,  after  the  event  men  find 
tluty  arc  still  in  the  old  world  of  imperfections,  hard- 
ships, and   sorrows,  they  are  prone  to  believe  that 


BEADINE8S. 


639 


BEAR  GUABD. 


they  have  been  tlchided,  and  nre  only  too  willing  to 
lend  im  vnr  U>  the  insi<U<jiiH  iiiiHrcprcHi'uiationH  of 
Ihosr  wlicj  arc  (i|i|iosc(l  to  iirojircss.  liul.  more  frr. 
quenll)  i)oliii<ul  rcuitioii  sprin^^'s  from  citlii-r  iiiitiia- 
tiire  or  injudicious,  or  cxlravu;;:!!)!,  rcvoliilioii  The 
tinie.4  arc  not  yet  ripe  (iia  in  the  first  Italian  re- 
volts), or  the  leaders  are  unfit  (as  in  the  German  and 
lluntcarian  slruirj^les  of  1848-40),  or  excesses  are 
committed  (as  in  the  f;rcat  Fniieli  oullireak  of 
1789),  and  so  a  revolution  is  nipped  in  the  bud.  or 
overthrown  in  Ihe  Imtlle-licld ;  or  iullaiued  with 
san.i^uinary  thirst  for  revcui^e.  it  );oes  mud  in  a 
"  Keii:n  of  'I'error,"  and  exhausting  itself  in  unprolit- 
able  frenzies,  falls  at  last  an  easy  prey  to  any  hold 
and  unscrupulous  adventurer  wliom  the  crowd  may 
elect  out  of  desperation  and  disi^ust  of  anarchy,  and 
whose  rule  is  as  absolute  as  any  that  preceded  it.  A 
reaction  may  thus,  in  certain  cases,  be  useful,  in  so 
far  as  it  teaches  refornuTs  and  revolutionists  the 
point  beyond  which  nature  forbids  them  to  iro  ;  but 
its  agents  arc  .Mlmost  invariably  basit  in  cliaracter, 
odious  in  their  principles,  and  seltish  in  their  pro- 
jects. Religious  reactions  exhil)it  the  same  char- 
acteristics as  political  ones,  and  i)roceed  from  the 
same  causes. 

BEADINESS. — A  state  of  alertness  or  preparation  ; 
thus,  to  hiUil  a  rorpn  in  rdidiruwii,  is  to  have  it  jjrc- 
pared  in  consequence  of  some  previous  order  to 
march  at  a  moment's  notice. 

READY. — A  word  of  command  in  the  Manual  of 
Arms,  executed  as  follows:  The  Instructor  com- 
mands— 1.  Squad.  2.  Heady.  Same  as  lirst  motion 
of  load,  except  that  the  muzzle  is  at  the  height  of 
the  chin,  the  right  thumb  on  the  head  of  the"  ham- 
mer, the  lingers  supported  against  the  guard  and 
small  of  the  stock.  (Two.)  Cock  the  piece,  and 
then  grasp  it  at  the  small  of  the  stock.  The  piet^', 
after  loading,  nuiy  be  brought  to  a  remly  by  the 
commands:  1.  Squad.  2.  Heady.  At  which  the 
piece  is  cocked.     See  Mnnunlof  Armn,  Fig.  15. 

BEAMER. — A  tool  much  u.sed  in  the  arsenal  to  en- 
large a  hole  and  bring  it  to  a  shape  the  counterpart 
of  the  tool,  whether  cylindrical  or  tapering.  Instead 
of  mere  longitudinal  fluting,  the  grooves  in  the  tool 
may  be  maile  spiral,  a  riglit  and  a  left  hand,  cross- 
ing obliquely  so  as  to  leave  the  surface  in  diamond- 
shaped  portions.  The  tlutings  are  then  planed  out 
and  backed  off,  the  result  being  a  toothed  reamer 
of  effective   character.     The  drawing  shows  an  ad- 


calibered  ordnance  were  not  abHohitcly  decided  on. 

It  was  therefore  but  a  lemporarj'  expedient;  unil 
for  that  particular  jiurpose,  reaming  out  has  been 
abandoned.  Kut  in  tin-  convi-n<iiin  of  hMiootli-boru 
ordnanci-  for  the  purptwi'  of  being  ritled,  the  gun» 
have  still  to  be  reamed  out  preparatory  lu  beinj;  re> 
lini'd 

BEAB.  In  the  general  uccepttttion  of  the  word, 
anything  situated  or  jjlaced  behind  another.  Thin 
term  is  variously  used  in  military  nuitterH.  Itmr  i>f 
II  hoilji  i>f  IriinjiH  uHunn  the  hinilerniost  part  of  that 
body  such  as  the  r.virof  anarmy  battiilion. squadron, 
or  company  ;  niir  rnuk.  the  rank  wliieh  covers  the 
front   r.'iiik. 

BEAB  ASSEMBLING  BAH.--A  component  imrt  of 
the  caisson.  It  supports  the  spare-wheel  axle,  and 
has  a  slot  for  the  i)ickaxe  on  the  left  of  the  ndddle- 
rail. 

BEAB  BBACE.— The  lower  arm-plute  of  an  arm- 
gmird. 

BEAB  CHOCK  CABBIAGE.— A  carriage  similar  in 
construction  to  tlie  garrison  standing  carriage,  ex- 
cept that  it  has  only  the  two  front  trucks;  and,  in- 
stead of  a  rear  axle  tree,  it  has  a  block  of  wood 
which  rests  upon  th(^  platform. 

BEAB  FRONT.— The  rear  rank  of  a  body  of  troops 
wIku  faced  about  and  standing  in  that  position. 

BEAB  GUARD. — ,1  rtar.gnnrd  is  a  bi^dj'  of  troops 
formed  to  protect  the  rear  of  an  army  when  on  the 
retreat;  it  corresponds  to  tlie  advanced  guard  in  a 
forward  movement.  A  small  rear-guard  also  follows 
an  army  on  the  advance,  its  duty  oeing  to  pick  up 
stragglers  and  prevent  small  bodies  of  the  enemy's 
cavalry  from  making  raids  on  the  rear  of  the  army 
to  capture  llu'  baggage,  etc.  As  regards  its  order  of 
march,  a  rear-guard  is  described  as  an  advanced- 
guard  reversed.  The  principles  of  formation  are 
identical  in  both,  and  the  .same  rules  generally  guide 
both;  with  this  ilifTerence,  that  the  rear-guard  retires 
before  the  enemy,  while  the  advanced  guard  pushes 
against  him.  Consetpiently,  although  the  distribution 
is  the  same  as  with  the  advanced-guard,  the  strength 
of  the  fractions  of  the  rear-guard  decreases  instead 
increases  from  front  to  rear.  The  reserve  is  nearest 
the  main  body.  The  support  is  farther  to  the  rear, 
in  support  of  the  rear  party,  which  moves  in  several 
groups  or  in  consolidated  formations  according  to 
the  country  it  passes  over.  In  a  fairly  open  counlrj', 
where  the  pursuit  is  not  immediate, the  extreme  rear 


justable  reamer,  designed  by  the  Betts  Machine 
Company,  Wilmington,  Delaware.  The  shank  of  the 
reamer  is  made  of  steel,  the  blades  are  si.x  in  num- 
ber and  unevenly  spaced;  the  bladi'S  are  inserted  in 
dove-tailed  slots  the  bottoms  of  which  are  inclined 
planes;  the  shanks  are  ground  to  standard  size  (a 
thing  impossible  in  a  solid  reamer,  unless  it  reams 
much  above  standard  size  when  new),  and  the  blades 
made  slightly  above  standard.  It  is  plain  that  when 
the  blades  wear  down,  it  is  then  only  necessary  to 
drive  them  further  into  the  shank,  and  by  that 
means  again  enlarge  the  diameter  to  standard  size. 
This  may  be  repeated  until  the  blades  are  driven  to 
the  upper  end  of  the  slots,  when  new  ones  may  be 
inserted.  The  solid  reamer  was  a  great  advance 
when  introiiuced,  but  the  requirements  of  fine 
machine  fitting  call  for  a  tool  which  makes  solid 
reamers  a  thiug  of  the  past.  The  practice  of  ream, 
ing  out  puus,  oT  horing  litem  up,  i\T:it  took  place  in' 
the  British  service  in  1830 ;  it  was  done  with  the 
view  of  increasing  the  weight  of  metal  projected  [ 
from  such  guns  as  were  then  on  hand  in  the  British  , 
service,  at  the  time  when  the  aiivantages   of  large-  ' 


will  be  formed  of  reconnoiterers,  moving  in  a  line 
thrown  back  at  each  end  towards  the  flankers,  until 
it  a.ssumes  the  semi-circular  form  in  a  manner  more 
marked  than  it  would  in  the  advance.  If  the  pur- 
suit is  active  and  attack  imminent  Ihe  rear-guird 
must  maneuver;  and  here  we  may  remark  that  the 
nature  of  the  country  affects  not  only  the  composi- 
tion of  the  rear-guard,  but  the  kind  of  action  it  must 
take  with  the  troops  at  its  command. 

A  change  of  base  or  position  may  have  caused  an 
armj-  temporarily  to  make  a  retrograde  movement, 
or  the  force  may  be  retreating.  In  either  case  the 
mission  of  the  rear-guard  is  to  retard  Ihe  pursuit  of 
the  enemy,  and  to  interpose  between  him  and  the 
main  body  on  Ihe  march.  In  carrjing  out  this  duly 
the  rear-guard  must  often  maintain  a  struggle  at  a 
disadvantage,  and  even,  if  necessarj-,  sacrifice  itself 
in  order  to  ensible  Ihe  main  force  to  get  away  in 
safety.  No  more  honorable  post  can  be  assigned  to 
an  ofticer  than  that  of  commanding  or  serving  with 
a  rear-guard  in  such  a  case.  The  verj-  best  officers 
and  the  freshest  troops  shouhl  be  selected  for  this 
service,  especially  if  covering  the  retreat  of  a  beaten 


KEAB-GUAED. 


640 


KEAK  aUAED. 


army.  In  the  latter  case  the  position  of  a  rear-guard 
IB  one  of  much  difficulty,  the  enemy  nearly  always 
pursuing  with  activity,  and  also  endeavoring  by 
flank  attacks  to  cut  off  the  retreat.  As  regards  the 
strength  of  the  rear-guard  in  a  retreat,  it  would  ordi- 
narily take  the  same  proportion  as  would  be  allotted 
to  the  advanced-guard  in  a  forward  march.  This 
proportion  would  commonly  be  about  one-sixth  of 
the  whole  marching  strength.  In  exceptional  cases 
it  might  even  amount  to  one-fimrth  of  the  whole.  It 
is  nof  without  reluctance  on  the  part  of  a  Commander 
that  so  large  a  rear-guard  is  detailed,  as  his  tirst 
an.xiety  and  care  must  natural!}' be  to  withdraw  and 
place  in  safety  the  greatest  number  possible  of  his 
men.  But  if  he  neglects  to  cover  his  retreat  by  a 
sufficiently  strong  force  the  result  will  probably  be 
that  the  rear-guard,  unable  to  withstand  the  assaults 
of  the  enemy,"  will  constantly  be  driven  back  upon 
the  main  column,  aud  throw  it  into  disorder.  The 
demoralizing  effect  upon  troops  of  tlie  mere  know- 
ledge that  they  are  in  retreat  is  in  itself  very  great. 
Should  the  rear-guard  not  be  strong  enough  to  en- 
able the  column  to  retire  with  due  regularity,  the 
feeling  of  depression  will  increase,  the  retreat  will 
turn  to  a  rout,  and  disaster  will  result.  A  skillful 
rear-guard  Commander  will  endeavor  by  every 
means  to  obtain  even  small  advantages  over  the 
enemy,  in  order  to  encourage  his  men  and  to  obtain 
WvAx  morale ,  thus  enabling  them  to  endure  with  bet- 
ter spirit  a  harassing  pursuit.  With  this  view  it  ap- 
pears desirable  that"  the  extreme  rear  and  flanking 
detachments  of  the  rear-guard  should  be  sufficiently 
Btrong,  to  take  all  possible  advantage  of  any  impru- 
dence on  the  part  of  the  enemy's  advanced  troops. 
In  the  event  of  a  retreat  after  an  engagement  some- 
thing may  also  be  done  toward  this  end,  by  selecting 
for  the  rear-guard  such  troops  as  have  not  only  suf- 
fered least  during  the  day,  but  have  themselves  per- 
haps obtained  some  local  advantage,  which,  insuffi- 
cient to  affect  the  general  result,  may  yet  be  enough 
to  prevent  the  men  feeling  down-hearted,  and  with 
little  further  stomach  for  action.  The  distance  that 
a  rear-guard  should  be  from  the  main  body  depends 
upon  the  nature  of  the  country,  its  numbers,  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  pursuit  is  conducted.  If  the 
pursuit  is  slack  it  can  safely  be  a  march  in  rear. 
Under  all  circumstances,  however,  constant  commu- 
nication should  be  maintained  between  it  and  the 
main  body.  It  is  difficult  to  prescribe  any  definite 
distance  for  the  rear-guard  to  take  up  from  the  main 
body.  The  latter,  as  is  natural  in  retreat,  proceeds 
as  fast  as  is  convenient  in  the  desired  direction. 
The  rear-guard  has  to  interpose  between  the  main 
body  and  the  enemy,  to  check  the  advance  of  the 
pursuer,  and  to  observe  and  reconnoiter  him.  in  order 
to  discover  at  the  earliest  moment  any  intention,  on 
his  part,  of  a  flank  or  turning  movement.  Hence  it 
happens  that  the  distance  of  the  rear-guard  from  the 
main  column,  in  two  or  more  cases,  may  vary  con- 
siderably, in  accordance  with  a  great  variety  cf 
circumstances;  but  under  onlinary  conditions  the 
distances  usually  laid  down  for  the  advanced- 
guard  in  a  forward  movement  would  be  approxi- 
mately suitable  for  the  rear-guard  in  retreat.  A  rear- 
guard does  not  require  to  reconnoiter  in  advance  of 
its  march,  for  the  enemy  cannot  be  there,  and  since 
the  main  column  goes  first  over  the  ground,  and  in- 
vestigates it  thoroughly,  reports  and  sketches  of 
roads,  bridges,  and  positions  suitable  for  making  a 
stand  against  the  enemy,  can  be  sent  back  to  the 
rear-guard  whenever  it  is  likely  to  need  them.  In 
most  cases  the  enemy,  if  following,  is  easily  recon- 
noitercd  in  the  rear,  as  in  the  eagerness  of  pursuit 
he  has  little  heed  for  concealment.  On  the  flanks 
alone  tliere  is  ditflcult  and  delicate  work,  of  this  par- 
ticular nature,  to  be  done.  The  most  serious  danger 
for  a  rear-guard  is  undoid)tedly  that  of  being  turned 
or  cut  off.  and  not  only  is  its  own  safety  iniperilled 
in  such  event,  but  its  protective  character  as  a  guanl 
to  the  rear  of  its  own  main  column  ceases  to  have 


effect.  To  be  attacked  upon  its  flanks  is  almost  as 
dangerous  as  to  be  cut  off,  and  against  both  of  these 
condngencies  the  best  precautionary  measure  is  ac- 
curate and  extensive  reconnoissance  to  the  flanks. 
The  parties  sent  out  upon  this  most  important  duty 
should  in  all  possible  cases  be  composed  largely 
if  not  entirely  of  cavalry.  As  regards  the  com- 
position of  the  rear-guard,  in  an  open  country  cavalry 
is  certainly  necessary,  not  only  for  reconnoitering  on 
the  flanks,  but  also  to  meet  the  enem_v's  cavalry. 
But  infantry  is  mdispensable  in  more  or  less  strength 
under  all  circumstances,  in  order  to  make  a  stand 
at  suitable  positions  for  defense,  to  form  rallying 
points  and  protection  for  the  cavalry  if  driven  in, 
and  to  check  the  eager  pursuit  of  the  enemy's  caval- 
ry. If  the  force  is  of  any  magnitude,  its  rear-guard 
should  be  composed  of  the  three  arms,  in  proportions 
suited  to  the  ground  that  is  to  be  passed  over.  Cav- 
alry, to  meet  and  ward  off  the  enemy's  cavalry. which 
in  open  ground  can  hover  round  the  rear  and  flanks, 
artillery,  to  take  up  favorable  positions  in  retreat  to 
bear  on  the  heads  of  pursuing  columns;  and  infantry, 
to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  enem}''s  attack  and  retard 
his  advance  at  the  chosen  points  of  resistance.  If 
guns  are  used  with  skill  in  a  retreat  they  can  often 
save  deployment  of  their  own  infantry,  by  obliging 
the  enemy,  as  he  presses  on  in  pursuit,  to  halt  and 
deploy;  the  guns  retreating  rapidly  as  the  enemy 
forms  up.  Artillery  is  thus  of  special  value  when 
added  to  a  rear-guard. 

As  regards  the  action  of  the  rear-guard  generally, 
since  the  great  object  which  it  has  to  effect  is  to 
keep  back  the  enemy  without  comprondsing  the 
safety  or  delaying  the  retreat  of  the  main  body,  it  is 
evident  that  its  duties  can  be  best  performed  by 
very  frequently  occupying  such  natural  positions  as 
the  country  may  possibly  afford,  thus  absolutely 
forcing  the  enemy  not  only  to  deploy ,but  even  to  Bt^ 
tack,  and  then  getting  safely  away  without  serious 
fighting.  The  great  art  of  rear-guards  is  that  of  be- 
ing constantly  able,  without  risk,  and  with  but  little 
trouble,  to  force  an  enemy  to  deploy  for  attack,  and 
then  to  get  safely  away  yourself  without  serious 
fighting;  in  other  words,  the  rear-guard  should,  by 
frequent  occupation  of  strong  positions,  be  continu- 
ally threatening  to  fight,  as  it  is  by  so  doing,  and  not 
by  actual  conflict,  that  it  best  fulfills  its  purpose.  In 
a  long  retreat,  when  this  course  has  been  followed 
for  a  number  of  successive  daj's,  the  general  com- 
manding the  pursuit  is  apt  to  become  reckless,  and, 
neglecting  to  take  all  necessary  precautions,  may 
push  on  to  attack  with  an  insufficient  force  at  hand, 
or  in  an  irregular  manner;  it  wiU  then  be  for  the 
rear-guard  to  pounce  suddenly  upon  him,  with  all  his 
available  force, and  having  struck  him  a  severe  blow, 
at  once  resume  the  retreat.  The  officer  commanding 
must  not  allow  himself  to  be  carried  away  by  any 
partial  success  of  this  nature  so  as  to  forget  his  prim- 
ary duty,  for  he  should  bear  in  mind  that  he  cannot 
stop, except  to  retard  the  pursuit,  and  that  every  suc- 
ceeding quarter  of  an  hour  brings  his  enemy  re-en- 
forcements. The  length  of  time  that  a  rear-guard 
can  remain  with  safety  in  a  position  depends  on  its 
intrinsic  strength,  and  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  an 
enemy's  turning  it. 

In  the  details  of  conflict  the  Knowledge  which  it 
has  of  the  grovmd  is  much  to  the  advantage  of  the 
rear-guard,  as  it  can  decide  what  points  to  make  a 
stand  at,  what  to  pass  over  as  untenable.  In  this 
respect  its  position  seems  better  than  that  of  the 
advanced-guard  in  the  forward  march,  but  the  ap- 
parent superiority  is  fleeting,  for  the  conditions  under 
which  the  rear-guard  and  ailvanced-guard  fight  are 
widely  different.  The  advanced-guard  can  push  on 
with  the  confidence  fairly  engendered  by  knowing 
its  sujiports  to  be  approaching  from  the  rear  in  any 
re(|uired  force  ;  the  rear-guard,  on  the  other  hand, 
caniiiit  but  feel  that  the  longer  the  conflict  is  jiro- 
tracled  the  farther  it  gets  from  its  main  body.  The 
rear-guard,  therefore,  has  to  consider  a  danger  which 


REAR  OPEN  ORDER. 


f!41 


REBELLION. 


(loeH  not  exist  for  tlic  lulvuiK'i-d.fiimrd,  Unit  of  \ifiun 
cut  off  from  its  coUinin  sliimlil  il  rciimin  loo  loiiK  it' 
position  anil  be  succcssfiillv  oiillliiiiltcd.  If  tlic  rcur- 
iruiird.  however,  eiiii  liold  ils  ;;roiind  Ion};  enoii|;li  to 
Ciiiise  llic  cneniy  first  lo  reionnoiler.and  llien  lo  form 
up  fcjr  iiltacli,  ils  |>iir|iosc  anil  otijeet  as  a  delayinj; 
foree  will  liave  liecn  ilTeelcil  for  llie  niornenl,  and 
tile  eonirnander,  on  liis  Hanks  lieini;  llireateniMl,  nniv 
well  relire,  aj;ain  lo  oceii|iy  a  farther  seleeled  jjosi- 
tion,  and  again  to  relard  ilie  progress  of  liis  pur- 
suers. In  a  very  close  connlry  every  elieek  thus 
given  to  the  enemy  oliliires  him  lo  incur  a  consider- 
able and  serious  delay  ;  but  the  Commander  of  the 
rear-irmird  nnist  not  forLjet  that  he  may  be  pursu- 
ed by  a  eoluTMii  manhiiiir  on  a  road  lo  his  Hank,  in 
addiliou  lo  llial  inumdialely  behind  him.  This  is 
perhaps  the  greatest  of  all  dangers  against  wliieli  ho 
has  lo  guard. 

If  llie  pursuit  of  a  rear-guard. which  has  been  act- 
ivelv  carried  on  by  the  enemy  up  to  a  certain  [loint. 
suddenly  ajipears  to  i-easc,  the  Coinmander  slioulil 
send  out  strong  cavalry  patrols  lo  ascertain  the 
cause.  The  enemy,  it  will  lie  found. has  either  stop, 
ped  in  his  pursuit  on  the  main  roiMe.or  he  has  taken 
a  dilVereut  direction  and  is  still  advancing.  In  the  lat- 
ter case  active  recoimaissauce  by  cavalry  patrols 
should  immediately  be  undertaken  by  the  rear-guard, 
the  main  cohunn  being  also  advised  of  the  route  tak- 
en by  the  enemy,  that  il  may  send  out  flanking  de- 
tachments lo  feel  for  him.  An  army  retiring  by 
more  than  one  road,  whose  directions  .are  generally 
parallel,  would  usually  have  a  rear-guard  upon  each 
road  under  a  separate  comn\ander,  the  rearmost 
groups  being  continued  across  Ihe  whole  rear,  and 
Hankers  only  upon  the  outer  flanks  of  Ihe  outer 
coliunns.  The  whole  of  these  rear-guards  would  be  in- 
cluded in  (me  high  command.  The  army  wotdd 
thus  retire  in  as  many  columns  as  might  be  neces- 
sary, coimection  lieinit  kept  up  between  thi' difTcrent 
main  columns,  and  also  between  those  of  Ihe  rear- 
guards at  every  cross  road,  and  whenever  the  conn- 
try  may  allow  of  ccnnmunication.  No  war  material 
that  could  be  useful  to  the  enem\'  should  be  allowed 
in  a  retreat  to  fall  into  his  hands.  The  rear-guard 
must  destroy  it  if  it  cannot  be  removed.  If  hardly 
pressed,  everything  that  coidd  assist  the  enemy,  such 
as  standing  corn  and  provisions,  nuist  be  burnt, 
liorses  and  wagons  pressed  and  sent  on  to  the  main 
body.  As  an  extreme  measure,  villages  on  the  line 
of  route  must  even  be  fired,  if  necessary  to  retard 
the  pursuit. 
REAR  OPEN  ORDER. — \n»pen  omfr,executecl  as  fol- 
lows: Being  at  a  halt, the  Captain  comnumds  :  1.  Jinir 
(ipi)i(>rdir.2.yiA.RCH.'ii.  Fkont.  AI  Ihe  lirst  connnand. 
'the  right  and  left  guides  step  briskly  three  yards 
to  the  rear,  to  mark  the  new  alignment  of  the  rear 
rank  ;  Ihe  First  and  Second  Lieutenants  place  them- 
selves on  the  right  and  left  of  the  front  rank  ;  the 
Third  Lieutenant  covers  the  second, in  Ihe  rear  rank  ; 
the  Captain  goes  to  the  right  Hank,  and  sees  that  the 
guides  are  on  a  line  par.illel  to  the  front  rank. 

At  the  command  iiihit/i.  the  Lieutenants  jjlace 
themselves  opposite  their  places  in  line,  three  yards 
in  front  of  the  company  ;  the  front-raidi  men  dress 
to  the  right  ;  the  rear-rank  men  cast  their  eyes  to  the 
right,  stej)  backward,  halt  a  little  in  rear  of  Ihe 
alignment,  and  then  dress  lo  the  right  on  the  line  es- 
tablislied  by  the  guides.  The  file-closers  step  to 
the  rear  and  place  themselves  three  vards  from  the 
rear  rank. 

The  Captain  superintends  the  alignment  of  Ihe 
ollicers.and  the  fnnit  rank,  ami  the  right  guide  that 
of  the  rear  rank  ;  the  Captain  verities  Ihe  alignment 
of  Ihe  rear  rank,  and  of  Ihe  tile-closers  :  llie  officers 
and  tile-closers  cast  their  eyes  to  the  front,  as  soon 
as  their  alignment  is  verified. 

At  the  command  front,  the  guides  resume  their 
places  in  the  front  rank,  and  the  men  cast  their  eyes 
to  the  front ;  the  Captain  places  himself  three  yards 
in  front  of  the  right  file. 


REAR  SIGHT.-  The  rfrir  myld  Ih  coniiM.Hed  of  it 
base,  widrli  is  firmly  Hccured  to  Ihe  barrel  iil  a  nhon 
distance  from  the  breech,  and  a  movable  part  iiipii- 
ble  of  lieing  adjiislecl  for  dilTereril  elevationH  of  the 
barrel.  Tiii'  n\\r\i\  originally  alllxeil  lolhe  nlle.iniiK> 
ket  had  a  single  leaf,  lo  which  was  iillaclied  a  "lide, 
conlainiiig  the  sight  notch,  which  could  be  udjusleil 


for  all  distances  between  UK)  and  000  yards.  By  an 
order  fif  Ihe  War  I)e|iarlment,  this  was  replncec'l  by 
a  sight  which  had  three  movalile  leaves,  turning  on 
a  common  axis,  ?.nd  bearing  notches  adjusted  lo 
1011,  300,  and  HOO  yards,  respectively.  Aiming  a  fire- 
arm consists  in  bringing  Ihe  top  of  tlie  front  siglit, 
and  Ihe  bottom  of  the  notch  of  the  rear  sight,  into 
the  line,  joining  the  eye  and  the  object.  A  siglil  for 
a  military  arm  should  satisfy  the  following  condi- 
tions,  viz.:  Isl.  It  should  be  easily  adjusted  for  all 
distances  within  elTcctive  range;  2d.  The  form  of 
the  notch  should  permit  the  eye  to  catch  the  object 
quickly  ;  3d.  It  should  not  be  easily  deranged  by 
the  accidents  of  the  service.  The  globr  and  lelfnopK 
sights  are  used  for  very  accurate  sporting-arms,  but 
they  are  too  delicate  in  their  structure,  and  too  slow- 
in  their  operation,  for  general  purpo.ses.  In  Ihe  ah. 
since  of  a  proper  rear  sight.  Ihe  soldier  of  Ihe  line 
may  be  taught  to  point  his  pi<ce  by  aiming  over  the 
center  of  the  knuckle  of  his  left  thumlj :  the  position 
of  the  thumb  along  Ihe  barrel  determines  Ihe  eleva- 
tion of  the  piece.  This  method  is  practiced  by  cer- 
tain French  troops  of  the  line,  for  distances  less 
than  400  y:irds. 

REBELLION.— The  term  rebellion  is  applied  lo  an 
insurrection  of  large  extent,  and  is  usually  a  war 
lietween  the  legitimate  government  of  a  countrj' 
and  portions  or  provinces  of  the  same  who  .seek  to 
throw  off  their  allegiance  to  il,  and  set  up  a  govem- 
ment  of  their  own^  When  humanity  induces  the 
adoption  of  the*rules  of  regular  war  "towanl  rebels, 
whether  the  adoption  is  partial  or  entire,  it  <Ioes  in 
no  wav  whatever  imply  either  a  partial  or  complete 
acknowledgment  of  tiieir  government,  if  thev  have 
set  up  one," or  of  them,  as  either  an  independent  or 
sovereisrn  power.  Neutrals  have  no  right  to  make 
Ihe  adoption  of  the  rules  of  war  by  the  a.ssailed 
sovernment  towards  rebels  the  ground  of  their  own 
acknowledgment  of  the  revolted  jx'oplc  as  an  in- 
dependent power. 

Treatimr  captured  rebels  as  prisoners  of  war.  ex- 
chamrinsr  them,  concluding  of  cartels,  capitulations, 
or  oilier  Warlike  asreemenls  with  them  ;  addressing 
officers  of  a  rebel  array  by  the  rank  they  may  have 
in  the  same:  accepting  flags  of  truce:  or.  on  the 
other  hand,  prodaiminac  Martial  La-v  in  theirterrilo- 
ry.  or  levving  war  taxes  or  forced  loans,  or  doing 
any  other"  act  sanctioned  or  demanded  by  the  law 
anil  usages  of  public  war  between  sovereign  beliger- 
ents.  nefthcr  proves  nor  establishes  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  rebellious  people,  or  of  tlie  government 


EEBOUNDINU  LOCK. 


G42 


BECIFROCAL  DEFENSE. 


which  the}'  may  have  erected,  as  a  public  or  sover- 
eign power.  Nor  does  the  adoption  of  the  rules  of 
war  towards  rebels  imply  an  ensageiAent  with  them 
extending  beyond  the  limits  of  these  rules.  It  is 
victory  in  the  tield  that  ends  the  strife  and  settles 
the  future  relations  between  the  contending  parties. 
Treating,  in  the  tield,  the  rebellious  enemy  according 
to  the  law  and  usages  of  war  has  never  prevented 
the  legitimate  government  from  trying  the  leaders  of 
the  rebellion  or  chief  rebels  for  high  treason,  and 
from  treating  them  accordingl}-,  unless  they  are  in- 
cluded in  a  general  amnesty. 

All  enemies  in  regular  war  are  divided  into  two  gen- 
eral classes;  that  is  to  say,  into  combatants  and 
non-combatants,  or  unarmed  citizens  of  the  hostile 
government.  The  military  commander  of  the  legiti- 
mate government,  in  any  war  of  rebldlion,  dis- 
tinguislies  between  the  loyal  citizen  in  the  revolted 
portion  of  the  country  au<l  the  disloyal  citizen.  The 
disloyal  citizens  may  further  be  classified  into  those 
citizens  known  to  sympathize  with  the  rebellion, 
without  positively  aiding  it,  and  those  who,  without 
taking  up  arms,  give  positive  aid  and  comfort  to  the 
rebellious  enemy,  without  being  bodily  forced  there- 
to. Common  justice  and  plain  expediency  require 
that  the  military  commander  protect  the  manifestly 
loj'al  citizens,  in  revolted  territories,  against  the 
hardships  of  the  w  ar  as  much  as  the  common  mis- 
fortune of  all  war  admits.  The  commander  v.-ill 
throw  the  burden  of  the  war.  as  much  as  lies  within 
his  power,  on  the  disloyal  citizens  of  the  revolted 
portion  or  province,  subjecting  them  to  a  stricter 
police  than  tne  non-combatant  enemies  have  to  suffer 
in  regular  war  ;  and  if  lie  deems  it  appropriate,  or  if 
his  government  demands  of  him  that  every  citizen 
shall,  by  an  oath  of  allegiance,  or  by  some  other 
manifest  act,  declara  his  fidelitj-  to  the  legitimate 
government, he  may  cither  expel. transfer.impriscm, or 
fine  the  revolted  citizens  who  refuse  to  pledge  them- 


thc  hammer  in  the  usual  manner  until  the  spring 
comes  in  contact  with  the  stud  in  the  plate  and  stops. 
The  hammer  by  its  own  momentum  now  explodes 
the  cap,  and  at  this  point  is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  with 
the  nose  of  the  sear  resting  on  the  incline  of  the  turn- 


Fig.  2. 


blcr  ready  to  force  it  back  to  half-cock  as  soon  as 
tlie  pressure  is  relieved  from  the  trigger. 

EEBUFFO. — A  bastard  cannon,  or  a  three-fourth 
Carthoum  (Karthanne),  a  36-pounder  of  15  calibers 
long:  according  to  Ufauo.  a  4.5-pouuder. 

RECALL. ~A  call  on  the  trumpet,  bugle,  or  drum, 
bv  wliicli  soldiers  are  recalled  from  duty,  labor,  etc. 

RECEIPT. — A  voucher  or  acknowledgment,  which 


Received  at 

of ,  188  ,  from 

in  good  order  and  condition,  the  uuder-mentioned  packag 

for  transportation  and  delivery  to 

at 


.this., 


•day 


lof. 


Articles  au<i  (|uautities. 

Cost. 

No.  of  packages. 

Dolls. 

Cts. 

Gross  weiglit. 

(Signed  i]i  duplicate. J 

selves  anew  as  citizens  oliedient  to  the  law  and  loyal 
to  th(^  government.  Whether  it  is  expedient  to  do 
so,  and  whether  reliance  can  be  placed  \ipon  such 
oaths,  the  conunaMder  or  hi.<  government  have  the 
r.ghl  to  de.;-ide. 

Armed  or  unarmed  resistance  by  citizens  of  the 
United  States  against  the  lawful  movements  of  their 
troops  is  levying  war  against  tlie  United  States,  and 
is  therefore  treason.  See  Civil  Wiir,  Inmrrection, 
smd   I'os.v  ('•nnifjiti/K. 

REBOUNDING  LOCK.  A  gun-lock  in  which  the 
hauuncr  rebunnds  tn  half-cock,  after  discharge,  as  a 
means  of  safety.  The  drawings  show  the  action  of 
the  Parker  n/)i)iiiiilinf/-/'>r/,-.  The  operation  of  the 
hick  is  very  simple  and  renders  all  fire-arms  using  it 
safe  from  lial)ility  of  a  premature  or  accidental  dis- 
charge. Fig.  1  shows  the  hammer  down  on  Ihi' 
plunirer,  and  Fig.  2  shows  the  lock  at  h.nlf-eock. 
When  the  gun  is  di^cliar^ed,  the  main  spring' carries 


Quartermasie?: 

should  always  be  given  when  official  pai>ers  are  re- 
ci'ived.  When  flags  of  truce  are  the  liearers  of  a 
parcel  or  a  letter,  the  officer  commanding  an  outpost 
should  give  a  receipt  for  it,  an<t  require  the  liartj-  to 
depart  forthwith.  The  above  is  the  form  of  a  receipt 
used  liy  (Quartermasters. 

RECHAUD. — A  cliafiug-dish,  or  |ian,  used  for  vari- 
ous pur|i(ises,]>articularly  durins;a  siege,  lleeliauds 
are  tilleil  willi  liurniug  materials, and  hung  in  dilTiT 
<-nl  parts  of  the  walls,  so  as  to  throw  light  into  the 
ditclies,  and  to  iirevent  surprises. 

RECHUTE.— A  term  used  in  fortification  to  signify 
a  greater  elevation  of  the  rampart  in  those  parts 
where  it  is  lik<'lv  to  be  commanded. 

RECIPROCAL  DEFENSE.— A  gooil  Hanking  defense, 
to  lie  found  in  prrmanent  fort itieat ions.  !n  con- 
striietiug  works  of  this  nature,  the  following  are  the 
obj<'cts  ainieil  at:  -1 .  To  afford  eovi'r  or  |iroleiiion  to 
the  guns,  masonry,  and  bodies  of  the  defenders  from 


BECOIL. 


G43 


BECOIL  DTHAHOHETER. 


the  (•tTc(-ls  of  (in  i'lK.'my'H  Hre  of  every  ileHeripliDii. 
2.  To  arrange  llie  eoveriiig  works  in  sui'li  a  manner 
that  Die  defenders  may  use  their  wc-apons  with  faeil- 
hy,  and  tliat  tlie  enemy  may  l)e  kept  iinihrlirc;  from 
his  lirsl  appearance  within  range  of  the  heavii'st  guns 
to  tlu'  moment  evc^n  of  his  arrival  at  tlie  crest  of  the 
defender's  worlcs,  a  eomlilion  wliieh  necessarily 
leads  to  the  introduclicin  of  reciprocal  or  llaidting 
defense,  as  it  would,  in  many  cases,  he  impossilile 
that  itcoulil  he  fullillcd  hy  means  of  direct  lirc^  alone, 
each  work  of  defense,  hecoming  a  cover  to  tlieassaih 
auts  against  the  tire  of  its  defenders  when  they  have 
advanced  to  its  hase,  it  lieing  also  evident  that  Hank- 
ing lire  is  much  more  ellicient  than  direct  lire.  The 
term  'reciprocal"  liere  used  expresses  more  fully  th(^ 
oharai'ler  and  obj<'ct  of  such  defense  than  the  term 
"Hanking,"  .as  it  generalises  the  idea  intended  to  he 
conveyed,  by  including  reverse  lire  and  I'very  ar- 
rangement hy  which  the  ground  not  acted  upon  hy 
direct  lire  of  one  part  of  a  work  is  hrought  withiii 
the  action  of  the  lire  of  anotlier  part. 

RECOIL.  -When  the  charge  of  gunpowder  con- 
tained in  a  gun  is  tire<l,  the  sudden  expansion  of 
the  powder  into  many  times  its  former  hulk  acts 
with  e((ual  force  in  every  direction,  'i'ht!  resistance 
olfered  hy  the  ball,  which  moves  more  or  less  easily 
in  the  bore,  being  far  less  than  that  of  the  bulky  anil 
heavier  gun  and  carriage,  tlie  ball  is  forced  to  a  great 
distance  ;  hut  the  gun,  with  its  carriage,  must  never- 
theless feel  the  reaction,  and  is  driven  backward  a 
certain  space,  ordinarily  a  few  feet.  This  retrograde 
motion  is  called  the  recoil,  and  dangerous  accidents 
souK'times  take  place  from  it.  After  the  recoil,  the 
gininers  have  to  work  the  i)iece  back  to  its  former 
position  for  the  next  <lischarge.  In  tlie  Armstrong 
naval  gun,  and  some  other  modern  cannon,  the  trun- 
nions of  the  gun  are  mounted  on  an  inclined  plane. 
Up  which  the  recoil  drives  them,  to  run  down  again 
by  their  own  weight.  The  gun  and  shot  remaining 
the  .same,  the  recoil  is  proportionates  to  the  charge. 
The  recoil  of  small-arms  is  known  as  their  "kick," 
and  is  felt  on  the  shoulder  of  the  marksman.  The 
increase  in  the  size  of  camion  and  in  the  charges  em- 
ployed, has  necessitated  the  introduction  of  some 
additional  means  for  controlling  the  recoil.  The  fol- 
lowing are  used,  viz  :  1st.  Pneumatic  Buffers.  2d. 
Hydraulic  Buffers.     :td.  Friction  Checks. 

I'm-umatir  linffefH. — These  are  attached  principal- 
ly to  carriages  for  15-inch  guns.  They  consist  of 
two  closed  iron  cylinders,  placed  bi'twi'cn  the  rails 
at  the  front  part  of  the  chassis,  secured  thereto  by 
iron  straps  :  and  of  two  piston-rods  with  heads, 
working  air-tight  through  the  iron  heads  that  close 
tlie  rear  ends  of  the  cylinders.  The  rear  ends  of  the 
piston-rods  are  attaclied  to  a  heavy  iron  plate  pro- 
jecting below  the  rear  part  of  the  gun  carriage.  A 
small  hole  in  each  end  of  the  cjiiuders  relieves  the 
pressure  of  the  air  in  front  of  each  piston-head  and 
prevents  the  formation  of  a  vacuum  in  rear  of  it. 
When  the  recoil  takes  place,  the  piston-rods  are 
drawn  to  the  rear,  compressing  the  air  in  the  cylin- 
ders and  checking,  gradually,  the  motion  of  the  sys- 
tem. Should  vacuums  be  formed  in  front  of  the 
heads,  the  expansion  of  the  air  in  rear  would  force 
the  piece  forward  beyond  the   position   for  loading. 

llydrdiilic  Buffers. — The  hydraulic  buffer  is  at- 
tached to  carriages  for  1.5-inch  guns  and  for  heavy 
rifics.  Each  consists  of  a  cast-iron  cylinder  with 
head,  and  a  piston-rod  and  heads  the  latter  hav- 
ing perforations  in  it  instead  of  being  solid  as 
in  the  previous  system.  A  uon-frccziiig  liquid  is 
placed  in  the  cylinder.  Tin;  motion  given  to 
the  piston-rod  by  the  recoil  is  arrested  by  the 
liipiid  which  is  forced  to  pass  through  the  holes 
in  the  head.  The  amount  of  liquid,  and  the  num- 
ber and  size  of  the  lioles,  which  are  determined  by 
experiment,  regulate  the  amount  of  recoil.  One 
cylinder  may  thus  be  sulticient  for  any  sized  gun, 
though  with  the  largest  cannon  two  arc  generally 
employed.     The  cylinder  may  be  attached  to  the 


front  or  to  the  rear  end  of  tlii'  chuHHiM.  In  the  flntt 
case,  the  piMton-rod.  connecled  with  the  rear  of  the 
top-carriage,  is  drawn  out  of  Die  cvlinder :  in  tlii! 
second  (tase,  the  rod  necnri'd  to  the  front  of  the  car- 
riage  in  forced  into  the  cyliniler.  Kacli  haH  ll»  iidvun. 
tugi-H,  the  llrsl  is,  however,  llie  most  rigiil. 

Fricliiiii  (Uierkf.  -These  are  found  upon  many  «f 
this  carriages  for  heavy  rilles.  The  Kimplest  is  llie 
"  I'arrott"  system.  Two  iron  clamps  uetuuted  by 
serewH  arc  placed  on  tlie  railn  in  rear  of  the  lop- 
carriage;  their  pressure  on  the  rails  is  regulated  Ijy 
the  screws.  I'art  of  the  force  of  re(-oil  U  ex|K-mled 
in  moving  the  clamps  on  the  rails;  they  may,  before 
tiring,  be  so  i)laced  as  to  allow  free  recoil  over  a 
certain  distance,  the  motion  being  afterwards  check- 
ed. The  "Sinclair"  chirk  is  now  preferred.  It 
consists  of  a  bo.x-elamp  bearing  against  ihi-  front 
axl(!  of  the  tfip-carriagc;  and  of  a  broad  wroughl- 
iron  rail  slightly  wedge-shaped,  exieniling  nearly 
the  length  of  the  chassis  along  its  center  line.  At- 
tached to  the  front  of  the  chassis  are  two  transom- 
plates  between  which  the  rail  works,  free  to  move 
to  the  front,  but  pri'venlr'd  by  them  from  moving  to 
the  rear.  The  rail  is  seiureil  to  the  rear  of  the 
chassis  by  a  steel,  or  rubber  spring.  Tin-  clamp  liuH 
two  friction  plates  between  which  the  rail  passes, 
and  on  which  they  are  tightened  by  means  of  a  screw 
and  handle.  The  friction  of  the  clump  upon  the 
rail  checks  the  recoil,  and  when  it  ceases  the  reac- 
tion of  the  strain  upon  the  rail,  due  to  its  elasticity 
would  cause  the  rail  to  bend  were  it  not  free  to  move 
forward  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  being  retained 
oiilv  by  the  spriii_'. 

KECba  DYNAMOMETER.— Three  conditions,  llico- 
retlcally  essential  to  obtaining  a  true  record  of  re- 
coils, c!Ui  only  be  approximated  to  in  practice:  I. 
The  recoiling  mass  should  consist  of  mithing  Inil  the 
gun.  II.  The  entire  remil  should  be  expended  on 
the  tljiunmometfr.  III.  The  registration  should  be 
effected  witlmut  .ii iidhU  mulinn  of  the  gun.  Tiie  first 
condition  would  require  that  the  gun  should  be  sus- 
pended by  an  imponderable  penilulum  rod.  This  ig 
approximated  to  by  reducing  the  suspending  appa- 
ratus to  the  minimum  consistent  with  strength  and 
convenience.  .  The  second  condition  would  require 
that  the  gun  should  be  stripped  of  all  guides  and  re- 
straints involving  friction.  This  is  effected  by  hav- 
ing guides  near  enough  to  the  gun  to  prevent  incon- 
venient derangements,  but  ncjwhere  in  actual  con- 
tact. The  third  condition  would  require  that  the  dy- 
namometer should  be  set,  in  advance,  at  an  initial 
tension  exactly  equal  to  the  expected  recoil.  Thus 
condition  can  only  be  satisfied  so  far  as  to  .set  the  dy- 
namometer at  an  initial  tension  not  greater  than  the 
minimum  recoil  which  the  instrument  can  reasona- 
bly be  expected  to  be  called  upon  to  measure.  In 
the  particular  instrument,  which  forms  the  subject 
of  this  report,  the  spring  stands  at  an  initial  ten.sion 
of  fifty  pounds  avoirdupois,  which  is.  consequently, 
the  minimum  limit  of  its  capacity  for  measurmg  re- 
coils. 

The  accompanying  drawing  will  give  a  general 
idea  of  the  instrument,  and  enable  it  to  be  assem- 
bled. Being  assembled  the  following  sequence  of 
adjustments  has  been  found  most  convenient:  1. 
Open  and  depress  the  front  guide;  2.  Balance  the 
piece,  loaded,  in  the  sling,  at  the  elevation  desired. 
having  first  attached  the  "bridle,"  described  beyond: 
3.  Bring  the  butt-plate  heel  nearly  into  contact  with 
the  recoil-block,  by  shifting  the  pendulum  column, 
and  clamp  it:  4.  C'limiilete  the  contact  accurately  by 
means  of  the  horizontal  screw  at  the  head  of  the  pen- 
dulum column:  5  Kai.se  or  lower  the  gun  by  mean.* 
of  the  vertical  screw,  at  the  head  of  the  pendulum 
column,  until  the  point  of  contact  is  in  the  center  of 
the  circular  face  of  the  recoil-block.  .\n  iLssistant 
should  now  steady  the  butt  in  this  position  while  the 
front  adjustments' are  made:  6.  Slide  the  front  guide 
to  a  convenient  point  under  the  barrel  and  clamp  it 
7.  Raise  the  front  guide  until,  when  closed,  the  bar- 


KECOMMENDATIONS. 


644 


RECONNOISSANCE- 


rel  hangs  midway  iu  it  without  touching;  then,  before 
clamping:  8.  Rotate  the  front  guide  in  a  horizontal 
plane  until  tlie  gun  has  the  least  perceptable  lateral 
"inshake."  at  which  position  its  vertical  "  insliake" 
also  will  he  limited.  Clamp  the  front  guide  iu  tliis 
position;  9.  Bring  the  faces  of  the  butt-guiiies  nearly 
into  contact  with  the  butt.  See  that  the  butt-plate 
contact  has  not  been  deranged.  Mark  the  position 
of  the  sling  on  the  gun  to  facilitate  readjustment. 
See  that  the  index  has  been  pushed  back  to  50:  10. 
Adjust  the  bridle. 

The  "bridle  is  not  an  essential  element  of  the  in- 
strument, but  only  a  convenient  accessory.  There- 
turn  of  the  dj-namometer  spring  inflicts  a  sharp  lilow 
on  the  gun,  whicli  would  throw  it  forward  and  ne- 
cessitate tedious  readjustments  after  each  shot.  The 
bridle  restrains  this  forward  throw  without  mater- 
ially interfering  with  the  prime  object  of  the  instru- 
ment. Two  forms  of  l.iridleaccompany  the  instru- 
ment, one  of  which  embraces  the  gun  at  tlie  small  of  : 
the  stock  by  a  leather  collar,  which  is  buckled  back 
to  a  hook  on  the  dynamometer  by  a  leather  strap;  the  I 


number  of  contingencies.  To  supply  these  deficien- 
cies of  maps,  an  examination  of  the  ground  must  be 
made  liy  the  eye  ;  and  verbal  information  be  gained 
on  all  the  points  connected  with  the  operation  over 
this  ground.  This  examination  and  collection  of 
facts  is  termed  a  reconnoiHsanfe. 

From  the  services  demanded  of  a  reconnoiteriug 
officer,  it  is,  in  the  lirst  place, evident  that  lie  should 
possess  acquirements  of  no  ordinary  character;  but, 
iu  addition  to  these,  he  should  be  gifted  by  nature 
with  certain  traits,  without  which  his  acquisitions 
would  be  of  little  account  in  the  discharge  of  the  re- 
sponsible duty  in  question.  With  clear  and  specific 
information  before  him,  one-half  of  a  General's 
difficulties,  in  planning  his  measures,  are  dissipated. 
In  a  letter  from  General  Washington  to  Major 
Tallmadge,  he  remarks,  in  relation  to  reports  made 
to  him,  on  a  certain  occasion  ;  "■  But  these  things, 
not  being  delivered  with  a  cer.ainty,  rather  perplex 
than  form  the  judgment."  It  is  in  truth  this  feeling 
of  certainty  that" constitutes  all  the  difference; 
having  it,  the  General  makes  his  dispositions  witli 


other  embraces  the  gvm  in  front  of  the  front  sight  by 
a  metallic  collar,  similarly  buckled  back  to  the  column 
ofthefrontguide.  The  first  form  is  the  lighterandless 
objectionable,  and  can  be  used  with  all  guns  and  car- 
liiues,  except  such  as  open  b\'  a  lever,  like  the  Sharp's 
arms.  In  a  series  of  trials  with  the  service  ritle  and 
ammunition  the  instrument  gave  a  very  uniform 
record  of  98  pounds  recoil.  Tlie  pull  of  the  trigger, 
in  experiments  for  recoil,  is  canceled  by  the  simple 
expedient  of  placing  the  thumb  behind  the  guard- 
bow  and  phirhing  t/igether  the  bow  and  the  trigger 
while  st;inding  on  tlu'  right  of  the  gun. 

KECOMMENDATIONS.-  All  niemiiers  of  any  Court 
who  concur  iu  rcconiiiieudiiliiuis  to  mercy  sign.  The 
recommendation  is  introduced  after  the  finding  and 
sentence  are  closed  and  aiitlienticatf  d.  The  reconi- 
meiid;ition  should  distinctly  set  forth  tlie  reasons 
which  pniinpt  it. 

RECONNOISSANCE.— There  are  mi  more  imiiortant 
duties,  wliicli  ;in  (illicer  may  be  called  ujidii  to  jier- 
form,  lliuu  th(>^^e  of  collecting  iind  arranging  the 
inform;iti(m  upon  which  either  the  general  or  daily 
operations  of  a  campaign  must  be  based.  For  the 
proper  performance  of  the  former,  acquirementsof  a 
very  high  order,  in  the  deiiartments  of  geography  ' 
and  statistics, are  indispensable  requisites;  to  whicii  i 
must  be  adtled  a  minute  accpiaiiitance  with  topo- 
graphy, and  ii  good  mnp  (I'lrii  militahv  for  that  of 
the  latter.  However  detaileil  and  perfect  may  lie  a 
map,  it  can  never  convey  all  the  informalinn  that 
will  enable  an  officer  to  plan,  even  an  ordinary 
march,  with  safety  :  still  less,  operations  that  neces- 
,sarily  depend,  for'  I  heir  success,  upon  a  far  greater 


confidence ;  without  it,  he  acts  hesitatingly;  and 
thus  communicates  to  others  that  want  "of  con- 
fidence felt  in  his  own  mind.  An  officer,  then, 
selected  for  the  duly  in  question  should  be  known 
to  be  cool-headed  and  truthful:  one  who  sees  things 
as  they  are,  and  tells  clearly  and  precisely  what  he 
has  seen.  In  making  his  report,  whether  verbally 
or  in  writing,  the  officer  should  study  conciseness 
and  precision  of  language.  He  must  carefully 
separate  what  he  knows,  from  his  own  observation, 
from  that  which  he  has  learned  from  others  ;  and 
add  all  the  circumstances  of  place  anil  time  with 
accuracy. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  by  an  officer  selected 
for  any  reconnoissauce,  is  to  ascertain  prerixtiy  the 
duty  required  of  him ;  and  what  further  should  be 
done  in  case  of  certain  contingencies  that  may, 
from  the  nature  of  the  duty,  be  naturally  looked 
for.  In  the  performance  of  thi'  duty  assigned  him, 
and  in  making  his  report,  the  officer  should  keep 
always  iu  mind  Ihe  specific  chanicterof  his  missiim, 
as  his  guide  in  both  points.  As  the  deed  of  a  re- 
eoiinoi.ssanec  supposes  a  great  deficiency  in  iufor- 
nialion  upon  the  Uiitural  features  of  the  country, 
the  officer,  detailed  to  make  one,  should  iirovide 
himself  with  majis,  a  good  leleseope,  such  simple 
aids  for  judging  of  distances,  and  ascertaining 
the  relative  jiosilions  of  objects,  as  he  can  him- 
self readily  make  ;  writing  materials;  one  or  more 
good  guides:  and  gain  all  Ihe  knowleilge  he  can, 
from  the  inhabitants  at  hand,  bearing  iiiion  his  mis- 
sion. Thelideiit  of  judging  of  distances,  and  of  the 
coimeclion  between  the  viirions  features  of  a  eoun- 


BECORDER. 


Ci'y 


RECORDS. 


try  within  Uii;  Held  of  vision.  \h  partly  ii  imliiriil  uini 
parlly  an  aci|uircil  one.  Sonic  iniliviiliial»  <an  ncvrr 
l)c  l)r(iii>;lit  to  liavr  any  ronliilcnci-  in  llii'ir  own  jiiiljr- 
nii'nl  on  tlii'sc  points;  otliiTH  liavr  analiiral  aplilnili' 
for  llicni,  wliicli  ri(|iiin'S  l>iit  lilllr  praclici'  for  their 
perfect  ileveloiinuiil.  Tlic^  powern  of  the  eye  vary 
so  Lrreally  anion;^  civilized  ])erson.H.  thai  no  general 
rules  can  lie  laid  rhuvn  as  a  s.'uiile  for  tiic  nialliT  in 
(picslion.  .Xnion;;  iiiicivili/ed  liordcs.nseil  to  ii  roam- 
ini;  life,  there  arc  found  slarnlanls  which  are  well 
luiderstood  by  all,  —  the  Arab,  for  inslanee,  callin;; 
the  distance  a  mile,  at  which  a  man  is  no  longer  dis- 
liniiuisliablc  from  a  woman — firowini;  out  of  their 
habits.  The  lirst  thinir  liien  to  be  done  by  an  olHi-er, 
in  acciiiirini;  the  cuiip  (/'wit  militdir'  js  lo  learn,  both 
from  books  and  on  the  li(  Id,  what  s]iace  is  taUi'U  up 
by  a  liatlalion  and  its  intervals,  by  a  sipiadrrin.  and 
by  a  battery  when  in  order  of  liattic  ;  how  much  ; 
when  in  column  of  march;  and  the  average  time  re- 
quired for  certain  movements,  under  given  circum- 
stances of  the  sround.  This  aciiuirement  he  may 
make  by  adopting  some  standard  of  his  own;  his  or- 
dinary pace,  and  that  of  a  Iwirse,  servinir  for  com- 
puting time  and  distance  reciprocally.  The  ne.Mstep 
is  to  accjuirc^  tlu'  habit  of  estimating,  liy  the  appear- 
ances of  these  dilVerent  objects,  from  various  points 
of  view,  how  far  olf  they  are.  This  must  be  done 
practically.  A  very  simple  aid  to  it  is  the  following: 
—  Upon  the  stem  of  a  lead-pencil,  cut  siiuare.  and 
lield  out  at  a  uniform  arm's  length  from  the  eye,  by 
means  of  a  thread  allaclied  to  it  and  fastened  lo  the 
toi)  button-hole,  let  the  olticer  mark  olT,  on  one  of 
the  edges,  Ihi-  length  seen  on  it  by  holding  the  pen- 
cil upright  between  the  eye,  and  a  man  ])laced  suc- 
cessively at  different  distances  from  it,  as  100,  bW — 
1,000  yards.  Tliis  will  give  one  rough  standard  for 
practice. 

Trustworthy  guides  are  invahiablc,  but  most  rare, 
in  an  enemy's  country.  The  best,  from  the  informa- 
tion I  hey  ac(piirc  by  their  habits  of  life,  are  to  be 
foiMid  ;iniong  those  (-lasses  whose  avocations  i<eep 
them  much  abroad,  going  from  place  to  place  within 
a  certain  siihere  constantly;  such  as  conunon  carriers, 
hunters,  snuigglers,  etc.  Among  the  tirst  things  to  be 
attended  to  by  an  officer, in  taking  jiost  at  any  point,  is 
to  liud  out  persons  of  this  class,  and  to  ascertain  their 
whereabouts  when  wanted.  Kind  treatnu'nt.  d'ni- 
eritrs,  and  promises,  should  not  be  spared  to  enlist 
either  their  good  will  or  their  interests  ;  and,  if  policy 
reijuires  it,  they  may  openly  be  treated  with  apparent 
harshness,  to  screen  tiu-m  from  odium  among  their 
neighbors.  If  none  of  this  class  can  be  found,  then 
resort  must  be  had  to  a  higher  ;  local  authorities  l)eiug 
in  preference  selected,  and  if  necessary  forced  to  act. 
'  Here  very  careful  treatment  is  re(piisite  ;  when  the 
necessity  of  the  case  is  admitted  iiy  then;,  much  may 
be  gleaned  by  kindness,  courtesy,  and  a  certain  de- 
ference, from  such  persons,  that  cannot  be  looked  for 
from  their  iuferi(jrs. 

Before  starting  on  his  mission,  the  officer  should 
questiira  his  guide  thoroughly  ;  and  if  he  has  several, 
question  each  apart;  like  jirccautions  should  be  taken 
with  respect  to  other  inhabitants.  Care  must  be  had 
to  find  out  the  usual  beats  of  one  taken  as  a  guide, 
so  as  not  to  take  him  out  of  his  own  neighborhood. 
Should  there  be  but  one  guide,  he  must  necessarily 
be  placed  with  the  most  advanced  portion  of  the  de- 
tachment accompanying  the  otliccr.  It  nuiy  be  well 
to  reiuark  that  guides  are  useful  even  in  a  country  of 
easy  communications  ;  as,  in  case  of  a  rencontre,  they 
may  point  out  by-ways  convenient  for  retreat  if  ne- 
cessary. 

To  designate  all  the  objects  to  be  embraced  in  a 
reconnoissance,  would  lead  further  than  the limitsof 
this  article  will  allow  ;  some  general  heads,  which 
will  serve  as  guides  in  all  cases,  will  therefore  be 
alone  noticed.  A  general  view  of  the  ground  to  be 
examined  must  tirst  be  taken  in,  so  as  to  obtain  some 
notion  of  the  forms  of  the  parts,  their  connection, 
and  relations  to  each  other,  before  going  into  a  de- 


tailed exatiiination.  To  one  pohhcsHcd  of  xoiiie  topo. 
graphical  knowledge.  tlilHHtudy  of  what  In  before  him 
will  iKJt  denuiml  much  time.  A  level  country',  for 
example,  he  knows  ik  usually  well  eullivuttrl,  umJ 
then-fore  has  plenty  of  hedges,  dilclieH,  etc.,  which 
lend  themselves  well  to  alTuirsof  light  troopH-  mav 
be  not  a  little  inconvenir-nt  to  mam-uvers  of  urlil- 
lery  and  frecpienlly  bring  up  cavalry  very  unex- 
pectedly in  full  career.  In  a  mountainoiin  one, 
dangirrous  passes,  narrow  roadH,  torrerilN  with 
rough  beds,  ugly  sudden  turns,  etc..  will  neeeMm- 
rily  be  met  with.  Kar-li  and  all  of  these  demand  a 
parlicidar  exandimtion,  ami  in  his  re|H<rl  their  ad- 
vantages anil  disadvantages  should  bo  clearly  point- 
ed out  by  tin:  ofilcr-r. 

If  the  reconnoissance  is  for  an  onward  move- 
ment ;  the  distani-es  from  halt  lo  halt,  as  well  UJI 
all  others,  should  be  estimated  in  /I'/iirn  <if  umrch, 
the  nature  of  the  roads, and  the  obstacles  along  them 
be  carefully  detailed  ;  the  means  that  nniy  be  gath- 
ered along  the  line  to  facilitate  the  ni<ivemenl,aK  ve- 
hicles, men.  an<l  materials  for  removing  obMlB<-les, 
etc.  The  points  where  cross-roads  are  found,  must 
be  specified;  the  direction  of  these  roads;  their  useu, 
etc.  All  local  objects  along  the  line,  as  villages, 
farm-houses,  etc.,  should  be  carefully  designated, 
both  as  to  their  position  on  the  line,  or  on  either 
side  of  it :  and  also  as  to  their  form,  and  color,  etc., 
as  "square  white  house  on  the  right:"  "round  gray 
stone  lower  on  hill  to  left."  The  nami-s  of  locali- 
ties, in  the  way  in  which  the  mhabilanis  pronr>unce 
them,  shoidd  be  carefully  written,  ami  eallerl  over 
several  times,  so  as  lo  be  sure  lo  get  them  as  nearly 
as  practicable  right  in  sound;  then  the  names.  a» 
written  by  an  intelligent  inhabitant,  should  be  added. 
All  haltiijg  points  nuist  be  well  looked  lo;  their 
military  capabilities,  in  case  of  attack  ;  as  well  as 
their  resources  for  accommodating  the  troops,  be 
thoroughly  gone  into.  If  the  halt  is  to  lake  posi- 
tion for  some  time,  to  await  or  watch  the  enemy, 
then  more  care  must  be  taken,  the  whole  site  be 
well  studied  as  to  its  fulfilling  the  proposed  end  ; 
the  points  of  support  on  the  Hanks  be  designated, 
as  well  as  others  in  front  and  rear,  that  may  require 
to  be  occupied  ;  tlu-  suitable  localities  lo  be  chosen 
for  parks,  hospital,  etc. ;  the  comnmnications  lo  bo 
opened  or  repaired,  pointed  out  ;  and  all  the  facili- 
ties e>lhcr  for  an  advance  or  a  retrograde  movement, 
be  laid  down.  See  Armed  liemniwugancf.  J'atrot*. 
and  T(tp<i(irapkiml  liecunnniinnnrt. 

RECORDER.— One  who  keeps  a  record:  specitically, 
the  officer  who  registers  the  proceedings  of  a  lioard 
or  Minor  ('ourt. 

RECORD  OF  FIRING.— A  book  is  furnished  to  each 
post  for  the  •■rti„rd  i  if  artillery"  and  ••reO'rd  uf  fir- 
ing:' In  the  front  of  this  book  are  jirinled  instruc- 
tions fidlv  explaining  how  it  is  lo  be  kept.  Lnder 
appropriate  headings,  in  the  i)art  set  aside  for  record 
of  artillerv,  each  cun  is  described  by  its  nimiber  and 
marks;  when  received  and  where  from:  whether 
1  mounted  or  dismounted;  if  mounted,  in  what  part 
of  the  work,  statins  its  platform  mnuber.  The  re- 
sult of  each  inspec-iion.  made  as  hereinafter  describ- 
ed, will  be  entered  for  each  piece  in  this  part  of  the 
book. 

In  the  portion  of  the  book  devoted  to  record  of 
tiring,  each  piece  has  a  separate  page,  which,  when 
tilled,  is  carried  on  to  another.      Kach  shot  tired  is 
duly  recorded  as  lo  date  of  lire,  kind  ami  weight  of 
'  projectile,  kind  and  quantity  of  i)owder.  elevalion, 
;  time  of  liisrht.  range,  etc.      When  a  piece  is  trans- 
ferred froni  one  post  to  another  a  complete  record  is 
sent  with  it.  and  the  previous   number  of   fires   is 
entered  in  the  book  at  the  last  post,  so  that  the  firing 
may  not  20  bevond  the  limit  prescribed  as  the  eadur- 
j  ance  of  the  piece;  this  lias  been  fixed  at  one  thous- 
and service  rounds  for  cast-iron  cannon. 
'      RECORDS.— Otticial  accounts  or  registers.    .\ll  Mil- 
itary Records,  such  as  files  of  public  letters,  leller- 
I  books,  order-books,  and  other  recorU-bo.  k -  iiiu<ter- 


BECOTES. 


646 


HECRUITING. 


rolls,  etc.,  are  the  property  of  the  Government,  and 
are  preserved  for  future  reference  iu  the  settlement 
of  claims  against  tlie  Government  and  for  other  offi- 
cial purposes.  AVhenever  posts.  Districts,  Geogra- 
phical Departments.  Divisions,  and  other  commands, 
are  discontinued,  all  such  Records  as  are  not  re- 
quired for  use  at  the  Department  Headquarters  in 
which  the  commands  were  included  are  immediatelj' 
sent  by  express  to  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  Army. 
Kvery  person  who  wilfully  destroys,  or  attempts  "to 
destroy,  or  with  intent  to  steal  or  destroy,  takes  and 
carries  away  any  Record,  paper,  or  proceeding  of  a 
court  of  justice  tiled  or  deposited  with  an_v  clerk  or 
officer  of  such  court,  or  an}'  paper,  or  document,  or 
Record  tiled  or  deposited  in  any  public  office;  or  with 
any  judicial  or  public  officer,  without  reference  to 
the  value  of  the  Record,  paper,  document,  or  pro- 
ceeding so  taken,  pays  a  flue  of  not  more  than  two 
thousand  dollars,  or  suffers  imprisonment  at  hard  lab- 
or, not  more  than  three  years,  or  both.  Every  offi- 
cer having  the  custody  of  any  Record,  document, 
paper,  or  proceeding  specified  above  who  fraudulent- 
ly takes  away,  or  withdraws  or  destroj'S  any  stich 
Record,  document,  paper,  or  proceeding  filed  in  his 
office,  or  deposited  with  him,  orin  his  custody,  pays 
a  fine  of  not  more  than  two  thousand  dollars,  or  suf- 
fers imprisonment  at  hard  labor  not  more  than  three 
years,  or  both:  and  moreover,  forfeits  his  office,  and 
is  forever  afterward  disqualified  from  holding  any 
office  under  the  Government.  The  established  print- 
ed forms  and  blanks  of  all  nmsterrolls  and  returns 
required  from  the  Commanders  of  Divisions, Brigades 
Regiments,  Corps,  Companies,  and  Posts  are  fur- 
nished from  the  Adjutant  General's  Office  on  re- 
quistions  m.ade  directly  upon  him.  The  receipt  of 
these  forms  and  blanks  is  immediately  acknowledged. 
Officers  keep  these  blanks  under  their  own  personal 
care,  to  guard  against  their  being  misapplied.  The 
use  of  violet  or  other  colored  inks  (e.xcept  as  carmine 
or  red  ink  is  used  in  annotation,  indorsement,  and 
ruling!  is  prohibited  in  the  Records  and  correspond- 
ence of  the  army.  Hides  for  keeping  the  principal 
Record-books  at  the  different  headquarters  ;  forms 
for  making  rolls. returns,  etc.,  lists  of  papers  required 
from  each  command  in  the  army,  and  of  blank  forms 
and  books  issued  by  the  several  Departments,  are 
furnished  the  proper  officers  on  application  to  the 
Adjutiuit  General  of  the  army.  All  officers  and 
clerks  on  duty  in  the  Bureaus  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment are  prohil)ited  from  exhibiting  any  table,  state- 
ment, (ir  paper  ijelongiug  to  the  ofticial"  Records,  or 
giving  any  iuformationr  copy,  or  extract  from  the 
same,  or  giving  any  information  respecting  the  busi- 
ness of  the  Department  to  any  person  whatever  not 
on  duty  in  one  of  the  offices  of  the  Department,  with- 
out, in  each  case,  the  authorit}',  iu  writing,  of  the 
Chief  of  the  Bureau  concerned.  A  rigid  compliance 
witli  this  order  is  enforced,  to  prevent  improper  use 
of  information  irregularly  obtained. 

RECOVER. — In  tactics,  a  word  of  command  in  tir- 
ing, whereby  the  piece  is  brought  from  the  position 
of  (liin  to  Dial  of  rendy. 

RECRUITING.— Formerly,  in  lOngland,  the  task  of 
raising  recruits  for  the  army  was  inlrusled  to  the 
Colonels  of  Rogimeiits,  who  em|)loye(l  civilian  agents 
and  otiiers  to  persuade  young  luen  to  join  their  stan- 
dards; these  agents  often  resorting  to  very  illegal 
methods  to  entrap  recruits.  Subse(iuenlly,  the  duty 
was  assigned  to  several  Recruiting  Corps, each  known 
by  the  name  of  its  Comnumdiiig  Officer,  but  under 
tliis  system,  so  many  irregularities,  and  such  differ- 
ence of  practice  arose,  that  in  1*12,  for  purposes  of 
uniformity,  economy,  and  proper  control,  il  was  de- 
cided to  place  the  wliok-  recruiting  under  the  imme- 
diate direction  of  the  Adjutant  (ieneral.  For  this 
purpose,  the  country  was  divided  into  recruitiui; 
districts.  At  the  heiui  of  each  district  was  placed 
an  Inspecting  Field-officer,  with  the  duty  of  super- 
intending all  recruiting  parties  in  his  district,  and 
of  approving  the  recruits  brought.     At  the   District 


Headquarters  there  was  a  Paymaster,  responsible 
for  all  the  financial  concerns,  and  a  Medical  Officer, 
who  examined  the  recruits  iu  point  of  health  and 
physical  fitness.  Recruiting  parties  used  to  consist 
of  old  Sergeants,  who  souglit  by  everj^  means  to  in- 
duce young  men  to  enter  the  army;  they  frequented 
fairs,  wakes,  and  country  gatherings,  endeavoring  by 
beat  of  drum,  smart  uniforms,  well-fed  personal  ap- 
pearance, and  persuasion— not  always  too  truthful — 
to  convince  the  rustics  of  the  advantages  of  the 
Queen's  Service:  advantages  which  really  existed, 
though  not  always  to  the  extent  depicted.  The  adop- 
tion in  1872-73  of  the  system  of  Regimental  Locali- 
zation changed  all  this.  The  United  Kingdom  is 
divided  into  60  sub-districts,  at  the  head  of  each  of 
which  is  a  Colonel,  who  commands  the  Brigade  De- 
pot, and  the  auxiliary  and  reserve  forces  of  his  sub- 
district.  He  also  controls  the  recruiting  within  his 
command,  primarily,  for  the  regiments  composing 
the  brigade:  and  secondly,  for  the  rest  of  the  Army. 
To  preserve  uniformity  of  action,  the  Colonels  re- 
port on  recruiting  matters  to  the  Inspector  General 
of  Recruiting,  an  official  on  the  Staff  at  the  War 
Office.  On  a  would-be  recruit  presenting  him.self, 
the  recruiter  must  ask  him  if  he  already  belongs  to 
the  militia;  if  not,  and  he  appear  physically  eligible, 
he  is  given  a  shilling,  after  which,  sliould  he  ab- 
scond, he  becomes  a  deserter.  The  Sergeant  must 
then  give  the  recruit  24  hours  for  consideration; 
afterward,  but  within  96  hours  from  his  first  enlist- 
ment, he  must  take  him  before  a  magistrate,  when, 
if  the  recruit  declare  that  he  voluntarily  enlists,  the 
justice  reads  to  him  the  Articles  of  War  relative  to 
desertion,  and  puts  the  questions  detailed  in  the  at- 
testation. This  done,  the  oath  of  allegiance  is  ad- 
ministered, and  the  man  becomes  definitely  a  soldier, 
receiving  his  free  kit  and  boimty.  The  recruit  may 
avow  his  dissent  before  the  magistrate,  when  he  must 
be  forthwith  discharged  on  returning  the  shilling, 
and  paying  twenty  shillings  as  "smart"  for  the 
trouble  he  has  given.  False  declarations  as  to  age, 
previous  service,  health,  etc.,  involve  the  recruit  in 
various  penalties.  About  18,000  recruits  are  raised 
annually  in  time  of  peace  for  the  British  Army;  but 
a  larger  number  will  be  necessary,  as  enlistment  for 
short  service  with  the  colors  becomes  more  the  rule. 
In  the  United  States,  the  recruiting  service  is 
conducted  by  the  Adjutant  General,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Secretary  of  War  and  the  Commander  of 
the  Army.  Details  for  recruiting  service  are  or- 
dinarily for  the  period  of  two  years.  The  Adjutant 
General  details  the  field  officers  for  Superintendents, 
and  announces  in  Orders  the  number  and  grade  of 
the  company  officers  to  be  selected  by  the  Com- 
mander of  each  regiment  for  the  charge  of  recruit- 
ing parties.  These  officers  are  chosen  irrespective 
of  the  roster,  and  with  regard  to  their  fitness  for  the 
duty.  They  are  ordered  by  their  Regimental  Com- 
manders to  report  in  person  to  the  Superintendents 
designated  for  their  respective  arms  of  service.  Offi- 
cers on  the  general  recruiting  service  are  not  order- 
ed on  auy  other  duty,  except  from  the  Adjutant 
General's  Office.  A  recruiting  party  coi-.si.sts  gen- 
erally of  one  Lieulenant.  one  Ntm-coinmissioned 
officer,  and  not  UKirc  than  four  ]irivates.  The  par- 
ties arc  sent  from  the  priucip;d  depots,  and  none  but 
stiilii' le  men  selected.  The  Adjul;ui1  (ienend  of  the 
Army  <';iuscs  freiiuent  insjuclions  to  be  m;ide  of  the 
recruiting  depots  and  rendezvous,  for  the  purpose  of 
enforcing  the  regulations  and  orders  governing  en- 
listments, and  especially  to  ijrevent  the  reception  of 
men  of  bad  character,  ami  1  he  illegal  enlistnu'iit  of 
nuMors  into  the  service.  Officers  in  t'luirge  of  ren- 
dezvous will  in  no  <'ase  ;ibsent  themselves  from  their 
slalious  wUhoul  ;iutbority  from  the  Superintendent. 
Success  in  obtaining  recruits  depends  mtu-h  on  the 
activity  and  pirxnwd  atUiili'ni  of  recruiting  officers. 
They  must  not  intrust  to  enlisted  men  the  duties  for 
which  they  alone  are  responsible,  but  must  use  every 
care  to   (irevent   the  imposition  of  minors   and  bad 


RECROITINO  DEPOT. 


047 


KECHUIT8. 


men  upon  tlie  .s(Tvi<!c.  Kccniilin);  ofTlccrs  will  imi 
allow  liny  iimn  to  1)C  diT-civcil  or  iiivciftlcil  into  lln- 
Hcrvic<'  by  fiilsc  rc|)rcsciilali<iiiH,  Iml,  will  in  person 
oxpliiin  llic  niiliirc  of  llic  service,  llic  leiifjlh  (,f  the 
term,  the  piiy,  clolliinn,  riilion.-t,  anil  oilier  ullow- 
ances  to  wliicli  a  hoIiUct  is  enlillerl  by  law,  to  every 
man  liefore  lie  signs  the  enlislnient.  See  ItirniiUui/ 
Ihl'i't,  Ili'triiilK,  and  Si/jJiruiti'/iikul  of  Kecriiitiiiy 
Sirriri. 

RECRUITING  DEPOT.  A  (lejiot  for  the  folk-ction 
aiul  insiniiiion  of  ricriiils.  These  depots  are  es- 
tablished by  orders  from  the  Adjiilaiil  General's 
Office.  To  each  (h pnt  there  is  asMi;;ned  a  Huilable 
number  of  ollleers  to  commimd  and  instruct  the  re- 
cruits The  recruits  are  r/irnKid  in  tiiiif'irnn  uccord- 
ini;  to  their  respective  arms,  and  arc  rci;iiliirly  mus- 
tered iiiid  insjiecled.  'I'hey  are  well  drilled"  in  the 
Infantry  Tactics,  Ihrou^di  the  school  of  tlu'  soldier 
to  that  of  the  baltalioii,  and  in  the  c.\ercisc>  of  lield 
and  L'arrison  pieces.  Duly  is  done  accordini;  to  the 
strict  rules  of  service.  Kecniitsare  not  put  to  any  I 
labor  or  work  which  would  interfere  with  their  in-  I 
structioii,  nor  are  they  employed  olhervvise  than  as 
soldiers,  in  the  r(\i;ular  duties  of  i;arrison  and  camp. 
To  };ivc  encouragement  to  the  recruits,  anil  hi-lil  out 
inducements  to  tjood  coiiducl.  tne  ('omiiiandini; 
Olticer of  the  liepot  may  promote  such  of  them  as  j 
exhibit  the  requisite  qiialitications  to  lie  Lance  ('iir-\ 
puratx  ni\(\  Jjdirc  Si  /y{'(ints,  i\o\  e.xceedinj;  the  proper 
proiiortion  to  the  number  of  recruits  at  the  l)epot. 
These  appointments  are  announced  in  orders  in  the 
usual  way,  and  are  continued  in  force  until  they  join 
their  regiments,  unless  sooner  revoked.  No  allow- 
ance of  ])ay  or  emoluments  is  assigned  to  these  ap- 
poinlmenls;  they  are  only  to  be  consideri'd  as  re- 
commendation to  the  Captains  of  companies  and 
Colonels  of  regiments  for  the  places  in  which  the  re- 
cruits may  have  acted  ;  but  such  Non-commissioned 
ollicers  are  to  lie  treated  with  all  the  respect  and  to 
have  all  the  autliorily  which  belong  to  the  stations 
of  Sergeant  and  Coriioral. 

The  (Jeneral  Siipcrinleiidcnt causes  such  of  the  re- 
cruits as  arc  found  to  pos.sess  a  natural  talent  for 
music  to  lie  inslnicled  (besides  the  drill  of  the  sol- 
dier) on  the  fife,  bugle,  and  drum,  and  other  mili- 
tary inslriiiiients  ;  and  boys  of  si.xtccii  years  of  age, 
ami  upward,  may,  under  his  direction,  be  enlisted 
for  this  purpose.  Care  is  taken  to  enlist  those  only 
who  have  a  natural  talent  for  music,  and.  if  practic- 
able, they  arc  taken  on  trial  for  some  time  before 
being  enlisted.  The  posts  used  as  Kecriiiling  l)e])ots 
are  not  tube  made  places  of  conlineinent  for  military 
prisoners.  Whenever  deserters  from  the  Army  are 
apprehended  by.  or  come  in  custody  of  recruiting 
parties,  thej- are  sent  to  the  depots,  and  thence,  at 
the  earliest  opportunity,  forwarded  for  trial  to  their 
regiments,  where  the  wilnrsses  in  Ilieir  cases  should 
be.  When  trial  by  tiencral  Cniirl-Marlial  of  pris- 
oners belonging  to  or  under  charge  of  the  recruiting 
service  becomes  neees.sary,  the  charges  are  forward- 
ed, thrcnigh  the  Superintendent,  to  the  Adjutant 
General  of  the  Army,  with  a  list  of  the  officers  avail-  l 
able  for  duty  on  the  Court,  lierrniting  parties  and 
recruits  arc  mustered,  inspected,  and  paid  in  the 
same  manuer  as  are  other  soldiers.  'I'lic  number  of 
recruits  at  depots  to  be  assigned  to  each  arm  and 
regiment  is  directed  from  the  Adjutant  Geiierai's 
Ottice.  As  soon  as  a  recruit  joins  any  recruiting 
depot,  regiment,  or  station,  he  is  e.xamineil  by  the  I 
Medical  Officer,  and  vaccinated  when  it  is  reqinred.  ; 

The  Boards  of  Inspection  at  recruiting  depots  re- 
ject any  man  found  to  have  borne  an  unsatisfactory 
character  on  any  previous  enlistment,  or  who  lias 
shown  such  character  since  enlistment.  In  all  cases 
of  rijictiim,  the  reasons  therefor  are  stated  at  large  in 
a  special  ripi'H,  made  by  the  Board,  which  alsoshows 
when,  where,  and  by  whom  the  recruit  was  enlisted. ! 
This  report,  together  with  the  Surgeon's  certificate  ' 
of  disability  for  service,  is  forwarded  by  the  Super- 
intendent or  Commandant,  of  the  post  direct  to  the  , 


Adjiilanl  OcncTiil.     In  all  hucIi  com/b  llii>  Command- 
ing Olllcer  caiiKCH  the  articIcK  of  clollilng  wliicli  rnay 
liave  been   issued   to   the  ri'iriiil,    with   the  price   of 
each  article,  to  be  indorsed  on  the  cerlillculrH  of  <lii*- 
abiliiy.     If  the  recomriiendiitioii  of  the  Itoiird  for  llii: 
discharge  of  the  recruit   be  approved,  the  aiilliority 
therefor  is  Indorsed  on    (he  cerlilliale,  which  Ih  M-nt 
back  to  be  tilled  up  and   signed  by  the  Coniniunilini; 
Olllcer.  who  returns  the  same  to  the  Adjiilaiil  (Jene- 
ral's  olllee.     The  Jioanl  slates  in  the  report  whetlicr 
the  disability,  or  other  (iiiise  of  rejiciicn,  I'xiHieil  be- 
fore Ins  enlistment;    and  whether,  with   pnijur  rare 
and  eimniiiatiiin,  it  might  not  have  been  discovered. 
In  all  other  cases  the  Superintendent  or  Coriimand- 
ing  Officer  causes  an    exiraci  from    tin-    proee)'din);g 
of  the  Board  of  Inspection  to  be  fiirnislieil  the  oNlc- 
er  making  the  enlistinenl.     I'lioii  receipt  of  llii.n  ex- 
tract  the  officer  promplly  renders  a  special  report  in 
explanation  lollie  Adjutant  General. 

All  officer  intrusted  with  the  command  of  recniitg 
ordered  to  regiments,  on  arriving  at  the  place  of  des- 
tination, forwards  the  following  [lapers:  1.  To  the 
AiljuUmt  General  and  Siijii rintiniOnt,  each,  a  dis- 
criptive  roll  and  an  account  of  clothing  of  such  men 
as  may  have  deserted,  died,  or  been  left  on  the  route 
from  any  cause  whatever,  with  dale  and  [ilaie:  also, 
a  special  report  of  the  date  of  his  arrival  at  the  post, 
the  strength  and  c:ondition  of  the  party  when  liimecl 
over  to  the  Commanding  Oflicer,  and  all  circiini- 
stances  worthy  of  remark  which  may  have  occurred 
on  the  march.  To  the  Cmninaniling  Offlrrr  of  the 
regiment  or  post,  the  muster  and  descriptive  roll 
furnished  him  at  the  time  of  setting  out,  properly 
signed  and  completed  by  recording  the  names  of  the 
recruits  7)/<=w/i^.  and  by  noting  in  the  column  for  re- 
marks.opposite  the  appropriate  spaces,  the  time  and 
place  of  death,  desertion,  ajiprehension,  or  other 
casualty  that  may  have  occurred  on  the  route.  See 
Recruiting,  llej^ruitx,  and  Superintendent  of  lieeruit- 
ing  Service. 

RECRUITS. —Men  raised  for  service  in  the  army, 
to  till  vacuncies  in  regiments  or  to  augment  the 
strength  of  the  Army.  In  the  United  Slates,  any 
male  person  above  the  age  of  sixteen  and  under  the 
age  of  thirly-tivc  years,  effective,  able-bodied,  sober, 
free  from  disease,  of  good  character  and  habits,  and 
with  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  P^nglish  lan- 
guage, maj-  be  enlisted,  due  attention  being  given 
to  the  restrictions  concerning  minors.  This  regula- 
tion, so  far  as  respects  age,  does  not  extend  to  .m,I- 
diers  who  may  re-enlist,  or  who  haveservc-d  honestly 
and  faithfully  a  previous  enlistment  in  the  army. 
Men  having  the  appearance  of  being  hard  drinkers 
are  rejected,  though  they  may  not  at  the  time  be  in- 
toxicated. No  man  having  a  wife  or  minor  child  can  be 
enlisted  or  re-enlisted  without  special  autliorily  from 
the  .\djutant  General's  office.  If  minors  present  them- 
selves, they  are  to  be  treated  with  great  candor:  the 
names  and  residences  of  their  parents  or  guardians, 
if  they  have  any.  are  ascertained. and  these  are  inform- 
ed of  the  minor's  wish  to  enlist,  that  they  may  make 
objections  or  give  their  consent.  No  person  under 
the  age  of  twenty-one  years  can  be  enlisted  or  re-en- 
listed without  the  written  consent  of  his  parents  or 
guardians,  provided  that  such  minor  has  parents  or 
guardians  entitled  to  his  custody  and  control.  Re- 
cruiting Officers  are  very  ]iartieular  in  ascertaining 
the  true  age  of  the  recruit.  If  any  dmiH  c-xist  as  to 
the  age  of  the  applicant,  his  oath  is  not  taken  as  the 
sole  evidence  of  legal  age  :  and  if  he  cannot,  in  addi- 
tion, furnish  undoubted  proof  of  the  fact,  he  will 
not  be  accepted.  The  law  forbids  the  enlistment  of 
boys  under  sixteen  years  of  age  :  of  all  insane  or  in- 
toxicated persons  :  of  deserters  from  the  militari'  or 
naval  service  of  the  United  States:  and  of  all  per- 
sons who  have  been  convicted  of  felony.  Minors 
under  eighteen  years  are  not  enlisted  except  for  mu- 
sicians, or  to  learn  music,  and  then  only  undc-r  au- 
thority from  the  Superintendent.  In  every  case  of  a 
recruit  rejected,  or  discharged  as  a  minor,  when  it 


RECURSANT. 


648 


REDAN. 


appears  that  the  enlistment  was  carelessly  made  in 
violation  of  Regulations,  recommendation  is  made 
that  the  expenses  incurred  by  the  Government  in 
consequence  thereof  shall  be  stopped  against  the  pay 
of  tlie  Recruiting  Officer. 

After  the  nature  of  the  service  and  terms  of 
enlistment  have  been  fairly  explained  to  the  recruit, 
the  officer,  before  the  enlistments  are  tilled  up,  will 
read  to  him,  and  offer  for  his  signatvire  the  annexed 
declaration,  to  be  appended  to  each  copy  of  his 
enlistment ; 

I, ,  desiring  to  enlist  in  the  Army  of 

the  United  States  for  the   period  of   five  years,  do 

declare  that  I  am years  and months  of  age  ; 

that  I  have  neither  wife  nor  child  ;  that  I  have  never 
beau  discharged  from  the  United  States  service  on 
account  of  disabilit}',  or  by  sentence  of  a  Court- 
Martial,  or  by  order  before  the  expiration  of  a  term 
of  enlistment :  and  I  know  of  no  impediment  to  my  , 
serving  honestly  and  faithfuUv  as  a  soldier  for  five 
years."  " . 

^V'itness ;  ' 


If  the  recruit  be  a  minor,  his  parents  or  guardian 
must  sign  a  consent  to  his  enlisting,  which  is  added  1 
to  the  preceding  declaration,  in  the  following  form  :  [ 

I, ,  do  certify  that  I  am  the  {father.  ! 

only  surviving  parent,  or  guardian,  as  the  case  maybe) 

of :  that  the  said is 

years  of  age  :  and  I  do  hereby  freely  give  my  con-  { 
sent  to  his  enlisting  as  a  soldier  in  the  Army  of  the  ' 
United  States  for  the  period  of  five  years. 


Witness  : 

The  forms  of  declaration,  and  of  consent  in  case 
of  a  minor,  having  been  signed  and  witnessed,  the 
recruit  is  then  duh' examined  by  the  Recruiting  Offi- 
cer and  Surgeon,  if  one  be  present,  and,  if  accepted, 
the  4Tth  and  103d  Articles  of  war  are  read  to  him  ; 
after  which  he  is  allowed  time  to  consider  the  subject 
until  his  mind  appears  to  be  fully  made  up  before 
the  oath  is  administered  to  him. 

As  soon  as  practicable,  and  ;it  least  within  six  days 
after  his  enlistment,  the  following   oath  is  adminis- 
tered to  the  recruit : 
State  of , 


I,- 


Tiiwn  of- 


-born  in- 


■,in  the  State  of- 


and  by  occupation  a ,do  hereby  acknowledge  to 

have  voluntarily  enlisted  [orre-enlis"ted]  this day 

of ,  18—,  as  a  soldier  in  tlie  Army  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  of  America  for  the  period  of" years, 

unless  sooner  discharged  by  proper  authority,  and 
do  also  agree  to  accept  from"  the  United  States  such 
bounty,  pay,  rations,  and  clotliiug  as  are  or  may  be 
established  by  law;  and  I  do  solemnly  swear  that  I 

am years  and months  of  age,  and  know 

of  no  impediment  to  my  serving  honestlv  and  faith- 
fully as  a  soldier  for  — ' years,  under  this  enlist- 
ment contract  with  the  United  States.      And  I, 

,  do  solemnly  swear  (or  atlirm)  lliat  I  will  bear 

true  faith  and  afiegianci'  to  the  United  States  of 
America;  that  I  will  serve  them  honestly  and  faith- 
fully against  all  their  enemies  whomsoever;  and  that 
I  will  obey  the  orders  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  orders  of  the  officers  appointed  over 
me,  according  to  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War. 

.       [.SE.4L.] 

Subscribed  and  sworn  to  before  me  this day 

of .  18-. 


Recruiting  Officrr. 

This  oath  niny  be  administered  by  any  Commis- 
sioned Otiu-cr  of  the  armv. 

The  Medical  Ollicer  iwlienoneis  provided )  next 
examines  the  recruit.  Wlien  there  is  no  Medicid 
Officer,  the  Recruiting  Officer  personally  makes  this 
examination.     The   recruit  is  examined'striiiped,  to 


see  that  he  has  free  useof  all  his  limbs;  that  his  chest 
is  ample ;  that  liis  hearing,  vision,  and  speech  are 
perfect ;  that  he  has  no  tumors  or  ulcerated  or  exten- 
sively cicatrized  legs  ;  no  rupture  or  chronic  cutane- 
ous affection:  that  he  has  not  received  iuij-  contusion, 
or  wound  of  the  head,  that  may  impair  his  faculties; 
that  he  is  not  a  drunkard  ;  is  not  subject  to  convid- 
sions;  and  has  no  infectious  disorder,  nor  any  other 
that  ma}'  unfit  him  for  military  service. 

In  accepting  recruits  at  rendezvous,  the  following 
instructions  govern  in  examining  the  eye : 

1.  No  recruit  shall  be  enlisted  who  cannot  see 
well,  at  six  hundred  j-ards'  distance,  a  black  centre 
three  feet  in  diameter  on  a  white  ground.  The  test 
will  be  made  by  means  of  cards,  prepared  under  the 
direction  of  the  Surgeon  General  of  the  army  :  the 
black  spots  on  the  cards  will  be  circular,  four-tenths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  the  recruit  must  be  able 
to  count  them  with  facility  at  twenty  feet  distance. 

2.  Anomalies  in  t/f  refrnetiimuftheiye. — The  princi- 
pal anomalies  in  the  refraction  of  the  eye  are  myo- 
pia, hj-permetropia,  and  astigmatism.  These  ano- 
malies, if  unaccompanied  by  disease  of  the  eye,  are 
not  to  be  regarded  as  a  cause  for  the  rejection  of  a 
recruit,  unless  they  impair  the  vision  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  prevent  him  from  counting  the  test-spots  de- 
scrilied  in  the  last  paragraph  at  the  distance  named. 
Myopia  (uear-sightedness)  is  a  refractive  defect  of 
the  eye  in  which  parallel  rays  falling  upon  the  cor- 
nea are  brought  to  a  focus  before  they  reach  the 
retina.  Hypermetropia  (over-sightedness)is  a  refrac- 
tive defect  of  the  eye  in  which  parallel  rays  falling 
upon  the  cornea  are  not  yet  brought  to  a  focus  when 
they  reach  the  retina.  Astigmati-im  is  a  refractive 
defect  in  which  when  parallel  rays  fall  upon  the  cor- 
nea they  are  not  brought  to  a  focus  in  the  same 
plane  for  all  the  meridians  of  the  eye.  The  charac- 
ter and  approximately  the  degree  of  these  defects  can 
be  ascertained  by  the  spectacles  and  test-types  which 
will  be  issued  for  this  purpose  by  the  Surgeon  Gen- 
eral of  the  army,  on  requisition  from  the  Medical 
Officers. 

3.  Presbyopia  is  not  a  refractive  anomaly,  but  a 
condition  due  to  a  diminution  in  the  accommodation 
of  the  eye,  resulting  from  advancing  age  Vision 
for  distant  objects  remains  normal,  while  that  for 
near  objects  is  impaired.  Tliis  defect  is  not  of  it- 
self a  cause  for  the  rejection  of  a  recruit,  but  those 
in  whom  it  exists  are  usually  over  age.  The  exist- 
ence of  the  defect  can  be  ascertained  by  the  test- 
types  referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

4.  Color-hlinthifss. — At  the  principal  recruiting  de- 
pots all  the  accepted  recruits  are  e.vannned  for  col- 
or-blindness by  the  Medical  Officers  on  duty.  Any 
defect  observed  is  noted  on  the  descriptive  list  of  the 
soldier,  but  does  not  of  itself  constitute  a  cause  of 
rejection,  except  in  the  case  of  enlistments  for  the 
Signal  Corps.  The  examination  for  this  defect  is 
made  by  the  method  of  Holmgren.  Test-wools  for 
the  purpose,  accompanied  by  jirinted  directions  for 
their  use,  are  issued  to  the  principal  recruiting  de- 
l)Ots  bv  tlie  Surgeon  General.  See  liecriiiting.  lie. 
rriiitin;/  D- pot.anA  l^i/pt rintendiiit  of  Jiecruiting  Srr- 
■t^irr, 

RECURSANT.— In  Heraldry,  moving  or  coursing 
backwiiid  :  said— of  an  eagle  displayed  with  th<'  back 
towards  the  spectator's  face. 

REDAN.— The  simplest  work  in  Field  Fortification. 
It  consists  of  two  parapets  whose  faces  join  in  form- 
ing a  salient  angle  toward  the  eileniy.  like  a  letter 
\,  in  which  the  apex  is  to  the  front.  Regarded  by 
itself,  the  redan  is  a  work  of  very  little".strength, 
since  there  is  no  Hanking  fire  to  protect  its  faces,  and 
nothing  to  prevent  an  enemy  from  forcing  an  en- 
trance at  tlie  gorge :  but  re(hiiis  are  useful  in  many 
positions,  and  tlii'  rapidity  with  wliich  liny  may  be 
constrncleil,  render  them  favorites  with  engineers 
and  ueiieials.  .\  row  of  redans  along  an  exposed 
iroiit  cif  an  army  adds  much  to  its  strength. the  troops 
behind  protecting  the  gorge,  and  tlie  redans fianking 


REDAN  LINE. 


(;  I  ;|       REDOUBT  OF  RE  ENTERIRO  PLACE  OF  ARMS. 


fiicli  olhcr.  It  fonns  an  pxcellcnl  dcfcnHc  for  u 
liriil!,'c-lica(l,  tlu-  tii>r'A<-  liciiiK  CDvcrfd  Ijy  llie  rivi-r. 
[{(•cliiiis  Ii;riircil  larL'c'ly  in  Wi-llinirlon's  wr/rk.s  for  (ie- 
finclin;?  Lisbon  in  IMK).  'n,,.  rcilan  of  Si'lm»to|)ol 
in  lM.-,r,  was  tlii'priiM  ipal  point  of  1  lie  En^'lisli  attack, 
;inil  Ilic  scene  of  fuo  hlooily  repulses  by  the  KiisHlaiis 
in  Jnne  and  JsejilenilH-r. 

Tlie  faces  of  the  icdan  should  receive  direction 
such  as  to  swe<'i)  (he  ajiproaches  to  the  Hanks  of  the 
liosiii.in.  From  the  ansnlar  point  hut  a  sin;,'le  line 
of  direct  lire   can  he  brought  to  bear  on  the  sector 


in  advance  of  it,  and  when  the  salient  is  BO"  or  loss, 
only  a  very  oblique  fire  from  the  fjici-s  can  he  brnuiriit 
ujjon  this  sector,  which  becomes  thus  a  sector  with- 
out  lire  for  the  assailed.  To  remedv  this,  a  portion 
of  the  salient  is  tilled  in  soa.s  toforn'i  a  short  defens- 
ive line  ])erpendicular  to  the  capital.  This  line  is 
termed  a  puii-miipiv.  axnl  irives  a  direct  lire  in  the 
direction  of  the  capital  prolonged  outwards.  See 
Fiflil-W'irl-K. 

REDAN  LINE. — The  .simplest  arrangement  for  a 
contimied  line. consists  in  a  series  of  redans  connect- 
ed by  straight  curtains.  The  faces  of  the  redansare 
si.xty  yards  inlenirlh;  their  salient  angles  00":  and  the 
distance  between  ihcir  cajiit.als  ISO  vards.  Tl; 


fenilcrH  imdir  the  fiovernt.r,  Genirul  Klliotl.  the  at- 
larking  s<|uadron  being  conipletely  itilenced,  and  a 
lap'.'c  niiiiihir  of  ships  set  on  lire. 

REDOUBT.-  A  Kuiall  fori  of  vurving  Mliape,  con- 
Hlructid  for  a  temporary  nurjiow,  unrl  iibii«||v  wjOi- 
oul  Hanking  defenses,  'I  he  lerni  Ik  vague  in  ilH  ac. 
ceplalion,beinL'applie.le()inilly  todilucliidj)<«litund 
loa  strong  jiosition  within  another  forlresH.  HedoiibU 
are  maile  square,  pentagonal,  and  even  circular. 
Each  redouhl  has  parapet,  ditch,  scarps,  hnn>|iietlc 
etc.,  as  in  regular  fortillcations :  but  it  Ih  comnionlv 
rather  roughly  cmslrucleii,  husle  and  unprof.HHioniil 
labor  precluding  mathematical  accuracy.  The  en- 
trance may  be  by  a  cutting  through  the'paraix-t,  the 
culling  being  covered  within  by  a  tniverse  ;  or  pre. 
ferably,  by  an  e.\cavaled  gallirv  leading  into  the 
clilch,andllienr(byaramptliruuglilliicounlers<-arp. 
For  the  sake  of  thinking  tliedilch.  and  prcventini;  an 
a8.saulling.i)arly  from  lorniinL'  in  it.  caponni.-r<--  of 
timber,  loopholi-d,  are  somelimes  formed;  or.  if 
the  soil  be  stilf  or  chalky,  a  gallery  may  be  cul  be- 
hind the  counterscarp  and  loopholed'  toward  the 
ditch.  In  some  modern  redoidils  the  line  of  each 
side  is  broken  to  afford  Hanking  rlefense.  HeiiouhlM 
I  have  the  weak  feature  of  not  ilefending  their  own 
I  ditches,  anil  of  liring  approacheil  at  their  salient  an- 
I  gles  with  comparative  impunity.  They  an-  ihere- 
j  fore  not  adapted  to  a  protracted  defense,  but  as  tem- 
porary field  works,  or  in  a  war  of  posts,  thi-y  are 
often  of  incalculable  importance.  Troops  wliofie 
stability  in  the  open  licld  is  doubtful  are  es|)<-ciallv 
strengthened  by  redoubts  in  their  line.  Redoubt's 
are  particularly  useful  in  forlifyinir  the  tops  of  hilU. 
or  commanding  passes,  or  wheVc  the  object  is  to  oc- 
cupy a  hostile  territor)-,  or  to  feel  the  way  grailually 
through  a  wooded  counlrj-.  The  si/e  to  begiven  to 
a  redoubt,  or  generally  to"any  inclosed  work, Will  de- 


....■.....^v    ./v  I  .,  ^  .  II  tiiv  II    ia)ii(.ii>   inv   \arilS.     1  Ills  com-  ,"  "       "     '  7    ■"•'     ""  -'    •"'-■"'■-v..    ..  ...1  n.  ■*  Hi  u<;- 

binatiou  will  place  the  salients  at  liiO  yardsfrom  the    '"■'"'   "'^""   "'^'  '"""'"■'"  <'f  ""^i-  available  for  its  de 

fense,  taking  it  as  an  established  rule  that  it  is  heller 

to  have  a  force  concentrated  than  too  much  dislrib- 

iited,  and  therefore  injudicious  to  make  works  of  a 

greater  extent  than  can  be  well  manned   and   viiror- 

oiisly  defended.     The  number  of  men   will    depend 

I  upon  the  particular  circumstances  of  the  ca.se  ;  a.s, 

j  for  instance,  its  situation  with   regard   to   distance 

from  the  enemy  ;  whether  it  is  likely  to  be  attacked 

I  by   a   powerful  force  or   only  by  raiding    parlies: 

collateral  recnterings.     An  inspection  of  this  system    whether  it  is  of  such  vital  importance  as  to  reijuire  it 

shows  tlial  the  dilches  are  not  Hanked:   liiat  the  sa-    lf>  be  held  at  all   hazards,  and  its  distance  from  sup- 

lients  are  not  well  protecti-d,  owing  to  the  cross-fire  j  porlingforce. 

leaving  a  considerable  sector  without  tire  in  front  of  I      In  permanent  fortification. the  Icnn  redoubt,  or  re. 

them;  that  the  curtains,  which,  from  llicir  position.    rf«rt.  is  applied  to  the  outworks   placed  within  other 

are  the  strongest  points,  are  the  best  defended,  and    outworks :  their  object  being  to  strengthen   the  de- 

in  turn  they  afford  no  jirotection  to  the  faces.      All  I  fense  of  the  principal  work."    A  work  of  this  class  is 

these  defects  become  more  sensible  as  the  redansare  ^  usually  placed  within  the  demi-lune,  and  is   termed 

placed  further  tiparl.     See /.mc.'i. 
RED  COAT.— An  English  soldier,  or  a  soldier  who 

"wears  a  red  coat. 

RED  FLAG. — A  flag  used  by  Revolutionists  as  an 

emblem  of  defiance.     It  is  u.sed  in  the  I'nited  Stales 

service  as  a  danger-signal  at  target  practice,  and  on 

a  m;in-of-war  as  a  signal  that  the  ship  is  receiving  or 

diselKirging  lier  powder.     See  Flngn. 

RED  HAND. — In  ller;ildry.   a  sinister  hand  erect, 

open,  and  ccuipeil  or,  the  wrist  gules,  being  the  arms 

of  the  province  of  Ulster,  was  granted  to  the  baronets 

of  England  and  of   Irelanil 


badge  on  the  institution  of  that  orderin  Kill,  and  is 
home  by  the  baronets  of  Great  Britain  ami  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  It  is  assumed  into  the  armorial 
coat,  and  may  be  borni'  upon  a  canton,  or  on  an 
escutcheon,  which  UKiy  lie  ]ilaccd  either  in  the  mid- 
dle cliief  or  in  the  fess  |i:  inl.  so  as  least  to  interfere 
with  ilir  rliarircs  composinir  the  family  arms. 

RED-HOT  SHOT.— Cannon-balls  heated  to  redness, 
and  fired  from  cannon  at  shipping,  magazines, 
w(|oden  buildings,  etc..   to  combine   destruction  by 


the  ilemi-buir  re(li»ihl.  Small  works  of  this  kind  arc 
al.so  placed  in  the  salient  and  re-entering  places-of- 
arms  of  the  covered-way,  and  arelermed  the  r<</"HA( 
of  the  salient,  orre^enUring  plafi-iif-nnii».  These  re- 
doubts are  in  some  cases  simjile  earthen  works  ;  in 
others  they  are  revetted  ;  and  in  others  ca.seniated 
both  for  the  service  of  artillery  and  small-anns.  See 
Inehmid    U <';'<-.«.and  (hitir.irkn.' 

REDOUBT  OF  THE  RE  ENTERING  PLACE  OF  ASMS. 

Tlie    ohjeci    of  this  redoubt   is  to  strengthen  the 

_      covered-way    and  sweep  with   its   fire  the  enemy's 

their   distimruishins;   establishments  on  llie  glacis  of  the  demi-lune.     The 


redoubt  being  directly  in  front  of  the  baslion-face, 
its  relief  should  be  reduced  that  the  fire  of  this 
face  ma\-  not  he  too  much  masked.  To  effect  this, we 
commence  by  establishing  the  bottom  of  its  ditch, 
so  that  the  iioint  of  it  nearest  the  bastion  may  jnsl 
be  seen  by  the  musketry  fire  of  the  face:  we  then 
adopt  nearly  a  minimum  relief  of  scarp  wall; 
finally,  we  arrange  the  interior  crest  of  one  face,  so 
as  to  allow  no  exterior  slope  at  one  extremity  and 
make  the  other  at  the  salient  "3  feet  hisher.      This 


fire  w  ith  battering  by  c(mcussion.  In  the  great  slope  of  2  feet,  and  the  direction  given  to  the  scale 
bomliardiiunt  of  tJibniltar,  on  Sept.  13  and  14,1782,  of  declivity  of  the  interior  crest,  determine  a  plane 
red-hot  shot  was  used  with  great  effect  liy  the  de-  ;  of  defilemiiit   for  the  redoubt,  the  prolongation  ol 


EEDRESSING  WRONGS. 


650 


REFINING  OF  METALS. 


which  will  pass  at  about  3  feet  above  the  salients  of 
the  two  demi-liines,  which  arc  symmetrically  situ- 
ated with  respect  to  the  bastion  capital.  This  is 
done  in  accordance  with  a  principle  generalh- 
adnpted,  that  when  one  work  is  less  advanced  than 
another,  and  commanded  by  it,  the  plane  of  its 
interior  crest  prolonged  should  pass  3  feet  above 
the  points  which  the  enemy  can  occupy  on  the  ad- 
vanced work — which,  from  the  nature  of  the  attack, 
must  first  fall  into  his  possession — so  that  he  may 
not  have  a  plunging  tire  into  the  retired  work,  from 
his  establishments,  which  are  generally  about  3  feet 
above  the  parapet  of  the  work  occupied. 

On  account   of  the  ditch  between  the  tenaille  and 
the  enceinte  flank,  a  breacli  might  be  opened  in  the 
curtain,  by  means  of  a  battery,  established  on  the 
glacis  of  the  re-entering  place-of-arms,  if  there  was 
no   mask   beeween  the  ditch   referred   to  and  this 
glacis.     By  placing  the  angle  of  the  redoubt  on  the 
line   drawn  through   the   e-\treraity  of  the  curtain 
and   the  extreme   of  the  dem-lune,  it  is  readily  seen 
tliat  these  two  works  so  combined  cover  the  opening 
left  by  tlie  ditch.     The  means  here  resorted  to  is 
of  frequent  use  in  fortificatiou ;    and  the   problem 
may  be   thus  stated :  a   line  being  given,  which  is 
partially   covered   by   an   existing  mass,  from    tires 
in   a  given   direction,  to   interpose  another  mass, 
which  combined  with  the  first,  shall  entirely  mask 
the   ffiven  line.       See  Nonet  System  of  F(irtii>ention. 
REDRESSING  WRONGS.— If  any  officer  shall  think 
himself  wronged  by  his  Colonel,  or  the  Command- 
ing Officer   of  the   Regiment,  and  shall,  upon  due 
application  being  made  to  him,   be  refused  redress, 
he  may  complain  to  the  General,  commanding  in  the 
State  or  Territory  where  such   Regiment  shall  be 
stationed,  in  order  to  obtain  justice:  who  is  required 
to  examine  into  the  said  complaint,  and  take  jjroper 
measures  for  redressing  the  wrong  complained  of, 
and  transmit,   as  soon  as   possible,   to  tlie  Depart- 
ment of  War.  a  triie  state  of  such  complaint,  with 
the  proceedings  had  thereon.  If  any  inferior  officer 
or  soldier  shall  think  himself  wronged  Ijy  his  Cap- 
tain or  other  officer,  he  is  to  complain  f  liereof  to  the 
Commanding    Officer    of    the    Regiment,    who    is 
required    to    summon    a   Regimental    Court  -  Jlar- 
tiai    for    the    doing    of    justiee    to    the    complai- 
nant :    from    which   Regimental   Court-Martial,  ei- 
ther party  ma_v,  if  he  thinks  himself  still  aggrieved, 
appeal  to  a  general  Court-Martial.     But  if,  "upon  a 
8econ<l  hearing,  the  appeal  shall  appear  vexatious 
and   groundless,  the  person   so  appealing,  shall   be 
punislied  at  the  discretion  of  the  said  Court-^Iartial. 
RED  SHORT    IRON.— Iron    which     is    difflcult    to 
weld  and  is  brittle  when  heated  is  said  to  be  red-short 
or  hot-nhm-t.     This  defect  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
sulphur. 

RED  TAPE.— The  tape  used  in  Pulilic  Offices  for 
tying  up  (Incmnents,  etc.;  hence,  oflicial  formalit}-. 
REDUCE. — This  term  is  u.sed  in  various  military 
senses.  To  ridncf  «  plwe,  is  to  f)blige  the  com- 
mander to  surrender  it  to  the  besiegers,  by  capitula- 
tion. To  rediiee  tJienejiKire.  is  to  restore  or  liring  liack 
a  battalion  or  battalions,  which  have  lieeii  formed  in 
a  hollow  or  oblong  square,  to  their  natural  situation 
in  line  or  column.  To  reduce  to  the  rnn/ix,  is  to  de- 
grade, for  misconduct, to  the  station  of  a  private  sol- 
dier, liediiced,  in  its  ordinary  sense,  is  to  be  taken 
off  the  establislunent,  and  to  cease  to  receive  pay  as 
soldiers.  When  a  regiment  is  reduce<l.  tlie  officers 
are  generally  jiiu  upon  half-]ia_y.  i^onietinu's  the 
corps  are  reduceil,  and  the  ollicers  remain  npon  fidl 
pay.  This  happens  at  the  close  of  a  war,  when  the 
standing  army  of  the  eotuitry  is  confined  to  a  certain 
nnml)er  of  battalions.  Hence  is  derived  the  expres- 
siciM  in,  and  out  of  the  lireiik. 

REDUIT.  —  In  forlificati<in,a  central  or  retired  work 
williin  any  other  work,  intended  to  afford  the  garri- 
son a  last  retreat,  whenc<'  tliey  may  capilidati'.  It  is 
commonly  of  masonry, liioi)lioled. and  often  cinular. 
Many  engineers  doubt  the  use  of  reduits  altogellicr. 


as  blocking  up  the  working  space,  being  themselves 
I  inconvenient  for  the  men,  and  incapable  of  protract- 
ed  defense,  while  the}'  frequently  mask  the  fire   of 
'  other  works  more  to  the  rear. 

REDUCTION  OF  METALS.— A  metal  is  said  to  be  re- 
duced to  its  metallic  state  when  it  is  separated  from 
the  condition  of  a  chemical  <'ompound  in  which  it 
exists  as  an  ore.   This  is  generally  effected  either  by 
the   direct  action  of  heat,  or  by  heating  the   com- 
pound along  with  a  reducing  iigent.     Thus,  when  ox- 
I  ide  of  mercury  is  simply  heated,  the  oxygen  is  given 
j  off  as   gas,  and  mercury  or  quicksilver  appears  as 
I  metal.      Again,  when   sulphuret   of  lead   is  heated 
with  iron,  sulpluiret  of  iron  is  formed,  and  the  lead 
\  is  reduced  to  its  metallic  state.   In  this  case  the  iron 
is  the  reducing  agent.  The  principal  reducing  agent 
j  employed  in  metallurgy  is  carbon,  or  rather  the  gas 
ciirl)onic  oxide,  which  is  formed  under  certain  con- 
ditions when  carbon  is  burned.     See  /TO«,and  Meteil- 
Inrgfi. 

RE  ENLISTMENT.— A  renewed  enlistment.  In  the 
United  States  Army,  any  Non-commissioned  Officer, 
musician  or  private,  who  re-enlists  within  one  month 
after  the  date  of  discharge  from  first  enlistment,  re- 
ceives $3  per  month  in  addition  to  the  monthly  pay 
he  was  receiving  prior  to  discharge;  and  also  ifl  per 
month  additional  after  each  subsequent  re-enlist- 
ment so  long  as  he  shall  remain  continuously  in  the 
armv. 

RE-ENTERING  ANGLE. —In  fortification,  an  angle 
in  till'  line  of  works  of  whicli  the  apex  points  away 
from  the  front.  As  an  example,  the  flanks  of  a  bas- 
tion make  re-entering  angles  with  the  adjoining  cur- 
tains. Advantage  is  commonly  taken  of  the  "com- 
paratively sheltered  position  of  these  angles  to  form 
PlnreK  d' Annex  for  the  assemblv  of  troops.  See  An- 
ejh. 

RE-ENTERING  ORDER  OF  BATTLE.— An  order  of 
battle,  the  front  of  the  army  forming  a  re-entering  or 
inclosing  angle,  and  the  reverse  of  the  salient  forma- 
tion. This  order  presents  many  advantages,  as  it 
can  inclose  the  enemy,  and  shake  morally  and  ph3's- 
ically  the  troops  which  form  the  angle  of  the  salient, 
bv  their  rear  being  threatened  and  their  retreat  cut 
off. 

RE-ENTERING  PLACE  OF  ARMS.-Enlargements  in 
the  covered-way.  at  the  re-entering  angles  of  the 
counterscarp;  this  space  is  formed  by" setting  off 
demi-gorges  of  30  3'ards  (more  or  less),  "and  making 
the  spaces  form  angles  of  100'^  wifli  the  adjoining 
branches  of  the  covered  way. 

REEVE. — A  word  used  in  S]ieaking  of  ropes,  signi- 
fies the  passing  of  a  rope  thrc>ut;h  any  hole,  deaii- 
eye.  block,  or  pulley,  in  conjunction  with  which  it 
is  to  lie  usi'd.      See  Cordafir. 

REFINING  OF  METALS.— The  last  operation  con- 
nected with  the  smelting  of  copper,  tin,  lead,  and 
some  other  metals,  is  usually  called  the  refining  pro- 
cess. With  copper,  for  example,  the  impure  or 
blister  copper,  containing  from  ll.'ii  to  i)8  per  cent, 
of  the  metal,  alloyed  usually  with  small  quantities 
of  iron,  fin,  antimony,  etc.,  is  melted  in  a  refining 
furnace,  and  exjiosed  to  the  oxidizing  influence  of 
the  air.  By  this  means,  the  foreign  metals  present 
become  oxidized,  and  rise  to  the  surface  as  slag, 
which  is  skimmed  off  ;  the  oxide  of  copper,  formed 
during  the  process,  being  afterwards  reduced  by 
throwing  coal  on  the  surface  of  the  melted  metal, 
anil  stirring  with  u  pole  of  green  wood.  Tlie  dis- 
engagement of  gases  from  the  wnod  during  the 
"poling"  causes  the  metal  to  splash  about,  and  so  ex- 
jHjse  every  portion  of  it  to  the  redueingaetinn  of  the 
coal ;  thus  the  oxide  of  copjier  is  deprived  of  its  oxy- 
gen, and  the  copper  rendered  nearly  jmre.  Tin  "is 
also  relineil  by  throwing  billets  of  green  wood  into  it 
wliilr  ill  a  melted  slate,  which  has  tlie  elTeet  of  brin;;-- 
ing  impurities  to  the  surface  .'is  froth,  in  a  somewhiit 
similar  way  to  the  o.\idi/,iiig  of  foreign  metals  in 
eop]ier.  Lead  is  purified  fmm  antimony  and  tin  by 
an  analiigous  mode  of  oxidation,  and  silver  is  sepa- 


REFLECTING  SIGHTS. 


(If)! 


9E0AUA. 


riilc(l  from  it  \ty  ii  spcc'ml  iirticcHH.  The  ri'liiiiii'/  rif 
iron  in  a  name  applied  to  tlii'  prori-HS  for  jiarlially 
Hiparatiiii;  llic  carhoii  fioiii  casl-iron,  and  iH  dc- 
HcrilK'd  under  Iuon.  Of  the  less  itnp<irlanl  iiietalH 
used  ill  the  arts,  /.ine,  aiitiinony.  and  iiiereury  do 
not  usually  uiideri;o  any  special  relinini;  process; 
aluniiniu..!,  it  is  said,  will  not  aftiTwards  ptirifv 
when  onee  reduced  lothe  nu-lallie  stale  ;  and  iiickef, 
of  whicli  Oeruian  silver  is  lar;;ely  composed,  is  re- 
lined  hy  a  jjrocess  or  uroeesses  kept  strictly  secret 
l>y  mauiifaclurers.  \V  c;  may  state  Iktc  that  no  metal 
is  ever  (|uite  pure  in  its  commercial  state,  even 
thoUf;li  it  has  ;;oni'  Ihrouirh  the  usual  operation  of 
relininir,  hut  all  are  1o  a  certain  extent  alloyed  with 
cerlain  others.  For  the  i;reat  niajorily  of  purposes, 
it  is  not  necessary  that  metals  should  he  chemically 
])ure,  and  wlien  il  is,  they  can  only  he  made  so  hy 
relined  chemical  i)rcK-esses.  II  will  l)e  readily  nnder- 
slood,  liowever,  tiiat  it  is  always  necessary  to  carry 
the  relinini;  of  fjo'.d  and  silver  further  than  the  less 
valualile  metals.  To  render  i;old  sullicienlly  pure 
for  maiuifaclure  into  coin,  an  inirenious  process  has, 
within  I  he  lasl  few  years,  hccn  pvcpposed,  hy  which 
fused  jrold  is  ini.\ed  willi  about  10  |)er  cent,  of  liluck 
o.xide  of  copper,  and  then  stirred  so  as  to  oxidize  any 
foreign  metals  which  happen  to  he  present.  Th<' 
oxide  of  cop])er  does  not  fuse,  hut  is  disseniinatec'. 
through  the  nulled  nu'tal,  and  oxidizes  any  tin,  an- 
timony, or  arsenic,  anil  causes  them  to  rise  to  the 
surface,  so  that  they  may  he  sUimmed  off.  I'erfeet- 
ly  pure  golil  is  pnpared  hy  dissolviiiir  the  melal  in 
aqua-rei;ia— a  mixture  of  nitric  and  hydrochloric 
acids—and  precipitating  silver  (with  which  it  is  al- 
most always  alloyed)  as  well  as  any  other  foreign 
metals  hy  (•henii<als  which  have  no  action  on  tlieso- 
hition  of  gold.  The  metallic  gold  is  afterwards 
pri-cipilaled  as  a  linely-divided  powder,  hy  a  salt  of 
iron,  and  is  then  fused  and  cast  into  bars.  Silver  is 
rendered  pure  by  dissolving;  il  in  nilrie  acid,  tiller- 
ing the  solution,  and  then  precipitating  llu'  metal 
with  common  sail  as  a  chloride  of  silver.  This  is 
afterwards  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  then,  by 
iulroduciug  bars  of  zinct,  a  chloride  of  zinc  is  formed, 
whilst  I  he  silver  is  readily  reduced  to  the  metallic 
state. 

REFLECTING  SIGHTS.-(  Inns  are  laid  with  refltcting 
nn/lilx  wlnii  ibe  size  of  the  port  in  a  casemate  is  not 
large  enough  lo  use  llie  ordinary  sights,  or  when  it  is 
desirable  to  protect  the  menemplovi'd  in  aligning  the 
sights  from  the  enemy's  tire.  Several  uu-thods  of  using 
them  are  employed. 

In  the  first  ])lan,  the  sights  are  very  similar  to  those 
usually  employed,  but  Ihey  are  both  placed  on  the 
thinner  part  of  The  gun  in  front  of  the  trnmiions.  And 
as  there  is  not  room  for  a  man's  head  to  be  placed 
behind  the  tangent  scale,  on  acco.mt  of  the  coils  of 
the  gun.  a  small  mirror  on  a  moveable  socket  is  placed 
just  behind  the  tangent  scale  notch,  and  the  man  who 
lays  the  gnu  stands  at  some  convenient  position  at 
tlie  side  of  the  muzzle,  and  aligns  the  sights  in  the 
mirror  exactly  as  he  would  do  in  laying  direct,  lie 
is  well  protected  from  the  enemy's  "tire. 

In  the  second  jilan.  which  is  adopted  in  MoncriefTs 
protected  barbette  system,  in  aildilion  to  a  set  of  di- 1 
rect  sights,  a  mirror  at  the  breech,   set  at  an  angle.  ] 
with  a  cross  cvit  on  it  is  useii  in  conjunction  with  a 
notch,  which  slides  in  a  graduated  vertical  groove  at 
the  trunnions.     The  trunnion  nolch  is  tirst  adjusted 
to  the  rei[uired  elevation,  and  a  man  below  then  looks 
np  at  tlie  mirror,  and  the  gun  is  nuued  until  by  re- 
flection the  distant  and  the  trunnion-sight  notch  co- 
incide with  the  Intersection  of  the  lines  cut  on  the  i 
glass.  j 

Another  plan  is  to  have  one  mirror  set  at  an  angle 
attached  to  a  trunnion,  so  that  the  distant  object  is  ! 
reflected  on  to  another  mirror,  which  slides  under, 
cover  in  a  graduated  slot  in  the  side  of  the  elevator. 
The  irun  is  laid  by  slidimr  the  lower  mirror  to  a  cer- 
tain graduation  (reipiired  by  the  range)  on  the  slot, 
and  then  moving  the  gun  till  the  distant  object  is  seen 


rellectcd  in  the  lower  mirror  covering  the  inlerM'ctinn 
of  cross-lines,  which  are  cut  on  liotli  the  inirrofH. 

Uedecting  sights  have  liie  diHudviintage  of  a  limit- 
ed field  of  view,  which  may  cuiine  delay  in  tindiiiK 
th<!  ol)jeet  in  the  mirror,  even  wlieii  the  gun  ix  ujt- 
|»roximalely  brought  mio  Ihecorrerl  lini- before  using 
these  sijjhis  ;  and  reflection,  ep-peciallv  when  double. 
causes  iiidi^linclness,  piirticularly  at  long  ranges. 

SEFORMADO.  Anolllcer,  fornierlv  so  calli-d.  wIid 
for  some  disgrace  wasdiprived  of  his  coininund,  but 
retained  his  rank,  and  perhaps  Ids  pay. 

REFORMED.  In  a  military  S4'nse,  after  some  ma- 
neuver or  evolution,  lo  bring  h  line  to  its  natural 
ordir.  by  aliirning  it  on  some  given  jioinl.  Also,  to 
restore  order  amouL'   broken  troops. 

REFORMED  OFFICER.  In  tlii-  ISrilish  Army,  one 
whose  troo|)s  or  company  being  broken  up,  is  con- 
tinued on  full  or  half-pay.  lie  preserves  Hie  riglit 
of  seniority,  and  continues  in  I  he  way  of  preferment 
by  brevr^t. 

REFUSE.  A  military  term,  signifying  to  throw 
back,  or  lo  keep  back  oul  of  the  regular  aligmnent 
which  is  formed  when  troops  are  upon  the  point  of 
engaging  the  enemy.  Thus  it  is  saiil  in  the  obliipie 
order  of  battle,  that  if  the  right  flank  attacks,  the  left 
unist  be  iifUKf.d 

REGALIA.-  The  ensigns  of  royalty,  including  more 
parlicularly  the  a|)paralus  of  a  coronation.  The  re- 
galia of  England  were,  prior  to  the  Heformation.  in 
the  kee])ini.c  "f  the  Monks  of  Weslminsler  Alibey, 
aiul  Ihey  arc  still  presenii'd  lo  the  Sovereign  at  the 
coronation  by  the  Dean  and  I'rebendaries  of  that 
Church.  Dtiriug  the  Civil  War  the  Crown  and  most 
of  the  regalia  fell  victims  to  Puritan  zeal ;  and  on  the 
restoration  of  the  Hoyal  Family,  new  ensigns  had  to 
be  made  for  the  coronation  of"  Charles  II.,  whicli, 
with  occasional  alterations  and  repairs,  have  contin- 
ued in  use  down  lo  the  iireseni  <la>.  The  regalia, 
strictly  so  called,  consist  of  the  crown,  the  siepter 
with  The  cross,  the  verge  or  rod  with  the  dove,  the 
so-called  staff  of  Edward  the  Confessor  (made  in 
reality  for  Charles  II.,)  the  blunt  sword  of  mercy 
called  Curtana,  the  two  sharp  swords  of  justice, 
spiritual  and  temporal,  the  ampulla  or  receptacle  for 
the  coronal  ion  oil,  the  anoint  ing  spoon  (probably 
the  only  existing  relii'  of  the  old  regalia;,  the  annillie 
or  bracelets,  the  sjiurs  of  chivalry,  and  various  roy- 
al vestments.  All  these,  with  tlie  exception  of  the 
vestments,  are  now  exhibited  in  the  jewel-room  in 
the  Tower  of  London,  in  which  are  also  a  smaller 
crown,  scepter,  and  orb  for  the  coronation  of  a 
Queen  Consort,  two  other  Oiieen  Consorts  scep- 
ters—one of  ivory,  made  for  >Iarie  d'Este  :  and  the 
state  crown  of  silver  and  diamonds,  whicli  was  used 
at  the  coronation  of  Queen  Victoria,  containing  a 
large  ruby  and  sapphire,  the  former  said  to  have 
been  worn  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince.  The 
Prince  of  Wales'  crown  of  gold,  which  is  without 
stones,  is  moder;i. 

The  proper  reiralia  of  Scotland  consist  ot  the  crown, 
the  scepter,  anil  the  sword  of  state.  The  crown 
probably  belongs  to  the  time  of  Kobert  Bruce,  and 
is  adorned  with  crosses  and  flenrs  de  lis  alternately. 
It  was  orisinally  an  o])en  crown,  but  twoconcentric 
arches  were  added  in  the  reign  of  James  V..  sur- 
mounted at  the  point  of  intersection  by  a  mound  of 
gold  and  a  large  cross  patee.  The  scepter  is  of  the 
Hmc  of  James  v.;  the  sword  was  a  pres«-nt  from 
Pope^ulius  II.  to  James  IV.  in  ir.07.  During  the 
Civil  War  the  regalia  were  removed  by  the  Earl 
Marischal  for  safe'custody  from  the  crown-room  of 
Edinburgh  Castle,  their  lisual  place  of  deposit,  to 
his  Castle  of  Dunnottar;  and  while  Dunnottar  was 
besieged  by  the  parliamentary  army,  the  regalia 
were  "preserved  bv  being  conveyed  by  stratagem  lo 
the  JIanse  of  KinnefT,  by  the  wife  of  Ogilvy  of  Bar- 
ras,  the  Lieutenant  Governor,  and  the  wife  of  the 
Minister  of  KinnefT.  From  the  restonilion  lo  the 
union  the  regalia  continued  to  be  kepi  in  the  crowii- 
rooin  as  formerly ;  at  the  beginning  of  each  session 


BEGAN  CARTRIDGE  BELT. 


652 


REGIMENT. 


they  were  delivered  to  the  Earl  Marisclial  or  his 
Deput}',  in  whose  custody  tliey  remained  while  Par- 
liament was  sitting,  and  were  afterward  restored  to 
the  charge  of  the  Treasurer.  William,  uintli  Earl 
Marischal,  who  opposed  tlie  Treaty  of  Union  in  all 
its  stages,  declined  to  witness  its  consummation,  but 
appeared  by  his  Deputy,  who  took  a  written  protest 
tliat  the  regalia  should  not  be  removed  from  the  Cas- 
tle of  Edinburgh  witliout  warning  given  to  him  or 
his  successor  in  office.  From  tliat  time  till  1818,  the 
regalia  remained  locked  in  a  chest  in  the  crown- 
room,  awaj'  from  pidjlic  gaze.  On  Feb.  4,  1818,  an 
order  being  obtained  by  warrant  under  the  sign-man- 
ual of  George  IV.,  then  the  Prince  Regent,  the  chest 
was  Ijroken  open,  and  the  crown,  sword,  and  scepter 
were  found  as  they  liad  been  deposited  at  tlie  union, 
along  with  a  silver  rod  of  office,  supposed  to  be  that 
of  the  Lord  High  Treasurer.  Tliey  are  now  in  the 
cliarge  of  tin-  Officers  of  State  for  Scotland,  as  com- 
missioners for  the  custody  of  regalia,  and  are  exhi- 
bite<:l  in  the  crown-room,  along  with  a  ruby  ring  set 
witli  diamonds,  worn  bj' Charles  I.  at  his  coronation 
at  Holyrood  in  1633  ;  the  golden  collar  of  the  garter, 
sent  Ijy  Elizabeth  to  James  VI.  :  the  St.  George  and 
dragon,  or  badge  of  the  order  of  the  garter  :  and  the 
badge  of  the  order  of  tlie  thistle,  with  figures  of  St. 
Andrew  and  Anne  of  Denmark,  set  in  diamonds. 
These  latter  insignia  were  bequeathed  by  Cardinal 
York,  the  last  of  the  Stuarts,  to  George  IV.,  and  sent 
to  Etlinburgh  Castle  in  1830  by  the  special  order  of 
William  IV 

REGAN  CARTRIDGE-BELT.— This  belt  is  intended 
to  carrj-  from  thirtv-tivr  to  forty  cartridges,  arranged 
so  as  to  have  five  in  each  division.  The  thimbles 
are  sewed  to  the  belt.  Between  each  division  of  five 
cartridges  is  a  space  of  about  half  an  inch,  designed 
to  allow  the  covers  to  project  a  little  beyond  the  ex- 
treme cartridges  in  each  division.  In  one  of  these 
spaces  is  a  little  oblong  pocket,  like  a  spectacle-case, 
for  screw-driver.  In  the  second  space,  on  either  side 
of  the  front  of  the  belt,  is  a  buckle,  which  is  riveted 
to  the  belt,  and  designed  to  fasten  the  cross-belts. 
On  each  side  of  the  center  division  of  thimbles  on 
the  back  part  of  the  belt  are  two  other  buckles,  to. 
fasten  the  cross-belts  on  behind.  To  each  division 
of  five  cartridges  is  arranged  a  little  cover  for  the 
cartridges,  to  prevent  them  from  being  lost  b)-  drop- 
ping out,  fastened  by  a  small  brass  knob,  adjusted 
to  the  center  thimble  of  each  division  of  cartridges. 
A  strap  and  buckle,  to  support  the  bayonet  scabbard, 
is  sewed  on  inside  of  the  belt  on  the  left  side.  Cross- 
belts  are  attached  to  the  waist-belt,  to  remove  the 
weight  from  the  waist,  and  these  are  so  arranged  as 
to  carry  a  blanket  and  a  change  of  underclothing. 

REGARDANT.— A  term  use'd  in  Heraldry  with  re- 


a  Colonel's  command,  and  tlie  largest  permanent  as- 
sociation of  soldiers.  Hegiments"'niay  be  combined 
into  brigades, brigades  into  divisions"  and  divisions 
into  armies;  but  these  combinations  are  but  tcinpo- 
rar}',  while  in  the  regiment  the  same  officers  serve 
continually,  and  in  command  of  the  same  body  of 
men.  The  strength  of  a  regiment  may  vary  greatly 
even  in  the  same  arm}-,  as  each  may  comprise  any 
number  of  battalions.  French  and  Austrian  regi- 
ments have  ordinarily  4  to  6  battalions.  Among 
British  infantry,  the  "smallest  regiments  are  those 
numbered  from  the  26th  upward  re.xcept  the  (iOth), 
which  have  000  men  each,  composing  one  battalion. 
The  GOth  and  rifle  brigade  comprise  each  4  battalions. 
The  whole  artillery  force  is  comprised  in  one  regi- 
ment. The  strength  of  a  regiment  is  changed  from 
time  to  time  ;  usually  by  the  addition  or  withdrawal 
of  private  soldiers.  The  present  plan  would  be,  in 
case  of  war,  to  raise  the  skeleton  regiment  to  war 
strength  by  calling  in  men  from  the  arnij'  reserve. 

The  regimental  system  could  only  exist  where 
standing  armies  are  maintained.  Accordingly,  the 
Macedonian  syntagmata  and  the  Roman  "cohorts 
were  evidently  regiments  in  a  strict  sense.  During 
the  Middle  Aires,  feudal  organization  precluded  the 
system,  and  its  first  reappearance  was  in  France. 
Francis  I.  formed  legions  of  6,000  men  each,  which 
were  divided  into  independent  companies,  the  latter 
being,  in  fact,  battalions,  and  each  legion  a  regiment. 
The  word  regiment  began  to  be  applied  to  bodies 
of  Britisli  troops  in  Elizabeth's  reign;  regiments  are 
spoken  of  at  the  time  of  the  Arniada,  1588,  and  as 
composing  the  force  in  Ireland  in  l.'iSW.  From  that 
time  forward,  the  army  and  militia  of  Britain  have 
been  organized  into  regiments.  Charles  I.  and  the 
parliament  each  raised  regiments,  all  of  which  were 
disbanded  at  the  restoration,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Lord  General's  Regiment  of  Foot,  and  his  Life- 
Guard  of  Horse.  Tliese  two  were  re-engaged  (1661), 
and  form  the  present  Coldstream  Guards  and  Royal 
IIorse-Guards.  In  the  same  year,  a  Scotch  corps  of 
17O0  men,  which  had  taken  service  in  France  in  the 
time  of  James  I.,  returned  to  England,  and  was  in- 
cluded in  the  British  Army  as  the  1st  foot.  Other 
regiments  of  infantry  were  gradually  rai.sed  as  re- 
quired. In  1693  was  raised  the  first  troop  of  horse 
Grenadier  Guards,  and  the  2d  troop  in  1702.  These 
were  disbanded  in  1782,  and  reformed  as  the  1st  and 
2d  Life-Guards,  which  still  exist.  Besides  Cavalry 
and  Infantry,  the  British  Army  comprises  the  Regi- 
ment of  Artillery,  and  the  Corps  of  Royal  Engineers, 
and  military  train. 

The  total  Regiments  of  the  British  Army  for  the 
year  1876-77  (and  substantially  the  same  at  present) 
were: 


Life  Guards 

Horse-Guards  (Blues)..., 
Cavalry  of  the  Line — 

Dragoon  Guards.... 

Dragoons 

Hussars 

Lancers 

Horse  Artillery 

Foot  Artillery 

Royal  Engineers 

Fool  (.Tuards 

Infantry  of  the  Line 

Army  Hospital  Corps  .... 

Army  Service  Corps 

West  India  Regiments  i 

(black  troojis)  / 
Colonial  Corps 


Regiments. 
2 
1 


3 

13 

5 


28 


Officers  and  Men. 
868 
434 


15,973 


Total . 


1 

1 
3 

110 
1 
1 

2 

1 

151 


(  5,633  in  6  brigades. 
"(29,291  in  26  brigades. 

5,710 

5,!).50  in  7  battalions. 
119,-183in  Ml  battalions 

1.574 

3,014 

1,832  in  2  b:ilt;ilions. 
049  in  1  battalion. 

190,411 


ference    to  an    animal  whose  head    is    turned   back-        Each  regiment  is  nominally  commaiKh'd  by  a  Gol- 

ward.     Si'i-  i'nKKdiil  and  Jldinpanl.  oncl,  who  is  an  old  Gencnil  Officer,  ;uid  whose  office 

REGIMENT.-  In  all  modern  armies,  a  regiment  is    is  merely  a  sinecure.     The  real  command,  however 


REGIMENTAL  COUKT  MARTIAL. 


653 


REOIMEHTAL  RECRtnTINO  BEHVIOT. 


rests  vvilli  the  Liculciiniit  (,'olom'l.  ineucli  biittiiliriii, 
who  is  assisted  liy  ii  Miijor  imd  1ms  for  ii  HliifV  an 
Acljiitant,on('  (^iiartcniiastiT.onr  I'liyiiiasliT,  and  i>iii- 
Siiriicdii.  Tlic  r('i;iiii.-iil  or  liallallioii  is  divided  in- 
to comiiaiiics  in  tlie  Infant ry,  En^'ineers,  and  Army 
Servi<'c  Corps  ;  and  into  (rcMjps  ir]  llic  Cavalry.  Tliu 
Artillery  is  ilivided  into  ;i(J  hrijiades.  eiicli  of  which 
is  as  lari;e  as  an  ordinary  reifinienl.  The  brijrade  is 
snhdividi'd  into  lialleries,  wliieli  are  the  workini; 
units.  'Pile  worUini;'  olllccr>  are  Captain  and  two 
I.ienleiiants  to  each  infantry  company  or  cavalry 
troop:  .Major,  Captain,  three  LicutcnunlH  per  battery 
of  artillery. 

The  following  is  the  present  orirnnization  of  regi- 
ments and  companies  in  the  I'niled  Slates  Army: 


i  preceding  two  nionthii  after  dediiclliig  the  C'X|K-niu.i< 

;  of  the  bakiTy.    'I'hiH  amount  c(msli''i''- "■•   ''•'■ »- 

Oil  Fund.     If  private coiilrilnitioii  p. 

port  of  the  biind  are  maile,  the  Hum  re 

not  taken  iij>  in  the  account  eurreul  u(  tliu  Ki-gimen- 
lal  Fund. 

The  Ailjulant  i.s  Treasurer  of  the  Fund  for  lii»regl. 
mi'ut.  which  he  dislinrseH  on  warrants  drawn  by  llii! 
Colonel  or  Commanding  Odieer.  under  fpecillc  re. 
solves  of  the  Keginiental  Council  of  Administration. 
He  renders,  through  the  Coloml.  periodical  relumH 
of  the  Htate  of  the  Fund  and  of  the  pmperly  iiur- 
cliased  therefrom,  in  the  same  manniras  prescribed 
for  the  Post  Treasurer,  and  his  accounts  arealwayii 
open  to  the  inspection  of  the  Colomd  and  Hegimen- 


2 

1           !    >< 

bi 

a 

s 

u 
—    . 

si 

1- 

3 

c  a 

a 

5 

g 
i 

a 

a 

1 

50 

a 

« 

2 

i 

SS 

a 

'Si 

0/ 

3 

% 

o 
'5 

2 

■§. 

B   1    ^ 

o 

►J 

^ 

■< 

K 

n 

n 

U 

(^ 

CCl 

O 

<fi 

C 

H      < 

1 

1 

8 

1 

1 

18 

la 

1?, 

1 

1 

1 

Ta-  841 

BjTroop  of  Cavalry 

... 

1 

1 

1 

66     60 

'\ 

PH'e  roeiiiiifnts  of  Artillery — each 

1 

1 

a 

1 

1 

19. 

94 

18 

1  1 

525   ."581 

4 

Ijit'^'lil.  hatttTv  of   Vrtillcrv       .       .        

1 

9 

9 

80      HT) 

6 

1 

in 

2 
10 

1 

in 



! 

40     44 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1'  1 

f) 

Tweuty-five  Regiments  of  Infantry — each. 

505   541 

7 

1 

1 

1 

1 

50     53 

— 

1 

— 

— 

1 

1 

1 

8 

200   216 

() 

1 

1 

1 

50     .")3 

to 

Two  Companies— each 

1 

1 

1 



49     52 

On  the  organization  of  a  regiment,  the  batteries  of 
artillery,  companies  of  infiuilry.and  troops  of  ciivalry 
are  permanently  designated  by  letters  in  alphabeti- 
cal order.  Officers  in  the  first  instance  arc  assigned 
to  these  subdivisions,  and  afterward  succeed  thereto 
as  jiromoted  to  fill  vacancies.  Battalion  and  parade 
formations  are  regulated  Ijy  the  Tactics.  The  field 
officers  are  assigned  by  their  Department  Com- 
manders wherever  their  services  are  most  required, 
provi<led  the  assignment  is  with  troops  of  their  own 
regiments.  Kegiments  are  furnished  with  field  mu- 
sic on  the  requisitions  of  the  coninnuiders,  made, 
from  time  to  lime,  direct  on  the  Adjutant  General: 
and,  when  requested  by  regimental  commanders, 
the  Adjutant  General  endeavors  to  have  suitable 
men  selected  from  tl-.e  recruits,  or  enlisted,  for  the 
regimental  binds. 

Kaeli  regiment  is  supplied  with  a  Regimental  Or- 
der HooU,  a  Regimental  Letter  Hook,  a  book  of  the 
Letters  Received,  ami  a  Descriptive  Rook,  to  coMl;un 
a  list  of  the  officers  of  the  regiment,  with  their  rank, 
and  dates  of  appointment,  and  promotions,  transfers, 
leaves  of  alisence.  .and  ])l:ices  and  dates  of  birth. 

REGIMENTAL  COURT  MARTIAL.— A  legal  tribu- 
nal, i-iinqiose.l  nf  iliree  Mendiers  and  a  Judge-Advo- 
cate, convened  for  tlie  punishment  of  offenders  in 
the  army.     See  Otmrts-MuHud,  Judge- Advocate,  and 

REGIMENTAL  FUND.— Councils  of  Administration 
at  posts  occupied  by  companies  of  the  same  regi- 
ment at  regular  meetings,  .set  aside  and  cau.se  to  be 
paid  over  to  the  regimental  treasurer  fifty  per  cent. 
/)f  the  amoimt  accruing  to  the  post  fund  during   the 


tal  Council. 

The  nmsical  instruments  and  everything  pertain- 
ing to  the  band  are  kept  by  the  Adjutant.  The 
Colonel  or  Commanding  Officer,  who  approves  the 
appropriations  of  the  Council,  is  held  accountable 
for  all  expenditures  of  the  fund  not  made  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Regulations. 

The  following  are  the  objects  to  which  the  Regi- 
mental Fund  is  appropriated  exclusively  : 

1.  The  maintenance  of  a  band. 

2.  When  not  needed  for  the  liand,  it  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  companies  of  the  regiment  as  company 
fund.     See  (^"iLjnini/  h'lihd.  and  l^'mt  Fund. 

REGIMENTAL  HOSPITAL.— In  Great  Britain,  each 
regiment  has  a  Hospital  for  the  reception  of  the 
sick  belonging  to  it.  This  Hospital  is  under  tiie  im- 
mediate care  of  the  Regimental  Surgeon,  who  is 
subordinate  to  the  general  .Medical  Board.  See  Ho»- 
pitnlK. 

REGIMENTAL  ORDERS.— Such  orders  as  are  issued 
l)y  the  ullieer  con\nianding  a  regiment  for  the  infor- 
niatioirof  the  ollicers  and  regiment  generally. 

Resimental  orders  follow  up  all  orders  issued  by 
the  officer  commanding  the  lirig;ide,  gjirrison.  sta- 
tion, etc..  haviuLT  nference  to  the  reirinieut. 

REGIMENTAL  RECRUITING  SERVICE. —The  Com- 
mander of  a  regiment  is  the  Superintendent  of  the 
Recruiting  Service  for  his  regiment.  When  men 
are  enlisted  by  Regimental  Recruiting  Otficers.  the 
princii)les  governing  the  general  service  in  regard 
to  qualificalions  of  recruits  are  observed.  As  a  rule, 
recruiting  funds  are  not  furnished  for  the  regimental 
service.  "When  special  authority  is  given  to  open  a 


REGIMENTALS. 


()54 


REGULAR  APPROACHES. 


temporary  rendezvous,  or  detach  a  party  to  recruit 
companies  whicli  liave  become  reduced,  requisition 
for  funds  may  be  made  by  the  Regimental  Com- 
mander upon  tlie  Adjutant  Genera!. 

To  prevent  deserters  at  larsre  and  men  who  liavc 
been  discharged  with  bad  character  from  imposing 
tliemselves  again  upon  the  service,  no  enlistments 
are  made  by  company  officers,  or  at  posts,  without 
special  authority  in  each  case,  except  when  the  man 
has  been  honorably  discharged  from  the  same  com- 
pany or  post  withui  one  month  previous  to  his  ap- 
plication, so  that  his  character  is  known.  In  all 
other  cases,  appli(.ation  is  made  to  the  Adjutant 
General  for  authority  to  enlist  the  man— naming  him 
— and,  if  a  discharged  soldier,  giving  liis  last  com- 
pany and  regiment,  and  such  evidence  of  good  char- 
acter as  can  be  obtamed.  Enlistments,  when  made 
under  such  conditions,  may  bear  the  date  of  the  ap- 
plication. 

REGIMENTALS.— The  uniform  clothing  of  officers 
and  men  in  the  military  service,  as  prescribed  for 
each  ri'iriment  and  department. 

REGIMENTAL  SCHOOLS.— In  the  British  Army,the 
Schools  for  Adults,and  Boys  above  eight  3'ears  of  age, 
under  the  Scliool-master,  and  the  Injfant  and  Indus- 
trial Schools  under  the  School-mistress,for  girls  and 
little  boys.  In  the  first,  plain  subjects  are  taught  to 
soldiers  who  voluntarily  attend,  or  to  soldiers'  chil- 
dren. The  education  is  wholly  .secular,  the  only 
theological  teaching  being  exposition  of  a  portion  of 
Scripture  during  the  first  lialf-hour  of  morning 
school :  but  even  at  this,  attendance  is  at  the  option 
of  tlie  parents.  The  Infant  School  is  conducted  on 
similar  principles.  The  Industrial  School  is  to  fit 
girls  for  the  occupations  of  life,  and  to  render  them 
capable  of  entering  domestic  service  ;  a  grant  of 
monej^  is  made  by  Government  for  the  provision 
of  materials.  There  is  a  school  of  each  sort  ,in  every 
l)attalion  of  infantry  or  regiment  of  cavalry,  the  total 
cost  of  which  amounts,  for  1873-74,  to  4:36,253. 
Adult  soldiers  are  admitted  gratuitously ;  for  chil- 
dren, there  is  a  nominal  charge  of  Id.  each  a  month. 
The  orphans  of  soldiers  and  the  children  of  soldiers 
serving  abroad  are  received  at  any  neighboring 
school  without  payment ;  those  of  pensioners,  con- 
tractors, etc..  at  3d.  a  montli:  and  the  children  ot 
officers  at  ."Js.  a  month.  It  is  forbidden  tliat  any  dif- 
ference should  be  made  in  the  schools  in  the  treat- 
ment of  these  different  classes  of  pupils. 

REGULAR  APPROACHES.— The  term  Rfgnlar  Ap- 
pviiiii-lim  is  applied  to  the  means  employed  by  a  be- 
sieging force  to  reduce  a  fortified  position  which  is 
too  strong  to  be  carried  by  the  usual  mode  of  an 
open  assaidt.  These  means  consist  in  approaching 
the  position  under  the  cover  of  the  ordinary  trench 


Fig.  1.     Proftlt:  of  Approach  l)y  tin-  .simple  Trcuch. 

Ijordered  by  a  parapet,  which  is  gradually  pushed 
forward  in  the  most  favorable  directions  to  shelter 
the  troops  ]ilaced  in  it  from  bulh  ciitiladingaiid  plinis- 
ing  fires.  In  the  coustniclion  of  the  trenches  var- 
ious articles  arc  recjuired  to  give  speedy  and  safe 
cover,  besides  the  usual  trenching  tools.  These  are 
termed  Treru-h  MateriaU,  and  consist  of — 1.  Tracing 
Tape  f/r  (Jord;  2.  Traeiii;/  J'/rArtx;  3.  Ordinary  J'irk- 
ets;  4.  Faxrinrn;  H.  fiap  P'lignU;  4.  Gahiuns;  Vi.  8ap- 
rolkrs;(i.  Sand-'iagu;  7.  /ili/ulagf  FnimeK;  8.  (lallery 
Framen  and  Shieting.  The  tracing  tape  is  a  strong 
white  tape  or  cord  usually  150  feel  long,  and  divided 
off  into  spaces  of  (i  f<'Ct.  a  piece  of  \n\)v  (J  inches 
long  being  sewed  to  each  point  of  division.     At  each 


end  of  the  tracing  tape  a  short  piece  of  cord  is  at- 
tached to  tie  the  tape  to  two  tracing  pickets.  The 
tracing  tape,  for  convenience,  is  rolled  up  into  a 
ball.  The  tracing  pickets  are  18  inches  long  and 
one  inch  in  diameter.  For  ordinary  use  thej'  are 
tied  up  in  bundles  with  their  bark  on;  but  for  set- 
ting out  night  work  the  bark  should  be  stripped  off 
to  make  them  more  readily  seen.  Those  used  for 
securing  fascines  are  from  2'  to  4'  long,  and  from 
\\"  to  \\"  thick  ;  those  for  setting  out  or  tracing 
the  works  are  18"  long  and  1"  diameter.  The  fas- 
cines are  usually  made  18'  long,  and  9"  in  diameter, 
and  are  afterwards  cut  into  suitable  lengths  for  the 
purposes  to  which  they  are  to  be  applied.  Sap-fagots 
are  made,  like  fascines,  of  straight  brush-wood  at 
least  1"  in  diameter.  They  are  2'  9"  long,  and  5" 
in  diameter.  The  center  stake  should  be  from  li" 
to  2"  in  diameter,  and  project  9"  inches  beyond  one 
end  of  the  sap-fagot :  this  projecting  portion  is 
sharpened,  to  enable  the  sap-fagot  to  be  planted 
firmly  in  the  ground  in  an  upright  position.  The 
exterior  diameter  of  the  gabions  is  2',  and  the  height 
of  wattling  2'  9".  They  are  made  with  seven,  or 
nine  stakes,  which  project  G"  above  the  wattling  at 
top.  and  are  pointed.  The  ordinary  trench  galiion 
and  the  gabion  for  revetting  batteries  receive  the 
same  dimensions  ;  the  latter  is  more  strongly  made 
and  of  the  heaviest  brush  wood.  At  the  siege  of 
Sebastopol  the  want  of  brush  wood  for  the  wattling 
of  gabions  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  common 
hoop-iron  for  this  purpose,  which  had  served  to  se- 
cure the  bales  of  hay.  The  number  of  pickets  em- 
ployed for  each  gabion  was  usually  thirteen.  It  was 
found  that  these  gabions  could  be  constructed  more 
readily  than  the  ordinarj'  kind  :  that  they  were  not 
much  heavier,  were  more  durable,  and  in  all  other 
respects  as  serviceable.  The  sap-roller  is  a  large 
galiion  7  feet  (5  inches  in  length,  and  4  feet  4  inches 
exterior  diameter.  It  requires  for  its  construction 
fifteen  stakes,  each  from  1|  inches  to  2  inches  in 
diameter.  After  it  is  completed,  it  is  stuffed  com- 
pactly with  fascines  7  feet  6  inches  long.  The  sap- 
roller  is  sometimes  made  of  two  concentric  gabions, 
the  diameter  pf  the  smaller  2  feet  6  inclies.  The  . 
space  between  the  two  is  well  stuffed  with  fascines 
The  sand-bag,  for  the  revetment  of  batteries,  when 
empty  and  laid  flat,  is  2  feet  8  inches  long,  and  1  foot 
4  inches  wide;  those  used  in  the  construction  of  the 
trenches  are  2  feet  long  and  12  inches  wide. 

The  trendies  are  divided  into  two  principal  classes; 
apprnai-hm  or  boywu;  and  paralleh.  The  approaches 
serve  simply  as  covered  communications  which  lead 
to  and  connect  the  parallels,  and  are  usually  directed 
towards  the  points  of  the  defenses  upon  which  tlie 
attack  of  the  besiegers  is  made.  The  approaches  are 
run  in  a  zigzag,  or  in  a  straight  line,  towards  one  or 
several  of  these  points.  The  trenches  of  the  ap- 
proaches are  8  feet  wide  at  bottom;  3  feet  6  inches 
deep  in  front,  and  4  feet  at  the  rear.  The  reverse 
receives  a  slope  of  4.5''.  The  front  is  usually  made 
with  a  slo])e  of  2  feet  base.  The  earth  from  the 
trench  is  thrown  ti>  the  front  to  form  a  parapet.  The 
general  height  of  this  parapet  is  nearly  5  feet;  its 
width  at  the  liase  about  18  feet.  The  parallels  are 
designed  as  stations  for  troops  to  guard  the  besiegers' 
works  and  the  workmen  emplojed  in  their  execu- 
tion from  the  sorties  of  the  garrison.  The  general 
direction  of  the  parallels  is  parallel  to,  or  concentric 
with,  a  line  connecting  the  most  salient  points  of  that 
portion  of  the  defenses  attacked.  The  trenches  of 
tlie  ])arallels  receive  a  width  at  bottom  of  10  feet; 
their  depth  in  front  is  3  feet,  and  in  rear.  3  feet  6 
inches.  Two  steps.  eaclilS  iiu'hes  high  and  18  wide, 
lead  from  near  the  bottom  of  the  trench, on  the  front 
side,  up  to  the  natural  ground.  The  reverse  of  the 
trench  receives  a  slope  of  45^;  or  else,  is  also  cut 
into  two  steps.  The  steps  in  front  arcalone  revetted 
with  fascines. 

When  the  parapet  is  formed  iif  earth  alone  as  is 
represented  in  Fig.  1,  the  trench  is  termed  a  Simple 


REGULARS. 


055 


REODLUB. 


Trench.  In  this  case  the  earlli  of  ihr  |i;ii;i|iri  in 
allowed  t(i  luUc  its  iiiituriil  slopi- Ujwiirds  liic-  Irciicli. 
The  sli']),  nr  hcriii  cif  IH  JMclic'S  l)i-twccii  llir  |]iini|ii'l 
anil  llii-  trench  in  the  parallel,  nerves  asa  l)uni|iielle. 
I'orlions  i)f  the  i)aralhls,  from  20  to  DO  yarils  in 
lenntli,  are  arrani;<vl  with  ste|)s,  revetted  with  fas- 
cines, leadinfT  from  the  trench  over  tlw  parapet,  to 
enable  the  troops  in  the  parallil  to  move  from  it  lo 
repel  a  sortie  of  I  he  liesie!.'ed.  Kij;  'i.  The  direction 
(if  the  simple  Ircriih  Is  laid  out  liy  the  Iraciiifj-tape 
and  pi(?kels.  The  trench  is  I'xecMleil  hy  soldiers  of 
tile  line;  each  man  lieinn  fiirni-ihed  willia  niik  and 
shovel,  with  which  he  places  himself  speedily  iin<ier 


Fig.  2.    I'rollli' (it  H  I'limliel  uf  ii  Slmpli!  Trcnrh  witli  Stopn  fur 
Sortk'M. 

cover,  by  dis;s"iS  '^  \\n\v  and  tlirowinji  the  earth  in 
front  of  hiniV  continnini;  his  labor  mitil  he  has  ex- 
cavated (I  feet  in  leni;th  of  the  trench,  and  as  much 
of  ii  to  the  rear  us  nniy  be  assifrned  to  the  relief,  or 
workini;  party,  to  which  he  belongs.  .ifler  the 
trench  lias  received  its  ireneral  width  and  (hp'h.  tlie| 
slopes  and  ste])S  are  finished  olT  under  llie  direction 
of  the  eni:inecr  troops.     See  t^iegf 

REGULARS.  -  'I'hose  troops  whose  condilionsof  en- 
rollmenl  are  not  limited  to  time  or  place,  in  conlra- 
dislinetioii  to  militia  or  volunteer  corps:  troops  per- 
manently in  service.  France  first  set  llie  example 
of  keepins;  troops  in  peace.  Charles  VII  ,  forsceing 
the  dantjer  of  invasion. authorizeil  the  assemblage  of 
armed  inercenaries.  or  Coinpagnies  D'ordonnance. 
Louis  XI.  dismissed  th<'se  troops  but  enrolled  new- 
ones, composed  of  French. Swiss  and  Scotch.  Under 
C!harles  VIII..<iermans  were  admilled  in  the  French 
army,  and  the  highest  and  most  illustrious  nobles  of 
France  regarded  it  as  an  honor  to  serve  in  the  Gens 
IVarmes.  Moral  cpialitications  not  being  exacted  for 
admission  to  the  army  the  restraints  of  a  barbarous 
discipline  became  necessary, anil  this  discipline  divi- 
ded widely  the  soldier  from  the  people.  The  French 
Kcvolulion  overturned  this  system  :  now  no  mercen- 
ary troops  are  to  be  found  in  continental  Europe. 
England  only  now  raisesarmies  by  the  system  of  Ri- 
crditem.  The  last  wars  of  Euroi)e  have  been  wars 
of  the  people  and  have  been  fouglit  by  nationalities. 
After  ]>eare, armies  remain  national. for  theirelements 
are  taken  from  the  pc^ople  bv  legal  liberations. 

REGULATION  PRICE.  This  phrase  as  applied  to  an 
Ollieei's  Commission,  was  the  regulated  |iricc  jiaid 
by  Orticers  for  each  step  of  rank  (according  to  a  fix- 
ed scale),  other  than  death  vacancies,  vacancies 
caused  by  augmenting  a  regiment,  or  vacancies  re- 
sulting from  the  promotions  of  Colonels  to  be  Major 
Generals.  Whi-n  an  Otlicer  of  any  rank,  from  a 
Lieutenant  Colonel  downwards,  was  desirous  of  re- 
tiring from  tlie  service,  he  was  enlilled  to  sell  his 
<'oinmission  for  the  price  stipulati'd  l)y  the  regula- 
tions. Sometimes,  he  received  more  than  the  regula- 
tion sum.  Purchase  being  no  longer  per:nitte(l  in 
the  army,  the  sale  of  commissions  mentioned  has 
only  reference  to  Otlicers  wlio  entered  the  army  be- 
fore November  1,1.S71. 

REGULATIONS.— Under  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  rules  for  the  go^-ernmcnt  and  regulation 
of  the  army  must  be  made  by  Ccmgress.  Hegulation 
implies  regularity.  It  signities  fixed  forms  ;  a  cer- 
tain order  :  metliod  :  precise  determination  of  func- 
tions, rights  and  duties.  Rules  Of  Hegulation  also 
embrace,  besides  rules  for  the  administrative  service, 
systems  of  tactics,  and  the  regulation  of  service  in 
campaign,  garrison,  and   quarters.     In   the   case  of 


the  StalT  DepartmenlH,  lecislalive  authority  liaH  >M-i>n 
delegated  j"intl//  to  the  President  and  Secretary  of 
War.  Hut  in  relation  Iri  the  powerH,  ri|{hlH,  and 
duties  of  oHli-ersand  Holrliern  in  cunipiilgn,  ;;arri»i>n, 
anil  (piarters,  (Jonj^cHH  liaH  not  delegated  itHaiithitri- 
ly  to  the  I'ri'Hidenl,  nor  have  hucIi  inatters  Ix-en 
preriHely  determined  liy  military  Iiiwh.  Even  righU 
of  rank,  cominariil.  and  pay,  concerning  wliicli  Con- 
gress has  liL'i-laled.  are  siilijects  of  dispute,  ami 
variable  expositions  of  laws  regulating  those  eKwnlialu 
of  good  government  have  been  given  by  dilTerent 
executives,  with  an  increaHing  tendency  to  invalidate 
rank  created  by  Congress.  There  can  bi-  no  remedy 
for  these  encroachments,  unless  Congresit  HboulU 
pass  a  law  to  enable  cases  to  be  broiigtit  before  tlm 
Federal  Civil  Courts,  in  order  that  the  trneexpoHition 
of  military  statutes  and  authorities  in  dispute  may 
he  determined.  With  such  a  remedy,  laws,  however 
defective  they  may  be,  would  at  leant  be  kiir>wn. 
and  rights,  jiowers.  and  duties  eHtabiished  by  law 
would  he  well  determined. 

But  it  may  be  said  in  relation  to  such  nilcs  of 
regulation,  how  can  a  body  like  Congress  determine 
upon  systems  of  tactics,  etc.?  Their  constitutional 
duly  might  easily  be  performed  as  follows:  I.  Hy 
clearly  dcclariu'.'.  in  a  manner  not  to  be  niisiinder- 
stooil.  that  the  <ieneral-in-Chief  is  charged  with  the 
discipline  and  military  control  of  the  army  under  the 
rules  made  by  Congress  and  the  orders  of  the 
President.  2.  The  Secretary  of  War  is  charged- 
with  the  administrative  service  of  the  army  under 
the  niles  made  by  Congress  and  the  orders  of  the 
President.  3.  By  directing  the  General-in-Chief, 
with  the  advice  of  properly  constituted  .Militarj- 
Boards,  to  report  to  the  President  rules  for  the 
government  and  regulation  of  the  army  in  campaign, 
garrison,  or  quarters,  including  systems  of  tactici* 
for  the  different  arms  of  the  service.  4.  By  di- 
recting the  Secretary  of  War,  with  the  advice  of 
])roperly  constituted  Boards,  to  report  to  the  Presl- 
dent  rules  for  raising  and  sui)|)orting  armies  :  in- 
eluding  regulations  ifor  the  ailininislrative  service. 
.').  By  directing  the  President  to  submit  ihe  rules 
made  in  accordance  with  provisions  3  and  4.  to 
another  board  organized  by  the  President,  with  di- 
rections to  harmonize  the  details  of  Ihe  several 
reports:  which  last  report  shall  be  siilimitted  lo 
Congress  for  confirmation  or  orders  in  the  ease.  fi. 
Uy  directing  tliat  each  year,  j)revious  totlie  meeting 
of  Congress,  the  following  Boards  be  asjiembled 
under  tiie  orders  of  the  (ienenil-in-chief,  viz. :  a 
"Board  of  General  Staff  Officers  :  a  Board  of  Artillerj- 
Offlcers :  a  Board  of  Cavalry  (Officers  :  and  a  Boartl 
of  Infantry  Officers.  The  Secretarj-  of  war  to  a.s- 
semble  all  the  following  Boards,  viz.  :  a  Board  of 
Engineer  Otliccrs  :  a  Board  of  Ordnance  Officers  ;  a 
Board  of  Medical  Officers:  and  a  Board  of  (biar- 
termasters.  Commis.saries  and  Paymasters.  Eacli 
of  the  Boards  so  assembled  tri  report  to  the  General- 
in-Chief  or  Secretary  of  War.  such  siiggektions  of 
improvements  in  their  respective  services  as  it  mavbe 
desirable  to  adopt.  7.  The  repeal  of  all  laws  Jele- 
gating  legi.slative  authority  to  the  President  and 
f^ecretarv  of  War. 

REGULATORS.  1.  The  popular  name  of  a  parly  in 
Isorth  Carolina,  which  arose  in  ITtVS  and  harl  for  its 
object  the  forcible  redress  of  iiublic  grievances.  2. 
Contrivances  designed  to  render  '.iic  power  and 
resistance  proportionate  to  each  other.  Hegulalors 
generally  act  upon  that  point  of  the  machine  which 
commands  Ihe  supply  of  the  jiower  by  means  of 
some  mechanical  contrivances,  which  chit-k  the 
quantity  of  the  moving  principle  conveyed  to  the 
machine  whenever  the  motion  becomes  accelerBle<l, 
and  increase  the  supply  whenever  it  becomes  re- 
tarded. For  example. "this  is  accomplished  in  a 
steam-engine  by  acting  on  a  valve  c.nlled  the  throttle 
valve,  placed  in  the  main  pipe. 

REGULUS. — .V  term  in  metallurgy,  which  i.s  now 
used  in  a  generic  sense  for  metals  in  different  stages 


REIGN  OF  TERROR. 


656 


REINS. 


of  purity,  but  which  still  retain,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  the  impurities  they  contained  in  the  state  of 
ore.  When,  for  example,  tlie  ore  known  as  the  sul- 
phuret  of  copper  is  smelted,  the  product  of  the 
different  furnaces  through  wliich  it  passes  is  called 
regulus  until  it  is  nearly  pure  copper.  The  name, 
which  signities  "Little  King,"  was  Hrst  given  by  the 
alchemists  to  the  metal  antimon}',  on  account  of  its 
pow.r  to  render  sold  brittle. 

REIGN  OF  TERROR.— The  name  given  to  that 
period  in  the  liistory  of  France  when  the  Revolu- 
tionar}-  Government,  under  the  guidance  of  Maxi- 
milien  Robespierre,  supported  itself  b}'  the  pure 
operation  of  terror,  exterminating  with  the  guillo- 
tine all  the  enemies,  or  supposed  enemies,  of  the 
Democratic  Dictatorship.  In  the  year  1793  the 
Convention  vested  the  Government  in  a  "Committee 
of  Public  Safety",  a  body  belonging  to  the  Party  of 
the  ^Mountain,  and  of  which  Robespierre,  Couthon, 
and  St.  Just  became  the  Triumvirate.  This  Com- 
mittee.to  which  every  other  authority  in  the  country 
was  subjected,  deliberated  in  secret,  and  the  conven- 
tion sanctioned  all  its  decrees.  Louis  XVL  had  al- 
ready been  brought  to  the  scaffold;  and  on  Oct.  16 
his  Queen,  ilarie  Antoiuette,  after  being  subjected 
to  every  possible  indignity,  was  beheaded;  the  Prin- 
cess Elizabeth  sharing  the  same  fate  on  May  10. 
1794.  The  execution  of  the  Girondists  followed,  and 
that  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  The  guillotine  became 
the  only  instrument  of  Government  :  a  look  or  a 
gesture  might  excite  suspicion,  and  suspicion  was 
death.  The  Calendar  was  remodeled,  and  all  reli- 
gious rites  suppressed.  When  the  power  of  the 
Committee  had  attained  its  climax,  a  decree  was 
passed  abrogating  every  delay  or  usage  calculated 
to  protect  an  accused  person:  but  from  that  moment 
a  reaction  began.  A  section  of  the  Mountain  Party 
were  satiated  with  blood,  and,  had  become  impatient 
of  the  control  of  Robespierre.  On  July  28,  1794,  he 
was  denounced  in  the  Convention  for  his  barbarities, 
and  his  death  brought  to  a  close  this  sanguinary  era 
in  Fix-nch  history. 

REIN. — A  term  applied  to  a  crack  or  vein  in  a 
musket  barrel. 

REINFORCE.— The  cylinder  of  a  cannon  is  usually 
divided  into  two  portions,  called  the  Jirxt  and  second 
re'nfi'rn'.  The  first  reinforce  extends  from  the  biise- 
ring  to  the  seat  of  the  ball,  and  is  the  thickest  part  of 
the  piece,  for  the  reason  that  the  pressure  of  the  pow- 
der is  found,  both  by  experiment  and  calculation,  to 
be  greatest  before  the  projectile  is  moved  far  from  its 
place.  Tlie  shape  of  this  reinforce  was  formerly  made 
slightly  conical,  under  the  impression  that  the  pres- 
sure was  greater  at  the  vent  tiian  at  the  seat  of  the 
projectile;  but  it  is  now  made  cylindrical  throughout. 
For  bronze  cannon,  the  thickness  of  this  part  is  ap- 
proximately siven  bv  the  empirical  formula 

E^=D    I  I    o   .  in  w'hich  I>  represents  the  diameter  of 

a  solid  cast-iron  shot  suited  to  the  bore  :  f^  the  proof 
charge;  and  P  the  real  weight  of  tlic  projectile.  For 
cast-iron  cannon.  A' should  be  multiplied  by  tlie  co- 
efficient  1.17.  In  general  terms,  the  thickness  of  a 
bronze  gun,  at  the  seat  of  the  charge,  is  a  little  less, 
and  of  a  cast-iron  gun  a  little  greater,  than  the  dia- 
meter of  the  bore.  Tliese  dimensions  exceed  those 
determin<'d  by  calcul^ition,  but  are  necessary  to  en- 
able the  piece  to  resist  the  shocks  of  the  piMJeclilc, 
etc.  The  second  reinforce  connects  the  lirst  reinforce 
with  the  chase.  It  is  miide  considenbly  thicker  than 
necessary  to  resist  the  pressure  of  tlie  powiler.  in  or-  , 
der  to  serve  as  a  proper  point  of  support  for  the  trun- 
nions, and  to  compensate  for  certain  defects  of  metal 
liable  to  occur  in  the  vicinity  of  llie  trunnions  of  all 
cast  cannon, arising  from  Ihecryslalline  arrangement,  1 
ancl  uni-(|ual  conling  of  the  diU'erent  jiarts.  See  ('dii- 
lion . 

REINFORCE-BAND.— In  ordnance  a  band  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  lirst  and  second  reinforce. 


REINFORCEMENTS.— Additional  forces;  especially 
those  troops  intended  to  augment  the  strength  of  an 
army.  History  proves  that  battles  have  been  de- 
cided by  reinforcements,  and  that  victory  is  com- 
monly the  prize  of  the  General  who  is  the  last  to 
bring  his  reinforcements  into  action.  It  was  to  the 
proper  employment  of  reserves  that  Napoleon  owed 
so  much  of  his  success;  and  the  barren  victory  of 
Borodino  and  his  complete  defeat  at  Waterloo  are  by 
many  attributed,  in  the  one  case  to  his  holding  back 
tlie  guard  altogether,  and  in  the  other  to  his  delay  in 
using  it.  Jomini  and  other  writers  lay  down  that 
reinforcements  being  the  last  argument  on  the  battle- 
field should  always  lie  composed  of  troops  of  a  su- 
perior kind,  but  the  experience  of  recent  wars  shows 
that,  on  account  of  the  new  tactics  which  have  been 
adopted  since  the  introduction  of  arms  of  precision, 
all  troops,  so  far  as  they  have  not  come  into  action, 
are  reserves  to  the  leader.  Reinforcements  should  be 
placed  near  enough  to  support  the  troops  in  action, 
but  the}^  must  be  kept  out  of  sight,  and  their  position 
concealed  from  the  enemj'.  Their  distance  from  the 
second  line  depends  entireh'  upon  the  nature  of  the 
ground,  as  well  as  upon  the  extent  of  the  ground 
covered  by  the  line  from  right  to  left  ;  and  their 
strength  should  consist  of  abmit  one-fourth  or  one- 
fifth  of  the  whole  force  in  cavalry  and  infantrj-,  and 
of  about  one-third  of  tlie  guns.  The  reserve  batter- 
ies ma}'  eitlier  be  kept  with  the  main  reserve,  or  con- 
centrated  on  any  point  where  their  united  fire  may 
help  to  shake  the  enemy  previous  to  the  final  attack. 
In  the  attack  of  the  fortress,  no  assault  should  be 
attempted  without  a  sufficient  reserve,  which  should 
be  well  placed  for  following  the  supports  of  the 
escalading  parties  :  its  strength  should  never  be  less 
than  three-fourths  of  the  garrison  of  the  work  as- 
saulted. 

REINFORCE-RING.— In  ordnance,  a  flat  molding  at 
the  breech  end  of  tlie  reinforce. 

REINS.— The  straps  of  a  bridle,  fastened  to  the 
curb  or  snaffle  on  each  side,  by  which  the  rider  or 
driver  restrains  and  governs  the  horse.  They  serve 
to  prepare  the  horse  for  the  movements,  to  guide 
and  halt  him;  their  action  should  be  gradual  and 
in  harmony  witli  tliat  of  the  legs.  In  using  them 
the  arms  shoulil  be  moved  with  ease,  and  from  the 
wrist  to  the  shoulder.  The  rein-hold  will  vary  with 
the  design  of  the  rider  and  the  propensities  of  the 
horse.  The  drawing  shows  the  usual  manner  of 
holding  and  shifting  the  reins.  In  holding  them 
separately,  one  passes  into  each  hand,  between  the 
third  and  tlic  fourth  fingers,  and  out  over  the  fore- 


finger, where  it  is  lield  down  by  the  thumb.  Usually 
the  reins  are  held  in  the  left  liand.  as  when  first 
taken  up.  Here  the  left  rein  passes  under  the  little 
finger,  and  the  right  under  the  tliird,  lintli  passing 
tlirough  the  hand,  and  tlie  supi'rtluims  lein  hanging 
over  the  :irst  joint  of  the  fore-linger,  the  thumb 
.securing  if.  Sometimes,  the  right  rein  enters  the 
hand  over  the  fore-finger  from  above  and  crosses 
llie  left  rein  in  the  palm,  where  the  fingers  close 
u))on  them.  The  loop,  formed  of  the  residue,  hangs 
down  between  the  hand  and  body. 

The  reins  should  be  shifted  (pdckly  and  expertly 
without  lireaking  the  time  or  altering  the  pace. 

To  shift  the  reins  from  the  left  hand:  Turn  the 
thumbs  well  towards  each  other  and  carry  the  right 
hand  over  the  left ;  place  the  fore-finger  of  the  right 


REIS  EFFENDI. 


(;')7 


RELOADING  CARTRIDGES 


Imnd  ilownwaril.  ill   I  lie  place  (if  llir>  lillle  tin)j;er  rif  [ 
I  lie  lefl  liiiiiil,  between  llie  reins;   iiihI  piisH  the  rciiiH 
tlirou^li  the  ri;.'iit  liiiiiil,  pliieiiii;  the  lliiiiiili  upon  the 
left  rein,  near  llie  secdiid  joiiil  uf  llie  fdre-lln^rcr. 

To   reliini  Iheiii    to   liie   lefl    hunil :  ( 'arry  the  lefl 
liaiiil  over  the  riulil  mill  place  the  lillle  fliii/er  of  llie 
lefl  liaiiil  ilownwaril  lielween   Ihe  reins;   then  curry 
lliein   snioollily  iipwaril   lliroiiirli   the  liiind,  und   lei  | 
the  cmiIh  liaiiLT  over  Ihe  fore-tiii>;er.  | 

KEIS  EFFENDI.  A  I  il le  loniierlyL'iven  to  un  Ollleer 
of  Si  ale  in  Ihe  ()l  Ionian  Km  pi  re.  lie  was  the  Chan- 
cellorof  Ihe  Ijnpire,  anil  .Minister  of  Koreifin  AfTuirs. 
His  iliily  in  Ihe  lirst-nieiilioneil  capacity  was  lo  con- 
fer wilh  Ihe  (Iranil  Vizier  ri'.'aiilinf;  Ihe  orilers  anil 
instructions  lo  be  seiil  to  the  ililTirent  Provinces, 
anil  reiiariliiii;  Ihe  proper  decision  on  any  siihject 
afl'ectini!;  Ihe  ICnipire,  whether  internal  or  external; 
anil  in  the  latter  capacity  he  had  llie  sole  and  exclu- 
sive charjie  of  Ihe  relalions  of  the  I'orle  with  Foreign  I 
Courts.  I 

REITRF.S.-  .V  body  of  armed  horsemen. who  came 
out  of  Oermany  and  inlerid  the  Krench  service  diir- 
ins  the  ninii  of  Henry  HI.  They  were  ineorporuted 
wilh  Ihe  eiir.ibineers. 

REJOINDER.-  In  military  law,  the  defendiint's 
answer  to  the  plaintilt's  replicalion.  The  weight  of 
iiuthority  Is  against  pcrinitting  a  rejoinder  on  the 
part  of  the  prisoner,  unless  evidence  has  been  ad- 
duced in  the  reply  of  the  prosecutor.  Hut  such  evi- 
dence should  not  be  permitted  in  reply,  and  there 
should  be  no  rejoinder. 

RELAIS. — .V  term  used  in  fortification  to  signify  a 
space,  conlaining  some  feet  in  breadth,  which  is  be- 
tween the  fool  of  the  rampart  and  Ihe  scarp  of  the 
fosse.     It  serves  as  a  convenient  receptacle  for  the  - 
earth  that  occasionallv  erunibles  off.  i 

RELATIVE  RANK.— The  precedence  which  certain 
Non-eombalanI  ( lllicers  and  ol hers  are  entitled  to 
take  among  llirir  coinbatant  brelhren;  for  instance  a 
CommissaryGeneral  in  thc^  English  Army  has  the  rank 
of  Major  General.  Uilative  rank  carries  with  it  all 
precedence  and  advantages  attaching  to  the  military 
rank  with  which  it  corresponds,  e.Ncept  command, 
and  regulates  rates  of  lodging,  money,  number  of  ser- 
vants, rations  of  fuel  and  light  (orailowance  in  their 
stead),  detention  and  [irizc  money.  Relative  rank 
does  not  entille  the  holilej  lo  salines  from  slii]is  or 
fortresses,  nor  to  the  turning  out  of  guard.  It  has 
lately  been  determined  that  the  Assistant  Jlilitary 
Secretary  at  the  Horse  Guards  is  to  have  the  relative 
rank  of  Colonel. 

The  following  is  the  relative  rank  of  Ihe  English 
Navy  and  Army:  i 

JVari/  Army 

Admiral  of  the  Fleet Field  Marshal. 

Admirals (ieiierals. 

Vice  Admirals Lieutenant  Generals 

Rear  Admirals Major  Generals. 

Captains  of  the  ~| 

f,  ^''''''  ,  ,,        ,'  Brigadier  Generals. 

Commodores,  1st  and  j  '^ 

3d  class 
Captains  over  three 

years'    service Colonels. 

Captains  under  three 

years'  service Lieutenant  Colonels. 

C-iinimanders ^ Lieutenant  Colonels. 

Lieutenants  of  8  years' 

standing Majors. 

Lieutenants  under  8  years' 

standing Captains. 

8iib-Lieutenanls Lieulenants. 

Midshipmen Siib-I,ieiitenants. 

In  the  United  States  Army  and  Navy  the  relative  . 
rank  of  officers  is  as  follows: 

.1  rmy  JViivy 

Second  Lieutenant Ensign . 

First  Lieutenant blaster. 

Captain Lieutenant. 

Major Licut't  Commander. 


Lii'iitenunt  Colonel (.'onmiander. 

Colonel Ciipluin 

Brigadier  (jenerai Coiiimodore. 

.Major    (ienernl Keiir  Admiral 

Lieiilenant    General Vice  AdiiilruL 

General Adminil. 

The  ollleers  In  Ihe  Marine  CorpH  rnr.k  with  thoHC 
beariiiL' Ihe -iiiiif  liilr-  in  Ihi- arniy.     i^'f  Idink. 

RELEASE  OF  PRISONERS.  The  Arli<le»  of  War 
jirovide  that  any  ollleer  wlio  preHunicH,  without  pnj- 
per  authority,  to  release  any  prisoner  coinmilled  lo 
his  charge,  or  sufTers  any  prisoner  ho  comniifteil  to 
escape,  shall  he  punished  us  u  CoijrtMarliul  may 
direct. 

RELEVANCY.— In  law,  Ihe  condilion  of  a  plea 
which  is  well  founded  in  point  of  law.  provicled  il 
be  Irui-  in  fact.  An  objection  lo  the  relevuney  cor- 
responds in  many  respeels  to  a  demurrer  in  Kng- 
lish. 

RELIEF.  In  fortification,  the  ^.'enerul  Iieiglit  to 
which  Ihe  works  are  raised:  if  the  works  be  gen- 
erally high  and  cominanding,  they  are  suid  to  have 
i\  hitlil  riliif;  \i  the  reverse,  a /'/"■  rflirf.  The  term 
retiif\s  also  given  to  a  party  of  soldiers  deluchecl 
from  a  guard,  who  relieve  sentries  off  their  jiost  on 
till-  i\pir:ition  of  their  term  on  duly. 

RELIEVER. — An  iron  ring  fixed  to  a  handle,  by 
means  of  a  socket,  so  as  to  he  at  right  angles  to  if. 
It  serves  to  disengage  Ihe  searcher  of  a  gun.  when 
one  of  its  points  is  relained  in  a  hole,  and  cannot  Ix; 
exlniilid  olherw  ise. 

RELIEVING  THE  ENEMY.— Whosoever  relievea 
the  enemy  wilh  money,  victuals,  or  ammiinilioii.  or 
knowingly  harbors  or  protects  an  enemy,  suffers 
death,  or  such  other  punishment  as  a  Court-Marlial 
may  direct. 

RELOADING  CARTRIDGES.  —  In  18C0,  when  Ihe 
maniifiii  Inn  of  liii-  Mrvice-cartridge  was  commenced 
at  Fr;inkford  Arsenal.  Philadelpliia.  Pa.,  little  or 
nothing  was  known  as  to  how  a  good  reliable  mili- 
tary cartridge  could  be  made.  To  explain  Ihe  diffi- 
culties which  had  to  be  overcome  at  every  step,  the 
machines  to  be  invented  to  do  the  work  uniformly, 
accurately,  and  economically,  would  fill  a  large  vol- 
ume. It  can  be  said. however, that  throu<:h  the  com- 
bined efforts  of  the  officersin  command  of  Frankford 
Arsenal,  Philadelphia,  and  the  National  Armory, 
Springfield.  JIass.,  a  cartridge  was  produced  which 
would  retlect  credit  upon  any  nation.  Up  lo  the 
present  time  this  cartridge,  perfected  and  slightly 
modified,  has  been  the  service-cartridge  for  breech- 
loading  small-arms  and  machine  guu.s.  Wilh  the  in- 
vention and  adoption  of  breech-loading  small-arms 
and  metiillic  cartridge  shells,  heavier  and  more  uni- 
form charges  of  powder  were  introduced,  giving 
greater  range  and  accuracy.  This  was  followed  by 
a  desire  and  necessity  for  soldiers  becoming  trained 
marksmen.  To  meet  economically  the  demand 
for  an  increased  expenditure  of  ammunition  thus 
produced,  reloading  shells  were  used.  Until  this  de- 
mand came  such  shells  had  not  been  made  lo  any 
extent  at  Frankford  .Vrsenal.  although  a  plan  for 
making  them  h:id  been  worked  up  at  that  posl.w  hich 
has  since  been  quite  generally  adopted  by  all  manu- 
facturers, of  reloading  shells  in  this  countrj-, and  also 
abroad  by  several  nations,  viz..  making  a  pocket  in 
the  headof  the  shell  formed  in  the  continuous  melal 
from  which  it  is  drawn,  and  into  which  a  primer 
co«ild  be  inserted  from  the  exterior.  Reloading  shells 
have  generally  been  made  of  bniss.  and  are  iif>w  so 
made  to  a  great  extent.  This  melal  pos.sesses  sufficient 
elasticity,  but  is  wanting  in  durability, as  experience 
has  proved.  The  service  non-reloading  shell  is  made 
of  copper  with  a  small  percentage  of  spelter,  and 
has  shown  durability  equal  in  years  to  those  longest 
made. 

The  reloading  cartridges  now  ftimished  to  Ihe  army 
are  the  foUowins  : — Frankford  .\rsenal,  solid  head; 
Lowell,  solid  heiid  :  Winchester,  solid  head  :  Berdan, 
folded  head.     The  Frankford  Arsenal.  Lowell,  and 


BELOADING  CARTRIDGES. 


658 


RELOADING  CARTRIDGES. 


Winchester  cartridges  have  a  central  vent  in  the 
primer  pocket,  which  admits  of  the  exploded  primer 
being  driven  out  of  the  pocket  from  the  empty  shell 
b)'  apunch.  The  Berdan,  having  no  central  vent, 
requires  a  special  tool,  applied  on  the  outside,  to 
remove  the  exploded  primer. 

The  materials  required  for  reloading  comprise 
lubricated  bullets,  musket  powder,  and  cartridge 
primers  adapted  to  the  shells  to  be  reloaded.  The 
following  comprises  a  set  of  Frankfort  Arsenal  hand 
tools  for  reloading  cartridges  : 

Name.  Cost  price. 

1  brush  wiper -fO  10 

1  charger ",'» 

1  die,  crimping .1  On 

1  die,  reloading T5 

1  die,  resizing 1  1!) 

1  drift : 05 

1  extractor,  primer 1  00 

1  funnel 10 

1  mallet IH 

1  oil  cup 25 

1   priming  tool 1  00 

1   punch,  primer 3") 

1  punch,  reloading  die 2-5 

1  punch,  resizing  die 35 

1  safety  socket 2.5 

1  scraper,  sliell 10 

1  setter,  primer r 1  2.5 

1  wiping  rod 10 

1  box  containing  set 35 

Total  cost  of  set $  9  00 

The  first  operation  of  reloading  is  the  removal  of 
the  exploded  primer.  For  central-vent  cartridges 
this  is  done  by  inserting  the  extractor  in  the  shell  and 
resting  the  head  of  tlie  latter  in  the  recess  for  it  on 
the  safety-socket,  then  driving  out  the  primer  with 


cleaning,  examine  the  shell  to  ascertain  if  it  sliows 
signs  of  rupture.  These  may  generally  be  seen  at 
the  head,  tlie  moutli,  or  as  transverse  or  longitudi- 


nal  marks  on  the  body.     The  shell  is  next  forced  in- 
to the  die  for  resizing,  using  the  mallet  if  necessarv. 


the  mallet.  The  Bridgeport  tool  for  exterior  extrac- 
tion, sliown  in  Fig.  1.  and  specially  adipted  to  the 
'•Berdan"  slu-lls,  ma}'  be  used  for  all  carlridges  :  but 
the  primer  |)unrli  for  central-vent  shells  is  tlie  in<ire 
simple  .'uiil  positive  in  its  acti(m.  If  the  wire  of  the 
extractor  should  break,  extra  ones  are  sui)i)lied  with 
oach  set  of  tools,  and  arc  put  in  by  unscrewing  the 
plug  in  the  head  of  the  extractor,  driving  out  the 
broken  jiin  with  the  IX'W  one  in  Ihe  direction  of  the 
head,  Ihe  hole  being  tapered,  dropping  in  the  new 
pin  at  the  head,  and  rc])la<-iiig  Ihe  screw  plug. 

The  shi'lls,  uiiether  old  or  recently  lirrd,  should 
always,  if  possible. bc' cleaned  of  the  powder  ri'sidue, 
etc.,  by  immersion  and  agitation  in  hot  water.  Cold 
■water  will  clean  them,  but  hot  water  is  a  l)etter  sol- 
vent, and  the  shells  ilry  more  (piickly  when  taken 
out  of  it.  When  circumstances  render  it  impossible 
or  incoiivenieni  to  u>c  water,  the  brush  wiper  miiy 
he  used  for  brushing  out  lh<'  residuum  lefl  in  Ihe  sliell 
l).v  the  combustion  of  powder  and  fuluiinate.     After 


striking  fairly  and  squarely  on  the  head  of  the  shell. 

so  as  to  avoid  bending  or  distorting  its  flange.  The 
outside  of  the  shell  or  inside  of  the  die  should  be 
oiled  to  facilitate  the  entrance  of  the  shell  and  jire- 
vent  abrasion.  It  is  driven  out  by  means  of  the 
punch  inserted  in  the  die  and  shell.  This  last  op- 
eration is  likely  to  cause  a  bur  on  the  mouth  of  the 
shell,  which  would  deface  the  bullet  if  not  removed. 
For  this  purpose  the  serajxT  is  su|iplie(!.  Insert  it 
about  0".5  iiilo  the  shell,  held  in  lefl  hand,  scraper 
in  right ;  give  the  shell  and  scra)ier  a  half-turn  in  op- 
posite directions,  bearing  with  tli<'  scraper  luily  linrd 
e;t'/i/jf/(  to  take  olT  Ihe  bur.  The  handle  of  scraper 
and  axis  of  shell  should  be  k<'pt  nearly  parallel  lo 
each  other  to  avoid  thinning  the  moulhof  the  shell. 
Although  the  shell  may  be  fired  several  limes  wilh- 
out  resizing,  this  operation  is  considered  luri'-iiiiri/ 
after  tiiiii  nnind.  otherwise  the  shell  will  be  unduly 
exp.aiided  by  successive  rounds,  and  evrnlually  fail 
to   enter  the   gun-chamber:  after   which   the  extra 


BEMASKS. 


<i.39 


SEHBLAI. 


force  required  to  resize  it  miglit  prove   injiirimis  to 
the  nx^tiil. 

Tlie  shell  Ih  next  Inserted  in  the  l<ui(lin{;  die,  Ihe 
primer  entered  into  the  poel<el,und  the  Hiifely  Hoekel 
I)Iiieed  over  it,  lari^e  c'nci  down;  the  i)rirner  may  then 
fx'  driven  honii!  with  llie  priiner-pimcli  and  inullel. 
<;onsideral)le  Iosh  of  primers  liy  prenialure  explosion 
in  this  operation  has  oeeiirred,  ami  a  tool  is  supplied 
for  seltins;  primers  l)y  pressure',  whieli  is  \ised  as  fol- 
lows: The  sIkII  is  placed  in  Die  tool  for  insertin<; 
primers — the  primer  having;  lieen  prrvioiislv  jnst  en- 
tered iTi  the  pocket-  and  the  primir  presseil  honii' 
by  means  of  the  lever  and  screw.  The  end  of  Ihe 
screw  is  so  formed  us  to  insure  the  j)rimer  lii'iiii;  be. 
low  the  surface  of  the  head  at  least 0".(ll).'),  Itshoulrl 
be  sliu;litly  lubricated  to  avoid  wearof  the  projection 
on  the  end  and  abrasion  of  the  primer.  The  Hridge- 
port  tool,  shown  in  Kiir.  '2,  nuiy  also  bi-  ns<'d  to  set  I 
the  i)rimers  of  all  shellsliut  the  "I.,owi'll."  whiehlias,  I 
intenlioiiully,  a  jirimer  to  til  Ihe  pocket  tii;htly.  anil 
reciuires  ('(nisidiTalile  force  for  ils  proper  uisertion. 
The  screw  tool  will  set  the  "Frankford  Arsenal,"  i 
'■Herdan,"  "Lowell,"  and  "  Winchester"  primers 
equally  well.  The  shell  is  now  ready  for  reloadinj;.  j 
It  is  inserted  in  the  loaded  die,  the  latter  into  the 
.safety-socket,  and  thi' i)owder-fuiuiel  into  Ihe  nioiilh 
of  the  die.  A  level  measunful  of  jtowdcr  is  then 
poured  into  the  shell  Ihrounh  Ihe  fuiuiel,  after  which 
tlie  l)ullel,  or  shot,  is  inserti-d  an<l  driven  home  with 
th<'  iMuich  and  mallet  until  Iheshoulderof  the  punch  , 
toiK'hes  the  end  of  the  die.  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  This 
insures  proper  and  uniform  leni;th  of  cartridjrc.  j 

The  reloadins  die  may  be  used  as  a  nauj^e  for  de- 1 
terminiuix  whether  cartridires  arc  of  tlie  proper  di- 
mensions for  cnterini;  the  chanibers  of  j;uns.  As  a 
rule,  any  carlrid^e  that  will  enter  Ihe  reloaciini;  die 
will  enter  the  chamber  of  the  irun  freely.  It  is,  in 
fact,  a  combined  reloading  die  and  gauge  for  cart- ' 


Hlioeks  in  driving  home  the  bullet,  an'l  It  alno  Kuidiit 
the  punch  in  settini;  the  priiners.  Fi);-  4  nbowH  tin- 
liri(l)j;eporl  erimpiiij;  appiiraliiH.  The  wiping-rod 
serves  to  eliiin  out  the  liore  of  the  diex,  etc.,  by 
means  of  cotton  waste  or  a  raj;  drawn  Ihroueh  the 
slot  in  ils  end.  Particular  can-  should  bi-  liiKen  to 
free  the  exti-rior  of  Ihe  shell  from  t'rit  or  dirt  before 
resi/.iii)^,  to  protect  the  die  and  shell  from  HeruUlii-N ; 
also,  that  neither  walirnor  oil  ^els  into  the  cum-  or 

-  primer,  as  either  w  ill  injure  or  ileHlroy  the  powder 
or  fulminate.  No  iri-ini,  of  oil  shoulii  be  left  In  the 
chamber  of  Ihe  (;un  or  on  the  eartrid^re,  as  it  would 
tend  to  rupture  thcMase  in  llrinu'  and  al«o  lemiionirily 
disable  I Ik' ;^un.  A  slij^ht  amount  of  bibrieanl  on 
the  curtridp-  or  chandier  tliroui;lioiit  their  lenctli 
seems  to  prolong  the  life  of  reloailed  sIii-IIn.  The 
tendency  of  thir  shells  to  tear  apart  appears  to  be  due 

I  to  their  uneijual  <'Xpansion  in  the  chamber:  the  front 

I  end  beini;  Ihiu  is  more  quicklv  expanded,  and  in  the 
absence  of  the  lubricant  is  hi-[il  by  prissureand  fric- 
tif>n  against  the  walls  of  Ihe  chamiier.  while  llii-  thick 

I  rear  end  of  the  shell  is  forced  backward  by  Ihe  preiu 
sure  of  the  gases.    Asa  rule,  suflleient  lubricant  from 

j  the  bullet  finds  ils  way  into  the  chamber  to  answer 
all  purpo.ses.  These  tools  are  made  as  simple  anil 
strong  as  possible.  Some  of  llii-m.  purlieularly  the 
dies  and  punches,  require  to  be  use!  with  irreat  care, 
so  as  not  to  injure  their  surfaces  or  alter  llwir  dimen- 
sions, where  such  would  affect  Ihe  cartridge.  Tlie^v 
are  cheap,  durable,  and  cjuile  rapid  in  operation  if 
the  work  be  divided  among  several  operators  or  be 
done  bj'  one  person  performing  each  operation  sep- 
arately on  a  number  of  shells.  Special  tools  em- 
ployed  in  the  operations  of  loading,  other  than  those 
required  for  the  service  cartridges,  are  noticed  under 
specilic  headinjTS.  See  t'urtrklije,  (nrtridijt.hxuUinj 
Impli  iKtiits.  and  Center-fire  .VeUilUf-cwe  fartruige. 
EEMAEKS.— Army  lietums.  Regimental  Retunw, 


Fi!:.  4. 


ridges.  To  use  it  as  a  gauge  insert  the  punch  in  the 
small  end  and  the  cartridge  in  the  opposite  end.  If 
the  cartridge  enters  fully  without  moving  the  punch. 
It  is  of  proper  lenglli  and  diameter. 

When  shells  are  reloailed  for  immediate  use  they 
may  be  tired  after  the  foregoing  operation.  But  if 
loaded  for  storage  for  any  lenglli  of  time,  the  crimp- 
ing die  should  be  used  to  secure  the  bullet  in  position. 
To  i)erform  this  operation,  in.sert  Ihe  loaded  cart- 
ridge into  the  die,  then  set  the  head  in  the  recess  of 
the  safety-socket,  the  latter  resting  on  a  bench  or 
table,  and  drive  the  cartridge  in  with  the  blows  of 
tlie  mallet  on  top  of  the  die  The  safety-socket  has  a 
central  hole  concentric  with  Ihe  counter-bore.  In 
extracting  the  primers  it  supports  Ihe  head  of  the 
case  and  forms  a  receptacle  for  exploded  primers. 
It  also  supports  tlie  head  of  Ihe  shell  on  opposite 
ends  in  the  operations  of  loading  and  crimping,  and 
tlie  central  hole  protects   the  primer  from  severe 


Guard  Reports,  etc.,  have  a  column  allotted  for  ob- 
servations relative  to  extraordinar)-  occurrences, 
headed  "Remarks."  The  voucher  to  Abstract  B. 
page  G60.  used  by  Quartermasters,  may  be  noticed  as 
au  example. 

BEMBLAI. — The  quantity  of  earth  in  the  ma.ss  of 
rampart,  parapet  and  banquette.  In  well  construct- 
ed works,  the  equality  between  the  dt/'iti  and  retn- 
A/rt("  is  indispensable  for  everj-  part.  nay.  for  everj* 
face.  For  works  not  defiladed,  and  having  therefore 
their  crests  horizontal,  the  following  method  of  cal- 
culation may  be  employed,  whenever  expedition  i.s 
required.  Supposing  the  parapet  and  the  ditch  to 
have  the  same  length  and  equal  profiles,  their  vol- 
umes will  be  equai  and  the  problem  becomes  thus 
simplified  :  knowing  the  area  of  the  profile  of  the 
covering  mass,  to  calculate  the  dimensions  of  the 
ditch  so  as  to  make  the  surface  of  ils  section  equal 
to  that  of  the  remblai.     Let  S  represent  the  an-a  of 


EEMINGTON  LEE  MAGAZINE-GUN. 


G60 


REMINGTON  REVOLVEB. 


Quartermaster  - 
U.  S.  Army,  at- 


for  the  period  herein  e.xpressed.  liavina;   signed  du- 
plicates hereof. 


Amount 
of  pay. 

Amount 

of  stop- 

Amount 
received. 

pages. 

o 

s 

2 

£ 

Zi 

•2 

a 

bl) 

•—• 

t 

CQ 

, 

f 

CC 

"% 

C2 

A 

a 

S 

-r. 

A 

a 

o 

a 

o  \ 

« 

■■-> 

O 

(-> 

on  my  Form 

for  tlie  moutli  of- 


188 


-Quartermaster- 


the  section  ot  the  remblai.  Wlien  earth  is  excavated, 
it  increases  in  bulk,  and  whatever  care  be  taken  in 
ramming  it  in,  the  volume  it  occupies  in  the  remblai 
will  be  greater  than  the  space  it  tilled  in  the  deblai 
this  increase  of  bulk,  called  /"isonnement,  is  J  in 
strong  soil,  ^^  in  ordinary  soil,  and  ^'^  in  sand.  Re- 
present it  by  1-f-F  and  let  the  area  of  the  profile  of 
the  ditch  ^  S';  then,  we  have 

S'  S.  F 

S  =  S'  -| ,  whence  S'= 

F  1+F. 

When  the  work  is  defiladed  by  an  increase  of  com- 
mand at  the  salients,  it  becomes-  necessary  to  ob- 
tain the  mean  profile:  this  is  done  by  calculating  the 
areas  of  the  profiles  at  the  salient  and  at  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  face,  and  taking  their  mean 

KEMINGTON-LEE  MAGAZINE-GUN.— This  arm  is 
the  same  in  jirinciple  as  the  one  previousl}'  described 
in  this  work,  untler  the  head  of  l^ee  Magiiziiie-gini. 
Since  E.  Kemiugton  &,  Sons  have  secured  the  exclu- 


that  the  trigger  is  pulled.  By  referring  to  the  Fron- 
tispiece we  can  see  that  when  the  bolt  is  closed  the 
position  of  the  handle  is  directly  above  tlie  trigger. 
The  bolt  has  also  a  removable  front  end  or  ■'  head." 
This  allows  the  firing-pin  and  main-spring  to  be  put 
into  it  from  the  front  end.  so  that  the  rear  end  where 
tJie  handle  is  now  attached  is  very  much  stronger 
than  the  old  bolt,  as  no  cutting  has  to  be  made  for 
the  key-sleeve,  F,  shown  and  described  on  page  193 
of  this  volume,  that  piece  being  now  discarded. 

A  dillerent  method  is  also  emplo3-ed  in  fastening 
the  firing  pin,  C.to  the  thumb-piece  or  cocking-piece, 
E,  by  a  locking-nut,  T. 

The  magazine  is  made  of  one  piece  of  metal, in  the 
sides  of  which  are  depressions  having  certain  curva- 
tures and  angles,  which  form  projections  on  the  inside 
for  the  guidance  of  the  follower  upon  which  the  car- 
tridges "rest,  so  that  they  shall  each  be  presented 
in  their  turn  to  the  center  of  the  borj  of  the  barrel. 
The  lugs  on  the  rear  end  of  the  top  of  the  magazine 
are  extended  forward  a  sufflcieut  distance  to  prevent 
the  cartridge  from  rising  above  the  bore,  and  also 
prevents  their  es<'ape  from  the  magazine  wh(  n  it  is 
detached  from  the  piece.  The  quadruple-leafed 
spring,  N,  shown  on  page  192,  is  substituted  for  a 
coileil  one,  which  is  much  simpler  and  more  effec-  ' 
live. 

B}-  the  use  of  this  improved  magazine,  that  part 
of  the  receiver  which  projects  above  and  in  the  rear 
of  the  chamber  known  as  the  "overhang,"  is  re- 
moved.^making  a  larger  opening  for  the  introduction 
of  a  cartridge,  when  the  arm  is  used  as  a  single 
breech-loader.       See  Lie  ildgazinc-guii. 

REMINGTON  REVOLVER.— This  revolver  is  a  mod- 
ification of  the  Colt  revolver.  As  the  hammer  Is 
cocked  a  hand,  which  is  pivoted  to  its  lower  por- 
tion, rises  and  engages  the  ratchet  on  the  base  of  the 
cylinder  and  causes  it  to  revolve.  A  stop-bolt  engages 
tiie  stop  notches  in  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  to 
Ijrevent  the  momentum  of  the  cylinder  from  carry- 
ing it  past  the  firing  point.  It  disengages  from  them 
under  the  action  of  a  hammer  cam,  which,  rising 
during  the  cocking  of  the  hammer,  presses  up  the 
rear  end  of  the  boTt  and  liberates  its  front  end  from 
the  notch.  When  the  revolution  is  about  complete, 
the  beveled  lower  surface  of  the  hanuner  cam  comes 
opposite  the  point  of  contact  on  the  bolt.  At  this 
moment  the  tail  of  the  bolt  (being  slit  so  as  to  have 
a  lateral  spring,  and  the  head  being  pressed  upward 
by  a  flat  spring,  slides  down  over  the  inclined 
surface  of  the  cam,  and  the  head  engages  the  stop- 
notch  in  the  cylinder.  The  spring  is  slit  and  bent 
so  as  to  act  upon  both  the  liolt  and  the  trigger.  The 
drawing  shows  the  general  a))pearance  of  the  Kem- 


sive  right  to  manufacture  and  sell  the  Loo  Magazine- 
giui  they  have  inlniduceil  several  valuable  improve- 
menls,  among  which  liiay  be  inentiouid  the  change 
of  the  handle  of  the  bolt  from  the  middle  position  to 
the  rear  end.  This  greatly  facilitates  the  rapidity 
■with  which  the  arm  can  be  fired,  as  I  lie  hand  can 
keep  its  hold   on  the  bolt-handle  at  tlie  same  time 


ington  revolver,  as  at  present  made.  The  very  nu- 
merous advantages  or  improvements  claimed  for 
the  Kemiugton  revolver,  as  compared  with  the  Colt 
arm  are  the  use  of  a  light  base  pin, which  can  be  with- 
drawn by  loosening  its  catch,  and  thus  allowing  the 
removal  of  the  cylinder;  the  inlroiliiclion  of  the 
ejector  frame,   fas'tening    to   the  barrel   by  a  small 


REMIHGTON  RIFLE. 


(i(i 


KEMIBSIOir 


screw  anil  lo  lln'  frame  by  a  dowel-pin,   IvHRcniiig 

the  liiiliilily  of  luciilciitiiUy  Iciiriti^j;  the  ejeotiiij;  hvh- 
tem  fnjrii  lh(r  barnl;  the  cdiliii};  (if  thcejcetor  Hpriii); 
urounil  I  lie  Imsc-piri  iiistriiil  nf  nrduiicl  the  cjiT-lor; 
the  fuel  thiit  the  hull  (if  Uic  l{criiiiii;i(in  is  forjjed 
solid  with  thi^  pi.Hldl  friiine.  Jt  i»  also  eliiiiiied  tliiil 
tlie  pistol  has  n  neater  appearance  than  the  Colt. 
iivf  I 'lilt  li)'ridi-er. 

REMINGTON  RIFLE.  The  mechanical  conslriic 
tion  (if  Ihc  lirccch-HyHlcm  of  the  Ucniiiiiflnii  arm  is 
l)lainly  shown  in  the  accompanyin;;  drawini;.  cxhih- 
itini;  the  system  with  hreccli-hjork  and  hammer 
open  and  in  jxisilion  for  loadiie,'.  The  simplicily  of 
Ihc  syslcm,  Ihc  lnrj,'cncss  of  ilsparls.and  Ihcirpccn- 
liarly  natural  operation,  it  is  tlioiij;lil.  avoid  the  ne- 
cessity of  more  elaborate  and  distinct  ilhistnilion. 
The  receiver,  comjjoscd  of  frame  and  unard-strap 
(AA),  is  a  substantial  lionsinij;  of  wroufjht-iron,  case- 
hardened,  tiic  sides  of  which  are  .'iH  inch  in  thick- 
ness. Tills  frame,  coiitainin;;  thi^  lock  and  action, 
is  closed  at  thebollom  by  the  uuard-strap,  which  is 
(irmly  secured  in  its  jilaccby  two  screws.  The  butt- 
slock  is  morliscil  for  the  reception  of  the  end  of 
the  guard-strap  (lower  \),  and  tang  of  frame  (upper 
A),  tenoned  into  the   receiver,   and  fastened  by  a 


thus,  by  a  very  InKcnioiiii  construction,  nuwJc  t<> 
Hiihserve  the  (Uiublu  purprxie  uf  guard-Htrap  anci 
loek-plute. 

The  extractor  work»  in  a  rece»H  cut  in  the  left  in- 
teriorof  the  chumlier,  and  \»  o|Mrrated  by  nieanM  of 
a  projection  on  its  lower  face,  which  enguges  willi 
the  shoulder  of  the  breech-block,  ho  that  the  act  of 
Hwingiiif;  back  the  block  viry  readily  withdruuK  the 
empty  cartridge-ease  by  an  entirely  ponilive  motion, 
indepc-ndenl  of  spring  or  indirect  agent,  a  mode  of 
extraction  distingiiislii'd  for  its  Nimpllcity,  xmootlu 
nesM,  and  ecrlainly  of  operation.  The  llring.pin 
works  through  the  bri'ech-bloek.  It  is  forced 
against  the  primer  by  the  sudden  shock  of  the 
hammer,  which  is  imparled  IhrouKh  the  direct 
action  of  the  strong  anil  very  slightly-curved  main- 
spring, so  that  a  mislire  is  impossible  with  carl- 
ridges  properly  mad<'  and  fitted  to  Ihi'  clianiber. 

The  operation  of  this  arm  is  I'snecially  Himple. 
To  load  the  piece,  I  he  hammer  is  llrst  brought  to 
full  cock,  and  the  breech-piece  swung  back  by 
])ressing  the  thumb-piece  with  the  thumb  of  the 
right  hand.  The  backward  motion  of  the  breech- 
block withdraws  the  discharged  shell  from  the 
chamber,  and  if  this  muliou  is  executed  quickly. 


tang-acrew  passing  through  the  stock  vertically  from 
tang  to  guard-strap.  The  front  part  of  the  receiver 
is  the  chamber,  1^  inches  in  length,  into  which  the 
barrel  is  screwed.  The  fore-slock  is  secured  to  the 
barrel  by  a  recoil-stud  upon  the  under  side  of  the 
latter.  The  constituent  parts  of  the  action  are  the 
breech-block  (B)  and  pin  (b);  hammer  (C)  and  pin 
(b):  main-spring  (a)  and  screw  :  trigger  (C),  trigger- 
spring  (e)  and  screw  ;  locking-h^ver  (D),  locking- 
lever  spring  (d),  and  screw  ;  tiring  pin  and  screw. 
The  extractor  engages  in  a  slot  in  the  shoulder  of 
the  breech-block.  The  end  of  the  ramrod  screws 
into  a  ramrod-stud.  The  breech-block  and  ham- 
mer are  solid  pieces  of  line  steel,  (ii)- lot)  of  an  inch 
thick,  pivoteii  upon  pins  of  the  same  material  4ii-100 
in  diameter.  These  pins  pass  entirely  through  the 
sides  i>f  the  frame,  and  are  held  in  place  by  the  but- 
ton screwed  on  to  its  left  exterior  side.  The  main-' 
spring,  trigger-sjiring,  locking-lever, and  the  locking- 
lever  spring  are  all  of  the  very  tinesi  ([uality  of  relin- 
ed  steel,  the  springs  having  the  simplest  possible 
curves,  and  the  action  of  the  main-spring  upon  the 
hammer  being  direct.  The  function  of  the  locking- 
lever  is  two-fold,  one  of  its  otlices  being  to  lock  the 
trigger,  so  that  it  cannot  escape  from  its  notch  in 
the  tumliler,  when  the  breech-block  is  opened,  and  a 
second  to  secure  the  breech-block  when  closed  by 
the  force,  directly  transmitted,  of  the  lever-spring 
(d).  It  should  be  remarked  that  the  whole  of  the 
lock  work  of  this  system,  with  the  exception  of  the 
hammer,  is  attached  to  the  guard-strap,  which  is 


with  the  muzzle  of  the  .arm  slightly  elevated,  the 
case  will  fall  out  without  uecessitating  the  use  of 
the  fingers.  The  fresh  cartridge  is  then  inserted, 
and  the  breech  closed  in  one  continuous  motion. 
The  arm  is  then  ready  to  tire.  fSee  llephurii-Iiem- 
iw/t'i/i  Hille  and  K"  iit-I!i  iiiiiiqt"ti  .\t'iiimin(-gun. 

REHINOTON  THREE  BARRELLED  BIFL£.--Agun, 
recently  designed  by  Mr.  G.  1{.  Uemington  and  tested 
with  very  satisfactory  results.  It  has  a  fixed  cham- 
ber closed  by  a  movable  breech-block. which  rotates 
about  a  horizontal  axis  at  90''  to  the  axis  of  the  bar- 
rel, lying  below  the  axis  of  the  barrel  and  in  front. 
The  locks  complete  are  contained  in  I  In- breech-block, 
which  being  lowered  out  of  the  way  by  the  lang  on 
its  lower  end,  permits  the  insertion  of  the  cartriilges 
into  the  chambers  throusih  a  perforated  extractor 
plate.  This  plate  l)eing  moved  by  the  arm  on  the 
pivot  of  the  breech-block,  withdraws  the  empty 
shells  when  the  block  is  fully  opened.  A  weak 
spring-catch  in  the  slock  holds  up  the  tang  of  the 
breech-block  when  the  piece  is  closed,  and  aflonU 
the  only  means  of  locking  it. 

REMISSION. — Abatement :  forgiveness.  Remission 
of  punishment. as  regards  a  soldier  tried  by  a  Comt- 
Marlial,  is  in  the  power  of  the  confinning  authority, 
and  he  can  at  any  time  remit  any  portion  of  the  sen- 
tence at  discretion.  The  periodical  visitors  of  mili- 
tary prisons  have  the  power  of  recommending  re- 
missiim  of  punishment.  AVhen  a  prisoner  contincd 
in  a  military  prison  is  recommended  for  a  remission 
of  punishment  by  his  commanding  ot]icer,tlie  recom- 


REMONSTRATE. 


662 


REPOSITORY. 


mendation  should  be  submitted  for  the  approval  of 
the  periodical  visitors. 

Though  a  soldier's  punishment  may  have  been 
wholly  remitted,  there  is  to  be  no  remission  of  any 
penalty  consequent  on  his  conviction, such  as  forfeit- 
ure of  service,  good-conduct  pay,  etc. 

REMONSTRATE.— To  urge  strong  reasons  against 
the  instructions  given  by  superior  authority.  If  an 
officer  or  soldier  considers  himself  aggrieved  on  any 
point,  he  is  permitted  to  represent  his  case,  but  it 
must  be  done  in  a  respectful  manner  through  his 
commanding  officer  to  higher  authority ;  at  the  same 
time,  where  the  duty  of  the  service  may  require  it, 
that  duty  must  be  first  carried  out  with  cheerfulness 
and  alacrity. 

REMOUNT.— To  furnish  the  cavalry  with  horses  in 
the  room  of  those  which  have  been  killed,  disabled, 
or  cast. 

REMOUNTS. — The  name  given  to  horses  that  are 
passed  into  the  government  service  by  purchase  for 
artillery  or  cavalry  purposes,  or  which  are  reared  in 
astud,asiu  India.  The  general  age  of  remounts 
varies  from  3  to  5  years  old. 

RENDEZVOUS.— A  place  appointed  for  a  meeting  ; 
especially  for  the  assembling  of  troops.  The  term 
commonly  denotes  a  place  for  enlistment. 

RENEGADE.— A  term  applied  to  one  who  deserts 
from  a  military  or  naval  post. 

HENNEN.— A  kind  of  tilt.  A  description  of  tour- 
nament practiced  at  the  close  of  the  r2tli  century. 

REPAIR  OF  ARMS.— The  keeping  in  constant  good 
order  tlie  dilfcrent  fire-arms  belonging  to  a  troop  or 
company,  such  as  rifles,  etc.  In  the  British  Army  a 
half-yearly  allowance  is  made  to  Captains  of  troops 
and  companies  for  this  purpose.  In  the  United  States 
service  the  cost  of  repairs  of  damage  done  to  arms, 
equipments,  etc.,  through  negligence  of  an  officer  or 
soldier,  is  deducted  from  the  pa}'  of  said  officer  or 
soldier. 

REPEATER. — Any  fire-arm  that  may  be  discharged 
many  times  in  quick  succession  ;  especially  a  form 
of  fire-arm  so  constructed  that  the  charges  may  be 
successively  introduced,  by  an  action  of  the  lock, 
from  a  chamber  containing  them,  into  the  breech, 
and  fired,  or  are  discharged  from  a  revolving  cham- 
ber at  the  breech.     See  Magazine-gun,  and  Remher. 

REPLEADER.— In  English  law,  a  right  to  plead 
again,  or  deliver  a  fresh  pleading  in  consequence  of 
the  issue  which  had  been  joined  not  meeting  or 
exhausting  the  real  point  in  dispute.  This  right  is 
much  abridged,  in  consequence  of  the  liberalitj' now 
used  in  amending  the  record. 

REPLEVIN. — In  English  law,  a  form  of  action  by 
which  goods  which  have  been  seized  under  an  illegal 
distress  are  taken  back  (security  being  given  to  the 
amount  for  which  tlie  goods  were  distrained),  and 
the  action  of  replevin  commenced,  to  try  the  legality 
of  the  seizure. 

REPLICATION. — In  common  law,  the  ijleading  of 
the  plaintiff  in  answer  to  the  defendant's  ])lea.  The 
])laintiirs  first  pleading  is  the  declaration,  which  is 
answered  byllie  defendant's  plea,  and  wliichinturn 
is  answered  by  the  plaintitl's  replication. 

REPLY. — it  is  the  duty  of  a  Court  to  prevent  new 
matter  from  being  introdmcd  into  flic  ])rosecution 
or  defense,  but  a  prisoner  may  urge  in  his  defense 
mitigating  circumstances,  or  examine  witnesses  as 
to  character  or  services,  and  ))r(idu(:e  testimonials  of 
such  facts,  without  its  being  considered  new  matter. 
If  any  point  of  law  be  raised,  or  any  matter  requir- 
ing e.\i)lanation,  the  .ludgc  Advocate  may  exi)lain. 
No  other  reply  is  to  be  admitted. 

REPORT. — i.  A  loud  noise,  such  as  that  made  by 
the  discharge  of  a  cannon  or  nuisket.  The  distance 
at  wliicli  cannon  can  he  heard  dejiends  on  the  wind 
and  the  state  of  the  atm(js])here,  also  whether  con- 
veyed over  water,  which  considerably  increases  the 
distance  to  which  sound  can  reach.  During  the 
Sutlej  campaign  in  184.5-4''.,  the  report  of  the  guns 
at  the  battle  of  Soliraon  was  very  distinctly  heard  at 


Loodianah,  a  distance  of  80  miles.     But  the  report 

of  cannon,  it  is  stated,  has  been  heard  at  far  greater 
distauces. 

2.  A  statement  of  facts  when  any  officer  or  sol- 
dier is  accused  of  a  breach  of  military  discipline. 
A  report  is  usually  made  b\'  stating  on  paper,  in 
official  form,  by  the  officer  making  the  report,  the 
nature  of  the  case,  for  the  information  of  the  Com- 
manding Officer.  In  a  regiment  this  is  done  through 
the  .\djutant. 

REPORTS.— Specific  statements  of  any  particular 
occurrences.  Officers  or  men  making  written  re- 
ports are  required  to  sign  them,  specifying  the  regi- 
ment to  which  they  belong,  and  their  rank.  All 
field  officers  not  serving  at  the  headquarters  of  their 
regiments  make  monthly  reports  to  their  regiment- 
al Comnumders.  These  reports  embrace  everything 
essential  to  a  correct  record  of  their  services.  The 
number,  date,  and  source  of  authority  of  every  or- 
der affecting  their  duties  is  stated,  with  the  date  of 
its  receipt,  their  execution  of  its  requirements,  and 
the  time  they  were  so  employed.  The  date  of  de- 
parture of  a  field  officer  from  his  post  or  station, 
whether  on  leave  or  on  duty,  as  well  as  the  date  of 
his  return  to  his  post,  is  in  all  cases  specified. 

Officers  on  detached  duty  report,  monthly,  to  the 
Commanders  of  their  Posts,  of  their  Regiments,  or 
Corps,  and  to  the  ^Adjutant  General,  their  stations, 
the  nature  of  their  duties,  and  the  authority  placing 
them  thereon — likewise  each  change  of  eiddre^a.  All 
officers  doing  duty  iu  the  Quartermaster's  Depart- 
ment are  required  to  make  out  and  forward  to  the 
Quartermaster  General,  on  the  first  day  of  each 
month,  a  personal  report,  giving  their  post-office  ad- 
dress, and  a  statement  of  the  duty  on  which  they 
have  been  employed,  since  their  last  report.  On  the 
first  day  of  each  month  the  officers  of  the  Subsistence 
Department  report  by  letter  to  the  Commissary  Gen- 
eral their  stations  and  duties  during  the  preceding 
month.  This  letter  is  required  from  Commissaries 
of  Subsistence  only,  and  not  from  officers  acting  as 
such.  Ever}'  Medical  Officer  reports  to  the  Surgeon 
General  and  to  the  Medical  Director  the  date  when  he 
arrives  at  a  station,  or  when  he  leaves  it,  and  the 
orders  under  which  he  acts.  At  the  end  of  each 
month  he  sends  a  personal  report  to  the  Surgeon 
General,  giving  his  post-office  address  for  the  next 
month,  and  a  statement  of  the  duty  upon  which  he 
has  been  emplo}ed,  or  if  on  leave  of  absence,  since 
his  last  report. 

Company,  Post,  and  also  Regimental  Commanders 
make  a  report  annually,  on  the  first  day  of  July, 
through  the  usual  military  chaimel,  of  any  officers 
imder  their  command  who,  by  special  aptitude  or 
study,  are  notably  well  fitted  for  any  branch  of  ser- 
vice, science,  or  art,  either  civil  or  military.  Such 
reports  give  full  particulars  of  qualifications  and  pre- 
paration. This  information  is  useful  to  the  General 
of  the  Army  in  making  details  and  selections  for 
duty.  The  date  of  appointment,  of  detail,  and  of 
removal  of  all  Staff  officers,  or  of  officers  selected  for 
duty  in  Staff  Iic])artmenfs,  which  may  entitle  them 
to  receive  additional  pay,  is  innnediately  reported 
by  the  officer  making  such  appoiiUnunt,  <letail,  or 
remov.-il.  to  the  Adjutant  ticneral,  and  to  the  I'ay- 
master  of  the  Deiiartment,  or  cimunand  to  which 
such  officers  belong.  Whenever  a  change  takes 
place  in  the  position  or  location  of  troojis,  the  fact 
is  imnu'diately  reported  by  the  Conunanding  Officer 
to  (icniral.  Division,  or  Departuu'iit  Ilcadiiuarlers, 
specifying  the  dale  of  di'parture  of  the  whole  or  any 
part  of  tlie  troo])s,  or  of  the  arrival  of  any  detach- 
meut,  as  well  as  all  cither  circumstances  connected 
with  such  changes  in  the  c<immand.  These  special 
reports  are  always  accompanied  by  an  exact  reluni 
of  the  troops  according  to  tlu' established  jirinted 
forms.  A  similar  report  i:-*  noted  on  the  next 
ifTonlhly  return  of  the  Post  or  Station. 

REPOSITORY.  A  museum,  or  place  of  deposit  of 
musters  nr  the  samples  of  the  different  arm.s,  tools. 


BEFRIEVE. 


003 


REQUISITION. 


stores,  elf.,  used  in  the  servirp.  The  rcpusilory  iil 
Wocilwicli  forms  a  Mclioril  nf  iiiHtPtictiini  for  tmlli 
oflic'crs  mill  iiicii  on  lirsl  joiniiij;  llic  iirlillcry,  iilid  in 
interi'slinj;  and  instniclivc  In  all  ranks  in  tlio  regi- 
ment. 

REPRIEVE.— The  s\is|>cnsi(m  of  punislimriil  for  a 
criini',  lUHJ  is  used  rliirllv  in  connection  with  capital 
crimes.  The  jiower  of  siispi^ndint'  all  siiilences  at 
anytime  is  vcsleil  in  llie  Crown  al  discrclion.  There 
lire  also  several  grounds  on  wliich  Ihe  .lud;;e  or  a 
(lourt  reprieves  the  sentence.  The  I'rrsidirit  of  the 
I'nited  Slates  lias  power  to  grant  reprieves  and 
pardons  for  ofTenses  against  the  United  States, 
except  in  cases  of  impeailiincnt. 

REPRIMAND.-  rebuke,  which  is  inclnded  intlie 
army  under  the  liea<l  of  punishments.  Courts- 
Martial  only  inllict  it  on  oltii-ers.  in  which  case  it 
maj'  be  either  a  simple  rciirimanil  or  a  severe  repri- 
mand, and  may,  at  the  discretion  of  the  Conlirming 
Otficcr.  be  ailministered  privately  or  publicly. 

REPRISAL.— The  retaking,  from  an  enemy,  goods 
which  he  has  seized,  or  the  capture  from  him  of 
other  goods,  as  an  equivalent  for  the  damage  he  has 
wrought.  A  reprise  is  a  ship  caiitiired  from  an 
enemy  or  pirate.  If  recaptured  within  24  hours  of  the 
hostile  seizure,  she  must  lie  wholly  n'slored  to  her 
owners  ;  if  later,  she  becomes  the  lawful  prize  of 
her  reeaptors.  Ueprisals  form  \hv  worst  features  of 
warfare,  and  are  seldom  resorted  to  in  conflicts  be- 
tween civilized  nations,  or,  at  least,  should  not  be. 

REPROACHFUL,  OR  PROVOKING  SPEECHES— The 
Articles  of  War  declare  that  no  ollicer  or  soldier 
shall  use  any  rejiroachful  or  provoking  s]ieeclies  or 
gestures  to  another.  An}'  otticer  who  so  olTends 
shall  be  put  in  arrest.  Any  soldier  whoso  oflends 
shall  be  confined,  and  required  to  ask  pardcm  of  the 
party  offended,  in  the  presence  of  his  Commauding 
Officer. 

REPUBLIC. — A  political  community  in  which  the 
sovereign  power  is  lodged,  not  in  a  hereditary 
chief,  imt  either  in  certain  privileged  members  of 
the  community,  or  in  tlie  whole  community.  Ac- 
cording to  the  constitution  of  a  governing  body,  a 
Republi<-  may  therefore  vary  from  the  most  exclu- 
sive Oligarchy  to  a  pure  Democracy.  The  several 
Republics  of  Greece,  and  that  of  Home  were,  at  the 
outset  at  least,  aristocratic  communities.  The  Me- 
diiBval  Republics  of  Venice,  (ienoa,  and  the  other 
Italian  towns,  were  also  more  or  less  aristocratic. 
The  sovereign  power  was  held  to  be  vested  in  the 
franchised  citizens,  and  every  function — legislative, 
executive,  or  judicial — not  exercised  directly  ijy  that 
body  could  only  be  exercised  by  parties  deriving 
their  authority  from  it.  But  the  extent  of  the  fran- 
chise, and  the  mode  of  exercising  it.  varied  much  in 
these  civic  communities  ;  and  the  most  prosperous 


and  lonR-livert  wan  Venice  which    .%..i  ...  i. ilic 

most  aristocratic:  of  them  all.  In  the  I'lth  vinUfty 
the  seven  I'rovinces  of  lh<-  .NelherlandH,  on  their  re- 
volt from  Spain,  adopted  ii  Repiililican  form  of  (Jov- 
cmnienl,  as  did  Switzerland  on  becoming  indejH-nil- 
ent  of  Ihe  <ii-rman  Km|)ire.  (Jreal  lirltain  wu"  nomi- 
nally  a  l{epul)lic  for  eleven  years  ffrom  \<'A'.i  to 
KiHO).  France  was  a  Republic  from  I  Tim  to  IWVi, 
an<l  Uitm  1m4n  to  \x't'.\:  ami  tin-  Republic  wuHiiL'ttln 
proclaimed  Sept.  4.  1H70.  SiKli  government  hm 
Spain  hail  between  Keli.  187i(,  mid  iJec.  IJI.  lK74,wnK 
of  a  true  Republican  form.  Switzt-rland  is  also  a 
Republic ;  since  IK4H  more  dernocratii-  than  for- 
merly. The  other  Republics  of  Kiiropi-  are  the  di- 
minutive Slates  of  San  Marino  and  Andorra  :  and, 
in  certain  respicts.  Ihi'  frei'  lilies  of  Hamburg.  Ure. 
men,  and  Lllbeck.  The  most  important  of  nioilem 
■{(•publics  is  that  of  Ihe  I'niled  States  of  America — 
dating  from  its  separation  from  tJreut  liritain — 
where  pure  Democracj-  liiw  been  tried  on  a  scale  un- 
known elsewhere.  Except  during  the  ohort-lived 
Kmpire  from  1H(',;{  07.  Mexico  bus  lieen  a  Republic 
since  1824.  Nine  Republics  at  present  exist  in  South 
America  — Peru,  Chili,  Paraguay,  Bolivia,  Colomliia 
or  new  (iranada.  Venezuela.  Kcuador,  I'raguay.und 
the  Argintine  Confederation.  In  the  Republics  of 
the  ancient  world,  the  franchised  dasscg  exercLwd 
their  [lower  directly  witlioul  any  system  of  dele- 
gation or  representation.  The  same  was  at  first  the 
case  in  the  Swiss  Cantons  where,  however,  repre- 
sentative government  has  been  gradually  inlroduccd. 
Jlodern  Republics  have  been  founded  on  the  repre- 
sentative, not  the  direct,  system,  which  can  hardly 
exist  except  in  a  community  that  is  very  small  and 
concentrated  as  to  space.  Switzerland  and  the 
United  States  of  America  are  Federal  Republics, 
consisting  of  a  number  of  separate  States  bound  to- 
gether by  a  treaty,  so  as  to  present  to  the  external 
world  the  appearance  of  one  State  with  a  central 
Government,  which  has  the  power  of  enacting  laws 
and  issiiini;  orders  which  are  directly  binding  on  the 
individual  citizens. 

REQUA  BATTERY.— A  kind  of  mitrailleur,  having 
twenty-live  barrels  arranged  horizontally.  It  was 
used  at  the  siege  of  Charleston  in  18(53.  Its  weight 
complete  is  1,382  pounds. 

REQUEST  COURT.— A  local  Court  assembled  period- 
icallv  ill  Inilia  for  the  recovery  of  small  debts  not  ex- 
ceediiig  400  rupees.  In  each  militar)'  cantonment, 
a  Court  of  Request  is  assembled  monthly,  and  all 
persons  are  amenable  to  it  except  soldiers  in  Ihe 
ranks.  Not  less  than  three  officers,  all  militarj-  men 
should  form  the  Court. 

REQUISITION.  1.  This  term,  in  international  law. 
besiiles  meaning  the  demand  made  by  the  Authorities 
of  one  Nation  or  State  upon  those  of  another  for  the 


Requisition  for  Stationery'  for— - 
•   the day  of 


stationed  at 


188 — ,  and  ending  on  the 


. for  the  — 
—  day  of  • 


.  commencing  on 
188 :. 


3 


C- 

•  cu 

u 

00 

b. 

S 

d 

O* 

P. 

s. 

O 

Si    ! 

U 

% 

O 

a 

I. 

s 

it 

a 

o 

U 

a 

s 

S 

> 

o 

XI 

o 

CO 

go 

o 

00 

•s 

C3 

3 

0) 

« 

o 

o 

3 

•S 

*5 

?i 

e 

0) 

S 

c?* 

c 

o* 

t« 

o 

a 

H 

X 

C3 

& 

in 

t« 

OS 

> 

S 

H^ 

IM 

m 

O 

o 

a 

£ 

c 

-r 

-      -r  =     TS 


—  CO 

5  I  s 


^    <    a 
•i    I  J 


I  certify  that  the  above  requisitinn  i> 
the  time  specified. 


correct,  and  that  I  have  not  drawn  stationery  for  any  part  of 


KEEEWAED. 


664 


EESI6IT. 


rendering  up  (or  extradition)  of  an  alleged  criminal, 
iiused  also  in  the  rules  of  war  as  nearly  synony- 
mous with  the  word  "  Contribution."  The  distinc- 
tion made  is  that  a  Requisition  is  a  demand  upon 
the  people  of  an  invaded  country  to  furnish  such 
things  as  provisions,  forage,  transportation,  or  even 
labor ;  while  a  Contribution  is  a  payment  in  money 
to  provide  for  the  needs  of  the  military  or  civil 
government  established.  The  former  term,  how- 
ever,  is  generally  used  to  cover  all  demands  iipon 
the  people  of  tlie  conquered  country.  It  is  now 
well  settled  that  the  rights  of  private  citizens  should 
be  respected  and  their  property  secured  from  pil- 
lage. It  is  the  rule  of  most  civilized  nations  that 
supplies  or  labor  demanded  should  be  paid  for  after 
the  war,  and  receipts  given  at  the  time.  This  is  the 
principle  laid  down  in  the  Instrtirtionsfor  Vie  Ar- 
mies iif  the  iTiiited  states  in  the  Field.  It  was  former- 
ly the  usual  practice  to  inflict  severe  requisitions  in 
the  way  of  fines  on  an  offending  district  or  town  as 
a  penalty.  It  is  now  generally  agreed  that  such 
measures  are  rarely  justifiable,  and  are  of  little  prac- 
tical benefit  to  those  who  employ  them.  3.  Forms 
prescribed  for  the  demand  of  certain  allowances. 
Ou  page  6(33  will  be  seen  the  form  of  Requisition  for 
Stationery. 

EEEEWAED. — The  part  of  an  army  that  marches 
in  the  rear,  usually  the  guard;  the  rear-guard. 

EESEEVE.— Tlie  reserve  of  a  Nationals  that  force 
upon  which  the  national  defense  is  thrown,  wlicn  its 
rt'gular  armies  have  failed  in  securing  its  safety. 
This  reserve  may  be  the  levee  en  mmm  of  the  whole 
adult  male  population,  or  it  may  consist  of  a  smaller 
section  of  the  people  dulv  trained  to  arms.  The 
latter  is,  of  course,  the  preferable  system,  when  the 
arms  of  scientific  modem  warfare  are  to  be  brought 
into  action.  In  different  countries  the  reserves  are 
organized  on  very  different  principles.  In  Great 
Britain  they  comprise  the  Armj'  Reserve,  the  En- 
rolled Pensioners — both  of  which  consist  of  soldiers 
who  have  served  in  the  army — the  Jlilitia,  Yeomanry, 
Volunteers,  and  trained  Constabulary.  Tlie  numbers 
of  the  reserve  forces  provided  for  in  the  Army  Esti- 
mates of  1876-77  were  as  follows: 

Militia 139,619 

Yeomanry  Cavalry l.'>,078 

Volunteers 168,750 

Army   Reserve    force   (including   Enrolled 

Pensioners)  first-class 10,000 

second-class 21,000 

354.447 
Of   the  volunteers,  31.823  were  Artillery   Volun- 
teers, 36G  Light  Horse,  6,3!).'5  Engineers.  139  Mounted 
Rifles,  l,4oH  Permanent  Staff,  and  128.669  Rifle  Vol- 
unteers. 

The  scheme  of  array  reorganization,  which  has 
been  carried  out  during  the  past  few  years,  has  had 
a  very  important  bearing  on  the  reserve  forces.  In 
1870  it  was  attempted,  by  modifying  somewhat  the 
<'onditions  of  enlistment  into  the  regular  army,  to 
make  the  provisions  for  securing  and  maintaining  a 
numerically  strong  Army  Reserve  more  efficient  tlian 
they  had  hitherto  been.  Enlislment  continued  as 
liefore  to  be  for  twelve  yeais;  but  service  in  regi- 
ments going  abroad  was  to  be  for  si.v  years,  while 
the  remaining  six  years'  servit'C  was  to  lie  in  the  Re- 
serve, the  men  being  liable  to  be  called  out  like  the 
Naval  Reserve,  and  receiving  a  jiay  of  4d.  a  day.  In 
1H76  men  commenced  to  pass  from  the  Colors  into 
the  Reserve,  which  is  expected  ultimately  to  reach 
about  80,(100  men.  I'y  an  Order  in  Council  of  March 
31,  1H71 ,  the  iKiwer  of  (he  I;(ird  Lieutenant  ceases, 
and  the  management  of  the  ItesiTve  Foreis  in  coun- 
ties is  vested  in  the  Miiiislers  of  the  Crown. 

One  of  the  objects  cliietly  kejit  in  view  in  the  com- 
prehensive scheme  of  1H72  for  the  reorganization  of 
the  army  was  the  bringing  of  the  Auxiliary  Forces 
into  closer  and  more  niiilually  helpful  relations  with 
the  regular  army.     The  main  feature  of  that  scheme 


is  the  localization  of  the  combined  military  forces  in 
certain  territorial  districts,  so  that  there  shall  belong 
to  eacli  such  district  two  Line  Battalions,  two  Militia 
Battalions,  and  Volunteers,  formed  into  an  Adminis- 
trative Brigrade,  the  whole  to  rest  on  the  Brigade 
Depot  as  center.  Arrangements  were  made  to  secure 
that  a  larger  number  of  officers  of  the  line  regiments 
should  pass  into  the  Militia  and  the  Yeomanry,  and 
that  the  efficiency  of  the  Reserve  should  increase. 
Tlie  aim  of  the  measure  was  "To  unite  the  spon- 
taneity and  all  the  other  advantages  of  the  Auxiliary 
Forces  with  the  highest  amount  of  training  that  the 
Regular  Army  could  furnish  to  any  other  body  of 
men." 

EESEEVE  AMMUNITION.— This  term  is  applied  to 
the  supply  of  war  aminunilion  carried  in  rear  of  an 
army  for  replenishing  men  and  guns  with  fresh  am- 
munition in  case  the  first  supply  failp. 

The  reserve  ammunitinn  of  a  regiment  is  carried  in 
carts,  one  for  the  cavalrv'  and  three  for  the  infantry. 
These  carts  can  carry  9,600  rounds  each  of  Martini- 
Henry  or  8,960  rounds  of  Snider.  In  the  artillery, 
there  are  three  reserves  of  ammunition.  The  first 
(108  rounds  per  9-pr.  and  72  per  IC-pr.  gun)  is  that 
contained  in  the  second  line  of  wagons  of  each  bat- 
tery ;  the  second(44  per  9-pr.  and  108  per  16-pr.  gun) 
is  conveyed  in  the  artillery  general  service  wagons, 
and  should  be  always  up  with  the  army,  but  kept 
from  under  fire  Tlie  third  reserve  is  carried  by  the 
transport,  and  contains  200  rounds  per  9-pr.  gun  and 
200  per  16-pr.  gun,  and  remains  at  one  or  two  days 
march  in  rear  of  the  army.  The  above  number  of 
rounds,  with  those  with  the  battery,  makes  up  500 
rounds  ])er  9-pr.  gun,  and  4h0  rounds  per  16-pr.  gun. 
EESEEVE  MILITIA.-  A  portion  of  the  Militia.  A 
certain  number  not  exceeding  the  fourth  part  of  the 
quota  of  the  privates  of  the  Militia  for  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  respectively,  maj-  volunteer 
to  join  this  force.  They  may  volunteer  to  be  train- 
ed for  56  dajs  in  each  jear  with  the  regular  armj', 
and  in  case  of  national  dantrer  or  great  emergency 
are  liable  to  general  service  in  the  regular  army. 

EESIGN.— To  resign  an  appointment  or  commis- 
sion, an  officer  must  send  in  his  resignation  through 
the  prescribed  channels.  Non-commissioned  officers 
can  resign  their  appointments,  when  they  find  them- 
selves unequal  to  the  performance  of  the  duties  of 
their  rank,  with  the  consent  ol  their  Commanding 
Officer.  Enlisted  men  are  not  permitted  to  resign, 
and  can  only  quit  the  service  after  having  been  pro- 
perly discharged. 

In  the  United  States  service,  no  oflScer  is  consid- 
ered out  of  service  on  the  tender  of  his  resignation, 
until  it  shall  have  been  duly  accepted  by  the  propel 
authority.  Any  officer  who,  having  tendered  his 
resignation,  prior  to  due  notice  of  the  acceptance  of 
the  same  by  the  proper  authority,  and  without  leave, 
quits  his  post  or  proper  duties  with  the  intent  to 
remain  permanently  absent  therefrom  is  registered 
as  a  deserter,  and  punished  as  such.  The  resigna- 
tions of  officers  appointed  by  the  President  can  be 
accepted  by  him  alone. 

Before  approving  tenders  of  resignation  of  <lisburs- 
ing  officers.  Commanding  Generals  cause  all  public 
moneys  or  properly  in  their  hands  to  be  turned  over 
to  the  officer  (Icsigiiateil  to  receivi'  llie  same.  This 
action  is  indorsed  on  the  resignation,  and  promptly 
reported  to  the  War  Department.  Resignations 
tendered  under  charges,  when  forwarded  by  any 
commander,  are  always  accompanied  by  a  copy  of 
the  cliarges;  or,  in  the  absence  of  written  charges, 
by  a  re))orl  of  the  case,  for  the  iiiforiiKilion  of  the 
Secretary  of  War.  iSefore  final  ]iayiiii'iils  are  made 
to  an  officer  whose  resignation  has  Ii.mm  accepted, 
be  is  rei|uired  lo  exhibit  a  certificate  of  noii-iiidelited- 
ness  to  the  lulled  States  from  the  jiroper  account- 
ing offlc(^rs  of  the  Treasury. 

In  lime  of  war,  or  with  an  army  in  the  field,  resig- 
nations lake  effect  witliin  thirty  days  from  the  date 
of  the  order  of  acceptance.     Leaves  of  absence  are 


KESISTANCE  OF  THE  AIR, 


GO.-) 


BE8I8TANCE  OF  THE  AIB 


not  tjrantcd  by  (•miiiiiiiinling  ofllrcrH  to  offlotTH  on 
ti'ndcriii'j;  their  nsiuimlioii,  imlcHH  llw  rcKif;imli'iri 
lie  iiiiciiii(lili'iii;il  liiiil  iiiiiiicdialc.  Any  oftlccr  of  llic 
nrniy  who  iicccpls  or  hiihU  any  appoiiiliiiciit  in  l!ic 
(liplonialic  or  I'onsular  siTvicc  of  Ihr  (Jovcrnmcnl  is 
<nnsiclcri(l  as  Inivini:  resii;uril  his  phii'c  in  Ihc' army. 
'I'his  npplii'S  to  iilllccrs  on  the  Aclivr  List,  iiml  to  all 
H'tircil  ollii'i'rs,  (xccplini;  those  cxi'niplcil  l)V  law. 

KESISTANCE  OF  THE  AIR.-  A  l)oily  niovii'i';  in  the 
air cxpiriciicis  a  resistance  which  diniinishes  the 
velocity  with  which  it  is  aninniled.  Thai  the  re. 
lardins;  ellecl  of  the  air,  on  projectilcH  niovin);  with 
IiiLcli  velocities,  is  very  i;reat,  is  seen  by  conipariii!; 
the  aclnal  rani^es  of  projectiles  with  those  conipuled 
under  the  sn])pcisilion  that  they  move  in  vacuo. 
Thus  it  has  been  shown  thai  ciTlain  cannon-balls  do 
not  raniie  one-eighth  as  fur  in  the  air  as  they  wo\dd 
if  they  did  not, meet  with  this  resistance  to  their  mo- 
tion, and  small-arm  jirojecliles,  which  have  but  lit- 
tle mass,  are  still  mor<'  alVecled  by  it. 

Iiiciiiiipri'Huihli' fluid.-  -  The  resistance  experienced 
by  a  plane  surface  nioviiiLr  parallel  to  itself  through 
jin  incompressihle  lluid.  is  e(|ual  to  the  pressure  of 
u  colunui  of  the  lluid,  the  base  (if  which  is  the  mov- 
ing surface,  and  its  height  that  due  to  the  velocity 
with  which  the  surface  is  moved  through  the  lluid, or, 

from  the  law  of  falling  bodies.  h=  — ;  in  which  li  is 

the  height,  n  the  velocity,  and  17  the  force  of  gravity. 
The  resistance  on  a  given  area  is  therefore  propor- 
tiimal  to  the  scjuare  of  the  velocity,  and  the  density 
of  the  lluid  medium. 

Let  rf,  8,  and  v  represent  the  density  or  weight  of 
a  unit  of  vohime  of  lluid,  the  area  pressed  upon, 
and  the  velociiy  of  the  moving  surface,  respectively, 
and  y  the  resistance  in  terms  of  the  unit  of  weight, 
and  we  have, 

Q=k,hS-  ; 

in  which  /  is  a  coefficient  to  be  determined  by  exper- 
iment. 

(hmpremiMe  fluid. — If  the  medium  be  furnu'd  of 
compressible  gases,  as  the  atmosphere,  the  density 
in  front  of  the  moving  body  will  be  greater  than  that 
behind  it  ;  and  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  body 
will  uie<'l  with  a  resistance  which  increases  more 
rapidl.v  thanthe  square  of  the  velocity,  in  such  aman- 
ner  that  the  coefficient, A-,or  the  density  of  the  medium, 
d,  should  lie  increased  by  a  ((uantity  which  is  a 
f\inction  of  the  velocity  itself,  or,  what  is  the  same 
thing,  by  adding  another  term  to  the  resistance  which 
shall  lie"  proportional  to  the  culie  of  the  velocity.  In 
examining  the  table  of  resistances,  obtaiiucl  by  Hut- 
ton  liy  tiring  a  one-pound  ball  into  a  liallistic  pen- 
dulum, at  ditTerent  distances,  with  velocities  vary- 
ing from  300  to  1 ,000  feet,  Piobert  foinid.that  if  e-  in 
the  foregoing  expression  be  replaced  by  the  binomial 

1  1 

in  which  —  = ,  the  ex- 

)•         1427  ft. 


term 


iregomgcxpri 


pression  would 
ments.     Calling. 1= 


section  of  a  projectile,  the  general  expression  forthe 
resistance  in  air  becomes. 


Q^.lTTir- 


'■('^)-- 


In  this  expression,  A  is  the  resistance,  in  pounds, 
on  a  sciuare  foot  of  the  cross-section  of  a  projectile 
moving  with  a  velocity  of  one  foot  ;  ;■  is  a  linear 
(luantity  depending  on  the  velocity  of  the  projectile. 
Forall  service  spherical  projectiles,  .l^.000.")14  ;  and 
for  all  service  velocities  ;  =1,407  feet.  The  value  of 
-1  for  the  ritle-musket  bullet  has  been  determined  at 
the  Washington  Arsenal,  and  found  equal  to  0.000358. 


TliiH  hIiowb  tliut  the  reiiiHtancn  of  the  air  U  altout  one- 
third  lesM  on  the  ngrrrul  than  011  the  npliericul  frjmi 
of  projectile.  Tlii»  value  lius  lieen  found  lo  annwer 
well  for  caliuhi'ing  the  rungcH  of  ritle.ciinnon  pro. 
jeililes.  The  crielllcieiit  A,  lieing  u  funclion  of  the 
density  of  the  air,  its  value  clepi  iiiIh  on  Ihi-  leiii(«-ni. 
tiiri',  pressure,  ami  hygromilric  inndilioii;  in  Ihc 
above  value  the  weight  of  a  1  ubic  foot  of  uir.  .0".< 
II).,  at  a  temperature  of  (}<»^  Kahr.,  and  fora  biiromel- 
rical  pressure  of  a!*..";  inchcH.  If  the  nurface  rif  the 
projectile  be  rriiigh  or  irregular,  the  valilf  of  (hin 
coellicient  will  be  slightly  loo  hiiwill. 

The  motion  of  a  body  falling  through  the  air,  will 
l)e  accelerated  by  its  weiirht,  and  ri-larded  by  the 
buoyant  elfort  of  the  air,  and  the  resistance  wliicli 
the  air  offers  to  motion.  As  liie  re^ihl«nce  of  the 
air  increases  nuire  rapidly  than  the  vehnily.  it  fol- 
lows  that  tlii're  is  a  point  where  the  rilariling  and 
accelerating  forces  will  be  eipnil,  anil  that  beyond 
this,  the  body  will  move  with  a  iniiforin  veloc- 
ity Cfpial  to  that  which  it  had  acquired  dow  n  to  this 
point.     The  buovant  elTort  of  the  air  is  ecjual  to  the 

d 
weight  of  the  volume  displaced,  or  7'  —  ;  in  which  /' 

is  the  weight  and  D  the  denBily  of  the  projectile,  and 
d  the  density  of  the  air.  When  the  projectile  meets 
with  a  resisiance  equal  to  its  weight,  we  shall  have, 

P^i--0=.,,w.-..^^i4-;). 

in  which  the  weight  of  the  displaced  air  is  transferred 
to  the  first  member  of  the  equation.  A.s  the  den.sity 
of  the  air  is  very  slight  compared  to  that  of  lead  or 

d 
iron,  the  materials  of  which  projectiles  are  made,  — 

I) 
may  be  neglected.     Making  this  change,  and  substi- 

4 
tuting  for  P,  — nP^D  {g  liaving  been  divided  out  of 

3 
the  second  member,  should  be  omitted  in  the  first), 
the  expression  for  the  final  telncily  reduces  to 
•  r  \      4  IID 


(r  "V       4  IIL 


The  resistance  on  the  entire  projectile  for  a  velocity 

of  1  foot,  is  Anli*  ;  dividing  this  by—,  or  the  mass, 

wc  get  the  resistance  on  a  unit  of  mass.    Calling  this 
1 
— ,  we  have, 

1      Ann*  P 

-= ,  or  2ge=  —— . 

2e        P  ArrJi' 


Substituting  for  P  its  value  in  the  equation  of  verti- 
cal descent,  we  have. 


nearly  satisfy  the  results  of  experi-  - 
k'd 

and  7t/l-  the  area  of  the  cross 


2</c^r 


(-0 


from  which  we  see  that  r  depenils  only  on  f  ;  but 
•2  nil 

3  gA 
hence,  the  final  velocitv  of  a  projectile  falling  in  the 
air  is  directly  proportioned  to  the  product  of  its  dia- 
meter and  density,  and  inversely  proportional  to  the 
density  of  the  air.  winch  is  a  factor  of  .1.  The  ex. 
pression  fortlie  value  of  ('i  shows,  that  the  retarding 
effect  of  the  air  is  less  on  the  larger  and  denst-r  pro- 
jectiles. To  adapt  it  to  an  oblons:  projectile  of  the 
pointed  form,  the  value  of  J>  should  be  inrrea.sed, 
(inasmuch  as  its  weisht  is  increased  in  proportion  to 
its  cross  section),  while  that  of  A  should  be  dimin- 


RES  JUDICATA. 


666 


EEST  ON  ABMS. 


islied.  It  follows,  thcreforp,  that  for  the  same  caliber 
an  obloug  projectile  will  be  less  retarded  by  tlie  air 
than  one  of  spherical  form,  and  consequently  with  an 
equal  and  perhaps  less  initial  velocity  its  range  will 
be  greater.  The  value  of  (c)  for  service  projectiles 
will  be  found  ready  calculated  in  the  Tables  of  Fire. 
For  the  purpose  of  determining  the  velocity  which  a 
projectile  loses  by  the  resistance  of  the  air,  in  moving 
through  a  certain  distance,  r,  the  force  of  gravity 
may  be  disregarded  :  in  which  case  the  trajectory  de- 
scribed will  be  a  ritrht  line. 

Let  V  be  the  initial  velocity,  and  «  the  remaining 
velocity  at  the  end  of  the  distance  x. 

The  expression  for  the  resistance  of  the  air  is-  as 
we  have  seen, 


Q^AttR^ 


(-0 


But  we  know  that  the  retarding  force  of  the  air  is 
equal  to  the  mass  of  the  projectile  against  which  it 
acts,  multiplied  by  the  first  differential  coetticientof 
the  velocity,    regarded  as  a  function  of  the   time, 

P 
with  its  sign  changed,  and  that  —  is  the  mass  of  the 

.? 
projectile.     We  have,  therefore. 

—  =  — = AvR'-l  1  +  -    |)'^ 

P      dt  P  \  t  / 

4  i  RD 

Recollecting  that  P=—^R^D,  and  that  2<;= , 

3  3    gA 

the  equation  reduces  to, 
rft)  v 


dt 


i(-0 


Integrating  this  equation  between  the  limits  0  and 
X,  which  correspond  to  V  and  i',  we  have. 


t  =  1c( I- 


2r,, 


1+- 


r 
1  +  - 
V 
To  obtain  a  relation  bctweenthe  space  and  veloci- 
dx  dx 

ty;  we  have  i'= — ,  or  dt= — ;  substituting  this   in 

dt  r 

the  equation  for  tlieintensit}'  of  the  retarding   force, 
and  reducing,  we  have, 

dv 
(to=  —  2c 


(-0 


Integrating  between  the  same  limits  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding case,  we  have, 
r 

\  +-  X 

x  =  2c  log. or  1  ■ 

r 

1+- 
V 

Solving  this  equation  with  reference  tot',  we  have, 
r 
■0= (2). 

X 

.2c     , 


■+--=  I    1  +  —    I  2c     ,,, 


(-0 

le  iibi>ve  cqu 

t=2ci I  — 

\t.       V/ 


Substituting  in  the  iibi)Ve  equations  we  have, 

t=2c| ■ CA). 


Tlie  logarithms  in  the  above  equations  belong  to 
the  Napierian  system,  and  are  obtained  by  multiply- 
ing the  corresponding  common  logarithm  bv  2.3026: 
e=2.713. 

Equation  (1)  gives  the  space  passed  over  by  a  cer- 
tain projectile  when  the  velocities  at  the  commence- 
ment and  end  of  the  flight,  are  known. 

p^quaticm  (2)  gives  the  remaining  velocity  when 
the  initial  velocity  and  the  space  passed  over  are 
known.  . 

Equation  (3)  gives  the  time  of  flight  when  the  ve- 
locities at  the  begiiuiing  and  end  and  the  space  pass- 
ed over  are  known. 

The  distance  at  which  the  velocity  V  is  reduced 
to  r,  and  the  duration  of  the  trajectorj-,  being  pro- 
portional to  c,  are  directly  proportional  to  the  pro- 
duct of  the  diameter  and  density  of  the  projectile, 
and  inversely  proportional  to  the  density  of  the  air. 
This  fact  shows  the  great  advantage,  in  point  of 
range,  to  be  derived  from  using  large  projectiles 
over  small  ones,  of  solid  projectiles  over  hollow 
onoe,  of  leaden  projectiles  over  iron  ones,  and  of  ob- 
long projectiles  over  roimd  ones.  See  JJidimi'x  For- 
mutas,  EqiiatiiiiiH  nf  Motivn  of  Projectiles  and  Trajec- 
tory. 

KES  JUDICATA. — In  law,  a  term  meaning  that 
the  subject  matter  of  an  action  has  been  already 
decided  by  a  court  of  competent  jurisdiction,  and  if 
so,  a  plea"  setting  up  the  res  judicata  is  a  sufficient 
defense.  In  order  to  be  binding,  however,  the  suit 
in  the  former  case  mast  have  been  between  the  same 
parties. 

RESPECTANT.— In  Heraldry,  a  term  employed  to 
describe  two  animals  borne  face  to  face.  Beasts  of 
prey  ramjiant  wlien  so  borne,  are,  however,  said  to 
be  riiiiijKint  cDiihateuit.     Also  written  Refipecting. 

RESSAIRDAR.— In  the  East  Indies,  a  native  officer 
in  ii  native  cavalry  regiment  who  commands  the  left 
troo])  of  a  squadron. 

RESSALAH. — Tlie  Indian  term  for  a  squadron  of 
native  cavalry. 

RESSALDAR.— In  the  East  Indies,  a  native  officer 
in  a  native  cavalry  regiment.  He  commands  the 
right  troop  of  a  s<iuadron,  and  on  parade  leads  the 
squadron.  Ressakiar  Major  is  the  native  command- 
ant of  a  native  cavalry  regiment. 

REST.— 1.  In  tactics,  a  word  of  comm.and,  where- 
by the  men  are  brought  to  a  position  of  rest;  as 
parade  rest  in  place  rest,  etc.  2.  A  support  for  the 
muzzle  of  a  gun  in  aiming  and  firing.  The  Arbal- 
est or  cross-bow,  and  the  earlier  hand  fire-arms 
were  always  thus  supported,  and  the  long  guns  of 
the  Moors  "and  Arabs  are  still  universally  provided 
witli  a  device  of  this  kind.  In  civilized  countries 
the  rest  is  employed  by  the  sharp-shooters  and  in 
practice-firing.  It  may  consist  of  a  stake  or  picket, 
whose  pointed  end  is  driven  in  the  groinid,  the  gim 
resting  in  a  crotch  at  tlie  upper  extremity;  or,  as  in 
some  of  the  European  armies,  of  a  device  having  a 
screw-point,  by  which  it  may  be  attached  to  a  tree 
or  other  support.  3.  In  a  lathe,  a  piece  of  iron  for 
holding  the  turning  tool,  fixed  at  the  end  of  a  slide 
by  a  set-screw;  the  slide  can  be  moved  at  right 
angles  to  the  bar  of  the  lathe,  and  the  whole  can  be 
fixed  at  any  part  of  the  bed  between  the  centers. 
4.  In  Ih'ndilry,  the  name  usually  given  to  a  cliarge, 
varying  coiisideriibly  in  the  different  representations. 
It  appears  at  too  early  a  date  to  be  wliat  it  is  often 
said  to  be — a  spear  rest.  It  is  sometimes  called  an 
organ-rest,  iuul  in  old  rolls,  a  clarion — and  is  most 
likely  a  represeiitation  of  some  musical  instrument 
like  "tlie  pande;in  pipe.  It  was  a  rebus  badge  of  the 
Clares. 

RESTON  ARMS.— A  position  in  the  Manual  of  Arms, 
executed  as  follows  :  Heingat  a  carry,  the  Instruct- 
or commands  :  1.  /fci?  (/»,  2.  Arms.  Uaise  the])iece- 
vertically  with  the  right  hand,  advancing  it  slightly, 
grasp  it  with  the  left  hand  at  the  lower  band,  the 
forearm  horizontal;  reverse  it  with  both  hands,  the 
muzzle  dropping  to  the  front,  the  butt  passing  be- 


EETAINED  PAY. 


Ctn 


EKTALIATIOH. 


tween  Uic  breast  and  tlie  riplit  forearm ;  place  the 
iiiuz/.lc  upmi  llic  left  toe,  the  l)iirrcl  to  llic  riirlif,  llir 
left  liaiiil  slippill;?  up  the  stocU,  (lie  hiifk  lo  llii-  li'fl. 
(Two.)  (^arrry  tlic  ri^rlil  fo'it  ihrcc  inclics  lollnTiMir : 
at  tlio  saiiK'  time  plarc  llic  Imriils  upon  tin'  Imlt,  llic 
rijilit  hand  iippcniiosl,  llic  left  kiicc  sli^'lilly  IhmI. 
('fiiicEK.)  Incline  the  h'^ad  lowani  I  hi'  liainN. 
1.  Ctirri/,  2.  AiiMs.  (Irasp  Ihc  small  of  llic  Klock 
with  the  riirhl  hanil,  hack  lo  Ihc  rijilit ;  carry  Ihc 
piece  with  the  ri^hl  han<l  opposite  Ihc  ri};lit  shoiij. 
dcr,  barrel  lo  the  front  iinil  vertical,  fonMirin  horizon- 
tal ;  LCrasp  the  piece  at  tlii'  lowc-r  hand  with  Ihc  left 
hanii,  liack  t'l  the  left,  the  thnnil>  poinlini.'  down, 
ward  ;  l)rinti;  the  ri'i;lit  foot  liy  IIk'  side  of  the  left. 
(Two).  Reverse  the  piece  with  both  hands,  the  bull 
passing  between  the  breast  and  rif^ht  forearm  ;  re- 
sume the  carry  with  the  ris;ht  hand.  (Thkkk.;  Drop 
the  left  luiiid  by  the  side.  See  Mftnunl  of  Armn, 
Fig.  Vi. 

RETAINED  PAY.  In  the  rnilod  Stales  servirc, 
this  pay  is  retainc(l  from  the  soldier  until  the  cxpi- 
nilion  of  his  term  of  service,  and  is  forfeiled  unless 
he  shall  have  serve<l  honestly  and  faithfully  to  the 
dateof  dischariie.  orforanyof  the  followini;  causes: 
1.  Desertion  during;  the  |)eriod  of  enlistment.  2. 
When  dischargcil  (by  way  of  punishment  for  an  of- 
fense) before  expiration  of  term  of  service  by  sen- 
tence of  Court-Mart iai,  or  by  order  from  the  War 
Dc|)artment  specifying  that  such  forfeiture  shall  be 
made.  H.  ('<inviction  and  imprisonment  by  the  civil 
authorities.  4.  When  discliar^cd  as  a  minor,  or  for 
other  cause  involving  fraud  on  his  |iart  in  Ihc  enlist- 
ment, fi.  Kepeated  trials  by  Court-.Martial  and  pun- 
ishments for  n\isconducl,  of  which  timely  report 
shall  be  made  to  the  War  Department  and  approved 
as  basis  of  forfeiture.  In  which  case  the  .sol<iier 
shall  be  dischari^cd  without  character,  and  shall  not 
be  r<'-enlistcd. 

RETAINEKS.  -It  is  declared  in  the  Articles  of  War, 
that  all  retainers  to  the  camp,  and  all  persons  serv- 
ini;  with  the  armies  of  the  United  States  in  the  Held, 
tlnnm^h  not  enlisted  soldiers,  are  to  be  subject  lo 
orders,  accordimx  to  the  rules  and  discipline  of  war. 

RETAINING  WALLS.  These,  as  their  name  im- 
plies, are  walls  built  lo  retain  earth,  sand,  or  other 
incoherent  substances  in  positions  and.  forms  which 
without  their  aid  they  could  not  maintain.  These 
substan<-es.  if  left  to  themselves,  will  not  stand  with 
vertical  sides,  but  will  fall  down  till  they  assume  a 
certain  slope.  The  angle  which  this  slope  makes 
with  the  horizontal  is  called  the  "angle  of  repose." 
This  angle  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ma- 
terial ;  for  example,  that  of  moist  soil  is  about  45*^. 


'.IN 


•1 


J^ 

i...d..     y    \ 

^^•. 

.  m,  / 

jfcs,-^' 

/      / 

/ 

7. 

ac,  revetment ;  1>.  Iiottnm  of  d'tch,  level  nf  jzrnund  witliin  the 
work;  de.  top  of  ninipart ;  fi,'h,  pnropet;  it\.  b^tiniuctle;  kle. 
inju*!;  of  earth  supported  t)T  revelineiit ;  in.  center  of  <n';>vity  of 
aia-is;  a,  point  of  grealetit  pressure  on  revetment. 

while  fine  sand  assumes  an  angle  of  about  30".  The 
drawing  shows  a  retaining  wall  of  masonry  built  in 
permanent  fortification.  Prior  to  Vaiiban's  lime  the 
scarp  revetment  or  retaining  wall  was  commonly 
raised  to  the  top  of  the  parapet  ;  but  as  in  this  case 
the  artillery  of  a  Ixsiegcr  jjlayed  on  the  top  of  the 
wall,  and  mined  it  soon  after  the  siege  commenced, 
that  engineer  adopted  the  principU — fhenceforth  fol- 
lowed— of  raising  it  uo  higher  tliiin  the  crest  of  the 


fclaclH,  or  about  7  feet  above  the  natural  irround, 
leaving  the  parapet  above  of  itlo[MMl  earlli  only. 
When  the  main  ditch  in  'iA  feet  deep,  the  xcarti  ri;. 
vetment  will  he  about  W  feet  high.  AildillonttI 
slrenglh  is  imparled  to  the  revelnient  wall  by  inan- 
sivi'  liullrcHSCH  at  every  l."<  feel,  calleil  runuUrJ'irU, 
and  these,  again,  are  HoinciimcH  conneclcd  und 
strengthened  by  masonry  arciicH  oiitHide  the  revet- 
menl.  The  revetment  fornm  n  terrible  burrjer  lo  an 
assaulting  party. 

In  estimating  the  rei|iiiHlte  tliickncHN  of  tlie  wall, 
it  must  be  taken  into  account  that  the  wall  niuy  give 
way  in  various  manners  ;  it  may  lie  f)verliimed,  or 
it  may  slide  as  a  whole  along  its  base  Dli,  or  the 
upp<-r  parts  may  give  way,  while  llii-  base  reniuinit. 
Kroin  these  data,  nnilhemalical  formulie  have  Ix-en 
worki'd  out,  which  deterininc  the  thickncKS  re(|iiiKitc 
for  different  situations  ami  nuitcrialH,  such  us  that 
given  by  M.  I'oncelet  for  ordinary  materiuls,  and 
within   ordinarv   limits: 

x  =  .2H.';(-|l +/'). 
Where  H,  the  height  of  the  wall,  anri  A,  the  aildi- 
lii>nal  height  of  the  bank  above  the  lop  of  the  wall, 
being  given,  x,  Ihc  thic'kness  of  the  wall,  can  be 
found.  These  formula-,  howevi-r,  are  not  of  much 
practical  value,  on  account  of  the  varying  nature  of 
the  data  on  which  Ihi-y  aie  fiamded.  and  of  the  ex- 
cess of  strength  reipiisile  in  all  such  construeti<ini!, 
to  allow  for  causes  of  failure  which  cannot  Ik-  fore- 
seen or  provided  for  in  the  calculations.  Practical 
experience  is  found  to  be  the  only  safe  guiile  in  all 
such  considerations.  In  the  construction  of  a  re- 
taining wall,  a  great  desideratum  is,  that  tlie  earth 
behind  it  be  well  drained ;  for  if  water  be  allowed  to 
accumulate  behind  the  wall,  the  earth  gets  into  a 
semi-Hnid  state,  in  which  it  gives  a  very  much  iu- 
creased  pressure  on  the  wall.  For  this  [Mirpose.  holes 
are  left  through  the  wall  called  "weeping  holes;" 
these  holes  are  about  9  inches  high  and  2  inches  wide, 
and  are  generally  placed  about  1  for  every  3f5  sq.  ft. 
of  wall.  Also  stones  without  mortar  are  frecpK-ntly 
built  up  behind  the  wall,  so  forming  an  r)pen  stra- 
tum, into  which  the  water  drains,  and  is  thence  car- 
ried olf  tlirnu:.di  the  weeping-holes. 

RETALIATION.  War  is  not  carried  on  by  arms 
alone.  It  is  hiwful  to  starve  the  hostile  belligerent, 
armed  or  unarmed,  so  that  it  leads  to  the  speedier 
subjection  of  the  enemy.  When  the  commander  of  a 
besieged  place  expels  the  non-combatants,  in  order  lo 
lessen  the  numl)er  of  those  who  consume  his  stock  of 
provisions.it  is  lawful,  though  an  extreme  measure, 
to  drive  them  back,  so  as  to  hasten  on  the  surrender. 
Commanders,  whenever  admissible,  inform  the 
enemy  of  their  intention  to  bombard  a  place,  so  that 
the  non-combatants,  and  especially  the  women  and 
ehiklrcn,  may  be  removed  before  the  bumbardment 
commences.  But  it  is  no  infraction  of  the  common 
law  of  war  to  omit  thus  to  inform  the  enemy.  Sur- 
prise may  l>e  a  necessity.  Public  war  is  a  stale  of 
armed  hostility  between  sovereign  nations  or  govern- 
ments. It  is  a  law  and  recpiisile  of  civilized  exis- 
tence that  men  live  in  political,  continuous  societies, 
forming  organized  units,  called  stales  or  nations, 
whose  cousfituenis  bear,  enjoy,  and  suffer,  advance 
and  retrograde  together,  in  peace  and  in  war. 

The  citizen  or  native  of  a  hostile  country  is  Ihus  an 
enemy,  as  one  of  the  constituents  of  the  hostile  slate 
or  nation,  and  as  such  is  subjected  to  the  hardships 
of  the  war.  Neverlheless  as  civilizjition  has  advanc- 
ed during  the  last  centuries,  so  has  likewise  steadily 
advanced.  especiaKy  in  war  on  land,  the  distinction 
between  the  private  individual  belonging  to  a  hostile 
country  and  the  hostile  countrj-  it.«eif,  with  its  men 
in  arms.  The  principle  has  been  more  and  more 
acknowledged  that  the  unarmed  citizen  is  to  be 
spared  in  person,  property,  and  honor  as  much  as 
the  e.xisences  of  war  will  admit.  Private  citizens  are 
no  longer  murdered,  enslaved,  or  carried  off  to  dis- 
tant parts,  and  the  inoffensive  individual  is  as  little 
disturbed  in  his  private  relations  as  the  commander 


BETARDATION. 


668 


EETIHEMENT. 


of  the  hostile  troops  can  afford  to  grant  in  the  over- 
ruling demands  of  a  vigorous  war^ 

The  almost  universal  rule  in  remote  times  was, 
and  continues  to  be  with  barbarous  armies,  that  the 
private  individual  of  the  hostile  country  is  destined 
to  suffer  every  privation  of  liberty  and  protecti(m, 
and  every  disruption  of  family  ties.  Protection  was, 
and  still  is  with  uncivilized  people,  the  exception. 
In  modern  regular  wars  of  the  Europeans,  and  their 
descendants  in  other  portions  of  the  globe,  protec- 
tion of  the  inoffensive  citizen  of  the  hostile  country 
is  the  rule  ;  privation  and  disturbance  of  private  re- 
lations are  the  exceptions. 

Commanding  Generals  may  cause  the  magistrates 
and  civil  officers  of  the  hostile  country  to  lake  the 
oath  of  temporary  allegiance  or  an  oath  of  fidelity  to 
their  own  victorious  government  or  rulers,  and  they 
may  expel  every  one  who  declines  to  do  so.  But 
whether  they  do  so  or  not,  the  people  and  their  civil 
officers  owe  strict  obedience  to  them  as  long  as  they 
hold  sway  over  the  district  or  country,  at  the  peril  of 
their  lives.  The  law  of  war  can  no  more  wholly' dis- 
pense with  reralialion  than  can  the  law  of  nations,  of 
which  it  is  branch.  Yet,  civilized  nations  acknowl- 
edge retaliation  as  the  sternest  feature  of  war.  A 
reckless  enemy  often  leaves  to  his  opponent  no  other 
means  of  securing  himself  against  the  repetitiijn  of 
barbarous  outrage. 

Retaliation  will,  therefore,  never  be  resorted  to 
as  a  measure  of  mere  revenge,  but  only  as  a  means 
of  protective  retribution,  and.  moreover,  cautiously 
and  unavoidably;  that  is  to  say.  retaliation  shall 
only  he  resorted  to  after  careful  inquiry  into  the  real 
occurrence,  and  the  character  of  the  misdeeds  that 
may  demand  retribution.  Unjust  or  inconsiderate 
retaliation  removes  the  belligerents  further  and 
further  from  the  mitigating  rules  of  a  regular  war, 
and  by  rapid  steps  leads  them  nearer  to  the  interne- 
cine war  of  savages. 

Modern  times  are  distinguished  from  earlier  ages 
by  the  existence,  atone  and  the  same  time,  of  very 
many  nations  and  great  governments  related  to  one 
another  in  close  intercourse.  Peace  is  their  normal 
condition;  war  is  the  exception.  The  ultimate  ob- 
ject of  all  modern  war  is  a  renewed  state  of  peace. 
The  more  vigorously  wars  are  pursued,  the  better  it 
is  for  humanity.     Sharp  wars  are  brief. 

Ever  since  the  formation  and  coexistence  of  mod- 
ern nations,  and  ever  since  wars  have  become  great 
national  wars,  war  has  come  to  be  acknowledged 
not  to  tje  its  own  end,  but  the  means  to  obtain  great 
ends  of  state,  or  to  consist  in  defense  against  wrong; 
and  no  conventional  restriction  of  the  modes  adopt- 
ed to  injure  the  enemy  is  any  longer  admitted  ;  but 
the  law  of  war  imposes  many  lunitations  and  re- 
strictions on   principles  of  justice,  faith,  and  honor. 

RETARDATION.— The  velocity  a  ball  loses  in  con- 
sequence of  a  resisting  medium  is  termed  rrtardntinn. 
This  varies  with  the  degree  of  resistance,  and  the 
weight  of  the  ball.     In  case  of  ordinary  spherical 

projectiles   retardation    will    vary  as (rf=the 

diameter  of  tnc  ball,  and  ii=its  velocity).  If  two 
shot  of  different  diameters,  but  of  equal  density,  be 
fired  under  similar  circumstances,  it  apjiears  from 
this  that  the  shot  of  the  larger  diameter  will  range  to 
a  greater  distance  than  the  other;  consequently  for 
equal  ranges,  the  elevation  of  the  piece  from  wliich 
the  larger  shot  is  fired  may  be  reduced,  and  the 
chances  of  its  striking  the  object  fireil  at,  will  be 
greater,  the  trajectory  being  less  curved. 

The  effect  of  a  pressure  or  resistance  (A')  acting 
on  a  projectile  or  other  body  is  to  cause  acceleration 
or  retarclaticin  (f)  in  velocity,  and  the  aiuount  of  it 
is  known  from  tlie  elementary  law  in  dynanncs  ex- 
pressed by  the  proportion.  It:  W::— /:  g,  where  c  is 
the  weight  of  the  ])rojectile  in  pounds  ;  or  retarda- 
tion (/)  = g.     Here  we  notice  that  retiirdation 


varies  inversely  as  the  weight  of  the  projectile.  Re- 
tardation   is  negative   acceleration.      It  is  subject 
[  to  the  same  laws,  but  is  the  opposite  to  it  in  sign. 
Hence,  the  minus  sign  in  the  proportion  above. 

RETIARIDS.— A  kind  of  gladiator  who  fought  in 
I  the  amphitheater  during  the  time  of  the  Romans.  He 
was  dressed  in  a  short  coat,  having  afusi'inn,  or  tri- 
dent, in  his  left  hand,  and  a  net,  from  which  he  de- 
rived his  name,  in  liis  right.  With  this  he  endeav- 
ored to  entangle  his  adversary,  that  he  might  tben 
with  his  trident  easily  dispatch  him.  On  his  head 
he  wore  only  a  hat  tied  under  his  chin  with  a  broad 
ribbon. 

RETINUE.— The  body  of  retainers  who  follow  a 
prince  or  other  distinguished  person;  a  train  of  at- 
tendants. 

RETIRADE.  — In  fortification,  a  retrenchment, 
which  is  generally  made  with  two  faces,  forming  a 
re-entrant  angle,  and  is  thrown  up  in  the  body  of  a 
work,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  troops,  who  may 
dispute  the  ground  inch  by  inch. 

RETIRE. — A  bugle-sound  intimating  to  skirmish- 
ers that  they  are  to  fall  back.  In  the  United  States 
service,  tliis  call  is  termed  "to  the  rear." 

RETIRED  FLANKS.— In  fortification,  those  made 
behind  the  line  which  joins  the  extremity  of  the  face 
and  the  curtain  towards  the  capital  of  tlie  bastion. 

RETIRED  LIST.— The  list  of  oflicers  retired  from 
an  Army.  To  maintain  a  reasonably  low  age  among 
the  officers  actively  employed,  it  is  essential  that  an 
army  should  have  some  fixed  scale  for  the  retire- 
ment of  the  old  and  enfeebled  officers.  In  the  Brit- 
ish Army,  this  matter  is  well  regulated,  and  in  most 
instances  the  retiring  officer  is  allowed  a  step  of 
honorary  rank ;  which  higher  rank,  however,  does 
not  carry  present  nor  prospective  advantage. 

In  the  United  States  service,  the  whole  number  of 
officers  of  the  Army  on  the  Retired  List  can  not  at 
any  time  exceed  four  hundred,  and  any  less  number 
to  be  allowed  thereon  may  be  fixed  by  the  President 
at  his  descrotion.  Retired  officers  of  the  Army  may 
be  assigned  to  duty  at  the  Soldiers'  Home,  upon  a 
selection  by  the  commissioners  of  that  institution, 
approved  by  the  Secretary  of  War  ;  and  a  retired 
officer  is  not  assignable  to  any  olher  duty.  Any  re- 
tired officer  may,  on  his  own  application,  be  de- 
tailed to  serve  as  professor  in  any  college  ;  but  while 
so  serving,  such  officer  is  allowed  no  additional  com- 
pensation. Upon  the  application  of  any  college, 
university,  or  institution  of  learning  incorporated 
under  the  laws  of  any  State  within  the  United  States, 
having  capacity  at  the  same  time  to  educate  not  less 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty  male  students,  the  Presi- 
dent may  detail  an  officer  of  the  Army  on  the  Re- 
tired List  to  act  as  president. superintendent,  or  pro- 
fessor thereof ;  and  such  officer  may  receive  from 
the  institution  to  which  he  may  be  detailed  the  dif- 
ference between  his  retired  and  full  pay,  but  will 
not  receive  any  additional  pay  or  allowance  from  the 
United  States. 

When  any  officer  has  served  forty-five  years  as  a 
commissioned  officer,  or  is  sixty-four  jears  old,  he 
ma}'  be  retired  from  active  service  at  the  discretion 
of  the  President.  And  all  such  are  retired  upon 
the  actual  rank  held  by  them  at  the  date  of  retire- 
ment; but  are  withdrawn  from  command  and  from 
the  line  of  promotion,  as  are  all  officers  on  the  Re- 
tired List.  They  are  entitled  to  wear  the  uniform  of 
the  rank  on  which  they  may  bi^  retired.  They  con- 
tinue to  be  borneou  the  Army  Register,  and  are  sub- 
ject to  tliLi  Rules  anil  Articles  of  War,  and  to  Iri.'d  by 
General  Court- IMurlia!  for  any  breach  thereof.  The 
pay  of  officers  <m  the  Retired  List  is  J  of  the  pay  of 
the  rank  upon  which  they  are  retired.  ^\'hen 
wholly  retired  from  the  service,  they  are  entitled  to 
receive,  upon  retirement,  one  year's  pay  and  allow- 
ances of  the  highest  rank  held  by  them,  whetlur  by 
staff  or  regimental  commission,  at  the  tune  of  their 
retirement. 

RETIREMENT.     In  the  British  Army,  a  Royal  War- 


BETXRINO  BOARD. 


ecu 


RETURN  OAI.LEHY. 


rant,  inlroducini;  luicl  rct'ululin^'  cnrnpulKory  rc- 
tirciMciil  friirii  llic  army  whs  isHucil  in  1877. 
Voluiiliiry  rclirciiic-iit  on  Imlf  pay  is  allowed  to 
(ililci'i-s  after  not  less  lliuii  ll!  years' service.  OllleiTs 
beluw  tlie  raiil<  of  Major,  who  have  served  in  their 
present  rank  for  seven  years  without  promotion,  are 
to  be  plaicd  on  lialf-|iay  after  a  total  service  of  30 
years;  Majors  after  27  years,  and  iii;^her  odlcers 
after  varyinu;  periods.  As  to  aife,  a  Colonel,  who 
has  not  retired  on  other  f;ronnds,  must,  unless 
Sl)eeial  exeepliim  lie  made,  retire  at  theatre  of  lllj 
years,  IJeiitentuil  t'oloiiel  at  f.O  years.  .Major  al  W 
years,  and  ollicers  of  lower  rank  at  .')■')  years— (he 
pension  varying  accordini;  to  eircumsliinces.  In 
1878  then'  were  37lt  olUeers  on  retired  fidl-pay, 
costing  .<.i;i3,000,  and  1,.')7.S  on  half-pay,  eoslinir 
.i'280,(IO();  hut  tiiese  numhers  include  "nearly  ail 
Stall'  Ollicers,  and  many  on  temporary  lialf-pay  on 
account  of  sickness,  ])rivati'  all'airs.  etc. 

In  the  riiited  States  service,  Department  Com- 
manders, from  time  to  time,  report  to  the  Adjutant 
General  of  the  army  the  names  of  ollicers  belonging 
to  their  Departments  who  are  incapacitated  for 
active  service  or  comnuuid,  with  n  view  to  their 
being  brought  before  a  Retiring  Hoard.  Tlic  re- 
ports in  each  separate  ease  contain  a  spccillc  slatl- 
ment  of  facts,  and  the  names  of  witnesses  to  prove' 
them.  Habitual  intemiierance.  gambling,  low  com- 
pany, or  other  vices  tliat  tend  to  corrupt  an  officer 
and  lower  the  professional  stanchird,  are  causes  suf- 
ficient to  bring  an  olticer  before  a  Hoard,  to  be 
wholly  retired.  WIumi  ample  testimony  establishes 
the  fact  thai  an  otlicer  has,  through  vicious  inihd- 
gcnces,  slighted  or  neglected  his  onlinary  duties  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  make  it  evidently  unsafe  to  in- 
trust him  with  a  eomm.and  or  resjMinsiliility  that 
rightfully  belongs  to  his  grade,  and  wheii  it  is 
phown  that  sucii  habits  have  continued  for  such 
length  of  time  as  to  make  a  permanent  reformation 
improliable,  this  fact,  ratlier  than  the  present  con- 
dition of  tlic  officer  when  lie  ajipears  before  the  I 
Board,  weighs  in  the  venliet  as  to  ins  incai)acity  for 
active  duty.  Officers  on  the  Retired  List"  are 
amenable  to  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War,  and 
subject  to  trial  by  Court-Martial  for  a  violation 
thereof.  It  is  made  the  duty  of  all  officers  of  the 
army  who  may  become  cognizant  of  thigraut  viola- 
tions of  military  law  by  any  retired  officer  to  report  ' 
the  same  to  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  army  for 
the  action  of  the  General.  See  Dinchnrge,  Pension, 
Hetirrd  Lint,  Ritiriiiff  Haiird,  and  fivpi  rnnnuation. 

RETIRING  BOARD.— The  Secretary  of  War.  nniler 
the  direction  of  the  President,  from  time  to  time, 
assembles  an  Army  Retiring  Board,  consisting  of 
,not  more  than  nine  nor  less  than  live  officers,  two- 
fifths  of  whom  are  selected  from  'he  Medical  Corps. 
The  Hoard,  excepting  t lie  officers  selected  from  the 
Medical  Corps,  is  composed,  as  far  as  may  be,  of 
seniors  in  rank  to  the  officer  whose  disability  is  in- 
quired of.  The  members  of  the  Board  are  sworn  in  \ 
every  case  to  discharge  their  duties  honestly  and  ' 
impartially. 

A  Retiring  Board  may  incpiire  into  and  determine  j 
the  facts  touching  tlie  nature  and  occasion  of  the 
disability  of  any  officer  who  appears  to  be  incapable 
of  perfornuug  the  duties  of  his  office,  and  lias  such 
powers  of  a  ('ourt-Martial  and  of  a  Court  of  Inquiry 
as  may  be  necessary  for  that  purpose.  | 

When  the  Hoard  tinds  an  officer  incapacitated  for 
active  service,  it  tinds  ami  reports  the  cause  which, 
in  its  judgment,  has  produced  his  incapacity,  and 
■whether  such  cause  is  ati  incident  of  service, 

Tlie  proceedings  and  decision  of  the  Hoard  arc 
transmitted  to  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  are  laid  by 
him  before  the  President  for  his  approval  or  disap- 
proval and  orders  in  the  ease. 

When  a  Retiring  Hoard  tinds  lliat  an  officer  is  inca- 
pacitated for  active  service,  and  tliat  his  incapacity  is 
the  result  of  an  incident  of  service,  and  such  decision 
is  approved  by  the  President,  said  officer  is  retired  ^ 


from  active  service  and  placed  on  the  lint  of  retired 
oMlc'ers. 

Whin  the  Hoard  lliids  that  un  oflleer  i»  lnru|MicU 
talcd  for  active  servici-,  and  llml  hix  incupiiriiv  U 
not  the  result  of  any  incident  of  service,  ancl  il«' de- 
cision is  approved' by  the  I'risident,  the  olllcer  in 
retired  from  active  service,  or  wholly  retired  from 
the  service,  as  the  I'nsiilent  nniv  determine.  The 
names  of  ofllcers  wholly  reiinil  from  the  ittrvice  ire 
omitted  from  the  Army  RegJHter. 

RETRACTOR.  A  d.-vice  by  which  the  inelallli; 
cartndgc--cases  employed  in  lireecli-loading  giinn  are 
withdrawn  after  tiring.  A  lug  or  prong  r.hl«  l>ehind 
the  llange  of  the  cartridge  and  withdraws  llie  spent 
shell  when  the  breech  is  opened.     Usually  the  \Km\- 


tive  movement  of  the  notched  extractor-plate  lonttenfl 
the  sliell  from  the  bore,  and  after  pii.s.Mmg  a  certain 
point  a  spring  conies  into  pluy.  and  gives  a  smiden 
impulse  to  the  shell,  which  liirows  it  <le»r  of  the 
tire-arm.  The  drawinir  represents  the  Bridgeport 
tool,  worked  by  hand,  which  is  (piite  effective,  and 
avoids  111,-  prissibilily  of  failure  to  act. 

KETREAT.— A  refrogradi'  movement  of  a  f<irce, 
with  the  intention  of  avoiding  an  encounter  with  a 
liostile  body  in  the  front.  The  greatest  exertion  of 
talent  is  requisite  in  a  (ieneral  to  conduct  an  able 
retreat,  more  de|)eniling  on  arrangement  and  cfH>l. 
ness  than  even  in  the  preliminaries  of  a  battle.  When 
the  enemy  iiursue,  if  the  retreat  is  not  to  degenerate 
intr)  a  rout,  the  retreating  army  must  be  covered  by 
a  powerful  rear-guanl,  wliich  from  lime  to  time  must 
hold  the  pursuers  at  bay,  whilelhe  artillery-train  and 
baggage  pass  defiles,  cross  streams,  and  overcome 
other  .special  obstacles.  A  strong  retreat  is  made 
when  the  rear  is  formed  by  a  line  of  .solid  battalions, 
of  which  alternate  masses  retreat,  while  those  inter- 
vening face  about  and  oppose  the  enemy;  the  latter 
afterward  retreating  between  and  tothe  rear  of  those 
wliich  retreated  in  the  first  instan<e.  The  retreat  is 
tlius  continued  by  alternate  lialting  and  falling  back 
on  the  part  of  each  corps. 

HETRENCHMENT.— In  fortification,  a  defensive 
work,  ciiniprising  at  least  ditch  and  parapet  within 
some  other  work  of  a  fortress,  and  intended  as  a 
place  of  retreat  for  the  defenders,  whence  they  may 
jirolong  the  defense,  or  capitulate  after  tlie  faces  of 
the  work  itself  have  fallen  into  the  enemy's  hands. 
The  retrenchment  bears  a  considerable  resemblance 
to  the  rediiit  except  that  it  is  almost  always  of  earth. 
Retrenchments  are  made  in  ravelins,  and  the  re-en- 
tfring  pUii-fs  irunnr.i  at  the  time  of  constnicting  those 
works.  A  retrenchment  is  thrown  across  the  gorge 
of  a  redan  or  bastion,  or  from  shoulder  to  shoulder, 
when  it  is  apprehended  that  the  salient  angle  will 
fall  into  the  possession  of  tlie  besiegers:  these  re- 
trencliments  are  usually  made  when  wanted.  Such 
a  retrenchujent  across  the  interior  of  the  Kedan  at 
Sebastopol  caused  the  sanguinary  repulse  of  the 
British  on  Sept.  S.  IHrif). 

RETURN  GALLERY.— In  fortification,  a  gallery 
wlHch  leads  from  another  gallery.  The  line.  C  I),  in 
the  drawing,  is  the  axis  of  a  galleni-  of  departure, 
and  A  H  tliTit  of  the  return.  The  line  A  B  is  the  in- 
terior line  of  the  gallery  frames:  c  d  the  interior  line 
of  the  same;  e  f  ihat  of  the  sheeting.  The  corres- 
ponding lines  for  the  remaining  half  of  the  gallery 
of  depanure,  and  tliose  of  the  return,  will  be  readily 
recognized.  The  frames  M  and  m'  bound  the  en- 
trances or  Landings  to  the  returns. 

Tlie  frames  m.  m'.  of  the  landing,  in  the  gallery  of 
departure,  are  put  so  far  apart  that,  were  the  return 
gallery  all  of  one  piece,  it  could  be  shoved  in  or  out 
between  them.    The  same  idea  also  regulates  the  re- 


BETUENS. 


670 


RETEB8E. 


lativc  positions  of  the  landing  frames  of  the  gallery 
of  departure,  and  the  return  gallery  in  all  other 
cases. 

In  oblique  returns,  where  the  angle  between  the 
axes  of  the  two  galleries  is  45"  or  greater,  the  return 
is  run  directly  from  the  main  gallery.  The  tirst  frame 
of  the  return  being  an  oblique  one.  having  its  stan- 
chions and  sills  cut  with  a  suitable  obliquity,  so  that, 
when  the  frame  is  placed  along  side  of  the  main 
gallery,  the  outside  of  its  stanchions  will  lie  parallel 
to  the  axis  of  the  return.     The  position  of  the  land- 

!M      p      Mi 

iH^Mztzzdal ..._.. 

•         "^ :::::::z;mz:_ 


'{H~<^ 


^^ 


ii  i      "       Mi 

ing  frames  m.  m',  is  so  determined  that  one  of  the 
e.xterior  lines  of  the  sheeting  of  the  return  will  in- 
tersect the  exterior  edge  of  the  stanchion  of  m  at  o, 
and  the  other  the  interior  edgn  of  m'  at  o'.  When  the 
angle  between  the  axes  is  less  than  4.5'-^.  it  would  give 
too  wide  a  landing  in  the  gallery  of  departure  to  run 
the  return  directly  from  it.  A  sliort  rectangular 
return  must  first  be  made  to  serve  as  a  landing  to 
the  oblique  return.  To  determine  the  position  of 
the  rectangular  return,  so  that  it  shall  be  the  shortest 
practicable,  set  off  the  lines  of  the  gallery  of  depar- 
ture and  of  the  oblique  return  in  the  usual  manner, 
draw  a  line  parallel  to  the  axis  CD,  and  at  the  thick- 
ness of  the  gallery  frame  of  the  rectangular  return 
from  the  exterior  line  of  the  sheeting :  the  point 
where  this  line  cuts  the  exterior  line  of  the  sheeting 
of  the  oblique  return,  will  be  the  position  of  the  in- 
terior edge  of  the  stanchion  of  the  gallery  frame  of 
the  rectangular  return:  having  next  drawn  the  lines 
of  this  return,  the  position  of  tlie  other  frame,  will 
be  at  the  point,  where  the  outside  line  of  the  stan- 
chions of  the  rectangular  cuts  the  outside  line  of  the 
sheeting  of  the  oblique  return.     See  Oallei-y. 

KETUENS. — The  official  accounts,  reports,  or  state- 
ments, rendered  to  Superior  Officers.  Commanders 
of  Departments,  Regiments,  Corps,  and  Posts  make 
to  the  Adjutant  General's  Office  in  Washington 
monthly  Hiturnn  of  their  respective  commands  on 
the  forms  furnished,  and  according  to  the  directions 
printed  on  them.  In  like  manner  Captains  jnake 
monthly  Eetartis  of  their  companies  to  Regimental 
Headquarters.  Regimental  lieturns  are  made  in 
the  name  of  the  Colonel,  and  those  of  the  company 
in  the  name  of  the  Captain,  wliether  those  officers 
be  present  or  absent.  Monthly  returns  of  Military 
Departments  are  sent  direct  to  the  Adjutant  General 
of  the  Army  and  to  Division  Headquarters.  Every 
Commander  of  a  separate  body  of  troops — either 
Division, Brigade,  Regiment,or  Detachment— wheth- 
er engaged  in  campaign,  field-service,  or  occupy- 
ing a  temporary  camp,  or  simi)ly  in  trani-it  from  one 
post  to  another,  makes  the  liionthly  Returns  re- 
quired by  the  Regulations.  Any  detachment  so  far 
separated  from  tlie  main  bodyto  which  it  bclonixs 
as  to  render  it  impracticable  for  the  Commander  7)f 
the  main  body  to  make  the  muster  and  insjx'ction  en- 
joined by  lU'gulations,  is  a  separate  conunand  within 
the  meaning  and  for  the  purpose  of  the  law.  These 
Returns  exiiibit  separately  the  several  Regimenlsatid 
Detachments,  and  Hlaff  Corps,  and  the  strengtli  of 
each  garrison  within  the  command. 

After  any  action  or  alTair  a  Return  of  the  killed, 
•wounded,  and  missing  is  made,  in  which  the  name, 


\  rank,  and  regiment  of  each  officer  and  soldier  is 
specified,  with  such  remarks  and  explanations  as 
may  be  requisite  for  the  Records  of  the  Department 
of  War  to  establish  the  just  claims  of  any  individual 
who  may  have  been  wounded,  or  of  the  heirs  and 
;  representatives  of  any  killed  in  action.  The  nature 
\  of  the  wuniid,  the  time  and  place  oi  its  occurrence, 
the  Company,  Regiment,  or  Corps,  and  the  name  of 
the  Captain,  Colonel,  or  other  Commanding  Officer, 
should  always  be  carefully  stated.  A  copy  of  this 
return  is  promptly  forwarded  direct  to  the  Adjutant 
General  of  the  army.  After  every  battle,  skirmish, 
or  otlier  engagement,  CommandinV  Officers  of  Regi- 
ments, or  detached  portions  thereof,  forward  direct 
to  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  army  duplicates  of 
the  Returns,  to  be  transmitted  through  intermediate 
Commanders,  of  killed,  wounded,  and  missing  A 
Return  of  all  property  captured  is  made  by  the  Com- 
manding Officer  of  the  troops  by  whom  "such  cap- 
ture was  made  to  the  Adjutant  General,  at  Wash- 
ington, that  the  property  maybe  disposed  of  accord- 
ing to  the  orders  of  the  War  Department. 

EEVEILLE.— The  beat  of  the  drum  about  break 
of  day,  to  give  notice  that  it  is  time  fo  rthe  soldiers  to 
rise,  and  for  the  sentinels  to  forbear  challenging. 
The  reveille-gun  is  fired  just  before  the  first  note  of  re- 
veille is  sounded. 

EEVEIL-MATIN.— An  ancient  French  96-pounder, 
double  cannon. 

KEVERBERATOET  FUENACE.— A  furnace  so  con- 
structed that  matter  may  be  heated  in  it  without 
coming  in  direct  contact  with  the  fuel.  It  consists 
essentially  of  three  parts,  viz.,  a  fire-place  at  one 
end;  in  the  middle,  a  flat  bed  or  sole,  on  which  the 
material  to  be  heated  is  placed:  and  at  the  other  end 
a  chimney  to  carry  off  the  smoke  or  fume.  Between 
the  fire-place  and  the  bed,  a  low  partition-wall,  call- 
ed a  fire-bridge,  is  placed,  and  the  whole  built  over 
with  a  tlat  arch,  dipping  toward  the  chimney.  The 
flame  plays  over  the  fire-bridge,  and  is  reflected,  or  re- 
verberated, on  the  material  beneath;  hence  the  name. 

KEVEBONI  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— The  en- 
ceinte of  this  system  consists  of  a  bastion  front  case- 
mated  on  a  peculiar  principle.  The  guns  are  placed 
on  a  "  bascule,"  and  are  only  exposed  when  actually 
firing.  Their  recoil  lowers  them  and  closes  the  em- 
brasure. In  rear  is  an  earthen  retrenchment,  while 
earthen  counterguards  in  front  are  defended  by  the 
casemated  flank  of  a  ravelin.  The  reduit  of  this 
work  is  also  casemated. 

EEVEESE. — 1.  A  change  for  the  worse,  or  partial 
defeat.  2.  A  movement  by  which  an  artillery  car- 
riage is  placed  on  the  same  ground,  but  facing  in  the 
opposite  direction.  To  execute  the  reverse,  the  lead- 
driver,  after  gaining  seven  yards  in  that  direction, 
moves  his  horses  toward  the  left,  so  that  the  extreme 
part  of  the  curve  described  by  the  off  horse  will  bo 
fourteen  yards  from  the  line  of  departure  (or  line  oc- 
cupied by  the  heads  of  the  leaders  at  the  begimiing  of 
the  movement),  and  that,  after  passing  three  yards 
to  the  left  of  the  original  left  flank  of  the  team  and 
carriage,  they  will  return  to  the  ground  occupied  by 
the  carriage  at  the  beginning  of  the  movement.  The 
swing-driver  follows  the  lead-driver.  The  wheel- 
driver  directs  his  horses  so  that  tl'.e  right  limber- 
wheel  describes  a  loop,  which,  extending  seven 
j'ards  to  the  right  and  eleven  to  the  front  of  the  line 
of  departure,  passes  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  original 
left  flank  and  then  returns,  bringing  the  hind-wheels 
in  such  a  position  that  the  rear  of  the  carriage  occu- 
pies the  line  of  (h'parture.  Tlic  jiairs  in  front  move 
according  to  tlu'ir  distiincc*;  from  the  pole,  and  must 
keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  wlu'elers,  wlio  control 
the  carriage.  On  the  completion  of  the  rever.se,  the 
drivers  move  off  their  horses  in  the  new  direction. 
In  reversing  at  a  tmt,  or  galloj),  the  loop  is  opened 
a  little,  an(i  the  gait  moderated  so  as  not  to  incur 
the  risk  of  upsetting  the  carriage.  This  rule  in  gen- 
eral. If  llie  carriage  have  but  t wo  jiairs  of  horses, 
the  lead-driver   moves  as  above  prescribed  for  the 


REVERSE  ARMS. 


r,7\ 


BZVERSIBLE  SIGHT. 


HwiiiK-drivcr;  if  Imt  a  sirif^Ii^  pair,  tin;  drivcfr  iiiovcH 
as  |)rcKcrilicd  for  line  wliccl-drivcr.  Hc-c  ('nuiUtr- 
iiKirrh . 

REVERSE  ARMS.  Tliat  poKilirin  in  llic  Manual  of 
AniiH,  cxcciMid  lis  followH  :  The  IiislruclDr  cimi- 
inands  —  1.  Hererxi-.  3.  Ahms.  RaiHc  llii'  pic<i- 
vtTli(!ally  witli  \\w  rifflit  liaiiil,  wliilr  a<lvan(inK  il 
Hliplillv;  jrrasp  it  willi  Ilic  left  Imnd  al  the  lower 
liiiiid.lhc  fonarni  liori/oiital:  al  llic  Hiiinctinii'  Krasp 
the  i;uii  at  llic  siiiull  <jf  the  stock  with  the  rif^lit  hand. 
(Two.)  Reverse  the  piece,  the  inii/zlc  dropping'  lo 
tlic  froiil,  the  hntt  passiiii;  between  Ihe  hreast  and 
riiflit  foreiirni  ;  the  risjhl  iiainl  ijnispiiii;  the  small  of 
the  stock  at  Ihe  lii-ifrhl  of  Ihe  siioiildcr,  llic  barrel  In 
the  froni  and  vertical  ;  Ihi'  linijers  of  Ihe  left  hand 
extended,  and  joiiieil  in  front  of  the  barrel,  the  lilllc 
finj;er  al  the  lower  band.  (Thukk.  )  I'ress  the  muz- 
zle lo  th<'  rear  willi  Ihe  left  hand,  Ihe  piece  inclined 
at  an  ani;le  of  forly-live  deirrccs  ;  steady  il  in  this  jki- 
sition  by  pressure  of  Ihe  riL'hl  elbow  a^rainsl  Ihe 
body;  carry  Ihe  left  hand  behind  the  back  and  grasp 
the  piece  between  the  l)ands. 

1.  (^(irry.  3,  Aums.  Let  go  the  piece  with  the  left 
hand,  and  rei;rasp  it  in  front  at  Ihe  lower  band,  l)ack 
of  Ihe  band  to  the  lefl,  Ihe  thumb  poiiilinjj  down- 
ward. Ihe  rii^ht  forearm  hori/oiilal,  Ihe  barrel  verli- 
cal.  (Two.)  Hevi.Tse  Ihe  piece  with  bolli  hands, 
the  bult  passing  between  Ihe  breast  and  ris^ht  fore- 
arm ;  (piickly  resume  the  larry  willi  Ihe  riglil  hand. 
(Thhee.)     Drop  the  left  hand  by  the  side. 

Wlien  necessary  to  nnir<h  ions;  distances  with 
arms  reversed,  the  piece  may  be  chanired  ton  corres- 
ponding position  under  the  left  arm  by  the  com- 
mands:  1.  Lefl  UeverM.  3.  Aums.  The  piece  is 
placed  under  the  left  arm  with  the  right  hand,  the 
lefl  band  carried  to  Ihe  snnill  of  the  stock,  and  the 
right  hand  behind  Ihe  back.  ' 

The  piece  is  similarly  restored  by  the  comman<ls  : 
1.  UetiTse.  3.  Aums.     See  Mnnunl  nf  Armx.  Fig.  13. 

REVERSED.  In  Heraldry,  Ihe  term  applied  lo  a 
oh.'irsje  lurned  upside  down. 

REVERSE  DEFILEMENT.  Wluiiawork  is  placed 
in  a  hollow  roniied  by  two  eiiiinenees,  and  is  exposed 
to  bolh  a  direct  and  reverse  lire  from  them,  il  cannot 
be  cU'tiled  by  direct  means,  without  giving  it  a  relief 
generally  loo  great  for  tield  works.  To  avoid  this, 
the  method  of  reverse  defilement  must  be  resorted 
to. 

Suppose  the  work  defiled,  and  a  section  be  made 
by  vertical  planes  passing  Ihrough  the  highest 
points.  ()  and  ()'.  If  in  this  |)lane  a  vertical  A  B,  be 
drawn,  <'orresponding  to  Ihe  capital  of  the  work,  and 
eight  feet  be  set  off  on  this  vertical  from  the  point, 
A,  and  two  verticals  be  drawn   Ihrough  the  points, 


of  it  will  pasH  III  leuHt  eighteen  iiichen  above  llic  Iwo 
parupelH,  and,  since  the  bani|uetleH  are  four  feet 
three  inches  below  the  interior  creslM,  the  »,liol  niuHt 
pass  dvi'  feel  nine  inchei'  above  the  bunqueltiti, 
which  will  be  ipiite  snlllcieiil  lo  clear  the  hi-iidh  of 
the  in<-n  wlii-n  on  Hie  biiiii(uelles.  Thih  ilbintration 
explains  tin;  spirit  of  the  inelhoil  of  reviTMC  rledle- 
nienl. 

The  IrnverBc  Ih  ItniHlied  on  top  like  the  roof  of  a 
house,  with  a  slight  pitch  ;  its  thickncHK  ul  the  lop 
should  seldom  excied  li'U  fi-el,  and  will  bi-  regij. 
laled  by  the  means  the  enemy  can  bring  lo  the 
attack  ;  its  sides  are  maile  wilb'lhi-  iialnrHl  nlope  of 
Ihi-  earlh  :  but,  when  the  height  of  ihr  (ruverse  Ih 
<i)n»iilerable,  the  base  of  the  nirle  hIoim-k  would 
oc<-upy  a  large  portion  of  the  interior  space  ;  to 
remedy  Ibis,  in  some  measure,  the  (Minion  of  the 
sides  which  are  below  the  planes  of  direct  deflle- 
nic'nl.  may  be  made  sleeper  than  the  natural  hIo|)«' ; 
the  earlh  being  retained  by  a  facing  of  ■■ods.  elc. 

When  Ihe  .salient  of  the  work  is  to  be  arrangeil 
for  defense,  the  Iraverse  cannot  then  be  extended 
to  the  salient  angle;  il  Ih  however  usual  lo  change 
its  direction  within  some  yards  of  the  salient, 
and  unite  il  with  the  face  most  exposed.  Truvermii 
are  also  usiil  to  covi-r  faces  exposed  lo  an  enttlade 
lire  ;  for  this  purpose  thi'y  are  placed  p<T|)endicular 
to  the  face  to  be  covered.  If  several  are  required, 
they  may  be  placed  twenty  or  thirty  yards  apart; 
each  traverse  should  be  about  Iwenly-four  feet  long, 
luid  thick  enough  lo  be  cannon  proof.  As  the 
traverses  require  a  large  quantity  of  earth,  and  much 
time  and  labor  for  Iheir  construction,  their  lenglli 
should  not  be  greater  than  is  indispen.sably  requisite 
lo  form  a  good  screen.  This  may  be  determined  by 
drawing  lines  from  the  dangerous  points  lo  the 
furllijst  point  of  the  line  lo  be  screened  ;  the  one 
which  intersects  the  line  of  the  traverse  furthest  from 
the  salient  will  give  the  best  length  of  the  required 
Iraverse.  The  lines  drawn  from  o  and  o'  to  e  and  a, 
cut  the  line  of  traver.se  al  .v  and  c,  thus  requiring  the 
traverse  lo  be  run  back  tort  to  cover  eacli  face  and 
tlank.  The  dillicully  of  detilement,  owing  lo  the 
great  relief  Ihat  may  be  re(|uired  for  the  parapets, 
Ihe  labor  of  erecting  the  traverses  and  Hie  room 
which  they  occupy  within  the  work,  which  is  fre- 
ipienlly  wanted  for  the  defense,  restricts  its  applica- 
tion mostly  lo  enclosed  works,  which  are  to  remain 
occupied  during  sonx'  time,  and  whose  position, from 
some  point  to  be  defended,  caimol  be   shifted. 

The  case  of  dclilemcnl  here  examined  is  that  of 
works  open  at  the  .gorge  :  the  same  principles,  and 
similar  methods, would  be  applied  lo  enclosed  works. 
After  the  plan  of  the  work  has  been  regulated,  the 


()  and  O'.  and  five  feet  be  set  ofT  on  each  of  them  :  [ 
and  then  the  points  ("  and  t',  be  joined  with  D.ilis 
obvious  that  the  interior  crest  of  the  para[)el,  A. 
being  placed  ou  the  line,  C  F),  will  screen  all  the 
ground  in  the  rear  of  it,  as  far  as  the  capital,  from 
the  direct  lire  from  ().  The  parapet.  B.  being 
regulated  ill  a  similar  manner,  will  screen  all  the 
ground  behind  it  as  far  as  the  same  line  But  the 
tire  from  <)'  would  take  the  jiarapet  A  in  reverse, 
anil  that  from  ()  the  parapet  B  ;  lo  prevent  this,  a 
trimTxr  must  be  erected  on  the  line  of  the  capital, 
and  a  sultieienl  height  lie  given  to  it  to  screen  bolh 
A  and  B  from  a  reverse  tire.  To  cITect  this,  let 
<'ighteen  inches  be  set  off  above  the  interior  crests  of 
AandB;  Ihe  point,  K,  being  joined  with  C",  and  [ 
the  point  E'  with  V  ;  il  is  here  also  obvious,  that  if  j 
the  top  of  the  traver.se  be  placed  on  the  line  C  K',  it 
will  efTeetually  screen  both  the  parapets  from  all 
reverse  tire  ;  because  every  shot  that  strikes  the  top 


arrangement  of  the  traverses  next  demands  the  ot- 
tenlion  :  the  only  rule  that  can  be  laid  down  is,  to 
place  them  in  the  most  favorable  position  lo  inter- 
cept the  reverse  and  enfilading  tire  of  the  enemy  : 
and  if  there  should  be  a  clioiie  with  respect  to  si'V- 
cral  positions,  to  select  the  one  which  will  give  Ihe 
lowest  traverse.  If  il  is  not  even  probable  Ihat  a 
commanding  eminence  will  be  occupied  by  the  en- 
emy, nevertheless  should  the  defense  be  not  impair- 
ed, it  will  be  belter  to  place  the  work  beyond  the 
cannon  ranire  of  Ihe  eminence.  See  DtjUrment.  and 
I'laiif  of  Jhjihmtiit. 

REVERSE  FIRE.  —  In  gunnery,  when  the  shot 
strikes  the  interior  slope  of  Ihe  parapet  al  an  angle 
greater  than  .'!()'■'.  it  is  called  nrerw  fire. 

REVERSE  FLANK.  The  extremity  of  the  division 
furthest  from  the  |iivot    llank.     See  Oiitirard  FInnk. 

REVERSIBLE  SIGHT.  -A  front  sight  recently  in- 
troduced by  the  Winchester  Arms  I'oniiwny.     The 


REVETMENT. 


672 


EEVIEW. 


drawing  shows  the  manner  of  its  construction  ami 
use.  B\-  revolving  the  sight  on  its  base.  90"^  hori- 
zontal!}', it  changes  in  appearance  from  an  open 
sight  to  a  globe  sight.     It  thus  permits  tlie  raarks- 


As  Open. 


As  rloSLll. 


man  to  use  either  form  of  sight  at  will.  It  may  be 
readily  detached  from  the  barrel  and  replaced  by  a 
siglit  of  any  other  form. 

"revetment.— The  interior  slopes  of  the  parapets 
of  permanent  and  field-works,  as  well  as  in  some 
cases  the  sides  of  the  ditches  of  the  latter,  require 
revetments  to  enable  them  to  stand  at  that  shipe 
which  is  necessary,  and  to  endure  the  action  of  the 
weather.  The  materials  made  use  of  in  the  con- 
struction of  field-revetments  are:  fascines,  gabions, 
hurdles,  sod,  sand-bags, and  timber.  In  siege  opera- 
tions, and  in  fact  in  all  operations  in  active  warfare, 
vast  quantities  of  these  materials  are  required,  and 
are  daily  consumed,  in  the  construction  of  breast- 
works, parapets,  batteries,  magazines,  and  a  variety 
of  miscellaneous  purposes.  Large  quantities,  then, 
must  be  prepared  or  manufactured  by  the  ordinary 
troops  of  the  line,  superintended  by  their  own  offi- 
cers, who  should  be  acquainted  with  all  the  details 
necessarj-  for  their  production. 

In  permanent  fortifications,  the  revetments  are 
retaining  walls  of  masonry  built  for  the  purpose  of 
holding  back  the  earth  of  which  the  works  are  com- 
posed." The  most  ordinary  position  of  such  revet- 
ments is  for  the  escarp  and  counterscarp  of  the 
ditch.  The  more  important  of  these  two  is  the  es- 
carp, which  has  to  holdback  the  great  mass  of  earth 
represented  by  the  rampart,  parapet,  banquette,  etc. 
It  is  usually  of  solid  brickwork  or  stone.  .5  feet  thick 
at  the  top,  and  sloping  outward  as  it  descends  (on 
the  ditch-side  only)  to'the  extent  of  1  in  6.  Prior  to 
Vauban's  time,  tlie  escarp  revetment  was  commonly 
raised  to  the  top  of  the  parapet :  but  as  in  this  case  the 
artillery  of  a  besieger  played  on  the  top  of  the  wall, 
and  ruined  it  soon  after  the  siege  commenced,  that 
engineer  adopted  the  principle — thenceforth  followed 
— of  raising  it  no  higher  than  the'crest  of  the  glacis, 
or  about  7  feet  above  the  natural  ground,  leaving  the 
parapet  above  of  sloped  earth  only.  Wlien  the  main 
ditch  is  24  feet  deep,  the  scarp  revetment  will  be 
about  *)  feet  high.  Additional  strength  is  imparted 
to  the  revetment  wall  bj'  massive  buttresses  at  every 
15  feet  called  counterfarU,  and  these,  again,  are 
sometimes  connected  and  strengthened  by  masonry 
arches  outside  the  revetment.  The  revetment  forms 
a  terrible  barrier  to  an  assaulting  party.  See  Fas- 
cine Revetment,  Gahinn  Reretment.  Hurdle.  RevetyneiU. 
Pisa  Revetment,  Plank  Revetmrnt,  Saml-hng  Revet- 
ment, iSearp  Revetment,  Sod  Revetment,  and  Timber 
Rere^nu  lit. 

REVIEW. — In  military  parlance,  a  review  is  the 
ins|)ection  by  some  staff-officer  of  any  body  (if  troops 
in  parade  order.  Reviews  always  comprise  a  inarch 
past  the  inspecting-otficer  in  column,  and  a  general 
salute  in  line;  to  these  is  frequently  added  a  mock- 
battle,  for  the  amusement  of  spectators,  and  the 
practicing  of  the  Iroops  themselves  in  warlike  ma- 
neuvers. The  following  is  the  manner  of  reviewing 
a  battalion  of  the  United  Sates  Army; 

Dismounted  TroopH. — The  reviewing  officer  takes 
his  post  in  front  of  the  center  of  the  battalion,  the 
point  being  in<licaled  by  a  marker  or  camp-color 
previously  established  by  the  Adjutant;  the  Adjulaiil 
also  posts  markers  o,t  the  ]ioinls  wliere  the  column 
will  have  to  change  direction  in  order  that  llie  right 
flank,  in  passing,  shall  be  at  six  or  eight  yards  from 
the  reviewing  officer.      The  battalion  being  in  line, 


ba3'onets  fixed,  the  Colonel  in  front  of  and  facing  the 
center  commands:  1.  Prepare  for  revierr,  2.  Rear 
ojien  order.  3  MiECH.  At  the  third  command,  the 
ranks  are  opened  ;  and  the  Colonel  superintends  the 
alignment  of  the  company  officers  and  the  front  rank; 
the  Leutenant  Colonel  the  rear  rank.andthe  Adjutant 
the  line  of  file-closers.  The  Colonel,  seeing  the  ranks 
ali'.ined,  returns  to  the  right  of  the  line  of  company 
officers,  faces  to  the  left,  commands ;  Feont,  and, 
passing  in  front  of  the  company  officers  to  the  center, 
places  liimself,  facing  to  the  front,  six  yards  in  front 
of  the  line  of  Field  Officers, opposite  the  center  of  the 
battalion.  The  reviewing  officer  now  approaches 
a  few  yards  toward  the  Colonel  and  halts,  when  the 
Colonel  faces  about  and  commands:  1.  Present,  2, 
Aems.  At  the  second  command,  the  officers  and 
men  present  arms;  the  color  also  salutes,  should  the 
rank  of  the  reviewing  officer  entitle  him  to  it,  in  which 
case  the  band,  trumpeters,  or  field-music  sound  a 
march,  flourishes,  or  ruffles,  according  to  his  rank ; 
arms  having  been  presented,  the  Colonel  faces  about 
and  salutes.  The  reviewing  officer  acknowledges 
the  salute  by  touching  or  raising  his  hat,  after  which 
the  Colonel  faces  about  and  brings  the  battalion  to 
carry  arms.  The  Colonel  then  joins  the  reviewing 
officer,  who  proceeds  to  tlie  right  of  the  band,  and, 
passing  in  front  of  the  company  officers  to  the  left 
of  the  line, returns  to  the  right, passing  in  rear  of  the 
file-closers. 

While  the  reviewing  officer  is  going  around  the 
battallion.the  baud  plays, ceasing  when  he  leaves  the 
right  of  the  band  to  return  to  his  station  ;'tlie  Colonel 
returns  to  his  post  in  front  of  the  center,  and  com- 
mands :  1.  Close  order,  2.  Maech.  At  the  command 
march,  the  company  officers  return  to  their  places  in 
line ;  the  field,  staff,  and  nou-commissioned  staff,  re- 
main in  their  places.  The  reviewing  officer  having 
taken  his  position,  the  Colonel  commands :  1.  Com- 
panies right  wheel,  2.  March.  At  the  second  commanil, 
the  battalion  lireaks  into  column  of  companies  ;  the 
staff(e.xceptingthe  Adjutant)  place  themselves  in  the 
order  of  rankfrom  right  to  left,  on  a  line  equal  to 
the  front  of  the  column,  si.x  yards  in  front  of  the 
leading  Captain;  the  Lieutenant-colonel  on  a  line  with 
the  leading  company,  the  Major  on  a  line  with  the 
rear  comiiany,  the  Adjutant  on  a  line  with  the  second 
company  from  the  front,  the  Sergeant-major  on  a 
line  with  the  second  company  from  the  rear,  each 
si.x  yards  from  the  left  fiank  of  the  column ;  the  non- 
commissioned staff,  excepting  the  Sergeant-major, 
place  themselves,  in  the  order  of  rank  from  right  to 
left,  on  a  line  equal  to  the  front  of  the  column,  six 
yards  in  rear  of  the  file-closers  of  the  rear  company  ; 
the  band  wheels  to  the  right  and  takes  post  twelve 
yards  in  front  of  the  staff.  The  Colonel  then  com- 
mands ;  1.  Pa-<s  in  review,  2.  Forward,  3.  Guide 
right,  4.  March.  At  the  fourth  command,  the 
column  steps  off,  the  officers  remaining  in  the  po- 
sitions above  prescribed,  the  band  playing :  the 
column  changes  direction,  without  command  from 
the  Colonel,  at  the  points  iiidic:ited,  the  Colonel  tak- 
ing his  place  six  yards  in  front  of  tlie  staff  immediate- 
ly after  the  second  change  ;  the  hand  having  passed 
the  reviewing  officer,  wheels  to  the  left  out  of  the 
column,  and  takes  post  in  front  of,  and  facing,  the 
reviewing  officer,  where  it  remains  fill  the  rear  of  the 
column  lias  passed,  when  it  countermarches  and  re- 
turns to  its  place  before  the  review,  ceasing  to  play 
as  llic  liiiltalionaiiproaclics  its  original  position.  The 
Colonel  and  stall,  except  the  Adjutant,  salute  to- 
gether when  the  Colonel  is  at  six  yards  from  the  re- 
viewing otHcer,and  return  to  the  carry  together  when 
the  Colonel  has  marched  six  yards  behind  him.  The 
other  officers,  and  thenon-coniinissioned  staff,  salute 
and  return  lo  the  carry  at  the  points  prescribed  for 
the  Colonel.  In  saluting,  all  officers  turn  the  head, 
an<l  look  toward  the  reviewing  ollicer.  Non-com- 
missioned officers  incomman<l  of  sulxlivisions  salute 
as  prescribeil  for  a  Sergeant.  Start  and  non-com- 
missioned stall  officers  without  swords  do  not  salute. 


BEVIE"W. 


G73 


REVIEW 


If  cntillcd  to  a  siiliilr  Iroiii  Ujc  ooUir,  llic  (^olor  hii- 
lutcs  when  at  six  yards  frorii  IIk'  rrvicwinj;  olllctr, 
and  is  raised  when  six  yards  licyond  liiiii  ;  as  llif 
colors  Haliitc.  the  Ininipilcrs  or  flcld-nuisic  sound  u 
iiiarili,  lloiirislic-i,  or  nillli's,  accordiiiji  to  Ids  rank. 
I  111'  b.'iiiii  iniiliiMiini;  loplny.  'I'll''  rcvicwin);  odiccr 
aikiiowli-(li.'cs  only  llir  salulc  of  llii'  Colonrl  and  ilic 
color.  'I'lic  Colonel  liavinj;  saliilcd,  places  liiniBclf 
on  Hie  ri;;lil  of  Hie  revievviny;ollicer,  where  lie  remains 
till  tile  rear  of  llie  battalion  has  passed,  'vlien  he  re- 
joins the  battalion.  The  head  of  Iheeolninn  having 
execiilid  a  second  change  of  direction  to  the  left, 
after  haviiin  passed  the  reviewiiiix  ollicer.  the  ('olonel 
coinnia?ids  :  (liiidi  lift  ;  and  wIkmi  it  arrives  on  lh<' 
(iriudnal  i:r(}iind  wheels  it  into  line  to  the  left,  opens 
the  ranks  as  in  the  iirevions  casi\  presents  arms,  and 
salutes;  the  salute  lieiiiir  acknowledfied  by  the  re- 
viewing; ollicer,  terminates  the  review.  Should  it  be 
desirable  to  march  past  the  reviewini;  ollicer  airain, 
and  in  double  lime,  instead  of  ehaniiini;  the  jiuide 
and  fiiriiiini;  line  as  above,  the  Colonel  commands: 
1.  Iliiiihli  tiiiir.'i.  Maiu;h;  and,  at  Ihesecoml  change 
of  <lireclion.  ]ilac<'s  himself , at  the  heail  of  lliecohinin. 
The  band,  previously  notified,  remains  in  its  position 
opposite  the  reviewini;  ollicer,  and  ])lays  in  double 
time.  In  passinir  in  nniew  in  double  time,  there  is 
no  salulini;  ;  theC'olonel  liaviiiL;  passedtlie  revimving 
ollicer,  places  himself  on  liis  right,  aii<l  the  review  is 
conciuded  as  already  explained.  After  the  review, 
the  Colonel  causes  tile  battalion  to  perform  such  ma- 
neuvers as  the  reviewiiii;  ollicer  may  direct.  When 
desirable  that  a  batlalion  should  be  reviewed  before 
an  Inspector  junior  in  rank  to  the  Commanding  OfH- 
cer.thc  Commanding  OHicer  will  receive  the  review, 
and  will  be  accompanied  by  the  Inspector. 

Mounted  y/v'cyw.— The  reviewing  oHicer  takes  his 
post  in  front  of  the  center  of  the  battalion,  the  point 
Iieing  clearly  indicated  by  a  guidon,  jirevioiisly  es- 
tablished by  the  Adjutant  :  the  Adjutant  also  posts 
lirincipal  guides  at  the  ]ioinls  where  the  column 
will  have  to  change  direction  in  order  that  the  right 
tlank  in  passing,  shall  be  at  six  or  eight  yards  from 
the  reviewing  olticer.  The  battalion  being  in  line, 
the  Major  in  front  of  and  facing  the  center,  com- 
mands: 1.  I' riiHiri'  fur  Uetkir,  2.  Ihar  Open  Order, 
H.  ALtucH.  At  the  third  enniiimud,  the  battal  on  '' 
takes  open  order  as  prescribed.  The  reviewing  ofH-  '■ 
cer  now  approaches  a  few  yards  toward  the  major, 
and  halts  when  the  Major  faces  about  and  commands: 
1.  Driiir,  2.  Saber,  3.  I'resfnt.  i.  Saber.  At  the 
fourth  command,  the  officers  and  men  present  saber; 
the  stanthiril  also  salutes,  should  the  rank  of  the  re- 
viewing ollicer  entitle  him  to  it,  in  which  case  the 
blind  or  trumpeters  sound  a  march,  or  the  tlourishes, 
a<(ording  to  his  rank  :  sabi-rs  having  been  pre- 
sented, the  Major  faces  about  and  ^alutes.  The  re- 
viewing officer  acknowledges  the  salute  by  touching 
or  raising  his  liat,  after  which  the  Major  faces  about 
and  commands ;  1.  ('ttrry.i.  Saber.  The  Major 
then  joins  the  reviewing  ollicer,  who  proceeds  to  \ 
the  right  of  the  liauil,  and,  passing  in  front  of  the 
olMcers  to  the  left  of  the  line,  returns  to  the  right, 
passing  in  rear  of  the  lile-closers. 

While  the  reviewing  ollicer  is  going   around   the 
lialtalion,  the  band  plays,   ceasing   when    he   leaves  : 
the  right  of  the  band  to  return   to   his   station  ;    the  ! 
Major  returns  to  his  post  in  front  of  the  center,  and 
commands:  1.   Clone  ordfr.  2.  JIakch.     At  the  com- , 
niand  »('"•(•/(,  the  company   otlicers   return   to   their; 
jiliices  in  line  ;  the  field,  stalT,  anil  non-commissioned 
stafT.  remain  in  their  places.     The  reviewing  ollicer 
luiving  taken  his  position,  the  Major  breaks  the  bat- 
talion into  column  of  companies  or  platoons,    right 
in  fr,)nt..    At  the  command  marrh  for  breaking  into 
column,  the  staff   (excepting   the  Adjutant  l   place 
themselves  in  the  order  of  rank  from   right    to   left, 
on  a  line  eciual  to  the  front  of  the  column,  six  yards 
in  front  of   the   chief  of   the   leading   sub-division. 
The  Field  Otlicers,  Adjutant  .and  the  Sergeant-major, 
take  post  as   prescribed  in  column;  the   non-coiu- 


nussioned  stair,  exci'pling  (he  Sergeant-iniijor,  place 
tlieniselveH,  in  the  ordi-r  of  rank,  from  ri({lil   to  Ii  ft, 
on  u  line  ei|iial  to  the-  front  of  the  coliinin,  Hi>. 
in  rear  of  the  llle-climerH  of   the    reiir   miiImII'. 
the  band  lakrs  [niBt    llfteen   yurdH  In   front   oi    tin 
'stair.     The  Major  then  coiiiiinindH  ;     1     /'(IM  in    rr. 
ririr,  2.    l''</ririird.  I),  (hiiilr  riijld,  4  Maiicii.      At   llie 
third  command,  the  Meld  otlicers,  Adjiitanl,  und  S<t 
geant-inajor,  remain  o|i  the  li-fl  think  of  Hie  column. 
At  the  fourth  command,  the  column   Hle|n«   nfT,    lliu 
bund  playing;  the  column  cjinnges  diri'r'lion,  at  the 
points  indicated. without  commanil  from  the  Mujor; 
the  nnijor  lakes  his  place  six  yards  in   front  *\   the 
stail  immediately  aftir  the  second   chanire   of  direc- 
tion ;   the  band,  having  passerl  the  reviewing  ollicer, 
whi'cls  to  the  left  out  of  the  column,  and  lakes  pool 
in  front  of  and  facing  the  revii'wing  olllter,  where  it 
remains  till  the  ri'ar  of  the  column  has  pusseil,  when 
it  returns  to  its  |)lace  before  Hie  review,    ci-asing   to 
j>luy  as  the  battalion  approaches  its  original  position, 
riie  Major  and  stalT,  except  the  Adjutant,  salute  to. 
getlier.  when  Hie  major  is  al  six  yards  from  the   re. 
viewing  fdlicer,    and   return   to  the  carry   together 
when  the  Major  has  marched  six  yar<ls  beyond  liim. 
The  other  otlicers,  and  the  non-commissioned   slalT, 
salute  and  return  to   the   carry  at   the  points  pre- 
scribed  for  the  major.     In  saluting,  all  olHcers  turn 
the  head,  and  look  straight  toward  Hie    reviewing 
officer.     Xon-commissioned  otlicers  in  command  of 
subdivisions,  suliile  as  prescribed   in  the  School  of 
the  Soldier  Dismounted.    If  entitled  to  a  salute  from 
the  standard,  the  standard  salutes  when  at  six  yards 
from    the  reviewing  oflicer.  and  is  raiserl  when  six 
yards  beyond  him;  as  the  standard  salutes.lhelrnni- 
peters  sound  a  march, or  the  nourishes,  according  to 
his  rank, the  band  continuing  to  play.  The  reviewing 
officer   acknowledges  only   the  salute    of  the  Major 
and  of  the  standard.     Tiie   .Major,  having  sidiilcd. 
places  himself  on  the  right  of  the  reviewing  ollicir, 
where  be  remains  till  the  rear  of  the  battalion  has 
passed,  when  he  rejoins  the  battalion.     The  head  of 
the  column  having  executed  second  change  of  di- 
rection to  the  left,  after  having  jiassed  the  reviewing 
officer.the  Major  commands  :    Guide  lift  ;  ami  when 
the   battalion  arrives   on   the   original  grouml.  the 
Major  wheels  it  into  line  to  the  left. opens  the  ranks, 
presents  saber,  and  salutes  as  before;  the  salute  hav- 
ing been  acknowledged  by  the  reviewing  officer. the 
review  is  ended.  Instead  "of  changing  the  guide  and 
wheelins  into  line. the  Major  may  command:  1.  C'lm. 
panks  (or    plat<H>nn),   2.  Right  f'rtmrd.  3.     >'"/r« 
right,   4.   March  ;  and  form   the   line,  by   wheeling 
bv  fours  to  the  left. 

'  ArtiHfry.—T\\v   battalion   being  in  line,   its  com- 
mander executes  a  left  about  and  commands:  1 .  I're. 
pare  for    reriftr.     At   this  commantl,  each  captain 
adds:    2.  Action,  3.  Frost,  4.  Jiight.  H.    Ube-ss,   (i. 
Front,  7.  Draw.  8.  Saber,  which   are   executed  a-; 
prescribed  for  the  review  of  a  battery.  The  Capt.iin- 
havins  taken  their  posts,  the   battalion  Commander 
faces  to  the  front.     The  reviewing  officer  now  ap- 
proaches   the  battalion  Commander,   and   halts  al 
thirtv  yards  from   him  to  receive  the  sjibite.     The 
battalion  Commander  then  faces  toward  the  line  and 
conmiands:  1.  Preficnt.  2    Saber.  Sabers  being  i)re- 
sented.   the  battalion  Commander  executes   a   left 
about   and   salutes.     The  reviewing  ollicer  havins: 
acknowledged  the  salute,  the  battalion  Commander 
faces  toward  the  line  and   commands:   1.  Currg.-i. 
Saber.     He  then  joins  the  reviewing  otlicer.who  pro- 
ceeds to  the  right  of  the  trumpeters,  and,  pa.s.-'ing  in 
front  of  the  officers  to  the  left  of  the  line,  returns  to 
the   risht.    passing  in  rear  of  the  Chiefs  of  rni«nn. 
The  trumpets  are  sounded  while  the  revi. 
cer  is  goius  round  the  battalion,  until  lie 
ri"ht  to   return  to   his  station;   the   ball.....  .,  .    ,.,- 

mandcr  returns  to  his  post  in  front  of  the  center  and 
commands:  1.  Limter.  2.  Fbovt.  3.l'M'-on.-  i. 
liiqht  ichetl.a.  March,  H.  Jinlt^ili'-n.  ,.  Halt.  Kx- 
ecutedintacUbatterv:  eachCaptain.at  the  command 


KEVIEW. 


(i74 


REVIEW. 


halt,  causes  bis  cannoneers  to  mount,  and  then  places 
liimself  with  tlie  croup  of  his  liorse  four  yard  sin 
front  of  the  lieadof  tlie  horso  of  the  cliief  of  liis  lead- 
ing platoon  :  the  Adjutant  and  Sergeant-major  place 
themselves  fourteen  yards  from  the  left  dank  of  the 
column,  the  former  abreast  of  the  leaders  of  the  lead- 
ing carriage  of  the  column,  the  latter  abreast  of  t!)e 
leadersof  the  rear  carriage  of  the  column:  the  trum- 
peters take  post,  with  tlie  croups  of  the  rear-rank 
horses  fourteen  yards  in  front  of  the  head  of  the  horse 
of  the  Cajitain  of  the  leading  battery.  The  battalion 
Commander  then  commands:!.  Pfisginreciew,  2.  Fm'- 
irard,  3  Guide  rigid,  4.  March.  At  the  third  com- 
mand,the  Adjutant  and  Sergeant-majorreniain  on  the 
left  flank  of  the  column.  At  the  command  marcii.  the 
column  passes  in  review  according  to  the  principles 
prescribed  for  the  review  of  a  battery,  except  that 
each  Captain  remains  at  the  head  of  his  battery  after 
saluting  the  reviewing  officer;  the  battalion  Com- 
mander, immediately  after  the  second  c!i;mge  of  di- 
rection, places  himself  with  the  crou])  of  his  hor.se 
four  yards  in  front  of  the  head  of  tlie  horse  of  the 
Captain  of  the  leading  batter^',  and,  having  passed 
the  reviewing  officer,  places  himself  on  his  right, 
where  he  remains  imtil  tlie  rear  batter}-  has  passed, 
"vvhen  he  rejoins  the  battalion.  The  trumpeters  be- 
gin to  sound  when  at  fortv  ^'ards  from  tlie  reviewing 
officer, and  wheel  out  of  the  column  as  ])reviously  ex- 
plained. The  head  of  the  column  having  executed 
a  second  change  of  direction  to  the  left,  after  passing 
the  reviewing  officer,  the  battalion  Commander  com- 
mands: Guide  ?(/<;  and,  when  the  battalion  arrives 
on  the  original  ground,  he  wheels  it  into  line  to  the 
left,  prepares  it  for  review  as  before,  presents  saber, 
and  salutes  ;  the  acknowledgment  of  the  salute  by 
the  reviewing  officer  terminates  the  review. 

The  following  general  rules  are  observed  for  re- 
views of  brigades  and  larger  bodies  of  troops:  All 
mounted  officers  remain  mounted.  A  camp-color  is 
planted  to  indicate  the  post  of  the  reviewing  officer 
while  the  troops  are  passing  in  review.  Another 
camp-color  is  planted  fiftj-  yards  from  the  first,  to 
indicate  the  point  where  each  battalion  is  brought 
to  a  carry  before  passing  the  reviewing  officer.  The 
statf  of  the  reviewing  officer  is  in  single  rank,  six 
yards  in  his  rear;  the  flag  and  orderlies  place  them- 
selves three  yards  in  rear  of  the  staff.  When  other 
officers  and  personages  accompanj-  the  reviewing  of- 
ficer, they  place  themselves  on  the  left  of  the  staff  of 
the  reviewing  officer:  their  own  staffs  and  orderlies 
place  themselves  in  their  rear.  The  trumpeters,  or 
field-music,  of  each  brigade,  if  there  be  no  regiment- 
al bands,  are  consolidated  on  the  right,  in  rear  of  the 
brigade  band.  Brigades  are  arranged  in  line  from 
right  to  left  according  to  the  rank  of  brigade  com- 
manders, the  senior  on  tlie  right;  if  in  tlu-ee  lines,  the 
senior  Commander  is  in  front.  Divisions  are  arranged 
in  the  same  manner.  When  more  than  one  brigade 
is  to  be  reviewed,  the  staff-officers,  after  the  reviewing 
officer  passes  along  the  front  of  eiicli  brigade,  may 
remain  near  its  left,  while  the  reviewing  otlicer  goes 
to  receive  the  salute  from  the  next  brig;ide;  on  his 
return  the}' rejoin  liim  and  aceompany  him  as  be- 
fore. The  st:iiT-officers  in  passing  around  the  troops, 
ride  in  one  or  more  ranks,  aceording  to  the  numlier. 
Tlie  troops  pass  in  review  in  (|uick  time.  Before 
tlie  head  of  the  colunm  appronclies  the  post  of  the 
reviewing  officer,  he  goes  wherever  lie  can  best  ol)- 
serve  the  movements  of  tlie  troops.  The  (.'olouels  re- 
peat commands  as  prescribed  in  brigade  revolutions. 
Whenever  the  General  of  brigade  faces  toward  th(^ 
line  to  give  commands, the  Colonels  face  about  at  tlie 
same  time;  they  also  resume  their  front  at  the  .«anie 
time  with  th(^  general.  While  the  troo])s  are  on  the 
m;ircli.  the  Colonels  cause  the  arms  to  bu  curried  at 
a  rir/hl  xhnulilrr,  .lu/ipart,  or  cnrri/.  The  arms  (■!  each 
battaliou  are  brought  to  a  m/r// when  the  le:idjiig 
company  arrives  at  fifty  yards  from  the  reviewing  of- 
ficer. Uenerals  of  divisions  and  corps,  ami  their 
staff-oflicers,  draw  their  swords  when  tliey  t;iUe  their 


1  places  in   column  before    passing  in  review;    the 
swords  are  returned  immediately  after  placing  theni- 
I  selves  on  the  right  of  the  reviewing  officer.      In  re- 
views of  divisions  and  corps,  each  Ijattalicm,  after  its 
1  rear  has   passed  the  reviewing  officer  tliirty  yards, 
!  takes  the  double  time  for  one  hundred  yards  in  or- 
der  not  to  interfere  with  the  march  of  the  column  in 
rear.     The  troops  having  passed  the  reviewing  offic- 
!  er,   return  to  their  camps  by  the   most   practicable 
j  route,   being   careful  not   to  delay  the  march  of  the 
troops  in  their  rear. 

When  reviewing  a  brigade  in  line,  each  Colonel 
takes  his  post,  facing  the  front, thirty  j-ards  in  front  of 
the  center  of  his  battalion:  the  General  takes  post. 
I  facing  to  the  front,  thirty  yards  in  advance  of  the 
j  line  of  Colonels,  opposite  the  center,  his  staff  taken 
post  in  single  rauk  six  yards  in  his  rear,  the  orderlies 
three  yards  in  rear  of  the  staff.  The  line  being  form- 
ed, the  General  faces  about  and  commands  :  1.  Pre- 
pare for  review,  2.  Maech.  At  the  first  command,  the 
Colonels  add  :  Hear  open  order.  At  the  command 
march,  each  battaliou  executes  the  movement  as 
prescribed  for  the  review  of  a  battalion;  the  Colonel 
after  commanding  front  returns  to  his  post,  thirt}- 
yards  in  front  of  the  center  of  his  battalion.  The 
Colonels  having  resumed  their  posts,  the  General 
faces  to  the  front.  The  ranks  being  open,  the  re- 
viewing officer,  accompanied  by  his  staff,  approaches 
the  General. and  halts  at  thirty  yards  in  front  of  him 
to  receive  the  .'^alute.  The  General  then  faces  to  the 
1  left  about  and  commands  :  1.  Preaent,  2.  Arms.  The 
I  arms  being  presented, the  General  and  Colonels  face 
to  the  left  about  and  salute.  The  reviewing  officer 
having  acknowdedged  the  salute,  the  General  faces 
about,  and  commands  :  1.  ('nrry,  2.  Arms,  and  re- 
sumes his  front.  The  General  and  staff  then  return 
their  swords,  and  join  the  reviewing  officer,  the  Ge- 
neral placing  himself  on  his  right,  the  staff  place 
themselves  on  the  right  of  the  stail  of  the  reviewing 
officer.  The  reviewing  officer  then  goes  to  the 
right  of  the  line, passes  in  rear  of  the  line  of  Colonels 
to  the  left,  and  returns  in  rear  of  the  file-closers  to 
the  right,  whence  he  proceeds  to  his  post,  in  front 
of  the  center  of  the  brigade.  While  the  reviewing 
officer  is  passiug  in  front  and  in  rear  of  each  bat- 
talion, it  stands  at  carry  arms,  the  remainder  of  the 
time  the  Colonel  causes  it  to  stand  at  parade  rent. 
The  battalions  are  brought  to  the  carry  at  the  signal 
attention  fi-om  the  General  given  after  the  review- 
ing officer  leaves  the  right  of  the  line.  While  the 
reviewing  officer  is  passing  around  the  line,  the 
brigade  band  plaj's.  If  there  be  regimental  bands, 
instead  of  a  brigade  band,  each  plays  while  the  re- 
viewing officer  is  passing  in  front  and  in  rear  of  its 
battalion.  When  the  reviewiug  officer  leaves  the 
right  of  tlie  line  after  passing  around  the  troops,  the 
General  returns  to  his  post  and  draws  his  sword;  the 
staff  draw  their  swoi'ds  at  the  same  time.  The  Gene- 
ral then  faces  about  and  commands  ;  1.  (Jloxe  order, 
2.JlARCH.The  reviewiug  officer  having  taken  his  post, 
the  General  commands:  1.  Cowpanien  (oT  dirixionx) 
right  wheel,  2.  March.  At  the  second  command 
each  battalion  forms  in  column  of  companies  or  di- 
visions, in  the  order  prescribed  for  review  of  a  bat- 
talion, and  each  Colonel  brings  his  battalion  to r/g/it 
.ihoiilder  itrmi ;  \\\v  pioneers  pn  niiitly  iilace  them- 
selves twelve  yards  in  front  of  the  Colonel  of  the  lead- 
ing batt;ili(m.  the  brig;ide  hand  twelve  yards  in 
front  of  the  pioneers;  the  (ieiienil  is  thirty  yards  in 
front  of  tlie  band,  his  staff  in  single  rank,  six  yards 
in  his  rear,  his  ordei-li<'s  three  yards  in  rear  of  the 
staff.  The  General  tlien  commands  :  1.  J'anx  in  re- 
rieic.  2.  Ftrrward,  3.  Guide  right,  4.  Mahch.  The 
column  passes  in  review  aceoriliug  to  the  yriucijiles 
]irescribed  for  the  review  of  it  liatliilion.  The  Gene- 
liil  having  sainted,  places  himself  on  the  right  of 
the  reviewing  oIVkmt,  his  sl;ilf  ;it  llie  same  time  [ilace 
thi'ms<'lves  in  single  nod;  on  the  right  of  the  sliilT  of 
the  reviewingotlieer.the  (irderlies  place  themselves  in 
rear  of  the  siiilT.  Tlielcuid  wheels  <iut  of  the  column. 


HEVIEW. 


(575 


HEVIEW. 


placcH  itsrlf  (ipposiU'  the  reviewiiirr  otllccr,  iind  ion-    coliiiiwi  of  coinpiiniiH  or  ilivlnionn  Ui  the  riijli 

lien  it  follows    (;oiiiiiiun(l  :   I.  I'hhk  in  ricirip,  'i.  Fiiru-ard,  A. 


A\\.,  anil 
tinucH  to  pliiy  lill  llio  ri'iir  liiiH  pn.MHi'd,  wlii'ii  it  follows  coiiiiiiund  :  I.  J'nxii  in  rnine,  'i.  h'liriraril,  A.  (JuOJe 
the  rear  l)iilliiliori ;  llii!  IniiiipcliTS,  or  llclil-imiHir,  j  n'^/ii.  Tlir  (iiMUTiil  of  ilivJHioii  orilcm  llii' /wni'nrrf 
Hoiiiid  till!  iimrili,  lIoiiriHlirs,  or  nilllcH,  iih  tlii?  rolor  i  Hoiiiidi'd,  wliii.'li  bciiiif  ri-|MMilcil.  tlii-iliviHJon  munlii-H 
of  ciicli  Imttidion  wiliitcH.  If  tlicri'  hi-  rririiiu'iiliil  |  in  ri:vii'W,  ronforiiiiiin  lolln' prinrlplfM  pn  m-rllMil  for 
band.s,  each  wliri'ls  out  of  the  coliiinii  afli-r  pjtHHinK  i  tlu!  rovii'W  of  a  liriv;uilr.  Wtiin  tin.- column  inforrninl 
llirrrvicwiii^  ollicrr,  and  irasi'H  to  play  aH  Hooii  as  lln'  KtalT  of  I  hi-  (iiin  ral  of  divihioii,  i-xiipl  llir  Adjiit- 
thr  rear  i-oiiipaiiy  of  ilM  hallalion  liaH  passid.  Tlir  i  ant  (irnrral  anil  AidiK-di  -ramp,  plan-  liii-m-ilviH  in 
band  lliiii  iiiarilns  on  the  Hank  of  tlir  liallalioii  and  j  Hinuli- rank  tliirlv  varilKJii  front  of  llii' li.nrrul  of  tin; 
places  itsilf  in  its  riarafliTllir  tianil  of  Ihr  hatlalinn  li'iidii').^  bri;;adc.  tiir  divinion  lla;;  and  ordrrlii-K  in 
next  in  rear  has  wlii'ilcd  out  of  the  column.  'I'hc  their  rear.  While  the  trooiw  are  a(ipriiiiiliiiii;  there- 
rear  of  the  column  liaviuf;  passed  Ihc  reviewiii);  ofll-  j  vie\vini;onicer,  the  General  of  divinion,  uml  (ifUiTn\» 
ccr,  the  battalions,  unless  otherwise  directed,  return  ;  of  bri){aileH,  accompanied  by  their  Adjutants  (ieneml 
to  their  quarters,  and  the  (leneraland  stall  salute  ,  and  Aides-de-ianip,  (;o  where  they  can  be«t  observe 
the  reviewini;  oflicers.  The  salute  beintf  ackuowl- 
edi;ed,  liTuiinales  the  review. 

When  revicwinj;  a  bri^'ade  in  line  of  masses,  the 


General  and  stall'  face  to  (he  front.  The  reviewing 
oflicer  havini;  halted  at  thirty  yards  from  the  Gen- 
eral, the  latter  faces  about  and  comnuinds;  1.  Pren- 
ent,  2.  AuMs.  Thesalute  beinjiacUnowled^'ed,  arms 
are  carried;  the  reviewinij  ollicer  then  passes  around 
the  brii^ade  as  before,  the  lialtalions  reniiiinini;  at  a 
cdrri/;  if  there  be  regimental  bands,  but  one  plays 
while  the  reviewinj;  ollicer  is  passim;  around  tlie 
troops.  The  reviewins;  ollicer  having  taken  his 
post.thc  General  conunands:  1.  lialUiUimn,  2.  Clintxje 
dirertiiin  hy  tin',  hfljiank.'i.  March,  4.  GuuUnJt.  Posts. 
The  General  then  commands:  1.  Pn*s  in  revi'tin,  2. 
Fitrirnrd.  'A.  (iuiile  right.  4.  March.  At  the  third 
command,  the  Colonel  of  the  lirst  comniand.s :  1. 
Take  irlieeling  dintniiri .  2.  (tuidf  rigid.  At  the  com- 
mand tiiarcli.  the  leading  battalion  takes  wheeling 
liislaucc;  the  other  battalions,  by  command  of  their 


the  march,  each  placing  him^i-lf  in  front  of  his  slulT, 
when  the  head  of  his  column  arrives  at  llfty  yurdu 
from  the  reviewing  oOicer.  The  (ieneral  of  division 
having  .sainted,  i)laces  himself  on  the  right  of  there- 
viewing  ollicer;  his  Hag,  BlafT,  and  orderlies,  at  the 
same  time  promptly  |)lace  theniMelveH  on  Ihe'right 
of  the  slalT  and  the  orderlies  of  the  reviewing  ofH- 
cer. 

Kacli  l)rigade  Commander  linving  saluted,  place* 
himself  on  the  right  of  the  (ieneral  of  division;  hlH 
statT,  Hag,  and  orderliis,  at  the  same  time  arrange 
themselves  on  the  right  of  the  staff  and  orderlies  of 
thedivision.  The  bandof  each  brigade  ceases  to  plu)- 
as  soon  as  the  colors  of  tlic  rear  battalion  Imve  xaluted 
the  reviewing  ollicer. 

When  reviewing  a  division  of  infantry  in  three 
lines,  each  brigade  is  in  line,  the  distance  between 
brigades  being  one  hundred  yards.  The  division  ii" 
prei>ared  for  review  at  the  signal  fittfiili'm  ;  the 
brigades  are  successively  presented  to  the  reviewing 


Colonels,  take  wheeling  distance  in  time  to  follow  ]  officer,  as  previously  explained,  except  that  the  re- 
the  battalion  preceding  in  the  order  prescribed  for  viewing  officer  passes  around  each  brigade,  in  front 
review.  If  the  General  commands  :  I.  In  column  of,  and  rear,  before  proceeding  to  receive  the  salute  of 
cmipnniex.  pfurn  in  rmiiw,  each  Colonel,  as  soon  as  his  |  the  brigade  next  in  rear.  Having  passed  around  the 
battalion  has  taken  wheeling  distance,  commands:  !  rear  brigade,  the  General  of  division  causes  the 
1.  liiglit.  by  (■miipiiitiiii.2.  JIarch,  3.  Guide  rigid.  |  i7<«<>7i<wi  to  be  sounded.  At  this  signal,  which  is  re- 
Wli'en  reviewing  a  division  in  line,  the  brigades  peated,  each  brigade  commander  closes  ranks  and 
are  formed  in  line  as  prescribed  for  the  review  of  a  '  wheels  into  column  of  companies  or  divisions  to  the 
brigade,  with  an  interval  of  sixty  yards  between  '  right.  The  General  of  the  leading  brigade  gives  the 
brigades  .  Ou  the  arrival  of  the  "reviewing  officer,  t  commands  for  passing  in  review ;  the  Generals  of  the 
the  Major  General  commanding  the  division  causes  [  center  and  rear  brigades  bring  them  to  "rdfr  arm* 
his  trumpeter  to  sound  the  (/«i'«</"h;  at  this  i^vina.\.\&i\CLparmlerextoTinplnnif.it.  At  the  signal  /or- 
reijealed  in  each  brigade,  the  brigade  Commanders  ,  micrf,  repeated  in  the  leading  brigade,  the  brigade 
prepare  the  brigades  for  review.'  after  which  the  moves  forward ;  the  Generals  of  the  other  brigades 
Commanders  of   the   center  and  left  brigades  bring    give  the  commands  for  marching  in  review,  causing 


them  to  iirdrr  iiniis  and  piir/ide  ir.it.  The  reviewing 
officer  and  Genenil  of  division  then  go  to  a  point 
thirty  yards  in  front  of  the  General  of  the  right  bri- 
gade and  halt,  when  the  General  of  brigacle  com- 
mands:   1.  I'rt'nent,  2.  Arms.     The  salute  beincr  ac- 


ihem  to  change  direction  to  the  left,  or  half  left,  in 
time  to  follow'^at  sixty  yards  in  rear  of  the  brigade 
preceding.     The  review  is  completed  as  previously 
cxplainetl. 
When  reviewing  a  division  in  line  of  masses,  each 


knowledged  by  the  reviewing  oflicer,  the  General  '  brigade  is  formed  as  prescribed  for  review  in  line  of 
commands,  1 .  'Carry.  2.  Arms.  The  reviewing  oHi-  '  masses.  The  arms  are  presented,  and  the  reviewing 
cer  accompanied  bvihe  (ieneral  of  division.' then  officer  passes  around  the  brigades,  as  prescribed  for 
goes  to  the  right  of  "the  right  brigade,  passes  along  the  review  of  the  division  in  line.  Each  brigade, 
its  front  to  "its  lefl,  and  proceeds  in  front  of  while  the  reviewing  officer  is  passing  in  its  front  and , 
the  General  of  the  center  brigade  to  receive  the  sa-  rear,  stands  at  c<trry  armn.  the  remainderof  the  time 
lute.  The  General  of  the  centre  brigade  causes  the  the  General  causes  it  to  stand  at  imnulf  rt>t.  The  re-  ^ 
aUnitinn  \o  \w  sounded  when  the  reviewing  officer  viewing  officer  havingpassed  arounil  the  troops,  t he 
approaches  its  right,  and /);w((,<,<  (/;-m.«  as  biMTore  ex- '  signal  otUnlion  is  given,  at  which  the  (Jenerals  of 
plained.  Having  receiveil  the  salute,  the  reviewing  \  brigade  cause  their  battalions  to  change  direction  by 
officer  goes  to  the  riirht  of  the  center  briirade,  passes  I  the  left  flank:  the  General  of  the  leading  brigade 
along  its  front  to  I  he  lefl.  and  then  proceeds  to  a  !  gives  the  commands  for  passing  in  review  in  cohinin 
point  thirty  yards  in  front  of  the  General  of  the  left  i  of  companies  or  divisions ;  the  Generals  of  the  other 
brigade,  which  brigade  is  presented  as  explained  for  I  brigades  bring  them  Xo  vrder^arnu  auA  pa  nide^nit  or 

the  second.     The  (ieneral   having  passed  along  the  '  '       ' ' ''  "  ' "'"' 

front  of  the  left  brigade,  returns  to  the  right  of  the  di- 
vision, passing  in  rear  of  the  line.     The  band  of  each    ,  .... 

brigade  plays"  as  the  reviewiii"-  ollicer  passes  along  [explained  in  the  review  of  a  brigade  in  liii 

the  front  of  the  brigade,  and  also  while  he  is  passing    The  Generals  of  the  center  and  rear  br,. 

in  its  rear.     If  there  be  regimental  bauds  instead  of    the  commands  for  marching  in  review  in  time  l^,  l..|. 

a  brigade  baud,  each  plays  while  the  reviewing  offi-  !  low  the  brigade  preceding  at  the   distance  of  sixty 

cer  is   passing   in   front  and   rear  of  its   battalion. 

When  the  reviewing  otficer  passes  the  right  of  the 

division  from  the  rear,  the  General  of  the  division 

causes  the  ntUntion  to  besounded.     At  this  signal 

the  brigade  Commanders  close  the  ranks,  wheel  into 


/■«  plaefrrxt.  At  the  signal  forirard.  reiK-ated  in  the 
leading  brigade,  the  b"rigaile  moves  forward,  the 
battalions  executing  the  movement  sue '--i^' iv  -.s 


yards.     Inpassing  around  the   division,  the  r. 
ing  officer  mav  pass  between  the  diflerent  ba' 
from  front  to  rear,  and  from  rear  to  front. 

A  corps  of  infantry-,  in  line  of  ma.sscs,  or  in  three 
lines  of  masses  with  "a  distance  of  one  hundred  yards 


REVISION . 


(J7(i 


REVOLUTION. 


between  divisions,  is  reviewed  as  follows:  On  the 
arrival  of  the  reviewing  officer,  the  General  com- 
manding the  corps  causes  the  attention  to  be  sounded, 
which  is  repeated  by  the  trumpeters  of  the  General;-, 
of  division  ;  each  division  is  presented  by  brigade,  as 
explained  for  the  review  of  a  divisonin  line  of  mass- 
es :  the  General  of  division,  accompanied  by  his  staff, 
joins  the  reviewing  officer  and  corps  commander,  in 
front  of  his  right  brigade,  and  accompanies  them  to 
receive  the  sahitesfrom  the  brigades,  and  while  piiss- 
iug  in  front  and  in  rear  of  his  division  ;  he  then  re- 
mains near  the  right  of  his  division.  The  reviewing 
officer  having  passed  around  the  troops,  tlie  General 
commanding  the  corps  causes  the  attentiim  to  be 
sounded,  which  being  repeated  by  the  trumpeters  of 
division  and  brigade  conmianders,  each  brigade  is 
formed  in  column  of  masses  to  the  right.  The  General 
commanding  the  corps  then  causes "lhe/(';'!r(H'n!  tnbe 
sounded,  which  bein^  repeated  by  the  trumpeters  of 
the  first  division,  the  first  division  execules  the  move- 
ment, as  previously  explained;  the  other  divisions 
stand  //(  place  rest,  the  Generals  causing  the  forward 
to  be  sounded  in  time  to  follow  the  divison  preceding 
at  a  distance  of  one  hundred  yards.  The  troops  may 
march  in  review  in  column  of  masses.  If  there  be 
regimental  bands  only,  tlie  one  at  the  head  of  each 
brigade  wheels  out  of  the  column,  when  opposite  the 
reviewing  officer.  While  on  the  march  and  passing 
in  review,  but  one  band  in  each  brigade  plays  at  a 
time.  On  approaching  the  reviewing  officer,  the  Gen- 
eral commamiing  the  corps  places  himself  about 
fifty  yards  in  front  of  the  General  of  the  first  division  ; 
his  staff  place  themselves  in  single  rank  six  yards  in 
his  rear,  the  flag  and  orderlies  three  yards  in  rear  of 
the  staff.  The  General  having  saluted,  places  himself 
on  the  right  of  the  reviewing  officer :  the  staff,  fol- 
lowed by  the  flag  and  orderlies,  place  themselves  on 
the  right  of  the  staff  and  orderlies  of  the  reviewing 
officer.  The  Generals  of  division,  while  their  divisions 
are  passing  in  review,  place  themselves  on  the  right 
of  the  corps  commander  ;  each  brigade  commander, 
in  like  manner,  places  himself  on  the  right  of  the  di- 
vision commander ;  their  staffs,  followed  by  their 
flags  and  orderlies,  place  themselves  on  the  right  of 
the  staff  and  orderlies  of  corps  or  division  command- 
ers. When  more  than  one  corps  is  to  be  reviewed. 
the  reviewing  officer  does  not  go  to  the  front  of  each  \ 
brigade  commander  to  receive'lhe  salute.  The  Gene- 
rals of  brigade  facing  tlie  line  present  arms  and  salute 
as  the  reviewing  officer  arrives  opposite  his  riffht ; 
he  then  causes  arms  to  be  carried  and  resumes  his 
front.  The  march  in  review  is  conducted  as  explain- 
ed for  a  corps.  When  troops  of  different  arms  are 
reviewed  in  line  they  are  arranged  from  riglit  to  left 
in  the  following  order:  one.  infantry  ;  two'.' mounted 
artillery;  third,  cavalry.  In  the  saniearm,  regulars, 
vohmlcers,  and  militia  are  posted  in  line  from  right 
to  left  ill  the  order  named. 

REVISION. — A  n-examiuation  for  any  correction. 
Where  an  officer,  who  orders  a  Court-.Vlartial,  does 
not  approve  their  proceedintrs.  he  may,  liy  the  cus- 
tom of  war.  return  them  to  tlie  Court  f,>r  /{evi-iwii, 
and  no  additional  evidence  can  he  taken  on  such 
lievision. 

When  a  record  is  returned  to  the  Conn  for  7iV- 
vuion,  the  subsequent  proceedings  thereon  should 
be  recorded  as  follows ; 


188  ,  (or  memorandum)  containing  the  instruc- 
tions to  the  Court,  and  the  reasons  of  the  reviewing 
authority  for  requiring  a  reconsideration  of  the  find- 
ings (or  sentence,  or  correction  of  the  record),  w^as 
then  read  to  the  Court  by  the  Judge  Advocate,   and 

is  attached  to  the  record  and  marked  " ." 

The  Court  then  maturely  deliberated  upon  and 
considered  the  said  communication,  and  the  reasons 
set  forth  for  revi.sion;  and,  on  motion,  (a.)  now  re- 
voke the  foregoing  findings,  and  having  maturely 
considered  the  evidence  adcluced.  find,  elc,  etc.;  f/r 
(A.)  now  revoke  the  foregoing  sentence,  and  do  sen- 
tence, etc.,  etc..  or.  (r.)  respectfully  adheres  to   the 

foregoing  findings  and  sentence,  — ^^ ;  or,  (d.)  cor- 

rects  the  record  by,  etc.,  etc. 


Colonel, U.  S.  Artillery, 

President. 


BABRACKS, 

' .  188     . 

The  Court  reconvened  with  closed  doors,  pursuant 
to  the  following  order,  at  ten  o'clock  a.  m.: 
{Here  insert  eopy  of  order. ) 

Pkesent  : 

*  *  1, 

Absent  . 

*  «  *  ♦ 

The  comnninieation  from   the  Commanding   Gen- 
eral, Department  of  the ,  of  date , 


l.«i  Lieutenant U.  B.  Artillery, 

Judge  Advocate. 

It  is  always  proper  for  the  Court,  sliould  it  so  de- 
sire, to  give  the  reasons  for  adhering  to  its  original 
findings  and  sentence. 

No  witnesses,  not  previously  called,  can  legally  be 
examined  before  a  reconvened  Court. 

When,  however,  a  Court  has  erred  in  its  rulings 
in  the  rejection  of  a  witness  for  supposed  incompe- 
tency, or  in  rejecting  offered  documentary  evidence, 
or  in  not  permitting  a  proper  and  legal  question  to 
be  put  to  a  witness,  or  in  refusing  to  summon  a  cer- 
tain material  witness  asked  for  by  the  prisoner,  and 
the  reviewing  authority  has  reconvened  the  Court 
for  a  reconsideration  of  its  action,  the  Court  may, 
should  it  concur  in  the  views  submitted,  proceed  to 
remedy  such  error  by  revoking  its  findings  and  sni- 
tenee.  and  correct  the  record  by  permitting  the  in- 
troduction of  the  excluded  testimony.  Before  the 
Court  thus  proceeds  to  correct  the  record,  the  pris- 
oner and  his  counsel  must  resume  their  seats  and 
the  record  so  state.  In  consetiuence  of  receiving 
such  excluded  testimony,  the  other  party  maj'  liave 
to  call  witnesses  in  rebuttal,  which  is  authorized. 
See  C<>iri-t.i-.Vartial. 

REVOLUTION.— Any  extensive  change  in  the  Con- 
stitution of  a  country  suddenly  brought  about. 
The  two  most  important  events  in  modern  history 
known  under  this  name  are  the  English  Revolution 
of  the  17th  century,  and  the  French  Revolution  of 
the  18th.  The  former  began  in  the  early  part  of 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  with  the  struggle  between 
that  King  and  his  Parliament.  In  1G43  the  struggle 
became  a  civil  war,  in  which  the  Parliament  ob- 
tained the  ascendency,  and  brought  Charles  to  the 
block  in  1649.  A  llepublic  followed,  under  the 
Protectorate  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  which  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1600  by  the  restoration  of  llonarchy  in  the 
person  of  Charles  II.:  but  the  arbitrary  rule  of 
James  II.  brought  the  King  and  the  people  again 
into  antagonism;  and,  .James  having  fled  the 
country,  William  III.  w;is  called  to  the  throne 
under  such  conditions  ;ind  s;ife-guards  as  secured 
the  Balance  of  iheConstilulion.  The  French  Revo- 
lution was  a  violent  reaction  agaiust  that  Absolu- 
tism which  had  come  in  the  course  of  time  to  sup- 
plant the  old  feudal  institutions  of  tlie  country.  It 
began  with  an  outbreak  of  insurrectionary  move- 
ments at  Paris  in  July,  ITS'.t,  including  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Bastille".  On  .)ami;iry  21,  17113,  King 
Louis  XVI.  was  lieheaded.  The  Christian  religion 
was  deposed,  the  sacredness  of  the  reptdilic  and 
worship  of  reason  solemnized,  and  a  disastrous 
reign  of  blood  and  terror  followed;  which  was 
brought  to  an  end  in  17i)4,  when  ]{obespierre  him- 
self suffered  on  the  guillotine  the  fate  to  which  he 
had  condemned  countU'ss  multitudes  of  his  country- 
men. Among  other  important  revolutions  in  the 
modern  world  are  the  American  Hevohition  of  \T7r>, 
bv  which  the  United  States  threw  off  their  depend- 
ence  on  Great  Britain ;   the  French  Revolution  of 


HEVOLDTION. 


(;; 


HEVOLUTIOH. 


IHIiO,  wliirli  drove  Clmrlcs  X.  into  exile,  and  mined 
Louis  I'liilippe.Duke  of  OrleiiiiH  to  the  Iliroiie  liy  llie 
will  of  till'  people;  us  iilso  llie  Kevoliilioii  of  IHln, 
when  Fnuice  rose  ni;aiiist  I>oiiis  I'liilippe,  tiiiil 
adopted  for  a  time  n  repiihlii  uii  form  of  ffoverii- 
ment,  tiie  revoliilioiiary  eoiiliis;ioii  spreudiii^  leiii- 
jmnirily  over  most  of  Coiilininliil  Kiirope.  By  llie 
llaliiiM  Uevolulion  of  lUfi!)  00.  tli(^  various  iiiinor 
Hovereii;iis  of  Italy  were  ilriven  into  e\ile,  and  the 
whole  of  the  |)eiiinsiihi  Ijciamc-,  Nvilli  llie  JMCorpora- 
tion  of  llie  lioiiian  'I'errilories  in  IS70.  sulijecl  lo 
Vioior  Kmmaiuiel.  The  followlni,'  oliservalioiis,  in 
lH(ii),prior  to  the  third  Freiieli  |{i-piililic,are  pertiiieiil. 

The  French  Uevolulion  is  an  event  so  extraordi- 
nary that  it  must  needs  be  the  starting-point  in  any 
series  of  (•onsiderations  on  the  alTairs  of  our  own 
time.  Nothini:  of  importance  happens  in  France 
that  is  not  a  direct  coiiseciucnce  of  this  capital  fact, 
which  has  llioroiishly  changed  the  whole  condilion 
of  life  in  that  couiilry.  Like  all  that  is  ureal,  heroic, 
bold,  like  everylhiii';  which  exceeds  ihe  common 
measure  of  human  slreiii;lli.  Ihe  Fri-nch  Uevolulion 
will  continue  to  he  for  centuries  the  siihject  about 
which  the  world  will  talk,  upon  which  thev  will 
divid<',  which  will  be  the  occasion  of  their  fricud- 
shi|is  anil  their  halrcds,  which  will  fiirnisli  the  --ub- 
iect  of  dramas  ami  novels.  In  one  sense,  the  French 
Uevolulion  is  theijlory  of  France,  the  French  epopee, 
par  excellence;  but.  almost  always,  nations  who 
have  in  their  history  an  extraordinary  event,  expiate 
it  by  lonn  sutTeriii};,  and  often  by  the  hiss  of  their 
national  existence.  It  was  thus  with  .Imhea.  with 
Greece,  and  witli  It;dy.  For  hiivimr  cnated  thinirs 
which  are  unii|ue.  by  which  the  world  lives  and 
thrives,  these  countries  have  parsed  throUi;h  cenlu- 
ries  of  hunnliation  and  natiouid  death.  National 
life  is  somelhini;  limited,  mediocre,  confined.  To 
do  what  is  extraordinary,  of  universal  interest,  these 
narrow  trammels  must  be  rent  asunder ;  but  in 
reuding  them  the  nation  itself  is  rent ;  for  the  nation 
is  but  an  assembl;ii;i^  of  prejuilices  and  statical. 
ary  ideas  which  mankind  as  a  wlioh'  would  re- 
fuse to  accept.  The  nations  which  created  religion. 
art,  science,  empire,  the  church,  the  papacy  (all 
things  universal  ami  not  national),  were  more  than 
nations;  but  at  the  same  time  less  than  nations  in 
the  sense  that  they  were  the  victims  of  their  work. 
We  think  that  the  Uevolulion  will  have  for  France 
analogous  con.<eiiuences,  but  less  durable,  because 
the  work  of  France  was  less  great  and  universal 
than  the  work  of  .Jmhea,  Greece,  and  Italy.  The 
exact  parallel  of  the  present  situation  of  that  country 
seems  to  be  that  of  Germany  in  the  seventeenth  ceri- 
tiirj'.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  Germany  aecom- 
pU.slied  for  mankind  a  work  of  the  first  order — the 
Reformation.  She  expiated  it  in  Ihe  seventeenth 
by  !"i  extreme  ]iolilic!d  abasement.  It  is  probable 
that  the  ninetecnlh  century  will  in  like  maimer  lie 
considereil  in  the  history  of  France  as  the  expiation 
of  the  Uevolulion.  Neither  nations  nor  individuals 
can  with  impunity  deviate  from  Ihe  middle  course, 
of  feasibility  and  practical  good  sense. 

If  the  Uevolulion  has  L,iven  to  France  a  poetic 
and  romantic  position  of  the  first  order,  it  is  certain, 
on  the  other  hand.  that,  in  view  nuTcly  of  the  re- 
quirements of  ordinary  statesmiinship.  it  has  led  her 
into  a  strange  p;itli.  The  end  which  France  sought 
to  reach  by  the  Uevolulion  was  that  which  all 
modem  nations  pursue:  a  frame  of  society  just, 
honest,  humane,  guaranteeing  the  rights  and  the 
liberty  of  all  wiili  the  least  possible  sacrilicc  of  the 
rights  and  the  lilierty  of  each.  Fnmce  is  to-day,  after 
shedding  riviTs  of  blood,  still  very  far  from  this  end; 
whiK- Kngland.  which  h;is  not  proceeded  liy  the  way 
of  revolutions,  has  almost  reached  it.  France,  in 
other  words.  otTers  the  strange  spectacle  of  a 
country  tardily  striving  to  come  up  with  the  nations 
she  once  scorned  as  laggards,  and  learning  in  the 
school  of  the  peoples  to  whom  she  had  claimed  to 
^ive  lessons,— painfully  striving  to  accomplish  by 


I  imitation  the  work  In  which  tihu  fancied  Kho  dU. 
playeil  a  high  di-gree  of  originality.  The  cauw-  of 
this  hisloric  Bingularily  is  very  xiiiipli-.  In  i.;,ile  of 
the  extraordinary  arilor  w  hicli  aiiiiiiateil  Jier,  France, 
at  the  end  of  tin-  eighli-i  iilli  century,  wan  very 
ignorant  of  the  conditions  upon  whieh  it  In  itonnihlu 
for  a  nation  and  mankind  itnelf  to  i-xinl.  lli-r 
prodigious  uiiderlaking  implied  ninny  errorit :  itlic 
utterly  miHiinderslood  the  laws  of  modern  IiImtIv. 
Whether  we  regret  it  or  rejoice  at  at,  modern 
liberty  is  by  no  meanH  the  liberty  of  anti'piity,  nor 
that  of  the  republics  of  the  .Middle  Acei..  It  in  'much 
more  real,  but  much  le.ss  brilliant.  Thucyilirlen  and 
Machiavelli  would  not  in  tin-  leant  iindemtand  it; 
an<l  yet  a  subject  of  (^ur-en  Victoria  in  u  Ihoiinunil 
times  more  free  than  was  ever  any  citizen  of  Sparta, 
of  .Mheiis.  of  Venice,  or  of  Florence.  No  more  of 
those  feverish  republican  agitations  full  of  granileur 
and  danger  ;  no  more  of  those  cities  tilled  with  a  re. 
lined,  active,  and  aristocratic  population;  but  in 
their  stead,  great  inert  masses,  where  intelligence  l» 
conhned  to  the  few.  but  which  give  a  powerful  help 
to  civilization,  in  putting  at  the  service  of  Ihe  State, 
by  means  of  taxation  and  the  conscription,  a  mar- 
villous  treasure  of  abnegation,,  docility,  and  gooil- 

I  will.  Of  this  form  of  social  life,  which  is  assuredly 
that  which  least  consumes  a  nation  and  best  pre. 
serves  its  strength,  England  has  given  us  the  model. 
England  has  arrived  at  Ihe  most  liberal  form  of 
government  which  the  world  has  yet  known,  solely 
by  the  development  of  the  institutions  she  pjissessed 
in  the  Midille  Ages,  and  not  by  revolutions.  Liberty 
in  Engliind  is  not  dirived  from  Croniwell,  nor  from 
the  republicans  of  l()4!l.  It  is  the  result  of  hi-r  en- 
tire history;  it  springs  from  her  ecpial  resjU'Ct  for 
the  rights  of  the  King,  the  rights  of  the  nobility,  the 
rights  of  the  comm<ms,  and  of  corporations  of  every 
kind.  France  followed  the  opposite  course.  The 
King  had  long  since  made  a  clean  swe.-p  of  the 
rights  of  nobh-s  and  commons, — the  nation  made  a 
clean  swec])  of  the  riglits  of  the  King.  She-  pro- 
ceeded pliilosiipbically  in  a  matter  where  she  should 
have  proceeded  historically;  she  thought  liberty 
was  to  be  established  by  the  sovereignty  of  the 
people  and  in  the  name  of  a  central  authority, 
whereas  liberty  is  only  to  be  won  by  successive 
petty,  local  con(|uests,  by  slow  refonns.  England, 
who  does  not  pride  herself  upon  any  philosophy ; 
England,  who  has  never  broken  with  her  tniditions, 
except  in  a  single  moment  of  temporary  aberration, 
followed  by  a  prompt  repentance;  England,  who. 
instead  of  the  absolute  dogma  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  people,  admits  cmly  the  more  moderate  principle 
that  there  can  be  no  government  without  the  people 
nor  against  the  jjcople  —  England  is  to-day  a 
thousand  times  freer  than  France,  who  once  so 
proudly  raised  the  philosophic  banner  of  the  rights 
of  man.  The  truth  is.  Iliat  |)opular  sovereignty  is 
not  the  foimilation  of  constitutional  government.  \ 
State  so  established,  after  the  Frencli  fashion,  is  too 
stronsr;  while  far  from  guaranteeing  all  libiTlies,  it 
absorbs  all  of  them  ;  and  its  form  is  either  the  pop- 
ular convention,  or  else  despotism.  The  natural 
result  of  the  Revolution  could  not.  after  all.  have 
liccn  anvthing  very  different  from  the  t'onsulaty  and 
the  Empire  :  the  natural  result  of  ?ucli  a  conception 
of  society  could  not  have  been  anything  else  than  a 
system  of  administration,  a  net-work  of  prefects,  a 
narrow  civil  code,  a  machine  for  squeezing  the  na- 
tion, a  swaddlinsband  in  which  it  was  impossible 
for  it  to  live  and  irrow.  Nothing  is  more  unjust  than 
the  hatred  with  which  the  French  nidical  school  re- 
sard  the  work  of  Napoleon.  The  work  of  Napoleon, 
if  we  except  some  errors  which  were  jHTsoaal  to  that 
extraordinarv  man.  is.  in  line,  nolhins  more  than 
the  revolutionary-  programme  realized  in  its 
possible  parts.  IIa:i  .Napoleon  never  existed,  the 
final  constitution  of  the  Republic  would  not  have 
differed  essentially  from  the  constitution  of  the  year 
VIII.     .V  very  false   idea,  in   many  respects,  of  hu. 


REVOLUTION. 


678 


EEVOIHTION. 


man  society  is  in  fact  at  the  bottom  of  all  French  re- 
volutionary attempts.  The  original  error  was  at  first 
hidden  under  the  magnificent  outburst  of  enthus- 
iasm for  liberty  and  tlie  right  which  filled  the  first 
years  of  the  Kevolution:  but  this  fine  enthusiasm 
"once  spent,  tliere  remained  a  social  theory  which 
was  dominant  under  the  Directory,  the  Consulate, 
and  the  Empire,  and  marked  its  impress  deep  upon 
all  the  creative  efforts  of  the  time.  According  to 
this  tlieory,  which  we  may  well  qualify  as  material- 
ism in  politics,  society  has  nothing  of  a  sacred  or 
religious  character.  It  has  only  one  end,  which  is, 
thai:'  the  individuals  composing  it  may  enjoy  tlie 
greatest  possible  sum  of  well-being,  without  concern- 
mg  themselves  about  the  ideal  destiny  of  mankind. 
Why  talk  about  elevating  and  ennobling  the  human 
conscience  ?  The  onh'  question  is  how  to  satisfy  tlie 
greatest  mmiber.  to  assiire  to  all  a  sort  of  happiness, 
vulgar  and  relative  only  it  must  assuredly  be,  for  a 
generous  mind  would  disdain  such  happiness,  and 
would  revolt  against  the  social  system  wliieh  aimed 
to  secure  it.  In  view  of  an  enlightened  philosophy, 
society  is  a  great  providential  fact :  it  is  established. 
not  by  man,  but  by  nature  itself,  in  order  that  intel- 
lectual and  moral  life  may  be  developed  on  the  sur- 
face of  our  planet.  There  is  no  such  thing  in  polit- 
ical philosophy  as  man  isolated  from  all  companion- 
ship. Human  society,  the  mother  of  every  ideal,  is 
the  direct  product  of  the  supreme  will,  which 
has  decreed  that  the  good,  the  true,  the  beautiful, 
shall  have  their  contemplators  in  the  universe.  This 
transcendent  function  of  humanity  is  not  performed 
by  means  of  the  simple  coe.\istenee  of  individuals. 
Society  is  a  hierarchy.  Every  individual  composing 
it  is  noble  and  sacred,  every  being  (even  the  animal) 
has  its  rights;  but  all  are  not  equal;  all  are  members  of 
a  vast  body,  parts  of  an  immense  organism,  which  is 
accomplishing  a  divine  work.  The  negation  of  this 
divine  work  i^  the  error  into  which  Frencli  democra- 
cy easily  falls.  Considering  the  only  object  of  soci- 
ety to  be  the  satisfaction  of  the  individual,  they  are 
led  to  disregard  the  rights  of  ideas,  the  siqiremacy  of 
mind.  Nof  comprehending,  moreover,  the  inequal- 
ity of  races,  because  ethnographical  differences  have 
in  fact  disappeared  within  her  limits  from  time  hn- 
raemorial,  France  has  learned  to  conceive  of  social 
perfection  as  a  kind  of  universal  mediocrity. 

If  man  did  not  assume  the  right  of  making  the 
animal  kingdom  subordinate  to  his  needs,  human 
life  woukl  become  impossible.  It  would  be  scarce- 
ly more  possible  were  we  to  hold  to  the  abstract  con- 
ception which  inaKes  us  regard  all  men  as  bringing 
with  them  into  the  world  equal  rights  to  wealth  and 
social  rank.  Such  a  state  of  things,  though  just  in 
appearance,  would  be  the  end  of  all  virtue ;  there 
would  be,  inevitably,  war  and  hatred  between  the 
two  sexes,  since  nature  has  created  here,  in  tlie  very 
heart  cf  the  human  species,  an  undeniable  difference 
in  the  part  to  be  played  by  each.  TIk'  well-to-do 
citizen  tliinks  it  right  that,  after  destroying  royalty 
and  hereditary  nobility,  we  should  slopat  liereditary  | 
w'ealtli.  The  working  man  thinks  it  right  that,  hav-  j 
ing  abolislied  liereditary  wealth,  we  should  stop  at 
the  inequality  of  the  sexes,  ami  even,  if  he  be  a  per-  j 
son  of  some  sense,  at  the  inequality  of  strength  and 
capacity.  The  most  ardent  Utopian,  having  sup- 
pressed, in  imagination,  all  ineijualily  aminig  men, 
still  admits  imin's  right  to  make  use  of  ;uiimals  ac- 
corilinL'  to  his  needs.  Anil  yet,  it  is  no  more  just 
that  one  man  should  be  born  rich,  than  it  is  tliat  an- 
other should  be  born  wit  li  a  social  distinction;  nei- 
ther the  one  nor  the  other  has  earned  his  jiosition  by 
his  own  lalior.  Nobility,  it  is  Jilwavs  argued,  has 
its  origin  in  merit ;  and  as  it  is  perfectly  clear  that 
merit  is  not  hereditary.it  is  easy  to  show  lliiit  heredi- 
tary nobility  is  an  absurdity.  The  fallacy  of  this 
reasoning  consists  in  the  itverlasting  i-rror  of  making 
the  state  the  arbiter  of  a  sort  of  distriliutive  justice. 
The  object  of  rank,  regarded  as  an  institution  of  pul)- 
lie  utility,  was  not  to  reward,  but  to  stimulate  merit. 


to  render  certain  kinds  of  merit  possible,  and  even 
easy.  Had  it  no  other  effect  than  to  show  that  jus- 
tice is  not  to  be  looked  for  in  the  official  constitution 
of  society,  it  would  not  be  altogether  useless.  The 
device  "To  the  most  worthy,"  rarely  applies  in  pol- 
itics. 

The  middle  class  is  somewhat  self  deceived,  there- 
fore, in  thinking  to  establish  society  on  a  just  basis, 
by  means  of  its  system  of  competitive  examinations, 
special  schools,  and  regular  promotion.  A  man  of 
the  people  can  easily  demonstrate  that  a  child  born 
of  poor  parents  is  excluded  from  these  competiti^s, 
and  he  will  maintain  that  perfect  justice  will  not  be 
done  until  all  are  placed  from  their  birth  in  identic- 
ally the  same  conditions.  In  other  words,  if  the  no- 
tion of  distributive  justice  for  each  individual  be  rig- 
orously carried  out,  no  organized  society  is  possible. 
A  nation  which  shoulil  follow  out  such  a  programme 
would  condemn  itself  to  incurable  weakness.  Sup- 
pressing the  right  of  inheritance  and  thereby  destroy- 
ing the  family,  or  leaving  it  optional,  it  would  soon 
be  got  the  better  of,  either  by  those  portions  of  its 
own  people  who  still  adhered  to  the  old  order  of 
things,  or  by  foreign  nations  who  still  retained  these 
ancient  principles.  The  race  which  triumphs  is  al- 
waj's  that  in  which  the  family  and  property  are  most 
strongly'  organized.  Humanity  is  a  mysterious  lad- 
der, a  series  of  resulting  forces  proceeding  one  from 
the  other.  The  manv  laborious  generations  of  very 
hard  working  common  people  and  peasants  render 
possible  the  existence  of  a  well-to-do  and  frugal  mid- 
dle class,  which  in  its  turn  renders  possible  tlie  man 
exempt  from  material  labor,  and  devoted  wholly  to 
matters  of  universal  interest.  Each  in  his  station  is 
the  guardian  of  traditional  usages  which  are  of  im- 
portance to  the  progress  of  civilization.  There  is 
but  one  moralit}',  there  is  but  one  knowledge,  there 
is  only  one  education.  There  is  a  single  intellectual 
and  moral  whole,  one  glorious  work  of  the  htiman 
mind  to  which  all.  except  the  egoist,  contribute, 
however  small  a  part,  and  in  which,  in  different  de- 
grees, all  share.  AVe  ignore  human  nature  unless, 
we  admit  that  whole  classes  of  men  must  live  bj"  the 
glorv  and  the  enjoyments  of  others.  The  democrat 
regards  as  a  dupe  the  peasant  of  the  old  regime,  who 
works  for  his  noble  masters,  loves  them,  and  rejoices 
in  the  high  estate  maintained  by  others  at  the  ex- 
pense of  his  own  toil.  Doubtless  all  this  is  absurd, 
where  life  is  narrow  and  confined,  where  everything 
is  done  within  closed  doors,  as  in  our  time.  In  the 
present  state  of  society,  the  advantages  that  one  man 
has  over  another  have  become  things  personal  and 
exclusive:  to  enjoy  the  pleasure  or  the  rank  of  an- 
other seems  mere  foolishness;  but  it  has  not  alwaj's 
been  so.  When  Gubbio  or  Assisi  saw  the  wedding 
cavalcade  of  its  yoimg  Lord  file  past,  no  one  was 
jealous.  Then  all  shared  the  life  of  all:  the  poor 
man  enjoyed  the  wealth  of  the  rich  man.  the  monk 
the  pleasures  of  the  worldling,  the  worldling  the 
prayers  of  the  monk;  for  :ill.  there  was  art,  poetry, 
religion.  Can  the  cold  considerations  of  the  econo- 
mist supply  the  place  of  all  this?  Will  any  such 
considerations  suffice  to  liridle  the  arrogance  of  a 
democracy  confident  in  its  strength,  and  which,  not 
having  been  stopped  by  the  fact  of  royalty,  is  very 
likely  not  to  be  stoiiped  by  the  fact  of  properly? 
Will  there  be  voices  eloi|uenl  enough  to  make  youths 
of  eigliteen  accept  the  reasoning  of  the  aged,  to 
persuade  whole  classes — young,  ardent,  believing  in 
pleasure,  and  upon  whom  enjoyment  has  not  yet 
palled— that  it  is  not  possible  for  all  to  enjoy,  for 
all  to  be  well-bred,  delicate,  virtuous  even,  in  a  re- 
fined sense,  but  that  there  must  of  necessity  be 
learned,  well-bred,  refined,  virtuous  people  of  leis- 
ure, in  whom  and  by  whom  the  rest  have  tlieir  enjoy- 
ment and  their  taste  of  1  lie  II Ic.'d?  K vents  will  show. 
The  superiority  of  the  church,  and  tlie  strength  which 
1  still  assures  lier  a  future,  lies  in  the  fact  that  she 
alone  understands  this,  and  makes  others  under- 
stand it.     The  cliurcli  well  knows  that  the  best  men 


KEVOLUTION. 


r,7U 


HEVOLDTIOH. 


are  often  the  vietims  of  llie  8iip<,Tioriiy*t)f  i  lif  fso-callt'd 

hii^licr  cliiHscs :  lull  hIic  Unows  iUho  tliiit  iialiiri!  Iiiik 
iiili'iidrd  thai,  hiiiiiiin  lilr  slidiilil  liiivr  iiiiiny  hIi|);<'S, 
Slic  kiinwsanil  slic  ciinfcsMcs  llial  il  is  Ilic  if;riirrain'i- 
of  inaiiy  thai  makes  piissihh'  Ihr  ('(hicaliuii  of  (iiic  ; 
Ihat  it  IS  tlu;  tiiil  of  iiiaiiy  lliat  iicrinils  llii'  iiohli'  life 
of  a  siiiall  iiiiiiiIkt:  but  sh<-  doi'S  not  call  liu'sc  pri- 
vilcgrd,  nor  Ihosc  wronjicil,  for  llio  work  iiiaiikiiid 
has  to  do  is,  in  her  eyes,  one  and  indivisililc.  Ahro- 
(ialc  Ihis  ijrcat  law,  assiuii  lo  carh  iiidiviijuai  llic 
saiiic  rank,  willi  ('(iiial  ri^iils.  wilh  no  Ijoiiiid  of  siib- 
ordiiiiilioii  li>  a  coiiiMmii  lask  ;  you  havi>  ciioisiii, 
iiu'iliocrily,  isolation,  liardiicss  of  heart,  an  impossi- 
bility of  true  livini;,  somelhini;  like  the  life  of  our 
(lay,  the  saddest  life  ever  lived,  even  for  the  man  of 
the  people.  Lookinj;  only  at  the  riirhls  of  individ- 
uals, it  is  unjust  that  one  man  should  be  sacriliced 
to  anolher  man;  but  it  is  not  unjust  that  all  should 
be  brou;;lil  iiilo  niibjec'lion  lo  Hie  one  t;ri'at  purpose 
which  mankind  is  workini;  out.  It  is  for  relii;ion  to 
explain  lliese  mysteries,  and  to  olVer  in  Ihe  ideal 
world  superabundant  coiisolalions  for  all  the  sacri- 
fices made  here  below. 

Tlii.s  is  what  the  Uevolulion,  afler  it  had  lost  llie 
{jraud  and  sacred  eiilliiisiasm  of  its  earlier  days,  did 
not  sullicicnlly  understand.  Tlie  Kevolution  became 
finally  irreliLCious  and  atheistic.  The  society  men 
dreamed  of  in  those  sad  days  following;  llie  fever  lit 
when  they  were  strivini;  to  collect  their  scattered 
senses,  was  a  sort  of  regiment  composed  of  material- 
ists, and  in  which  disci|)line  held  the  jilacc  of  virtue. 
The  wholly  nepilive  basis  which  the  hard  and  un- 
imajjinative  men  of  Ihat  day  assii;ned  to  Fnnch  so- 
ciety I'un  only  produce  a  surly  and  ill-mannered  peo- 
ple: their  code,  the  <ilVsprini;  of  <listrusl,  l.iys  down 
as  a  lirst  princijilc  that  the  value  of  evcrytliini!;  may 
be  estimated  in  money,  that  is  to  say  in  plca.sure. 
The.  whole  moral  theory  of  these  so-calli'd  founders 
of  our  laws  may  be  summed  up  in  jealousy.  Xow 
jealou.^y  is  the  foundation  of  ecjuality,  but  not  of 
liberty;  puttinij  man  constantly  on  his  guard  against 
the  eneroaehinents  of  his  neighbors,  it  renders  cour- 
tesy between  the  several  eliisses  impossible.  There 
can  be  no  society  without  ;ilVection,  without  tradi- 
tions, without  respect,  without  mutual  amenity. 
With  its  false  notion  of  virtue  which  it  confounds 
with  the  stern  vindication  of  what  each  one  regards 
as  his  right,  the  democratic  school  fails  to  see  that  a 
nation's  great  virtue  consists  in  submitting  to  tradi- 
tional inecpialities.  For  this  school  the  most  virtu- 
ous nice  is  not  the  race  which  practices  sclf-sacritice. 
devotion  to  duly,  idealism  in  all  ils  forms,  but  the 
most  turbulent,  that  which  makes  the  most  revo- 
lutions. The  most  intilligent  democrats  are  much 
surprised  when  they  are  Told  that  there  really  are 
virtuous  races  still  in  the  world— the  I^itliuanians, 
for  example,  the  Ditmarschers,  tlu'  Pomeranians — 
races  that  are  still  feud;il.  full  of  vigorous  reserved 
strength,  uiiderstamling  duly  like  Ivant,  and  for 
whom  Ihe  word  revolution  has  no  meaning.  The 
first  result  of  this  ill-natured  and  superlicial  philoso- 
phy, too  soon  substituted  for  that  of  the  .Montes- 
quicus  and  the  Turgots,  was  the  suppression  of  roy- 
alty. To  minds  imbued  wilh  a  materialistic  philos- 
ophy, royalty  necessarily  seemed  an  anomaly.  Very 
fewpersons,"  in  1792,  understood  that  the  continu- 
ance of  good  things  requires  to  be  guarded  by  insti- 
tutions which  are.  if  you  please,  a  privilege  for  some 
but  which  are  organs  of  national  life,  without  which 
certain  needs  must  necessarily  sulfer.  These  little 
fortresses,  in  which  were  deposited  for  siife-keepiug 
treasures  belonging  to  society,  seemed  feudal  castles. 
All  the  time-honored  subordinations  of  rank,  all  his- 
toric covenants,  all  symbols  were  repudiated.  Royal- 
ty was  the  lirsl  of  these  covcn;uils,  a  covenant  dating 
liaek  a  thousand  yi-.irs,  ;i  symbol  which  the  puerile 
phiU)sophy  of  history,  then  in  vogue. could  notcom- 
preluuul.  No  nation  has  ever  created  a  legend  more 
complete  than  that  of  this  grand  C'apetiau  monarchy, 
a  sort  of  religion,  born  ;it   8t.  Deuis,  consecrated  at 


KheiniR  by  the  anwmbly  of  bUiiop*.  having  Um  rlghu. 

Its  lIliirKy,  lis  holy  iiiiipiilla.  lln  orillninnie. 

'I'o  every  nationidiiy  there  Ih  ii  corrfH|ioniliti|; 
dyiiusty,  in  which  are  incurnated  the  |;eiiiiiii  and  the 
interests  of  Hie  nation  ;  a  iialioirH  coiiHcioiisiich'-  in 
never  fixed  anil  linn  unlit  il  has  coiilriicleil  un  iiidiH. 
soluble  alliance  wilh  a  family  which  bindH  ilhilf  by 
the  I'oiitruct  to  have  no  inlerenl  dinllnct  from  ihat  o'f 

,  the  nation.  Never  was  Ih'.s  idenl  ideal  ion  mi  per/eel 
as  between  France  and  Ihe  hoiisi-  of  f'apet.  Il  wb» 
more  than  a  inoimrcliy,  it  was  a  prii-sifiood:  1'riei.t 
and  King,  like  DavirL  the  KiuL'  •<{  France  wears  Ihe 
cope  and  liohls  the  sword,  liod  i-iiligbiens  him  in 
his  jiidgmeiils.     The  King  of  KnL'land  troubles  him- 

,  self  lillle  about  uislice— he  defends  his  right  auainsl 

.  his  Barons  ;  and  the  Kmperorof  (iermany  cares  hiill 
less — he  is  foreverinore  hiinling  among  Iiih  TvroleiM- 

I  niounlaiiis.  the  round  world,  meanwhile,  rolfing  on 
as  it  may  ;  but  the  King  of  France  '.  he  is  just ;  sur- 
rounded by  his  valiant  men  ami  his  solemn  clerks, 
wielding  his  hand  of  juslier-.  he  is  like  .Solomon. 
His  coronation, imitated  from  that  of  Ihe  kings  of  Is. 
rael,  was  something  so  strange  and  unique.  France 
had  instituted  an  eiglilh  sacnim.'nl,  adminislered 
only  at  Hlieims,— Ihe  sacrament  of  royalty.  The 
consecrated  King  performs  miracles;  he'  is  invested 
with  an  "order";  he  is  an  ecclesiaslical  |x-rsonage 
of  till'  lirsl  rank.  To  the  Pope,  who  siiminons  him 
lo  answer  in  the  name  of  Goil,  he  replies,  pointing 
to  his  sacred  unction,  "  I.  too,  am  of  God."  lie 
allows  himself  unparalleled  liberlies  with  Ihe  suc- 
cessor of  St.  Peter :  once  he  causes  him  lo  be  buf- 
feted and  declared  a  heretic  ;  at  anolher  lime  he 
threatens  to  have  him  burned  alive;  backed  by  hiK 
experienced  doctors  of  the  (sorbonnc,  he  reprimanihi 
him,  he  deposes  him.  His  most  perfect  type,  not- 
withstanding, is  a  canoni/.ed  saint.  Saint  lloiiis,  .so 
pure,  so  humble,  so  simple  and  so  strong.  He  has 
liis  mystic  adorers;  the  good  Jean  Dare  makes  no 
distinction  between  him  and  St.. Michael  orSl.C'alh- 
erine;  this  jxior  girl  literally  lived  upon  the  religion 
of  Kheiins.  Incomparable  legend  I  sacred  fable!  Ami 
yet  the  vulgar  knife  designed  for  striking  off  the 
lieads  of  criminals  was  lifted  against  it  I  The  mur- 
der of  the  21st  of  January,  is,  from  the  idealist's 
point  of  view,  the  most  hideous  act  of  materialism, 
the  most  shameful  avowal  of  ingratiliide  and  base- 
ness, of  ignoble  meanness  and  forgetfulness  of  llie 
past,  that  was  ever  made. 

Do  we  mean  lo  say  that  the  old  dynasty,  whose 
very  memory  the  newly-organized  societv  .sought  lo 
obliterate  wilh  that  peculiar  rancor  wliicii  is  only 
felt  by  the  parvenu  toward  the  great  noble  to  whom 
he  owes  everything — do  we  mean  to  say  that  ;liis 
ancient  dynasty  was  not  guilty  of  .serious  errors? 
Certainly  it  was,  and  if  we  were  now  wrilinir  a  ge- 
neral philosophy  of  French  history,  we  should  show 
that  the  King.  Ihe  nobles,  the  clergy,  the  parliamenl.s, 
the  cities,  the  universities  of  ancient  France,  had  all 
of  them  failed  in  their  duly,  and  Ihat  the  revolution, 
isls  of  17'J3  merely  set  their  seal  lo  a  series  of  faults, 
whose  consequences  still  weigh  heavily.  Greatness 
must  always  lie  expiated.    France  had  conceived  of 

I  her  monarihy  as  somelhiug  unlimited.  A  King  after 
the  English  fashion,  a  sort  of  sladtholder.  paid  and 
armed  to  defend  the  nation  and  maintain  certain 
rights,  was  for  her  an  absunlity.  Fmm  the  l:)ih 
century,  the  King  of  Kngland,  constantly  at  strife 
with  his  subjects,  and  hampered  by  charters,  is  lo 
French  poets  an  object  of  derision  :  he  is  not  pow- 
erful enough.  The  French  Jlonarchy  was  loo  sa- 
cred a  thing:  theanointed  of  the  Lord  is  not  lo  be 
controlled.  Bossuel  was  logical  in  making  the  the- 
ory of  the  King  <if  Fnince  scpiare  with  Uie  Holy 
Scriptures.  Had  the  King  of  England  pos,scssed  ihi.s 
tincture  of  mysticism,  the  barons  and  commons 
would  not  have  succeeded  in  checkmating  him.  The 

I  French  Monarchy,  lo  produce  that  lirilliant  meteor, 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  absorlied  all  the  powers  of 

the  nation.  When  once  the  Slate  had  been  constituu 


KEVOLUTION. 


680 


KEVOLUTION, 


cd  into  this  powerful  unit)',  un  ler  the  hand  of  one 
'  man,  it  was  incvital)le  Unit  France  should  look  upon 
herself  as  being  what  the  great  King  had  made  her, — 
an  all-powerf>d  central  authority,  wilh  liberties  de- 
stroyed; and,  regarding  the  King  as  a  superfetation, 
should  treat  him  like  the  mold  which  becomes  use- 
less when  once  the  statue  is  cast.  Thus  Richelieu 
and  Louis  XIV,  were  the  great  revolutionists,  the 
true  founders  of  the  Republic.  The  exact  pendant 
to  the  colossal  royalty  of  Louis  XIV.  is  the  Republic 
of  1793,  with  its  frightful  concentration  of  power,  an 
unheard-of  monster,  the  like  of  which  had  never 
been  seen.  Examples  of  republics  are  not  rare  in 
history;  but  these  republics  are  cities,  or  small  con- 
federated states.  A  centralized  republic  of  thirty 
millions  of  souls  is  absolutelj'  without  precedent. 
Given  up  for  four  or  five  years  to  the  vacillations  of 
drunken  men,  like  a  Great  Eastern  in  danger  of  ship- 
wreck, the  enormous  machine  sank  into  its  natural 
place,  into  the  hands  of  a  powerful  despot,  who,  at 
first,  with  prodigious  skill,  succeeded  in  organizing 
the  new  movement,  but -who  ended  like  all  despots. 
Become  insane  with  priile,  he  brought  upon  the 
country,  which  had  put  itself  at  his  mercy,  the  most 
cruel  humiliation  that  a  nation  can  endure,  and 
brought  about  the  return  of  that  dynasty  which 
France  had  expelled  with  the  most  degrading  in- 
sults. 

The  analogy  of  such  a  course  of  events  with 
wdiat  took  place  in  England  in  the  seventeenth 
cent urj' is  easily  perceived.  Every  one  was  struck 
by  it  in  1830,  when  a  national  movement  substituted 
for  the  legitimate  branch  of  the  Bourbons,  a  collat- 
eral branch  more  disposed  to  recognize  the  new 
needs.  Louis  Philippe  must  have  seemed  a  William 
III.,  and  it  was  natural  to  hope  that  the  final  result 
of  so  many  convulsions  would  be  the  peaceable  es- 
tablishment of  coustitutional  government  in  France. 
With  this  consoling  thought,  a  sort  of  peace,  a  little 
quiet  and  oblivion  of  the  past,  stole  over  the  poor, 
troubled  Frencli  mind  ;  there  was  a  general  amnes- 
ty, even  for  follies  and  crimes.  It  was  a  great  mis- 
take ;  a  surprise,  the  most  inconceival)le  known  in 
history,  was  successful  :  a  band  of  mad-caps  whom 
a  constable's  staff  should  have  sufliced  to  restrain, 
overturned  a  dynasty  upon  which  the  sensible  part 
of  the  nation  had  based  all  their  political  faith  and 
all  tiieir  hopes.  An  hour's  want  of  reflection  on 
the  one  hand,  and  an  hour  of  weakness  on  the  other, 
sufficed  to  sweep  away  a  theory  conceived  by  the 
best  minds,  with,  apparently,  the  most  tempting 
chances  of  success.  Why  this  singular  disaster? 
Why  did  not  what  happened  in  England  also  hap- 
pen in  France?  Why  was  not  Louis  Philippe  a 
William  III.,  the  glorious  founder  of  a  new  era  in 
the  history  of  the  country  ?  Will  it  be  said  that  it 
was  the  fault  of  Louis  Pliilippe  ?  That  would  be 
unjust.  Louis  Philippe  made  mistakes  ;  but  then 
all  governments  must  be  permitted  to  make  tliem. 
Whoever  should  undertake  the  conduct  of  human 
afTairs  on  condition  of  being  infallible  and  impecca- 
ble, would  not  reign  a  day.  At  all  events,  if  Louis 
Philippe  deserved  to  be  dethroned,  William  III.  de- 
served it  much  more.  ,  What  Louis  l'hilii>])e  was 
chiefly  reproached  with — uni)o]iularily,  inaliility  to 
make  himself  loved,  a  taste  for  ])ersonal  jjower,  iu- 
dilferenceto  external  i)omp,  rela|)ses  toward  the  le- 
gitimist i]arty  to  the  detriment  of  the  jiarty  which 
had  ma(ie  him  King;  attempts  tii  reestablish  the 
royal  prerogative  -might  h:ivc  l)i'eii  still  more 
strongly  urged  against  William  III.  Why,  then, 
were  the  results  so  different?  Doulitless  it  was 
owing  to  the  difference  of  time  and  country.  Events, 
historically  important,  nuike  lake  place  anioug  a 
serious  and  heavy  people,  Arm  believers  in  lieredit- 
ary  right,  and  who  have  an  invincible  repuguiince 
to  driving  their  sovereign  to  <'Xtremitics,  which 
wovdd  l>e  impossil)le  at  an  ejioeh  of  intellectual 
levity  and  reasoning  folly.  Besides,  the  repidtlican 
movement  of  1649  was  inlinitely  less  deep  than  that 


of  1792.  The  English  movement  of  1049  did  not  go 
so  far  as  to  establish  an  niiperia!  authority.  Crom- 
well was  no  Napoleon.  Finally,  the  f^nglish  repub- 
lican party  hail  no  second  generation.  Crushed 
under  the  restoration  of  the  I'^tuarts,  decimated  l)y 
persecution  or  taking  refuge  in  America,  it  ceased 
to  have  any  considerable  influence  upon  public 
afl'airs  in  England.  In  the  eighteenth  century, 
England  seems  to  have  made  a  business  of  expiat- 
ing, by  a  sort  of  exaggerated  loyalty  and  orthodoxy, 
her  momentary  lapses  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth. 
More  than  a  hiuidred  and  fifty  years  had  to  pass 
away  before  the  death  of  Charles  I.  ceased  to  weigh 
upcm  politics,  and  men  could  venture  to  think 
freely,  without  feeling  obliged  to  affect  an  un- 
bounded attachment  to  legitimacy.  Things  would 
have  taken  nearly  the  same  course  in  France  if  the 
royalist  reaction  of  1796  and  1797  had  carried  the 
day.  The  Restoration  would  then  have  been  ac- 
complished much  more  frankly,  and  the  Republic 
would  have  been  in  the  history  of  France  only 
what  it  is  in  that  of  England,  an  incident  witb.iut 
consequences.  Napoleon,  by  his  genius,  aided  by 
the  marvelous  resources  of  France,  saved  the 
Revolution,  gave  it  a  form,  an  organization,  an  im- 
precedented  military  prestige.  The  weak  and  tmin- 
telligent  restoration  of  1814  could  by  no  means  up- 
root an  idea  which  had  been  deeply  seated  in  the  na- 
tional mind,  and  which  had  enlisted  the  sympatlues 
of  a  whole,  energetic  generation.  France, under  the 
Restoration,  and  under  Louis  Philippe,  continued  to 
live  on  the  memories  of  the  Empire  and  the  Republic. 
Whilst  in  England,  from  the  date  of  the  restoration 
of  Charles  II.,  and  after  1688,  the  republic  was  the 
object  of  unceasing  execration,  and  a  man  was  ill- 
thought  of  in  society  who  spoke  of  Charles  I.  with- 
out calling  him  the  martyr  King, or  of  Cromwell  with- 
out adiling  the  epithet  usurper— in  France  it  became 
the  rule  to  write  lustories  of  the  Revolution  in  a  strain 
of  apology  and  admiration.  It  was  unfortunate  that 
the  father  of  the  new  King  had  taken  a  considerable 
part  in  the  Revolution ;  people  accustomed  them- 
selves to  consider  the  new  dynasty  as  a  compromise 
with  the  Revolution,  not  as  the  heir  by  substitution 
of  a  lawful  inheritance.  A  new  republican  party, 
rallying  aroiuid  a  few  old  patriarchs,  survivors  of 
1793,  came  into  existence.  This  party,  which  had 
played  an  important  part  in  July,  1830,  but  since 
then  had  failed  to  give  prevalence  to  its  ab.solute 
theoretical  ideas,  made  incessant  attacks  upon  the 
new  government.  The  change  in  England,  in  1088, 
was  not  in  the  least  revolutionary,  in  the  sense  in 
which  we  understand  the  word  :  the  change  was  not 
brought  about  In- the  people;  it  violated  no  right, 
unless  it  were  that  of  tlie  tletI:ioncd  king.  With  the 
French,  on  the  contrary,  1830  unchained  the  forces 
of  anarchy, and  deeply  Irumiliatcd  the  legitimist  party. 
That  i)arty,  comprising,  in  many  respects,  the  most 
solid  and  the  most  mora!  portions  of  the  community, 
made  cruel  war  upon  tlie  new  dynasty,  either  by 
keeping  altogether  aloof  from  it,  thus  preventing  its 
being  settled  upon  the  sole  basis  upon  whi<'h  a  dynas- 
ty is  founded — the  solidly  conservative  element  ;  or 
else  by  its  connivance  with  the  republican  rarty. 
Thus  the  government  of  the  house  of  Orleans  failed 
to  obtain  a  firm  foundation  ;  a  breath  overturned  it. 
Everytliing  iiai!  been  pardoned  to  Williiun  III., 
nothing  was  pardoned  to  Louis  Philippe.  The  mon- 
archical jirinciple  was  strong  enough  in  England  to 
undergo  i\  transfe.rmaiion  :  it  «;is  not  so  in  Fnnice. 
(Jertainly  if  tlie  republic  an  ]i:irly  had  hiid  in  England, 
under  William  111.,  the  import;uice  which  it  had  in 
France  under  Louis  Philippe — if  that  \mr[y  had  had 
the  support  of  tlie  Stuart  faction — the  constitutional 
establishment  of  England  woidd  have  been  short- 
lived. Here  p^ngland  protiteil  by  the  immense  ad- 
vantage she  Inis  in  her  ;iptitinle  for  colonizaticm. 
.America  Wiis  the  waste-weir  of  the  repidilieaii  party: 
without  that,  this  party  would  iiave  remained  as  a. 
virus  in  the  mother  country,  and  would  have  pre- 


EEVOLUTION. 


081 


EEVOLOTIOR 


vented  tlic  cstablisliincnt  of  ctonslitiiliDiml  novurn- 
mcnl,  Ni)lliintj  Hint  it  stroiii;  ami  siiiciTe  is  lost  in 
tlie  world.  TIk'hc  rc|)iilili(iin  c-xilcM  were  the  fill  liiTs 
of  the  men  who,  in  the  laller  part  of  the  eif^hli-enlh 
century,  earrieil  on  the  War  of  Independence.  The 
rcvolnlionarv  elenwnt  in  Knijland,  inslcad  of  heiin^a 
dixHolvi'nl,  thus  Ijecarnc  erralive;  Knirlish  radieal- 
isni,  instead  of  tearin'.'  tlie  mother  eonntry  in  pie<'es, 
produced  America.  If  France  had  been  a  eolonl/,- 
in;;,  insteail  of  a  military  nation  ;  if  thi'  hold  ajid  en- 
lerprisin;;  element,  which  in  other  I'onnlries  fur- 
nishes colonists,  were  with  thi-  Kri'iich  capable  of 
anythini;  besides  cons])iracies  and  tiirhtini;  for  uli- 
stract  |)rinciples  we  should  have  had  no  .\apoleon: 
the  republican  party,  expelled  by  tbi>  n-action,  would 
have  eniiijralrd  about  the  year  ITIIM,  and  would  h.ave 
founded,  far  away,  a  new  France,  which,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  law  of  colonies,  would  now  iloid)!- 
less  be  an  independent  republic. 

A  cross  error  of  historical  philosophv  contributed 
to  warp  the  national  judi;ment  upon  this  irruve  ipicM- 
tion  of  the  forms  of  tjovernment  ;  it  was  this  very 
exainjile  of  .\merica  The  reimblican  school  were 
forever  citini;  this  example  as  ^ood  and  easy  to  fol- 
low.  Nolhini;  could  be  more  superticiiil.  That 
colonies  accustomed  to  ^'overn  themselves  in  an  in- 
dependent fashion  should  break  the  ties  which  bind 
them  to  the  mother  country,  and  these  lies  l)roken, 
slionld  dispense  with  royalty  and  provide  for  their 
common  safety  l)y  a  federative  pact,  there  is  nothint; 
in  this  but  what  is  natural.  For  a  colony  to  sever 
itself  from  the  throne  in  this  way,  as  a  cuttini;  is 
severed  from  a  tree,  carryiiii;  its  own  jri'rm  of  life 
with  it,  is  in  accordance  with  the  immutable  princi- 
ples of  colonization  principles  which  are  amonj; 
the  conditions  of  human  prosrress,  of  that  of  the  .\r- 
yan  race  in  particular.  Virginia  and  Carolina  were 
republics  before  the  war  of  independence.  That 
war  chansjed  in  no  respect  the  internal  constitution 
of  the  States;  instead  it  only  cut  the  coril,  now 
grown  irksome,  which  bound  them  to  Europe,  and 
substituted  for  it  a  federal  union.  Here  was  no 
revolutionary  work.  There  was  at  the  bottom  of 
this  great  movement  an  eniinenlly  conservative  con- 
ception of  right,  an  aristocratic  and  law-abiding 
spirit  of  provincial  liberty.  In  like  manner,  when- 
ever the  slight  tie  which  binds  Canada  and  Australia 
to  England  shall  be  l)roken,  those  countries,  accus- 
tomeil  to  govern  Ihemselves,  will  continue  their  in- 
dependent existence  almost  without  peiceiving  the 
change.  If  France  had  undertaken  in  earnest  the 
colonization  of  Algeria,  .Vlgeria  woulil  have  had  a 
chance  of  becoming  a  republic  sooner  than  France. 
Colonies,  formed  of  ])ersons  who  tind  themselves 
cramped  in  their  native  land,  and  who  seek  a  greater 
liberty  than  they  have  at  honu',  are  always  nearer  a 
rep\d)lic  than  tlie  mother  country,  tied  by  her  old 
habits  and  her  ancient  prejudices.  Thus,  there  has 
continued  to  exist  in  i-'rance  a  party  which  does  not 
permit  the  development  of  constitutional  royalty,  the 
radical  republican  jiarly.  The  sitmition  of  France 
was  very  dilTerent  from  that  of  England:  side  by  side 
with  the  Kight.  the  Left,  and  the  Center,  there  was 
an  irreconcilable  jiarty,  utterly  refusing  to  accept  the 
existing  government:  not  saying  to  the  govenuneni, 
"Do  such  a  thing  iind  we  are  with  you;"  but  giving 
it  to  understand:  "Whatever  you  do,  we  shall  be 
against  you."  The  republic  is  in  a  sense  the  tinal 
goal  of  every  human  soci(  ly:  but  we  can  conceive  of 
two  very  different  methods  of  reaching  it.  Toestab- 
!ish  the  republic  with  ahighhanil.by  destroying  every 
obstacle,  is  the  dream  of  ardent  ndnds.  There  is  an- 
other way. less  violent  an<l  more  sure;  to  preserve  the 
old  rov;d  families  ;is  precious  mimumenls  .and  souve- 
nirs of  the  past,  is  not  merely  the  foolish  fancy  of  an 
antiquary;  dynasties  thus  preserved  become  in  cer- 
tain critical  mimieiits  extremely  convenient  wheels 
in  the  machinery  of  constitution;d  government. 
Will  the  countries  which,  like  England,  have  foilow- 
cJ  this  course,    ever  attain   to  the  perfect   republic, 


with  no  hereditary  dynasty,  ami  with  universal  Huf- 
frage?  As  well  ask  if  (he  hyperbola  ever  toucheii  it« 
asym|)loteM.  What  matters  it,  nince  it  comet)  BO 
ni'ar  that  the  distance  is  inapprerialile  to  the  eye? 
This  is  what  the  French  republican  party  d<M-H  not 
understand.  For  tin-  form  of  a  ri'pubiic  ji  sacritlccti 
thesubstanci  .  Kallier  than  follow  a  high  road  al- 
ready laiii  out.  witii,  to  III'  sure,  some  windinxs.  it 
prefers  to  plunge  over  precipices  and  through  hogs. 
Uarely  do  we  see  so  little  political  tact  and  so  lillli! 
discernment  joined  to  so  much  honesty.  The  year 
1H48  laiil  bare  the  ulcer,  and  eHtablished  to  the  salin- 
faclion  of  every  disciplined  mind  the  fiiniiamental 
principle  of  the  philoso|ihy  of  French  hislory.  The 
n-voliilion  of  1H4M  was  not  an  elTeci  without  a  cause 
'such  an  assertion  would  Ix- absurd;:  it  wasan  effect 
entirely  out  of  jiroporlion  to  its  apparent  cause. 
The  siiock  was  nothing,  the  ruin  was  irnmen.m'. 
ThiTe  happened  in  1H4M  what  would  have  happenod 
in  England,  if  William  III.  had  been  swept  away  by 
one  of  those  (its  of  strong  dissatisfaction  which  hm 
government  excited.  In  that  case  the  lii.story  of  Eng- 
land would  have  been  turned  upside  down.  In  Eng- 
land, the  people'sattachmeni  to  legiliiiiacy,  and  their 
dread  of  tiie  republic,  were  sntticiently  stroUL'  to  en- 
able the  new  ilynasty  to  get  over  momentary  difH- 
culties.  In  France,  on  the  other  hanil,  the  moral  de 
gem-racy  of  the  nation,  its  want  of  faith  in  royally, 
together  with  the  very  great  energy  of  the  repuhlicun 
party,  sutVued  to  overturn  a  throne  which  had  but 
a  ruinous  foundation.  Then  it  was  that  the  disa«- 
trous  situation  in  which  Frame  has  remained  ever 
siruc  the  Revoliitinn  became  apparent.  If  t!ie  Kevo- 
lution  and  the  Uepublic  had  taken  root  less  deeply 
in  France,  the  house  of  Orleans,  and  with  it  parlia- 
mentiiry  government,  would  have  been  securely 
consolidated  :  had  the  republican  idea  been  domi- 
nant, it  would,  after  divers  alternations  of  action 
and  reaction,  Inive  carried  the  country,  and  the  Kc- 
iniblic  woulil  have  been  founded.  Seilher  the  one 
nor  the  other  (if  these  two  .-suppositions  were  realized. 
The  republican  spirit  was  strong  enough  to  prevent 
the  iiermanent  estiiblishmeut  of  eonstitutioniii  roy- 
ally:  it  was  not  strong  enough  to  establish  the  Ue- 
public. Hence,  a  false  and  singular  position,  and 
one  calculated  to  jirepare  the  way  for  a  melancholy 
downfall.  What  happened  in  1H4S  niiijht  happen 
many  times  again  ;  let  us  endeavor  to  discover  the 
secret  law,  the  hidden  reason  of  this. 

When  we  see  a  man  die  of  a  cold,  we  conclude. 
not  that  a  cold  is  a  mortal  malady,  but  that  the  man 
was  consumptive.  The  disease  which  occasioned 
the  death  of  the  government  of  .luly  was  in  like 
manner  so  slight,  that  we  must  admit  the  patient's 
constitution  to  have  been  of  the  frailest.  The  sJiglit 
agitation  atiout  the  banquets  was  one  of  thosewliich 
a  government  ought  to  be  able  to  support,  if  it  liave 
any  cajiacity  of  life  in  it.  Why,  with  every  appear- 
ance of  health,  was  the  government  of  July  so 
feeble?  It  was  because  it  had  not  that  which  gives 
to  a  government  good  lungs,  a  .sound  heart,  and  a 
healthy  stomach ;  we  mean  the  serious  adherence 
of  lbe"influential  portions  of  the  community.  The 
thoroughly  humane  feeling  which  restraineil  Louis 
I'hilippe  from  giving  battle,  while  its  indulgence  im- 
plies a  distrust  of  his  own  right,  does  not  snllice  to 
explain  his  fall.  The  republican  party  which  effected 
'he  revolution  was  an  impercejitible  minority.  In 
a  country  where  the  government  was  less  central- 
ized, and  where  opinions  were  less  divided,  the  ma- 
jority would  Inive  resisted  ;  but  the  provinces  had  as 
vet  lio  idea  of  opposing  a  movement  emanating  from 
I'aris:  besides,  if  the  faction  which  took  jiart  in  the 

:  movement  of  the  24th  of  February.  Ih+S.  was  insig- 
nificant, the  nui.iber  of  those  who  might  have  de- 
fended the  vanquished  dynasty  was  not  great.  The 
legitimist  party  were  the  victors,  and  without  build- 
ing barricades",  had,  on  that  day,  their  revenge.  The 
Orleans  dynasty,  in  spiteof  ilsthorough  U|)rightness. 

I  and  its  rare  honesty,  had  not  knovv'n  ho  .v  to  speak  to 


BEVOLUTION. 


682 


EEVOLUTION. 


the  lieart  of  the  nation,  nor  to  make  itself  loved.  In 
presence  of  this  revolutiou  thus  brought  about  bj'  a 
turbulent  uiinority,  what  was  France  to  do?  A 
country  which  has  no  unanimously  accepted  liynasty 
is  always  a  little  awkward  and  embarrassed  in  its 
movements.  France  yielded :  she  accepted  the  Re- 
public insincerely,  not  believing  in  it,  and  fully  de- 
cided to  be  false  to  it.  The  opportiuiity  was  not 
wanting.  Tlie  vote  of  the  10th  of  December  was  a 
plain  repudiation  of  the  Republic.  The  party  which 
made  the  revolution  of  February  was  subjected  to  the 
law  of  retaliation.  If  we  nuiy  be  allowed  to  use  a 
vulgar  expression,  they  had  played  France  a  very 
scurvy  trick  ;  France  played  them  a  scurvy  trick 
in  return.  She  was  much  like  some  honest  citizen 
whom  the  most  mischievious  boys  should  lay  hold  of 
on  any  day  of  great  riot,  and  should  clap  the  red 
cap  of  liberty  upon  his  head  ;  anil  the  wortliy  man 
would  let  them  do  as  they  pleased  for  the  sake  of 
peace,  but  would  probably  cherish  some  resentment. 
The  surprise  of  the  ballot  responded  to  the  surprise 
of  the  uprising.  Assuredly,  the  conduct  of  France 
would  have  been  more  dignified  and  more  loyal,  if, 
on  the  announcement  of  the  revolutiou.  she  had 
openly  resisted,  politely  arrested  the  functionaries  of 
tlie  provisional  government  at  the  very  outset,  and 
ccnvoked  in  all  the  departments  some  sort  of  gene- 
ral council  which  would  have  re-estalilished  the  mon- 
archy. But  several  reasons,  too  readily  ajiparent  to 
be  m  much  need  of  explanation,  rendered  this  course 
impossible  at  that  time.  Besides,  a  nation  which 
has  been  granted  universal  suffrage  always  becomes 
soniL'what  given  to  dissembling.  It  has  in  its  hands 
an  all-powerful  weapon,  which  renders  civU  wars 
needless.  When  we  are  snre  that  the  enemy  will  be 
obliged  to  pass  through  a  defile  of  which  we  are  the 
masters,  and  where  he  will  be  forced  to  receive  our 
Ijre  without  returning  it,  we  do  not  go  out  of  our 
way  to  attack  him.  France  waited,  and,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1848,  inflicted  a  disastrous  repulse  on  the  re- 
publican part}'.  If  February  had  proved  that  France 
was  not  much  attached  to  the  constitutional  mon- 
archy of  the  house  of  Orleans,  the  vote  of  the  10th 
of  December  proved  that  she  cared  no  more  for  the 
Republic.  The  political  weakness  of  this  great 
country  was  shown  in  the  strongest  light.  What  shall 
we  say  of  what  happened  afterward?  We  do  not  like 
cull ps  d'etat  any  more  than  we  do  revolutions;  we 
do  not  like  revolutions,  for  the  very  reason  that  they 
always  lead  to  miips  d'etnt.  We  cannot,  however 
plausible  it  may  appear,  admit  the  fundamental  pre- 
tension of  the  party  of  1848.  That  party  in  the 
name  of  we  know  not  what  divine  right, arrogates  to 
itself  a  power  which  it  accords  to  no  other,  claim- 
ing to  have  made  itself  so  absolutely  the  master  of 
France  that  the  illegalities  committed  in  order  to 
break  the  fetters  with  which  it  had  bound  the  coun- 
try, ought  to  be  considered  as  crimes,  whilst  its  own 
revolution  of  February  is  only  a  glorious  deed.  This 
is  inadmissible.  Qu/'s,  tulerit  GnirrJuis  di  xtditfcnr 
(jiveretite-i  ?  lie  who  uses  the  sword  shall  perish  by 
'he  sword.  If  the  muskets  aimed  at  M.  Sauzet  and 
»he  Duchess  of  Orleans, ou  the  24th  of  February,1848. 
were  umocent,  the  l)ayonets  which  invaded  the 
chamber  on  the  2d  of  December,  1851,  were  not 
.guilty.  In  our  view,  each  of  these  acts  of  violence 
was  a  dagger-stroke  ainu'dat  the  country  -  a  wound 
reaching  to  the  most  vital  parts  of  her  constitution. 
one  step  further  into  a  laliyrinth  that  has  no  issue. 
The  Emperor  Napoleon  III.,  and  the  little  group 
of  men  who  shared  his  confidence,  brought  to  the 
government  of  France  a  programme  whicli,  though 
not  founded  upon  history,  was  not  wanting  in 
originality:  namely,  to  revive  the  traditions  of  the 
Kmpire,  turn  to  account  its  gloriims  legend,  still  so 
Avell  iireservcd  among  the  people,  give  voic<'  to  the 
jiopular  sentiment  on  this  subject  by  means  of 
universal  sutlrage,  obtain  by  this  suffrage  a  di'Iega- 
lion  of  powers  binding  on  the  future  and  establishing 
hereditary  right,  and,  in  accordance  with  a  cherished 


idea  of  the  French  nation,  call  for  a  dynastic  election ; 

at  home,  the  personal  government  ot  the  Emperor, 
with  a  show  of  parliameutary  government  skillfully 
reduced  to  a  nullity  ;  abroad,  a  brilliant  and  active 
policy,  restormg  gradually  to  France  by  war  and 
diplomacy,  the  place  in  the  front  among  the  nations 
of  Europe,  which  she  held  sixty  years  ago,  and  which 
she  lost  in  1814.  France,  for  seventeen  years,  has 
allowed  this  experiment  to  be  tried,  with  a  patience 
which  might  be  called  exemplary,  if  it  were  ever 
good  for  a  natiim  to  carry  forbearance  too  far  whea 
her  destinies  are  at  stake.  IIow  has  the  experiment 
succeeded?  What  have  been  its  results?  Can. 
it  lie  said,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  new  Napoleonic 
house  has  been  founded  ;  that  is  to  say,  has  it  rallied 
around  it  those  sentiments  of  affection  and  persomd 
devotion  which  alone  give  strength  to  a  dynasty? 
We  nuist  not  deceive  ourselves  in  this  matter.  Self- 
ishness, scepticism,  indifference  toward  its  rulers, 
the  persuasion  that  no  gratitude  is  due  to  them,  have 
totally  withered  the  heart  of  the  nation.  The  ques- 
tion has  become  one  of  self-interest.  The  wealth  of 
the  community  having  greatly  increased,  if  the 
question  were  jjroposed  in  these  terras  :  revoiution — 
nij  rivohitiijn,  the  second  jjroposition  would  obtain 
an  immense  majority  ;  but  often  a  country  which 
has  no  desire  for  a  revolution  does  all  that  is  needed 
to  produce  one.  At  all  events  those  sentiment.s  of 
tender  affection  and  fidelity  with  which  the  nation 
once  regarded  her  kings,  are  no  longer  to  be  thought 
of.  The  persons  having  for  the  Napoleonic  dyna.sty 
the  same  sentiments  that  a  royalist  of  the  Restoration 
had  for  the  royal  family,  might  easily  be  counted. 
There  are  almost  no  Napoleonic  legitimists  ;  this 
is  a  fact  with  which  the  government  cannot  be  too 
deeply  impressed.  That  part  of  the  programme  of 
the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  which  relates  to  the 
military  glory  and  the  preponderant  position  of 
France,  was  not  without  grandeur  ;  and  those  who, 
looking  to  the  general  interests  of  civilization,  are 
grateful  to  the  Emperor  for  the  war  of  the  Crimea 
and  that  of  Italy,  cannot  judge  with  severity  the 
whole  foreign  polic\'  of  the  second  empire:  but  it  is 
clear  that  France  as  a  nation,  is  '.ly  no  means  in 
harmony  with  such  views.  If  it  were  possible  to 
submit  it  to  the  universal  suffrage,  the  plebiscite, 
III)  wiir,  would  obtain  a  much  greater  majority  even 
than  no  reciAutinn.  The  France  of  to-day  is,  beyond 
all  doubt,  no  more  heroic  than  she  is  sentimental, 
The  preponderance  of  one  European  nation  over  the 
rest  has,  moreover,  become  impossible  in  the  pres- 
ent state  of  society.  The  threatening  intentions  im- 
prudently expressed  on  the  French  side  of  the  Rhine 
(audit  is  not  the  government  which  has  been  in  this 
respect  the  most  culpable,  or  the  most  wanting  in 
tact)  have  kindled  a  feeling  among  the  Germanic 
nations,  which  will  subside  the  moment  they  shall 
be  reassured  with  regard  to  the  ambition  they  may 
have  attributed  to  the  French.  From  tliat  moment, 
tlie  iutiueuce  iif  I'russia  iu  tlie  Grrmaiiic  body  will 
cease— an  influence  which  has  no  other  plea  for  its 
existence  than  the  fear  of  France.  From  that  mo- 
ment, also,  will  probably  cease  the  ilesire  for  politi- 
cal unity, — a  desire  so  little  in  conformity  with  the 
Germanic  spirit,  and  which  has  never  been  among 
the  Germans  anything  but  an  impatiently  tolerated 
defensive  measure  against  a  strongly  organized 
neiglibor.  Tlii^  cliange  of  this  single  point  in  the  ori- 
ginal plan  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  111.  would 
suffice  to  modify  everylbiug  coimccted  with  the  in- 
ternal government  of  the  "country.  The  Emperor 
Napoleon  III.,  never  even  imagined  that  he  could 
carry  on  the  government  without  an  elective  cham- 
ber; he  sincerely  hoped  that  he  might  for  a  long 
time,  if  not  lurmaiienliy.  control  the  elections.  It 
wasa  .scbcmc  wbicli  Cduld  only  be  realized  by  the 
aid  of  coiistaul  w;us  and  coiisl:iut  victories.  I'er- 
sonal  government  e!iii  only  be  maintained  on 
condition  of  beiim;  always  and  everywhere  glor- 
ious  and  successful.     How   could   it   be  expected. 


REVOLUTION. 


f;«8 


HEVOLUTIOH. 


unlcsB  tho  roimtn'  were  kept  conHtiinllv  diiz/.k-d 
l)y  a  miirUcil  prosperity.  Hint  il  would  n;o  on 
forc'ViT  ciiHlinir  into  llic  liallnl-linv  llir  voli:  wliifli 
llio  iKlmiiiitilniliiiii  pill  iiilci  ilHliiuiily  II  was  iiiov- 
ilable  llml,  <imi'  iliiy  or  uiioUicr,  Kraiicc  would  wish 
to  use  Hut  powerful  weapon  that  had  beiMi  left  in  her 
liands,  an<l  that  she  should  lake  a  responsilih' part  in 
her  alTairs.  In  polilies,  we  caniiot  loiii;  play  with 
appearances.  Il  was  to  lie  expected  llial  the  seiii- 
hlaiice  of  parliaiiieiilary  jcoveriiiueiit  which  the  Erii- 
jieror  Napoleon  111.  had  alwavs  kept  up,  would  lie. 
come  a  serious  reality.  The  eleelioiis  of  lH(!i)  trans- 
ferred this  sujiposition  into  the  domain  of  eslah- 
lislied  facts.  The  elections  of  .May  and  .lune.  IHlii), 
showed  that  the  law  of  French  society  cannot  he 
that  of  Roman  Casarisni.  Koman  Ca'sarisin  was 
eipially  in  the  beirinniiii;  a  despotism,  surrounded  by 
republican  lietions ;  tint  despotism  destroyed  the 
fictions  ;  with  France  on  the  contrary,  the  representa- 
tive fictions  destroyed  the  despotism.  This  did  not 
occur  under  the  first  empire,  because  the  mode  of 
elect ini;  the  leirislative  body  was  then  completely 
illusorj'.  Nothing;  proves  more  clearly  than  the 
events  of  those  mouths  of  ls(;i)  how  surely  the  ideal  of 
government  orii^inatcd  by  Knf;land  imposes  itself,  of 
necessity,  upon  every  state.  It  is  often  said  that 
France  is  not  fitted  for  such  a;;overnment.  France 
has  certainly  shown  that  she  lliinksotlierwi.se;  at  all 
events,  if  that  were  true,  we  should  say  there  is  no 
hope  for  France.  .V  liberal  form  of  Lrovernment  is 
an  absolute  mcessity  for  every  modern  nation.  Those 
wliielieannot  accommodate  themselves  toil,  will  ])er- 
isb.  In  the  lirsl  place,  the  liberal  regime  will  ;_'ive 
to  the  nations  which  have  adopti'd  it  an  immense 
superiority  overlhose  which  cannot  adapt  themselves 
to  it.  A  nation  which  is  not  (|ualitied  for  liberty  of 
the  press,  nor  for  the  liberty  of  holdiuir  meetings, 
nor  for  political  liberty,  will  certainly  be  surpassed 
and  van(|uisbed  by  the  nations  which  are  fit  to  be 
trusted  with  these  liberties.  These  last  will  always 
lie  belter  uniformed,  better  taught,  more  thought- 
ful, better  governed. 

There  is  still  another  reason  why,  if  France  be 
condemned  to  the  fatal  alternative  of  anarchy,  or 
despotism,  her  destruction  is  inevitable.  There  is 
no  issue  from  anarchy  e.\ee]i1  through  a  great  mili- 
tary state,  which,  besides  ruining  and  exiiausting 
till'  nation,  c.-in  only  maintain  its  ascendancy  on  con- 
dition of  being  constantlv  victorious  abroad.  The 
rule  of  military  restraint  at  home  leads  inevitably  to 
foreign  war.  A  vanquished  and  humiliated  army 
cannot  exercise  that  restraint  energelically.  Now, 
in  the  presente  state  of  Europe,  a  nation  which  is 
systematically  obliged  to  engage  in  foreign  wars,  is 
a  nali<in  lost.  Such  a  nation  will  be  constantly 
provoking  against  itself  coalitions  and  invasions. 
This  is  why  the  unstable  condition  of  the  internal 
government  of  France  was  for  her  an  external  danger, 
and  made  her  a  warlike  nation,  notwithstanding 
that  the  general  sentiment  of  her  people  is  very  pa- 
cific. The  eiiuilibrium  of  Eurojie  recjuires  that  all 
the  nations  of  the  continent  should  have  nearly  the 
same  political  constitution.  An  ef'rt'us  inter  mhrim 
cannot  be  allowed  to  disturb  this  harmony.  Thus, 
from  whatever  point  we  set  out.  we  arrive  at  this 
conclusion,  that  France  must  enter  without  delay 
uuon  the  path  of  representative  government.  A 
preliminary  question  naturally  suggests  itself  here  : 
Will  the  Emperor  resign  himself  to  thischange?  Will 
he  so  far  modify  a  programme  which  is  for  him.  not 
a  mere  ambitious  calculation,  but  a  faith,  an  enthu- 
siasm, the  religious  belief  which  explains  his  whole 
life?  .\fter  having  cherished,  to  the  verge  of  fauati- 
cLsm,  an  ideal  which  alone  he  holds  to  be  noble  and 
grand,  but  which  France  has  rejected,  will  he  not 
feel  an  invincible  di.sgiist  for  that  government  of 
peace,  of  economy,  of  small  ministerial  battles,  which 
has  always  appeared  to  him  the  iiersonificatiim  of 
decadence,  and  which  is  associated  in  his  mind  with 
the  memory  of  a  dynasty  held  by  him   in  small  es- 


teem ?  Will  lie  venture  oiitHide  of  tliul  «ircle  of 
Hccond-ratr-  coiinsellorK  anil  miniHtrm  in  which  he 
seems  to  take  delight?  (,'an  ii  wivereign,  invested 
by  the  popular  vole  with  the  plenitude  of  po[iulur 
rights,  be  a  parliamentary  iiiomircii  i'  Ih  not  the 
plibindtf  n  rejection  of  consliliilioiial  monurchy  ?  IloH 
such  a  governmiMit  ever  resulted  from  a '■"«/»  iCilntf 
Can  it  coexist  with  universal  siiirrage  ?  The  respect 
due  to  the  person  of  the  sovereign  prohibils  the  ex- 
amination of  these  questions.  ConHiderHtiors  of 
race  and  blood,  which  were  formerly  decisive  in  hitt- 
tory,  have  lost  much  of  their  force.  HiibslitiitiooH 
which  would  have  been  impossible  under  Hie  ancient 
may  have  liecome  possible.  Family  characterislicB, 
which  were  formerly  iiillexible,  so  llial  a  Uoiirhon, 
for  example,  was  only  suited  to  play  a  ]iarticular 
part,  are  now  su.sceplilile  of  much  modification. 
The  historic  mle  and  the  race  are  no  longer  insi-par- 
able  things.  Tli.it  an  heir  of  .Napoleon  I.  should 
aceomplisii  a  work  antagonistic  lo  .Napoleon  I.  is  not 
a  thing  absolutely  inadmissible.  Public  opinion  lias 
become  so  thoroughly  the  sovr-reign  master  that 
names  and  men  are  only  what  it  makes  them,  The 
a  priiiri  objections  raised  by  certain  persons  ai^ain.st 
the  possibility  of  a  constitutional  future  with  the 
Bonaparte  family  are  consequently  not  decisive.  The 
Capet  family,  which  became  well  and  truly  the  re- 
presentative of  French  nationality,  and  of  the  third 
estate  (tiers  Hat),  was  in  the  beginning  ullra-(jer- 
manic,  ullra-feudal.  As  architecture  forms  u  style 
out  of  faults  and  the  mistakes  of  inexperience,  so  a 
nation  may.  if  it  pleases,  turn  to  advantage  its  own 
misdeeds.  We  enjoy  the  benefits  of  royalty,  though 
royalty  was  established  iiy  a  series  of  crimes:  we 
profit  by  the  results  of  the  Hevolution,  though  the 
Uevolution  was  a  tissue  of  atrocities.  It  is  a  sad 
law  of  human  life  that  we  become  wise  only  when 
we  are  worn  out.  We  have  been  too  ditlicull  to 
please,  we  have  rejected  excellence:  we  rest  satis- 
fied with  mediocrity  through  fi-ar  of  something 
worse.  The  coquette  who  has  refused  the  most  bril- 
liant offers  of  marriage  often  ends  by  accepting  the 
most  commonplace.  Those  who  have  dreamed  of  a 
republic  without  republicans,  please  themselves  in 
like  manner   with   imagining  a   reign  of  the  Bona- 

!  parte  family  without  ftonajiartists-  a  condition  of 
things  in  wiiich  thiit  family,  freed  from  the  <-ompro- 
mising  companionship  of  those  who  enthusiastically 
prepared  the  way  for  its  second  accession,  would 
find  its  best  supporters,  its  safest  counsellors,  among 
tho.se  who  have  not  helped  to  make  it  what  it  is,  but 
have  accepted  it,  as  a  thing  desired  by  F'rance,  and 
as  capable  of  opening  some  issue  out  of  the  strange 
|ierplexit)'  into  whicii  fate  has  led.  It  is  very  true 
that  there  is  no  example  of  a  constitutional  dynasty 
resulting  from  a  o>iip  (Vit'it.  The  Viscontis.  the 
Sforzas,  tyrants  born  of  republican  discords,  are  not 
the  stuff  of  which  legitimate  monarchies  are  made. 
Such  monarchies  are  founded  only  by  the  peculiar 
sternness  and  hauteur  of  the  Germanic  race  in  bar- 
barous and  ignorant  ages,  when  oblivion  is  possible, 

'  and  when  mankind  lives  in  that  mysterious  darkness 
which  is  the  foundation  of  respect.'  FaUt  nam  in. 
renient.  .  .  .  The  strange  defiance  which  France 
has  shown  to  all  the  laws  of  historj-  compels  us  to 
great  reserve  in  such  inductions.  Let  us  go  higher; 
and,  neglecting  whatever  the  accident  of  to-morrow- 
may  disconcert,  let  us  inquire  what  reasons  exist  in 

I  the  nation  why  one  should  have  a  constitutional 
monarchy,  what  grounds  there  are  for  hoping  for  its 
success,  what  fears  may  be  entertained  in  regard  to 
its  permanent  establishment. 

We  have  seen  that  the  peculiar  feature  of  France, 
a  feature  which  widely  separates  her  from  England 

.  and  the  other  European  stales  (Italy  and  Spain. up  to 

.  a  certain  point  excepted), is, that  the' republican  party 
constitutes  a  considerable  element  of  herjxipulation. 
This  partv.  which  was  strong  enough  to  overturn 
Louis  Pliilijipe,   and   lo   impose   its   theory   on  the 

;  country   for  a  few  months,  was,  after  the  Sd  of  I)e- 


BEVOLUTION. 


684 


HEVOLUTION. 


cember,  the  object  of  a  sort  of  proscription.  Has  it 
consequently  disappeared  ?  No,  indeed  I  The  pro- 
gress it  has  made  in  these  hist  thirty  years  lias  been 
very  perceptible.  Not  only  has  it  kept  possession  of 
the  majority  in  Paris  and  the  large  cities,  but  it  has 
gained  whole  districts  of  country  besides  ;  the  entire 
circuit  of  the  environs  of  Paris  now  belongs  to  it.  The 
democratic  spirit,  such  as  we  know  it  in  Paris,  with 
its  rigidity,  its  dogmatic  tone,  the  deceptive  simplic- 
ity of  its  ideas,  its  petty  suspicions,  its  ingratitude, 
has  conquered  certain  rural  cantons  in  a  surprising 
manner.  In  many  a  village  the  relations  of  farmers 
and  farm  servants  are  exactly  those  of  workmen  and 
employers  in  a  manufacturing  town  ;  peasants  will 
talk  their  surly,  radical,  jealous  politics  to  you  with 
jis  much  assurance  as  the  workmen  of  Belleville,  or 
of  the  Faubourg  Saint  Antoine.  The  idea  of  equal 
rights  for  all,  a  way  of  considering  the  government 
as  a  mere  public  service  which  is  paid  for,  and 
to  which  neither  respect  nor  gratitude  is  due, 
a  sort  of  American  impertinence,  the  pretension 
to  be  as  wise  as  the  best  statesmen,  and  to  reduce 
politics  to  the  mere  consultation  of  the  wishes  of 
the  majority — such  is  the  spirit  which  gains  ground 
more  and  more,  even  in  the  country^  WilT,  how- 
ever, the  repulilican  party  ever  succeed  in  becorning 
the  majorit)',  and  in  securing  the  triumph  of  Ameri- 
can institiitions  in  France?  It  is  essential  to  that 
party  to  be  always  in  the  minority.  If  they  were 
finally  to  effect  a  social  revolution,  they  might 
create  new  classes,  but  these  classes  would  become 
monarchical  the  moment  thej'  became  wealthy. 
The  most  pressing  interests  of  France,  the  character 
of  her  mind,  her  good  qualities  and  her  defects, 
make  royalty  a  necessity  to  her.  Tlie  very  moment 
a  radical  party  shall  have  overturned  a  monarchy, 
the  journalists,  the  literary  men,  the  artists,  the  men 
of  intellect,  the  men  of  the  world,  the  women,  will 
conspire  together  to  establish  another:  for  the  mim- 
arch)'  corresponds  to  the  deeply -felt  needs  of  the 
nation.  Our  amiability  alone  suffices  to  make  us 
bad  republicans.  Tlie  charming  exaggerations  of 
tlie  old  French  politeness,  the  courtesy  which 
'•places  us  at  the  feef'of  those  with  whom  we  have  in- 
tercourse, is  the  very  opposite  of  that  stiff,  rough, 
dry  manner  which  the  ever-present  consciousness  of 
his  rights  gives  to  the  democrat.  France  excels 
only  in  the  exquisite ;  she  loves  only  what  is  ele- 
gant ;  she  can  only  l)e  aristocratic.  They  are  a  race 
of  gentlemen  ;  tlieir  ideal  has  been  created  by  gen- 
tlemen, not,  like  that  of  America,  by  honest  citi- 
zens and  serious  men  of  business.  People  habituated 
to  such  things  as  tliese  are  only  satisfied  with  a 
high-bred  society,  a  court  and  princes  of  the  blood. 
To  hope  that  great  and  fine  French  works  will  con- 
tinue to  be  produced  in  a  democratic  community 
(dans  un  monde  hmirgenU)  wlierc  no  inequality  is  ad- 
mitted but  that  of  wealth,  is  a  delusion.  The  gener- 
ous and  imaginative  people  who  expen<l  the  most 
fervor  upon  the  republican  Utopia  are  the  very 
persons  who  would  be  the  least  able  to  accommodate 
themselves  to  such  a  state  of  society.  They  who 
pursue  so  eagerly  the  American  ideal  forget  that  the 
American  race  lias  not  a  very  brilliant  past  :  that  it  has 
never  had  a  nobility  ;  tliat  it  is  occiitiied  exclusivelv 
in  business  and  the  pursuit  of  wcaltli.  Our  ideal 
can  only  be  realized  under  a  government  shedding 
.splendor  upon  all  that  approaches  it,  and  creating 
distinctions  outside  of  weallli.  A  society  where  a 
man's  merit  and  his  superiority  over  another  can 
onlj'  be  shown  in  industrial  iiursuits  and  in  com- 
merce, is  anti|)atlietic  ;  not  that  industrial  pursuits 
and  commerce  do  not  seem  to  us  lioiioralilc,  but 
liecauHe  we  sec  plainly  tliat  tlie  best  Ihimrs  (for  ex- 
ample, the  functions  of  pri<'st,  magistrale.  scholnr, 
artist,  and  man  of  letters)  are  the  inverse  of  the 
commercial  and  industrial  spirit ;  for  the  first  duty 
of  tho.se  who  undertake  these  functions  is  not  to 
seek  to  enrich  themselves,  and  never  to  consider  the 
commercial  value  of  what  they  do.     The  republican 


party  may  therefore  prevent  the  establishment  of  any 
liberal  government  whatsoever,  for  it  will  always 
have  it  in  its  power,  by  inciting  seditions,  to 
force  any  government  to  arm  itself  with  repressive 
laws,  to  restrict  the  liberties  of  the  people,  and  to 
strengthen  the  military  element.  Whether  it  be 
capable  of  establishing  itself,  is  doubtful.  The 
hatred  between  it  and  the  peaceable  portion  of  the 
community  will  continue  to  grow  more  and  more 
envenomed,  for  more  and  more  it  will  .seem  to  the 
whole  country  to  be  a  perpetual  marplot.  It  will 
succeed,  we  fear,  only  in  provoking  a  kind  of  peri- 
odical crisis,  followed  by  violent  expulsions,  which 
the  conservative  party  will  maintain  to  be  ijurifica- 
tions,  but  will  in  truth  be  debilitations,  and  whicli 
will,  in  any  case,  wear  upon  the  constitution  of 
France  in  a  deplorable  manner.  In  these  convulsive 
vomitings,  excellent  elements,  essential  to  the  life  of 
a  nation,  will  be  thrown  out,  together  with  the  im- 
pure elements.  As  it  happened  after  1848,  liberal 
ideas  will  suffer  from  their  inevitable  association 
with  a  party  which,  being  full  of  generous  illusions, 
has  great  attractions  for  youthful  imaginations,  and 
which,  besides,  holds  a  great  part  of  its  programme  in 
common  with  the  litjeral  school.  It  is  to  I)e  feared  that 
long-standing  habits  of  miu<l,  a  certain  rigidity,  a 
great  deal  of  routine,  and  the  custom  of  judging 
everything  by  the  Parisian  standard  (a  custom  easy 
to  be  understood  in  a  party  which  was  at  the  outset 
essentially  Parisian),  will  lead  that  party  to  believe 
that  revolutions  like  those  of  183U  and  1848  may  be 
repeated.  Nothing  could  be  more  fatal.  The  time 
for  Parisian  revolutions  is  over.  We  found  this 
opinion  less  upon  the  material  changes  which  have 
taken  place  in  Paris,  than  upon  two  causes  whicli,  it 
seems  to  us,  will  have  an  enormous  influence  upon 
tlie  destinies  of  the  future. 

One  is  the  establishment  of  universal  suffrage.  A 
people  in  possession  of  this  suffrage  will  allow  no 
revolutions  to  be  made  by  its  capital.  If  a  revolu- 
tion should  take  place  in  Paris  (a  thing  which  is  for- 
tunately impossible),  we  are  persuaded  tliat  the  de- 
partments would  not  accept  '\t\  that  barricades  would 
rise  across  the  railways  to  stay  the  spread  of  the 
conflagration,  and  to  prevent  provisions  from  reach- 
ing the  capital ;  and  that  the  disturbance  at  Paris, 
soon  reduced  to  starvation,  would  be  but  short  liv- 
ed. The  emancipation  of  the  provinces  lias  made 
great  progress  since  1848.  Another  fact,  moreover, 
ought  to  be  taken  into  great  consideration.  The 
whole  philosoph)'  of  history  is  governed  by  the  ques- 
tion of  armament.  Nothing  has  so  much  contribut- 
ed to  the  triumph  of  the  modern  spirit  as  the  inven- 
tion of  gun  powder.  Artillery  has  destroyed  chival- 
ry and  feudalism,  given  strength  to  monarclis  and  to 
States,  definitivelj-  checkmated  barbarism,  rendered 
impossible  those  strange  cyclones  of  the  Tartar 
hordes,  which,  gathering  in  the  heart  of  Asia,  came 
shaking  Europe  to  its  foundations,  and  terrifj-ing  the 
Christian  world.  The  nice  application  of  science  to 
the  art  of  war  in  our  day  will  lead  to  revolutions  al- 
most as  grave.  War  will  become  more  and  more  a 
scientific  and  mechanical  problem :  the  richest,  the 
most  scientific,  the  iiKist  ingenious  nation  will  have 
the  advantage.  If  we  examine  the  effects  of  this 
change  upon  the  inl.'rnal  affairs  of  Slates,  it  is  clear 
that  ihe  application,  on  a  large  scale,  of  science  to 
arniaments  will  be  to  tlie  sole  profit  of  governments. 
The  etfect  of  artillery  was  to  destroy,  one  after  the 
other,  all  feudal  castles ;  one  discharge  of  some  im- 
proved engine  will  stop  a  revolution.  At  epodis 
wlien  arms  are  imperfect,  a  citizen  is  almost  the 
equal  of  a  soldier;  but  as  soon  as  the  aggressive  ])ro- 
ccss  becomes  a  liarncil  matter,  riMiuiring  exact  in- 
;  struments  and  dciiiaiiding  a  spe<ial  education,  the 
j  solilier  has  an  immense  superiority  over  the  unarm- 
ed multitude.  There  is  every  reason,  therefore,  to 
beriev<'  tliat  revolutions  Ijegun  liy  citizens,  will  hence- 
forth be  crushed  in  the  bud.  Tlie  Jesuits,  with  their 
usual  .sagacity,  understand  this,  as  is  seen    by   their 


KEVOLUTION. 


68, 


REVOLUTION. 


cctdiif;  iKisHcsHion  of  the  iivcnwcH  li>  llic  Sriiool  of 
Hi.  Cyriind  lo  llic  I'dlylcchnic  Si'liool.  Tlicy  fore- 
Hectlic  future  of  iIkihc  who  know  liow  lo  "liandle 
dcx'Icroiis  wciipons  mill  (lis<'i|ilirii'(l  forciH.  iiiul  llii'v 
perceive,  very  cleiirly,  lliiit  the  Hdvniilii^e  in  this  re- 
spect is  with  the  ohl  aristocracy,  less  ahsorhed  than 
the  citizen  class  by  industrial  pursuits,  or  by  lucra- 
tive civil  positions,  and  therefore  inori^  capable  of 
abnetcation.  France,  then,  seems  destini'd  for  a  lonj; 
time  still  to  escape  the  republic,  even  if  the  ri'pub- 
lican  party  should  have  the  numerical  majority. 
There  is  in  the  nation  a  constantly  increasini;  mass 
of  people  destitute  of  any  relinious  ideal,  ancj  ri'jecl- 
ini;  every  social  principle  superior  lo  the  will  of  Ihi- 
inilividual.  The  remaining  mass,  not  vet  convened 
to  these  egotistical  views,  is  daily  diminished,  by 
means  of  the  primary  school,  and  by  the  u.sc  of  uni- 
versal sulTrag<' ;  but  against  this  rising  tide  of  ag- 
gressive ideas,  which,  lieing  young  anil  inexper- 
ienced, make  no  account  of  dilliciilties  higher  in- 
terestsand  needs  array  themselves,  and  demand  thai 
society  b(^  organized  and  directed  by  a  principle  of 
reason  and  knowledge  distinct  from  the  will  of  the 
individual.  The  democrat  ever  imagines  that  the 
mind  of  the  nation  is  clearly  made  up;  he  does 
not  allow  that  there  can  jiossibly  li<'  anything  in  the 
least  obscun',  hesituliiig,  or  contradictory  in  pub- 
lic opinion;  tucount  lli<'  votes  and  lo  do  the  will  of  the 
majority,  seem  to  him  very  simple  things  ;  but  these 
are  delusions.  For  a  long  time  to  come,  public 
opinion  will  have  to  be  guessed  at, foreseen, supposed, 
and,  up  lo  a  certain  point,  guided.  Hence,  llicre  are 
inimarchical  interests  which,  the  moment  a  republi<; 
is  established,  become  formidable,  even  in  the  opinion 
of  those  who  have  set  up,  or  allowed  others  to  set 
up,  the  republic.  'J'lie  movemeni  which  is  going  on 
in  the  popular  classes,  tending  to  give  to  each  in-  J 
dividual  a  more  and  more  precise  consciou.sness  of 
Ills  rights,  is  a  fact  so  evident  that  it  would  be  sheer 
madness  to  wish  lo  oppose  it.  The  true  policy  is  to 
provide  for  it,  and  to  accommodate  ourselves  to  it.  ; 
The  men  of  science  have  never  sought  means  to  arrest 
the  tide  :  they  have  done  better  ;  they  have  so  well 
determined  the  laws  of  this  phenomenon,  that 
the  navigator  knows, from  minute  lo  minute, the  stale 
of  the  sea,  and  protits  greatly  by  it.  To  prevent  the 
rising  tide  from  carrying  away  the  necessary  embank- 
ments, and  causing,  as  it  retires,  fatal  reactions,  is  the 
essential  thing.  Xow.jvidging from ajijiearances, this 
is  just  what  w  ill  happen, so  long  as  tlie  French  democ- 
racy shall  be  led  by  that  acrimonious,  (|uarrelsome, 
conceited  Jacobism  which  agitates  the  country, some- 
limes,  even,  gives  it  ;ni  impulse,  but  will  never  guide 
it  to  a  settled  constitution.  That  party  may  make  a 
,  revolution, but  it  will  not  reignmore  thantwo months 
afterward.  Even  if  it  should  succeed  in  obtaining  a 
majority  of  votes,  which  is  not  very  probable,  it 
would  still  establish  not  liing,for  the  element  sat  its  dis- 
posal, though  e.\cellent  for  purposes  of  agitation,  are 
unstable,  easily  disunited,  and  totally  incapable  of 
furuishing  the  solid  materials  of  a  construction.  Its 
strength,  though  great,  is  partly  a  strength  of  cir- 
cumstance. It  has  happened  to  us  a  dozen  limes, 
during  an  electoral  campaign,  to  hear  the  following 
dialogue:  '-We  are  not  satisfied  with  the  govern- 
mentT  it  costs  too  niucli;  it  governs  for  Ihe  benefit 
of  those  who  do  not  think  as  we  ilo  :  we  shall  vote 
for  tile  most  radical  opposition  candidate."  ■'Then 
you  are  revolutionists  J  "  "Not  at  all ;  we  only  want 
to  make  an  impression  on  the  government;  to  force 
it  lo  cliange  its  course ;  to  hold  it  vigorously  in 
check."  "But  if  Ihe  chamber  is  composed  of  revo- 
lutionists, the  government  is  ujjset."  "No;  there 
will  only  be  twenty  or  thirty  of  them  ;  and  then  the 
ijovernmeut  is  so  strong  '.  It  has  the  chassepols  I  " 
^his  naive  reasoning  sliows  how  much  Ihe  railical 
party  deceives  itself  when  it  imagines  that  the  coun- 
try desires  it  for  its  own  sake.  A  great  part  of  the 
country  uses  it  as  a  rod  with  which  to  chastise  the 
established  authorities,  not  as  a  stall  upon  which  to 


urged  it  on,  lliem- 


I  lean.     "They  elecl  us,  llierefore  they  like  u»,"  would 

1  be,  on  the  part  of  the  honorable  meinberH  of  the  go- 

;  called  a<lvanr'ed  oppiMilion,  the  most  dungeroUM  of 
conclusioiiH.  They  are  ilected  in  orrler  lo  give  Uio 
govermiienl  a  h'sson,  and  with  Hie  conviction  that 
Ihe  governnii'nt  i?.  strong  enough  lo  bear  the  leHMon. 

I  ISiil  when  this  shall  no  longer  be  the  caHc,  when  it 
shall  be  perceived  tliikl   the  existence  of  Uic  govurn- 

1  menl  has  been  endangered,  there  will  be  u  coiintiT 
iiiovement ;  so  that  the  radical  parly  Is  Hiibjecl  lo 
this  strange  law,  that  its  hour  of  victory  is  llie  be- 
ginning of  its  defeat.     Its  Iriumtih  is  its  end  :  often 

j  those  who  have  voted  for  ii.  ami 

I  selves  applaud  its  proscription. 

The  mainlcnance  of  order  has,  in  fact,  become  in 
European  commiinllies  so  imperiruis  a  condition, 
that  long  civil  wars  are  irnpoMsible.  The  example 
is  often  (|iioled  of  those  famous  Greek  and  Italian 
republics  which  created  an  iMlmirable  civllizaiion  in 
till'  midst  of  a  political  stale,  very  analogous  to  Ihe 
Ueign  of  Terror;  but  no  conclusions  can  thence  be 
drawn  applicable  lo  a  society  like  ours,  whose  ma- 
chinery is  much  more  complicated.  Spain,  the 
Spanish  republics  of  America,  even  Italy,  can  en- 
dure a  greater  degiee  of  anarchy  than  Franv,  be- 
cause these  are  countries  where  life  is  easier,  wliere 
there  are  fewer  sources  of  wealth,  where  material 
interests  and  credit  have  lieen  less  developed.  The 
Keign  of  Terror  at  Ihe  end  of  the  last  century  was 
Ihe  suspension  of  life.  In  our  day  it  would  be  still 
worse.  As  a  being  of  simple  structure  can  exist 
under  many  very  dilTerent  conditions,  whilst  animals 
finely  organized,  like  man,  have  such  restricted 
limits  that  slight  changes  in  their  habits  produce 
death,  so  our  complicated  civilizations  cannot  sup- 
(lort  crises.  They  have,  if  we  may  say  s(j,  a  delicate 
lemperament ;  a  degree,  more  or  less,  kills  them. 
A  week  of  anarchy  would  cause  incalculable  losses; 
at  the  end  of  a  monlh,  perhaps,  the  railway  trains 
would  cease  running.  We  have  created  mechanisms 
of  infinite  precisions,  lool.s  and  engines  whose  mo- 
tive jiowcr  is  confidence,  and  which  all  presuppose 
a  protound  public  tranquilily,  a  government  firmly 
established  and  at  the  same  time  thoroughly  con- 
trolled. We  know  that  in  the  United  States  matters 
are  managed  otherwise;  there,  a  degree  of  disorder 
is  endured,  which  would  in  France  excite  cries  of 
alarm.  This  comes  from  the  fact  that  the  constitu- 
tional foundations  of  the  United  Stales  are  never  really 
in  danger.  These  lillle-governed  American  States 
resemble  those  European  countries  where  the  dy- 
n;isly  is  not  brought  in  question.  They  respect  the 
law  and  the  constiUition,  which  lo  them  represent 
Ihe  European  doctrine  of  legitimacy.  To  compare 
countries  like  ours,  having  socialistic  tendencies,  and 
where  so  many  people  look  lo  a  revolution  as  to  a 
means  of  improving  their  condition,  with  such 
Slates  as  these,  completely  exempt  from  socialism, 
an<l  where  men,  wholly  occupied  with  their  private 
affairs,  ask  very  little  protection  from  the  govern- 
ment, is  the  greatest  mistake  in  philosophical  his- 
tory that  can  be  committed. 

The  need  of  order  fell  by  old  European  societies, 
coinciding  with  the  improvements  in  arms.  wUI,  on 
the  whole,  give  lo  Ihe  governments  as  much  strength 
as  they  are  daily  losing  through  the  progress  of 
revolutionary  icieas.  Like  religion,  the  cause  ot 
order  w  ill  have  its  fanatics.  Modern  societies  have 
this  peculiarity,  that  they  are  extremely  placable  so 

1  long  as  their  existence  is  not  in  danger,  but  become 
pitiless  so  soon  as  they  begin  lo  have  doublsof  their 

I  own  stability.     A  community  that  has  been  fright- 

I  eued  is  like  a  man  that  has  been  frightened  :  it  has 
lost  somelhing  of  its  moral  courage.  The  means 
employed  liy  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  13lhaud  in 
Ihe  Uith  centuries,  to   defend   its   threatened   exist- 

I  ence,  will  be  resorted  to  by  modern  society  under 
more  expeditious  and  less  cruel,  but  not  less  ter- 
rible, forms.     If  Ihe  old  dynasties  be  powerless  here, 

1  or  if,  as  is  probable,  they  refuse  to  accept  power  un- 


KEVOLUTION. 


G8<^ 


REVOLTJTIOM. 


der  conditions  unworthy  of  them,  recourse  will  be  had 
to  the  Italian  ^(wv'crs  and podei>tas  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
to  whom  will  be  entrusted  the  entire  business  of 
reconstructing  society  in  accordance  with  a  bloody 
programme  drawn  up  beforehand.  Chance  dicta- 
tors, analogous  to  the  Generals  of  Spanish  America, 
will  alone  undertake  such  tasks.  As,  however,  the 
European  races  have  a  fund  of  fidelity  which  they 
never  part  with,  and  as,  moreover,  there  will  remain 
for  a  long  time  to  come  survivors  of  the  ancient  dy- 
nasties, there  will  probably  be  a  return  to  legitimacy 
after  each  of  these  cruel  dictatorships.  More  than 
once  again  in  the  future,  the  traditional  rulers  will 
■be  entreated  to  resume  their  task,  and  to  restore,  at 
■whatever  cost,  to  the  nations  which  of  old  made 
covenants  with  their  ancestors,  a  little  peace,  good 
faith,  and  honor.  Perhaps  tliev  will  require  much 
solicitation,  and  will  make  conditions  about  which 
there  will  be  no  dispute.  In  view  of  certain  occur- 
rences like  those  which  have  recently  taken  place  in 
Greece,  in  Mexico,  and  in  Spain,  the  democratic 
party  sometimes  says,  with  a  smile,  "There  are  no 
more  kings  to  be  found  "  A  return  of  barbarians, 
that  is  to  saj',  a  new  triumph  of  the  least  intelligent 
and  ^east  civilized  portions  of  mankind  over  the 
more  intelligent  and  more  civilized,  seems  at  the 
first  glance  impossible.  Let  us  have  a  clear  under- 
standing upon  this  point.  There  still  exists  in  the 
world  a  reservoir  of  barbaric  forces,  almost  wholly 
under  the  control  of  Russia.  So  long  as  the  civilized 
nations  retain  their  powerful  organization,  the  part 
which  this  barbarism  has  to  play  is  reduced  almost 
to  nothing;  but  if  (which  Heaven  forbid  .')  the  leprosy 
of  egoism  and  anarchy  should  cause  the  destruction 
of  the  Western  States,  barbarism  would  assuredly 
resume  its  proper  function,  which  is  to  restore  the 
manhood  of  corrupt  civilizations;  to  bring  about  a 
Tivifying  return  to  instinct,  when  reflection  has  put 
an  end  to  subordination;  to  show  that  the  spirit 
which  leads  men  to  devote  them.selves  freely  to 
death,  through  fidelity  to  a  chief  (a  thing  which  the 
democrat  holds  to  be  base  and  foolish),  is  that  which 
makes  a  people  strong,  and  gives  them  the  earth  for 
a  possession.  We  must  not,  therefore,  shut  our  eyes 
to  the  truth  that  the  democratic  theories,  carried  out 
to  their  furthest  limit,  would  result  in  utter  weak- 
ness. A  nation  which  .should  follow  this  plan,  re- 
pudiating all  idea  of  glory,  of  social  eclat,  of  individ- 
ual superiority — having  for  its  sole  object  the  con- 
tentment of  the  materialistic  desires  of  the  masses — 
that  is  to  say,  aiming  only  to  procure  the  satisfaction 
of  the  greatest  number,  would  lay  itself  completely 
open  to  conquest,  and  endanger  its  verj'  existence. 
How  shall  we  prevent  these  sad  results,  which  we 
have  sought  to  point  out  as  possibilities,  and  not  as 
things  distinctly  feared  ?  By  the  reactionary  plan  ? 
By  restraining,  extinguishing,  crushing,  governing 
more  and  more  ?  No,  a  thousand  times  no  !  That 
policy  has  been  the  origin  of  the  whole  evil;  it  would 
be  the  means  of  utter  ruin.  The  liberal  programme 
is  at  the  same  time  the  truly  conservative  plan.  Be- 
yond all  doubt  a  constitutional  monarchy,  limited 
and  controlled ;  decentralization;  less  government; 
an  exceedingly  strong  organization  of  the  commuue, 
the  canton,  and  the  department  ;  a  strong  impulse 
given  to  individual  activity  in  art,  intellect,  science, 
trade,  manufactures  and  colonization  ;  a  policy  de- 
cidedly pacific;  an  abandonment  of  all  projects  of 
territorial  aggrandizement  in  Europe ;  the  devel- 
opment of  a  good  system  of  primary  instruction, and 
of  a  superior  instruction,  capable  of  giving  to  the 
morals  of  the  educated  class  the  basis  of  a  sound 
philosophy;  the  formation  of  an  upper  legislative 
chamber, clioscn  by  many  Viirious  modes  of  clectitm, 
and  providing,  together  wilh  tlie  simjile  numerical 
representation  of  all  the  citizens,  for  the  representa- 
tion of  divers  interests,  functions,  specialties  and 
aptitudes  ;  in  social  questions,  government  neutrali- 
ty ;  entire  liberty  of  association;  gradual  separation 
of  church  and  state,  an  all-important  condition  in  the 


opinion  of  the  religious  world ; — such  is  the  dream 
of  those  who  seek  by  the  aid  of  calm  reflection,  un- 
blinded  by  an  intemperate  patriotism,  a  practicable 
pathway.  In  some  respects,  this  is  a  policy  of  peni- 
tence, implying  the  confession  that,  for  the  moment, 
it  concerns  us  less  to  continue  the  Revolution  than 
to  correct  it.  It  often  seems  that  France  is  passing 
through  a  period  of  fasting,  a  sort  of  political  regi- 
men, during  which  the  attitude  which  best  becomes 
Frenchmen  is  that  of  the  sensible  man  who  is  ex- 
piating the  errors  of  his  youth;  or  rather  that  of  the 
mistaken  traveller,  finally  obliged  to  take  the  long 
way  round  the  hill  he  had  at  first  attempted  to  scale. 
Revolutions,  like  civil  wars,  are  strengthening,  if 
we  come  out  of  them  :  they  kill  if  they  last. 

In  general,  the  mistake  of  the  French  liberal  party 
is  in  not  understanding  that  every  political  construc- 
tion should  have  a  conservative  basis.  In  England 
parliamentary  government  was  not  possible  until 
after  the  exclusion  of  the  radical  party,  an  exclusion 
which  was  effected  with  a  sort  of  frenzy  of  legiti- 
macy. Nothing  is  assured  in  politics  until  the  heavy 
and  solid  parts  of  tlie  nation,  which  are  its  ballast, 
have  been  enlisted  in  the  cause  of  progress.  The 
liberal  party  of  1830  were  too  ready  to  believe  they 
could  carry  their  purpose  by  main  force,  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  legitimists.  The  estrangement  or 
the  hostility  of  the  latter  party  is  still  the  great  mis- 
fortune of  France.  Withdrawn  from  common  life, 
the  legitimate  aristocracy  refuses  to  society  what 
it  justly  owes — patronage,  examples  and  lessons 
of  noble  living,  of  grave  and  dignified  maimers. 
The  vulgarity,  the  total  want  of  education,  the 
great  ignorance  of  the  art  of  living,  the  ennui, 
the  absence  of  resi>ect,  and  the  puerile  parsimony  of 
provincial  life,  which  prevail  in  France,  are  all  owing 
to  the  fact  that  those  who  ought  to  furnisli  the  coun- 
try with  the  type  of  the  gentleman,  fulfilling  public 
duties  with  universally  recognized  authority,  fly 
from  society,  and  more  and  more  give  themselves 
up  to  a  solitary  and  retired  life.  The  legitimist  party 
is  in  one  sense  the  indispensable  substructure  of 
every  political  foundation  amongst  the  French ; 
even  the  United  States  have,  after  their  manner, 
this  essential  basis  of  all  society,  in  their  religious 
souvenirs,  heroic  in  their  way,  and  in  that  class  of 
moral,  high-toned,  grave,  and  weighty  citizens  who 
are  the  stonds  with  which  the  edifice  of  tlie  State  is 
built.  The  rest  is  but  sand;  nothing  durable  is  made 
of  it,  whatever  talent,  whatever  warmth  of  heart, 
_even,  is  brought  to  the  work.  This  provincial  party 
which  is  day  by  day  becoming  conscious  of  its 
strength,  what  does  it  think?  what  does  it  wish? 
Never  were  views  more  clearly  defined.  This  party 
is  liberal,  not  revolutionarj-;  constitutional,  not  re- 
publican; it  wishes  the  control  of  authority,  not  its 
destruction;  the  end  of  personal  government,  not 
the  overthrow  of  the  dynasty.  We  do  not  doubt 
that  if,  in  time  past,  the  governnipnt  had  taken  a 
positive  stand,  had  given  up  the  system  of  official 
candidates,  the  artificial  subdivision  of  districts 
(circonscriptions),  and  allowed  the  electi(ms  to  be 
made  spontaneously  by  tlie  nation,  the  result  would 
have  been  to  return  a  clianiber  decidedly  imbued 
with  these  principles,  and  which,  being  considered 
by  the  nation  as  representing  its  wishes,  would 
have  had  sufflcicnt  strength  to  get  safely  over 
the  most  difficult  crises.  The  day  will  inevitably 
come  when  it  will  be  as  hard  to  understand  why 
the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  did  not  seize  this  means 
of  obtaining  from  the  country  a  second  sigiiiiture  to 
his  marriage  contract  with  the  slate,  and  of  divid- 
ing with  tiie  nation  the  responsibility  of  ii  doubtful 
future,  as  it  is  to  compreliciid  why  Ijouis  Philippe 
did  not  see  in  the  co-operation  of  men  of  capacity  a 
tncans  of  enlarging  the  bases  of  his  dynasty.  The 
provinces,  in  fact,  take  the  elections  much  more 
sc^riously  than  Paris.  Having  no  political  life  ex- 
cept once  in  every  six  years,  they  give  to  the  elec- 
tions an  importance  which  Paris,  with  her  habitual 


REVOLUTION. 


687 


EEVOLUTION, 


levity,  (Iocs  not  aorord  to  tlirm.  I'ari.n,  only  intent 
on  inakini;  liiT  nidical  protest,  hcch  in  tlir'  rIcrtionH, 
not  a  clioicir  of  uravc  dclcnatcH,  Imt  an  o|i|Mirtiniily 
for  ironical  nianifcstations.  'I'lir  proviiircH  do 
not  understand  siicli  tincssin;;;  tlicir  ilcpiilii-H  are 
really  lladr  representatives,  anil  lliey  tirndy  adiir-nr 
to  them.  A  cliandier  freely  eleeteil  willioiit  inli-r- 
fcrence  from  tlii^  adininislralion,  woidd  it  liav(^  been 
dangerous  for  the  dynasty?  Would  the  radieal  o|)po- 
sition  have  been  represented  in  it  liy  an  increased 
nuniher  of  deputies?  \V(' think  just  the  contrary. 
In  a  i;reat  lunuher  of  cases  tlu'  election  of  lioslile,  or 
even  abusive  caudidales,  has  bi'cn  a  sort  of  protest 
against  the  olliciul  or  ol)si'(piious  candidate.  The 
system  of  olllcial  candidates  completely  disturbs  the 
working  of  elections  and  impairs  their  Iruslworlhi- 
ness.  not  only  by  the  direct  pressun;  (^\erte(l  by  tin- 
adminislralion  in  favor  of  its  own  candidates,  but 
especially  l)y  the  falser  position  in  which  it  places 
the  independent  voter.  The  aim  of  the  latter  is, 
in  jjeneral.  no  longer  to  surely  choose  the  candidate 
who  best  represents  his  various  opinions,  or  whom 
h(^  Ihinks  the  most  callable  of  servinif  the  country, 
but  lo  set  well  aside,  at  whatever  cost,  the  official 
candidate.  C'onseipiently,  no  more  shades  of  opin- 
ion, no  more  personal  preferences.  Since  extreme 
opinions  tind  an  assured  favor  with  the  mass, 
with  whom  bold  assertions  and  noisy  declanuition 
have  ijreater  force  than  more  moderate  views;  and 
as  the  dcmocralii'  party  has  also  the  control  of  a 
genuine  fanaticism,  and  an  organization  which  no 
other  party  has— the  liberals  fall  in  with  the 
current,  and  adojit,  in  spite  of  their  repujnance,  the 
radical  candidate.  It  is  a  very  wide-spread  error  in 
France,  to  think  that  we  must  ask  more  to  obtain 
less;  and  that  the  radieal  opposition  is  the  instru- 
ment of  progress,  the  iin])elling  force  of  the  govern- 
ment. This  is  lru(^  of  the  modende  oi)posilion,  but 
not  of  the  radieal  party,  which  is  an  obstacle  to 
progress,  an  impediment  to  concessions,  owing  to  the 
terror  it  inspires  and  the  repressive  measures  it  oc- 
casions. Now,  more  than  ever,  the  aim  of  politics 
should  be,  not  to  solve  questions,  but  to  leave  them 
to  time.  The  life  of  nations,  like  that  of  individuals, 
is  a  compromise  between  conlradictions.  Of  how 
many  things  we  nuisl  siiy.  thiit  we  cannot  live  witli 
them  or  without  them,  and  yet  we  still  live!  Prince 
Napoleon  wittily  saiil.  a  few  years  since,  to  those 
who  would  postpone  the  enjoyment  of  liberty  till 
there  are  no  longer  in  France  either  rival  dynasties 
or  a  revohitionary  party :  "You  will  wait  a  long 
time."  History  will  not  blame  the  policy  of  those 
who,  in  such  a  state  of  things,  shall  resign  tliem- 
selves  to  live  l)y  expeilients.  Su|)pose  that  a  mem- 
ber of  the  <lder  or  of  the  younger  branch  of  the 
Bourbon  fanuly  should  one  day  reign  in  France,  it 
will  not  be  because  a  majority  of  the  French  nation 
have  become  legitimists  or  Orleanists.  but  because  a 
turn  in  fortune's  wheel  has  made  some  nu'mber  of 
the  house  ;)f  Bourbon  the  useful  man  of  the  moment. 
Fr;inee  has  allowed  her  dynastic  attachments  so 
completely  to  die  out,  that  even  legilim.ac_v  could 
only  be  restored  V)y  accident,  and  with  a  transitory 
title.  The  positivism  to-day  has  so  done  away  with 
all  metaphysics,  that  one  of  the  narrowest  of  ideas  is 
gaining  credence;  namely,  that  the  more  recent  a 
popular  vote  is,  the  greater  its  force  ;  so  that,  after 
the  lapse  of  some  tifleen  years,  this  strange  kind  of 
reasoning  is  lield  :  "The  geniTalion  which  voted 
such  a  ph'biscite  has  in  jiart  died  ;  the  vote  has  lost 
its  validity ,  and  needs  to  be  renewed."  This  is  con- 
trary to  the  idea  of  the  Jliddle  Ages,  according  to 
which,  the  older  an  agreement  the  more  binding  it 
was.  It  is  in  one  sense  the  negation  of  the  national 
principle  :  for  the  national  principle,  like  religion, 
supposes  compacts  independent  of  the  will  of  the  in- 
dividual, compacts  transmitted  and  received  from 
father  to  son  as  a  heritage.  By  refusing  to  the  na- 
tion the  power  to  bind  the  future,  all  contracts  are 
reduced  lo  life,   or  rather,  we  should  say,    to   time 


conlracis;  thi- more  ardent  republicann  would,  wo 
think,  like  them  even  to  lie  aiuiual,  at  leUHt  until 
they  get  what  they  call  direct  government,  when 
the  national  will  woidil  br-  no  more  than  the  caprice 
of  an  hour.  With  suirh  polilical  notions,  what  lie- 
comes  of  the  inti-grity  of  the  nation?  How  deny 
the  rijiht  lo  the  sueeession  when  all  is  inaiic  lo  de- 
pend upon  the  material  fact  of  the  momentary  will 
of  the  cili/.eiis  ?  Tliir  truth  is,  tliat  a  nation  is  some- 
thing different  from  the  collection  of  units  of  which 
it  is  composed  ;  that  it  cannot  lie  in  any  measure 
dependent  upon  a  mere  vole  ;  that  it  is,  in  its  way. 
an  idia,  iin  ab--lract  thing,  superior  to  the  will  of 
individuals.  Nor  can  the  art  of  governing  be  re- 
duced to  a  simple  consultation  of  universal  suffrage, 
that  is  to  say,  lo  the  ascertaining  ami  exe(;uling 
what  the  greater  number  considers  lo  be  for  its  in- 
terest. This  nniterialistic  conception  ronlains  at 
bottom  an  a|ipeal  to  strife.  In  proclaiming  its<df  the 
vHimii  ratio,  universal  suffrage  starts  from  the  idea 
that  a  majority  in  nundiers  is  an  imlication  of 
str(;nglh.  and  that  if  the  minority  does  not  give  way 
to  the  views  of  the  majority,  they  will  run  every 
risk  of  being  beaten.  But  this  reasoning  is  not  exact, 
for  the  minority'  may  be  more  energetic  and  belter 
versed  in  the  numagement  of  arms  than  the  major- 
ity. "W'e  are  twenty.  y<iu  are  one,"  says  universal 
siifTrage  ;  "yield,  or  we  will  force  you  lo  it  I"  "Voii 
are  twenty,  but  I  am  in  the  right;  and,  though  but 
one,  I  can  force  you  to  yield,"  will  reply  the  armed 
man.  Fataviam  invenitnt !  Happy  he  who,  like 
Boethius,  can,  amid  the  ruins  of  a  world,  write  his 
ConnolaUon,  of  I'hiloxnjihy.  The  future  of  France  is 
a  mystery  which  balfles  all  sagacilj.  Other  count- 
1  ries.  indeefl,  are  occupied  with  grave  problems :  Eng- 
I  land,  with  a  calm  which  we  cannot  sufficiently  ad- 
mire, is  solving  bold  questions  which  with  us  are 
thought  to  be  ihe  exclusive  province  of  ulopianism: 
but  the  discussion  is  everywhere  circumscribed — 
everywhere  there  are  closed  lists,  laws  of  combat, 
heralds  and  judges.  In  France,  the  constitution  it- 
self, the  form  and  even  to  a  certain  extent  the  verj- 
existence  of  society,  arc  continually  at  stake.  Can 
any  country  liear  up  under  such  a  state  of  things? 
We  are  reassured  by  the  reflection  that  a  great  nation 
is,  like  the  human  body,  a  machine  most  adndrably 
constructed,  carefully  weighted  and  balanced  ;  al.so 
that  it  creates  for  itself  the  organs  it  needs;  and  that, 
if  it  has  lost  them,  it  supplies  itself  with  new  ones. 
It  may  be,  that  in  our  revolulionar\-  ardor  we  have 
carried  amputation  too  far:  that,  thinking  only  to 
drive  away  diseased  superfluities,  we  have  touched 
some  organ  es.sential  to  life,  so  that  the  patient's 
obstinacy  in  not  recovering  nniy  arise  from  some 
lesion  we  have  made  in  his  vital  parts.  This  is  a 
reason  for  being  more  cautious  in  future,  and  for 
allowing  the  patient,  robust  after  all.  though  dan- 
gerously ill,  to  heal  his  internal  wounds,  and  return 
to  the  normal  conditions  of  life.  But  let  us  make 
haste  to  admit  that  faults  as  brilliant  as  those  of 
France  have  their  redeeming  side.  France  has  not 
lost  the  scepter  of  intellect,  of  taste,  of  refined  art,  of 
atticism;  for  a  long  time  to  c(mu'  she  will  still  engage 
the  attention  of  Mu-  civilized  worlil,  and  will  be  lo 
the  public  of  Europe  the  subject  of  bets  and  wagers. 
The  affairs  of  France  are  of  such  a  nature  that  for- 
eigners become  interested  in  them  and  quarrel 
at7out  them,  as  much  and  often  more  than  Ihey  do 
with  regard  to  the  affairs  of  their  own  countries. 
The  most  troublesome  thing  about  her  polilical  con- 
dition is  the  element  of  the  unforeseen;  but  the  un- 
foreseen has  two  aspects:  by  the  side  of  the  bad 
chances  are  the  good  ones,  and  we  should  be  by  no 
means  surprised  if,  after  a  series  of  sad  misfortunes, 
France  were  to  enjoy  years  of  singular  splendor.  11, 
weary  at  last  of  astonishing  the  world,  she  would 
make  up  her  mind  to  a  sort  of  political  appease- 
ment, what  an  ample  and  glorious  compensation  she 
might  tind  in  the  paths  of  private  enterpris*-.  How 
she  might  rival  England  in  the  peaceful  conquest  of 


KEVOLUTIONAKT  TRIBUNAL. 


688 


EEVOLVER. 


the  globe,  and  in  the  subjection  of  all  inferior  races 
to  the  sway  of  her  civilization!  France  is  very  capa- 
ble of  everything  except  mediocrity.  Wharever  slie 
suffers,  she  suffers  it.  after  all.  for  having  attempt- 
ed too  great  impossibilities.  Whatever  miofortuue 
the  future  may  reserve  for  her,  and  were  her  fate 
one  day  to  excite  the  pity  of  the  world,  the  world 
will  not  forget  that  she  tried  bold  experiments  by 
which  all  prntit ;  that  she  loved  justice  to  the  verge 
of  folly;  and  that  her  crime,  if  of  crime  she  be  guilty, 
was  to  have  believed,  with  a  generous  imprudence, 
in  an  ideal  incompatible  with  human  infirmities. 

REVOLUTIONARY  TRIBUNAL.— The  name  special- 
ly given  to  the  infamous  Court  of  Judgment— the 
mo^t  extreme  republican  will  scarcely  affirm  that  it 
was  a  Court  of  Justice— instituted  by  the  French  Con- 
vention in  March,  1793,  on  a  motion  made  by  Danlon, 
who  considered  that  such  a  Court  had  become  neces- 
sary, inasmuch  as  the  recent  disasters  that  had  be- 
fallen the  national  armies  on  the  frontiers  had  led  to 
dangerous  conspiracies  against  the  Revolutionary 
Government.  Its  members  were  chosen  from  tlie 
various  Departments,  and  their  appointment  was 
ratified  by  the  Convention.  Their  function  was  to  sit 
in  judgment  on  all  persons  accused  of  crimes  against 
the  State,  and  from  their  sentence,  delivered  with 
appalling  promptitude,  there  was  no  appeal.  Dur- 
ing the  ■'  Reign  of  Terror,"  when  Fouquier-Tinville 
was  "Public  Accuser,"  it  acquired  a  horrible  noto- 
riety, abolishing  soon  almost  all  forms  of  justice, 
neither  hearing  witnesses  on  behalf  of  the  accused, 
nor  allowing  him  an  opportunity  of  defense,  but 
blindly  executii^  the  orders  of  the  "  Committee  of 
Pulilic  Safety,"  which  was  merely  a  tool  iu  tlie  hands 
of  Robespierre.  In  the  Provinces,  similar  Tribunals, 
under  the  name  of  "  Revolutionary  Committees," 
were  establislied.the  Commissaries  General  of  which, 
as,  for  instance.  Carrier,  shot  or  drowned  Smpectn  in 
crowds. 

REVOLVER.— A  weapon  which,  by  means  of  a  re- 
volving breech  or  revolving  barrels,  can  be  made 
to  fire  more  than  once  without  reloading.     The  in- 


tion  of  a  revolving  chamber  or  breech,  pierced  with 
several  cylindrical  apertures  to  receive  the  charges. 
Being  made  to  revolve, eachmotion  brought  a  cham- 
ber into  line  with  the  one  barrel, common  to  all,  where- 
upon the  weapon  was  ready  for  use.  Numerous 
patents  for  this  principle  have  been  taken  out,  in- 
cluding one  by  tlie  celebrated  Marquis  of  Worcester 
in  1661.  Various  improvements  were  made, especially 
in  the  mode  of  causing  revolution,  an  American,  by 
the  name  oT  Elisha  H.  tollier.patenting  such  a  weap- 
on iu  the  United  States  and  England  about  1818. 
In  183.5  Colonel  Samuel  Colt  brought  to  a  conclusion 
experiments  of  some  years'  standing,  and  patented 
his  world-renowned  Colt's  revolver,  which  was  a 
great  advance  on  all  previous  attempts,  and  is  sub- 
stantially still  in  use.  Colt's  revolver  consists  of  one 
ritlcd  barrel  of  considerable  strengtli,  and  a  massive 
chamber  perfoiated  with  six  or  seven  barrels, which 
are  brought  into  a  line  with  the  barrel  by  action  of 
the  trigger.  Eaclr  chamber  has  its  nipple  for  a  cap, 
which  is  brought  under  the  hammer  by  the  motion 
which  brings  the  chaml)er  or  breech-jjiece  round.  In 
the  most  recent  form  of  this  revolver,  the  capped 
nipple  disappears,  the  cap  being  contained  within 
tlie  cartridge.  The  hammer  is  discharged  by  the 
trigger,  anil  acts  nearly  horizontally  in  a  forward  di- 
rection. Under  the  pistol  is  a  fixed  lever-ramrod, 
which  is  used  in  loading  the  chambers.  Besides  all 
this,  by  withdrawing  a  bolt,  which  can  be  done  in  a 
moment,  the  entire  breech-piece  can  be  taken  out, 
and  replaced  by  another  ready  charged,  so  that  by 
carrying  a  spare  breech-piece,  a  person  ma}-  fire 
twelve  shots  iu  less  time  than  another  could  fire"  three 
if  he  had  to  load  between  the  sliots.  Colt's  revolvers 
are  now  extensively  used  in  the  naval  and  military 
services  of  America  and  Europe. 

The  principal  rivals  of  Colt's  revolver  have  been  the 
Deiine  and  Adams,  and  Smith  and  Wesson  revolvers, 
although  man}-  more  of  various  sorts  have  been  pat- 
ented in  the  interval.  The  Deane  differed  iu  that  it 
could  be  fired  by  merely  pulling  the  trigger  without 
also  raising  the  hammer  with  the  finger,  as  in  Colt's; 


vention  is  very  far  from  new,  specimens,  with  even 
the  present  system  of  rotation, being  still  in  existence, 
whicli  were  manufactured  at  the  beginning  of  the 
ITtli  century.  Probably  the  first  revolver  to  suggest 
itself  was  one  in  which  several  barrels  were  mounted 
on  an  axis,  and  made  to  revolve  by  the  action  of  the 
trigger,  so  that  their  powder-pans  came  successively 
under  the  action  of  the  lock.  This  principle  was 
never  entirely  abandoned, and  in  the  reign  of  George 
IV.  was  produced  a  pistol  called  the  "Marietle," 
whieli  liad  from  four  to  twenty-four  small  barrels 
bored  in  a  solid  mass  of  metal,  made  to  revolve  as  the 
trigger  was  drawn  back.  At  close  quarters,  such  a 
jiistol  would  doulitless  have  been  useful ;  but  its 
great  weight  and  cumbrous  mecliauism  rendered  aim 
extremely  unsteady.  Contemporaneously  from  the 
first  with  the  revolving  barrels,  went  forth  the  forma- 


I  but  this  was  found  to  be  so  dangerous  iu  practice  tli.at 
'  the  inventors  scmii  sulistituti'il  an  arrangement  under 
which  it  could  lio  fired  either  by  the  trigger  or  Iiy 
I  ralkiiur  the  hammer;  and  lastly,  tliey  introduced  the 
great  improvement  of  a  spur  behind  the  trigger, 
which  must  be  pressed  by  the  middle  finger,  while 
the  forefinger  discharges  the  piece  througli  the  trig- 
ger. The  drawing  represents  the  American  Arms 
Co.'s  extracting  revolver,  using  Smilli  and  Wesson's 
cartridges,  caliber  38.  This  revolver  is  very  simple, 
performing  ils  ollice  i,'  a  satisfactory  manner,  with 
little  liability  of  getting  out  of  order,  and  is  easily 
taken  apart  by  the  most  unskillful.  Its  operation  is 
as  follows;  After  firing  the  cartriilges.  open  the  arm 
as  ill  Smith  6c  Wesson's,  and,  by  turning  it  over,  a 
quick  niovemi  tit  will  throw  out  the  empty  shells;  or, 
turning  it  half-way  over  and  pulling  the  extractor 


REVOLVING  GEAR. 


CW 


RICE  TROWEL  BAYONET. 


rinn  (jiiickly  Imck  with  the  lin);crs,  llic  bIicIIm  fall 
iiilo  the  Imiiil  or  on  the  (iroiind.  The  revolver  prin- 
ciple has  also  been  HiireeHsfdlly  applieil  to  llie  niiiri- 
ufiieliire  of  a  kind  of  revcjlvin^c  nuns  for  small  pro- 
jt'Oliles,  wliieli  are  really  aiinrefjales  of  Hniall-arnis. 
TIk^  Gallinijc  i^un,  a  revr)lver  of  this  class,  in  wliieli 
the  several  hiirrels  turned  round  a  eoninion  axis,  was 
iiseil  dnrint;  the  Ameriean  civil  war.  Hut  the?  best 
known  f;un  of  this  description  is  the  French  initrfiil- 
liimr  t)r  initraillfiir,  of  which  so  much  was  heard 
diirins  the  Fraiicn-Gernnin  war.  That  most  coni- 
inoidy  used  hail  a  iiroiij)  of  ll'i  barrels,  snrroiinded 
by  a  bronze  shealhintr,  and  movable  breeih-pieee;  it 
was  tired  by  means  of  a  crooked  handle  or  winch  at 
the  riijht-hand  side.  The  rani;e  of  sncli  j;ii!is  in  a 
level  plain  is  not  great;  but  anionf?  forliticatidiis,  or 
In  a  narrow  valley,  they  may  be  u.^ed  with  very 
deadly  etreet.  See  f'olt  litvi/lrer,  Ilntclikim  Jlevidviug 
Can  unit,  Hmihu/tiiii  J{(viih(r,  Hrh(ififld-8mitJi  &  Wen. 
mm  llerolvi  r.nnd  Smith  rf-  WismJii  liivolrer. 

REVOLVING  GEAR.  The  mechanism  or  pearinp, 
in  machine  ijuns,  by  which  the  shaft  is  revolved.  It 
consists  of  a  tuotbed  whc'cl,  fastened  to  the  shaft, 
and  worked  by  an  endless  screw,  on  a  small  a.\le, 
which  pa.sscs  transversely  thronfj;h  the  case  at  rii^ht 
angles  to  the  shaft,  and  is  fnrnished  outside  the  case 
with  a  hand-crank:  and  thus  the  Inek-eylinder, 
carrier,  and  barrels  are  revolved.  Sec  Odtting  dun, 
anil  'I'rnr,  rshici-qi ar. 

REVOLVING  GUN.  A  breech-loading  machine  de- 
vised for  fog-signaling,  to  avoid  the  labor  of  spong- 
ing and  ramming  home,  as  in  the  common  guns 
formerly  used  for  that  pnrpo.se.  The  fore  part  con- 
sists of  a  barrel  open  at  both  ends  ;  the  breech  front 
abuts  in  a  close-fitting  joint  against  the  mouth  of  a 
chamber,  formed  in  a  horizontal  wheel  containing 
five  chambers.  A  passage  communicates  through 
the  top  of  the  breech-carrier  with  the  rear  of  the 
chamber  next  to  the  barrel.  This  [lassage  is  so  ar- 
ranged by  means  of  a  catch-spring  that  the  com- 
munication is  interrupted,  except  when  a  chamber 
is  exactly  fitted  to  the  barrel,  and  then  only  can  the 
gun  be  fired.  This  gun  is  not  adai)ted  to  warfare, 
being  constructed  merely  to  fire  blank  cartridge. 
The  wi'ii;ht  of  the  gun  is  li.'i  cwt. 

REVOLVING  TARGET.— A  very  cheap  and  simple 
construction  designed  by  General  George  W.  Win- 
gate,  am!  used  to  some  extent  by  the  Tnited  Stales 
Army.  To  construct  this  target  a  pit  is  first  dug 
about  15  feet  long,  8  feet  deep,  and  (i  feet  wide  for 
targets  of  the  third  class,  and  of  proportionate  dimen- 
sions for  targets  of  the  second  and  first  classes.  .V 
stout  upright  post  is  placed  in  the  ground  and  firmly 
braced,  its  upper  end  being  level  with  the  top  of  the 
pit.     An   iron   pin,  at   the   suitable  height,  projects 


I  the  Victoria  Cfohh.  Of  the  latter  is  the  (joorl  Ser- 
vice I'ension.  This  reward  is  an  annuity  generally 
of  ClOO,  and  is  granted  to  (ieneral  or  Field  Odiceni 
j  who  have  passed  a  dislinguiKlied  ndlilary  career 
either  in  the  field  or  in  good  service  to  Ihr- Stale.  U 
can  be  enjoyed  by  the  recipient,  in  aildition  lo  hbj 
regular  pension,  inilil  he  sncci-edH  to  the  Colonel's 
allowance.  In  the  Indian  Army,  an  ofllcer  receiving 
an  enhanced  pension,  in  addition  to  his  regular  pen- 
sion, would  not  be  allowed  to  retain  the  ri-wanl  for 
distinguished  service  if  the  aggregate  sums  reciiveil 
by  him  exceeded  tl.OOl)  a  year.  UleriloriouH  Non- 
commissioned Olllcers  receive  the  fiood-conducl  \\v. 
wards  in  the  shape  of  annuities  of  xlO,  X.\Tt,  orX20 
each. 

RHANA  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— The  singu- 
lar features  of  this  system  point  out  the  absurdity  of 
abstract  calculationsapplied  to  the  <irl  nffi'rtificaiiim. 
The  bow  and  arrow,  the  sword,  shield,  and  lance 
are  cunibined  in  this  outline. 

RIBADOQUIN.— An  ancient  1  or  Ij  pounder  gun. 
Also  a  pnwiTfiil  iToss-liow  for  Ihrownig  darts. 

RIBANDS.  Scantlings  of  wood  about  lO  feet  long 
and  4  inches  square,  and  used  in  rack-lashing  gun 
platforms  to  keep  the  platform  secure;  they  are  also 
used  for  mortar  platforms.  Two  ribands  accompany 
each  platform. 

RIBAUD  — A  soldier  of  the  Foot-Guards  of  Philip 
Augustus  of  France  ;  afterwards  this  term  was  ap- 
plied onl}-  to  the  most  infamous  characters,  /{i/au- 
(laiUe  was  a  term  of  reproach  formerly  applied  to 
cowardly  soldiers.  Philip  of  Valois  thus  called  his 
Genoese  mercenaries,  who  he  thought  had  betrayed 
him. 

RIBAUDEQUIN— 1.  Acliariol  bristling  with  spears, 
used  iu  tlic  fourteenth  centurj'  for  the  defense  of 
camps,  having  small  cannon  fixed  on  the  framework 
of  tiie  car.  liihuudequinH  were  usually  placed  ou 
two-wheeled  carriages  and  used  as  a  clieck  against 
a  cavalry  charge.  2.  The  name  given  to  organ  gun*, 
which  consisted  of  a  number  of  tubes  placed  in  a 
row  like  those  of  an  organ,  evidently  the  forerunners 
of  the  modem  m'tniilUvrn.  'i.  A  warlike  machine 
in  the  form  of  a  bow,  containing  10  or  1.5  feet  in  its 
curve.  It  was  fixed  upon  the  wall  of  a  fortified 
town,  for  the  purpose  of  casting  out  a  prodigious 
javelin,  which  sometimis  killed  several  men  at  once. 

RIBBON. — In  Heraldry  a  diminutive  of  the  ordi- 
nary called  the  bend,  of  which  it  is  one-eighth  in 
width. 

RIBBON  COCKADES.— In  the  Hritish  ser\ice.  the 
cockailis  wliirli  are  given  to  recruits,  and  are  com- 
monlv  calleil  the  >'"/.»;■.«. 

RICE  TROWEL  BAYONET.  This  bayonet,  the  in- 
vention of  t'olonel  Edmund  Kice,  United  States  Ar- 


from  this  upright  post,  and  serves  as  the  axis  upon 
which  the  target  revolves.  Two  targets  are  con- 
nected by  a  cross-piece,  through  the  center  of  which 
the  pin  or  pivot  passes.  When  the  upper  or  exposed 
target  is  hit,  the  marker  raises  a  disc  denoting  the 
value  of  the  shot,  and  places  it  for  a  moment  over 
the  point  struck  ;  he  then  pushes  the  other  target 
laterally  and  up  to  the  perpendicular,  patches  the 
bullet-bole  just  made,  and  stands  ready  to  repeat  as 
soon  as  the  target  then  up  is  hit. 

REWARD. — .'V  recompense  given  for  good  service. 
Kewards  are  either  honorary  ox  peruniary.  Of  the 
former,  titles,  orders,  and  crosses  are  conferred  on 
otbcers  and  men  as  marks  of  distinction  for  gallantry 
and  good  condvict  and  services  rendered  to  the  coim- 
try.     The  most  recent  reward  for  military   merit  is 


my,  consists  of  the  ordinary  musket-bayonet,  the 
blade  of  which  is  shortened  and  welded  to  a  thin 
curved  triangular  plate  of  steel.  It  is  intended  tobe 
tised  as  a  trowel  for  intrenching  purposes,  being  then 
detached  from  the  musket ;  the  loop  connecting  the 
shank  and  base  of  the  blade  serves  as  a  stiffening 
brace,  and  also  to  guard  the  fingers  from  abrasion  in 
the  act  of  digging.  -V  similar  blade  can  be  affixed  to 
the  ordinary  sword-bayonet  handle,  which,  though 
heavier  than  that  first  described,  affords  a  more  con- 
venient grasp  to  the  hand. 

The  soldier  should  never  be  separated  from  an  in- 
trenching tool  of  some  description.  Many  are  the 
instances  recorded  where  it  was  impossible  to  for- 
ward the  intrinrhing  tmh  to  the  front  until  after  the 
exigency  for  their  use  had  passed  and  the  men  were 


KICOCHET. 


G90 


HIDING  SCHOOL. 


compelled  to  use  tin  plates,  tin  cans,  fragments  of 
canteens,  knives,  sticks,  etc.,  in  order  to  get  tempo- 
rary shelter  from  the  enemy's  most  galling  fire. 

The  writer  is  a  firm  advocate  of  the  trowel  brii/onet, 
having  given  it  numerous  practical  tests  on  tlie  West- 
ern Prairies  in  engagements  with  hostile  Indians, 
and  when  it  was  necessary  to  make  cover  while  open 
to  the  tire  of  sharp-shooters. 

General  Miles  indorses  its  usefulness  as  follows  : 
"  I  am  fully  satisfied  that  its  utility  and  value  are  as 
well  established  as  that  of  any  article  carried  by  the 
soldier  ;  that  it  would  increase  the  efBcienc,v  of  any 
army  ;  and  that  it  should  be  universally  adopted  by 
the  entire  army.  If  the  opinion  of  officers  command- 
ing troops  in  the  field  is  considered  of  value,  I  believe 
that  opinion  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  its  adoption." 

The  art  of  utilizing  cover  is  of  importance,  and  the 
soldier  who  carries  in  compact  form  the  means  of 
erecting  cover  at  will,  possesses  advantages  over  an 
enemy  not  so  provided  ;  and  if  the  instrument  used 
for  this  purpose  is  also  available  as  an  offensive  wea- 
pon, his  advantage  becomes  still  more  apparent. 

In  future  operationsof  armies, hasty  field  entrench- 
ments must  play  a  most  important  part.  The  best 
authorities,  from  Napoleon  I.  down  to  the  most  sci- 
entific soldier  of  this  day,  all  agree  in  the  opinion 
that  each  soldier  should  carr}-  his  own  intrenching 
tool.  By  giving  each  soldier  a  trowel-bayonet,  he  is 
supplied  with  a  light, strong, and  serviceable  intrench- 
ing tool  ;  no  addition  is  made  to  the  weight  he  is 
obliged  to  carry  ;  and  he  is  provided  with  a  weapon 
as  formidable  as  the  triangular  or  sword  bayonet. 

The  trowel  hnyonet  requires  the  digger  to  work  on 
his  knees.  This  is  but  a  slight  drawi)ack  when  the 
work  is  of  short  duration,  and  it  is  even  an  advantage 


times,  produces  most  disastrous  and  demoralizing 
effects  on  masses  of  cavalry  and  infantry,  whom  it 
hews  down  in  long  lines.  Spherical  projectiles  are 
more  certain  of  ricochet  than  those  of  elongated 
form  ;  with  the  latter  the  first  graze  usually  causes 
them  to  tumble,  after  which  their  motion  is  both 
feeble  and  erratic.  The  pieces  principally  emploj-ed 
for  ricochet  firing  are  the  8-inch  howitzer  and  the  8 
and  10  inch  siege  mortars.  The  first  two  may  be 
used  when  the  angle  of  fall  is  less  than  ten  degrees. 

KIDEAU. — A  rising  ground  or  eminence, command- 
ing a  plain,  sometimes  almost  parallel  to  the  works 
of  a  place.  It  is  a  great  disadvantage  to  have  rideaus 
near  a  fortification,  which  terminate  on  the  counter- 
scarp, especially  when  the  enemy  fire  from  afar  ; 
they  not  only  command  the  place,  but  facilitate  the 
enemy's  approaches.  • 

RIDER. — In  artillery  carriages,  a  piece  of  wood, 
which  has  more  height  than  breadth;  the  length 
being  equal  to  that  of  the  body  of  the  a.xle-tree,  up- 
on which  the  side-pieces  rest  in  a  four-wheel  car- 
riage.such  as  the  ammunition  wagon, block-carriage, 
and  sling-wagon. 

RIDGE. — In  fortification,  the  highest  part  of  the 
glacis  proceeding  from  tlie  salient  angle  of  the  cov- 
ered-wav. 

RIDING  ESTABLISHMENT.— The  School  at  Wool- 
wich, established  for  the  instruction  of  the  men  of 
the  artillery  in  riding.  It  was  formed  on  the  organ- 
ization of  the  horse  artillery  under  the  Duke  of  Rich- 
mond, when  Master  General.  It  continued,  as  a  mix- 
ed department,  with  the  Koyal  Artillery  until  the  year 
1809,  when  it  was  made  into  a  separate  and  distinct 
establishment.  It  consists  of  7  officers,  218  men,  and 
144  horses. 


AT  WORK. 


■when  it  is  being  carried  out  under  the  enemy's  fire, 
as  a  man  offers  in  this  position  a  smaller  mark  for 
bullets  and  shrapnel. 

Although  but  little  used  to  earth-works,  infantry 
soldiers  wull  soon  attain  a  great  rapidity  of  execution, 
for  it  will  be  to  their  interest  to  get  quickly  under 
cover.  See  Clitz  Intreiiching-tool  and  Farrow  Knife- 
trowel  and  Tent-peg. 

RICOCHET. — In  gunnery,  the  boimding  of  a  shot 
along  the  ground,  whicli  takes  place  when  a  gun  is 
flred'low.  Ricochet  firing  is  found  extremely  use- 
ful both  in  its  actual  and  moral  effect  in  clearing  the 
face  of  a  ravelin,  bastion,  or  other  rather  long  line 
of  fortification.  If  well  directed  the  ricochet  shot 
bounding  along  will  dismount  guns,  scatter  the  gun- 


fr^n 


"allldft  <f 


JHujpt 


V         ,J5hihiUftf 


.V^  SMrtMnlt. 


-y'^ 


Head  c 


...*^'1 


Talthljit 


ners,  and  greatly  intimidate  the  garrison.  Vauban 
first  introduced  ricochet  firing  at  the  siege  of  Plulips- 
burg  in  1G88.  The  defense  against  tiiis  sort  of  at- 
tack consists  in  earthen  traverses  along  the  threat- 
ened line,  or  in  a  bonnet  at  the  point  of  parajict 
nearest  the  enemy.  In  the  field,  ricochet,  where  the 
shot  or  shell  is  made  to   bound  forward  at  least  ten 


RIDING-MASTER.— In  the  British  service,  an  offi- 
cer in  the  cavalry,  military  train,  and  artillery, whose 
duty  it  is  to  instruct  the  officers  and  men  in  the  man- 
agement of  their  horses.  He  is  most  commonly  se- 
lected from  the  ranks  ;  his  pay  is  9s.  a  day. rising  by 
length  of  service  to  IDs.  fid.  and  13s.;  besides  which 
he  receives  £7  per  troop  per  annum  for  riding-house 
expenses  ;  and  he  is  believed  to  make  some  profit  out 
of  this  allowance.  The  Riding-master  has  the  re- 
lative rank  of  Lieutenant,  and,  after  an  aggregate 
service  of  30  j'ears,  including  at  least  1.5  years  as 
Riding-master,  he  has  the  right  to  retire  on  10s.  a 
dav,  with  the  honorary  rank  of  Captain.  See  Rough 
Rider. 
RIDING-SCHOOL.— To  perfect  the  troopers  in  man- 
aging tlieir  horses  and  in  tising  their  arms, 
they  are  exercised  in  running  at  tlie  lomln 
an(l  riiig.t.  This  is  done  in  the  riding- 
school.  For  this  exercise,  four  posts — two, 
."i  feet  0  inches  high,  and  two,  2  feet  0  in- 
ches high — ca'led  head-posts,  are  used; 
also,  two  posts  called  rinrj-posts,  so  made 
that  the  upper  part,  which  sujiports  a 
horizontal  arm.  maybe  raised  and  lowered; 
from  the  arm  which  extends  over  thecenter 
of  the  track  is  sus])en(liMl  ;in  iron  ring4in. 
in  diameter,  so  arranged  that  it.  can  be  easily 
carried  away  with  the  saber.  These  posts  are  placed 
along  the  sides  of  the  track,  on  the  inside,  in  tlu'  fol- 
lowing order :  twenty  j'ards  from  one  end  a  tall  head- 
post,  two  yards  from  the  track;  forty  yards  farther, 
a  ring-post ;  twenty  yards  farther  and  twenty  yards 
from  the  other  end,  <ine  yard  from  tlietrack,  a  short 
head-post.     The   posts   arc   arranged   ou  the  other 


~^^ 


yj 


JIIDINO  THE  WOODEN  H0B8E. 


GOl 


BI7LE  ABSOCIATIOHB. 


side  of  the  track  in  a  similar  manner,  Uic  tall  poHt 
bcitig  opposite  llio  first  short  post,  and  IIk^  short 
post  opposite  tli(!  Ilrst  tall  post.  Oneach  of  the  four 
iieail-posts,  anil  on  lint  fironnd  on  each  si<lc,  half- 
way hctwi'cii  the  tall  lirad-post  and  tlit;  rinj;.post, 
onr  yard  from  Ihi:  track,  is  placed  a  canvass  or 
leather /»'(((/ stiilTed  wilh  hay. 

Each  troojjer,  when  he  conies  near  the  first  tall 
head-post,  brings  down  his  pistol,  fires  at  the  head 
with  blank  cartridge,  and  continuing  on  the  track, 
returns  pistol  draws  .saber,  taking  the  position  of 
guard,  and,  when  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  school, 
takes  the  head  on  the  tail  post  \>y  a  ri(//di)T  fmnt 
cut ;  the  head  on  the  ground  ar/ohtst  infiiiUry,  right 
cut ;  i\w,  ring  at  Hern:  point,  and  the  head  on  the 
short  post,  aynin«t  i/ifiintr//.  right  point.  The  heads 
may  be  also  taken  by  executing  rigid  point,  and  in 
guartt  point,  at  the  head  on  the  tall  post ;  againxt 
infantry  rigid  point  at  the  head  on  the  ground  ;  and 
against  infmdry  front  point  at  the  head  on  the  short 
post.  After  the  troopers  become  skillfid  in  the  use 
of  their  sabers  to  (h(;  right,  the  exercises  maybe  re- 
peated to  the  left;  then  with  stirrups  crossed,  and 
finally  with  the  hor.ses  bare  back.  Hurdles  and 
bars  may  also  be  jiluccd  on  the  track.  See  Jlome- 
mannhip. 

BIDING  THE  WOODEN  H0B8E.-  A  punishment 
formerly  resorted  to,  not  only  in  the  IJritish  Army, 
but  in  the  armies  of  other  nations.  The  horse  is 
described  as  made  of  plank,  roughly  nailed  together, 
forming  a  sharp  ridge  to  rei)re3ent  the  back  of  the 
horse  ;  it  was  then  supported  by  posts  to  .serve  as 
the  legs  of  the  animal,  about  '!  or  7  feet  lon^,  the 
whole  being  placed  on  a  movable  truck.  AV  hen  a 
soldier  or  soldiers  had  to  undergo  punishment,  they 
were  placed  on  this  horse,  with  their  hands  tied  be- 
hind their  back,  and  freipiently  muskets  were  tied 
to  their  legs,  to  prevent  the  horse,  as  was  humorous- 
ly observed,  from  kicking  off. 

BIFLE  ASSOCIATIONS,  (jeneral  inslrncfions  for 
the  formation  of  rifle  associations  in  different  locali- 
ties, together  with  a  form  of  by-laws,  will  be  found 
annexed  to  the  Aimual  lieport  of  the  National  Rifle 
Association  for  tiie  years  1874  and  187.').  Those  Asso- 
ciations should  confine  their  attenticm,  in  the  main,  to 
practice  with  military  rifles,  not  only  on  account  of 
the  advantages  to  l)e  obtained  from  training  the  Na- 
tional Guard  and  the  public  to  the  use  of  military 
weapons,  but  because  the  number  of  those  using 
long-range  rifles  will  of  necessity  be  limited.  It  will 
be  found  advantageous  for  such  association  to  em- 
ploy markers  liy  the  month,  and  for  the  members 
using  them  to  be  charged  a  certain  sum  an  hour. 
When  not  occupied  in  marking  these  men  can  be 
used  in  improving  the  range.  Boys  shotdd  never  be 
allowed  to  serve  as  markers.  Care  should  be  exercis- 
ed in  the  selection  of  score-keepers  in  matches.  Un- 
less reliable  men  are  employetl.  the  danger  of  incor- 
rect scoring,  through  fraud  or  carelessness,  will  be 
very  great,  and  accidents  are  apt  to  occur.  Volunteer 
scorers  may  be  reli?d  on  for  a  short  match,  but  not 
for  a  meeting  lasting  several  daj's.  In  all  competi- 
tions, the  prizes  should  be  more  numerous  than  valu- 
able, and  a  number  provided  from  which  previous 
winners  of  prizes  should  be  excluded.  In  this  way 
young  shots  may  be  encouraged,  and  the  danger  of 
having  all  the  prizes  carried  oft  by  a  few  men  avoid- 
ed. In  matches  each  man,  upon  entering,  should  re- 
ceive a  register  ticket,  'iy^i  inches.  The  tickets  for 
the  different  matches, as  well  as  fordilTerent  distanc- 
es in  the  same  match,  are  designated  by  different 
colors.  Each  one  should  be  numbered  and  contain 
blanks  for  the  name  of  the  marksman,  the  target,  and 
hour  at  which  he  is  to  shoot,  and  his  score,  having  a 
coupon  attached  containing  sinular  blanks.  The  as- 
signments of  the  targets  should  be  made  by  lot.  after 
alf  the  entries  are  received,  and  be  at  once  posted 
upon  the  bulletin  board  (which  should  be  placed  in 
a  central  position),  directing  numbers  so  and  so  to 
shoot  at  such  and  such  targets.     Teams  should  be 


kept  together.  (.'ompetitorHshotdd  then  proceed  to 
the  turgclH  to  which  they  find  they  arc  assigned, and 
hand  tiieir  tickets  to  the  «core-keepern,  who  Hhould 
])lace  them  in  a  tin  frame  holiling  ten.  Tlie  men 
should  be  called  up  in  twos  (^except  in  long-range 
competitions,  when  they  fire  in  succession;,  who  lire 
alternately  till  Ihey  have  fired  their. sighting  and  scor- 
ing shots.  Ah  each  man's  shot  is  Hignulled,  the  scorer 
should  call  his  name  and  the  value  of  the  shot,  as 
"  IJrown — four,"  at  the  same  lime  entering  it  upon 
his  ticket.  When  the  score  is  completed,  lie  should 
add  it  up,  and  announce  the  aggregate — "Smith — 
ten,"  etc.—  and  tear  off  the  coupon  f  whicli  Isadupli- 
cate  of  th(;  tiekel,  and  give  it  to  the  man),  retaining 
the  tieki't,  which  he  should  hanil  to  tlie.Superintenfl- 
ent,  who  should  take  it  into  headipiarters.  Any  al- 
teration on  the  ticket  should  always  be  re()uired  to 
be  initialed.  Any  man  delayinfj  the  match  should  In: 
pas.sed,  and  any  one  acting  discreditably  di.sijuali- 
tied  from  comjieting  in  other  matches.  The  latter 
regulation  should  be  rigidly  enforced  in  all  eases. 
Communications  with  the  competitors,  during 
a  match,  should  be  by  notices  posted  upon  the 
bulletin  board.  This  they  should  be  required  to 
watch,  and  their  neglect  to  do  .so  never  be  accepted 
as  an  excuse.  In  order  to  secure  an  equality,  target 
rifles,  unless  handicapped,  should  not  be  permitted 
in  military  matches.  Interesting  matches  are  fre- 
quently maile  by  permitting  them  to  be  u.sed  at 
longer  distances,  as  at  800  yards  as  against  military 
rifles  at  .500  yards.  Special  military  rifles,  with 
small  bores  and  heavy  charges,  should  be  discrimi- 
nated against  in  a  similar  manner.  The  best  way  to 
sort  out  the  tickets  is  to  have  a  board  provided  witli 
nails,  each  of  which  is  numbered  from  the  highest 
possible  score  downwards.  By  having  each  ticket 
punched  with  a  hole  the  size  of  the  nail,  it  can  be 
placed  upon  the  one  bearing  a  number  correspond- 
ing to  the  score  entered  on  it.  and  all  confusion  in 
arranging  them  avoided.  The  entries  for  each 
match  should  be  kept  in  a  separate  book.  If  not, 
delay  and  inconvenience  will  be  inevitable,  as  they 
have  of  necessity  constantly  to  be  referred  to.  The 
general  arrangements  for  a  match  should  be  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  Executive  Committee  or  Otlicer, 
who  should  attend  to  all  details.  They  should  care- 
fully watch  both  markers  and  scorers.  The  knowl- 
edge that  this  is  being  done  will  do  much  to  prevent 
carelessness  in  the  marking.  Protests  and  com- 
plaints not  having  a  substantial  foundation  should 
be  discouraged.  All  protests  should  be  heard  and 
j  decided  upon  the  spot,  whenever  practicable.  If 
delayed,  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  facts  in  regard 
to  them.  While  every  endeavor  should  be  made  to 
insure  fairness  in  making  a  decision,  when  once 
made  it  should  be  firmly  adhered  to.  The  greatest 
benefit  in  developing  good  shots  and  building  up  an 
interest  in  rifle  practfce  will  be  found  to  result  from 
badges  offered  for  competition  monthly,  not  to  be- 
come the  property  of  the  winner  until  won  a  certain 
number  of  times."  The  longer  the  struggle  for  these, 
badges  continues  the  more  "their  possession  is  valued 
I  The  securing  of  a  proper  range  is  the  main  obstacle 
I  with  which  anew  rifle  association  has  to  contend. 
I  The  land  should  be  purchased,  if  practicable;  it  not, 
I  it  may  be  leased.  Its  location  is  most  important. 
If  not  easy  of  access,  it  will  not  be  successful.  Be- 
yond the  erection  of  the  necessary  butts  and  targets, 
no  buildings,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  store- 
house, are  necessary.  If,  however,  a  building  should 
be  provided  for  the  residence  of  the  range-keeper 
and  the  storing  of  the  rifles,  etc.,  of  the  members, 
it  will  form  a  great  convenience.  The  question  of 
laying  out  the  range  and  the  targets  should  be 
.f idly  understood.  If  iron  targets  are  used,  twelve 
'  will  be  suflicient  for  an  ordinary  range.  This  will 
allow  three  third-class  targets  and  two  second-class, 
to  be  used  together,  and  permit  of  their  being  con- 
verted  into  two  first-class  targets,  for  long-range 
matches.     These  can  be  put  up  in  different  manner 


KtFLE  CANISTER. 


692 


RIFLE  CANNON. 


upon  diilerenl  days,  so  as  to  permit  the  members  to 
practice  at  any  distance  by  coming  at  a  certain  time. 
Whether  the  targets  should  be  placed  in  pairs  or 
upon  a  line  depends  upon  the  ground,  and  also  how 
it  is  to  be  used.  If  the  range  is  to  be  used  for  mili- 
tary class-firing,  the  targets  should  be  so  placed  as 
to  allow  of  their  being  used  simultaneously  at  the 
same  distances,  without  one  firing  party  being  in 
front  of  anotlier.  For  other  practice  the  firiug'par- 
ties  may  be  placed  in  front  of  one  another,  provided 
an  interval  of  at  least  l.'iO  feet  is  preserved. 

A  moving  target  adds  interest  to  the  range.  At 
Wimbledon  it  consists  of  a  running  deer;  at  To- 
ronto of  a  running  man.  In  both  cases  the  target 
is  of  iron,  and  runs  upon  a  railway  about  60  feet 
long,  and  rising  at  each  end  about  5  feet.  The 
markers  are  placed  behind  a  shot-proof  butt  at  each 
end,  and  start  the  figure  at  a  signal  from  the  firing- 
point.  The  descent  gives  it  a  speed  of  about  .5 
miles  an  hour,  and  it  must  be  hit  while  moving.  To 
shoot  at  a  mark  of  this  description  with  success  re- 
quires the  best  qualities  of  a  rifleman,  and  much  ex- 
perience.    See  National  Riltj;  Annociathn. 

RrFLE-CANISTER.— These  are 
very  similar  in  general  appear- 
ance to  those  used  in  smooth- 
bore cannon.  As  shown  in  the 
drawing,  the  case  is  of  sheet-iron 
or  tin,  with  fringed  ends  which 
are  turned  over  and  soldered  or 
riveted  to  iron  or  zinc  discs.  The 
balls  are  of  iron  or  zinc  packed  in 
rozin  or  coal-dust,  sometimes  in 
discs  of  wood.  The}-  are  fitted 
with  solder  studs  or  rings  of  lead 
on  the  outside  to  take  the  rifling, 
or  with  an  expanding  cup.  See  Canister-shot,  Case- 
sluit.  and  Projertiles. 

RIFLE-CANNON.— The  general  adoption  of  rifled 
small-arms  necessitated  the  introduction  of  rifled 
cannon.  It  is  plain  that  the  principle  has  application 
to  all  sizes  of  projectiles,  and  would  therefore  be 
used  for  the  heaviest  ordnance  as  well  as  for  the 
smallest.  Contemporaneous  attempts  so  to  adapt  it 
have  not  been  wanting,  but  they  are  in  many  cases 
isolated  in  point  of  time  and  connection.  Tlie  first 
persevering  and  rational  efforts  to  apply  the  rifle 
principle  to  cannon  were  initiated  some  twenty jears 
since;  and  the  names  of  Wahrendorff,  Cavalli.  Lan- 
caster, and  others,  are  identified  with  the  first  efforts 
to  overcome  the  difficulties — of  no  ordinary  char- 
acter— that  beset  the  question.  Tlie  yielding  nature 
of  lead  renders  the  application  of  the  rifle  principle 
of  easy  accomplishment  in  the  case  of  small-arms; 
but  such  is  not  the  case  with  rifle-cannon,  where 
the  projectiles  are  made  of  iron.  The  application  of 
this  principle  to  cannon  also  r^'quired.an  increase  of 
strength  in  the  piece.  The  greater  the  weight  and 
the  length  of  a  projectile,  the  greater  is  the  opposi- 
tion from  inertia  and  friction  which  it  offers  in  the 
bore  to  the  expansion  of  the  ignited  charge,  andthis 
opposition  is  considerably  augmented  if  the  projec- 
tile is  constrained  to  travel  tlirough  tlie  bore  in  a 
spiral  course.  Hence  it  is  not  diflicult  to  conqire- 
liend  why  a  rilled  gun  must  be  of  a  slroiurer.tcuigliiT, 
and  more  elastic  material  than  is  necessary  for  a 
smooth-bore  gun  in  which  the  s]ilierical  jirojcctile 
yields  promptly  to  the  first  impulse  of  the  powder-g:is 
to  which  it  presents  half  its  surface,  and  bounds 
freely  forward  through  the  bore,  almost  unimpeded 
byfrictiim;  while  the  strain  on  tliegun  is  immensely 
relieved  bythe  comparatively  great  windage.  Again, 
as  the  explosive  power  of  a  c:irtridge.  and  the  in- 
ertia and  friction  of  a  ]irojectile,  iiirrease  as  the 
cubes  of  their  respective  weights,  while  the  surface 
of  the  chamber  and  the  base  of  the  projectile  against 
which  the  powder-gas  acts  increases  only  as  the 
squares,  it  follows  that  the  larger  the  charge  and 
the  heavier  the  projectile,  the  harder  and  .stronger 
must  be  llie  inner  barrel. 


The  progress  of  the  art  of  war  depends  essentially 
upon  that  of  the  sciences  and  "manufactures,  for  the 
manner  of  fighting  depends  upon  the  character  of 
the  arms  which  we  possess.  These  will  be  more 
effective,  as  their  mode  of  construction  is  more  per- 
fect, and  as  the  means  employed  in  their  manufac- 
ture produce  greater  strength  and  precision.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  with  reference  to  cannon,  in 
evidence  of  which  we  have  only  to  call  to  mind  the 
great  revolution  in  warfare  wliich  has  taken  place 
since  tlieir  introduction,  and  which  is  continually 
taking  place  as  the  means  of  perfecting  cannon  in- 
crease. It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  metallurgy  of  iron,  and  also  our  ability 
to  manufacture  and  handle,  with  any  degree  of  .skill, 
large  masses  of  that  metal,  have  rendered  possible 
the  fabrication  of  the  enormous  pieces  of  the  present 
day.  But  now  the  great  improvements  which  have 
been  introduced  in  the  manufacture  of  iron,  in  the 
fabrication  of  cannon,  and  in  the  facilities  for  the 
transportation  and  handling  of  heavy  guns,  render 
possible  the  success  of  cannon  of  mammoth  propor- 
tions. In  designing  rifle-cannon,  the  pratticability 
of  manufacture  and  the  durabilitj-  of  structure  must 
be  ascertained.  The  weight,  caliber,  length,  sys- 
tem of  rifling,  weight  and  shape  of  projectile,  etc., 
etc.,  must  be  all  scientifically  calculated  so  as  to  in- 
sure excellence  in  range,  accuracy,  and  penetration; 
and  then  each  and  all  of  these  constructional  details 
are  liable  to  alteration,  should  the  thorough  trial  of 
a  specimen  gun  render  any  amendment  advisable. 
The  first  comprehensive  experiment  with  rifled  can- 
non appears,  from  all  accounts,  to  have  been  made  in 
Russia,  about  1836,  on  the  invention  of  a  Belgian, 
but  did  not  prove  successful.  In  1845,  Cavalli,  a 
Sardinian  officer,  experimented  with  a  breech-load- 
ing cannon  which  was  rifled  witli  two  grooves,  for  a 
plain  iron  projectile,  adapted  to  fit  them.  In  the 
next  year,  Wahrendorff.  of  Sweden,  fitted  heavy 
projectiles  to  take  the  rifling  by  affixing  lead  to  their 
elongated  sides  by  means  of  grooves  cut  in  them. 
And  not  long  after  this,  Timmerhaus,  of  Belgium, 
invented  an  expanding  mbot,  which,  being  fitted  to 
the  base  of  the  projectile,  was  forced  into  the  rifle- 
grooves,  and  thus  gave  rotation.  In  these  early  ex- 
periments we  find  the  germs  of  the  leading  systems  of 
the  present  day.  The  solid  projectile,  fitted  to  en- 
ter the  grooves  of  the  gun;  the  compression  of  a  soft 
covering  on  the  projectile  bj'  the  lands  of  the  gun  ; 
and  the  expansion  of  the  rear  of  the  projectile  by  the 
pressure  of  the  powder  to  fill  the  grooves  of  the  gun. 

The  object  of  rifiing  a  gun  is  io  increase  its  accu- 
racy of  fire,  and.  by  enabling  elongated  to  be  substi- 
tuted for  spherical  projectiles,  to  obtain  from  it 
longer  ranges.  Kifling  diminishes  the  deviations  of 
ordinary  projectiles,  due  to  the  following  causes  : 
1st.  Want  of  uniformity  in  figure  and  weight  around 
the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  projectile. passing  through 
the  center  of  gravity. 

2d.  Positioii  of  the  center  of  gravitj',  before  or 
behind  the  center  of  figure.  3d.  Resistance  of  the 
air.  I.  By  rotating  the  projectile  around  its  longi- 
tudinal a.\is,  the  direction  of  these  deviations  is  so 
rapidly  shifted  from  side  to  side,  that  the  projectile 
lias  ni)  time  to  go  far  out  of  its  course  either  way. 
II.  The  velocity  of  this  rotation  is  such  as  to  make 
the  axis  stable  on  leaving  the  bore,  and  to  counteract 
i\\v.  pressure  of  the  air  tending  to  turn  the  projectile 
over,  or  render  it  unsteady  in  flight.  III.  A  given 
weight  of  ])rojectile  can  be  put  into  such  a  form  as 
to  opiMise  the  least  practicalile  cross-sectional  area 
to  the  air,  and  thus  to  receive  the  least  practicable 
retardation  of  velocity.  Certain  |ieculiar  advantages 
follow  from  the  rotation  of  the  projeclili-,  causing  it 
to  ]iresent  the  same  part  to  the  front  throughout  its 
flight.  It  becomes  jiossible  to  make  a  much  simpler 
percussion-fuse,  because  it  is  only  necessary  to  prov- 
ide for  action  in  one  direction  in  place  of  every  pos- 
sible direction.  Shells  reipiired  to  act  towards  the 
front  in  any  peculiar  way  have  their  bursting-charge 


KIFLED  HOWITZSftS. 


693 


BIFLED  H0WITZZE8 


and  rnotiil  i)la(:(r(l  willi  a  virw  In  this  object.  80, 
ai^iiin,  llu;  cciiUt  of  i^riivity  irmv  hi:  brought  to  (iny 
(Icsiicd  part  or  tin;  slirll,  ami  this  is  an  iinporlanl 
feature  in  th(^  coiistrui'tioii  of  projectih'S.  Kitbn); 
gives  tlie  power  of  altering  I  he  form  of  projectiles  at 
will.  TluOieail  inay  III' made  of  any  desire<l  Hha|)e 
for  penetration  or  llij;ht.  The  projeitile  may  i)e 
elon;jate(l  ho  as  to  j;ive  a  diininislieil  surface  for  any 
resistinj^  medium  to  act  ui)on;  thus  in  lli^dit,  vi'locily 
is  kept  up  and  the  ratine  extended,  or  on  impact 
(greater  penelralinri  is  oljtaini'd.  \V'ei;;ht  for  weii^-ht, 
the  sainir  eirecl  may  j;enerally  lie  produced  with  an 
elonjiated  projectile  liy  usini;  a  smaller  charge!  of 
powder  than  with  a  spherical  one.  It  follows  from  the 
}lis;ht  of  an  eloimaleil  projectile  meelintj  with  li'ss 
resistance  from  the  air,  and  Ueepiii;;  up  its  velocity 
better,  that  at  all  but  very  slinrt  ranges  the  trajecto- 
ry is  Hatter;  hence  the  probability  of  hittini;  an  or- 
dinary object  is  ijrcater.  The  power  to  vary  the 
lenL;lh  of  the  eloni;ati'd  ])rojeetile  enables  nil  those 
for  the  same  mm  to  be  made  of  the  same  weight, 
and  hence  to  reipnre  the  same  elevations  with  the 
same  charge  of  ]io\vdcr.  Or  it  is  |i<issilile  to  make  a 
projectile  specially  heavy  if  rcquireil.  This  obvious- 
ly cannot  be  the  case  with  spherical  projectiles, which 
nmst  be  of  the  same  size.  The  chief  disadvantages 
are,  bad  ricochet,  increased  complication,  and  ex- 
pense of  manufacture,  liability  to  injury  arising  from 
the  necessity  of  soft  studs,  expaniling  rings,  or  a  soft 
lead  coal;  increased  strain  on  the  gun,  besides  great- 
er probability  of  jamming  and  injury  to  the  bore, 
uncertainty  of  time-fuses. 

EIFLEDHOWITZEES.— In  consideraiion  of  the  sat- 
isfactory results  obtained  with  the  3.07-incli  Moffatt 
breech-loading  lield-picce,  and  also  of  the  evident 
advantages  to  be  secured  by  the  substitution  of  a 
breech-loading  rilled  howitzer  for  the  8-inch  muz- 
zle-loading smooth-bore  howitzer,  of  at  least  equal 
power  to  the  latter  gun- -for  Hank  defense  and  siege 
purposes — a  result  believed  to  be  attainable  with  tliis 
system  by  a  6-inch  caliber,  it  was  decided  to  con- 
struct such  a  howitzer  on  the  MolTiitt  plan  for  experi- 
ments and  tests,  the  slight  changes  in  construction 
resulting  either  from  some  observed  imperfection  in 
the  working  of  the  mechanism  in  the  tield-piece  or 
from  the  employment  of  adilTerent  nature  of  ammu- 
nition in  the  howitzer.  A  brief  description  here  will 
therefore  suflice.  The  howitzer  consists  of  a  steel 
body,  to  which  is  adapted  the  MofTatt  breech-mech- 
anism, a  conical  breech-plug  closing  the  bottom  of 
the  bore  through  the  agency  of  a  strap  or  yoke,  which 
locks  into  lugs  on  the  sides  of  the  brcechfor  the  sup- 
port necessary  to  resist  the  shock  of  discharge,  and 


which  is  attached  to  the  trunnions  aH  an  uxIh  of  mo- 
tion. 'I'he  chamber  is  opi-ned  by  tilting  up  the  breech 
of  the  howitzer  with  a  lever,  whereby  the  block  falls 
back  upon  th(^  strap  and  uncovers  thebori'.  Inpliu:e 
of  a  li'ather  strap  to  insure  the  opening  of  the  bnech, 
a  held  is  attached  to  the  hinge  of  the  lireech-block, 
which, comingin contact  with  the  strap  as  the  breech 
is  raised,  throws  down  the  block,  and  by  the  same 
movement  turns  with  the  hinge  so  as  to  ilear  the 
strap.  'I'he  locking-boll  is  bored  through a.xially  for 
the  reception  of  a  liring-pin.  with  which  to  explode 
the  charge  when  primed  metallic  cartridges  are  em- 
jiloyed.  An  ordinary  vent  is  also  jirovided  by  meanfl 
of  which  the  charge  can  be  ignited  by  a  friction- 
|iriiner.  Th('  gnn-boily  was  made  from  a  steel  block 
furnished  by  Thomas  Kirlh  A  Sons,  of  Khetlleld, 
England.  It  was  cast  in  an  ingot,  forged  to  dimen- 
sions, and  bored  by  them  to  within  one-ipiarter  inch 
of  its  tinished  diameter.  The  steel  contained  about 
0.04  of  1  per  cent,  of  larbon.  The  breech-strap  and 
block  were  made  in  iioston,  and  were  of  low  gteel, 
containing  0.44  of  1  per  cent,  of  carbon. 

The  following  are  the  principal  dimensions  of  tho 
gun : 

Diameter  of  bore  across  lands 0  inches. 

Diameter  of  bore  through  chamber...     0.  2  inches. 
Diameter  of  breech-block   cavity  at 

seat  of  gas-check 6.  8  inches. 

Diameter  of  breech-block  cavity  at 

outer  edge 8.  ■'>  inches. 

Exterior  diameter  of  piece  at  muzzle  12  inches. 

Maximum  diameter 10  inches. 

Diameter  of  trunnions .'>.8T.5  inches. 

Diameter  of  riinbases 8.  0  inches. 

Distance  betwcen-rimbascs 10  inches. 

Diameter  of  loop  (over  )  vertical 5.  875  inches. 

trunnions)  in  breech-  - 

straps )  horizontal.     6.  075 inches. 

Length  of  gun  body 78  inches. 

Total  length  of  gun 88  inches. 

Length  of  bore 09.  625  inches. 

Length  of  ritled  portion  of   bore 64.  62.')  inches. 

Length    of    bevel  joining  lands    to 

chamber 1  inch. 

Pitch  of  rilling,  uniform,  one  turn  in  30  feet. 
Number  of  grooves  and  lands,  each  17 

Width  of  lands 0.  50  inch. 

Width  of   grooves 0.  6088  inch. 

Depth  of  grooves 0.  075  inch. 

Length  of  trunnions 5.  H75  inch. 

The  principal  Ktiropean  Artilleries  have  produced 
rifled  howitzers  and  mortars  throwing  shells  of  80 
kilos,  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  render  them  fomii- 


Elements. 


Nature  of  the  metal  of  the  piece . 


France. 


Howitzer  of  22 
c.  m. 


Method  of  loading 

Caliber  of  the  bore millimeters 

Length  of  ritled  portion  (iu  calibers) 

Number  of  grooves 

Twist  (in  calibers,)  about 

Inclination  of  the  grooves  to  the  genera- 
trices of  the  liore 

Weight  of  the  piece kilos 

Weight  of  the  loaded  shell 

Weight  of  the  interior  charge  of  shell  — 

Maximum  firins-charge 

Ratio  of  the  weight  of  the  maximum  charge 
to  the  weight  of  the  projectile 

Ratio  of  the  weight  of  the  projectile  to  the 
weight  of  the  piece 

Maximiim  initial  velocity meters 

jyiaximum  range do 


Cast  iron, 
banded. 

Muzzle 

223.3 

9.8 

3 


England. 


Howitzer  ot  8 
inch. 


Prussia. 


Austria. 


Mortar  of  21 
c.  m. 


Mortar  of  8 
po. 


0°  to  6" 

3,700 

79.8 

4.0 

6.0 

ItolS 

1  to  16 

257 

5,220 


Wrought  iron    Bronze 
with  steel  tube 

Muzzle Breech 

203.2 

4.4 

4 

16 

1«  6'  31 
2,350 
81.4 

5.9 

4.53 


.  Cast  iron. 
Breech. 


1  to  18 


1  to  I 


209.3 
5.5 
30 
25 


3,025 

80.0 

5.0 

3.5 


4,4801 


1  to33 

1  to  38 

215i 

4.000, 


209.3 
4.1 
30 
60 

'3°  1'  16" 

4,6.55 

87.0 

4.0 

5.6 

1  to  13 

1  to  .53 

4.500 


EUXED  MUSKET. 


694 


EIFLE-PIT. 


dable  to  covered  arches  or  blinds,  such  as  exists  at 
present. 

On  page  693  are  some  elements  for  a  comparison  of 
these  different  pieces. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  the  French  how- 
itzer and  the  Austrian  mortar  of  8  po.  permit  of  the 
attainment  of  the  greatest  ranges,  but  also  that  their 
weights  are  very  considerable  ;  the  Austrian  mortar, 
particularly,  appears  to  have  an  exaggerated  weight 
relativcl}'  to  the  effects  attainable  with  it ;  it  is  possi- 
ble b}'  the  system  of  banding  to  reduce  this  weight, 
"say,  at  least  800  kilos.,  and  to  give  the  piece  a  great- 
er length  of  bore,  which  would  permit  the  use  of 
larger  charges  and  of  a  more  progressive  powder,  b_v 
means  of  which  ranges  of  5,000  meters  should  be  ob- 
tained. 

In  order  to  compare  the  accuracy  of  fire,  we  have 
calculated  the  ration  of  R  and  q  of  the  mean  devia- 
tions, longitudinal  aud  lateral,  to  the  ranges.     The 


is  rifled.     In  1855,  Austria  adopted  for  her  infantry 
of  the  line,  the  riJUd  musket,  with  a  barrel  37  inches 
long,  and   having  four  wide  grooves   equal   to  the 
\  laud,  making  one  turn  in  83  inclies.     See  Bifle. 

RIFLEMEN.— Troops  armed  with  rifles,  and  em- 
,  ployed  more  or  less  as  sharpshooters.  The  name  has 
I  nearly  lost  all  meaning,  for  the  whole  infantry  are 
now  rillemen ;  but  as  late  as  1854,  the  riflemen  were 
quite  the  exception,  the  army  generally  having  the 
smooth-bore  "  Brown  Bess."  There  were  at  that 
time  only  two  English  line  regiments  of  Rifles,  with 
two  colonial  regiments  of  infantrj-,  and  one  Hotten- 
tot regiment  of  mounted  infantry.  The  establish- 
ment of  Rifle  regiments  was  suggested  to  the  British 
by  the  Americans  and  French,  from  the  sharp-shoot- 
ers of  which  nations  the  British  armies  suffered 
severely.  During  the  French  war,  the  60th  and  95th 
Regiments  were  armed  as  riflemen,  taught  light  in- 
fantry drill,  and  clothed  in  dark   green,  to  be   as  in- 


Piece. 

30". 

40". 

45°. 

60°. 

R 

? 

R 

? 

R 

Q 

R 

Q 

French  howitzer  of 

22  c.  m. 
English  howitzer  of 

S'inches.* 

sV  to  jV 

A  to  tU 
Tie  to  ,ii 
TTff  to  Jj 

,',  to  .  1, 

sis  to  jnis 

5T5  to  yj'55 

1      tn      1 

575    ^O   55,if 

55B   '0  T?S5 

»i^  to     '^ 

i\  to  jV 

jV  to  jJjT 

m  to  ^U 
ik  to  ttVs 

TBiT  to  sir 

T.b  to  i^ 

s's  to  ^ 

ttVs  to  T^ 
YSC  to  „V7 
lis  to    j^ 

A- to 

TbTF 

^to 

rixto 

21  c.  m. 

8po. 
AustriJin  niorttir  of 

6ipo. 

'A  20",  R=3V  to  5^t;  g=^  to  -^J^. 


above  table  indicates  the  limits  between  which  these 
ratios  vary  for  the  different  angles  of  fire,  in^propor- 
tion  as  the  range  iucreases. 

It  will  be  seen, from  a  study  of  the  figures  in  this  ta- 
ble, that  the  French  howitzerlias  above  all  a  notable 
inferiority  in  point  of  accuracy  of  range.  The  Prus- 
sian mortar  has  a  sensible  superiority  over  the  Aus- 
trian mortar  in  point  of  accuracy  of  range;  but  tlie 
accuracy  in  direction  of  the  Austrian  mortar  is  very 
much  greater  than  the  Prussian.  Tliis  latter  fact 
would  tend  to  jjrovc  that  the  Prussians,  notwitli- 
standing  tlie  modifications  successfully  introduced 
in  the  plan  of  their  siiell,  have  not  yet  succeeded  in 
giving  to  it  a  stal)ility  upon  its  trajectory  compara- 
ble to  that  of  tlie  Austrian  shell.  In  respect  to  this, 
however,  it  should  be  observed  that  the  inclination 
of  the  rifling  in  the  Prussian  mortar  is  7°,  while  m 
the  Austrian  mortar  the  inclination  is  only  3'':  it  is 
generally  admitted  in  France  that  the  inclination  of 
the  rifling  for  large  pieces  sliould  but  little  exceed  4". 

In  respect  to  the  effects  of  fire,  tlie  difference  of 
weights  of  ijrojectiles  thrown  by  the  pieces  examined 
is  too  small  to  give  rise  to  llie  supposition  that  there 
would  be  any  appreciable  difference  iu  tlie  effects  of 
penetration  for  tlie  same  angles  of  fire  and  the  same 
ranges;  in  point  of  the  effects  of  explosion,  tlie  Eng- 
lish shell,  owing  to  its  greater  bursting  charge, 
ought  to  be  the  most  powerful. 

Prom  wliat  precedes  it  is  to  be  concluded  that  the 
French  howitzer,  which  was  remarkable  enough  at 
the  time  of  its  adoption,  has  not  to-day  a  sulhciently 
accurate  fire  to  warrant  its  introduction  in;,o  siege- 
trains;  for  tlif;  armament  of  places,  anil  the  jirovis- 
ional  armament  of  coast-batteries,  it  may  [lossibly 
do  good  service,  because,  in  these  two  eases,  the  ef- 
fects of  isolated  shots  may  be  very  formidable,  not- 
withstanding that,  in  order  to  obtain  serious  effects 
against  the  very  solidly  construeled  shelters  of  a 
place,  it  is  necessary  to  groujithe  shots  ujion  a  small 
surface.    See  IlmmUer,  AfuffaU  (hin,  and  Ordnance. 

RIFLED  MUSKET.— A  musket  of   which  tlie  bore 


visible  as  possible.     The  95th  became  the  Rifle  bri- 
gade.    Experiment  has  since  shown  that  gra3'  is  less 
conspicuous  than  green  as  a  uniform — hence  it  was  at 
first  adopted  by  many  volunteer  corps. 
RIFLE-PIT— A  hasty  intrenchmtnt,  large  enough 


•mkm!^ 


BHELTEn-riT    H)K   SKIUMISIIERH. 


RIFLE  PRACTICE. 


605 


HITLE  PRACTICE. 


to  conceal  a Bliarp-sliootir  or  HkirmiMlicr,  iind  by  a 
srnnll  cover  in  front  cniililcr  him  to  iixc  his  nnns.  A 
very  sliijlit  cartlicn  |iiini|ii't  in  milllciciit  to  prolccl 
men,  in  n  ;;rciit  Miiiisurc,  from  the  cII'icIh  of  Khnip- 
ncl  mill  rifle  Imllilx,  be«i(leg  Hcreeninn  them  from 
view,  wliieli,  in  itself,  is  of  greiit  iulviintiii;e.  From  1 
recent  experimenis  it  hiiH  been  iiscertailieil  tlmt  the 
jM'iietnition  of  rille  l):ills  into  newly  exciiviiteil  eiirth 
is  iilioiit  ten  inches  lit  'JOO  yiinls,  and  only  twenty 
inches  at  11  ninne  of  10  yiirils.  The  (liiifrnim  shows 
the  ilimensions  of  the  pit  and  |)ariipet  that  have 
prove<l  in  practice  to  be  very  (lesirahle.  After  u 
little  practice,  eiicli  skirmisher  will  soon  ascertain 
tlie  exact  f<irm  of  jiit  that  suits  him.  The  de|)lh  nei'd 
not  be  nniffirm,  but  should  be  about  ten  inches  where 
the  mini's  body  will  be.  and  about  live  or  six  inches 
in  the  other  parts.  In  most  instances  the  men  will 
only  have  to  improve  natural  cover.  If  lime  admits, 
the  piirapet  may  be  made  thicker  and  the  trench 
deeper,  and  widened  so  as  to  pive  an  abundance  of 
room.  The  natural  cover  shonlil  always  lie  taken 
advantage  of  when  jjossiblc.  See  Ilanty  Intrencli- 
mi  ntn  and  Slultrr-tn  ih-Iuh. 

RIFLE  PRACTICE.  While  initial  velocities  and 
]iressures  are  determined  separately  or  conjointly  by 
their  special  iL|ipiiratus,  nearly  all  other  (pialities  of 
till' ammunition  are  iisi'crtained,  directly  or  incident- 
ally, from  ritle  practice  at  various  ranges,  with  suit- 
able rests  and  other  appliances.  The  target  ground 
and  fixtures  at  the  Frankford  .\rsenal  possessing  some 
peculiar  features,  a  very  brief  description  of  their  ar- 
rangement and  u.se  is  appended. 

The  structures  pertaining  to  Ihcgrotmd  consist  of 
onv  firing  huuxe,  two  Ud'yvt  housenw\\\\  their  screens, 


in  the  "  Record  DooU  of  ExperimentH."  A  telegraph 
key  and  sounder  jilaced  at  the  hide  of  the  recorder 
place  him  in  direct  <-oininunieation  with  the  firing 
parly.  Tlw  taructs  an-  of  the  usual  construction,  the 
angle  of  di'presHi<in  of  their  centerH  being  only  Hcven 
feet  for  the  live  hundred  yards,  and  twenty-one  feet 
for  iUf  tliri'c  Imndred  yard  one,  as  vicwe<f  from  the 
firing  house.  These  arrangements  luivebeen  in  oper- 
ation for  somi'  years,  and  tli<;  work  of  recoriling  a<;- 
eom|)lished  by  their  means  isdone  acciiralely,  safely, 
and  with  a  rapidilv  limited  only  by  outside  consider, 
ations.  The  desiderata  of  a  fixeil  ri'st  arc  Blrength, 
solidity,  capacity  of  ailaptation  to  various  models  of 
snuill-arms,  a  facility  in  securing  the  arm  (irmly  in 
jxisition,  without  any  undui;  strain  upon  any  of  itH 
parts,  an  easy  but  steady  recoil,  and  rapurily  for 
nice  pointing  and  adjustment.  'I'lie  principal  fixed 
rest  at  this  Arsenal  is  a  good  attempt  to  embody 
these  qualifications  in  the  following  manner:  The 
support  consists  of  a  heavy  freestone  blo<k  resting 
tipon  a  brick  pier,  and  carrying  (he  cast-iron  bed 
j  plate  of  tlie  rest  as  a  cap  covering  its  top  and  a  por- 
tionof  its  sides.  In  this  Ijed-plate  is  sunk  the  pintle 
which  carries  the  trunnions  u[ion  which  the  r/i/umit 
as  irell  (IK  the  tirp-i-niriitf/e  move  in  a  vertical  plane. 
The  chassis  controls  the  recoiling  top-carriage  by  ac- 
curately planed  and  scraped  guides,  whose  surfaces 
have  bearings  upon  its  sides  for  a  length  of  thirty- 
two  inches  :  and,  owing  to  the  center  of  vertical  mo- 
tion being  beneath, the  recoil  is  always  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  piece  at  every  elevation.  The  top-car- 
riage contains  the  arrangements  for  directly  support- 
ing the  piece,  and  these  are  so  constructed  as  to  dis- 
pense with  direct  screw  pressure  upon  any  portion 


and  two  cast-iron  targets  at  distances  of  three  hun- 
dred and  five  hundred  yards  from  the  firing  house, 
and  of  dimensions  12' x  12' and  l.Tx  13'  respectively. 
The  firing  house  is  provided  with  an  improved  fixid 
n.-'t  on  brick  pier,  together  with  arrangement;;  for 
firing  from  the  shoulder  and  rest,  recoil  apparatus, 
etc.  It  is  also  supplied  with  armorers'  bench  and 
tools,  desk,  scales,  clinometer,  levels,  telescope,  etc., 
together  with  the  usual  instruments  for  determining 
the  state  of  Ibe  atmosphere.  The  target  bouses  wifji 
their  screens  are  situated  one  in  front  of  each  target, 
at  a  distance  from  it  of  fifty  feel  and  to  the  left  of  the 
plane  of  fire.  They  face  their  respective  targets, 
and  each  lias  arrangements  for  a  camera  lens, which, 
by  means  of  a  mirror,  throws  an  image  of  the  target, 
reduced  to  one-twelfth,  on  the  surface  of  the  table,  at 
which  sits  the  target  recorder.  Lithograplied  target 
diagrams  to  scale,  one  of  which,  duly  dated  and 
niHiiViered,  is  placed  upon  t"ie  talile  at  the  com- 
mencement of  each  series  of  twenty  shots,  enable  the 
recorder  to  mark  the  position  of  each  shot  as  it 
strikes,  thus  avoiding  the  delay  ami  some  degree  of 
risk  incident  to  the  usual  method  of  recording. 
These  diagrams,  moreover,  duly  signed  and  num- 
bered, are  filed  as  vouchers  to  their  respective  pages 


;  of  it.  The  points  of  support,  in  addition  to  the  butt- 
stop,  are  as  usual  two,  one  near  the  bult  and  the 
other  at  about  thirty  inches  in  front;  at  neither 
l)oint.  liowever,  is  any  side  screw  clamp  allowed  to 
act  directly  upon  the  arm.  At  the  rear  the  stock 
rests  in  a  V  while  an  inverted  \  descends  upon  its 
upper  surface  and  secures  it  laterally  as  well  as  ver- 

!  tically  by  the  pressure  of  a  spring  whose  tension  can 
be  increased  at  pleasure.  Meanwhile  the  thrust- 
block  in  rear  of  the  butt  plate — a  solid  brass  seg- 
ment moving  vertically  in  a  corresponding  segment- 
al bed— adjusts  itself  to  the  points  of  contact  with 
the  butt  plate  The  front  support  is  also  a  V  into 
which  the  barrel  is  pressed  by  the  polished  surface 
of  a  flat  leaf  spring  above,  which  latter  can.  like  the 
spring  at  the  rear  support,  have  its  tension  increased 
ui>  to  the  limits  of  the  strength  of  the  rest. 

The  advantages  of  this  arrangement  are  perfectly 
symmetrical  character  of  the  svipport  afforded  to  the 
piece  :  the  coincidence  of  the  plane  of  sight  with  the 
plane  of  fire  secured,  without  adjustment,  as  a  mere 
consequence  of  the  style  of  support  ;  the  absence  of 
all  distortion  or  buckling  of  the  piece  by  local  strains, 
or  restraint  of  its  longitudinal  reaction,  and  the  fact 
that  the  arm  can  be  readily  secured  or  released  from 


EIFLE  PRACTICE. 


696 


BIFLE  FKACXICE. 


the  rest,  since,  when  tlie  tension  of  tlic  restraining 
springs  is  once  adjusted,  the  piece  can  be  removed  or 
returned  and  securelj-  clamped,  almost  with  a  mere 
click,  and  will  be  found  sighted  upon  precisely  tlie 
point  last  aimed  at.  All  bearing  surfaces,  journals, 
elevating  and  traversing  screws,  etc.,  about  the  ma- 
chine are  massive,  far  bej-ond  the  requirements  of 
mere  strength,  and  sufficiently  highly  finished  to  give 
great  smoothness  and  steadiness  to  all  adjustments; 
as  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  alterations  to  the  tenth 
of  a  minute  can  be  made  and  read  with  ease  and  cer- 
tainty in  an_v  direction  by  two  independent  means, 
the  vernier  and  the  micrometer  screws.  In  adjusting 


tlie  lines  for  the  siglits  of  small  arms,  both  means  are 
always  used,  and  a  discrepancy  of  more  than  O'.l  be- 
tween them  would  demand  a  repetition  of  the  trial. 
With  the  fixed  rest  and  targets  as  described,  all  ques- 
tions regarding  accuracy  and  uniformity  of  flight  of 
projectiles,  can  be  determined  by  the  usual  method 
of  co-ordinates  and  centers  of  impact.  The  subject 
of  investigation  may  be  the  performance  of  a  known 
arm  with  a  new  ammunition,  or  a  known  ammuni- 
tion with  a  modified  arm.  A  new  arm  with  its  own 
special  ammunition  may,  too,  be  under  trial  a?  a 
whole  system,  but,  in  any  case,  the  average  trajec- 
tory, and  the  degree  of  closeness  and  unifonnity  with 
which  the  practice  adheres  to  that  average  trajectory, 
can  be  determined. 

Rifle  practice  constitutes  a  branch  of  military  in- 
struction peculiarly  fitted  for  the  National  Guard, 
and  in  which  they  will  always  e.\cel.  The  '•po.iitinn  " 
and  "  aimirifi  drill"  which  constitute  the  foundation 
<)f  the  system,  can  be  acquired  in  their  armories, and 
even  at  "their  homes,  while  the  higli  state  of  intelli- 
gence existing  aniong  tlii'm  I'nables  them  lo  soon  ap- 
ply upon  the  range  th<'  instruction  they  have  re- 
ceived. Kille  practice  is  to  a  great  extent  a  matter 
of  judgment,  particularly  at  the  longer  ranges,  and 
the  more  intelligent  men  are,  the  better  they  will 
«hoot.  Tims  both  In  England  and  Canada  the  vol- 
imteers  have  been  found  to  shoot  better  than  the 
regulars.  In  addition  to  the  vast  Increase  In  mllilary 
efficiency  resulting  from  liecomiug  good  shots,  it  has 
been  found  that  rifle  practice  has  proved  to  be  one 
of  the  most  agreeable  portions  of  military  Instruc- 
tion. The  lionorat)le  reputation  of  beinc  a  "crack 
shot,"  and  the  knowledge  that  the  desired  skill  is 
solely  dependent  upon  individual  exertions,  has  done 


much  to  interest  the  National  Guard  in  the  subject, 
and  has  induced  many  to  join  its  ranks. 

While  every  inducement  should  be  made  to  attract 
and  develop  good  individual  shots,  so  as  to  con.sti- 
tule  a  good  regimental  "team,"  and  for  this  purpose 
individual  emulation  should  be  encouraged  in  every 
way,  yet  regimental  commanders  must  bear  in  mind 
that  the  true  object  to  be  attained  is  to  secure  the  gene- 
ml  efficiency  of  the  rank  and  file  as  riflemen.  More 
credit  should  attach  to  an  organization  making  high 
average  shooting  than  to  one  having  a  champion 
team,  and  all  influences  possible  should  be  exercised 
in  that  direction.  Nor  will  this  course  interfere  with 
the  selection  of  a  good  team.  Nothing  has  been  more 
clearly  demonstrated  at  Creedmoor  than  that  shoot- 
ing is  a  matter  of  educaticra.and  it  will  be  found  that 
a  Thorough  course  of  instruction  will  not  only  make 
the  regiment  eflicient  as  a  whole,  but  invariably  de- 
velop a  number  of  "crack  "  shots  from  among  those 
who  supposed  themselves  to  be  without  the  qualifi- 
cations requisite  for  a  "Marksman,"  and  the  more 
"Marksmen"  the  better  tlie  chances  for  a  strong 
•'team." 

Candle  practice  is  specially  to  be  recommended  for 
tlie  National  Guard.  It  gives  almost  the  same  re- 
sults as  armory  target  practice,  and,  as  it  may  be 
performed  simultaneously  by  an  entire  company, 
the  saving  of  time  is  a  great  desideratum.  Calculat- 
ing on  a  basis  of  one  shot  a  minute,  T>  shots  by  30  men 
at  a  single  target  require  two  hours  and  a  half,  while 
at  candles  they  could  all  be  fired  in  ten  minutes.  In 
this  practice,  a  gas  pipe  with  small  jets  is  preferable 
to  candles.  Some  regiments  place  a  miniature  tin 
target  in  front  of  the  lights  aimed  at,  having  the 
bull's-eye  cut  out,  the  flame  appearing  just  behind 
its  center,  so  that  a  "bull's-eye"  extinguishes  it. 
When  candles  are  used,  it  is  an  advantage  to  insert 
them  in  a  tube  with  a  spiral  spring,  so  as  to  always 
keep  the  flame  in  one  position,  as  in  a  carriage  lamp. 
Some  regiments  have  a  bench  like  a  carpenter's  horse 
to  place  "the  candles  on,  so  as  to  admit  of  their  being 
moved  to  ditTerent  parts  of  the  room  to  suit  the 
liglit.  In  this  practice  the  primer  used  on  the  regu- 
lar cartridge  does  not  contain  sufficient  fulminate  to 
extinguish  the  flame  at  a  distance  of  three  feet  with 
certainty.  In  order  to  meet  this  defect, special  prim- 
ers can  and  should  be  always  obtained  containing  an 
extra  quantity  of  fulminate  Better  effects  are  also 
found  to  result  from  enlarging  the  aperture  into  the 
cartridg;e.  The  shells  made  by  the  Union  Metallic  Car- 
tridge Company  are  unsuited  to  this  practice.  The 
cone-shaped  anvil  used  in  them  blows  out, when  used 
without  powder,  at  the  second  discharge,  spoiling 
the  shell,  and  thus  making  the  practice  expensive. 
Neither  the  Remington  shell  nor  that  made  by  the 
United  States  Cartridge  Company  is  liable  to"  this 
objection,  and  in  both,  the  opening  for  the  fulminate 
can  be  enlarged.  As  a  piece  of  the  cap  is  frequent- 
ly forced  through  the  barrel  by  the  explosion  of  the 
primer,  care  must  be  taken  in  this  practice  never 
to  aim  in  any  direction  where  injury  could  be  caused 
by  it.  The  main  drill  of  the  National  tiuard  (in  the 
cities  at  least)  must  take  place  at  their  armories,  and 
practice  at  the  range  be  but  occasional,  "not  to 
learn,  but  to  test  what  has  been  learned:"  Officers 
should,  therefore,  devote  all  the  available  time  to 
the  sighting,  position,  arid  inming  drill,  which  form 
the  foundation  for  the  whole  system.  As  these  are 
apt  to  prove  monotonous,  candle  jiractlce  should 
be  frequently  indulged  In.  this  jxirtion  of  the  drill 
being  always  interesting  lo  the  men.  It  is,  there- 
fore, recommended  that  the  men  .should  be  jirac- 
tlced  in  firing  .'it  candles  at  the  conclusion  of  each 
aiming  drill.  With  mm  of  the  Intelligence  of  those 
composing  the  National  (iuard,  the  iniiirovement 
that  will  lie  found  to  result  from  a  llllle  careful 
jiractice  of  this  des<-rli)tlon  will  be  found  surpris- 
ing; and  a  comiiany  that  at  the  lieglnning  could  not 
extinguish  more  than  two  or  three  candles  at  a  vol- 
ley, in  two  or  three  months  will  put  out  nine  out  of 


SIFLE  RANGE 


(m 


BIFLE  RANGE 


ten;  and  it.  i«  frc(|ii(nll_v  ohmTvid  llmt  IIkihc  who 
liiivc  luul  till-  Irust  iircvioiiH  i)riiclici'  us  Hporliiini-n 
will  prove  the  best  shots.  This  (<iimllej  priiclic^e 
will  iilso  prove  viilimhle  as  a  Hiihslitiite  for  ball 
prarlice  in  jiiiliiini;  the  elllcicney  of  the  men  in  those 
cases  where  the  latter  eainiot  lie  had  :  anil  none 
shoulil  lie  ]ira(:ti<-eil  in  target  tiring  who  liave  not 
avera;;eil  extinguishing  five  out  of  ten  cundleHat  a 
previous  drill. 

There  is  no  portion  of  rifle  praetiee  more  imi>ort- 
ant  than  understanding  how  to  estinnile  <lislanee, 
but  lhei|iiestion  of  how  such  a  knowjedgi'  shall  lie 
aeijnirc-cl  and  imparled,  forms  a  verv  dillienlt  pro- 
l)lem  for  an  iiiruir  of  llie  National  Guard.  In  the 
country,  faeililiis  tor  the  jiurpose  can  lie  easily  ol)- 
tained:lMil  in  llii' cities,  otliors,  in  addition  to  re- 
quiring their  men,  when  upon  the  range  and  not 
tiring,  to  jjractice  in  this  cvercise  nnist  urge  tllem  to 
accustom  themselves  to  judge  distances  the  best 
way  they  can.  inijiressing  upon  them  that,  no  matter 
how  accurate  marksmen  they  may  l)e  at  a  li.xed  tar- 
get, they  are  worthless  if  lliey  cannot  calculi.te  the 
distance  of  an  enemy.  In  estimating  distances,  the 
following  suggestions  nniy  be  vahialile  :  At  M)  yards 
the  oliserver  can  name  any  one  of  his  comrades  read- 
ily, as  tlie  age,  comi)lexion.  height,  and  figure  can 
be  determined  at  llial  distance.  At  UIO  yards  he 
slioukl  notice  those  parts  which  are  clearly  visible, 
and  liis  attentioii  drawn  to  the  indistinctness  of 
other  portions.  Tlie  lineaments  of  the  face  are  no 
longer  visible,  thel)Uttons  down  tln' front  of  the  coat 
appears  one  continuous  line.  The  movements  of  the 
men  individually,  and  the  form  and  colorof  the  uni- 
form, are.  however,  perfectly  visible.  At  225  yards, 
the  colors  of  the  uniform,  cartridge-bo.xes,  etc.,  are 
still  visible  ;  l)ut  the  face  now  rcsemljles  a  light-col- 
ored liall  under  the  cap.  At  about  2"il)  yards  he  can 
distinguish  only  the  dilTercnt  parts  of  the  body  an<l 
the  riiie.  At  aliout  4")ll  yards,  the  direction  of  the 
line  of  nuirch  and  the  movement  of  tin'  rilles  can  be 
detected,  and  in  cavalry  tlie  helmet,  cuirass,  bright 
colors  of  the  uniform,  etc.  At  (idll  yards  the  head 
looks  like  a  small  roimd  ball,  and  the  shoulders 
sloped  otf.  At  700  or  800  yards  the  body  has  a 
dwindled  appearance,  but  the  legs  of  men  in  motion 
or  extended  arms  are  still  distinguishalile.  At  t'OO 
and  1000  yards  the  separate  tiles  and  direction  of 
march  are  still  apparent.  At  1200  yards  infantry 
can  be  distinguished  from  cavalry.  At  2000  yards  a 
man,  or  even  a  horse,  looks  like  a  meres|)eck  ordol. 

Individual  jiractiee  should  be  I'ncouraged  by  all 
officers  and  particularly  in  the  case  of  the  Kational 
Guard,  to  wliom  every  inducement  should  be  made 
to  visit  any  available  range  for  private  practice.  To 
prevent  accidents  ami  ensure  the  enforcement  of  the 
prescrilied  ruh's.  every  man  slKuild  be  re(|uired  to 
enter  his  name  on  arriving  at  the  range  ;  those  men 
■who  are  the  tirst  to  arrive  shoulil  have  the  right  tc- 
determine  the  distance  at  which  they  wish  to  tire. 
As  the  men  arrive,  they  will  form  themselves  into 
squads,  each  S(|uad  electing  a  Captain,  who  wil  keep 
the  score  and  enforce  the  rules  of  the  range.  All 
arriving  subsequently  are  to  obey  his  orders.  If  no 
markersor  look-out  men  are  employed,  each  Captain 
must  make  a  detail  from  his  s(|uad  lor  such  purposes. 
and  see  that  those  detailed  are  properly  rj'lieved. 
The  firing  is  to  be  conducted  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples above  laid  down,  and  every  shot  fired  in  rear 
of  the  firing  point,  whether  accidentally  or  other- 
wise, unless  firi'd  into  the  pit  provided  for  the  piir- 
po.se.  shall  be  entered  as  a  miss.  The  men  last  at 
the  ground  must  see  that  the  danger  Hag  is  hauli-d 
down,  and  the  aiipurlenances  belonging  to  the  range 
replaced  where  they  belong,  or  retunn-d  to  the  keep- 
er. Practice  upon  the  range  is  only  intended  to  find 
out  and  apply  what  has  been  learned  at  drill,  and  ac- 
quire a  practical  knowledge  of  elevations  and  the  al- 
lowances required  for  wind  and  weather.  In  all 
ca.scs,  therefore,  extreme  delibiration  should  be 
used.     No  advantage  is  gained  by  firing  more   than 


ten  shots  at  a  distance;  and  the  liubit  Ixtf^inncn* 
liave  of  i^xpeii'ling  all  the  ammunition  they  can  pro- 
cure us  fast  as  possible,  is  a  jKisilive  uelriinent. 
Kacli  shot  should  be  tired  with  u  dellnite  purfKiiu;, 
anri  ilsresidts  noted  and  renn-inbered.  The  Captain 
of  each  K(|Uad,  or  rif  a  team,  should  give  special  at- 
tc-ntion  to  this  subjici,  as  not  only  will  tin'  expense 
of  the  [iractice  he  greatly  reducerl,  but  the  quality 
of  the  shooting  greatly  improveil.  Tliere  is  notliing 
which  prevents  wild  and  hap-lia/.ard  shooting  ancl 
develops  those  (pialitieH  of  coolness,  forethought, 
and  judgment,  which  make  a  reliable  shot,  than  lu 
be  kept  on  a  short  allowance  fif  ammunition.  Kee 
Miirfi'xifi '/  /'  nil  I  p. 

RIFLE  RANGE.— The  first  point  to  consider  in  re- 
gard to  a  range  is  its  safety,  and  too  much  pains  can- 
not  be  taken  in  the  selection  of  the  ground  in  order 
to  protc'ct  till-  public  from  dangi-r,  as  wellas  to  prev- 
ent unnecessary  expense  in  the  errecting  of  butts, 
etc.  While  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  precise 
rules  for  every  feature  of  a  country,  the  following 
suggestions  will  be  found  siiflicient  under  ordinary 
circumstances  :  No  ground  is  to  be  selected  wliicli 
doi's  not  alford  a  range  of  at  least  '.W)  yards,  and  it 
is  most  important  that  the  grounil  behind  the  targets 
should  be  thoroughly  commanded  from  certain 
points  sufficiently  clear  of  the  line  of  fire  to  insure 
safety  to  the  look-out  men  who  are  to  be  placed 
there  in  order  that  the  fire  may  be  easily  stopped 
when  necessary  :  hence  a  range  down  hill  is  gener- 
ally to  be  preferred,  as  being  more  easily  command- 
ed to  one  uphill.  The  targets  upon  a  range  should, 
where  the  ground  permits,  be  estalilished  by  pairs, 
with  an  interval  not  less  than  ten  yards  between  each 
target,  and  with  a  margin  of  at  least  40  yards  at  the 
sides;  the  minimum  breadth  of  ground  for  a  pair  of 
targets  should  be  00  yards,  and  all  the  targets  should 
be  on  the  same  line.  When,  however,  the  number 
to  be  exercised  in  rifle  practice  is  large,  and  the 
breadth  of  ground  limited,  a  number  of  targets  may 
lie  established,  with  an  interval  of  ten  yards  be- 
tween each,  to  be  used  as  if  for  a  jiair,  a  margin  be- 
ing left  at  the  sides  of  the  outer  targets  of  at  least. 
40  yards.  In  these  cases  the  number  of  each  target 
should  be  conspicuously  placed  upon  the  butt  in  rear 
of  it  so  as  to  be  plainly  seen  from  the  firing-point,  and 
the  firing  should  be  stopped  at  all  the  targets  when- 
ever Ihedanger  signal  is  shown  at  any  target  within 
40  yards.  The  breadth  of  ground  in  rear  of  the  tar- 
get at  each  side  of  the  outer  ranges,  should  gradual- 
ly increase  from  40  to  80  yards,  in  those  ca.ses  when 
the  ranges  are  parallel;  but  when  they  converge 
towards  the  targets,  the  breadth  may  or  may  not  be 
required,  according  to  the  degree  to  which  the  ranges 
are  made  to  converge.  The  distances  at  the  targets 
must  never  be  less  than  ten  yards  between  ranges  in 
pairs,  and  eighty  yards  beiween  pairs  of  ranges, 
whether  thev  are"  laid  out  parallel  to  each  other  or 
converge  towards  the  targets.  If  no  butts  are  erected. 
and  the  ground  is  level,  the  space  behind  the  targets 
should  be  about  1. 300  yards.  A  less  distance  may. 
however,  answer,  if  butts  are  erected,  or  if  a  steep 
hill  rises  in  rear  of  the  targets.  Before  steps  are 
taken  to  procure  grounds  for  ranges,  it  is  essential  to 
secure  the  right  to  fire  over  the  land  behind  the  tar- 
gets to  the  extent  required,  should  it  not  be  desira- 
lile  to  purchase  it.  Generally  this  distance  cannot  be 
obtained,  and  a  butt  must  be  erected  in  rear  of  the 
tar-rets,  to  arrest  stray  shots.  The  height  of  this 
must  ditTer  according  to  the  nature  of  the  back- 
cround.  If  the  ranee  be  on  a  plain. the  regulation  size 
of  the  butts  is  fronrSo  to  40  feet  high,  provided  the 
distance  behind  the  target  is  less  than  1.500  yards. 
Under  ordinarj-  circumtances,  however,  the  height 
of  the  but',  need  not  be  more  than  20  feet,  and  when 
firing  toward  water  a  butt  of  12  feel  in  height  will  be 
sufficient.  t)n  some  ground  there  are  found  natural 
butts  for  the  tarirets  to  rest  against.  To  be  of  use  in 
stopping  strav  bullets  and  thereby  insure  the  .safety 
of  the   public,   the   hill  should  incline   45  decrees. 


EIFLE  RANGE. 


698 


EIFLE  RANGE. 


at  least ;  if  a  smaller  angle  than  this,  it  would,  in- 
stead of  acting  as  a  stop,  incur  the  chance  of  a  rico- 
chet, and  therefore  be  unsafe.  A  few  furrows  from 
a  plough  will  frequentlj'  lessen  the  chances  of  rico- 
chets. The  length  of  the  hutt  for  a  pair  of  targets 
should  not  be  less  tlian  45  feet,  measured  along  the 
top.  They  are  far  inferior  to  natural  obstacles^  and 
are  expensive  to  erect  and  keep  in  repair.  The 
number  of  each  target  should  be  placed  on  the  butt 
directly  over  it  in  large  figures,  so  as  to  be  conspicu- 
ous from  the  firing-points.  Where  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  targets  these  numbers  should  be  painted  red 
and  black  alternately.  At  long  ranges  Roman  lig- 
ures,  made  by  laying  rails  on  the  butt,  are  more 
easily  discerned  than  numerals.  In  crowded  locali- 
ties, where  the  range  is  short,  and  the  danger  of  in- 
jury to  the  public  great,  a  series  of  shields  or  screens 
may  be  thrown  across  the  practice  ground  at  different 
distances  containing  apertures  of  such  a  height  and 
width  as  to  permit  the  passage  of  all  properly  di- 
rected bullets,  and  to  arrest  random  shots.  These 
are  sometimes  high  arches  of  cast-iron,  and  some- 
times upright  barriers  of  stout  plank.  Two  or  three 
sheds  with  plank  roofs,  made  to  slope  toirards  the 
target,  form  a  cheap  and  convenient  screen,  pro- 
vided the  ground  between  them  is  furrowed  so  as  to 
prevent  the  ricocheting  of  the  bullets  which  strike 
the  sheds  and  glance  downwards.  In  tlie  longer 
ranges,  these  shields  are  objectionable,  not  only 
because  the  high  trajectory  of  the  bullet  makes  it 
difficult  to  place  them  properly,  but  because  they 
confine  the  firing  to  a  single  distance,  and  render 
the  appearance  of  the  target  as  visible  through  the 
apertures  so  different  from  what  it  presents  m  the 
"  open"  as  to  deprive  those  using  them  of  many  of 
the  advantages  that  should  be  derived  from  target 
practice,  and  particularly  from  acquiring  a  practical 
knbwledge  of  distance.  If  care  be  taken  that  none 
be  allowed  to  practice  with  ball  who  have  not  been 
through  a  course  of  "position  and  aiming  drill,"  the 
danger  of  random  firing  will  be  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum, and  the  prescribed  butt  be  found  amplv  sutfi- 
cient  for  all  practical  purposes.  Every  range  is  to 
be  carefully  and  accurately  measured,  and  the  dis- 
tances defined  by  a  line  of  small  pegs,  at  intervals  of 
50  yards,  commencing  at  100  yards  from  the  target, 
and  continuing  to  900  yards,  or  to  the  extent  of  "the 
ground,  if  under  that  distance.  These  pegs  also 
serve  as  guides  to  prevent  firing  on  a  wrong  target — 
a  fruitful  source  of  accidents.  To  avoid  tlie  sun, 
the  targets  must  be  placed  at  the  northern  end  of 
the  range;  or  if  that  is  not  practicable,  at  the  eastern. 
In  using  the  ranges  the  firing  parties  commence 
their  practice  close  to  the  targets  and  gradually  re- 
tire. Consequently,  as  there  is  not  likely  to  be  as 
much  practice  at  the  extremelj'  long  ranges  as  at  the 
sliorter  ones,  a  piece  of  ground,  of  a  triangular 
shape  may  be  selected  for  an  extensive  range,  the 
targets  being  placed  at  the  broadest  part,  and  the 
firing-points  being  reduced  as  the  distance  is  in- 
creased. Several  l^ag-staffs  should  be  placed  in  such 
positions  upon  the  range  as  to  make  the  danger  sig- 
nal so  conspicuous  when  hoisted  upon  them  as  to 
give  notice  to  all  passers-by  that  firing  is  going  on. 
Smaller  flag-staffs  should  also  be  provided  at  each 
lookout  station.  In  addition  to  tfiese  fiag-staffs,  a 
suitalile  danger  flag  should  also  l)e  provided  for 
each  firing-point,  to  be  elevated  in  answer  to  the 
danger  signal,  as  hereafter  explained.  Several  flags 
should  be  ercctc^l  above  the  top  of  tlie  bank  in  rear 
of  the  targets  during  the  practice,  togetlier  witii  one 
amid  way  upon  the  range,  tosliow  the  direct  ion  of  tlie 
wind.  A  wooden  socket  should  be  set  in  the  ground 
in  front  of  eacli  target,  in  which  the  marker  sliould 
place  tlie  staff  of  his  danger  flag  when  o1)li<r((l  lo 
leave  liis  mantelet  for  any  cause.  This  should  lie 
set  at  an  angle  so  as  to  display  the  flag  clearly. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  articles  re()iiired  for 

firactice  upon  the  range  by  a  single  regiment  : 
ron  targets,  C  feet  by  3  feet,  complete 8 


Flags  (when  used),  Red,  6  feet  square  (or  flag- 
staff)       1 

Flags  (when  used),  Red,  3  feet  Viy  4  feet  (danger)      4 
"  Red  and  white.2A  feet  square      4 

"  Dark  blue,  2i  feet  square....       4 

White,  2i  feet  square 4 

Poles — lance,  10  feet  long...." 23 

Discs  (when  used),  Red  flag,  danger  and  for  flag 

staff  (as  above 7. 3 

Discs  (when  used).  Black  and  white  disc,  18- 
inch  diameter,  3d  class,  9-inch 4 

Discs  (when  used).  Red  disc,  2d  class,  28-inch  in 

diameter;  3d  class,  8-inch 4 

Discs  (when  used).  White  disc,  2d  class,  18-ineh 

in  diameter;  3d  class,  9  inch 4 

Discs  (when  used).  Black  disc,  2d  class,  18  inch 

in  diameter,  3d  class,  9  inch 4 

Poles,"  Ij-inch.  ff  r  3d  class;  for  outer,  12  feet  6- 
inch;  center,   10  feet  6-inch;  bull's-eye,  8  feet 

8-inch 33 

Poles,  1-inch,   for  3d  class ;  for  outer,  8  feet  6- 

inch;  center,  7  feet  6-inch;  bull's  eye,  6  feet...     32 
900  3'ards  Gunter's  chain  or  cord,  labeled   every 
5  yards,  and  numbered  from  1  to  900,  divided 

into  18  equal  parts 1 

Pins  of  stout  wire,  13  inches  long 18 

Stadometer  complete,  with  20  yards  of  chain, 

cross-staff  and  tripod  for  stand 1 

Tripod  rests 2 

Sand-bags,  bushel 2 

Large  brushes  for  coloring  targets,  1  lb 4 

Small  brushes  for  coloring  target  (sash  tools)...       4 
Whiting,  fine,  without  lumps  (annually)....       1  cwt. 

Lampblack 15  lbs. 

Glue,  to  make  size 42  lbs. 

In  practice  at  a  range  by  military  organizations  it 
is  indispensable  that  the  regulations  for  practice 
should  be  carefully  prepared  and  strictly  enforced. 
Safety,  accuracy  in  marking,  and,  above  all,  the 
avoidance  of  delays  (a  point  to  which  particular  at- 
tention must  be  paid)  can  alone  be  secured  by  hav- 
ing all  officers  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  pre- 
scribed regulations  The  regimental  Inspector  of 
Rifle  Practice  or  (in  default  of  such  an  officer)  an 
officer  specially  detailed  for  the  purpose,  should  be 
cliarged  with  the  entire  management  of  the  targets, 
markers,  and  scorers,  and  should  be  held  responsible 
for  all  delays  or  errors  on  the  ground.  He  will  also 
assist  the  squad  commanders  in  instructing  and  cor- 
recting the  practice  of  their  men.  Before  the  firing 
commences,  the  markers  and  look-out  men  should  be 
posted,  and  a  large  red  flag  hoisted  upon  the  flag- 
staff in  the  range.  These  men,  when  not  attached 
to  the  range,  should  be  detailed  beforehand,  and 
marched  to  their  positions  as  soon  as  their  party 
reaches  the  ground.  If  a  guard  is  required,  it 
should  be  posted  in  the  same  manner.  Proper  re- 
liefs should  also  be  provided  from  men  who  have 
completed  their  practice  in  time  to  allow  those  on 
duty  to  shoot.  Printed  orders  should  be  furnished 
to  both  officers,  markers,  and  look-out  men,  at  the 
time  they  are  detailed,  in  the  following  form,  and 
care  be  taken  that  such  orders  are  understOf)d. 

Orders  for  the  Senior  Officer  at  earli  firing-point — 
Not  to  allow  any  practice  to  take  place  until  the 
large  red  flag  is  hoisted  on  the  main  signal  staff,  and 
the  sentries  or  look-out  men  iire  posted,  to  prevent 
all  persons  whatever  from  attempting  to  cross  the 
range  and  give  notice  of  danger.  To  inspect  the 
markers  and  register-keepers  before  they  take  their 
places,  and  see  that  they  are  provideil  with  all  re- 
quisites, and  properly  instructed.  To  see  that  the 
markers  and  sentries  are  properly  instructed  in  time, 
and  that  they  are  afforded  an  (ii)portiniity  of  firing. 
To  see  lint  the  men  do  not  load  exeejit  at  the  firing 
point,  and  then  thai  Ihey  keeji  at  a  "  rendi/"  until 
they  luive  fired.  In  all  imporlant  eonqx-tilioiis.  lo 
see  that  each  man's  trigger  is  tested  at  least  once 
during  the  practice.  To  see  that  the  squads  firing 
are  iiro])erly  ecjualized.     Not  to  allow  a  man  to  fire 


BlfLE  BANOE. 


090 


RIFLE  SHK&FHEL. 


iiiitil  llic  hIioI  (if  the  previous  man  fHhould  it  Hirike 
llie  l,ari;ct)  Iiuh  been  sif;niili-il.  To  order  llie  "  ('mm' 
firing"  to  bo  MOiiiided,  mid  the  "  iljiiif/i-r"  llii)^  to  be 
lioisted  111  the  )iriii;;-|)<)int,  imiiie(iiiitely  the  red 
flag  is  mined  from  llie  iimrUir'H  butt,  or  any 
perHon  or  aiiiui'd  apiieariiif;  Iji  front  of  the  llrinf^ 
l)arly,  and  "«  no  ricci/iiiit  to  allow  any  liriiif;  to  pro. 
eeed  so  loni;  as  llie  danijer  llaj;  is  up  at  llie  marker's 
butl.  When  this  ilai;  is  lowered,  to  order  tlii' 
"  ('omiiie/iir  Jiriii;/"  U>  he  sounded,  and  the  "  tlan- 
;  gifr"  flai;  at  the  lirinji-point  to  be  dropped.  On  the 
'ranges  situated  in  pairs,  to  see  that  the  |)arlies  fire 
by  classes  at  the  same  (iistaiiees.  and  not  one  eln.ss 
in  front  of  another.  When  the  "  CxiKe  Jiving" 
sounils  to  see  that  tlie  ii'.ini;  at  all  the  targets  wlui'h 
are  within  oni'  hu:id:ed  feet  of  the  target  at  which 
the  "  dangfr"  liai;  is  displayed  is  discontinue<l  imtil 
sucli  ''(lunger"  Hag  n  lowered,  and  the  '■  Cnininrnre 
firing"  is  again  sounded.  To  l)e  most  parlieular  in 
cautioning  his  men  that  tliey  will  l)e  almost  certain 
to  injure  tlie  niarkiT  if  Ihey  should  lire  on  a  wrong 
target  and  the  trap  be  open,  ami  whenever  a  man 
tires  on  a  target  dilferent  from  that  to  which  he  is 
assigned,  to  debar  hiui  from  further  iiractice  and 
report  liitn  to  the  commanding  <illieer.  T.)  see  that 
all  persons  who  desire  to  watch  the  practice  stand 
to  the  rear  and  clear  of  the  iiarty,  and  on  no  account 
to  allow  any  noise  or  talking  among  the  nun,  whose 
attention  should  be  tixed  on  the  practice.  To  be 
most  particular  that  the  men  keep  their  jilaces  in  j 
the  ranks  while  the  ]iractice  is  proceeding,  to  allow 
no  irregularity,  and  to  be  ah'rt  to  prevent  accidents. 
To  see  that  the  jiroper  discs  are  used  by  the  markers.  1 
To  use  his  best  endeavors  to  prevent  tlelays,  and 
forward  the  progress  of  the  firing. 

Orders  f<rr  till  Markerii. — To  see,  on  taking  their 
places,  that  they  are  properly  supplied  witli  flags  or 
discs,  brushes,  paint,  etc.,  aiul  when  ready  to  wave 
their  red  Hag  and  withdraw  it.  To  see  that  the  fol- 
lowing Hags  or  discs  are  raised  to  signal  the  position 
of  the  shots  wddch  strike  the  target,  and  the  "rirucliet 
and  danger"  or  "Cense  fire."  1.  Ulack  disc  or  white 
flag — outer.  2.  White  disc  with  black  cross,  or 
similar  flag — inner.  3.  Red  diseor<lark  blue  Hag — 
center.  4.  White  disc,  or  red  and  white  Hag — bull's- 
eye.  5.  Red  Hag  waved  horizontally  twice  to  and 
fro  in  front  of  the  target — ricochet.  6.  Ked  Hag — 
danger,  and  cease  firing.  To  see  that  the  signal 
flags  are  invariably  waved  when  the  wind  blows 
directly  up  or  down  the  range;  and  (where  flags 
only  are  used)  whenever  a  shot  strikes  the  target  to 
the  right  of  the  center,  that  the  flag  denoting  its 
value  is  inclined  to  the  right,  and  rire  rersa ;  also, 
when  a  shot  strikes  the  target  high,  that  the  flag  is 
■  high  as  possible,  and  upright  ;  and  when  low,  that 
it  is  raised  oidy  high  enough  to  be  easily  visible 
above  the  butt;  and  when  using  the  disc  that  it  is 
placed  immedi:itely  in  front  of  tlie  hit  on  the  target. 
To  see  that  the  ••dnnger"  flag  is  hoisted  whenever 
it  is  necessary  to  cease  firing,  to  re-color  the  target, 
or  for  any  other  purpose ;  and  to  allow  no  one  an 
anyu'cimnt  ir/uitetvr.  lo  leave  tlu-  marker's  butt  until 
the  "  Cense  fire"  lias  been  sounded,  or  the  "danger" 
flag  has  been  raised  at  the  tiring-points  in  anmrer  to 
the  "  danger"  signal ;  also  to  see  that  the  red  flag  is 
kept  up  (and  waved  so  as  to  attract  attention)  so 
long  as  the  markers  are  out  of  the  butl,  or  any  per- 
son is  in  the  line  of  range.  To  see  that  the  "dan- 
ger" flag  is  lowered  directly  the  range  is  clear.  To 
allow  no  person  to  enter  the  marker's  butt,  except 
those  on  duty,  without  an  order  from  the  senior 
officer  on  the  range,  nor  to  allow  ;uiy  one  to  enter 
or  leave  the  butt  except  by  the  regular  path.  To 
check  all  talking  or  any  disturbance  in  the  marker's 
butt.  To  .see  that  the  "dnngrr"  flag  is  hoisted 
and  shaken  about  immediately;  any  of  the  look-out 
men  either  hoists  his  flag  or  gives  notice  that  per- 
sons or  boats  are  within  the  line  of  fire,  and  that  it  is 
kept  up  until  the  range  is  clear,  and  the  look-out 
man  lowers  his  flag.     When   the   firing   is  at  loni; 


range,  to  see  that  all  personH  in  the  marker's  butt 
stand  as  elose  as  poHsiiile  to  the  slope  most  dihtunt 
from  the  target,  lo  avoid  tlieehunce  of  being  struck 
by  the  bullets  when  falling.  At  the  (IrHl  hignal  to 
"Ceniie firing"  to  put  out  the  "ihingiT"  flag,  but  not 
leave  the  butt.  At  the  seconil  signal,  lo  place  their 
Hags,  etc.,  in  the  proper  place,  fall  in.  ami  return  to 
their  command.  'I'o  report  all  ihimui:e  done,  or  re- 
pairs necessary  for  firing  discs,  flairs,  etc. 

Ordtrs  fur    l/iiik-aiil   Sentry.-  To  lf>ok    out  cvltv- 
fully,  and  the  instant  any  person  or  aniniul  apfx-ur* 

at going  low  ard.s     .     .    .    .or  along 

the    shore    (when    firing    seaward;,   coming    from 

,  to  hoist  the  red  Hag  and  call  out  lo  the 

non-commissioned  olHcers  in  the  marker's  l)Utt.  in  a 
loud  voice,  ••Danoeb,"  and  lo  keep  his  flag  Hying 
until  the  said  person  has  passed  lo  the  .... 
(according  to  the  direction  in  which  lie  is  proceed- 
ing). The  same  precaution  to  be  obs<Tve(l  in  respect 
to  boats  passing  close  in-shore  in  the  line  of  range. 
To  give  notice  to  all  persons  who  may  be  about  lo 
pass  the  range  that  they  are  in  danger  while  the  fir- 
ing is  going  on,  and  to  signal  them  back.  In  llio 
performance  of  his  duty  (more  parliciilarly  during 
the  execution  of  the  platoon  and  skirmishing  prac- 
tices), to  keep  as  low  as  possible  to  avoid  the  risk  of 
being  hit  by  a  ricochet  shot.  To  return  to  his  com- 
mand at  the  second  signal  of  "(.'ease  firing."  as  pre- 
scribed for  the  markers.  The  marker  in  'he  Imlts, 
if  not  a  marker  belonging  to  the  range,  should  invar- 
iably lie  a  non-commissioned  officer  of  a  different 
cnnpnny  from  tliat  engaged  in  firing,  and  is  responsi- 
ble tliat  the  correct  signals  are  given  to  the  several 
shots  which  strike  the  target.  The  firing  parliea 
should  not  consist  of  more  than  twenty  men  each, 
and  onlv  one  scpiad  shouhl  be  allowed  to  practice  at 
a  time  for  each  target  available.  Sucli  detailed  ar- 
rangements should  he  made  as  will  insure  the  vari- 
ous squads  being  at  the  firing-points  by  the  time 
those  firing  have  finished  their  practice,  and  in  this 
way  prevent  delay.  When  exercising  by  classes,  if 
there  be  a  choice  of  time  for  practice,  the  senior  clasa 
is  always  to  have  the  advantage.  The  men's  names 
are  to  be  entered  in  a  blank  return  before  going  to 
the  praetice-uround.  in  the  order  in  which  they  stand 
in  the  ranks."  Oue  blank  will  answer  for  the  sipiad 
assigned  to  each  target  to  record  the  performances 
at  two  distances.  IJuring  the  practice,  an  officer  or 
non-commissioned  officer  is  to  keep  the  register,  and 
will,  as  each  shot  is  signaled,  call  out  its  value  and 
the  name  of  the  firer.  Any  objection  to  the  marking 
must  be  made  before  the  second  shot  is  fired.  All 
entries  during  ccmipetitions  or  practice  for  final  clas- 
sification should  be  miide  in  iiik  on  the  practice- 
ground ;  should  any  alteration  become  necessary,  a 
fine  line  is  to  be  drawn  through  the  figure  or  letter, 
and  the  correction  made  adjoining  it,  the  initials  of 
the  company  officer  keepimr  the  register  being  im- 
mediately attached  to  it  (tiiim.  3 ;  A.  L.).  to  verify 
the  circumstances.  Inattention  to  this  regulation, 
or  an  erasure  (which  is  prohibited),  should  invali- 
date the  register.  This  rule  should  be  adhered  to  in 
all  cases  to  prevent  comphiiiits.  See  Jiifie  Practice. 
EIFLE  SHRAPNEL.— The  shrapnel 
for  the  3-inch  B.  L.,  rifle,  shown  ia 
the  drawius,  are  filled  in  the  same 
manner  as"  the  spherical  shrapnel. 
The  fuse-hole  has  a  composition 
boucliing  bv  which  it  is  distinguish- 
ed from  the  shell  of  the  same  gun 
which  has  no  bouching. 

In  the  Boxer  shrapnel  for  the  rifled 
ordnance  of  the  English  sen-ice,  the 
essential  features  of  a  shrapnel-shell 
are  embodied.  This  shell  has  a 
cylindrical  iron  body,  with  a  cham- 
ber at  the  bottom,  and  four  longi- 
tudinal grooves  inside  lo  fsicilitate 
bre;ikin2  up  ;  it  is  cast  without  any 
hrapi.,1.     iiead.    X  tin  ca«  for  the  bursting- 


EnXING. 


700 


EIGHT  SHOULDER  ARM? 


charge  fits  into  the  chamber  <>n  the  shoulder  of  which 
rests  a  wrousht-iron  disk.  The  shell  is  lined  with 
piiper,  and  filled  with  balls  eml)ediie<l  in  rosin.  A 
wrought-iron  tube  passes  down  the  middle  of  the 
shell  and  through  a  hole  in  the  center  of  the  iron 
disk,  to  lead  the  flame  from  the  fuse  to  the  bursting 
charge.  A  hard  disk  is  placed  over  the  top  of  the 
bullets.  The  wooden  head  is  ogival  in  form,  and 
made  of  elm  covered  with  thiu  wrought-iron,  which 
is  riveted  to  the  shell.  Tliis  head  contains  a  socket 
and  bouching  fertile  fuse.  See  Cane-shut,  Projectiles, 
and  Shrapnel. 

RIFLING. — This  operation  is  performed  by  means 
of  the  rifling  machine.  The  machine  is  horizontal, 
and  the  gun  to  be  rifled  is  fixed  in  front  of  it  and  in 
line  with  the  rifling  bar,  to  which  a  stout  head  car- 
rying the  cutter  is  fi.xed.  Only  a  single  groove  is  cut 
at  a  time,  and  that  as  the  cutter  is  coming  down, the 
bore  bringing  the  chips  of  metal  before  it.  All  the 
grooves  in  the  gun  are  first  cut  out  roiighly  in  suc- 
cession, and  then  finely.  The  distance  between  the 
grooves  is  regulated  liy  a  disk  fixed  to  the  breech  of 
the  gun,  having  its  periphery  equally  divided  by  as 
many  notches  as  there  are  to  be  grooves.  The  gun 
is  fixed  each  time  by  a  pawl,  and  when  a  new  groove 
has  to  be  cut  is  turned  round  to  the  next  notch.  The 
gun  remains  stationary  while  the  head  carrying  the 
cutter  works  up  and  down  the  bore,  so  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make  the  bar  to  which  the  head  is  attjiched 
turn  round  more  or  less  at  the  same  time  that  it  ad- 
vances and  returns,  otherwise  we  should  merely 
have  a  straight  groove  cut  along  the  bore,  instead  of 
the  spiral  we  require  to  give  rolaticm  to  the  projec- 
tile. The  gun-metal  in  which  the  cutter  is  fixed 
fits  the  bore  accurately  by  means  of  burnishers.  It 
is  fastened  to  a  stout  hollow  iron  bar  termed  the  ri- 
fling bar.  This  bar  is  fixed  to  a  saddle  capable  of 
sliding  backward  and  forward  on  an  endless  screw. 


The  movement  of  the  .slide  to  which  the  outer  end 

of  the  rod  is  attached  (and  consequently  of  tlie  cut- 
ting tool)  is  regulated  bj'  another  copying  arrange- 
ment on  the  other  side  of  the  machine.  This  ar- 
rangement consists  of  two  horizontal  bars,  one  high- 
er than  the  other,  along  which  travels  a  weighted 
lever  attached  to  a  pinion  which  works  the  slide. 
When  the  rifling  head  is  passing  down  the  bore,  this 
weighted  lever  travels  along  the  upper  bar:  but  when 
the  machine  is  reversed,  the  lever  is  prevented  by  a 
small  movable  piece  from  returning  on  the  same  bar, 
so  that  the  weight  falls  over  on  tjie  lower  one,  and 
in  doing  so  draws  back  the  slide  and  spindle  and 
forces  the  tool  out.  By  varying  the  form  of  the  up- 
per surface  of  this  lower  bar  the  depth  of  the  vari- 

1  ous  parts  of  the  groove  can  be  regulated  and  altered 
as  required. 

I  The  drawing  shows  a  light  machine  used  in  armor- 
ies for  rifling  gun-barrels  with  a  uniform  twist,  from 
one  turn  in  30  inches  to  one  in  36  inches.  The  cut- 
ter-rod carries  from  one  to  three  cutters,  as  the  ri- 
fling is  four,  five,  or  six  to  the  circumference.  An 
adjustable  feed-stop  gauges  the  depth  of  the  rifling, 
and  the  racks,  which  are  of  steel,  are  double,  to  take 
up  all  back-lash,  so  that  the  cutters  cannot  ride  on 
the  lauds.  An  oil-pump  feeds  automatically  at 
each  end  of  the  stroke.  The  carriage  is  gibbed  on 
the  outside  of  the  long  slide,  allowing  free'access  to 
its  working  parts.  Weight,  1,600  pounds.  This 
machine  rities  by  the  filing  process,  which  is  more 
correct  than  the  planing  process,  and  will  turn  out 
about  one  gun-barrel  an  hour.  See  Orooves,a.uA  Sys- 
tem I  if  Ri'tiilin. 

I    RIGHT  SHOULDER  ARMS.— A  position  in  the  Manual 

!  of  Arms,  executed  as  follows  :  Being  at  a  carry,  the 
Instructor  commands:  \.  Right  shemlder,  2.  Arms. 
Raise  the  piece  vertically  with  the  right  hand  :  grasp 

I  it  with  the  left  at  the  lower  band,  an"d  raise  this  hand 


Although  the  rifling  bar  is  fixed  to  the  saddle  and 
moves  with  it,  it  can  revolve  independently  of  it ; 
and  toward  the  end  farthest  from  the  gun  is' fixed  a 
pinion  which  gears  into  a  rack  sliding  in  the  saddle 
at  right  angles  to  the  l)ar  itself.  The  outer  end  of 
this  rack  is  fitted  with  two  small  rollers  or  friction 
wheels  which  run  along  a  copying  bar  fixed  to  one 
side  of  the  rifling  machine.  This  copying  bar  is  in- 
clined at  accrl;iin  ;uiglc  lo  the  side  of  the  machine, 
and  the  greater  tliis  ;inglc,  the  more  the  rack  is  pull- 
ed out  by  the  friction  rollers,  and  the  greater  the 
twist  given  to  tlie  rilling  bar  and  so  to  the  grooves 
in  the  gun.  The  angle  can  be  altered  if  reiiuired  : 
and  we  can  also  takeaway  the  straight  copying  liiir 
and  use  a  curved  one,  as  is  done  when  a  gun  is  to  lie 
rilled  witli  increasing  twist.  By  thus  changing  the 
cojiying  bars,  or  their  jiositiou,  we  can  use  -a  single 
machine  for  any  descriplion  of  rillinu'.  The  ewlliug 
tool  itself  is  of  steel  and  works  in  and  out  (jf  the 
head,  being  drawn  in  or  forced  out  by  means  of  a 
■cam  attached  to  one  end  of  an  iron  rod  jjassing 
through  the  hollow  rilling  bar. 


till  it  is  at  the  height  of  the  chin ;  at  the  same  time 
endjracethe  butt  with  the  right  hand,  the  toe  between 
the  first  two  fingers,  the  other  fingers  under  the  plate. 
(Two.)  Raise  the  piece  and  place  it  on  the  right 
shoulder,  the  lock-plate  up,  the  muzzle  elevated  and 
inclined  to  the  left;  so  that,  viewed  from  the  front, 
the  line  of  the  stock  from  the  toe  to  the  guard,  shall 
appear  parallel  to  the  row  of  luittons  ;  slip  the  left 
h;ind  down  to  the  lock-plate.  (Three.)  Drop  the  left 
hand  by  the  side.  1.  Curri/.  2.  Arms.  Carry  the 
butt  slightly  to  the  left,  and  lower  the  piece  with  the 
right  hand;  grasp  it  with  the  left  at  the  lower  band, 
the  hand  at  the  height  of  the  chin,  the  barrel  to  the 
rear,  and  vertical.  (Two).  Resume  the  carry  with 
the  right  hand.  (Three).  Drop  the  left  hand  by  the 
side.  Being  at  a  support,  to  eomi'  to  a  right  shoul- 
der, the  Instructor  commands  :  1.  /I'iffht  shoiililir,  3. 
Arms,  (iriisp  the  piece  with  the  right  hand  at  the 
sm:dl  of  tlie  slock,  iiud  carry  it  in  frcmt  of  tlie  center 
of  the  body,  grasjiing  it  with  the  left  h:ind  at  the 
lower  l);ind, tlie  h;nidat  the  height  of  the  chin.  (Two). 
Carry  and  phiee  the  piece  on  the  right  shoulder,  the 


RIGID   DYNAMICS. 


701 


KIOT. 


liick-pliili'  up,  till'  rif;lil,  Imiicl  cintjnicint;  tli<^  buU  ; 
hlip  llic  left  Imnd  to  I  lie  liick-pliilc.  (TiiiiKF.).  Driip 
the  Irfl,  liMiiil  liv  llir  niilc.   Sci-  Mil ii.iiiil iif  A  nii.i,  l''ir/.  !l. 

RIUID  DYNAMICS.  Tlial  pcirlimi  of'lhrnrcliciii  dy- 
liiunirs  whicli,  bused  iiii  llic  tlicdry  i>f  H"'  free  iirid 
loiiHtraijii'd  iiiolidii  of  jiiiiiUx,  iipplirH  llic  priiicipU'H 
llii'iici'  (IimIucimI  to  nnyntiin  of  po'mis  rigidly  coiinrcl- 
I'd,  so  ii.s  lo  licar  lliroiijjlioul  llic  whole  coiilinimncc 
of  their  inotiou  the  Hiuiic  iiiviiriiiblc  position  with  rc- 
hition  lo  ciK'li  otiiir;  in  oilier  words,  as  no  tiody  in 
niitnrc  can  l)c  considered  as  a^  point,  Init  is  truly  a 
sysli'iii  of  poinis,  ri^'id  dynamics  has  for  its  aim  to 
apply  Hie  iihslract  llu'ory  of  dynamics  lo  the  cases 
actually  occurrini;  in  nature.  For  a  Ion;;  time  prob- 
lems of  this  sort  were  not  resolved  Ijy  any  !;enerul 
and  ade(|uat(?  method,  but  each  class  was  worked 
<nil  accordinj;  to  a  method  especially  applicalile  to 
its  particular  circumstances.  The  i;reat  [general  prin- 
ciple discovered  by  the  French  jfc'omctcr,  commonly 
known  as  IPAlnnhcrVK  J'n'nri/ile,  which  applies 
t'()ually  to  all  such  problems,  and  removes  the  neces- 
sity for  s|ieci."i!ly  invcstiiratiii!;  each  pari iculiir  case, 
was  an  ineslimable  boon  to  mechanical  scien(X'.  It 
is  thus  slaliul  in  his  7'riiile  dii  /)i/iiamifjiu:  In  what- 
ever manner  a  nninber  of  bodies  cliant;e  their  mo- 
tions, if  we  suppose  that  the  motion  which  each  body 
would  have  in  the  following  moment,  if  it  were  per- 
fectly free,  is  decomposed  into  two  others,  one  of 
which  is  the  motion  which  it  rcnUi/  lakes  in  conse- 
quence of  their  mutual  actions,  then  the  other  com- 
ponent will  be  such,  that  if  each  body  were  impress- 
ed by  a  force  which  would  produce  it  alone,  the 
whole  system  would  be  in  ciiuilibrinm.  In  this  way 
every  dynamical  jiroblem  can  be  compelled  to  furnish 
an  e(|ualion  of  ei(uilibrium,  an<l  so  lie  chanfred  into 
n  itroblcm  of  .itafii-f,  and  thus  the  solution  of  a  diffi- 
cult and  complex  problem  is  effected  by  means  of 
the  resolution  of  a  much  easier  one.  D'Alembert  ap- 
plied his  principle  to  various  problems  <m  the  mo- 
tions and  actions  of  fluids,  the  i)reeefision  of  the  eqiu- 
no.xes,  etc.;  and  8ubse(iuently,  in  a  modified  form, 
the  same  general  property  was  made  the  basis  of  a 
complete  system  of  dynan;ics.  by  La  Granite,  in  his 
Mefitnique  Aii'ih/liqiie. 

RIGODON.-  Formerly  a  beat  of  drum  while  men 
who  were  shelled  (a  French  punishment,  the  sc^verest 
next  lo  death)  were  paraded  up  and  down  the  ranks 
previous  to  their  being  sent  to  their  destination. 

RIMBASE. — 1.  A  short  cylinderat  the  junction  of  a 
trit/iniiiii  with  tlie  gun.  Tlie  ends  of  the  rimbases,  or 
the  !<h(mlders  of  the  trunnions,  are  planes  perpendi- 
cular to  the  axis  of  the  trunnions.  Rimbases  are 
for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  the  trunnions  at 
their  junction  with  the  jiieee,  and  by  forming ! 
.shoulders,  to  prevent  the  |)ieee  from  moving  side- 
ways in  tlie  trunnion-beds.  2.  The  shoulder  on  the 
stock  of  a  musket  against  which  the  breech  of  the 
barrel  rests. 

RIMER.  — An  old  n.ime  for  a  jialisade  in  fortifica- 
tion 

RIM-FIRE  CARTRIDGE.— A  metallic  cartridge  in 
which  the  fulminate  is  placed  in  the  rim  surround- 
ing the  head.  This  rim  being  struck  at  any  point, 
explodes  the  powder.  Formerly  much  used  in 
pistols  and  magazine-guns.  These  cartridges  are  not 
rfloaiUr.i. 

RIMPLER  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— In   this  ^ 
system  it    is  projioscd    to  replace  the    curtain  l)y    a 
bastion  that  may  Hank  the  collateral  works   and  be 
defended  by  them,  to  cover  the  garrison  under  case- 
mates, and   prepare  an  interior  as  well  as  exterior 
defense.      This   system    contains     excellent   ideas.  ' 
The  besieger  must  carry  two  ravelins  before  reach- 
ing  the   counterscarp:    then  he   must    attack   the 
fausse-braye,  the  bastion,  its  retrenchment,  and  fur- 
thermore drive  the  defenders  from  the  casemates. 
The  ditches   and  outworks   are  powerfully  flanked, 
and  the  retrenchments  of  flu:  bastions  are  excellent. 
This  fortification  is   not  practicable  on  account  of  , 
the  great  space  it  occupies,  of  the  large  garrison  it  ; 


re(piires.  and  the  ininiense  outlay  it  wiiiild  ueceitgi. 
tale. 

RINGED  ARMOR.  Armor  of  the  Middle  A(?c», 
c(jmposed  of  Hal  rings  sewed  side  by  side  onipjillM 
liui'ii  or  lealher.      See  Anmrr. 

RING  GAGE.-  A  circular  steel  gage  iisi'd  in  inspect- 
ing kIupI  and  shells.  Tlii'V  are  made  of  two  sizes  for 
each  caliber,  the  larger  being  a  triflir  more  and  the 
smaller  a  trifle  less  in  diameter  than  the  true  caliber 
of  the  proji'<-tile.  All  shot  received  must  pusit 
through  tlie  larger  gage,  but  are  rejected  if  they 
pass  tliroui.'li  the  smaller. 

RING  WADS.  Wads  consisting  of  a  ring  of  rope- 
yarn,  with  two  pieces  of  strong  twine  lied  across  it 
at  riirht  angles  to  eacb  other.     See  (Jrnmmrt   WiuU. 

RIOT. —The  legal  name  of  an  olTense  which  con- 
sists in  the  assembling  of  three  or  more  persons  for 
an  illegal  purpose,  or  for  the  carrying  out  of  a  legal 
purpose  in  an  illegal  manner.  Kiols  often  com- 
mence in  some  supposed  private  wnmg.  Some  de- 
gree of  violence  is  incidental  to  a  riot, and  a  degree 
of  intimidation  to  the  neighborhood.  A  riot  cannot 
take  place  unless  at  least  three  persons  act  in  con- 
cert. When  a  riot  becomes  formidable,  it  is  usual 
for  tlic  authorities  to  take  active  measures  to  dis- 
perse it.  Thus,  in  England,  any  Justice  of  the 
Peace  may  command  the  persons  as.sembled  to  dis- 
perse peaceably  by  a  form  of  worils  calied  Heading 
the  Riot  Act,  which  is  as  follows:  "  tjiir  Sovereign 
Lady  the  Queen  chargeth  and  commandetli  all 
persons  being  assembled  immediately  to  disperse 
themselves,  and  peaceably  to  depart  to  their  habi- 
tations, or  to  their  lawful  business,  upon  the 
pains  contained  in  an  Act  of  King  George  for  pre- 
venting tumults  and  riotous  assemblies — God  save 
the  CJueen."  If  the  rioters,  after  this  formal  proda- 
mation,  remain  more  than  one  hour  afterward, 
they  are  guilty  of  felony,  and  may  be  seized  and 
carried  before  a  Justice.  Sometimes  it  is  ditlicult 
to  distinguish  between  an  illegal  assembly  and  one 
which  is  legal,  though  noisy  and  tumultuous,  and  the 
opinion  of  the  Justice  of  the  Peace  is  not  conclu- 
sive as  to  its  illegality.  Sometimes  the  Riot  Act  is 
read  more  than  once  during  the  disturbance,  in 
which  case  the  second  or  tliird  reading  does  not 
supersede  the  first. 

The  great  and  overwhelming  interest  exhibited  by 
the  people  of  the  United  States  in  the  lale  terrible 
railroad  and  labor  riots  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try will  cause  us  to  extend  the  limits  of  this  article. 
At  a  period  of  profound  (piiet  and  repose,  the  entire 
country  was  startled  by  the  simultaneous  seizure  by 
lawless  men  of  the  four  great  trunk  lines  between 
the  Atlantic  Seabord  and  the  Western  States.  In  a 
single  day  the  whole  internal  trade  of  the  Union  was 
suspended.  Millions  of  dollars  of  capital  were  pa- 
ralyzed, thousands  of  enterprises  were  confronted 
with  ruin,  and  the  whole  of  this  great  country  was 
threatened  with  a  crisis  such  as  it  had  never  expe- 
rienced before.  Instantly  the  whole  military  power 
of  tlie  general  government  and  the  great  States  im- 
mediately involved  in  the  trouble  was  called  upon 
to  give  protection  to  the  endangered  commerce  of 
the  land.  The  peaceful  country  resounded  with  the 
tramp  of  armed  men  hastening  to  assert  the  majesty 
of  the  law,  on  the  one  side:  and  with  the  rush  of  in- 
furiated mobs,  on  the  other  side,  gathering  to  resist 
the  execution  of  the  statutes  of  the  land,  and  to  over- 
turn the  very  foundations  of  society.  Almost  with- 
out warning  the  American  people  were  brought  face 
to  face  with  a  conflict  which  for  a  while  threatened 
their  very  existence  as  a  nation.  The  excitement 
grew  steadily,  and  for  a  time  mob  law  was  supreme. 
From  all  points  came  reports  of  hiwlcss  violence,  of 
pillage,  arson  and  murder.  The  worst  elements  of 
the  Old  World,  that  had  been  driven  out  of  Europe, 
suddenly  appeared,  and  proclaiming  their  terrible 
doctrines  of  destruction  and  nipine,  endeavored  to 
revive  in  this  prosperous  and  peaceful  hind  the  hor- 
rors of  the  Parisian  Commune.     The  danger  was 


BIOT. 


702 


EIOT. 


terrible  and  real,  and  for  a  moment  the  American 
people  stood  appalled,  not  knowing  how  far  the  re- 
volt might  extend,  or  what  character  it  might  as- 
sume. Never  since  the  daj-s  of  the  Civil  War  liad  the 
nation  been  so  profoundly  moved,  or  so  painfully 
apprehensive.  On  all  sides  the  determination  was 
made  plain  that  the  outbreak  must  be  put  down;  the 
laws  must  resume  their  sway ;  and  the  future  of  this 
great  country  must  not  be  perilled  by  mob  violence. 
No  man  could  tell  how  soon  his  honie  would  be  the 
mark  of  the  rioter's  torch,  or  his  dear  ones  be  at  the 
mercy  of  an  infuriated  mob,  and  this  thought 
brought  hundreds  of  thousands  to  the  support"  of 
the  representatives  of  law  and  order.  At  the  call  of 
the  civil  authorities  armed  men  came  from  all  quar- 
ters, and  it  was  soon  apparent  even  to  the  most  des- 
perate rioters  that  the  people  were  determined  to 
preserve  their  institutions  and  property  from  vio- 
lence at  an_v  cost.  This  formidable  uprising  of  the 
people  had  the  happiest  effect,  and  the  revolt  suc- 
cumbed before  it.  The  disturbers  of  the  peace  slunk 
away,  or  were  arrested,  and  the  supremacy  of  the 
law  re-established.  The  very  originators"  of  the 
strikes,  horrified  at  the  capture  and  distortion  of 
their  movement  by  the  mob  of  lawless  ruffians,  in 
many  instances,  gave  their  assistance  to  the  autho- 
rities in  restoring  order.  The  New  York  riots  will 
be  here  noticed  at  length,  as  also  the  action  of  the 
general  government.  We  are  endebted  to  the  Bis- 
tiyry  of  the  Great  EinU,  by  Edward  Winslow  Martin, 
for  the  substance  of  this 'account. 

Late  on  the  evening  of  the  19th  of  July,  1877,  a 
meeting  of  firemen  and  brakemen  employed  on  the 
Erie  Railroad  was  held  at  HornellsvDle,  New  York, 
at  the  close  of  which  a  message  was  sent  to  the  Su- 
perintendent of  the  Erie  Railroad,  giving  him  notice 
that  the  men  of  the  Western,  Susquehanna,  and  Buf- 
falo divisions  had  resolved  to  quit  work  at  one  o'clock 
the  next  morning.  The  Superintendent  proceeded  at 
once  to  Hornellsville,  where  he  found  that  the  strikers 
had  stopped  work,  and  had  taken  measures  to  pre- 
vent all  passenger  and  freight  trains  from  leaving  or 
passing  through  that  place,  east  or  west.  Simultan- 
eously, the  firemen,  brakemen,  and  switchmen  at 
Salamanca,  on  the  Western  division,  quit  work,  and 
when  the  Superintendent  of  that  division,  who  had 
started  out  from  Dunkirk  for  Hornellsville  by  a  special 
train,  arrived  at  Salamanca,  his  engine  was  cut  loose 
from  the  train  and  put  into  the  engine-house,  and  the 
strikers  informed  him  that  no  engine  or  train  would 
be  permitted  to  pass  Salamanca.  At  Andover  station, 
on  the  Western  division,  one  of  the  striking  firemen 
took  engine  No.  22,  and  went  out  on  the  road  with- 
out orders  or  permission  from  the  Company,  and  on 
the  time  of  trains,  intending,  he  said,  to  eo  to  Hor- 
nellsville, Up  to  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
20th  the  strikers  had  given  the  Company  no  reasons 
for  their  strike.  At  that  hour  their  Committee  handed 
Superintendent  Wright  a  document  containing  the 
following  demands,  on  behalf  of  the  firemen,  brake- 
men,  switchmen  and  truckmen  :  That  all  of  the  men 
discharged  for  taking  part  in  anv  meeting  or  going 
as  a  Committee  to  New  York  shall'be  reinstated.  The 
brakemen  to  receive  .f  2  a  day,  the  switchmen  if 2,  the 
head  switchmen  #2.2.'),  truckmen  in  yard  *1  .."jO,  truck- 
men on  section  -tl  .40,  and  pay  no  rentals  on  Com- 
pany's grounds  except  as  by  agreement.  The  firemen 
to  have  same  pay,  or  rates  of  pay,  as  they  received 
prior  to  July  1st,  1877,  and  monthly  passes  to  be  con- 
tinued as  l)efore,  and  passes  to  be  issued  to  brake- 
men  and  switchmen.  These  demands  were  at  once 
communicated  to  the  Receiver  at  New  York.  By 
their  action  in  seizing  the  Erie  Itailroad  an<l  stoppin'sr 
its  business  by  force,  the  strikers  not  only  violated 
the  laws  of  the  State  of  New  York,  but  wctc  guilty 
of  resistance  to  the  orders  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  State,  tlie  Erie  Railroad  at  tliis  time  being  man- 
aged by  a  Receiver  appointed  by  the  Court.  The 
•otticials  of  the  Erie  Uailroad  promptly  made  arrange- 
ments to  have  through  passengers  and  baggage  trans- 


ported by  the  New  York  Central  Railroad,  and  at 
the  .same  time  reported  the  seizure  of  their  road  to 
the  Governor  of  New  York,  and  asked  tlie  protection 
of  the  State.  The  Governor  thereupon  issued  the 
following  proclamation ; 

Whereas,  the  Receiver  appointed  b_v  the  Supreme 
Court  of  this  State  to  take  all  care  of  the  management 
of  the  Erie  Railway  and  its  properties  has  made 
known  to  me  that  a  conspiracy  has  been  formed  to 
prevent  his  discharging  his  duty  as  such  Receiver 
under  the  orders  of  yie  said  Court ;  that  the  business 
of  said  road  anil  the  running  of  trains  have  been  in- 
terrupted by  violence  which  the  civil  authorities  are 
unable  to  suppress;  and,  whereas,  the  honor  and 
good  faith  of  tiae  State  require  that  it  should  protect 
the  said  Court  and  its  officers  in  the'execution  of  its 
order:  Now,  therefore.  I,  Lucius  Robinson,  Gov- 
ernor of  the  State  of  New  York,  by  virtue  of  the 
authority  imposed  upon  me  by  the  constitution  and 
the  laws,  command  all  persons  engaged  in  such  ira- 
lawful  acts  to  desist  therefrom ;  and  I  call  upon  all 
good  citizens  and  upon  all  the  authorities,  civil  and 
military,  to  aid  in  suppressing  the  same  and  in  pre- 
venting breaches  of  the  peace.  The  law  recognizes 
and  protects  the  right  of  all  men  to  refuse  to  work 
except  upon  terms  satisfactory  to  themselves,  but  it 
does  not  permit  them  to  prevent  other  men  from 
working  who  desire  to  do  so.  LTnless  the  State  is  to 
be  given  up  to  anarchy,  and  its  Courts  and  laws  are 
to  l3e  defied  with  impunity,  its  whole  power  must  be 
exerted  to  suppress  violence,  maintain  order  and  pro- 
tect its  citizens  in  their  right  to  work,  and  the  busi- 
ness of  the  country  from  lawless  interruption  w-ithin 
our  borders.  It  is  no  longer  a  question  of  wages, 
but  of  the  supremacy  of  the  law,  which  protects  alike 
the  lives,  the  liberty,  the  property  and  the  rights  of 
all  classes  of  citizens.  To  the  maintenance  of  that 
supremacy  the  whole  power  of  the  State  will  be  in- 
voked if  necessary. 

Orders  were  despatched  from  Albany  to  the  23d 
(of  Brooklyn)  and  the  74th  (of  Buffalo)  Regiments 
of  the  National  Guard  of  the  State  of  New  York  to  pro- 
ceed at  once  to  Hornellsville  to  sustain  the  authorities. 
Later  on  the  54th  Regiment,  from  Rochester,  was  or- 
dered to  the  same  place.  The  companies  of  the  54th 
were  the  first  to  reach  Hornellsville.  They  arrived 
at  that  place  on  the  evening  of  the  21st,  about  four  or 
five  hundred  strong.  The  crowd  of  railroad  men  sur- 
rounding the  trains  upon  their  arrival  immediately 
began  shaking  hands  with  acquaintances  and  gave 
the  soldiers  a  warm  welcome,  carrying  pails  of  water 
along  the  train.  By  nine  o'clock  the  Company's 
grounds  surrounding  the  depot  and  railroad  shops 
were  in  full  possession  of  the  military  authorities. 
Two  pieces  of  artillery  were  put  in  position  at  the 
rear  of  the  Company's  shops,  and  guards  were  sta- 
tioned around  the  northern  half  of  the  yard,  on  which 
the  shops  and  depot  are  located.  As  the  Company 
did  not  attempt  to  start  out  a  train,  there  was  no  de- 
monstration made  by  the  men  engaged  in  the  strike, 
and  good  order  and  quiet  prevailed  throughout  the 
town.  The  Committee  representing  the  men  at  the 
beginning  of  the  strike  served  a  notice  on  all  the 
liquor  dealers  forbidding  them  to  sell  liquor  to  rail- 
road men.  The  President  of  the  village  also  issued 
a  proclamation  to  the  same  effect.  This,  together 
with  the  faA  that  a  large  number  of  railroad  men 
signed  the  Murphy  temperance  pledge  in  the  preced- 
ing spring,  is  believed  to  account  for  the  quiet  exist- 
ing under  such  exciting  circumstances.  No  marked 
demonstration  was  nuide  by  the  men  until  twenty 
minutes  past  nine  on  the  morning  of  the  22d.  The 
strikers  had  informed  the  railro:ul  ollicials  that  they 
would  not  interfere  with  the  mails,  but  that  no  pass- 
enger or  freight  trains  should  pass  over  the  road. 
Oil  the  morning  of  the  22d,  the  railroad  officials,  near- 
ly all  of  whom  had  gathered  at  Hornellsville,  deter- 
mined to  attempt  to  run  a  passenger  train  westward 
from  Hornellsville.  An  engine  with  a  postal  car  at- 
tached was  coupled  to  two  passenger  coaches.    The 


RIOT. 


70:5 


BIOT. 


lalt(:r  wore  iicciiiiiiMl  liv  llic  Sii|icriiitcnili-iil  of  tin; 
Wcslorn  ilivisioii,  a  sipmil  of  Mol(licrn  and  I  wo  or  llire« 
paHsengcrs.  HoldicrH  wen;  slaUoncd  on  the  platform 
of  each  car,  two  wore  also  poHlfd  on  lliir  i  ii).'iii((r'H 
cal).  Tlic  train  then  Hiarlcil  from  the  yard  ;;iiardcd 
for  Homc  distanci'  l>y  soldiiis  stationed  on  both  sides 
of  the  tracli.  At  ( 'ass  street  crossint;,  a  sliort  dislanie 
beyond,  a  nuin  alleni|)ted  to  board  one  of  the  cars, 
but  he  was  driven  back  liy  the  soldiers.  Kroin  this 
post,  for  u  distance  of  aliout  llfty  rods,  to  West 
street  ('rossini;,  tlie  trade  was  covered  willi  soft  soap. 
The  driviiiij;  wlieels  liejian  to  slip,  and  the  engineer 
threw  sand  on  the  track,  but  this  was  insnflicii'iil  to 
give  a  headway  of  over  live  miles  an  hour.  When 
the  train  r<'achcd  West  street  crossing,  about  two 
hundred  of  the  men  were  assembled.  Here  railroad 
torpedoes  were  thrown  under  the  driving  wheels  of 
thci'iigine,  but  still  the  train  moved  on.  Men  seenK^d 
to  be  r<'acliing  the  groinid  from  all  fjuarlers  and  by 
hundreds  ran  alongside  the  train.  Suddenly  i(  parted 
between  the  baggage  car  and  passeugi-r  c'oach,  and 
as  the  men  .saw  th<'  victory  was  thc'irs,  with  a  shout, 
they  took  possession  of  two  of  the  coaches  as  they 
came  to  a  standstill  and  rendered  the  brakes  useless. 
The  soldiers  and  passengers  were  ordered  out  of  tlie 
cars  and  obeyed,  while  the  men,  with  cheers,  shoved 
the  cars  back  into  the  yard,  andthi'  soldiers  marched 
back  to  the  depot.  The  engine  and  postal  car  went 
on  toward  Dunkirk.  Half  an'hour  later  thecompyny 
.started  out  train  No.  7  on  the  liulValo  division,  also 
guarded  by  soldiers.  As  the  engine  and  tender 
switched  olT  on  tlie  HulTalo  track,  the  engine  was 
boarded  by  the  men.  Some  pushed  the  soldiers'  guus 
aside  and  climbed  up  to  the  tender;  others  jumped 
on  the  pilot  and  went  over  the  top  of  the  engine  to 
the  cab,  when  tliey  ordered  the  fireman,  who  was  an 
extra  man,  to  get  off.  After  a  short  parley  he  was 
taken  from  the  engine,  and  the  Engineer  ran  the 
train  back  into  the  yard,  the  men  cheering  as  before. 
The  crowd  of  seven  or  eight  himilred  men  smldeuly 
melted  away,  and  during  the  remainder  of  the  day 
there  was  no  disturbance,  as  the  Railroad  Company 
made  no  further  efforts  to  run  their  trains.  The 
strikers  were  very  determined,  and  were  prepared 
for  a  desperate  resistance  to  the  civil  and  nnlitary 
forces.  Tiiey  had  a  camp  in  the  woods  near  Hor- 
ncUsville,  and  were  well  supplied  with  small-arms 
and  amnuniition,  besides  having  two  pieces  of  can- 
non. They  were  well  organized,  and  their  movements 
were  well  directerl. 

The  tirst  detachment  of  the  33d  regiment,  nearly 
400  strong,  reached  Horiu'llsville  on  the  '23(1.  This 
brought  the  military  force  at  that  place  to  a  strength 
of  airout  1,200  men.  The  rioters  numbered  about 
2,000  men.  About  noon  on  the  2:5(1.  a  Committee  of 
strikers  waited  on  the  railway  ollicials  to  state  their 
grievances.  The  Chairman  of  the  Committee  nnide 
a  general  statement  of  the  causes  which  forced  the 
men  to  strike,  and  said  they  had  received  orders  not 
to  commit  depredation.  They  proposed  to  stop  the 
trains,  but  not  to  do  violence.  He  then  submitted 
llie  following,  as  the  terms  which  he  thought  the 
nu'U  woulii  accept  and  go  lo  work.  The  wages  de- 
manded are  just  about  the  same  as  the  Company 
now  pay  under  the  ten  per  cent,  reduction.  The 
brakemeu  are  willing  to  go  to  work  at  the  ten  per 
cent,  reduction,  provided  the  train  men  are  paid  for 
any  overtime  that  they  may  make  in  being  ordered 
out  and  being  abandoned  ;  also  any  overtime  which 
Ihcv  may  make  while  being  delayed  upon  the  road, 
to  ije  paid  for  at  the  same  rate  per  day  :  overrate  per 
day  to  be  f  1.80.  The  trackmen  in"  the  llomells- 
ville  yard  to  receive  ?!l..50  per  day,  and  be  paid  for 
overtime  at  the  same  rate  ;  the  trackmen  on  sections 
outside  of  the  yard  to  receive  ^1.40  per  day.  and  to 
pay  no  rentals  for  their  houses,  except  as  they  may 
agree  with  the  Company.  The  switciuiieu  to  accept 
the  ten  per  cent.  red\iction,  on  consideration  that 
ten  hours  shall  constitute  a  day's  work,  and  all  over- 
time to  be  paid  for  at  the  same  rate  per  hour — -Sl.SO 


and  §2.0.5  per  day.  The  (Innien  to  accept  the  ten 
pi'r  cent,  reduction  on  consiileration  that  their  iev. 
eral  pay  shall  be  *I.(IO,  )i}\.<.fi.  iy2.08  unil  i'2,14,  and 
that  all  liremcn  shidl  be  pronioti'd  aci.onling  to  aire. 
Coal-passers  lo  be  paid  the  same  as  bifore.  The 
Superintrjidciit  said  he  was  glad  to  we  them  make 
an  elldrt  for  |jea<e,  but  assured  them  that  liic  I{e- 
ceiver  would  not  go  to  work  upon  other  terms  than 
he  had  annoimced  ;  that  the  Company  could  nrjt  ac- 
cede to  the  demands  jiresented.  "I'iie  Coinmitlec 
then  asked  if  tlieConuuitteeinen,  who  had  been  dis- 
charged, would  be  restoriMl  to  their  former  places  if 
the  men  wirit  lo  w(jrk.  The  Ahsistunt  Keceiver  re- 
plied that  Ihiy  would  not.  The  Committee  then  re- 
tired, being  escorted  through  the  lini-s.  Later  in  the 
day  the  following  notice  was  re(-eived  and  promptly 
I)ublished : 

The  Receiver  fully  appreciates  the  fidelity  of  IiU 
otUcers,  agents,  and  men  who  have  remamed  true 
lo  their  duty  in  the  jiresent  emerg(ncy.  anrl  such 
fidelity  will  not  fail  t(j  be  properly  rec-ognized.  No 
compromise  will  be  made  with,  and  no  concession 
will  be  made  to,  those  misguiiled  men  who  are.  have 
been,  or  may  be  false  to  their  trust,  and  violaters  of 
the  law.  And  all  persons  are  wanied  that  no  one 
has  the  right  to  represent  or  speak  for  the  Receiver, 
except  his  regular  oflicers.  Any  other  person  prc- 
tendinirto  do  so  is  an  impostor.  The  Receiver  is 
indu.ed  to  believe  that  the  large  majority  of  the  em- 
ployes now  neglecting  their  duly  are  acting  under 
thecoercion  and  terror  of  lawless  and  ilesperate 
men,  mo.st  of  whom  are  strangers,  and  have  never 
been  in  his  service.  All  well-disposed  employes 
will  be  protected. 

From  Ilornellsville  the  disturbance  spreatl  rapi<lly 
along  the  line  of  the  Krie  Railway.  Port  .lervis, 
Cornintr,  Painted  Post.  Ruffalo,  and  other  points 
were  affected,  and  the  Erie  brakemen  and  firemen  at 
all  these  places  joined  the  strike  and  slopped  the 
running  of  the  trains.  At  IJulfalo  the  strikers  were 
exceedingly  violent.  Karly  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
23d,  an  ass"ault  was  made  by  nearly  two  thousand 
rioters  on  about  two  hundred  soldiers  who  were 
guarding  the  Lake  Shore  round  house.  The  mili- 
tary were  obliged  to  leave  the  building,  which  was 
now  barricade!  by  the  mob,  who  had  placed  cars  in 
position  as  defence  against  an  attack.  The  Colonel 
of  the  6.5th  Regiment,  with  about  thirty  men  and 
three  officers,  proceeded  to  the  round  house  to  retake 
it  from  the  mob.  They  were  nut  with  yells  of  der- 
ision from  the  crowd,  and.  under  a  shower  of  stones, 
were  obliged  to  retreat  at  the  double-ipiick.  and 
force  their  way  through  the  yelling  crowd  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet,  some  of  ilie  soldiers  being  bad- 
ly cut  on  the  hands  with  knives,  and  also  clubbed. 
Four  of  the  soldiers  lost  their  muskets,  which,  how- 
ever, were  afterward  recovered.  The  Colonel  was 
badly  clubbed,  twice  knocked  down,  forced  across 
the  canal,  and  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  the  Lake 
Shore  paint  shop.  "The  Krie  strikers  did  not  confine 
their  lawlessness  to  their  own  road,  but  invaded  the 
shops  of  the  Lake  Shore  and  New  York  Central 
roads,  and  forced  the  men  to  stop  work,  and  pre- 
vented the  movements  of  all  freight  and  stock  trains 
in  the  depot  yard.  The  Lake  Shore  men  joined  in 
the  strike,  as"  we  shall  see.  but  the  men  of  the  New 
York  Central  road  showed  no  disposition  to  do  so. 
A  meet  inn  of  citizens  was  didy  summoned  by  the 
Mayor  of'KiifTalo,  but  it  was  slimly  attended,  and 
was  captured  bv  the  strikers,  whereupon  it  was  ad- 
journed by  the  "Mayor.  In  the  meantime  the  second 
detachment  of  the"  23d  Regiment  left  Brooklyn  on 
the  afternoon  of  the  23d  of  July,  and  reached  Elmi- 
ra  shortly  after  seven  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the 
24tli.  At  this  point  the  Commander  was  warned 
that  the  strikers  along  the  road  would  endeavor  to 
stop  the  prosress  of  the  train,  and  accordingly  sta- 
tioned siuards  on  the  engine  and  tender,  and  on  the 
platforms  of  the  cars.  These  men  were  ordered  not 
to  fire  without  cause,  but  to  see  that  the  train  was 


KIOT. 


704 


EIOT. 


not  interfered  with.  Tlie  train  left  Elmira  at  9  o'clock, 
and  reached  Coming  at  10.. 23  a.  m,  Several  rioters 
attempted  to  board  the  train,  but  were  quiciily  forced 
off  by  the  guards.  About  one  hundred  of  them 
gathered  around  the  train,  gesticulating  and 
liooting,  but  making  no  further  demonstraUou  of 
violence.  As  the  train  moved  past  the  depot,  the 
rioters  rushed  ahead,  and  turned  the  switch.  The 
engine  was  moving  so  slowly,  however,  that  the 
train  was  at  once  stopped.  The  mob  now  hastened 
up  the  track  and  blockaded  it  by  overturning  a  bag- 
gage car  upon  it.  Several  locomotives  were  also  in- 
jured. The  fireman  of  the  troop  train  now  deserted 
his  engine  and  joined  the  mob.  The  track  was  torn 
up  for  a  short  distance  by  the  rioters,  and  the  ad- 
vance of  the  troop  train  was  effectually  stopped. 
At  several  points  liigUer  up  the  road  the  track  was 
torn  up,  and  cars  were  overturned.  A  construction 
party  was  at  once  organized,  and,  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  troops,  the  track  was  relaidandthe  over- 
turned cars  righted.  The  train  moved  on  slowly, 
at  the  rate  of  about  one  mile  per  hour,  in  order  to 
protect  the  working  parties,  and  reached  Pain'- 
ed  Post  about  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The 
strikers  were  at  this  time  about  two  miles  ahead  of 
the  train,  and  were  damaging  the  road  as  fast  as  was 
possible.  Every  etiort  was  made  to  repair  the  track 
and  enable  the  troops  to  come  up  with  the  rioters. 
So  successful  were  these  efforts,  that  at  half-past 
four  the  troops  were  within  half  a  mile  of  the  rioters. 
A  strong  detachment  was  immediateh'  thrown  out, 
which,  moving  rapidly  ahead  of  the  train,  soon  came 
up  with  the  rioters  as  they  were  engaged  in  tearing 
up  the  rails.  At  the  sight  of  the  troops  the  strikers 
fled  to  the  woods.  The  damage  to  the  track  was  at 
once  repaired,  and  the  train  passed  on  to  Addison. 
From  this  jjlace  no  farther  trouble  was  experienced 
until  a  point  half  a  mile  below  IlornellsviUe  was 
reached.  Here  the  engine,  tender  and  baggage  car 
were  thrown  from  the  track  b}-  a  loosened  rail.  In 
consequence  of  the  presence  of  so  strong  a  military 
force  at  Hornellsville,  there  was  no  disturbance  at 
that  place  on  the  24th.  The  leader  of  the  strikers, 
was  arrested  anil  held  by  the  civil  authorities.  No 
effort  was  made  to  rescue  him.  All  through  the  34th 
there  was  great  excitement  at  Buffalo,  but  there  was 
no  outbreak.  About  600  militia  and  two  batteries 
of  artillery,  besides  300  policemen,  were  held  in 
readiness  to  move  upon  the  mob  at  any  moment. 
On  the  night  of  the  24th  an  attempt  was  made  to  fire 
the  bridge  of  the  Erie  Railroad  over  the  Neversink 
river,  at  Port  Jervis.  Precautionary  measures  were 
taken  by  the  Company  at  the  commencement  of  the 
disturbances,  an  increased  number  of  watchmen 
being  stationed  at  tliis  l)ridge.  This  fact  undoubt- 
edly saved  it  from  destruction,  as  the  next  morning 
a  five  gallon  can  of  kerosene  oil  was  discovered  un- 
der the  bridge,  placed  in  such  a  position  that  its  ig- 
nition would  have  carried  the  flames  to  the  wood- 
work of  the  bridge.  It  is  supposed  that  the  incen- 
diaries became  alanned  before  the  completion  of 
their  arrangements,  and  thinking  that  they  were  dis- 
coven'd,  fled,  leaving  the  oil  Ix^liind  them.  The 
guards  at  that  point  were  iiun-ased  to  prevent  fur- 
ther troul)le. 

The  Governor  issued  the  following  pmclamation  : 
■'  I  deem  it  my  duty  to  invite  the  special  attention  of 
all  the  citizens  of  litis  State,  and  especially  of  such 
pers<ras  as  are  now  attempting  to  interfere  by  unlaw- 
ful means  with  the  running  of  railway  trains,  to  the 
following  act  passed  by  tiie  Legislature  at  its  last 
session:  ('hai)ter  2*'il.  An  act  to  I'lmish  Trespassing 
<m  Railroads,  passed  May  lutli,  1W77;  The  people  of 
the  Stale  of  N'ew  York  represented  in  Senate  and  As- 
semljly  do  enact  as  follows :  Section  1. — Any  person 
who  shall  wilfully  place  any  obstruction  upon  any 
railroad,  or  loosen,  tear  up  or  remove  any  part  of  a 
railroad,  or  displace,  tamper  or  in  any  way  interfere 
with  any  switches,  frogs,  rail,  track,  or  other  part 
of  any  railroad,  so  as  to  endanger  the  safety  of  any 


train,  or  who  shall  wilfully  throw  any  stone  or  other 
missile  at  any  train  or  any  railroad,  shall,  upon  con- 
vi('tiou  thereof,  be  punished  by  imprisonment  in  a 
State  prison,  not  exceeding  ten  years,  or  be  liable  to 
a  tine  not  exceeding  #1.000,  or  by  both  such  fine  and 
imprisonment.  Sec.  2. — This  act  shall  lake  effect 
immediateh'.  I  warn  all  persons  engaged  in  the  viol- 
ation of  the  above  law  to  desist  therefrom,  and  I  call 
upon  all  sheriffs,  magistrates,  district  attorneys  and 
other  civil  oflicers,  and  upon  all  good  offlcers  to  aid 
in  the  enforcement  of  the  said  law,  and  of  the  pun- 
ishment of  all  who  are  guilty  of  its  violation,  and  I 
hereby  offer  a  reward  of  fSOO,  to  be  paid  upon  the 
arrest  and  conviction  of  each  and  evcrj'  person  who 
shall  be  guilty  of  a  violation  of  the  said  act.  The 
failure  or  omission  of  any  sheriff,  district  attorney, 
or  other  civil  officer  to  take  the  most  active  steps  in 
his  power  to  enforce  the  provisions  of  this  act  will 
be  considered  sufficient  cause  for  his  removal."  This 
proclamation  had  a  happy  effect  in  all  parts  of  the 
State,  and  especially  upon  the  line  of  the  Erie  Rail- 
road. The  offer  of  a  reward  wan  certain  to  sow  dis- 
cord in  the  ranks  of  the  rioters,  and  convert  some  of 
them  into  informers. 

Feeling  themselves  strong  enough  to  enforce  the 
law, the  civil  authorities  at  Hornellsville  now  deter- 
mined to  open  the  Erie  Railroad  to  traffic,  and  to 
arrest  the  more  prominent  of  the  rioters.  It  was  de- 
cided to  enforce  the  law,  even  should  a  conflict  with 
the  rioters  be  necessary  ;  and  the  20th  of  July  was 
fixed  as  the  day  on  which  the  effort  was  to  be  made. 
In  the  meantime  several  p-ominent  gentlemen  of  the 
place  exerted  themselves  to  bring  about  a  settlement 
and  avert  the  necessity  of  using  force.  Warrants 
were  issued  for  the  arrest  of  over  one  hundred  of  the 
rioters,  and  the  23d  Regiment  was  assigned  the  duty 
of  supporting  the  civil  officers  in  making  these  ar- 
rests. Orders  were  issued  for  the  regiment  to  be 
ready  to  move  at  six  o'clock  a.  m.  on  the  26th.  The 
Galling  guns  were  prepared  for  immediate  use,  and 
the  regiment  fully  cotmted  upon  a  sharp  conflict 
with  tile  mob.  Tiie  railroad  officials  had  «  number 
of  detectives  among  the  rioters, and  every  movement 
of  the  strikers  was  known,  as  well  as  the  location  of 
their  various  camps.  Few  of  the  rioters  were  seen 
in  Hornellsville,  or  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  their 
camps,  but  at  a  given  signal  they  could  have  assem- 
bled at  least  900"men.  On  a  hillside  overlooking  the 
military  and  railroad  head-quarters  their  outposts 
could  be  distinctly  seen  b.v  day,  and  at  night  scores 
of  moving  lanterns  gave  evidence  of  their  vigilance 
and  activity.  In  different  portions  of  the  woods, and 
not  remote  from  the  line  of  the  road,  they  had  over 
half  a  dozen  camps,  which  had  been  provisioned 
by  plundering  the  freiglit  cars  in  the  depot  yard  at 
the  l)egiuning  of  the  strike.  The  strikers'  camps 
would  have  been  surrounded  early  on  the  morning 
of  the  26th,  but  during  the  night  of  the  2.">th  a  settle- 
ment was  effected  between  the  railroad  officials  and 
the  rioters. 

An  effort  was  made  by  the  strikers  on  the  Erie  Rail- 
road to  bring  on  a  strike  on  the  Lake  Shore  Railroad, 
which  extends  from  Buffalo  to  Toledo,  and  forms  a 
part  of  the  New  York  Central's  liiu>  to  Chicago.  The 
disturbance  began  at  Buffalo,  where  the  Lake  Shore 
men  struck  on  the  22d,  and  prevented  the  passage 
of  freight  trains.  At  Erie,  Pennsylvania,  and  oilier 
points  along  the  road, the  train  men  joined  the  strike, 
and  stopped  the  trains,  but  no  further  violence  was 
attempted.  No  trains  were  allowed  to  run  on  the 
line  between  liiiffalo  ami  Eric,  it  having  lieen  deter- 
mined not  to  imd(rtuk<>  tii  run  any  trains  until  the 
strikers  ceased  their  hUerference  with  the  road.  The 
Atlantic  exjiress  from  Chicago  n^ached  Erie  at  eleven 
o'clock  on  tlie  morning  of  the  24tli  of  .July.  It  con- 
sisted of  four  fast  nuiil  cars,  with  heavy  mails,  two 
baggage  cars,  and  four  well-filled  passenger  cars.  In 
accordance  with  orders  from  the  President  the  train 
was  run  upon  a  sidetrack  and  declared  abandoned. 
The  jjassengers  were  much   incensed,  and  tried  to 


BIOT. 


lor, 


RIOT. 


iirgL'  Ihc  Hlrikcrs  (o  run  the  Iniirj  lliniiij;!!  In  liiiiriilo. 
The  Htrikcrs  piirtiitlly  (Miimciilcd,  (ircil  up  an  rii;^iiic 
and  HlliU'licd  il  to  llii'  Iniln.  Tlir  Siipcrinli'iidctil  of 
Uk;  IJtill'iilo division  tclcj^'riiplicd  to  prrvcril  llic-  strik- 
cTH  from  tiikinf;  oul  tlic  Iniin.  A  niciMin);  of  the 
strikers  was  li<Od  at  tlie  depot  at  three  o'clock  in  the 
aflertuion.  'Pile  mayor,  sherilf,  and  a  posse  of  police' 
were  (111  liand  to  preserve  order.  The  mayor  advised  j 
the  men  to  let  tlie  train  alone  and  not  to  interfere 
with  the  ('om|)any's  orders.  The  chief  of  the  strik- 
ers also  advised  the  same  course.  The  enjrine  was 
then  taken  oir,  run  into  the  rounil  house,  and  the  i 
train  was  left  on  the  sidinir.  It  contaiueil  ahoul  one  | 
hundred  tlirouijli  passengers  for  New  York,  and  ; 
(he  cars  for  the  time  were  converted  into  a  hotel. 
Ahoul  half-past  six  o'clock  theChicairo  and  St.  I.ouis 
e.\press  came  in  from  ('hicai;o,  anil,  like  its  prede- 
cessorwas  run  upon  a  side  track  and  alian<loneil.  The 
trains  were  held  at  Erie  until  the  niorningof  the'2(ith, 
when,  it  beimr  certain  that  the  strike  was  at  an  end, 
they  were  ordered  to  proceed  to  UulTalo.  From  this 
t4me  the  trains  wen^  run  reijuhirly  over  the  Lake 
Shore  road.  It  was  believed  that  the  slriki'  would 
certainly  extend  to  New  York  city.  That  citvistlie 
eastern  leriiumis  of  the  New  York  Central  iV  lludson 
Uiver  Railroad,  and  there  the  C'on\pany  have  vast  in- 
terests at  stake  and  sjive  employment  to  several  thou- 
sand men.  The  city  of  Mew  Y'ork  is  peculiarly  cir- 
cumstanced. It  contains  a  larjic  class  of  |)rofessionai 
criminals,  and  a  larijer  nndtitudeof  idle  and  reck- 
less men.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are  many  men 
of  foreijin  birth,  who,  while  pursuiiiir  some  means  of 
sujiport.  are  thoroughly  imbucil  with  comnninistie 
ideas,  and  are  ready  at  any  tinu'  to  make  war  upon 
the  existing  state  of  society.  Tlx'sc  classes  make  uj)  a 
fornndable  section  of  the  population  of  New  York. 
It  was  feared  that  should  the  strike  extend  to  New 
York,  these  classes  would  make  it  a  pretext  for  riot 
and  violen(-e.  Ni-w  York  beinu;  the  wealthiest  city 
of  the  Union,  and  one  of  the  ureal  tinancial  centers 
of  the  world,  always  oilers  iuduccuu-iils  to  a  mob  of 
desperate  characters  to  enfj:a^<'  in  an  outbreak  in  the 
hope  of  plunder.  The  liard  times  from  which  the 
whole  country  w-as  sufferini;  bad  ])ressed  very  heavi- 
ly ujioii  the  workimrmen  of  New  York.  Many  were 
out  of  work,  an<l  all  were  more'  or  less  discontented. 
In  case  of  an  outbreak  it  was  certain  that  the  rioters 
would  be  larsiely  reinforced  from  this  class. 

The  leaders  of  th<' eor.unuuistic  societies  of  New 
York,  which  associations  are  made  up  almost  en- 
tirely of  foreijrners  who  have  in  many  eases  been 
members  of  similar  organizations  in  Europe,  regard- 
ed the  exciting  period  as  a  lilting  time  to  test  the 
strength  of  the  popular  sympathy  with  them.  They 
determined  to  hold  a  public  meeting  ostensibly  for 
the  purpose  of  expressing  sympathy  with  the  work- 
ini;nu'U  engaged  in  the  strikes,  but  really  to  test 
their  strength  in  New  York,  and  see  if  they  could 
connuand  suflicient  outside  aid  to  enable  them  to 
bring  on  an  outbreak.  The  permission  of  the  au- 
thorities being  necessary  to  enable  them  to  hold 
such  a  meeting,  they  applied  to  the  Police  Conunis- 
sion  for  leave  to  hold  their  meeting  in  Tompkins 
S(imvrc.  Their  reipiest  was  promptly  granted,  and 
a  call  was  issued  for  a  mass-meeting  of  the  Trades 
I'nions  at  Tompkins  Scpiare  on  the  night  of  Wed- 
nesday, '2r)lb  of  .July,  to  express  .sympathy  with  the 
men  engaged  in  the  strikes  in  other  parts  of  thecimu- 
Iry.  The  true  character  of  the  proposed  meeting 
was  well  understood  throughout  the  I'liioii,  and  con- 
siderable surprise  was  niMiifested  at  the  course  of 
the  New  York  authorities  in  allowing  thenweting  to 
be  held.  The  Police  C'ouunissioners  were  convinced, 
liowever,  that  to  prevent  tlu'  meeting  would  be  to 
increase  whatever  excitement  and  discontent  nught 
exist  among  the  laboring  classes,  and  that  the  best 
way  to  deprivethe  Communists  of  tlair  intiuence 
was  to  permit  them  to  hohl  their  mi'eling  and 
show  tbeir  designs.  They  felt  contideiu  that  the 
great  mass  of  tbe  workmen  of  New  Y'ork   were  not  • 


ill  Hympathy  with  any  eoiiimunlHlic  hcheineH,  and 
that  they  would  In-  arienaled  from  llieiii  to  u  still 
greater  extent  by  thi-ir  public  procluiinition.  They, 
therefore,  di'ciileil  to  allow  the  mer-ling  at  'l°oiii|ikinH 
Square.  .At  the  same  timeil  was  rcMolved  t«  liuveu 
Hirong,  well-armed  force  of  police  ul  liund  to  piil 
down  any  attempt  at  an  outbreak,  and  to  be  reaily  to 
support  such  action  with  thi'  intire  |)olice  tnric  and 
the  military.  The  commissioners  fi-ll  fully  conlidenl 
of  their  ability  to  deal  with  the  moli,  and  iiieunl  to 
show  them  that  the  city  aiilhorilies  were  not  afraid 
of  them. 

The  meeting  was  lield  at  the  appointed  time,  and 
was  watelieil  with  tin-  keenest  anxiety  by  the  whole 
country.  .Ml  felt  that  it  would  decide  whether  there 
would  be  a  general  communistic  revolt,  willi  \ln  ac- 
companiments of  blooilsheil,  pillage,  anil  arson,  or 
whether  the  authorities  were  strong  enough  to  en- 
force the  laws.  If  thir  mob  got  the  upper  hand  in 
New  York,  it  was  generally  said,  the  terrible  resullH 
would  spread  to  the  whoh;  country;  if  the  authori- 
ties could  prevent  an  outbreak,  the  insurrection 
would  receive  its  death  blow. 

The  following  resolutions  were  read  to  the  meet- 
ing: 

Kemilvfd,  That  the  workingmen's  parly  of  the  city 
and  county  of  New  Y'ork  tender  their  heartfelt  sym- 
pathies to  the  railroad  men  now  (m  strike  in  differ- 
ent localities  in  the  country. 

/ifKolvril,  That  we  consider  all  legalized  chartered 
corporations,  such  as  railroad. banking,  minim;,  man- 
ufacturing, gas.  etc..  under  the  iire.seut  system  of  op- 
eration, as  the  most  despotic  and  heartless  enemies 
of  the  working  classes. 

lieHolnd,  That  their  acts  of  tyranny  and  ojipress- 
ion  have  been  the  cause  of  demoralizing  thousands 
of  honest  workingmen,  thereby  driving  them  to  acts 
of  madness;  desperation  and  crime  that  they  would 
not  otherwise  have  been  guilty  of  had  tliey  been  just- 
ly dealt  by. 

Hesdlreil,  That  as  these  chartered  companies  have 
been  the  primal  cause  of  their  employes'  miseries  and 
of  their  eonsequenees,  we  hold  them  morally  respon- 
sible for  all  acts  of  violence  that  ])roceeil  from  and 
are  the  Icgitinnite  residts  of  their  tyranny  and  op- 
pression. 

liemlved.  That  we  view  with  alarm  the  growing  in- 
fluence and  power  of  these  corporations  over  the  leg- 
islation of  the  State  and  nation,  and  believe  if  that 
intiuence  continues,  the  executive,  judicial,  and  leg- 
islative branches  of  the  government  will  become  to- 
tally demoralized,  the  rights  of  the  masses  destroyed, 
and,  instead  of  the  voice  of  the  people,  the  power  of 
the  almighty  dollar  will  become  absolute  and  su- 
preme. 

lie-vilred.  That  we  do  earnestly  request  and  advise 
all  the  working  classes  throughout  the  country  to 
unite  as  speedily  as  possible  for  the  purpose  of  form- 
ing a  political  party,  based  on  the  natural  rights  of 
labor.  Let  us  nuike  common  cause  against  a  com- 
mon enemy. 

RemAi-ed'.  That  nothing  short  of  a  political  revolu- 
tion through  the  ballot  box  on  the  jiarl  of  the  work- 
ing classes  will  remedy  the  evils  imder  which  they 
suffer. 

Rexolvfd.  That  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  working- 
men's  party  to  confiscate  through  legislation,  the 
imjustly  gotten  wealth  of  these  legalized  and  char- 
tered corporation  thieves  that  are  backed  by  the  Shy- 
locks  and  moneyed  syndicates  of  Europe  and  of  this 
country. 

Riwlred.  That  we  love  law  and  order,  peace  and 
tranquility,  justice  and  righteousness  above  all  elst, 
and  deprecate  anythmg  and  everything  that  will 
pervert  them,  and"  that  we  are  ever  ready  togiveour 
lives  in  defense  of  the  inherent  rights  of  man. 

The  following  address  was  made  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States  :  \Ve,  the  workingmen  of  the 
city  of  New-York,  in  mass-meeting  assembled,  act- 
ing from  a  sense  of  duty,  and  prompted   by  true 


HIOT. 


70« 


BIOI. 


feelings  of  humanity  and  a  sincere  desire  for  ])eace 
and  liarmony  in  society, do  earnestly  and  respectfully 
call  your  attention  to  the  serious  condition  of  affairs 
now  existing,  and  which  have  existed  for  some  time 
past  between  the  operatives  and  the  officials  of  the 
mining  and  railroad  corporations  in  several  States  of 
the  Union.  The  crimson  tide  of  the  life-blood  of 
citizens,  soldiers,  and  hardy  workmen  have  already 
mingled  in  sanguinary  strife.  The  heavens  have 
been  lit  up  with  the  lurid  glare  of  incendiary  fires 
that  have  reduced  to  ashes  millions  of  property. 
Men  have  fallen  beneath  deadly  blows  dealt  by  un- 
seen and  unknown  hands,  \uitil  it  seems  as  if  evil 
days  had  fallen  upon  us  as  a  nation.  Three  millions 
of  the  bone  and  sinew  of  tlie  country  converted  into 
wandering  vagabonds,  and  a  large  portion  of  those 
employed  on  the  verge  of  starvation.  Do  tliese  evils 
that  have  assumed  such  magnitude  and  proportions 
as  to  necessitate  the  issuance  of  a  proclamation  on 
your  part  to  preserve  the  peace,  come  within  the 
scope  or  jurisdiction  of  national  legislation  ?  What- 
ever may  be  the  cause  of  these  evils, the  only  remedy 
applied  so  far  as  been  the  hangman's  rope  an<l  the 
soldier's  bullet.  Think  you,  Mr.  President. these  are 
etTectual  and  permanent  remedies  that  will  insure 
henceforth  peace  and  good  order  in  society?  We 
think  not.  Whatever  cause  produces  these  antago- 
nistic relations  between  employer  and  employe  must 
be  sought  out  and  removed.  We  address  you,  Mr. 
President,  because  you  are  one  having  great  power 
and  authority  conferred  upon  you  by  tlie  Constitu- 
t.on.  You  are  Commander-in Chief  of  the  armed 
forces  of  these  United  States,  and  during  the  recess 
of  Congress  thej'  are  at  your  absolute  ilisposition. 
Need  we  suggest  to  you  the  wisdom  of  extreme  cau- 
tion in  the  exercise  of  your  national  military  power, 
lest  the  breach  of  the  peace  be  widened,  class  feeling 
intensified,  and  public  safety  more  endangered?  We 
think,  Jlr.  President,  that  the  situation  of  affairs  is 
of  such  an  important  and  alarming  character  that 
they  justify'  on  your  part  the  immediate  calling  of 
an  extra  session  of  Congress.  These  terrible  occur- 
rences and  disturbances  between  the  employers  and 
employes  of  mining  and  railroad  companies  that 
have  "startled  and  shocked  the  coiumuuily  of  late 
involve,  as  you  well  know,  what  is  termed  the  rela- 
tions between  labor  and  capital.  Many  are  of  the 
opinion  that  any  interference  or  action  on  the  part 
of  the  government  to  adjust  these  relations  are  con- 
trary and  inimical  to  the  genius  and  spirit  of  modern 
civilization  and  republican  institutions;  that  the  func- 
tion of  the  government  is  simply  to  prevent  any 
violent  collisions  in  society  resulting  from  the  an- 
tagonistic relations  of  these  two  elements  performing 
such  important  functions  in  the  affairs  of  human 
society,  and  that  throughout  the  history  of  the  world 
so  tar  have  been  eternally  at  sword's  points  with  each 
other.  Those  who  take  this  view  of  tlie  matter 
seem  to  overlook  the  great  fact  that  legislation  has 
always  deidt  with  at  least  one  of  these  factors — 
namely,  capital;  and  has  almost  entirely  ignored  the 
other— namely,  labor:  which  is,  in  our  ojiinion.  the 
primal  cause  "of  the  present  difficulties.  Had  legisla- 
tion afforded  the  same  opportunities  and  guaniuteed 
tlie  same  riglils  anil  privileges  to  labor  thai  it  has  to 
<;ai)ital  these  evil  (la_ys  would  not  have  befallen  us. 
When  railroad  kings  can  build  palaces  to  live  in, 
costing  millions,  and  others  die  bequeathing  hun- 
dreds of  millions  to  their  cliililren,  and  boast  while 
living  that  they  never  Iroiililed  themselves  about  the 
election  of  representatives,  but  bought  them  uji  after 
they  were  elected,  and  u.sed  them  as  a  means  to  en- 
rich tliemselv<-s  at  tlii' exiiense  of  their  employes  and 
the  general  public,  it  seems  about  time  to  ccnisider 
whelheror  not  legislation  cannot  confer  some  justice 
anil  rights  upon  labor  as  well  as  privileges  to  capital. 
We  have  always  considered  that  law  should  be  the 
.Hvnonym  of  justice.  lias  not  Congress  the  power 
u"nder"th(^( Constitution  to  govern  and  control. for  llie 
bi'iiefitof  the  whole  people,  the  liiL'-liways  and  water 


courses  of  the  nations  and  regulate  its  internal  com- 
merce and  trade  ?  Is  there  any  constitutional  law 
that  prohibits  the  State  or  general  government  from 
controlling  or  supervising  the  mineral  resources  of 
the  nation?  Shoulil  not,  also,  the  telegraph  system 
be  connected  with  our  postal  department?  and  last, 
but  not  least,  a  governmental  monetary  system  esta- 
blished that  would  supersede  the  present  individual 
corporate  banking  institutions  that  are  nothing  more 
nor  less  than  parasites  on  the  body  politic.  All  of 
these  chartered  institutions  exist  by  a  system  of  di- 
vidends or  profits  that  proceed  directly  from  the 
laboring  classes.  In  their  efforts  to  make  those 
dividends  the  blood  and  marrow  are  extracted  from 
labor,  until  finally,  maddened  and  desperate  b}-  the 
exacting  tyranny  of  capital,  rendered  ignorant  and 
brutish  by  jjoverty,  it  resorts  to  brute  force  and 
violence  to  redress  its  wrongs.  It  cannot  be  expected 
th.at  men  acting^  under  the  impetus  of  starv.atioii 
should  act  wisel)'  or  well,  or  adhere  to  moral  prin- 
ciple. The  very  individuals  who  are  most  loud  in 
their  denunciation  of  tr:e  acts  of  the  stiikers,  placed 
in  their  situation,  might  do,  possibly,  if  they  had  the 
courage,  far  worse.  We,  as  a  class,  view  with  alarm 
the  growth  and  power  of  these  gigantic  cor))ora- 
tions.  Wielding  thousands  of  millions  of  dollars' 
capital  as  a  power  they  are  fast  demoralizing  and 
corrupting  the  executive,  judicial  and  legislative 
branches  of  the  governments  of  both  State  and  na- 
tion; and  the  rights  of  labor  and  the  liberties  of  the 
common  people,  if  we  continue  on  in  this  course, 
will  soon  be  swept  away  (and  here  let  us  state  that 
a  member  of  your  Cabinet,  has  recommended  as  a 
measure  of  political  reform  in  this  State  the  restric- 
tion of  suffrage  on  the  basis  of  a  moneyed  qualifica- 
tion, thereby  offering  a  direct  insult  to  every  work- 
Ingman  in  this  State);  and  when  they  are  gone  the 
revt)lution  commences  and  the  emancipation  of  the 
white  wages  slaves  of  the  North  will  cost  the  Keijii- 
blic  more  blood  and  treasure  than  ever  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  black  chattel  slaves  of  t)ie  South  did,  and 
God  knows  that  cost  enough.  We  look  to  you,  Mr. 
President, to  be  vigilant  in  respect  of  onr  interests  and 
welfare,  for  the  prosperity  and  perpetuity  of  this 
nation  rests  upon  the  principle  of  justice  to  labor. 
Class  legislation  is  the  ruin  and  eventual  downtall  of 
any  nation. 

After  reading  these  resolutions  and  the  address  the 
following  speech  was  made  in  support  of  the  same  : 
We  are  here  to-night  to  oropose  a  remedy  for  strikes 
and  hard  times.  Our  remedy  is  that  government 
shall  become  the  superintendent  of  education,  pro- 
perty and  trade,  and  the  employer  of  the  people  on 
the  basis  of  equal  rights,  opportunities  and  equitable 
compensation.  Our  motto  is.  "No  Rich,  No  Poor." 
The  age  in  wh;ch  we  live  is  pregnant  with  great  jio- 
litical  and  social  problems  which  are  forcing  them- 
selves upon  us  for  solution,  and  as  we  are  more  fav- 
orably circumstanced  tlum  other  nations  the  duty 
rests  with  us  of  experimenting  in  the  science  of  so- 
ciology until  the  hallowed  object  of  perfecting  hu- 
man government  is  accomplished.  Though  thus  far 
our  efforts  have  not  been  crowned  with  the  degree 
of  success  that  was  anticipated  and  formidable  ob.s- 
tacles  still  remain  to  be  overcome,  let  us  not  relax 
but  rather  redouble  our  efforts  to  stay  the  swelling 
tide  of  corruption  and  strife  and  to  inaugurate. an 
era  of  virtue  and  peace.  The  gigantic  projiortions 
of  peculation  and  fraud  develo])ing  in  political  cir- 
cles and  the  incre.a.se  of  crime  and  inequality  through- 
out the  land  are  morlifyiiig  to  us  as  a  peo]ile.  and, 
as  the  scheming  speeiilalors  and  legal i/.edinoiiopolists 
are  growing  richer  and  the  useful  classes  poor,  a 
crisis  will  soon  be  reached  most  fearful  to  contem- 
plate, unless  measures  .are  sjieeilily  devised  to  arrest 
the  evil. 

We  live  u|)ou  a  laml  llouiii^^  willi  Ihe  milk  and 
honey  of  human  subsistence,  yet  gaunt  poverly 
swee|)s  over  society,  s|)reailing  distress,  crime  and 
]iri'tnalure  death.      iMamiiiolh   storehouses   are  lilleil 


BIOT. 


707 


HIOT. 


to  roplrlion  vvitli  llie  produoti  of  irnliislry,  while 
tlioiisiiiiils  of  produciTM  ftiiiiiHli  for  wiiiil.  of  hrciul. 
DtiiMC  forcHlsand  rank  uriiHB  cover  iiiillioim  of  fertile 
acres,  wliile  lioiiselesH.  hoiiielcHS.  anxious  laborers 
loiter  in  tlie  market,  bei^nini^  for  the  privilege  to  l<iil. 
'riie  ili'velopnii'iil  of  labor-saving'  inachiiiery  niarvel- 
lonsiy  increases  the  power  to  ]iro(liiec  wealth,  which 
shoiihl  lii^litcn  the  bnrileii  of  th(r  workmen  and  ad- 
vance the  prosperity  of  society  ;  whiTcas  it  is  swerv- 
ed from  ainii'  ami  healthy  course  and  enters  into 
harmful  comi)etition  with  Uiohc  whose  livini;  de- 
pends ujjon  a  demand  for  their  labor.  Thoi:^'-h  the 
earth  teems  with  aimual  harvests  and  the  hanils  of 
labor  produce  aji  aliuiahuu'c  of  ev<Ty  convenience 
and  liiXury  of  life,  yet,  under  the  baneful  inlluenee 
of  a  defective  system  ol  L;overnment.  wliich  fails  to 
protect  its  citizens  in  the  enjoyment  of  their  equal 
and  natural  riiflit  to  the  soil,  and  mider  an  Ishnniel- 
itisli  system  of  commerce  and  industry,  which  re- 
gards land,  a.s  well  as  products,  as  an  arti(-le  of  traf- 
fic anil  monopoly,  society  is  divided  into  landlords 
and  tenants,  capitalists  and  laborers,  ri<'h  and  poor, 
and  conditions  of  anxiety  and  antai^onism  are  <'n- 
gendered  which  poison  every  sphere  of  social  life. 
After  a  careful  investigation  of  the  causes  of  ])olitic. 
al  and  social  evils  we  are  constrained  to  believi'  that 
tiny  are  the  lejiitimato  effects  of  an  anti-democralie 
feature  in  our  iiovernment  and  of  an  antagonistic 
system  of  industry  and  commerce.  Therefore,  to  ex- 
pe<'t  a  prosperous  condition  of  affairs  by  a  mere 
(•hanire  of  otlicers,  th(^  exposure  of  fraud  or  the  de- 
nunciation of  crime,  while  the  present  system  re- 
mains unchanged,  is  to  expect  results  contrary  to 
the  nature  of  things,  for  the  opportimilies  open  to 
our  iiublic  ollii'ers  to  acquire  w  ealth  by  an  abuse  of 
the  power  reposed  in  them  and  the  fabulous  for- 
timis  often  realized  through  legalized  methods  of 
fraud  prove  too  great  a  temptation  for  frail  human 
nature  lo  resist.  Therefore,  when  a  reform  has  to 
be  inidertaken  (to  be  successful)  it  must  be  sup- 
ported by  the  whole  people  that  feel  oppressed  :  and 
as  they  are  largely  in  the  majority,  they  have  the 
power  to  speedily  and  jieacefully  change  the  form  of 
government  under  which  we  live.  The  necessity  of 
a  thorough  change  is  manifest,  and  innuerous  are 
the  i)lans  proposed  and  the  efforts  made  to  mitigate 
the  evils  complained  of :  but  mitigation  is  not  enough. 
We  believe  the  tinu'  has  passed  for  fragmentary  pro- 
positions of  reform  to  awaken  any  considerable  de- 
gree of  enthusiasm  in  the  people  or  to  be  of  any  per- 
manent value  to  society  if  accomplished.  Though 
the  efforts  to  extend  the  right  of  suffrage,  the  form- 
ation of  trade  societies,  protective  imions,  strikes 
for  more  ecpiitable  terms  of  time  and  wages,  etc., 
are  praiseworthy  manifestations  of  the  right  spirit. 
and  have  been  and  still  are  valuable  as  a  means  of 
education  ;  yet  to  arrest  the  further  growth  of  fraud 
and  remove  the  giant  evils  there  is  need  of  a  more 
compreliensive  sclienu'  than  any  hitherto  proposed, 
one  that  shall  con.serve  the  best  interests  of  every 
\iseful  class  and  calling,  and  unite  their  scattered 
forces  in  one  consolidated  army  of  progress.  To  re- 
alize the  necessary  reform  and  ]ilace  the  future  de- 
velopments of  society  upon  a  harmonizing  upward 
grade,  the  governnu'Ut  and  industry  of  the  country 
should  be  reconstructed  upon  the  principles  of  nat- 
ural right,  political  equality  and  mutual  i>rotection, 
and  there  are  two  methods  by  which  this  may  be  ac- 
(■omplished.  The  most  speedy  one  is  by  political  ac- 
ti(m,  and  the  other  is  by  the  orsranization  of  labor 
^  on  the  basis  of  nmtual  interest.  AVe  live  under  gov- 
ernnu'nts  that  nuiy  be  peacefidly  so  amended  by  po- 
litical action  as  to  secure  the  sovereignty  of  the 
people,  and  the  subordination  of  tlu'ir  legislative  and 
executive  oflicers,  making  them  just  in  principle, 
wise  in  policy,  and  honest  in  administration.  But 
the  present  constitutions  excUnle  a  majority  of  citi- 
zens from  a  voice  at  the  polls. and  set  aside  the  car- 
dinal principle  of  jioptdar  sovereignty  by  clothing 
the  legislators  with  authority  to   enact  laws,   grant 


I  privileges,  and  appropriate  public  property  w  ithoiil 
I  Hubmilting  their  acts  lo  the  people  for  ratilicalion 
I  Clechnically  the  referendum;.  Kiirlher,  lujting  un- 
I  der  their  authority,  the  olIlcirH  lo  wliorn  their  ad- 
miiuslralion  has  been  committed  have  issui-d  de- 
preciated curn'ney,  havir  chartereil  banks  and  li;gal. 
izcd  interest  on  money,  and  thereby  imjtoHed  upon 
society  the  most  oporessive  syslem  of  ariHtocracy 
fexcept  that  of  the  land;  that 'ever  afllicted  the  ci- 
!  vilized  world,  Therefore  the  govermneniK  are  un- 
j  just  in  principle,  unwise,  partial  anil  oppressive  in 
legislation,  and  complex,  extravagant,  and  subject 
to  fraud  in  execution.  'I'herefore,  we  present  the 
following  propositions  of  refrjrm  for  the  considrra- 
lion  of  Ihe  people  of  this  country,  believing  llieni  lo 
be  true,  and  Iheir  adojition  uoccssary  for  our  pros- 
perity as  a  nation  : 

I'ii-Ht.  All  members  of  the  human  family  are  en- 
titled by  nature  to  use  sutllcient  of  the  common  r|e- 
nu'iilsdand,  water,  air  and  light;  to  maintain  their 
existence  and  properly  develop  their  being. 

Ki'rvnd.  Land  being  an  inalienable  natural  right 
(to  which  all  men  are  alike  entitled;,  anil  not  pro- 
perly, should  be  supervised  by  government  for  Ihe 
use  of  its  ciliziMis  upon  the  basis  of  equality. 

Third.  The  imconsumed  properly  and  other  ad- 
vantages resulting  from  Ihe  experience  of  the  jjast 
should  tje  a  common  inheritauce  lo  the  living  gen- 
eration. 

Finirtli.  The  currency  of  a  nation  should  be  i.s- 
sued  by  govenuuent  only,  be  a  legal  lender  and  bear 
no  interesi,  thereby  protecting  the  people  from  the 
snares  and  frauds  of  gambling  nionev-changers. 

Fifth.  As  all  just  governments  derive  their  po- 
wers from  the  consent  of  the  governed,  the  right  of 
suffrage  should  be  secured  to  every  citizen  of  mat- 
ure age.  without  regard  to  sex  or  condition. 

Sixth.  To  sweep  away  Ihe  present  nndtiludinous 
and  vexatious  laws,  and  to  introduce  a  more  simple 
code,  more  easy  to  imderstand  and  ob.serve  -.  also  lo 
protect  society  against  usurpation  a:id  peculation  by 
l)td)lic  officials,  and  help  to  educate  the  people  in 
political  science,  the  government  should  be  demo- 
cratic. Though  legislation  may  be  done  by  repre- 
sentatives, the  peo])le  should  reserve  the  sovereign 
right  to  ratify  or  reject  the  ads  of  their  public  ser- 
vants, and  to  iirotect  Ihe  personal  rights  of  Ihe  indi- 
vidual against  any  luiiluc  legislation  in  respect  to 
freedom  of  speech,  religious  belief,  habits  of  dress 
and  diet,  and  the  like. 

Hi-rtnth.  So  long  as  the  existence  of  an  army  or 
navy  may  be  deemed  necessary,  Ihey  should  be  re- 
modiUeil  to  correspond  w ilh  the  principles  of  equal 
pay  and  rations;  and  opportunities  should  be  af- 
forded to  rise  from  Ihe  ranks  lo  Ihe  command,  and 
from  the  forecastle  to  the  quarter  deck. 

Kighth.  To  avoid  Ihe  evU  consc(|uences  of  oSicial 
patronage  and  party  bias,  all  oflicers  should  receive 
their  commissions  direct  from  Ihe  people,  while 
clerks,  mechanics  and  other  operatives  should  be 
taken  from  the  list  of  competent  applicants,  as  their 
names  stand  recorded,  or  be  drawn,  as  the  names  of 
jurors  are  draw  n,  from  Ihe  wheel. 

Xiiit/i.  To  secure  the  greatest  advantages  of  econ- 
omy and  convenience  resullin!'  from  the  improve- 
ments of  the  aiie,  and  to  guard  against  the  cupidity 
of  contractors,  the  fraudulent  principle  of  interest 
on  money,  the  impositions  of  the  banking  system, 
and  Ihe  extortions  practiced  by  railroads,  gas  com- 
panies and  other  organized  monopolies,  the  system 
of  contracting  public  work  should  be  abolished,  and 
all  public  improvements,  such  as  post  roads,  rail- 
roads, gas  works,  waterworks,  mining  operations, 
canals,  post  offices,  telegraphs,  expresses,  etc.. 
should  be  public  property  and  be  conducted  by  gov- 
ernment, at  reasonable  rates,  for  the  interest  of  so- 
ciety- 

Tenth.  To  advance  material  science,  develop  the 
resources  of  Ihe  country,  and  proiect  the  useful 
classes   agaiusi  ihe  avarice  of  capilalists  or   the  de- 


RIOT. 


ro« 


KIOT. 


rangements  of  trade,  the  various  branches  of  useful 

industry  sliould  be  instituted  by  the  government  upon 
equitable  priucipk-s,  as  to  time  and  compeusatinn, 
and  tliereby  furnish  employment  to  those  who  might 
otherwise  be  idle  aud  suffer  the  pangs  of  poverty,  or 
be  tempted  to  crime. 

Ekventh.  To  provide  for  the  proper  education  of 
the  people,  schools,  colleges  and  institutions  of 
science  should  be  supported  by  the  government,  and 
be  free  to  all ;  and  to  enable  the  people  to  convene 
frequently  to  consider  subjects  of  public  interest, 
and  review  the  acts  and  propositions  of  tlieir  public 
servants,  the  primary  or  public  school  houses  should 
be  open  at  least  two  evenings  in  each  week  for  the 
use  of  the  people. 

Twelfth.  The  greatest  degree  of  benefit  to  be  real- 
ized from  combined  effort  will  flow  from  the  most 
comprehensive  union  of  interests,  upon  the  principle 
of  equality;  to  attain  which,  government  must  ulti- 
mately absorb  and  direct  everj'  department  uf  use, 
extending  to  the  citizens  equal  opportunities,  equal 
compensation  for  services  performed,  and  equal  pro- 
tection in  seasons  of  sickness,  disal)ility  and  old  age. 
Accordingly,  let  us  hasten  the  realization  of  a  just 
and  wise  system  of  government,  established  upon 
the  principles  above  stated. 

Fairly  computed,    there  were   probably  less   than 
ten  thousand  persons  on  tiie  ground.      Nearest  the 
stand  were   the   internationalists  and   societymen; 
ne.xt  to  them  a  row  three  or  four  deep  of  mere  listen- 
ers; and  on  the  rim  an  ever-moving  congregation  of 
idlers,  who  only  served  the  purpose  of  deluding  one  j 
into  the  belief  that  it  was  a  great  throng.    The  crowd  [ 
was  generally  tame  and  apparently  aimless.  It  lacked 
enthusiasm.     The  speakers  tlietnselves  seemed  to  feel  i 
the  want  of  sympathy  that  is  ordiuarilj'  expressed  in 
hearty  cheers,  and  were  content  with  the  nuld  hur- 
rahs of  the  few  malcontents   who   surrounded   the 
platforms.     The  railway  men  did  not  put  in  an  aji- 
pearance,  or  if  so,  in  such  small  numbers  that  their  ; 
presence  was  not  notable,  while  of  societies  the  rep- 
resentation was    small   and   without   organization,  j 
In  fact,  judging  from  the  comments  of  the  more  in-  | 
telligent,    the  occasion  was   regarded  as  one   which  , 
had   been  created  for  the  benefit  of  a  few  dema- 
gogues and  ward  politicians,  rather  than  for  the  illus- 
tration of  any  broad  principle.     From  the  Ijegiuning 
to  tlie  end  of  the  meeting  there  was  not  the  slightest  i 
exliiliition  of  a  dangerous  purpose  on  the  part  of  tlie 
gatliering,  aud  incendiary  reni;irks.  wliether  in  Eng- 
lish  or   German,  fell  upon  tlie  ear  still-liorn.      Tlie 
orators  had  apparently  lost  heart.     The  stands  were 
thronged  witli   noisy  boys,  and  there  was  an  utter 
want  of  the  vim  and  snap  tliat  cliaracterizes  an  or- 
dinary political  meeting.     Perhaps  all  this  result  was  ; 
due  to  the  fact  known  to  ever\'  person  on  tlie  ground,  j 
that  while   not  a  policeman  showed  his  uniform  in  ■ 
the  crowd,  or  invited  the  sliglitest  antagonism,    five 
hundred  sturdy  men,  armed  to  the  teeth,  were  with- 
in e;irslK)t,   re;idy  to  sweep  down  on  tlie  instant  at 
any  point   where  a  disturbance   might   occur,   and 
nearly  a  tlious;ind  more  were  inreserve,  waiting  with 
ready  hands  to  preserve  peace  and  maintain  the  fair 
name  of  the  metropolis.      Certain  it  is,   that  the  so- 
called  "  dangerous  class"  of  New  York,  if  they  were 
present,  never  in  (heir  history  witnessed  sucli  a  mas- 
terly preparatiou'to  |)unisli,  ;ind,  if  necessary,  crush 
them,  as  was  tlieu  sliowu.     The  action  of  tlie  police 
force  was  simply  supcrl).      The  men  seemed  to  rise 
out  of  the  ground,  and  wlien  the  meeting  dissolved, 
and  the  four  calcium  burners  thjit  had  been  used  to 
light   tlie  square  were   e.xtinguislied,   the  long   blue 
line  that   reacluid  across   the   square,   and   steadily 
pressed  before  it  tliose  wlio  loitereil.  told  the  slorj- 
in  five  minutes  that  communism  in  New  York  w;is  a 
liasco  and  a  fraud.     The    ulmnst  good    n;ilure    pre- 
vailed,   tlie   sidewalks  of   the  squares  rang  willi    the 
cries  of  hucksters,    women  and  children  lined  the 
Btc^ps  of  the  adjacent  houses,  or  innocently  eiiiowed 
their  way  among  the  multitude,   and  faces  generally 


wore  anything  but  the  expression  of  excitement  or 

anxiety  which  might  be  expected  to  attach  to  the  oc- 
casion. Uf  the  eight  or  ten  lliousand  thus  assembled, 
probabl}-  not  more  than  three  tliousand  were  active- 
ly identified  with  the  trades  unions  and  international 
societies,  and  manj-  of  the  former  openly  expressed 
their  condemnation  of  the  attempt  of  a  few  men  to 
create  further  trouble  and  distress  at  this  time.  The 
Inilk  of  the  crowd  was  composed  of  people  who  curi- 
ously desired  to  see  what  .was  going  on,  and  took 
good  care  to  be  sufficiently  near  the  highways  to 
make  an  early  exit  in  case  of  a  demonstration  by  po- 
lice or  military. 

The  intervention  of  the  military  power  of  the  Fed- 
eral government  in  behalf  of  the  endangered  railroad 
property  of  the  country  was  a  phase  of  the  great  out- 
break which  was  certainly  not  contemplated  by  tlie 
strikers  in  commencing  their  movement.  When  the 
Governor  of  West  Virginia  called  upon  the  President 
for  assistance,  there  was  a  feeling  of  general  surprise 
throughout  the  country;  aud  when  it  was  learned 
that  the  force  sent  in  answer  to  his  call  numbered 
but  a  few  hundred  men,  it  was  feared  by  many  that 
it  was  not  in  the  power  of  [the  general  government 
to  deal  with  such  a  movement  as  vigorously  as  it  de- 
manded, inasmuch  as  the  army  was  too  small  and 
was  scattered  over  so  wide  an  extent  of  country.  In 
addition  to  this,  the«use  of  the  Federal  army  in  the 
affairs  of  the  States  under  the  previous  administra- 
tion had  so  shocked  the  best  sentiment  of  the  coun- 
try that  many  persons  feared  the  employment  of  the 
army  in  the  present  instance  would  lead  to  results 
equally  deplorable.  The  course  of  the  President  and 
his  advisers  proved  in  the  main  entirely  satisfactorj' 
to  the  country,  and  demonstrated  tliiit  the  constitu- 
tional use  of  the  army  is  in  no  way  dangerous  to  the 
independence  or  reserved  rights  of  any  of  the  States; 
and  the  firmness  and  moderation  which  marked  the 
action  of  the  government  called  forth  praise  from  all 
|)arties.  The  task  before  the  President  was  a  very 
delicate  one;  he  was  to  fulfill  his  constitutional  duty 
of  protecting  the  States  against  internal  disorders 
which  they  eoulil  not  suppress,  and  he  was  at  the 
same  time  to  treat  the  disturbance  as  a  matter  strict- 
ly witliin  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State,  or  in  other 
words  he  was  not  to  take  the  enforcement  of  the 
laws  out  of  the  hands  of  the  State  authorities,  but 
was  merely  to  sustain  them  in  their  efforts  to  sup- 
press the  disorder;  and  to  do  this  he  must  place  the 
Federal  troops  under  the  orders  of  the  Governor  of 
the  State  into  which  tliej'  were  sent,  and  must  still 
retain  the  general  direction  of  them.  In  other 
words,  the  Federal  troops  were  to  be  so  many  police- 
men loaned  to  the  States  to  enable  them  to  execute 
their  laws.  Happily  for  the  whole  country,  the 
President  was  fully  imbued  with  this  view  of  his 
duty  in  the  matter,  and  his  course  was  in  accordance 
with  it. 

The  presence  of  the  United  States  troojis  had  every 
where  the  happiest  effect.  Though  the  detachments 
sent  to  the  various  points  of  danger  were  small,  they 
were  everywhere  respected,  and  feared  by  the  rioters. 
Their  discipline  and  steadiness  made  it  certain  that 
tliey  would  obey  orders  literally  and  promptly,  and 
the  eharaeter  and  experience  of  the  officers  were  a 
guarantee  (li;it  while  they  would  de;il  with  the  dis- 
turbance witla  forlicaranee  and  inodenilidii.  they 
woulil  also  put  diiwn  resistance  to  them  promptly 
and  wilii  vigor  if  c;illed  upon  to  act.  Wlierever  the 
regulars  appeared,  the  rioters  slunk  awiiy;  not  a  hand 
w;is  raised  against  them;  and  their  service  was  eon- 
fined  entirely  to  guard  duty.  The  forces  at  the  dis- 
])osal  of  file  government  was,  as  hasliecn  said,  small 
and  was  si^allered  over  the  wiiole  country.  It  be- 
came necessary  to  eonci'iilnile  iis  strong  a  force  as 
possible  in  llie  Stales  of  \Vcsl  N'irginiii,  ,M;iryl;iiiil  au<l 
I'ennsylviinia,  and  at  the  e;ii'liest  moment.  For  this 
purpose  detachments  were  brought  f;'om  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  ports,  and  the  troops  that  had  been  station- 
ed in  the  Southern  Stales  by  President  Grant  for 


BIOT. 


709 


HIOT. 


poliliciil  piirpoHcH  wire  movi'd  iiDrlliwiird  Id  tlir- 
HcciH-  of  (lHni;<T.  The  ])(ilicy  of  (lie  uoviTiiiiicnt  wiis 
to  iicl  witli  ciiiitioii.  lull  also  willi  viitnr  iiml  prompt 
ncHH.  Tliis  line  of  (•(iiiilucl  wan  Hiriclly  ailliiTcd  Irj. 
The  troops  licliavi-d  willi  adiniralilc  lirimii'ss.  payiii); 
MO  atti'iilloM  to  llic  jeers  ami  iiisulls  of  llie  rioters, 
and  avoidiiii;  in  every  way  ifivini,' provoeulioii  to  the 
inol).  DiiriiiL;  tlie  wliole  distiirbanee,  the  Hijjiial 
Corps  of  the  army  nndered  important  service,  in 
forwaniini;  to  tlie  war(k[)arlment  news  of  the  events 
at  their  respective  |)osls.  'Vhv  despatches  of  the 
siirnal  olVicers  w<Te  rei;iilarly  laid  hefore  the  Cahiiiet, 
and  were  always  found  free  from  e.\ay;t;eralion  an<i 
tliorou^rlily  reliable.  The  i;overnineiil  eaine  to  du- 
penil  npon  them  as  its  mostaccnrate  souro<M)f  infor- 
nnilion. 

The  North.  Aiiirrinin  RivlfW  for  Septeiiilier  to  ()c- 
tol)er,  1877,  contained  two  articles  relatini;  to  the 
strike,  which  are  of  so  much  interest  lo  those  inter- 
ested ill  the  question  that  we  i^ive  the  substance  of 
them  hero:  The  tirst  is  from  the  pen  of  ('ohmel 
Thomas  A.  Scolt,  the  I'resiilenI  of  llie  I'ennsylvania 
liailroad.  ("olonel  fScoll,  after  recitinir  the  history 
of  the  IroublcM,  and  statini;  the  necessities  of  tlie  rail  i 
road  companies,  mak<'s  the  foUowini;  deductions:  ' 
This  insurrection,  which  e.xtemled  llirouj;h  fourleen 
Slates,  and  in  many  cases  successfully  delie<l  the  lo- 
cal aiilliorities,  presents  a  state  of  facts  almost  as  se- 
rious as  that  which  prevailed  at  lh(^  oullircak  of  the 
Civil  War.  I'nless  ourownex()crienee  is  lo  dilTcr  en- 
tirely from  ilher  counlries  -  and  it  is  iiol  easy  to  see 
why  it  should,  wi'.h  Ihi-  increasinir  i)opulation  of  our 
larjje  Cities  and  business  centers,  and  the  inevilabic 
assemblafj;e  at  su<li  points  of  the  vicious  and  evil-ilis- 
jjosed  — the  late  Iroidiles  may  be  l)ut  a  prelude  to 
oilier  manifestations  (.f  mob  violence,  with  this  add- 
ed peril,  thill  now.  forlhclirsi  lime  in  AiiK'rican  his- 
tory, has  an  oriraiii/.ed  mob  learned  ils  power  to  ler- 1 
rorize  the  law  abidiiii;  citizens  of  ureal  communities. 
With  our  recent  experience  before  us.  it  is  believed 
I  hat  no  lliousrhlful  man  can  ariiiK'  in  favor  of  delay 
by  the  proper  authorities  in  dealiiii;  with  I.iwlessand 
riotous  asseinblai;es.  Delay  sini]ily  leads  lo  destruc- 
tion of  properly,  and  may  lead  in  the  eml  to  the  de- 1 
siruclion  of  life.  The  force  used  to  repress  such  as- 
semblasies  sliould  be  iis  prompt  in  ils  manifestation 
ns  Ihe  evil  with  which  it  deals.  The  interests  con- 
cerned  are  too  jirave  to  adniil  of  delay.  The  rais- 
ing of  the  black  thii;  and  the  sloppaiie  of  all  ves- 
sels on  the  Great  Lakes  and  on  the  Mississippi  and 
Ohio  rivers  would  not  proiluce  one  tithe  of  the  dam- 
age to  the  whole  country  that  lias  resulted  from  the 
recent  stoppage  of  the  great  trunk  lines.  The  burn- 
ing of  the  vessels  and  their  <'argoes  on  these  waters 
would  raise  a  slorin  of  wrath  which  no  mob  would 
dare  to  face,  ami  would  be  visiled  by  the  United 
States  government,  under  existing  laws  with  most 
exemplary  fiunishment.  But  what  distinction  can 
be  establisbed  betw-een  such  a  crime  and  the  hide- 
ous deslrucliou  at  I'illsburgli  of  over  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  cars  laden  with  the  products  of  the 
various  States,  together  with  the  engines  ready  to 
move  them  to  their  deslinatinn,  and  Ihe  station 
buildings  and  machine  shops  that  were  absolutely 
ossenlial  lo  their  jiroper  care  and  movement,  and 
which,  with  oilier  like  doings,  resulted  in  the  stop- 
page of  all  commerce  and  business  relations  lie- 
twecn  the  States  not  only  on  one  highway,  but  on 
many  important  lines,  through  the  <(>ncerted  action 
of  the  mob  and  its  leaiiers?  In  the  city  of  Pills- 
burgh  much  human  life  and  many  ))rivate  dwellings 
and  other  properly  were  sacriliceil  as  the  result  of 
mob  violence;  indeed,  it  is  almost  a  m;irvel  that  a 
large  portion  of  that  city  was  not  destroyed  by  tire. 
Only  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind  averted 
greater  and  more  general  disaster.  1 

The  authority  of  Ihe  United  Stales,  now  potent  to  I 
protect  commerce  moving  upon  the  w.-ilers.  should 
be  eiiu;illy  potent   when  the  same  comnuTce  is  ex- 
posed to  greater  peri!  upon  land.     This  brings  us  i 


then,  to  Ihe  practical  ipicHtion:  In  what  Hhajie  can 
Ibis  protection  be  put  ho  as  to  be  exienrh-d  most  i-(I|- 
cieiilly  and  willi  the  least  ileliiy  y  The  priwnt  re^ru- 
lalioim  all  favor,  uninlenlionully,  the  rioters  iiiifl  the 
mob.  Ill  Ihe  lirsl  jiliice  the  .Mayor  of  a  city  liiiiHt  ex- 
haust his  power,  Ihe  Sheritr  of  the  c(  iinty  must  cti. 
say  his  stnnglh  :  then,  while  precious  time  \h  ex- 
pending—for a  mob  constanlly  allracts  dungeroijH 
elemenlH  unil  grows  with  impiinily  and  succcmk-  the 
(Jovernor  of  tlie  Klute  must  lie  calleil  upon  by  the 
HherilT  of  u  county.  If  the  Stale  happens  lo  have 
an  (•lT<'Clive  military  organi/alion,  wliich  ut  the 
present  lime  is  Ihe  case  in  perhaps  not  more  than 
live  out  of  thirty-seven  Stales  of  the  Union,  the  (jov- 
ernor can  call  out  Ihe  military  forces  and  siippresH 
the  riot.  If  Ihe  Slate  has  no  such  organization,  or 
If  till-  military  forces  of  the  Slate  provi;  iiiailiipialc 
to  the  emergency,  Hie  Governor  is  paraly/.er!,  unil 
miisl  call  upon  the  United  Stales  for  assistance.  If 
the  authorities  of  any  Stale  should,  for  any  cause, 
fail  lo  refuse  lo  call  upon  the  United  Stales  govem- 
iiicnl.  what  possible  remedy  or  protection  is  left  to 
life  and  projierly  within  the  limits  of  that  common- 
wealth ? 

It  can  readily  be  seen  what  frightful  possibilities  of 
mischief  are  alTorded  by  Ihe  necessarily  long  inter- 
val which  must  elapse  in  the  present  state  of  laws 
before  the  Federal  aulhority  can  intervene  in  cases 
where  its  intervention  is  most  imperative.  In  fact, 
as  our  recent  experience  has  shown,  the  f)nly  roads 
which  could  procure  prompt  iiroteclion  and  immun- 
ity from  inlerference  were  those  whose  niisforliines 
had  made  them  bankrupt,  and  placed  them  in  the 
direct  custody  of  receivers  appointed  by  the  Unit- 
ed Slates  Courts.  To  the  aid  of  these  roads  the 
United  Slates  .Marshal  could  call  the  United  States 
troops,  and  no  rioter  dared  to  resist  the  power 
represented  by  the  small  but  admiralily  disciplin- 
ed delachiiienis  ([uarlered  near  the  scenes  of  re- 
cent troubles.  It  will  hardly  be  contended  that  the 
railway  companies  must  become  bankrupt  in  order 
to  make  secure  the  unintcrrupleil  movement  of  traf- 
fic over  their  lines,  or  to  entitle  them  to  the  efficient 
jiroteclion  of  the  United  Slates  government.  If  a 
bondholder  or  other  creditor  is  entitled  to  the  protec- 
•ion  of  the  Federal  courts  to  prevent  the  threatened 
iinp:iirment  of  the  value  of  a  projirrty  through  legal 
jiroceedings,  he  cerlainly  should  not  be  left  without 
remedy  against  lawless  violence  which  has  actually 
destroyed  the  security  for  his  investment,  and  has. 
as  at  I'ittsburgh.  converted  millions  of  dollars  into 
scrap  iron  and  ashes.  The  laws  which  give  the  Fed- 
eral courts  the  summary  process  of  injunction  to  re- 
strain so  comparatively  trilling  a  wrong  as  an  in- 
fringement of  a  palent-right,  certainly  must  have 
been  inlended  or  ought  to  give  the  United  Statesau- 
thorily  to  prevent  a  wrong  doing,  which  not  only  de- 
stroys a  particular  road,  but  also  paralyzes  the  entire 
commerce  of  the  country  and  wastes  the  national 
wealth.  It  is  demonstrable  that  during  the  recent 
disturbances  the  government  of  the  I  nited  Slates 
was  itself  a  direct  loser,  and  through  the  goveni- 
mcnt  tlie  tax-payers  of  the  whole  couutrj*  to  a  verj' 
large  amount,  by  the  diminution  of  Ihe  national  re- 
venues arising  from  the  iuterrupliim  of  business  and 
Ihe  interference  with  many  of  the  operations  on 
which  iIk'  internal  taxes  of  the  country  are  levied,  as 
well  as  by  the  diminution  cf  the  customs  revenues  as 
all  the  imports  durimi  this  period,  instead  of  being 
forwarded  lo  their  destinations,  were  necessarily 
placed  in  store,  of  course  without  payment  of  any 
duly  to  the  government  for  the  lime  bein:i.  Sup- 
pose that  this  slate  of  things  had  continued  for  six- 
ty days,  would  not  the  United  Stales  government 
liave  "been  deprived  of  nearly  all  the  revenues  on 
which  it  relies  to  meet  ils  current  obligations? 

Certainly  it  cannot  have  been  contemplated  in  Ihe 
formation  i)f  our  government  that  the  United  States 
;iiitliorities  should  submit  to  see  the  transportation 
of  Ihe  mails,  covering  the  enormous  tinancial  and 


EIOT. 


710 


BIOI. 


business  transactions  of  the  whole  country,  and  the 
movement  of  supplies  required  for  its  own  various 
departments,   made  dependent  upon  tlie  grace  and 
favor  of   rioters,  whose   misconduct   in  almost  any 
other  form  would  have  secured  their  inunediate  ar- 
rest and   condign  punishment.     During  the  recent 
riots  the  movement  of  United  States  troops  was  im- 
peded at  several  points,  and  large  quantities  of  am- 
munition and  other  Federal  stores  on  their  way  to 
the  Pacitic   coast  were  forcibly  detained   for  days. 
Tlie  0])erations  of  the  national  government  in  some 
_  parts  of  the  country  were  as  completely  blocked  as 
'in  the  early  days  of  the  Civil  War.     There  certainly 
.should  be  a  protection  against  sucli  dangers,  and  a 
remedy  for  such  wrongs.     If  the  government  of  the 
United  States  is  to  exercise  its  power  of  protection 
or  of  remedy,  it  perhaps  can  do  so  only  througli  an 
adequate  exhibition  of  the  military  force  thaf  may 
be  given  it  for  such  purposes  by  Congress.     The  im- 
portant question  is  to  ascertain  in  what  way  the  gov- 
ernment can  so  exhibit  its  military  force  as  to  secure 
the  utmost  possible  efficiency  in  the  enforcement  of 
law  and   order,  without   jarring  or  disturbing  the 
general  framework  of  our  institutions  and  our  laws. 
It  seems  to  be  indispensable,  in  the  light  of  recent 
events,  that  whatever  force  is  to  be  used  In-  the  gov- 
ernment in  such  emergencies  should  be  so  distributed 
and  controlled  that  it  may  be  concentrated  upon  any 
point  or  points  that  maj'  be  threatened  within  a  few 
hours  of  any  outbreak.     Several  companies  of  regu- 
lar troops  that  were  quartered  at  Baltimore,  Phila- 
delphia, Pittsburgh,  Reading,  Scranton,  Louisville, 
Chicago,  and  other  places,  during  the  recent  riots, 
had  to  be  transported  for  such  distances  that, if  they 
liad  been  compelled  to  march  instead  of  moving  by 
rail,  they  would  have  been  powerless  to  avert  mis- 
chief.    It  was  only  by  the  fear  or  favor  of  the  rioters 
that  the  United  States  were  able  to  concentrate  their 
forces  where  they  did.    In  some  cases  formal  resolu- 
tions  were  passed  by   the   strikers  that  no  troops 
should  be  allowed  to  pass  over  the  lines.     In  Jersey 
City  a  mob  endeavored  to  prevent  the  departure  of 
a  United  States  battery   and  the  troops  connected 
therewith.     On  the  Erie  Railway,  between  Cornell 
and  Hornellsville,  a  few  lawless  men,  b_y  tearing  up 
tracks,    destroying    bridges,    and   tampering   with 
switches,  were  able  seriously  to  retard  the  military 
forces  of  tlie  State,  which  were  there  under  the  orders 
of  the  Governor  to  re-establish  law  and  order.  What 
is  needed,  [iierefore.  would  clearly  seem  to  be  that 
proper  forces  should  be  so  disposed   at  prominent 
points— large  cities  and  other  great  business  centers, 
in  many  of  which  the  government  has  arsenals, cus- 
tom-houses, mints,  navy  yards,  and  other  property 
of  its  own  to  protect — that  their  movements  can  be 
combined  rapidly  and  the}'  be  directedagainst  points  | 
of  danger. so  as  to  be  able  to  act  eftectively  and  witli 
decision  before  violence  can  become  triumphant. 

With  the  experience  of  other  cmmtries  to  warn  | 
anil  guide  us,  and  especially  with  the  exiierience  of  i 
Knglanil,  where  the  rights  of  the  peo]ile  have  for  ages 
been  guarded  and  asserted  as  jealously  as  they  always 
have  been  an<l  should  be  among  ourselves,  we  shall 
have  only  ourselves  to  blame  if, through  apatliy.denia- 
gogisin,  or  weakness  we  leave  ourselves  uii])repared 
to  meet  an  issue  whicli,  from  all  the  evidences  of 
tlie  times,  is  only  too  likely  again  lobe  forced  upon 
us.  With  the  apjiroach  of  winter,  and  the  loss  of 
out-door  employment  which  severe  weal  her, even  in 
the  most  prosperous  times,  entails,  the  country  will 
have  to  deal  not  only  with  the  deserving  among  the 
unemployed, who  can  be  reached  and  hel])ed  through 
local  organizations,  but  with  vast  mmdjcrs  of  idle, 
dangerous  and,  in  many  cases,  desperate  men,  who 
liave  been  allowed  unforlimately  to  calcli  a  glimpse 
of  their  possilile  power  for  mischief.  Such  uien,  un- 
less confronted  !>}'  a  tliorr)Ugh  organi/.alinn  in  the 
chics  States  and  other  coiiununities,  backed  by  tli<\ 
power  of  the  Federal  goveriunent  and  an  lunnistak- 
able   |)Mblie  opinion,  will   ii<-ed    but  little   urging  to 


renew  the  scenes  which  have  already  brought  such 
disgrace  upon  the  American  name.     It  surely  may 
be  hoped  that  at  the  approaching  session  of  Congress 
the  earnest,  unprejiuliceil  an<l  patriotic  men  of  both 
houses  will  discuss  this  grave  subject  independently 
of  party  lines,  and  with  the  imited  resolve  to  secure 
equity  to  all  interests, and  to  take  all  necessary  meas- 
ures to  secure  protection  to  life  and  property  and 
impartial  enforcement  of   the  laws,   including   the 
guarantee  to  every  man  of  the  right  to  work  for  such 
compensation  as  he  may  agree  upon  with  other  men, 
free  from  interference  or  intimidation.      The  able- 
lawyers  of  the  Senate  and  House  will  perhaps  frame 
a  law  which  will  give  to  the  owners  of  every  higli- 
way  carrying  inter-State  commerce, whether  by  land 
or  water,  in  which  citizens  of  different  States  are  in- 
terested,or  carrying  the  United  States  mails  or  other 
government  property,  the  right  to  appear  by  petition 
properly  verified  before  the  tribunal  of  the  United 
States,  in  order  to  show  that  the  movement  of  such 
traffic  has  been  interfered  with  by  unlawful  combina- 
tions, by  threats  or  by   violence,  and  which,  upon 
such  showing,  will  give  these  tribunals  the   right, 
when  necessary  to  call  upon  the  United  States,  in 
the  form  now  authorized  bj'  law  to  enforce  their  pro- 
cess by  arresting  the  rioters  and  the  suppression  of 
!  all  such  unlawful  combinations. 
[      The  magnitude  of  the  evil  to  be  met  and  dealt 
with  can  hardh'  be  overstated.     The  remedy  to  be 
I  provided  should  be  equally  prompt  and  effective. 
1  It  must  be   discussed  and  adopted   in  the   interest 
I  of   the  wliole  country,  and   not  of  any  particular 
I  class ;    for  the  interests  of  all  classes   of  our   citi- 
zens are  the  same  in  the  maintenance  of   domestic 
peace  and  civil  order.     But  to  no  one  class  in  the 
community  is  an  absolute  assurance  of  peace  so  im- 
portant as  to  the  men  who  have  no  capital  but  their 
labor.     When  the  accumulations  of  labor  are  put 
in  peril  by  lawlessness,  capital  may  always  protect 
itself  by  suspending  the  enterprises  which  give  la"bor 
its  value  and  insure  its  reward.     Anarchy  not  only 
deprives  the  laboring  man  of  his  present  subsistence, 
but  puts  in  jeopardy  all  his  hopes  of  improvement 
for  his  own  future  and  the  future  of  his  family. 

The  second  article  referred  to  is  entitled  "Fair 
Wages,"  and  is  signed  "A  Striker."  and  contends 
that  the  rights  and  value  of  labor,  which  were  ac- 
knowledged here  forty  years  ago  because  the  coimtry 
wanted  hands,  now  turns  the  laboring  men's  earn- 
ings against  them,  and  the  country's  prosperity  be- 
comes their  disaster.  The  writer  concludes  as  follows: 
Let  us  put  this  matter  in  a  iilain  way,  as  we  imder- 
stanil  it, and  use  round  num.bers,  instead  of  fractions, 
as  we  have  to  deal  with  hundreds  of  millions,  divid- 
ing the  subject  into  sections. 

"  Firxt.  In  the  United  States  the  amount  of  capi- 
tal invested  in  railwav  propertv  last  year  was  l|4,- 
470,000,(1(10,  made  iqi  o'f  *2.2.")O,000,0O0  capital  stock, 
and  .t3, 220,000, 000  bonded  debt.  The  gross  earn- 
ings were  !f!,")00,000,0(JO.  or  about  eight  and  a  half 
per  cent  on  the  capital.  The  running  expenses  (of 
which  the  bulk  was  for  labor)  were  *;ilO,()00,000, 
leaving  .f  IH.'S.OOO.OOO  as  interest  to  the  caiiitalist,  or 
barely  four  per  cent,  on  his  investment.  Labor  is 
admiiled  into  this  enterprise  a.^  a  preferential  credi- 
tor, to  lie  ])aid  out  of  the  gross  earnings  before  the 
most  preferred  mortgagee  or  bondhnldiT  receives  a 
dollar.  For,  as  capital  could  nut  build  the  roads 
nor  c(|uip  Ihem  without  labor,  so  the  enterprise, 
when  complete,  cannot  be  rim  without  labor.  Cap- 
ital, Iherefore,  takes  a  back  seat  when  it  comes  to 
the  push,  and  acknowledges  not  only  that  labor  has 
the  largest  interest  in  the  concern,  but  takes  the  first 
frnils.  I  take  the  railroad  as  a  sample  out  of  all  en- 
terprises, and  if  we  could  gel  at  ligures.  there  is  no 
doubt  it  is  a  fair  s.'uiiple  of  the  crowd.  If,  then, 
lalxir  is  the  more  important  and  essential  factor  in 
the  result,  when  it  comes  to  the  (|ueslion  which  of 
the  two  ■hall  suffer  in  moments  of  general  distress — 
the  capitalist    in    his    pocket   or    the    laborer  in    his 


RIOT 


711 


ElOT. 


Ii<;lly — wclliiiik  lln-  Hiiswcr  has  liciii  alrciidy  si'llliil 
by  the  rij^htH  assuiiiiMl  liy  one  and  a(knowh'd};cil  by 
Ihr  (ilhcr. 

HicoiiiL  It  iH  Miaiiifi  slly  iiiijiint  thai  the  working- 
man  Bhoiild  l)c  Miihjccicd  1(1  under  wajjeK  in  l)a(l 
limes,  if  lie  lias  not  tlie  e(|iiival('nt  of  over  wajjes  in 
i;(i(id  times.  If  railroad  e<jm|iaiiii'S  in  eniieiTt  with 
IIk^  laliorinij  ehiss  liad  cslalilisheil  a  tarilV  nf  lahur, 
and  paid  a  lioniis  (Ui  \va;;es  at  every  dislrihiilioM  of 
diviiiiiids,  that  bonus  lieinj;  in  proportion  to  the 
profits  of  tlie  road,  so  lliat  caeli  man  becomes  a 
sliareliolder  in  his  very  small  way,  then  he  would 
hav(!  submitted  to  bear  his  share  of  distri'ss  when  all 
wcro  called  on  to  share  trouble,  but  toslmre  it  eijual- 
ly  and  alike. 

Third.  When  folks  say  that  labor  and  capital  must 
find,  by  the  laws  of  demand  .iiid  supply.  Iheir  nal  iral 
relations  to  each  other  in  all  commercial  enlerpris<'S, 
and  neither  one  has  any  riithls  it  can  enforce  on  the 
oth(^r,  they  take  for  granted  that  the  labor  ■nnirket'  is 
like  the  produce  market — liable  to  natural  lluclmi- 
tions.  If  that  were  so,  w(^  should  not  complain. 
But  it  is  not.  The  labor  market  has  l'oI  to  be  like 
(he  slock  and  share  market  a  few  larire  capilalisis 
control  it  and  makc>  what  prices  they  please.  This 
sort  of  fiame  may  ruin  the  gamblers  in  stocks  and  in- 
jure those  who  invest,  but  the  troul)le  is  conlincd 
mostly  to  those  who  can  afford  it.  Hut  not  so  when 
the  same  practice  operates  in  the  labor  market. 
The  capitalist  nuist  not  fjamblc  willi  the  bread  of  the 
workiuf^man.  or  if  he  does,  let  him  reijanl  where 
that  speculation  led  France  one  hundred  years  airo, 
when  I  hi'  tinancicrs  made  a  corner  in  Hour,  and  the 
pconle  broke  the  rini;  with  the  a.\e  of  the  i;uilloline. 
Jicnirt/i.  When  the  railway  <'ompanies  obtained 
privilej^es  and  riuhls  over  jirivate  property,  anil  bo 
camc,  by  force  of  law.  the  great  landowners  of  the 
State,  holdinjr  its  movable  property  as  well,  and  con. 
trollini;  every  avenue  and  department  of  business. 
public  and  private, they  liecanK'|)owcrful  monopolies. 
The  .Slate  endowed  them  with  powers  to  frame  '.dws 
of  their  own.  and  deprived  citizens  of  their  property, 
means,  facilities  of  transport,  to  vest  it  all  in  their 
corporations.  Thus  endowed,  they  cannot  pretend 
they  are  no  more  than  ordinary  commercial  enter- 
prises. They  are  resjionsible  to  the  State  for  the 
result  of  Ihelr  operations  if  they  disturb  fatally  the 
order  of  our  concerns.  They  are  not  inilcpeiident. 
The  Stale  has  claims  upon  them  it  has  not  on  pri- 
vate concerns.  They  may  not  accept  liabilities  and 
then  decline  responsibility.  It  behooves  the  State  to 
decide  what  the  people  are  entitled  to  in  return  for 
all  they  have  conceded  to  tlu'se  companies,  and  to 
enforce  such  cl.-iims. 

'  FijVi.  The  En;4lisli  Parliament  leunslated  on  the 
(piestion  of  the  luunber  of  h<uirs  a  w<irkini;man 
should  labor.  It  limits  them  to  so  many.  It  Ici^islales 
for  his  health  and  sujiply  of  lii;ht  and  water.  In  all 
these  matters  the  caiiitalist  has  an  interest.  (He 
docs  as  much  for  his  horse.)  Hut  when  it  comes  to 
the  question  of  a  proper  amount  of  food  and  clotli- 
inir,  of  warmth  and  shelter,  the  sovernment  declines 
to  interfere.  It  leaves  the  (|uestion  of  fair  wattes  to 
lie  adjusled  between  employer  and  employed.'' 

Commenting  u|)(m  these  articles.  7'/ir  I'liibiililphin 
Villus  pertinently  said:  "The  chief  importance  of 
these  two  articles  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  are  writ- 
ten by  men  who  represent  what  are  supposed  to  be 
the  two  most  opposite  views  of  the  labor  <|ueslion. 
One  is  the  leading  railroad  nnm  of  the  country,  the 
head  of  the  great  corporation  which  had  to  stand 
the  brunt  of  the  recent  outbreak  of  violence.  The 
other,  though  unknown  to  fame,  is  evidently  a  fair 
representative  of  the  restless,  discontented  spirit 
that  actuated  that  outbreak,  and  though  he  cautiou.s 


presents,  nl  the  editor's  requcHl,  Pome  practical 
thoughts  Kiiggi'ftled  by  his  own  obHervulion  and  ex- 
perii-nce  during  the  rei'ent  troubles,  uiirl  lliese  very 
nulurallv  rilale  to  the  preservulion  of  order  and  the 
prevention  of  riolouH  oiitbreakM,  rather  (ban  lo  tin; 
causes  of  remedies  of  any  e.icistiiig  trouble.  The 
'  striker,'  on  the  oihr-r  hand,  has  nothing  to  say  or  to 
suggest  except  that  nun  areenlillid  to  •  fair  wiiges,' 
and  if  the  capitalist  attempt  to  'gamble  with  tho 
breail  of  the  workingnian,' he  must  '  regard  where 
that  speculation  led  Krance  one  hundred  yearH  ago.' 
Unfortunately  the  capitalist,  as  the  railroad  man  for 
example,  has  had  loo  niiicli  reason  lately  lo  'regard' 
this  piece  of  history ,  which  he  has  seen  repealing  itBtlf 
under  his  own  eyes,  and  it  is  a  lillle  disappoinlinir  to 
find  that  our  representative  strikiT  has  no  very  defi- 
nite suggestions  to  olfir  as  lo  how  '  fair  wages'  are 
to  li"  .secureil  at  a  time  when  capital  is  making  no 
profit  at  all." 

Mr.  Scott's  reflectionH  upon  the  gtrikcH  arPHuchaH 
would  be  natural  lo  any  man  who  had  been  com- 
pelled to  sil  still  and  see  the  properly  under  his 
charge  destroyi'd  in  the  absence  of  any  adequate 
])Owcr  to  protect  it  ;  who  had  wilnesseil  the  failure 
of  the  local  and  even  of  the  Stale  aiilliorities,  and  the 
faliil  delays  of  a  system  that  was  never  designed  for 
such  an  emergency,  and  who  felt  Ihe  interests  in- 
trusted to  him  secure  only  when  the  strong  arm  of 
the  Federal  government  was  at  last  stretched  out  Ir) 
l)roteet  them.  Naturally  and  justifiably.  Mr.  Scott 
would  strengthen  those  defences  of  law  and  order 
whi<li  his  own  experience  has  found  most  trust- 
worthy. He  woidii  rely  upon  the  Federal  power  to 
protect  the  commerce  between  the  Stales,  and  would 
provide  for  the  prompt  and  speedy  exercise  of  this 
power  in  every  great  emergency.  AVe  doubt  if  the 
country  will  follow  him  in  this,  or  be  willinji;  to  re- 
lieve the  local  authorities  from  the  responsibility  for 
the  protection  of  property  and  the  preservation  of 
order  within  their  jurisdiction. 

There  is  one  thing,  however,  in  Mr.   Scolt's  paper 
which  all  classes  will   readily  recognize,  sind  tliat  is 
the  entire  contidence  which  he  displays  in  the  honor 
and  intelligence  of  American  workingmen  and  his 
practical  belief  in  the  community  of  interest  between 
employers  and  employed.     -\  railroad  presiilent  re- 
presents both  the  owners  and  operators  of  the  road, 
and  it  concerns  the   one  class  quite  as  much  as  the 
other  that  the  business  of  Ihe  road  shall    be  .safely 
carried  on.     It  is  probable  that  he  would  not  even 
dissent  from  the  'striker's'  propos-tion.  that  when 
it  comes  to  a  question  of  which  shall  siifTer  in  mo- 
ments of  general  distress  the  demands  of  labor  come 
first,  since  this  has  been  practically  acknowledged 
by  everybody,   and   countless  capitalists   have  done 
withoul  their  earnings  within  the  last   year  that  la- 
borers might  have  bread.     So.  too,  with  the  only 
I)ractical   suggestion  which   the   -V</r<A   Americaii'n 
'striker'  lias  to  make,  that  workingmen.if  they  arc  to 
be  subject  to  under  wages  in  bad  '.inies.  should  have 
the  equivalent  of  over  wages  in  good  times,  since 
that  is  also  generally  acknowledged  and  in  a  limited 
sense  has  been  generally  acted  cm.  If  any  system  of  di- 
viding a  proportion  of  Ihe  jirotits   among  employes 
would  secure  contentnu'ut  and  universal  happiness, 
there  is  little  doubt  that  em  plovers  would  gladly  adf>])t 
It  and  would  find  it  profitalile  :  only  such  a  system  is 
much  more  easily  suggested  than  fully  elaborated 
and   carried   into   elTecl.     The   first   thing  that  we 
need  is  to  learn  to  discuss  these  subjects  temperate- 
ly, and  in  a  spirit  of  mutual  trust,  and  it  is  a  good 
ign    that  tlie   mosi  conservative  and  eminently  re- 
spectable periodical  in   the  countrj-  has  undertaken 
to  direct  the  discussion  into  a  profilable  channel.     It 
may  be  only  an  acci<ient  that  the  representative  em- 


ly  deprecates  a  resort  to  violence  be  leaves  no  doubt  ployer  approaches  the  subject  in  a  more  catholic 
as  to  where  his  sympathies  were.  And  yet  neither  spirit  than  the  representative  striker,  but  itshowsat 
of  these  representative  men  really  discusses  the  ques-  least  that  the  leading  men  of  the  country  are  willing 
tlons  involved  with  any  thoroughness.  Mr.  Scott,  to  meet  the  issues  of  the  day  and  anxious  to  solve 
indeed,  makes  no  pretence  of  doing  so.     He  merely  .  them  for  the  good  of  all  alike." 


RIOT. 


712 


BIOT. 


While  the  troubles  we  have  detailed  were  in  pro- 
gress in  the  Slate  of  New  York,  many  other  States 
and  localities  tliroughout  the  United  States  were 
already  or  rapidly  becoming  involved  in  disturbances 
in  many  eases  more  violent  and  deplorable.  About 
the  middle  of  July,  1877,  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio 
Railroad  Company  made  a  reduction  of  ten  per  cent, 
in  the  pa^-  of  its  employes.  The  pay  of  all  the  em- 
ployed, of  whatever  grade,  was  equally  diminished, 
no  invidious  distinctions  being  made.  All  accepted 
the  change  quietly  except  the  firemen  and  the  men 
who  run  the  freight  trains.  The  lirst-class  firemen 
on  this  road  had  been  receiving  #1.75  per  daj';  the 
reduction  brought  their  wages  to  $1.58.  The  firemen 
of  the  second  class  were  reduced  from  ijil..50  to  f  1.35 
per  day.  These  men  refused  to  accept  the  reduction, 
and  stopped  work.  As  soon  as,  tliis  became  known, 
numerous  applications  were  made  to  the  company, 
by  men  out  of  work,  for  employment  in  the  places 
of  the  men  wlio  had  •'  struck."  The  company,  hav- 
ing the  large  unemployed  class  along  its  line  to 
clioose  from,  had  no  difliculty  in  filling  the  places  of 
the  strikers,  generally  with  experienced  firemen  who 
were  eagerly  seeking  employment.  Here  the  matter 
raiglit  have  rested  had  tlie  sober  good  sense;  of  the 
strikers  come  to  their  aid.  They  had  refused  to  work 
for  the  wages  offered  by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Com- 
pany, and  had  abandoned  their  post.  In  so  doing 
they  had  exercised  an  undisputed  right.  Having 
left"  the  service  of  the  company,  they  should  have 
recognised  the  fact  that  they  had  no  longer  any  in- 
terest in  its  action,  and  should  have  sought  employ- 
ment elsewliere.  Unfortunately  for  themselves  and 
for  the  whole  country  they  chose  a  different  line  of 
conduct,  and  one  winch  changed  the  sympathy  whicli 
the  country  had  felt  for  them  in  their  privations  to 
the  sternest  condenmation  of  tlieir  lawlessness.  The 
leaders  of  the  strikers  now  resolved  to  compel  the 
railroad  company  to  recall  the  order  for  the  reduc- 
tion of  wages.  T'iiey  believed  that  they  could  accom- 
plish this  by  taking  forcilile  possession  of  the  road  at 
certain  points,  and  preventing  the  passage  of  all 
freight  trains  until  the  company  should  be  driven, 
by  the  lo.ss  of  its  liusiness.  into  an  acceptance  of 
their  demand  for  a  return  to  the  old  wages.  They 
did  not  seem  to  be  aware  that  by  seizing  the  prop- 
erty of  their  late  employers,  and  stopping  the  busi- 
ness of  the  road,  they  were  assuming  the  character 
of  criminals  and  committing  offenses  against  the 
laws  of  the  land  of  so  grave  a  naturethattlie  author- 
ities would  be  compelled  to  crush   them  by   force. 

On  the  morning  of  the  16th  of  July,  about  forty 
firemen  and  brakemen  of  freight  trains  on  the  Bal- 
timore &  Oliio  Kailroad.in  Baltimore,  refused  to  ac- 
<,ept  the  reduction  in  their  wages,  which  was  to  go 
mto  effect  that  day,  and  stopped  work.  The  strikers 
assembled  at  Camden  Junction,  about  three  miles 
from  Baltimore,  and  stopped  a  freight  train,  per- 
suading the  fireman  to  leave  liis  engine,  and  refu.s- 
ing  to  alhiw  another  to  take  his  place.  At  the  re- 
qiie.st  of  the  railroad  otlicials,  the  city  authorities 
sent  a  police  force  to  the  spot  and  dispersed  the 
strikers.  The  trains  were  then  run  during  the  day 
without  further  delay.  This,  however,  was  but  the 
beginning  of  the  trouble.  The  news  spread  rapidly 
along  the  road,  ami  the  disalTeclion  soon  ri'achcd 
.Mariinsburg.  in  West  Virginiii,  ('Mmlierland.  in  .Ma- 
ryland, and  Kcyser,  (irafton.  and  Wliecling,  in  West 
Virginia,  the  most  iniixirtant  i)iiints  on  the  line  of 
the  road,  the  lai  t  named  place  being  its  western 
terminus.  At  Martinsburg  tlie  ]5altimore  it  Oliio 
Company  liave  large  shops,  and  there  is  always  a 
large  concentration  of  the  rolling  stock  and  em- 
ployes of  the  road  there.  As  soon  as  the  news  was 
received  from  Baltimore  the  firemen  ami  the  brake 
men  stop])i'd  worli  and  tookjiart  in  the  strike.  They 
numbered  about  one  hundred  men.  They  assenilil- 
ed  about  thi'  depot,  .seized  tlie  roail  and  the  engines, 
and  compi'lled  the  men  who  were  willing  to  work 
to  leave  their  places.     No  frclirht  trains  were  allow. 


ed  by  the  strikers  to  mo"e  either   way,  and  all  ar- 

'  riving  at  Martinsburg  were  compelled  to  halt;  the 
engines  were  uncoui)led  and  run  on  to  the  side 
tracks,  and  the  firemen  and  train  hands  joined  the 
strikers.  The  railroad  officials,  finding  themselves 
powerless,  applied  to  the  Mayor  and  city  authorities 
for  protection.  Tlie  strikers  were  ordered  Ijy  the 
Maj-oi'  to  disperse  and  cease  their  unlawful  interfer- 
ence with  tlie  property  of  the  railroad  company, but 
refused  to  obey  the  command,  which  the  ottieials 
were  unable  to  enforce. 

The  Governor  of  West  Virginia  called  for  assist-' 
ance,  and  the  President  directed  the  Secretary  of 
War  to  send  a  sufficient  force  at  once  to  Martins- 
burg. At  the  same  time  he  issued  the  following  pro- 
clamation to  the  rioters:  W^eredK.  It  is  provided  in 
tlie  Constitution  of  the  United  States  that  the  United 
States  shall  protect  every  State  in  this  Union  on  ap- 
plication of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive  when 
the  Legislature  cannot  be  convened,  against  domes- 
tic violence;  and  W/iemiJi.  The  Governor  of  the 
State  of  West  Virginia  has  represented  that  domes- 
tic  violence  exists  in  said  State  at  Martinsburg,  and 
at  various  other  points  along  the  line  of  the  Balti- 
more &  Ohio  Railroad,  in  .said  State,  which  the  au- 
thorities of  said  State  are  unable  to  suppress;  and, 
W/ierefi-1.  By  laws  in  jiursnance  of  the  above  it  is  pro- 
vided (in  tlie  laws  of  the  United  States)  that  in  all 
cases  of  insurrection  in  any  State,  or  of  obstruction 
to  the  laws  thereof,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  on  application  of  the  Leg- 
islature of  such  State,  or  of  the  Executive  when  the 
Legislature  cannot  be  convened,  to  call  forth  the 
miHtia  of  any  other  State  or  States  or  to  employ  such 
]iart  of  the  laud  and  naval  force  as  may  be  necessary 
for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  such  insurrection  or 
causing  the  laws  to  be  duly  executed;  and,  W/ierr- 
(1,1.  The  Legislature  of  said  State  is  not  now  in  session 
and  cannot  be  convened  in  time  to  meet  the  present 
emergency;  and  the  Executive  of  said  State,  under 
section  4  of  Article  IV.  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  and  the  laws  passed  in  pursuance 
thereof,  has  made  application  to  me  in  the  premises 
for  sncli  iiart  of  the  military  force  of  the  United 
States  as  may  be  necessary  and  adequate  to  protect 
said  State  and  the  citizens  thereof  against  domestic 
violence,  and  to  enforce  the  due  execution  of  the 
laws;  and,  W/itreax.  It  is  required  that  whenever  it 
may  be  necessary  in  the  judgment  of  the  President  to 
use  the  military  force  for  the  jiurpose  aforesaid,  he 
shiill  forthwith,  by  proclamation,  command  such  in- 
surgents to  disperse  and  retire  peaceably  to  their  re- 
spective homes  within  a  limited  time:  Now.  there- 
fore, I,  Rutherford  B.  Ilayes,  President  of  the  L'nit- 
ed  States,  do  hereb}'  make  proclamation  and  com- 
mand all  persons  engaged  in  said  unlawful  and  in- 
surrectionary proceedings  to  disperse  and  retire 
peaceably  to  tlieir  respective  abodes  on  or  before 
twelve  o'clock  noon  on  the  19th  day  of  July  instant, 
and  hereafter  abandon  said- combinations  and  sub- 
mit themselves  to  the  laws  and  constituted  authori- 
ties of  said  State,  and  I  invoke  the  aid  and  co-opera- 
tion of  all  good  citizens  thereof  to  uphold  the  laws 
and  jireservethe  public  peace.  In  witness  whereof, 
I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  caused  the  seal  of 
the  United  States  to  be  allixed. 

Disall'ection  coniiniu'd  to  spread  along  the  road. 
The  p;issenger  and  nuiil  lr;uiis  had  not  been  interfer- 
<'d  with  thus  f:ir.  but  the  strikers  iit  Cumberland, 
Keyser,  (Jrafton,  and  other  points,  were  firm  in  their 
iletermination  that  no  freight  trains  should  be  run.  At 
Keyser,  on  tlie  night  of  the  l'.lth,;i  meeting  of  work- 
men was  held,  at  which  the  following  resolutions 
were  adopted  ;  liinolcid,  Tli;it  we,  the  men  of  the 
Third  Division,  will  aliiile  by  the  decision  of  our 
hrolliiT  divisions  in  regard  to  wages  in  the  future, 
;ind  that  \vi'  will  slay  by  them  in  the  present  trouble 
until  such  decision  is  arriveil  at.  as  we  have  been 
oppressed  by  our  superior  oflicers  beyond  endur- 
ance.    Hi'xiiUeii.  That  we,  the  men  of  I  hi'  Tliinl  I)i- 


BIOT. 


71» 


HIOT 


viHioii,  Imvi'  Ki)l)fr!v  iind  riilnily  c'lnHidcrcd  the  step  |  (lie  (tdvcnmr  of  I'cnnHvlviiniii  omiBcd  ihr  fullowine 
we  Imvc  taken,  iiiiit  ilicliirc  thill  111  llic  [iriscnl  Htuti'  tclc;;rHiii  Id  hi- fiirwiirdrd  from  IlurrixhiirK  to  the 
of  waives  which  the  (M)iii|iaiiy  have  iiiipo.icd  upon  us,  i  I'rcsiihiil  of  the-  I'liilcd  .SIuIch  ; 

we  caiiiiot  live  and  provide  our  wivis  and  children  OoincHlic  vioh-iicee.xislH  witliin  theBtatv  of  Pcmi- 
wilh  Die  iiece.ssaries  of  life,  and  Ihal  wc-  only  ask  for  !  sylvania  in  the  Cily  of  J'itlhhiir^rh  and  uloni;  the  liui- 
waives  Dial  will  inal)le  lis  lo  provide  such  ni'f;eHsa- 1  of  llii'  I'ennsylvania  Kaiiroad.  iinri  oilier  ruilrourlH  in 
ries.  AV.wfew/,  That  wc  uphold  the  other  diviHJonH  H«id  .Stale,  which  the  aiilhoriliis  are  unable  to  Hiip. 
in  llie  step  they  have  taken  in  regard  to  the  prcHcnt  pri'SH.aml  Ihe  /.ejiislalure  of  i'eniihylvania  cannot  In- 
fouhle.  convened    in   lime   lo  nieel   the  emerjjency,  I    have. 

At  ('iiiiiljcrlaiid  iiiallers  were  especially  had.  There,  therefore,  to  retpiest  that  in  conformity  to  the  Cau- 
as  at  Ihe  oilier  poiiilsoii  the  line,  Ihe  orijrinal  strikers  sliliition  the  government  of  thi'  I'niled  Slates  shall 
had  lieeii  joined  liy  lari^i^  nuniliirs  of  idle  anddisrep-  furnish  me  with  mililary  forie  suMlcient  tOHiipprenR 
utalile   persons,  who  were  iittracled  liy  the  hope   of    disorder, and  to  protect 'lersoiis  and  nrooertv  airuinHt 

.1....      'PI 1.     tl ,:, 1     i'...l.i   .1...  .1 .      .1 ;-.    ..:.!......  '  "^      * 


plunder.  The  iiioli,  thus  coiistiliited,  held  the  de|iot 
and  yards  and  set  the  cily  authorities  at  dcliiiiice.  As 
the  trains  siiit  out  from  .Marliiishiirjr  reached  {'uni- 
berland,  tlii^y  were  stopped  hj'  the  rioters,  and  the 
engineers  and  liremen  were  fon^'d  lo  aliandon  their 


domestic  violence. 

Tlie  President  at  once  complied  with  tliiK  demand, 
anil  issued  the  following  proclamation  : 

WlurmH,  It  is  provideil  in  the  Constilulion  of  the 
United  States  thai   the  United  Slates  shall  protect 


posts.     Thus  the  blockade,  which  had  been   broken    every  Stale  in  this  Union  on  application  of  the  I.ejrii)- 
at  Martinsbiire;  by  Ihe  Federal  troops,  was  establish-  i  lature,  or  of  the  K.\ecntive  when  the  Lepislalure can- 


ed with  e,|uiil  rin'or  at  ('uiiiberliimi.  .\t  \\'lieelinf.', 
the  western  terniiniis  of  the  main  line  of  the  Haiti- 
more  it  Ohio  l{ailriiail,llie  excilcinenl  was  very  ijreat. 
The  men  employed  there  stopped  work,  and  joined 
in  the  striki',  but  iitteiiipted  no  violence.  The  com- 
pany attempted  lo  till  the  places  of  the  strikers  with 
a  jiarly  of  men  from  Sleubenville.  Ohio,  but  the  new 
comers  were  warned  olV  by  the  strikers,  who  threat- 
ened them  with  assassination  if  they  went  lo  work. 
The  state  of  affairs  aliiiiir  the  line  of  the  lialtimoreA 
Ohio  liailroad  had  now  become  .^o  IhreatcninL' that 
the  force  of  regulars  was  largely  augmented.     The 


not  be  convened  against  domestic  violence  ;  and, 
Wliirt'dx,  The  (iovernorof  Ihe.Stale  of  I'ennsylvaniu 
has  represented  that  domestic  violence  e.xislsin  said 
Stale  which  Iheaulliorilies  of  said  State  are  unable  to 
suppress:  and.  WIiii-kik,  the  laws  of  the  United  Slates 
reiiuire  that  in  all  r-ases  of  insurrection  in  any  Slate, 
or  of  obslruclion  lotlie  laws  thereof,  whenever  in  the 
judgmentof  the  I'residenl  it  becomes  necessary  to  use 
the  military  forces  to  suppress  such  insnrreelion  or 
olistructit.n  lo  Ihe  laws  he  shall  forlliwith  by  procla- 
mation cniiiiiiaiid  such  insurgents  to  disperse  and  re- 
tire peaceablv  lo  their  respective  abodes  within  a  lim- 


troublcs  continued  to  increase,  and  brought  on  the    ited  time :    l^ow,  thirefore.  I.  Hulherford  B.  Ilaye.s, 
Baltimore  riots.  |  President  of  the  United  Stales,  do  hereby  admonish 

One  of  the  Halt-more  papers, cfimnienting  u|)oii  the  i  all  good  citizens  of  Ihe  United  Slates  and  all  persons 
character  of  tlie  mob  in  that  city,  said;  "The  num-  within  the  terrilory  and  jurisdiction  of  the  United 
ber  of  railroad  cruployes  engagi-d  in  the  rioting  here  Slates  against  aid ing.countenancins:,  abetting,  ortak- 
has  from  the  lirst  not  exceeded  ITiO;  liul  at  the  outset  ing  part  in  such  unlawful  jiroceedings,  and  1  do  here- 
of the  affair  they  were  joined  by  thousands  of  labor-  j  by  warn  all  persons  engaged  in  or  connected  with  the 
ers  and  mechanics  out  of  employiiieiil,  and  by  llic  '  said  domestic  violence  and  obstriK-tion  of  the  laws 
entire  criminal  masses  of  the  city,  eager  foran  occa-    to  disperse  and  retire  peaceably  to  their  respective 


sion  to  plunder.  A  large  number  of  men  besides 
these,in  various  occupations, who  have  suffered  a  re- 
duction of  wages  of  late,  are  in  a  sullen  temper  with 
their  emjiloyers  and  with  cji))italists  generally.  They 
imagini'  that  they  have  been  wronged,  and  weleonie 
what  they  lliink  is  an  atlenipt  of  the  railroad  men  to 
right  a  similar  wrong.  Some  have  actively  aided  tlic 
rioters,  and  nearly  all  have  fermented  the  movement 
by  reckless  and  iiitlaminatory  talk.  The  commiinistic 
ciiaracter  of  the  riots  is  shown  by  every  incident. 
The  mob  which  assailed  the  6th  Regiment.  Friday 
night,  was  not  composed  of  railroad  men,  but  was 
a  niiscellancous  assemlilage  of  laborers.  The  crowd 
Unit  stoned  the  United  States  troops  to-day  probably 
I'.ad  not  a  single  striker  in  its  mi.lsl.  So  of  the  gangs 
gathered  up  by  tiie  police  in  the  nunienms  combats 
around  t'anulen  station  last  night.  Some  were  thieves 


aliodes  on  or  before  twelve  o'clock  noon  on  the  24th 
day  of  July  instant.  In  testimony  whereof,  I  have 
hereunto  set  my  lianil  and  caused  the  .seal  of  the  Unit- 
ed Slates  lo  be  affixed. 

At  the  same  lime  I'residenl  Hayes  ordered  General 
Hancock  tojiroceed  lo  Philadelphia  with  such  troops 
as  could  be  spared  from  Baltimore,  and  orders  were 
despatched  to  the  Kaslern  posts  to  reinforce  General 
Hancock  at  Philadelphia  with  everj-  available  man. 
<  )n  the  same  day  orders  were  issued"  by  the  Governor 
of  Pennsylvania  placing  the  entire  militia  force  of  the 
State  under  arms.  In  the  meantime  the  strike  spread 
rapidly  alonir  the  line  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad, 
from  Pillsburgh  eastward.  At  eleven  o'clock  on 
Saturday,  .luly  21sl,  Ihe  train  men  of  Ihe  Pennsylva- 
nia Uailroad  at  Altoona  struck,  and  taking  posses- 
sion of  the  road  and  shops  at  that  point,  refused  to 
and  rowdies,  and  others  were  workingmen,  usually  ''  allow  the  passage  of  freight  trains.  They  were  join- 
well-behaved,  but  now  crazed  by  Ihe  excitement  of   ed  by  a  large  number  of  tramps  and  loafers  from  the 


the  outbreak.  It  is  a  notable  fact  that  most  of  Ihe 
men  who  yelled  "  bread"  in  the.  crowd  that  surged 
against  the  lines  of  tlie  |iolice  and  the  soldiers  last 
night  had  evidently  money  enough  to  buy  whiskey, 
for  they  were  half-drunk.  Some  of  the  strikers  af- 
firm that  they  and  their  friends  were  taking  no  part 
in  the  lawless  acts,  and  that  the  movement  has  pass- 
ed altogether  out  of  their  hands.  The  prejudice 
against  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  railroad  among  the 
working  classes,  and  to  some  extent  among  people 
in  Ihe  Iiisrher  walks  of  life. furnished  at  the  beginning 
a  strong  fund  of  symiialliy  to  sustaiii  the  strike.  It 
was  currently  believed  that  the  policy  of  the  compa- 
ny has  been  to  starve  its  men  in  order  lo  keep  up  its 
ten  per  cent,  dividends.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this 
prejudice  was  Ihe  real  tiasis  of  the  oulbreak.  Des- 
|)erate  men  took  advantage  of  it  to  defy  Ihe  law,  re- 
iyini;  upon  popular  support." 

The  troubles  were  not  lo  be  confined  to  the  States 
of  iMarylaud  and   West   Virginia.      About  this  time 


city,  and  towards  nightfall  numbered  .several  thou- 
sand men.  No  disturbance  was  attempted  on  Satur- 
day.  On  Sunday  the  22d,  the  news  from  Pillsburgh 
was  received  and  created  great  excitement.  The 
rioters  declared  that  no  more  troops  should  pass  Al- 
toona on  their  way  to  Pittsburgh:  and  when  it  wa,s 
announced,  early  on  Sunday  morning,  that  a  lietach- 
ment  of  2.')0  men  under  Generals  Beaver  and  Lyie. 
were  ncaring  the  city,  the  strikers  prepared  to  slop 
them 

The  train  bearing  the  troops  entered  Altoona  slow- 
ly and  cautiously.  .\.s  it  reached  Ihe  depot  the  en- 
gine was  taken  off.  in  order  that  a  heavier  ensine 
might  be  connected  with  the  train  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  it  over  the  mountain  west  of  Altoona.  "The 
mountain  engine  was  backed  out  of  the  roundhouse, 
but  as  it  appeared,  the  rioters,  who  had  surrounded 
the  depot  to  the  number  of  at  least  3,000  men.  and 
who  were  terrilily  excited,  took  possession  of  the 
engine  and  riiurr-d  ii  lo  tlic  round  bouse.    General 


EIOT. 


714 


RIOT. 


Beaver  tlien  ordered  his  men  to  march  down  and 
bring;  the  engine  out  agiain.  tmt  iijion  rearliinm  the 
round  liouse  tliey  were  surr.iuiuli-d  liy  tlic  mob,  and 
finally  surrendered  tlieir  arms.  Israel  ically,t  lien, Gen- 
eral Beaver  was  left  without  any  command,  e.\cept 
the  men  under  General  Lvle  and  Colonel  fSnowden, 
about  100  all  told,  and  ali  Pliiladelphiaus.  Tiicse 
troops  remained  at  the  depot  in  a  broilinii'  sun  for 
an  hour  and  a  half,  and  were  then  ordered  down  the 
track  to  break  into  tlie  round  house  in  order  to  get 
the  motive  power  to  take  the  train  over  the  mount- 
ains. The  mob  had  increased  by  this  time  to  fully 
5,000  excited  and  violent  men.  Tliis  round  house  is 
situated  on  the  side  of  a  cut, and  between  two  liridges 
which  x^ross  the  road.  The  troops  passed  under  the 
western  bridge,  eastward  from  the  round  house,  the 
hillside  on  the  right  being  dense  with  rioters,  the 
houses  on  the  left  being  occupied  liy  strikers,  and  a 
mob  tilling  the  two  bridges.  The  men  were  armed, 
some  with  the  muskets  surrendered  Uy  the  Clearfield 
militia.  About  twenty  of  the  strikers  were  guarding 
tlie  gate  of  the  round  house,  antl  when  the  troops 
had  been  marched  up  prepared  to  force  the  gate,  the 
mob  showered  upon  them  every  vile  epithet,  threat, 
and  insult  that  could  be  invented,  and  gave  them 
every  reason  to  apprehentl  that  anj'  attempt  to  open 
the  gate  by  them  would  be  the  signal  for  an  instan- 
taneous and  terrible  assault. 

The  rioters  crowdeil  up  against  the  troops,  stand- 
ing shoulder  to  shoulder  with  them,  shaking  their 
tists  in  the  faces  of  the  men,  and  throwing  stones, 
some  of  which  wounded  a  number  of  the  W  eccacoe 
Legion.  The  rioters — those  who  were  armed — stood 
with  vin<lictive  looks,  their  right  hands  resting  upon 
their  hips  or  thrust  in  their  breasts,  as  if  ])repareil  to 
shoot  at  the  slightest  provocation,  ifaving  received 
information  that  the  piston-rod  of  the  locomotive 
liad  been  removed,  and  the  tires  drawn  from  the 
furnace,  it  was  concluded  not  to  essay  the  eft'ort  of 
taking  out  an  engine;  that  was  useless,  and  to  incur 
a  foolish  sacrifice  of  life.  The  troops  would  have 
been  at  a  great  disadvantage,  and  had  a  conflict 
taken  place,  would  have  been  severely  handled. 
They  withdrew  from  the  vicinity  of  the  round  house 
when  the  condition  of  the  locomotive  was  ascer- 
tained. 

A  body  of  strikers  then  offered  the  troops  a  spe- 
cial train  to  the  east,  if  they  would  promisi'  to  leave. 
This  was  declined,  however.  Colonel  Snowden  find- 
ing, upon  inquiry,  that  it  was  impossible  to  go  west 
on  account  of  obstructions  to  the  road  and  inability 
to  secure  an  engine,  determined  upon  a  feint,  b}' 
going  east,  as  if  to  Philadelphia,  and  upon  reaching 
Huntingdon  to  go  south  and  endeavor  to  make  Pitts- 
burgh from  that  direction,  or  await  the  arrival  of 
reinforcements.  Upon  nearing  Huntingdon.  Colonel 
Snowden  received  a  dispatch  stating  that  llie  rioters 
had  assembled  there  in  force,  and  that  tlie  train  on 
the  road  to  Bedford  had  been  overturncnl  and  the 
road  completely  blockaded. 

Colonel  Snowden  llien  telegraphed  to  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  Harrisburg  division  whether  the  troop 
could  get  to  that  city,  and  flie  reply  came  that  trans- 
portation could  not  be  furnished  to  that  point  on 
account  of  the  condition  of  Ihe  mob  assembled  in 
the  depot,  and  determined  not  to  allow  the  troop  to 
return.  This  mob.  he  was  assured,  numbered  M.lHll) 
strong,  and  was  vowing  revenge  against  the  troops, 
because,  as  was  reported,  they  believed  I  hem  all 
pe('uniarily  interested  in  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 
In  order  to  avoid  any  deslriiction  to  railroad  pro])- 
erty,  which  the  superintendent  thought  would  sure- 
ly ensiii'  if  the  troops  came  to  Ihe  city,  lie  refused  (o 
give  thein  transportation.  The  (•omniand  then  tra- 
veled east,  and  (Iroppedoff  at  Bailey's  Stalion.  about 
twenty-tliree  miles  west  of  tlie  State  capital,  and 
waited  there  for  the  7.-'iO  accommodation  train  (,Mon 
day  morning)  to  proceed  to  Kockville.  On  the  train 
they  were  joined  by  a  number  of  (ienera!  I.yle's  men. 
who  had  returned  from  .Vltooiia.  the  General  remain- 


ing at  that  place,  where  lie  was  ordered  to  await 
further  orders.  It  woiil''  have  been  perfect  folly 
for  the  troops  to  remain  at  that  place  a  moment 
later  than  they  did,  owing  to  the  inilamed  ccmdition 
of  the  strikers.  It  was  upon  a  calm  review  of  the 
situation  that  Colonel  Snowden  took  the  responsi- 
bility of  coming  eastward,  after  all  his  efforts  to  get 
to  Pittsburgh  had  failed. 

At  Bailey's  Station  the  men  had  no  breakfast,  and 
were  in  poor  condition  when  they  got  to  Kockville. 
Here  the  Philadelphia  troops  sejiarated  from  the 
other  soldiers  on  the  train,  and  marching  down  tiie 
track,  apparently  making  for  the  Harrisburg  depot, 
but  after  tramjiing  for  a  mile  or  so.  they  took  the 
road  to  Englestown.  It  was  necessary  to  keep  the 
purpose  of  this  movement  a  secret,  even  from  the 

'  other  soldiers  who  had  determined  to  go  direct  to 
town.  Some  of  the  rioters  soon  learned  that  these 
troops  had  left  the  track,  and  it  was  surmised  they 
had  taken  Ihe  Northern  Central  road,  and  were  go- 
ing by  the  city  in  that  direction,  and  endeavored  to 
intercept  them. 

The  other  troops  took  the  track,  and  were  cap. 
tured.  as  we  shall  see  farther  on.  In  the  meantime, 
however.  Colonel  Snowden,  with  all  his  men,  and 
all  their  accoutrements  and  clothing,  even  to  their 
heavy  overcoats,  took  the  Englestown  road,  and 
made  a  long  circuit  of  about  twelve  miles  to  Pro- 
gress, a  village  about  two  miles  northeast  of  Harris- 
burg, and  thence  in  a  direct  line  marched  to  the 
State  arsenal,  thus  completely  deceiving  the  rioters, 
who  had  formed  their  plans  with  great  care  to  cap- 
ture the  troops. who  executed  their  movement  with- 

I  out  the  loss  of  a  single  article  belonging  to  the  com- 
mand, and  reached  the  arsenal  about  lave  o'clock  on 
Monday  afternoon.  From  this  time  until  the  ar- 
rival of  the  Governor  and  the  State  forces,  on  their 
way  to  Pittsburgh, the  situation  at  Altoona  remained 
imehanged.  The  rioters  held  possession  of  the  road, 
allowing  no  freight  trains  to  pass,  but  making  no 
effort  to  interfere  with  the  passenger  trains.  The 
strikers  at  Harrisburg  began  their  operations  on  the 
morning  of  Sunday.  July  2yd.  About  ten  o'clock 
several  railroaders,  encouraged  by  a  large  number 
of  persons. went  to  the  locomotives  of  several  freight 
trains, and  demanded  that  the  engineers  and  firemen 
should  leave  their  engines.  The  demand  was  readily 
complied  with,  and  as  the  railroad  men  descended 
from  their  engines  they  were  greeted  with  loud 
cheers  from  their  friends.  There  had  been  indications 
on  Saturday  night  of  a  strike  along  the  middle  div- 
ision, but  tlie  railroad  authorities  were  unwilling  to 
believe  that  trouble  w-ould  take  place.  The  inter- 
ference with  a  freight  train  and  the  hooting  and 
stoning  out  of  soldiers  who  passed  through  for  Pitts- 
burgh from  Philadelphia  were  attributed  to  irre- 
sponsible outsiders  by  them, but  all  their  hopes  were 
dispelled  on  Sunday  morning  at  ten  o'clock,  when, 
at  the  command  of  several  apparent  strangers,  the 
engineers  and  firemen  of  several  freight  trains  de- 
scended from  their  locomotives  after  having  housed 
them.  All  the  freight  trains  were  deserted.  The 
round  houses  in  the  ujjper  portion  of  the  city  con- 
tained about  forty  locomotives,  and  over  twelve  hun- 
dred ears  were  standing  on  the  sidings  in  the  .same 
vicinily.  The  strike  was  general  on  Ihe  middh'  divi- 
sion, between  twelve  and  fifteen  liuiidred  being  af- 
fected by  it.  Of  these  four  or  five  hundred  were 
employed  in  Harrisburg,  most  of  them  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania round  houses.  A  crowd  collected  at  the 
Pennsylvania  depot  early  on  Sunday  morning,  and 
by  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  it  had  swollen  to 
several  thousands.  Many  of  I  hem  congregated  out 
of  idle  curiosity, but  a  consideralile  number  were  iit- 
tracted  by  a  determiiiatioii  to  iiilerfere  with  tliejiass- 
age  through  the  city  uf  several  hundred  I'liihidelpliia 
soldiers  destined  for  I'iltsburgli.  It  wasalso  hcljeved 
that  among  tlu'  military  would  be  several  companies 
of  negroes,  and  ag.'iinst  them  numerous  dire  threats 
were    made.       The    aiiinniiiil  ion    for    the    exjiected 


BIOT. 


RIOT. 


while  Iroops  liiiil  ticon  jjol  in  niidiiicst  iit  the  Sliilc 
iirsi'iiitl.  lull  it  wiiM  (Icciiicd  pniiicril,  conHidcriu);  llic 
cxriiciiiciil  at  AllDoiia  imil  in  llic  cily.  lo  coiiiilcr- 
iiumil  llic  iirilir.  ami  llir  aiiiiiiiiriilidii  wan  rcliirnrd 
lo  tlic  urwcnai.  Had  any  of  llic  iiiilllary  arrived,  il 
is  liiiilily  proliahlc  tliey  would  liave  encoiintered 
consideratiiedilticully  in  passinnlliroiiifli  tin- <-ily. llic 
ringleaders  in  the  strilic  havinj^exprcHsed  dclertninu- 
(ion  lo  throw  all   possihlc  obstacles  in  their  way. 

.V  riicctin;;  of  llirce  or  four  thousand  peopli-.  many 
of  llicMi  railroaders,  was  addressed  on  a  eoniiiion.  a 
'  few  liundrcd  yards  iihovi'  the  depot,  liy  a  man  named 
Torhelt,  who  juslilicd  Ihe  strikers  in  llicir  course 
and  predicted  llieir  triumpliaiil  sucicss.  |[c  coun- 
selled them  not  to  destroy  railroad  or  otherproperly. 
lie  intimated  Ihat  if  atlal'kcd  liy  troops  lliey  hada 
perfect  ri^'lil,  in  self-defence,  lo  strike  back,  as  their 
brethren  bail  done  in  Ihe  affray  at  Pillsbiirjrh.  Tor- 
bett  spoke  from  Ihe  lop  of  a  box-cur,  and  when  he 
referrcil  to  the  niililary  he  was  loudly  cheered.  .\f- 
ter  the  incelini;  the  crowd  surged  toward  the  depot. 
About  eijiht  o'clock  the  day  express  east,  detained 
nearly  live  hours  by  the  car  tire  at  I'iltsburgh,  ar- 
rived. 

The  crowd  sialhered  about  the  train,  and  .several 
persons  detaciied  the  eni;ine  several  limes,  when  the 
railroiul  officials  ordered  the  cni;iiie  to  be  taken  to 
the  round  house.  'I'lic  passeni;ers  were  compelled  to 
lie.overat  Harrisburir.  Dnthe  Irain  were  about  a  doz- 
en soldiers,  who  had  ujrown  tired  of  the  service  w  liich 
they  had  rendered  at  Altoona.  (Juite  a  number  of 
them  were  sick  ;  and  one  of  them,  named  IJallen5rer,a 
perfumer,  of  I^liiladelpliia.  who  hail  been  siinstruck, 
was  taken  to  Ihe  llarrisbiirg  hospital  for  treat- 
ment. 

The  principal  arsenal  of  the  .State  of  Pennsylvania, 
eontainiii!;  a  larire  supply  of  arms  anil  ammunition 
of  all  kinds,  is  located  al  Ilarrisbursr.  The  ammuni- 
tion for  the  troops  <alleil  into  service  ijy  the  (Jov- 
enior  was  beini;  prei)ared  there.  In  view  of  the 
threatening  condition  of  affairs,  it  was  deemed  best 
to  station  a  sruard  of  city  troops  at  the  arsenal. 
This  was  done  on  Sunday,  ami  the  force  was  increased 
durins  the  next  day  or  two  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
liy  direction  of  the  Slate  authorilies  seven  cannon. 
occupying  a  position  in  the  Capitol  grounds,  were 
spiked,  on  Siniday  afternoon,  as  a  precautionary 
measure 

During  the  day  the  Mayor  of  Harrisburg  issued  a 
proclaraatinn.  calling  upon  Ihe  people  to  desist  from 
gathering  in  crowds  on  the  streets,  and  to  remain 
(luiet  until  an  amicable  settlement  of  the  troubles 
could  be  liad  .  ami  requested  Ihe  saloon-keepers  to 
olose  their  houses  during  the  excileinenl.  The  pro- 
clamation was  unheeded,  and  Ihe  Mayor  attempted 
to  address  the  mob  later  in  the  day,  at  Ihe  depot,  he 
was  rudely  hustled  aside.  During  Sunday  and  Jlon- 
day  the  rioters  had  everything  their  own  way  at  Har- 
risburg. The  police  force  of  that  city  numbered 
twenty  men,  and  was  too  small  lo  offer  the  .slightest 
resistance  to  the  mob.  Xo  violence  was  done  by 
the  strikers  lo  properly,  because  no  resistance  was 
offered  to  the  will  of  the  mob.  The  railroad  offi- 
cials promptly  withdrew  their  trains  where  opposi- 
tion to  their  running  was  displayed  by  the  mob,  and 
no  effort  was  made  to  risk  the  company's  property. 
The  workmen  in  several  of  the  large  industrial  es- 
tablishments in  Ihe  city  stoi)peil  work  and  joined 
th<^  strikers,  who  were  also  reinforced  largely  by 
Ihe  roughs  and  disreputable  classes  of  the  town. 
During  the  nighl  in  iitempt  was  made  to  throw  a 
train  from  the  track  as  it  was  coming  into  Harris- 
burg by  the  Reading  Hailroad,  with  several  com- , 
panics  of  State  troops, but  the  effort  very  fortunately 
failed.  ■  I 

On  the  'i'2(].  the  train  men  at  Columbia.  103  miles 
west  of  Philadelphia,  and  an  important  point  on  Ihe 
eastern  division  of  the  IVnnsylvania  road,  joined  the 
strike.  All  engines  were  housetl.and  no  freight  trains 
were  permitted  to  move  cither  way.    During  the  day 


several  atleiiiplH  were  made  to  gel  engincK  out  of  the 
round  lioiiHc,  of  which  Ihe  slrikerH  held  pOHHcMKion. 
but  Ihe  rioters  boarded  Ihe  enginei-.  ordered  the  I'n- 
gineers  and  llremen  off,  and  ran  the  locomotives  back 
iiilo  the  liousi'.  The  excilenient  wa"  very  great  and 
increased  daily. Ihe  strikers,  as  ii^ual,  being  joined  by 
all  the  disreputable  and  danirerouH  charaiiers  of  the 
place.  On  Ihe  afternoon  of  llie  24lh  the  rioters  com- 
pelled  a  force  of  track  men  to  suspend  work,  taking 
their  picks  and  shovels  from  Iliem, and  inurcliing  tliem 
inio  Ihe  town  like-  prisoners.  They  rleclared  that  if 
I  hey  were;  inlerfe.-ed  wilh,  or  if  Iroops  were  sent  lo 
Columbia,  Ihey  would  lire  Ihe  railroad  buildings  anil 
trains.  The  authorilies  were  powerless  to  deal  with 
the  trouble,  and  no  effort  was  made  lo  diH|>erse  llie 
riolers,w  ho  remained  in  possession  of  the  coinpany'H 
property  iinlil  I  he  appearance  of  the  (lovirnor  bucked 
by  a  strong  military  force,  induced  Iheni  to  cease 
their  violence  and  reliirn  lo  their  diily.  Philadelpliiu, 
as  has  been  said,  is  one  of  Ihe  most  Importjinl  poinls 
on  the  Pennsylvania  Kuilroud.  It  is  also  Ihe  second 
cily  of  the  I'nion,  with  respect  to  poi>nlution,  and 
the  chief  maniifacluriiu;  cily  of  the  new  world.  .Sev- 
eral lines  of  railroad  center  lliere,  and  thousands  of 
workingmen  lind  employment  in  the  various  induH- 
trial  estublishmenls.  Like  all  large  r-ilies  Philudel- 
phiu  contains  a  large  class  of  vui;ruiils  anil  criniinuls, 
who  would  he  exceedingly  Iroublesome  to  manage  in 
case  of  a  riot  of  any  degree  of  iniporlance.  Il  was 
certain  that  Ihe  strike  on  the  Pennsylvania  Kuilroud 
would  extend  to  Philadelphia,  and  liy  no  means  sure 
that  the  employes  of  the  other  roads  entering  llie 
cily  would  not  follow  the  example  of  the  I'ennsyl- 
vania  men.  It  was  therefore  of  the  highest  import- 
ance that  measures  should  be  taken  at  once  lo  pre- 
vent the  strike  from  assuming  Ihe  character  of  a  riot. 
.\s  has  been  related,  the  President  of  Ihe  Pennsyl- 
vania Hailroad. promptly  called  upon  the  city  authori- 
ties for  prolcclion  for  Ihe  company's  property  in  the 
city  of  Philadelphia,  and  the  .Mayor  responded  to  Ihis 
request  by  detailing  a  force  of  LIO  policemen,  for 
duly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  depot  and  yards  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Company  at  West  Philadelphia.  The 
cily  military  comjianies  were  sent  to  Pittsburgh  on 
Friday,  llie  201b,  and  from  Ihat  time  the  duly  of  pro- 
tecting all  the  vast  interests  aKslake  in  Philadelphia 
devolved  upon  the  flavor  and  police  force. 

Philadelphia  was  profoundly  excileil  by  the  lews 
from  Pittsburg  on  the  "iid.  Until  a  late  hour  of  the 
night,  the  streets  were  thronged  with  persons  eager 
to  learn  the  news  from  the  scene  of  trouble.  For  the 
tirst  time  since  the  close  of  the  civil  war,  the  after- 
noon papers  issued  Sunday  editions,  wliiili  were 
quickly  bought  up,  and  read  with  the  most  painful 
interest.  It  was  understood  that  Ihe  train  men  at 
the  West  Philadelphia  yards  would  join  in  the  stri- 
ke, and  there  was  a  very  general  fear  on  the  part  of 
Ihe  citizens  that  the  strikers  would  be  thrown  aside. 
as  they  had  been  at  Pittsburgh,  by  the  mob.  and  that 
Philadelphia  might  be  the  scene  of  a  terrible  out- 
break. Such,  indeed,  would  have  been  the  case  but 
for  the  ailmirable  conduct  of  the  Mayor  and  his  sub- 
ordinates, and  the  gallantry  of  the  police  force. 

Upon  the  receii)t  of  the  news  of  the  fighting  and 
conliagration  at  Pittsburgh,  the  Mayor,  who  had 
established  his  head-quarfers  at  the  West  Philaael- 
phia  depot,  issued  the  following  proclamation  to  the 
peojile  of  Philadelphia  : 

11 /i(/¥'M,  Violence,  tumult,  and  riot  exist  iu  vari- 
ous portions  of  this  Commonwealth,  to  the  great 
injury  of  domestic  industry  and  trade,  and  to  the 
discredit  of  the  fair  name  anil  fame  of  American 
institutions  and  her  form  of  government,  the  perfec- 
ticm  of  which  we  last  year  celebnited  in  this  the  city 
of  the  Republic's  birtli;  and,  M'/irrr'in.  It  is  i..f  the 
highest  importance  Ihat  the  great  name  which  Phil- 
adelphia has  made  for  herself  amoai;  Ihe  nations  of 
the  earth  during  the  Centennial  year  shall  Ik-  pre- 
served, and  that  she  shall  be  spared  the  horrible 
scenes  enacted  in  our  sister  cities  :    Now,  therefore. 


HIOT. 


716 


EIOT. 


I,  William  S.  Stokley,  in  the  uanif  of  the  Cdraniou- 
wealth  of  Pennsylvania,  and  bj-  virtue  of  the  autho- 
rity vested  in  me  by  law,  do  appeal  to  all  citizens. 
of  ever_y  occupation  and  calling,  to  render  it  unneces- 
sary that,  in  the  performance  of  my  duty,  I  should 
be  called  upon  to  suppress  outbreak  and  violence, 
which  I  assuredl}'  will  do  if  the  occasion  requires  it, 
and  hand  over  the  offenders  to  condijrn  punislmu-nt. 
And  I  make  this  appeal  in  the  firm  belief  that  the 
citizens  of  Philadelphia  appreciate,  as  I  do,  the  im- 
portance of  maintaining  peace  and  good-will  among 
all  classes  of  society,  and  I  hereby  pledge  myself  to 
give  a  patient  hearing,  and  to  do  impartial  justice, 
as  I  best  know  how.  to  all  persons  who  desire  it.  Let 
all  the  people  resume  and  continue  their  lawful  oc- 
cupations, and  avoid  assembling  and  organizing 
together  for  discussion  or  otherwise  at  the  present 
time.  This  is  the  surest  and  best  means  of  preserv- 
ing the  honor  and  fair  name  of  the  City  of  Brotherly 
Love. 

The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  was  not  the  only  suffer- 
er from  the  strike  in  Pennsylvania.  The  roads  ex- 
tending through  the  coal  regions  soon  became  in- 
volved in  it.  The  first  outbreak  in  thissection  of  the 
State  occurred  on  the  night  of  tlie  22d  of  July.  The 
militia  had  begun  to  assemble  in  obedience  to  the 
orders  of  the  Governor,  and  some  companies  had 
started  for  Harrisburg,  at  wliich  place  they  were  or- 
dered to  report.  To  prevent  them  from  reaching 
their  destination  a  party  of  rioters,  on  the  night  of 
the  32d,  set  fire  to  the  Lebanon  Valley  Railroad 
bridge  over  the  Schuylkill  at  Reading.  The  bridge 
was  entirely  consumed  and  the  direct  communica- 
tion between  Reading  and  Harrisburg  broken.  Tlie 
loss  to  tlie  Reading  Railroad  Company  b_y  the  des- 
truction of  this  bridge  was  $1.50. 000.  "  Oii  the  33d 
there  was  great  excitement  at  Reading,  and  during 
the  day  the  city  was  in  a  state  of  riot  and  disorder. 
The  railroad  men  formed  but  a  part  of  the  disorderly 
throngs  ;  the  greater  ijart  of  these  crowds  consisted 
of  loafers,  disreputable  characters,  and  tramps. 

The  General  Manager  of  the  Reading  Railroad  ap- 
pealed to  the  Sheriff  to  call  out  his  posse  to  protect 
the  railroad  and  the  company's  property.  This  the 
Sheriff  declined  to  do.  Little  or  nothing  was  done 
by  the  city  authorities  to  check  tlu-  disorder,  and 
during  the  day  the  rioters  had  their  own  way.  About 
nightfall  a  detachment  of  tlie  4th  Regiment  from  Al- 
lentown  arrived  at  Reading.  The  tracks  l)eiug  torn 
up,  the  soldiers  were  obliged  to  leave  the  cars  and 
march  to  tiie  depot.  The  main  line  of  the  Philadel- 
phia &  Reading  road  passes  through  Reading  on 
Seventh  Street.  Penn  Street  is  the  main  highway, 
running  in  an  opposite  direction  from,  and  crossing 
Seventii  Street  at  right  angles.  From  Penn  Street 
iiortlnvard,  for  two  s(|uares,  two  lines  of  track  are 
laid  leading  to  *,he  new  depot.  These  are  laid  through 
a  deep  cm  with  a  heavy  stone  wall  twenty  feet  high 
on  each  side.  From  the  moment  of  leaving  the  cars, 
the  troops  had  been  threatened  by  a  furious  mob. 
The  officer  in  command,  in  view  of  the  threatening 
demonstrations  of  the  mob,  decided  that  it  would  be 
better  to  march  to  the  de])(it  Ihnmgh  the  (lee]i  cut, 
the  steep  sides  of  which  would  afford  heller  ])roler- 
tion  to  his  fiaiiks  than  could  be  hail  in  the  open 
Mtreet.  He  therefore  directed  his  inarch  towards  the 
cut,  but  the  soldiers  had  scarcely  entered  it  before 
they  were  greeted  with  a  terrible  volley  of  stones 
from  the  sides  of  the  cut.  where  the  greatest  crowds 
had  assembled. 

Pistol  shots  were  also  fired  at  the  troops.  Upon 
reaching  Penn  Street  the  regiment  was  allaeked  liy 
another  mob  and  lost  patienei'.  One  of  llw^  men, 
without  orders,  discharged  his  piece,  and  inimediale- 
ly  the  regiment  (ired  a  volley  into  the  mob.  Hj-  this 
diseliarge  ten  persons  were  killed  and  forty  wound- 
ed. Many  of  these  were  innocent  bystanders,  as  is 
generally  the  case.  The  mob  scalhTed  and  fled  in 
terror,  and  the  troops  marchr'd  iiilo  the  depot,  in 
which  they    took   up  Iheir  i|iiarlers.     Guards    vveri' 


stationed  about  the  building,  and  citizens  were  not 
permitted  to  enter  it.  Tlie  firing  upon  the  mob  by 
the  4tli  Regiment  produced  the  greatest  excitement 
in  Reading,  and  the  death  and  injury  of  so  large  a 
number  of  innocent  persons  intensified  this  feeling. 
The  troops  were  .severely  denounced  by  the  citizens, 
many  of  whom  joined  the  mob,  and  were  loud  in 
!  their  threats  of  vengeance,  committing  in  their  un- 
reasoning anger  the  mistake  for  which  the  people  of 
Pittsburgh  paid  so  terribly.  Still,  as  it  was  neces- 
sary to  take  prompt  measures  to  check  the  mob,  the 
city  authorities,  who  were  joined  bj'  a  detachment 
of  armed  citizens  and  a  number  of  the  Reading  Rail- 
road Coal  and  Iron  Police,  commenced  on  the  24th 
to  assert  the  authorily  of  the  law,  and  to  put  down 
the  outbreak.  During  the  afternoon  the  police  offi- 
cials were  informed  where  the  strikers  had  stored  a 
portion  of  their  ammunition,  and  the  Chief  of  Police 
with  a  small  detail  of  officers,  proceeded  to  an  unfre- 
quented basement  in  a  quiet  part  of  the  city,  forced 
an  entrance,  and  succeeded  in  capturing  two  large 
boxes  of  old-fashioned  muskets  that  the  strikers  had 
procured  from  the  relics  of  an  old  military  company. 
The  young  man  who  had  informed  the  police  of  the 
whereabouts  of  the  muskets  narrowly  escaped  death 
at  the  hands  of  an  infuriated  mob.  The  strikers  ad- 
mitted that  they  had  plenty  of  arms,  and  the  offi- 
cials were  ready  to  believe  the  boast.  It  was  decid- 
ed by  the  authorities,  in  consideration  of  the  threats 
of  the  mob  against  the  troops  who  had  taken  part 
in  the  firing  of  the  previous  night,  to  send  them  a- 
way  from  Reading,  as  the  best  means  of  avoiding 
further  trouble.  It  was  hoped  that  tlieir  places 
could  be  filled  by  several  companies  of  tlie  IGth  liegj- 
meut  from  Conshohocken  and  Norristown,  which 
reached  Reading  about  ten  o'clock  on  Tuesdaj-  morn- 
ing. These  troops  left  the  cars  about  five  miles  be- 
low Reading,  and  marched  into  the  city,  taking  up 
their  quarters  at  the  depot  where  they  joined  the 
4th  Regiment, 

Tlie.se  new  soldiers,  having  heard  of  the  killing  of 
the  ten  citizens,  conferred  with  the  representative^  of 
the  strikers,  and  it  was  not  long  before  many  of  the 
Conshohocken  military  freely  expressed  themselves 
as  being  ready  and  willing  to  throw  down  their  arms 
or  give  them  to  the  rioters.  One  soldier  remarked, 
"We  are  workingmen  and  we  don't  fight  against 
workingmeu.  We  want  bread  at  home,  but  we  don't 
want  to  rob  our  fellow-wo'rkingmen  for  it.  Xo,  sir; 
we  came  up  here  to  protect  property,  but  not  to 
murder  the  poor  men  of  Reading."  Shortly  after 
this  many  of  these  soldiers,  arm-in-arm  with  the  rail- 
roaders, were  going  about  the  back  streets  in  a  jolly 
state  of  into.xication.  As -they  staggered  along  they 
made  many  threats  of  violence,  and  the  citizens  be- 
came intensely  ;ilarnied  at  lliesituatiou.  Peoplecom- 
iug  in  fnm  the  country  reported  several  of  the  roads 
lined  with  the  soldiers,  without  their  guns,  walking 
home,  in  the  absence  of  suitable  railroad  transporta- 
tion. In  other  words,  they  were  deserting.  All  these 
I  iiings  helped  to  fan  the  fianie  of  prejudice  and  excite- 
ment again.st  the  military  that  first  arrived  and  then  fir- 
ed into  the  crowd.  By  half-jiast  three  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon  the  rioters  had  won  over  so  many  of  the 
Cousl-.ohockcii  lroo])s,  and  these  weri'so  (i]irn  in  tlieir 
expressions  of  hostility  to  the  4th  Regiment  and  of 
sympathy  with  the  mob,  that  tl»ere  was  danger  of  a 
conllict  iietween  the  two  divisions  of  troops.  To 
avert  this  danger,  the  authoritiesiletermined  to  send 
both  divisions  out  of  the  city  at  once.  Accordingly, 
at  four  o'clock,  they  vacated  their  (|uarlers  at  the 
dejiot,  and  marched  out  of  Reading  by  different 
routes  to  their  homes.  Reading  was  now  entirely 
depi-ndeiil  upon  the  efforts  of  the  local  authorilies. 
About  nightfall  a  force  of  about  300  regular  troops, 
with  four  pieces  of  artillery,  who  liad  been  disem- 
barked on  the  outskirts  of  the  city,  marched  into 
Reading,  Four  companies  jinx-eeded  to  the  <lepot, 
where  they  were  (piartered.  anil  a  battery  of  artillery 
oci'upied  a  comiiiaiiilinLr  eminence  on  the  southern 


BIOI. 


I 


EIOT. 


H«:ti(in  of  the  fily  and  went  into  cimip.  The  mob 
looked  on  in  silciicit,  not  daruif^  lo  iilti.Tii  word  of 
insult.  On  llic 'J'ltli,  tliir  iiulliorilicH  feeling  slroHi; 
enough,  (lelennim-il  to  begin  tlie  work  of  reimiriiig 
Ib(^  rniIroHil  lru('i<siind  arresting  liie  leadi'rn  of  llie 
riol.  The  piiliee  olheials  were  astir  at  early  dawn, 
and  a  )ihil(iiiii  of  thirty  men,  eaeh  of  theiiianneil  with 
n  Si)eiieer  rille,  acconipanied  them.  This  detachment 
ifornied  a  guard  for  at  hasi  a  llioUHaiid  men  who 
were  early  ut  worl<  in  repairing  the  IrackH  torn  up 
by  the  mob.  Tliis  was  .sueeessfnlly  aeconiplished, 
5nd  by  ten  o'chx-lv  all  llirougli  trains  from  lidewaler 
to  the  eoal  li<'lds  were  running  without  molestation. 
Before  twelve  o'clock  informal  ion  was  sworn  to, 
imi)licaling  about  one  hiuidred  and  tifty  men  as  be- 
ing concerned  in  acts  of  incendiarism,  intimidation, 
and  riot.  Arrests  were  steadily  being  made,  and  as 
fast  as  the  ollkials  brought  their  prisoiuTs  in,  they 
were  either  taken  to  jail  at  once  or  admilled  lu  bail. 
Hut  one  of  the  acrc'used  was  able  to  furnish  security. 
It  was  generally  (conceded  thai  sonu'one  well-inf(Uni- 
ed  as  lo  the  plans  and  jiersonalily  (jf  the  rioters  had 
given  the  information  upon  which  these  arrests  were  ! 
made.  'I'he  prisoners  were  pale,  nervous  and  trem- 1 
bling  when  brought  to  th<^  station.  They  were  ar- 
rested in  various  saloous  and  on  street  corners,  and 
in  other  haunts  of  disrc(>ntable  people.  They  were 
plac(td  in  a  closely  covered  van  and  hnrrried  oil  to 
jail  in  (h'faidl  of  bail,  followed  by  a  large  crowd. 
These  arrests  were  made  very  (piietly,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  maintaining  [Hace  and  order,  and  preventing 
excitement.  | 

For  some  days  Heading  was  uneasy  and   excited,  i 
and  arrests  continued  to  be  made  by  the  police;  but 
no  further  outbreak  occurred,  and  the  city  gradmd- 
ly  settled  down  into  its  accustomed  quiet.     On   tlu^ 
7th  of  August,  the  Coroner's  jurv,  which    had  been 
siinunoned   a  day  or  two  after  the  conflict  willi  the  ' 
mob  to  consi<ler  the  caus('  of  the    death  of  the  kil-  j 
led  on  that  occasion,  rendered  the  following  verdict, 
in  which  subslaulial  justice  is  done  to  the  troops: 

First.  The  said  persons  came  to  their  death  by 
a  firing  of  the  military  upon  the  rioters. 

Seciind.  Thai,  the  soldiers  composing  a  portion 
of  the  4th  Regiment,  Pa.  N.  G.,  numbering  about 
two  hundred  nu^n,  while  inarching  through  the  rail- 
road (-ut  along  Seventh  Street,  were  continually  as- 
sailed with  stones  and  brickbats  from  the  tiuu'  they 
entered  the  cut  at  Walnut  Street  bridge  imlil  they 
approached  IVnu  Street,  a  distance  of  two  S(iuares, 
the  assault  becoming  severer  the  further  lliey  moved, 
and  being  accompanied  with  pistol  shots  after  lliey 
had  rcjiched  Washington  Street  bridge  ;  that  during 
said  march  many  of  the  soldiers  were  badly  wound- 
ed by  the  missiles,  some  of  them  being  knocked 
down  two  orthree  times,  ^iotwhhstanilingan  order 
from  the  comnuuidiug  officer  not  to  lire,  a  single 
shot  from  one  of  the  military  was  a  signal  for  others 
to  tire,  which  soon  became  general.  It  would  be  ex- 
pecting loo  much  of  human  nature,  especially  on  the 
part  of  initrained  soldiers,  to  expect  them  not  to 
tire  under  the  fearful  peril  in  which  they  were  plac- 
ed, and  when  once  lh<-  liring  conunenced.  the  vol- 
leys of  stoni'  and  pistol  shots  continuing,  and  being 
especially  diri'Cteii  against  their  ranks,  the  in(piest 
c-muot  censure  them  for  the  manner  m  which  they 
acted. 

Third.  Plial  the  military  were  here  as  the  repre- 
sentatives of  public  order,  under  directions  of  Major- 
Geucral  Bolton,  who  was  doubtless  act ingiuider  the 
State  civil  authorily.  said  orders  having  been  duly 
<-omnumicalcd  lo  (Jencral  Uceder,  couunanding  the 
4th  Kegimcnt.  who  was  instructed  lo  report  to  the 
SherifT,  Mayor  or  railroad  ollicials.  Having  been 
met  before  reaching  Iteadiug  by  several  olficers  of 
the  railroad  company,  who  informed  him  that  tin- 
railroad  depot  was  in  possession  of  the  mob.  he  left 
the  cars,  with  c(unniund.  at  a  short  distance  above 
the  depot,  and  marched  down  the  railroad  to  the  dc. 
pot.   Upon  reaching  the  depot  and  linding  it  in  pos 


Hession  of  the  Coal  and  Iron  police,  but  rneeling 
neilliiT  the  SherilT  nor  the  .Mayor  fllie  latter  ollleial 
being  out  of  tin-  cily;,  he  was  reipieHteil  by  an  odl- 
cial  of  tint  railroarl  f:oinpany  lo  move  in  the  direction 
of  I'enn  Street  to  ri'lease  a  passenger  train  then  in  lh<: 
hands  of  Ihe  m<ib,  and  while  coni|ilying  wilh  tlilH 
rei|uest  the  liring  of  tin-  military  look  place.  It  iIiiih 
appears  that  under  the  evirlince,  so  far  as  it  has  Iji-en 
laid  before  the  ln(|uesl,  that  (Jeneral  Iteeder,  with 
his  eomnnind,  was  atrting  within  his  inslructionti, 
and  if  anj'  blame  is  lo  \h:  attached  lo  the  action  of 
the  military,  it  nniHl  be  borne  by  the  miperior  ofUccr 
in  command. 

Fi'iirUi.  Thai  wliile  Ihe  tleaths  were  irnniediute- 
ly  owing  to  the  (iring  of  I  hi'  soliliers.  who  were  at 
the  proper  place,  under  proper  authorily.  where  llie 
disorder  was  raging,  yet  tlie  responsibility  for  the 
terrible  tragedy  of  Monday  night  is  directly  attribut- 
able to  those  who  composed  the  lawless  body  as- 
sendileil  near  the  corner  of  Seventh  and  IVnn  StreelH, 
who  were  instigating  Ihe  riotous  proceedings.  While 
many  were  presc-nt  not  an  inciting  lo  riot,  but  out  of 
idli-  curiosilv,  they,  nevertheless,  by  their  j)resence 
gave  aid  and  <onlidence  to  the  mob  spirit  whf>  ini- 
tiated the  disturbance.  The  latter  are  the  persons 
primarily  responsible  for  all  Ihe  subsequent  trouble 
and  bloodshed,  and,  if  delected  and  arrested,  should 
be  held  to  the  Beverest  accountability. 

FIflli.  The  absence  of  the  Mayor  from  the  city 
nniy  be  a  sufficient  excuse  for  the  inactivity  of  the 
city  authorities  at  Ihe  time. 

Sixth.  While  on  the  one  hand  the  ICBlimony  clear- 
ly shows  that  the  Chief  of  Police  was  faithful  in  the 
(iischarge  of  his  olficial  duty,  it  is  a  matter  of  regret 
lo  the  incpicst  that  the  testimony  does  not  crpially 
commend  the  Sheriff  in  the  discharge  ofhisdutv;  on 
the  contrar}',  though  telegraphed  for  early  on  Mon- 
day morning,  33d  July,  and  having  reached  the  city 
by  special  train,  provided  by  the  railroad  company, 
ai  five  o'clock  .\.  m.,  he  nevertheless  made  no  at- 
tempt to  provide  for  the  preservation  of  the  public 
peace,  although  earnestly  appealed  lo  and  urged  to 
organize  a  posse  by  a  nund)er  of  citizens  during  the 
day.  Itis  well  known  that  during  the  wholeof  Mon- 
day the  city  was  imder  the  power  and  in  the  con- 
trol of  Ihe  mob.  whose  progress  was  hourly  gather- 
ing strength,  and  that  therefore  at  noon  Messrs. 
Woollen  and  Jliller  offered  to  furnish  a  sufficient 
ninnber  of  men,  with  arms  and  ammunition,  lo  con- 
stitute a  posse  comitatus,  and  suppress  the  riot  if  the 
Sheriff  would  give  the  authority  for  so  doing.  This 
offer  was  declined  by  the  SherifT,  who  signilicanlly 
remarked  that  the  mob  also  had  arms.  All  that  the 
SherilT  of  ISerks  county  did  in  this  fearful  emergency, 
after  wasting  the  whole  day  in  his  office  doing  no- 
thing at  all,  was  lo  issue  his  proclamation,  after  five 
o'chick  in  the  evening,  calling  upon  citizens  to  re- 
main at  home.  In  conclusion  thereof,  or  in  accord- 
dance  with  evidence  presented,  the  inquest  believes 
that  the  Sheriff,  having  neglected  and  refused  lo 
perform  what  was  his  obvious  duty,  is  in  a  measure 
responsible  for  the  events  which  followed. 

From  Heading  the  strike  spread  rapidly  into  the 
mining  regions  of  Pennsylvania.  Attempts  were 
I7iade  by  the  miners  at  Pottsville  and  Shamokin.in  the 
Schuylkill  district,  lo  bring  on  riots  on  the  24th  and 
25th. "but  were  failures.  At  Shamokin  the  rioters  were 
fired  upon  by  t  he  burgess  and  his  posse.and  dispersed. 
The  citizens  gave  an  unswerving  support  to  the  au- 
thorities, and  the  danger  was  averted.  -\t  Mauch 
Chunk  an  etTorl  w;is  nuide  to  indvice  the  firemen  and 
brakemen  on  the  I.ehigh  it  Susquehanna  Railroad  to 
join  in  the  strike,  but  the  majority  of  the  men  refused 
to  leave  their  work.  The  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad 
men  joined  the  strike  on  the  2.ith,  and  there  was  con- 
siderable excitement  at  Bethlehem.  The  trains  were 
stopped,  and  Ihe  engineers  and  firemen  forced  to 
abaiulon  their  loconTotivcs.  On  the  same  day  the 
brakemen  and  firemi'U  on  ihe  eastern  division  of  this 
road,  extendinsr  from  Eastonlo  Mauch  Chunk. struck. 


HIOT. 


718 


EIOT. 


and  blockaded  the  road.  The  Leliigh  Valley  men  at 
Kaston  joined  the  strike  during  tlu'  night,  and  those 
at  Wilkesbarre  took  simihir  action  about  the  same 
time.  This  placed  the  entire  line  of  the  Lehigh  Val- 
ley Railroad  in  the  hands  of  .strikers.  Airfreight 
trains  were  stopped,  and  the  strikers  announced  that 
while  they  would  allow  the  company  to  carry  the 
mails  over  its  line,  no  passenger  trains  would  be  per- 
mitted to  run.  The  railroad  officials  then  gave  or- 
ders to  .stop  all  trains,  and  to  make  no  attempt  to 
carry  the  mails.  Bethlehem  and  Wilkesbarre  were 
the  centers  of  the  trouble.  The  principal  excitement 
vas  at  the  latter  place.  On  the  night  of  the  25th  all 
the  passenger  trains  were  stopped  at  Wilkesbarre, 
but  on  the  morning  of  the  2(ith  some  of  them  were 
permitted  to  depart,  in  order  that  the  men  emploj-ed 
on  them  might  reach  their  homes.  The  strikers  con- 
tinued to  hold  the  road  imtil  the  last  of  July.  Tiie 
company  then  determined  to  run  their  trains"  in  spite 
of  tlie  strikers,  and  on  tlie  31st  succeeded  in  getting 
a  train  through  from  Bethlehem  to  Mauch  Chunk. 
They  announced  to  their  employes  that  their  aban- 
donment of  their  posts  ^ds  virtually  a  withdrawal 
from  the  service  of  the  company, and  that  their  places 
would  be  supplied  with  new  men.  This  was  done  in 
a  great  measure.  Application  was  made  to  the  (to%-- 
ernor  for  assistance,  and  a  force  of  State  militia  and 
r(!gulars  was  ordered  to  protect  the  road.  The  strikers 
declared  their  intention  to  stop  the  trains,  and  on  the 
1st  of  August,  the  day  appointed  for  the  resumption 
of  traffic,  a  large  crowd  assembled  at  the  depot  at 
Wilkesbarre,  resolved  that  no  trains  should  pass  that 
point. 

Scranton,  the  most  important  point  in  the  coal  re- 
gion, was  profoundly  agitated  from  the  tirst  of  the 
troubles.  On  the  afternoon  of  the  24th  the  strike  , 
was  begun  by  the  employes  of  the  Lackawanna  Iron  i 
and  Coal  Company.  As  soon  as  the  gong  sounded  I 
at  noon,  the  men,  to  the  mmiber  of  about  1,500,  - 
stopped  work  and  struck,  and  all  operations  ceased 
in  the  rolling-mills,  foundries  and  steel  works.  The  \ 
strike  was  tirst  declared  in  the  old  rolling-mill,  at  a 
given  signal,  and  the  men  retired  from  the  building, 
leaving  the  red-hot  bars  in  the  rolls,  and  the  tires 
glowing  in  the  furnaces.  They  then  proceeded  in 
procession  to  the  company's  steelworks,  where  work 
was  immediately  suspended,  and  the  employes  join- 
ing the  strikers,  the  entire  party  marched  to  the  foim- 
dries  and  shops,  where  similar  scenes  were  enacted. 
The  men  said  that  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  live 
on  the  wages  the.y  had  been.receiving,  and  on  the  l.'ith 
of  the  mouth  their  jjay  was  cut  down  ten  per  cent. 
more.  A  meeting  was  held  in  the  afternoon,  and  it 
was  resolved  to  demand  a  restoration  of  the  last  ten 
per  cent,  reduction.  On  the  night  of  the  23d,  the 
men  employed  at  the  Meadow  Brook  Mines  in  the 
suburli  of  Scranton,  struck  for  higher  pay,  about  300 
of  them  turning  out.  At  six  o'clock  on  "the  evening 
of  the  24th  the  firemen  in  the  employ  of  the  Dela- 
ware, [^ackawanna  <fc  Western  and  the  Delaware  & 
IIuds(m  Companies  struck  work.  As  soon  as  the 
bell  in  the  round  hou.se  denoted  the  hour  of  six,  the 
men  conveyed  their  engines  into  the  yard,  drew  the 
tires  from  them,  and  left  them  in  good  order.  A 
coal  Iniin  wliicli  left  Scranton  at  five  o'clock  was  re- 
turned, and  placed  side  by  side  with  aliout  twenty 
otluT  trains  laden  with  bhick  diamonds  in  tlie  yard. 
The  firemen  retired  from  tin  ir  work  peaceably,  and 
in  the  course  of  conver.sations  field  with  several  of 
them,  they  declared  that  tliey  would  protect  life  and 
proi)erty  with  their  lives  if  need  be.  Sii])erinlendeiit 
.Maiiville  answered  the  men  in  the  employ  of  tlie  Del- 
aware it  Hudson  Company  in  the  afternoon  to  the 
efTect  that  the  company  would  make  no  concession, 
and  the  firemen  on  that  line  struck  simultaneously 
with  those  on  Die  Delaware,  Lackawanna  A,  West- 
em  road.  The  men  took  all  the  passenger  trains  to 
their  destinations,  and  as  soon  us  they  arrived  at  the 
depot  the  fires  were  drawn  and  the  engines  jylaced  in 
the  yards,      It  was  announced  by  the  railroad  olti- 


cials  that  no  freight,  coal  or  passenger  train  would 
run  until  the  difficulty  was  settled.  The  strike  was 
solely  on  the  part  of  the  firemen,  and  the  engineers, 
conductors  and  brakemen  were  not  concerned  in  it. 
Tlie  eflfect  of  the  strike  on  the  road  was  to  prevent 
all  shipments  of  coal,  and  to  make  the  mines  through- 
out the  Lackawanna  valley  idle. 

In  view  of  the  excitement  prevailing  in  the  city, 
tlie  Mayor  of  Scranton,  on  the  24th,  issued  the  follow- 
ing proclamation: 

In  view  of  the  excitement  throughout  the  country 
occasioned  by  the  labor  troubles  and  the  lamentable 
loss  of  life  and  propertj'  in  our  own  and  other  States, 
it  becomes  the  duty  of  all  good  citizens  to  use  their 
best  efforts  to  preserve  peace  and  uphold  the  law. 
Recognising,  as  ever}'  one  must  the  unfortunate  con- 
dition of  the  business,  and  financial  interests  of  all 
classes  of  the  community,  and  especially  the  hardship 
and  suffering  of  the  laboring  men.  we  must  3et  unite 
in  maintaining  to  the  fullest  extent  the  majesty  of  the 
I  law  and  tlie  protection  of  life  and  propert}-.  I  there- 
fore earnestly  tirge  all  good  citizens,  and  especially 
the  workingmeu  themselves,  to  abstain  from  all  ex- 
,  cited  discussion  of  thepromiuent  question  of  the  day. 
Tlie  laboring  men  of  our  city  are  vitally  interested 
]  in  the  preservation  of  peace  and  good  order  and  the 
'  prevention  of  any  possible  destruction  of  property.  I 
trust  the  leading  men  among  the  workingmen  fully 
'  realize  that  the  interests  of  the  whole  cit}-  are  their 
interests,  and  that  any  riot  or  destruction  of  life  or 
property  can  work  only  injury  to  all  classes  and  to  the 
good  name  of  our  city.  Every  taxpayer  will  realize 
that  any  destruction  of  property  will  have  to  be  paid 
for  by  the  cit}',  and  would  by  so  much  increase  the 
burden  of  taxation.  In  one  day  Pittsburgh  has  put 
upon  herself  a  load  tliat  her  taxpayers  will  struggle 
under  for  years.  In  conclusion,  I  again  earnestlj"  urge 
upon  men  of  all  classes  in  our  city  the  necessity  of 
sober,  careful  thought  and  the  criminal  folly  of  any 
precipitate  action. 

The  excitement  continued  to  increase,  and,  on  the 
2.'5th  thousands  of  miners  flocked  into  Scranton, 
swelling  the  crowds  about  the  depot,  and  adding  to 
the  danger.  The  strikers  declared  that  they  would 
allow  the  mails  to  pass  immolested.but  would  suffer 
no  passenger  cars  to  go  through.  The  excitement  in- 
creased to  fever  heat  when  tlie  moriiiug  mail  train 
from  Binghampton,  for  New  York,  arrived  at  9.50. 
The  strikers  were  indignant  to  find  that  an  express 
car  and  three  passenger  coaches  were  attached,  to- 
gether with  the  mail  car.  Exciting  demonstrations 
were  made  at  the  various  stations  along  the  line,  and 
at  Great  Beud.forty  miles  north  of  Scranton. a  crowd 
of  five  hundred  sought  to  detach  the  passenger  cars, 
but  were  deterred  by  the  engineers.  On  arriving  at 
the  suburbs  ot  Scranton,  the  train  was  boarded  Ijj-  a 
number  of  the  strikers,  who,  as  soon  as  it  reached 
within  a  few  yards  of  the  depot,  cut  otT  the  passen- 
ger and  express  cars, and  permitted  the  mail  to  pass 
At  the  depot  an  excited  crowd  boarded  the  train, and 
the  postmaster  was  about  to  put  on  the  mails  when 
informed  by  the  railroad  officials  that  the  train  would 
go  no  further  unless  the  passenger  cars  were  allow- 
ed to  run.  This  decision  caused  much  indignation 
among  the  strikers,  and  several  uttered  loud  threats 
of  seizing  the  engine  and  running  the  mail  to  New 
York. but  wiser  counsels  prevailed, and  a  meeting  was 
forthwith  held  on  the  platform,  when  it  was  resolv- 
ed to  t<'legrapb  the  Governor  and  I'ostmaster-Gen- 
eral,  ajiprising  them  of  the  state  of  affairs,  and  dis- 
claiming all  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  men  for 
the  detention  of  the  mails,  wliich  were  carried  back 
to  the  post-office.  The  reply  was  awaited  with  anx- 
iety, and  the  telegraph  office  and  deixit  were  crowd 
eil  till  noon,  when  a  Hag  was  Hung  from  a  window 
of  the  lieu(iquart<'rs  of  the  strikers.  It  was  a  call  for 
a  meeting,  and  there  was  a  rush  for  the  liallatonce, 
none  but  firemen  and  brakemen  being  admitted.  A 
despatch  from  llu'  Governor  wag  read  amid  cheers, 
stating  that  he  had  instructed  tfie  Superintendent  to 


RIOT 


710 


RIOT 


allow  IIk'  mails  to  run  llir(iiii;li.  The  men  fliiii  prc- 
purcd  a  slalitinciil  fnr  pwblicalion  in  the  local  papers, 
Rctlili;^  forlli  their  j^rievuiices  and  the  eausefor  Iheir 
l)r('S(iit  action.  'I'hcy  also  ailopled  a  petition,  askin;; 
the  saloon-keepers  to  close  their  places  of  husinesH. 
On  the  same  day  the  l)rakeincn  joined  thelln'inen  in 
the  sirike.  Thi'  exeilcnient  was  increased  (lMrini;lhc 
day  hy  'he  aclion  <il'  Ihi-  miners,  who  represi'nle<l  no 
loss  than  forty  Ihonsanil  men  in  tli('  S<ranlon  dis- 
trict, asking  an  increase  of  twenty-live  per  ciMit.  on 
their  wages.  A  committee  of  six  waited  on  the  (Jen- 
cral  Coal  Sii])erintenilent,  and  presented  a  Hcries  of 
resolutions,  selliiii;  forth  the  fact  thai  the  men  had 
endured  repealed  reductions  until  llieir  waL'Cs  had 
reacheil  a  starvaliou  shnid.'ird.  and  that  Ihry  ilid  nol 
]iro|)ose  to  endur<'  il  .'Uiy  longer.  'I'liey  furllier  staled 
that  if  the  men  on  the  railroail  relurniMl  to  work.  I  hey 
would  hold  out  until  such  lime  as  Iheir  wages  were 
advanced.  The  Superinlendi-iil  infornu-d  Ihem  that 
he  would  forward  Iheir  pelilion  lo  the  company, and 
would  have  an  answer  for  Ihem  on  Friday.  The  men 
then  called  a  mass-nu'cting  in  the  woods,  in  the  suh- 
tirhs,  for  the  aflernoon  of  the  :2<ith. 

The  sirike  of  !hi'  miners  inlroduccd  a  new  and 
dangerous  element  into  the  trouhles.  The  miners, 
not  satisfied  with  quitting  work,  refused  to  allow 
the  pumps  of  the  mines  to  be  worked.  The  men 
who  allempled  lo  run  the  pumps,  the  work  of  which 
was  neeessiiry  to  keep  the  mines  from  flooding. 
were  driven  away  l)y  the  strikers,  and  Ihi'  engines 
were  "shut  down."  The  water  was  thus  allowed 
to  gain  steadily  ui>on  the  mines.  Hooding  Ihem.  and 
injuring  them  lo  I  he  extent  of  many  thousand  dol- 
lars. This  wilfid  destruction  of  the  |)roperly  of  Iheir 
employers  by  the  miners  was  simply  suicidal.  A  des- 
patch from  Scranlon.  on  the  2!llh  of  .July,  thus  sum- 
ine(!  up  the  slali-  of  affairs  :  "The  entire  F-;ickawan- 
lia  region  is  iille.  Week  before  last  this  region  sent 
ncarlv  loO.ODO  tons  of  coal  to  market,  [..-isl  week  il 
dill  not  senil  a  liihe  of  thai  (|uanlily,  and  ne.\l  w<<k 
it  will  nol  send  any.  The  nuners  of  the  Delaware 
&  Iludsun  Canal  Company  (|uit  work  yesterdaj- 
inorning,  and  those  of  the  I'ennsylvania  Coal  Com- 
piiiiy  are  in  enforced  idleiu'ss  on  account  of  the  dr>s- 
truelion  of  a  head-house  and  bridge  on  Iheir  gravity 
railroad.  The  head-house,  which  was  situated  in 
the  woods  east  of  this  city,  was  burned  down  .■it 
three  o'clock  this  morningby  a  mob  which  surprised 
the  wali-hman.  and  lied  him  with  ro]>es  to  a  neigh- 
boring tree.  They  saturaled  the  wood-work  of  the 
head-house,  and  then  set  il  olT  with  a  match.  Il 
made  a  fierce  blaze,  which  wns  plainly  visible  here. 
Destruction  of  the  head-house  cau.ses  a  eouii>lete 
stoppage  from  Ilawley  to  Pittstou.  It  wa:i  not  the 
work  of  the  company's  employes,  but  of  outside 
persons,  who  look  that  mode  of  forcing  the  strike 
upon  them.  The  Heimsylvaniii  Coal  Company  have 
recently  been  working  on  full  time  at  Iheir  mines, 
and  the  best  of  feeling  exists  between  themselves 
and  their  workmen.  The  laltcrare  indignant  al  the 
dastardly  act,  and  the  prospects  are  that  the  burned 
property  will  nol  be  replaced  until  the  dispute  be- 
tween labor  and  capital  is  Mindly  sellled. 

The  walchnuin  who  was  driven  from  the  head- 
house  stales  I  hat  the  place  was  .set  on  fire  by  no  few- 
er than  a  hundred  men,  who  danced  about  the  blaze 
like  demons,  and  shouted  in  fiendish  exultation  while 
the  work  of  destruction  was  going  on.  Superintend- 
ent Smith  states  that  the  act  will  make  the  compa- 
ny's nnnes  idle  for  an  indefinite  period.  They  were 
working  on  full  time,  and  shipiiing  liO.OOD  tons  a 
week.  The  men  in  the  company's  employ  had  made 
no  demand  for  an  increase  of  wages,  and  the  burning 
of  the  head-house  is  the  work  of  outsiders,  who  want- 
ed to  force  them  into  a  strike.  Xol  a  mine  in  the 
valley  is  at  work,  and  the  most  of  them  are  tilling 
fa.sl  with  water.  An  idea  of  the  importance  of  flood- 
ing a  mine  can  be  oblaini'd  from  the  fact  that  in  ISfi.'i 
the  Diamond  Colliery  was  idle  three  days  for  the  re- 
pair of  its  macirmery,  and  it  took  eight  months,  and 


cost  ■'j'HO.OOO,  to  ])iunp  out  Ihi' water  thai  accumulat- 
ed iti  thai  timi'.  The  .Mayor  and  company's  olllciulx 
will  make  antfTort  l«-tnorrowto  set  the  mine  pumiw 
to  work.  The  sit  nation  here  is  ubHolutely  painful, 
and  there  is  no  knowing  what  moment  un  outbreak 
will  occur. 

The  .'\Iayf)r  was  very  active  in  his  cfTorls  lo  brin^ 
about  an  ailjuslment  of  tlir'  troubles,  and  succeeded 
al  length  in  inducing  the  miners  in  llie  neighborliood 
of  Scranlon  lo  allow  tin^  pumps  to  be  run  by  t)i(r 
bosses,  clerks,  and  civil  I'ngineers  in  the  employ  of 
the  coal  (companies.  This  coni-ession  gav<r  great  of- 
fense to  the  strikers  in  the  lower  pari  of  the  (county, 
and  delegations  were  sent  to  Hie  Scranlon  ininerH  lo 
|)Ul  a  stop  lo  Ihe  practise.  Klforls  were  made  to  Ket- 
tle the  sirike  on  the  Delaware.  Lackawanna  iV  W'enl- 
ern  ISailroad.  and  with  success.  On  the  :iOtli  of  .July 
Ihe  mi-n  gave  up  the  struggle,  and  returned  lo  work 
at  the  old  wages.  ThisKurrendi-r  was  brought  about 
by  the  action  of  the  .Mayor,  who  sent  for  llie  execu- 
tive comuultee,  whom  he  informed  that  travel  would 
have  to  l)e  resumed  over  the  road  Ihe  next  morning, 
even  if  the  presence  of  tlu'  troo])s  were  necessary  to 
such  a  result.  Aciordingly  Ihe  men  called  a  meet- 
ing at  one  o'clock,  when  a  decision  was  had  in  favor 
of  returning  lo  work  by  a  vot<'  of  H'i  to  0.  Tlie  com- 
mittee then  proceeded  to  inform  the  Superintindent 
of  the  decision  arriviil  al.  the  only  terms  askeil  Ixing 
that  no  one  taking  an  active  pari  in  the  sirike  should 
be  proseculed.  This  heconsenled  to.  and  in  half  an 
hour  later  a  passenger  train  started  from  this  cily  for 
Northumberland.  Il  was  greeted  l)y  c;-owdsat  every 
station  along  Ihe  line,  but  no  demonslralions  were 
made.  A  despatch  was  forwarded  lo  liinghampton 
to  start  No.  4  train  from  there  to  New  York,  and  il 
passed  through  Scranlon  uninlerru|ited  al  six  o'clock. 
Passenger  and  freight  trallic  was  now  fairly  estab- 
lished all  along  the  line,  and  Ihe  bubble  of  the  Dela- 
ware. [>ackawanna  iV  Western  Hailroad  strike  had 
burst.  The  railroad  men  were  bitterly  denounced 
for  their  surrender  by  Ihe  miners,  whe  numbered  be- 
tween 20.000  and  HO.OOO  men  in  the  Lackawanna 
valley.  The  miners  avowed  their  intetlion  to  con- 
tinue the  strike  until  Iheir  terms  were  accepted  by 
fhe  coal  companies.  They  became  more  and  more 
turbidenl  every  day,  and  it  at  last  became  evident 
lo  theJIayor  of  Siranton  that  Ihe  presence  of  troops 
al  that  city  was  necessary.  The  Governor  wag  in- 
formed of  the  stale  of  affairs,  and  decided  lo  go  lo 
the  assistance  of  Scranlon  with  a  force  of  Slate  mili- 
tia and  regulars. 

S<ranton  ccjnfinued  to  be  troubled  with  the  excite- 
ment arising  from  the  miners'  riot.  In  spite  of  the 
powerful  proledion  alfordcil  by  the  troops,  the  w  ork- 
men  returned  lo  Iheir  duties  in  the  various  indust- 
rial estalilishmenis  slowly,  lieing  rendered  afraid  lo 
go  to  work  by  the  threats  of  the  miners  who  still  re- 
mained idle. '  A  letter  from  Scranlon.  written  Aug- 
ust 7th.  said  :  The  miners  of  this  region  manifest  a 
most  determined  attitude,  and  from  present  pros- 
pects, it  is  safe  to  say.  will  prolong  the  strike  in  tlie 
Lackawanna  and  Wyoming  valleys  for  six  months, 
if  no  selllemeni  is  made.  An  important  meeting  of 
delegates  from  every  mine  in  Luzeriu-  (Vainly  willbe 
held  here  to-morrow  to  ajipoint  a  general  Executive 
Committee,  and  adopt  a  programme  for  Ihe  purpos*- 
of  securing  perfect  unity  of  action,  -so  that  the  men 
at  all  tlie  mines  will  resume  work  simultaneou.sly 
whenever  the  time  for  resumption  has  come.  A 
mammoth  store  was  opened  here  to-day  liy  the  Jlin- 
cr's  E.xecutive  Committee  to  relieve  the  immediate 
necessitiesof  their  number  who  are  in  distress,  and  it 
was  speedily  filled  with  provisions.  Busine.«s  men 
placed  a  dozen  teamsat  their  disposal,  free  of  charge, 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  and  distributing  sup- 
plies, and  the  scene  about  the  store  was  animated  in 
the  extreme.  Farmers  in  the  surroimding  countrj' 
have  made  them  donations  of  potato  patches,  and 
many  of  the  miners  have  gone  oft  in  irangs  to  do  work 
in  the  country  and  receive  pay  in  provisions. 


RIOT. 


720 


HIOT. 


The  disaffection  in  the  coal  regions  continued  to 
increase,  and  assumed  its  most  formidable  propor- 
tions after  tlie  railroad  troubles  liad  beeu  satisfacto- 
rily adjusted.  By  the  middle  of  August  nearly  all 
the  mines  in  tlie  Lehigh,  Schuylkill,  Lackawanua, 
and  other  mining  districts  were  idle,  and  more  than 
sixty  thousand  men  were  out  of  work.  The  miners 
presented  a  general  grievance,  declaring  that  their 
wages  were  too  low  to  enable  them  to  live,  and  de- 
manded an  increase  of  from  ten  to  twenty  per  cent. 
Though  there  were  man)'  isolated  acts  of  violence 
committed  in  the  coal  regions,  there  was  no  general 
outbreak. 

The  New  York  Division  of  the  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road, the  Central  Railroad  of  New  Jersey,  the  Erie 
Railroad,  the  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad,  and  the  Jlorris 
and  Essex   Division  of  the  Delaware,  Lackawanua 
and  Western  Railroad,  terminate  at     Jersey   City 
and  Hoboken.  opposite  New  York.      As  the  strike 
had  affected  all  these  roails  to  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree, it  was  feared  that  it  would  break  out  in  Jer.scy 
City.      Tha   tplace   contains  a  large  popvdatiou  of 
railroad  men.  and  a  much  larger  number  of  persons 
in  the  lowest  walks  of  life  who  are  always  ripe  for 
an  outbreak.     Lying  just  across  the  river  from  New 
York,  a  mob  in  Jersey  City  would  be  rapidly  rein- 
forced by  tlie  dangerous  element  of  the  metropolis. 
Tlie  authorities  were  resolved  to  lie  ready  for  tlie 
danger  if  it  should  come,  and  to  meet  it  promptly  and 
tirmly.     The  strike  on  the  western  lines  and  the  out- 
break in  Pittsburgh  produced  great  uneasiness  and 
e.xcitemeut  on  tlie  New  Jersey  roads,  and  the  Go- 
vernor was  iuformed  by  many  of  the  railroad  officials 
that  it  might  be  necessary  for  them  to  ask  the  pro- 
tection of  the  State  for  their  property.     The  officers 
of  the  Pennsylvania  road  were  especially  apiirehen- 
sive,  as  the  trouble  on  their  main  line  had  beeu  so 
great.     Trouble  fi'om  employes  was  not  dreaded  so 
muclias  from  the  turbulent  populace.     An  intlux  of 
ruffians  from  New  York  was  feared,  and  the  char- 
acter of  such  reinforcements  to  the  mob  justified  the 
gravest  apprehensions.       During  the   night  of  the 
23d,  and  the  small  lionrs  of  JMimday  morning,  the 
Governor  was  in  receipt  of  des])atches  from  various 
pomts  along  the  company's  line,  indicating  approach- 
ing trouble  at   Trenton   or  Newark.      These  were 
afterwards  learned  to  be  premature,  but  they  induced 
the  Governor  to  issue  orders  to  the  various  military 
commands  of  the  State  to  assemble  at  their  armories 
ready  for  service.     By  daylight  the  4th  Regiment 
liad  gathered,  fully  equipped,  at  their  armory,  ad- 
joining the  Cit3'  llall.  Newark  Avenue.  Jersey  City, 
and   iu  halls  close  bv.     The  7th.  :i00   men,  was  at 
Trenton  ;  the  9th,  3o0  men,  at  Iloboken.     The  1st 
and   5th   of  Newark,    800  men,   were   at  Newark. 
Forty  rounds  of  ammunition  were  supplied  to  each 
man.     General  Jlott,  in  charge  of  the  brigade,  had 
his  headquarters  at  Trenton,  and  was   iu  constant 
cominunicafion  with  Jersey  City.      When  morning 
had  fully  come,  it  was  fell  ilial  alllmugh   Ihe  militia 
had  iicissibly  beeu  called  out  rather  hastily,  yel  il  was 
not   to    be    regretted.       Jersey  City's    element   of 
"  roughs"  seemed  to  have  increased  during  the  night. 
The  men,  who  had  come  from  unknown  quarters, 
lounged  near  saloons  aud  talked   constantly  about 
tli(^  sirike.     No  threat  was  made,  but  cili/.ens  gener- 
ally grew  uneasy  as  the  day  advanced. 

Tlie  lirst  shadow  of  actual  trouble  was  at  nine 
o'clock,  when  one  of  Ihe  employes  called  u|)ou  the 
Siiperintendeiit,  aud  said  he  was  authorized  lo  in- 
form him  thai  the  liremeu  would  strike  about  noon. 
The  Superiulendeut  expressed  a  wish  that  a  com- 
mittee of  the  men  should  wait  ujiou  him,  anil  acom- 
miltee  of  six  did  so.  He  argued  wilh  them  that 
enough  li.ad  already  occurred  to  setlle  whalever  ques- 
tions had  causi'd  thi'  sirike.  anil  Ilia!  any  furlhcr 
action  of  employe's  was  not  needed  iu  that  direi'liou. 
If  they  left  their  (engines,  Ihe  mob  in  New  Yin'k  and 
Jersey  City  would  avail  Ihemselves  of  Ihe  op])or- 
tunity  lo  enact  here  the  terrible  scenes  of  Pillsburgh 


and  Baltimore;    for  all  of  wliich   they  would  be 
primarily  responsible.     His  talk  had  great  influence. 
The  men  resolved  not  to  strike,  but  lo  coulinue  work 
unless  assailed  by  the  populace.     A  meeting  that 
had  been  called  for  eleven  o'clock  was  not  held,  and 
the   Superintendent,    congratulating    himself  upon 
having   such  sensible  men.  felt  assured  that  if  he 
could  prevent  any  demonstration  from  outsiders,  lie 
had  attaiued  his  end.     Towards  noon  and  later  the 
arrival  of  regular  troops  on  their  way  to  Philadel- 
phia became   known.     A  battery  of"light  artillery 
with  four  tield-pieces  arrived  from  Fort  Hamilton 
and  passed  down  the  freight-yard  to  be  loaded  upon 
the  flats.     This  display  made  the  loungers  on  the 
corners  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  yards  imagine  that 
precautionary   measures  on  a  gigantic  scale   were 
taking  place.     They  began  to  feel  their  unimport- 
ance aud  grew  more  excited.     There  were  perhaps 
700  or  800  of  these  unpleasant  persons  at  different 
railway  crossings  and  at  open  places.     The  liquor, 
that  the  times  are  never  hard  enough  to  prevent  them 
from  obtaining,  began  to  take  effect,  and  they  cursed 
the  troops  right  bravely.     Aud  then  they  retired  to 
the  saloons  for  reinforcements.     It  had  "been  the  in- 
tention of  the  Chief  of  Police  to  close  the  rum-shops, 
but  the  order  did  not  ajipear  to  be  put  into  effect. 
About  four  p.  M.  everybody  was  very  nervous,  not 
excepting   the   authorities  at  police  head-quarters. 
There  they  fell  to  work   drafting  a  proclamation. 
While  that  literary  business  was  in  progress,  the 
light  artillery  was"  made  ready  to  start      They  oc- 
cupied four  flats  with  their  guns,  five  cattle-cars  with 
the  necessary  number  of  horses,  and  two  or  three 
passenger  coaches  with  the  men.      To  these   cars 
were  added  another  coach,  and  a  baggage  car  con- 
tained forty-seven  of  the  regular  troops  that  liad  ar- 
rived between  one  and  two  from  New  London,  Con- 
necticut.    They  landed  at  the  Adams  Express  dock, 
which  is  retired  and  not  withiii  the  ken  of  persons  in 
the  freiglit-yard.     The  engine  that  was  to  take  the 
train  stood  iu  the  .yard,  and  some  rough  men  gatli- 
ered  around  threatening  to  shoot  the  engineer  and 
conductors  if  they  moved  the  train  of  troops.     These 
officials  naturally  were  frightened,  and  when  it  be- 
came generally  known  that  threats  had  been  made, 
all  sorts  of  fears  were  expressed.   A  posse  of  seventy- 
live  police  were  immediately  brought  out,  and  they 
pushed  from  the  track  a  crowd,  possibly  of  1,500 
men  and  boys.     The  men  who  had  threatened  the 
engineer  disappeared.     The  train  of  troops  was  fin- 
ally ready,  and  the  Superiutenilent  said  it  should  go. 
The   engineer   still   hesitated.      No   other  engineer 
would  consent  to  take  his  place.     The  others  said 
they  were  not  calleil  upon  lo  do  any  man's  work  ex- 
cept their  own.     At  length  the  engineer  consente<l 
to  take  charge  of  his  engine  if  the  Superintendent 
would  accompany  him.      The  Superintendent  did 
not  hesitate  a  moment.     The  Millstone  way  passen- 
ger train  was  also  just  ready  to  start.     Two  tracks 
were  cleared,  and  wilh  this  passenger  train  between 
it  and  the  mob,  the  military  train  left  the  station. 
The  engineer  was  iu  his  place.     The  two  trains  mov- 
ed slowly  down  the  track,  side  by  side,  faster  and 
faster.   Finally,  while  everyone  was  expectiug  trou- 
ble, the  military  train  shot  quickly  ahead,  and  the 
danger  was  over.    The  Superintendent  came  back  to 
his  post  and  arranged  for  llie  further  transpcirlatioii 
of  troops.     At  six  o'clock  tweuly-seveu  sailors  from 
the   United  States  steamer  Colorado  embarked  for 
the  Navy  Yard  at  Philadelphia.    They  .started  on  an 
hour  and  a  half's  notice.     Their  de])arlure  excited 
no  demonstration.     More  troops  arrived  at  lialf-past 
six  from  Newjiorl.    They  comprised  leu  officers  and 
147  men  of  Batteries  Iv,  B,  E,  and  F.     Tliey  tilled 
four  coaches,  and  started   at  half  past  eight  with  a 
l)r(>lecliou   train   on   their  exposed   side.     The  train 
accomiiaiiied  them  only  a  short  distance.     At  nine 
o'clock  three  batteries  from  Boston,  uumberingabout 
as  many  nieii  as  the  Newiiort   detaehmeul,  arrived 
anil  ilciiarled  willioul  the  least  disturbance.     At  six 


BIOT. 


aioT. 


o'clock  in  tlip  afternoon  llic  Governor  inHiicd  the  fol. 

lowing  proclanmlion  :  To  tlio  jicoplr  of  the  Sliilf:  of 
New  .Iii'icy  :  III  I  In'  pifMcul  stale  of  llie  iiiililic  iiiinil 
I  warn  all  citizens  to  keep  at  lliiir  lioiiiesanil  plares 
of  liiisiiiess,  avoiiliii^  all  t;atlii'rinL's  in  llie  sireel,  ho 
as  to  jj^'iw  no  eiieourimeiiieiil  liy  their  presence  to 
evil-ilisposerl  persons.  Let  every  ^ood  citizen  now. 
by  word,  act  and  sentiment,  aiil  tli(^  iiiilliorilies  in 
securinj;  perfect  peace.  SlieriIVs  iinil  olllcirs  of  cities 
arc  particularly  riMiuested  to  exert  all  their  powers 
in  a  calm,  judicious,  hut  elTccliial  way  to  protect 
life  and  jiroperly  from  all  lawli'ssness,"aiid  therehy 
Have  the  counties  and  cities  from  any  lialiility  under 
the  staliile  for  destruclion  of  properly  liv  mojis.  'I'he 
v.'holc  power  of  the  Stale  will  he  used  for  tin-  main- 
tenance of  the  laws.  I  caution  ('very  person  dispos- 
ed to  distub  the  ponce  to  desist  at  on<e,  and  thereby 
prevent  any  necessity  for  the  use  of  the  State  force, 
(xivcn  under  my  hanil,at  tlii^  City  of  Trenton, on  this 
2:td  day  of  .Inly,  a.  d.  IH77. 

Meanwhile  all  schedule  trains  had  started  on  time, 
with  many  throuich  piis.sengers.  The  incomiiiLT  trains 
were  somewhat  late, liavini;  been  ditained  at  I'hiladel- 
pliia.  All  evening  trains  were  Hhifted  and  shunted 
in  the  company's  yards,  the  police  keeping  np  their 
line  from  the  station  to  Hailroail  Avenue.  About  nine 
o'clock  some  freight  cars  and  way  pa.sseiiger  trains 
were  stoned  while  passing  through  thehi'avy  cut.  two 
miles  from  the  station.  A  s(piad  of  police  went  out 
to  the  gap,  and  remained  on  guard  until  relieved  by 
militia.  Detachments  of  State  troops  were  brought 
from  Trent  on  during  the  afternoon,  and  posted  at  the 
bridge  over  the  Haritan,  at  New  nruiiswick,  and  the 
bridge  over  the  Hackensack,  between  Newark  and 
Jersey  City.  These  important  bridges  werestronglv 
guarded  throughout  the  period  of  the  disturbance. 
During  Ihenigiit  the  shops  of  the  I'ennsylvania  Kail- 
road  in  the  Hackensack  meadows  were  guarded  by 
fifty  inen.  Tlie  ne.vt  day  this  guard  was  relieved  by 
the  ."ith  Veteran  Regiment  of  Newark.  At  Newark. 
New  Brunswick  ami  Trenton  there  was  considerable 
excitement,  but  no  effort  was  nuide  to  bring  on  a 
strike.  The  passenger  trains  were  run  as  usual,  and 
the  freight  trains,  wliicli  wen'  discontinued  in  con- 
sequence of  the  troubles  at  l'hiladil|ihia,  and  other 
points  on  the  main  liiu'  of  the  road,  were  resumed 
as  sonii  as  the  route  beyond  I'hiladelphia  was  clear. 
I5y  tli<^  night  of  the  ■24tli,  the  danger  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania road  was  over;  there  had  been  no  strike  of  the 
employi5s,  and  the  mob  had  found  the  civil  anil  mili- 
tary forces  so  strong  that  they  wisely  decided  not  to 
attempt  an  oiithn'ak.  On  the  evening  of  the  '2Mli. 
the  liremeii  and  lirakemen  of  the  .Morris  ifc  Essex  di- 
vision of  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  it  Western 
Railroad  joined  the  strike,  which,  as  we  have  re- 
lated elsewhere,  had  already  begun  on  the  main  line 
of  this  road  in  Pennsylvania.  The  men  were  ipiiet 
and  orderly,  and  attempted  no  violence.  There  was 
not  n\uch  life  in  the  strike,  and  on  the  ITtli  the  men 
a'  the  eastern  end  of  the  line  agreed  to  resume  work 
at  their  former  wages,  trusting  to  the  company  to  in- 
crease their  pay  as  the  times  improved.  This  offer 
was  accejited.  and  the  strike  tinally  came  to  an  end. 
The  trainmen  of  this  road  at  Philiipsburg,  opposite 
Kaslon,  I'ennsylvania.  did  not  unit(:  in  1his  settle- 
ment until  some  days  later.  The  next  road  to  join 
in  the  strike  was  the  New  Jersey  Central.  The  train- 
men on  this  road  struck  on  the  '..'."ith.and  stopped  the 
running  of  the  freight  trains.  The  principal  (iisturb- 
ance  was  at  Philii])sbiirg.  opposite  Easton.  The 
New  Jersey  Central  men  there  innted  with  the  em- 
ployes of  the  Jforris  &  E.s.scx  road,  and  with  them 
put  a  slop  to  the  business  of  both  roads.  On  both 
roads  the  strikers  refused  to  allow  the  running  of 
passenger  trains.  They  staled  that  the  mails  might 
be  carrieil  <iver  the  lines  in  the  postal  cars,  but  no  | 
other  cars  should  be  run.  The  authorities  of  both 
roads  thereupon  refused  to  send  out  any  trains  until 
their  roads  were  freed  from  the  interference  of  the 
rioters.     Tlunish  all  the  strikers  refrained  from  anv 


further  violence  than  tlic  Hto|)ping  of  the  trainM,  and 
announced  their  intention  of  protecting  tin-  prop, 
erty  of  their  roads,  it  was  nneertain  how  long  thin 
slate  of  allairs  would  coniiniie,  ami  was  of  the  lii'.'li- 
est  importance  thai  the  railroad  blockade  should  bi; 
ended  at  the  earliest  practicabli-  moment.  Accord- 
iiigly  a  strong  force  of  troops,  under  IJrigadii-r  (>en- 
eral  Sewell,  was  sent  to  Pliillipsbiirg.  This  force 
consisted  of  the  1st.  .'itii.  (ilh,  and  "tli  Ni-w  Jersey 
Regiments  and  the  Iloboken  Biilti-rv.  The  troops 
reaihed  Phillipsburir  on  the  'iHlli  of.fuly,  unrlat  once 
look  possession  of  the  railroad  propirly  there.  A 
feeble  effort  was  made  to  privent  tlii'  railroad  olll- 
cials  from  resuming  the  running  of  the  trains,  but 
was  promptly  put  down.  The  prr-si'iice  of  the  troops, 
and  tli<!  tietermined  attitude  of  the  aiilliorities  con- 
vinced the  strikers  that  their  efforts  at  resistance  to 
the  laws  W(Mild  be  in  vain.  On  the  night  of  the  2>lth 
till'  .Morris  &,  Essex  men  ceased  their  interference 
with  their  road,  and  early  the  next  week  returned  to 
work.  The  strikirs  on  the  eastern  emi  of  the  .New 
Jersi-y  Central  Railroad  returned  to  diily  about  the 
2Hih  "of  July.  They  had  little  sympathy  with  the 
outbreak  at  Phillipsbnrg.  Heing  thus  i.solaled.  and 
overawed  by  the  military,  the  strikers  at  Phillip.H- 
burg  returned  to  duty  about  the  1st  of  August.  'I  he 
troops  were  kept  on  duty  for  some  days  longer  as  u 
matter  of  precaution,  but  no  further  trouble  was  ex- 
perienced in  New  Jersey. 

Th('  excitement  spread  rapidly  westward,  and  fol- 
lowing the  line  of  the  Haltimore  ifc  (Jliio  Railroad, 
soon  reached  the  State  of  Ohio.  At  Newark,  about 
thirty  miles  from  C'ohnnbus,  the  Baltimore  <S:  Ohio 
Railroad  crosses  the  Pittsburgh.  Cincinnati  ic  St. 
Louis,  or,  as  it  is  more  connnonly  called,  the  Pan 
Handle  Railroad.  Newark  is  a  city  of  considerable 
im|iortanee,  and  one  of  the  )irincipal  railroad  centers 
of  the  State.  On  the  IHth  of  July  the  brakemen  and 
liremen  of  the  Hallimore  &  Ohio  Railroail  at  Newark 
struck  work,  and  refused  to  allow  the  freight  trains 
of  the  road  to  pass  the  point.  All  arriving  trains 
were  stopped,  the  engines  uncoupled  from  the  cars, 
the  tires  put  out,  and  the  engineers  and  firemen  forc- 
ed to  abandon  their  posts.  The  strikers  were  quiet 
and  orderly  at  first. the  only  violence  being  the  throw, 
ing  of  a  man  from  a  camel-back  engine  for  attempt- 
ing to  start  the  fires.  The  Sheriff  of  Licking  county 
repaired  to  the  depot,  and,  after  reading  the  Riot  Act, 
ordered  the  strikers  to  disperse.  They  refused  to 
comply  with  his  demand,  and  he  reported  the  dis- 
turbance to  the  Governor  of  Ohio,  and  asked  for  a 
militarj-  force  to  enable  him  to  preserve  order.  The 
(Jovernor  directed  a  regiment  to  repair  to  Newark 
to  assist  the  ShcrilT,  and  issued  a  proclamation  com- 
mandins  the  strikers  to  desist  from  personal  intim- 
idation and  interference  with  property.  The  troops 
reached  Newark  during  the  night  of  the  21st,  and  by 
the  next  morning  were  on  duty  at  the  railway  depot 
and  yards.  The  militia  soon  made  it  evident  lliat 
they  were  in  sympathy  with  the  railroad  strikers,  so 
that  it  was  by' no  means  certain  that  they  could  be 
depended  ujion  in  ease  of  emergency.  The  men  of 
the  Pan  Handle  road  now  joined  inllie  strike,  that 
road  having  become  involved  at  Pittsburgh  and  at 
its  western  end;  and  during  the  22d  a  large  number 
of  them  reached  Newark  from  Dennison.  The  min- 
ersfrom  the  coal  and  iron  regions  near  Newark  were 
in  active  sympathy  with  the  strikers,  and  assured 
them  of  assistance  whenever  called  upon.  For  the 
time  the  strikers  attempted  no  violence  at  Newark, but 
contented  themselves  with  blockading  the  railroads. 
A  Committee  was  sent  by  the  N<'w;irk  strikers  to 
Cohnnbus.  to  induce  the  railroad  men  at  that  point 
to  join  in  tlie  strike.  Meetings  of  the  brakemen  and 
firemen  of  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  Pan  Handle 
roads  were  held  on  the  night  of  the  22d  at  Colum- 
bus, and  resolutions  were  adopted  demanding  a  re- 
storation of  the  old  rates  of  pay.  The  strikers  at 
once  left  their  work  to  await  the  answers  of  their 
respective  companies.  Their  demands  were  refused, 


RIOT. 


722 


RIOT. 


and  on  the  morning  of  the  23d  a  meeting  was  held 
at  tlie  Union  depot  for  the  purpose  of  enforcing  the 
strike  A  large  gang  of  men  gathered  ahoiit  tlie  de- 
pot and  yiirds  early  in  tlie  day,  but  it  was  observed 
that  but  few  railroad  men  were  among  the  crowd. 
The  main  body  was  made  up  of  idlers. curiosit\'  seek- 
ers, and  a  set  of  roughs  and  non-railroaders,  who 
seemed  to  have  suddenly  come  to  tlie  front.  From 
the  depot  tlie  mob  hastened  into  tlie  city,  resolved 
to  force  the  eniplo3es  in  the  private  establisliments  of 
Columbus  to  quit  work.  The  rioters  numbered  be- 
tween two  liuudred  and  three  hundred  men.  The 
first  place  visited  was  a  rolling-mill  on  the  banks  of 
the  (jlentangy.  The  employes  were  ordered  to  cease 
work.  As  there  was  a  general  disposition  among  the 
mill  men  to  join  tlie  strikers,  they  easil_y  obtained  a 
promise  that  the  mill  would  shut  down  as  soon  as 
the  heat  on  hand  w-as  tinished.whicli  was  done.  The 
mob  then  went  to  the  Sniitli  Pipe  Works,  farther 
north,  and  commanded  an  immediate  suspension. 
Some  were  in  favor  even  of  letting  the  metal  in  heat- 
ing out  of  the  cupola.  There  was  a  charge  of  five 
tons  nearly  read}'  to  pour  out,  and  had  the  tlireat 
been  carried  out,  the  hot  metal  would  liave  tired  tlie 
building  and  destroj-ed  tlie  fine  property.  Tiie  Super- 
intendent sensible'  told  the  mob  he  would  shut  down 
as  soon  as  the  heat  was  off.  Tlie  crowd  then  left. 
Before  night  ever}'  establisliment  containing  an  en- 
gine, on  the  west  side  of  the  river,  had  been  closed 
up. 

The  officials  of  most  of  the  roads  voluntarily  clos- 
ed tlie  railway  shops  for  the  time,  llius  depriving  the 
mob  of  the  opportunity  of  compelling  tlicni  to  close. 
The  tlirougli  lines  declined  to  receive  freight,  and 
freight  houses  were  generally  closed  up.  Brakemen 
and  switchmen  declared  that  they  had  nothing  to  do 
witli  tlie  raids  on  private  establishments,  aud  did  not 
approve  them :  but  few  railroad  men  were  seen  in 
the  mob.  Tlie  Mayor  of  Columbus,  on  the  afternoon 
of  the  23d,  issued  a  proclamation  calling  on  the  riot- 
ers to  disperse  and  cease  tlieir.interference  with  pri- 
vate property.  Several  hundred  special  policemen 
were  sworn  in.  The  railroad  authorities  decided  to 
make  no  efforts  to  run  their  trains  until  the  strike 
had  been  put  down  by  the  civil  authorities,  and  thus 
to  give  no  provocation  to  tlie  nioli.  The  ])roiiiptness 
with  which  the  citizens  enrolled  themselves  in  the 
special  police  force  and  the  determination  exhibited 
hy  the  State  and  cit}-  authorities  to  put  down  mob 
violence  at  an}'  cost,  greatly  demoralized  the  rioters. 
On  the  morning  of  the  24th  nearly  all  the  manufac- 
turing estalilishments  that  were  forcibly  closed  on 
the  previous  day  were  reopened,  llie  operatives  re- 
turning to  work  on  lieing  assured  of  iirotection. 
Columbus  was  excited,  but  <|uiet  Ihroughout  the  day. 
On  the  25th,  the  Governor  issued  (he  following  pro- 
<:laniation :  Owing  to  troulile  existing  between  rail- 
road companies  and  their  employes  great  excitement 
exists  throughout  the  Stale.  Of  tills  unfortunate 
state  of  affairs  lawless  and  disrepulable  ]iersiins  are 
taking  advanlag<'  and  endangering  life  and  prop<'rty. 
The  cis'il  aulhorities.  State,  county  and  muuiiipal, 
as  well  as  military,  must  and  will  everywhere  exert 
their  |)ower  to  enforce  the  law  in  every  respect.  The 
good  name  of  our  people  ilemands  that  this  shall  be 
done,  and  in  no  other  way  can  the  order  whicli  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  pulilic  and  private  safely  be 
maintained  to  avert  all  danger,  and  in  order  lo  suc- 
cessfully nieel  all  resistance  to  llie  thorough  execu- 
tion of  law  I  hereby  call  on  law-abiding  men  of  all 
our  cities,  towns  and  villages  to  tender  their  services 
to  their  respective  civil  auilioritics,  and,  under  their 
direction  and  control,  organize  themselves  into  a 
volunteer  police  force  sufficiently  strong  to  overawe 
the  lawless  elements.  I  coiili(iently  exiiect  all  good 
men  will  res])oiid  promptlv  and  checrfnllv  to  this 
«all. 

Every  effort  was  made  to  place  the  military  force 
of  the  state  in  u  condition  for  service,  and  the  deter- 
ininalion  of  the  people  of  Columbus  lo  allow  iionion- 


mob  violence  was  too  plain  to  be  mistaken  by  the 

rioters.  No  further  disturbance  occurred,  and  for 
days  matters  remained  unchanged.  The  failure  of 
the  strikes  at  otlier  points  disheartened  the  strikers, 
and  they  made  no  resistance  to  the  running  of  the 
trains  on  their  roads.  By  the  2nd  of  August  both 
the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  Pan  Handle  roads  had  re- 
sumed their  freight  tratlic.  When  it  was  certain  that 
the  strike  was  dead,  the  troops  were  withdrawn  from 
Newark,  and  the  Columbus  companies  were  dismiss- 
ed. Other  parts  of  the  State  were  affected  by  the 
outbreak.  Zanesville,  on  the  line  of  the  Baltimore 
tfc  Ohio  Hailroad,  was  one  of  the  first  to  be  plunged 
into  the  excitement.  The  train  hands  took  part  in 
tlie  strike  about  the  time  it  was  begun  at  Newark; 
and  on  the  morning  of  the  23d  a  mob  of  about  two 
thousand  men  assembled  in  front  of  a  new  hotel  in 
process  of  erection,  and  onlered  the  men  at  work  on 
the  building  to  slop.  The  demand  was  at  once  com- 
plied with,  and  the  moIi  then  visited  in  succession 
the  various  manufacturing  establishments  of  the 
town,  and  compelled  the  workmen  to  abandon  their 
posts,  thiis  forcing  over  fifty  establishments  into  idle- 
ness. The  rioters  also  compelled  the  street  railway 
company  to  discontinue  the  running  of  their  cars. 
No  greater  violence  was  attempted,  but  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  rioters  thoroughly  alarmed  the  citizens, 
and  a  vigilance  committee,  composed  of  about  one 
thousand  of  the  most  reliable  citizens  of  Zanesville, 
was  organized  and  aruicil.  They  were  placed  on 
duty  on  the  afternoon  of  the  23d,  and  at  once  began 
the  arrest  of  such  rioters  as  could  be  secured.  Under 
their  protection  the  street  cars  resumed  their  trips 
about  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  the  mob 
slunk  away.  From  this  time  Zanesville  was  quiet. 
The  strike  on  the  railroad  was  adjusted  between  the 
Baltimore  AOhio  Company  and  its  employes,  and 
the  mob  did  not  venture  again  to  raise  its  head. 

Cleveland,  on  Lake  Erie,  is  an  important  railroad 
point.  The  Lake  Shore  &  Jlichigan  Soutliern  Divi- 
sion of  the  New  York  Central  Bailroad  passes  through 
it.  This  road  engaged  in  the  strike  at  an  early  peri- 
od, the  troubles  along  its  line  beginning  at  Buffalo. 
The  strike  (luickly  spread  to  Cleveland.  On  the 
morning  of  tlie  23d  of  July  the  men  in  the  Lake 
Shore  i  Jlichigau  Southern  shops,  to  the  number  of 
2.50  or  30U,  quit  work,  held  a  meeting,  and  addressed 
a  communication  to  the  Superintendent,  embodying 
the  following  demands  : 

F/rit  — An  increase  of  twenty  pvr  cent,  on  wages 
received  July  1st,  and  that  such  advance  date  from 
July  1st. 

iierond — That  assurances  be  given  by  the  compaii}' 
that  no  employe  shall  suffer  on  account  of  his  par- 
ticipation in  the  strike. 

A  Committee  waited  on  the  Superintendent,  and 
were  informed  tliat  he  could  give  no  answer  until  the 
matter  was  laid  before  President  Vanderbilt,  and 
that  he  would  forward  it  immediately,  liefore  leav- 
ing, the  Committee  assured  him  that  no  property 
should  be  destroyed,  but  that  the  men  were  deter- 
luiiied  that  no  work  should  be  done  in  the  shops  un- 
til the  demand  was  acceded  to.  Thesemen  liad  been 
receiving  from  nineteen  to  twenty-one  cents  per  liour, 
according  to  skill,  and  were  running  on  ten  hours 
time. 

The  next  move  was  by  the  hands  in  the  freight  de- 
pot of  the  Lake  Shore  road  to  the  number  of  225. 
Their  demand  was  that  the  company  should  jiay 
them  *1.5(»  a  day  for  ten  hours  work  and  .^2  for  the 
same  amount  of  work  on  Sunday;  that  I  hey  be  paid 
in  jiroporlion  for  overwork  ;  that  they  be  paid  for 
the  time  lost  by  the  strike,  and  tliat  they  receive 
their  pay  by  tlie  15th  of  <ach  month.  These  propo- 
sitions were  also  forvv;irde(l  to  New  York  by  the  Su- 
perintendent. During  the  afternoon  n  meeting  was 
held  by  the  shop  and  fniglit  men  for  tin-  ]iurpose  of 
concerting  action  iiniong  themselves  aiul  with  the 
train  men  already  out  at  Collinwood.  A  Committee 
of  tell  was  si'h'Cted  In  (  nnfc'r  w  illi  the  brakemen   and 


ElOT. 


723 


UIOT. 


liicincii  anil  with  oUiors  who  mif;lil,  lin  mi  a  Htrikw. 
'Pile  imc'tinj;  wiiH  orderly  tlir(>ii).'lii>iil.  and  wlnii  a 
polilical  Hpcaker  of  frrcciiliack  and  liilmr  reform  len- 
clencies  was  noticed  in  the  nMini.llie  I'reHident  arone 
and  said  that  they  wanted  nothiiiic  from  the  politi- 
cians, as  th(t  men  were  perfectly  able  to  utteiwl  to 
their  own  Imsiness.  Collinwooil,  a  short  distance 
from  Cleveland,  was  the  point  where  the  I^ake  Shore, 
trains  were  held.  All  was  (piiet  tlwre  on  the  2i)d, 
only  an  o<rcasional  jiony  ciiiiinebeinjrallowed  to  move 
aloiii;  the  traitk.  The  strikers  preserved  order  and 
obliijed  others  to  do  so.  'Phey  compelled  all  the  sa- 
loons to  close,  and  ))i-rmitled  none  of  their  men  to 
indiilv:e  in  Hc|uor.  'Plie  side  tracks  were  crowdi-d 
with  freiijlit  curs  and  tlie  round  honsi' was  full  of  en- 
gines. .\  l.'M'iie  lUiMilier  of  slock  cars  liad  been  un- 
loaded, the  sheep  bcini;  driven  into  the  country. 
The  lioirs  were  hauled  to  the  yards  near  by,  where  a 
hundred  dicil  from  lai'k  of  water,  (battle  were  driv- 
en on  to  I'ainesville,  where  the  company  could  care 
for  lliein.  The  men  in  the  machine  sho))s,  with  the 
train  men  of  the  ('levcliiiid.  ('oluiiilius,  CiiKiniuiti  & 
Inilianapolis  Hailroad,  went  out  on  strike  on  the  2'M, 
as  they  were  refused  tlut  increas<'  of  twenty  jicr  cent, 
which  they  demanded  on  Saturday.  At  noon  the 
shop  men  held  a  mceliu;;  nt  their  sho])s  to  receive 
any  communication  from  the  company  in  response 
to  their  demand  and  the  establishment  of  a  regular 
pay-da}'.  None  coining,  they  decided  to  strike,  and 
when  leaving  were  mei.  by  tlieir  President,  who  ad- 
dressed them,  lie  expressed  reirrct  at  haviiiL'  liecn 
.so  long  delayed  at  his  otli<-e,  and  then  ex|iliiincd  that, 
as  President  of  the  company,  he  owed  a  mutual  ob- 
ligation to  stockholders  and  employes,  and  that  em- 
barrassment must  necessarily  arise  in  adjusting  mat- 
ters so  as  to  fultil  his  duties  to  both,  lie  blamed  the 
ditliculty  on  too  much  cutting  of  rates,  and  said  that 
no  one  had  done  more  toward  a  jjoolingof  rates  than 
he.  A  consultation  was  then  lu'ld  at  which  a  com- 
promise was  made,  the  men  receiving  an  advance  of 
ten  percent,  on  and  after  .Vugusl  Ist,  and  working 
ten  hours  instead  of  eight  hours;  they,  on  their  part, 
agreed  to  go  back  to  work  the  n<'Xt  morning.  The 
advance  was  to  be  general,  benetitting  the  train  men 
also.  An  effort  was  made  by  the  Kake  Shore  men  to 
induce  the  employes  of  the  Atlantic  &  Great  West- 
ern road  to  join  in  the  strike,  but  the  latter  had  the 
independence  to  refuse,  stating  that  their  relations 
with  their  company  were  satisfactory. 

A  letter  from  Collinwood,  on  the  24th,  thus 
describes  the  state  of  affairs  there:  "Everything 
presents  the  apiiearance  of  a  Sunday  in  a  New  Kng- 
land  village  at  Collinwood,  the  little  station  where 
the  Lake  Shore  round  house  and  shops  are  located. 
There  are  no  crowds,  no  threats — simply  the  men 
sitting  around  in  small  groups,  arrayed  in  their  ho- 
liday attire,  talking  over  the  situation.  The  men 
have  bi'cii  anxious  of  late  to  have  the  remaining  cat- 
tle cars  unloaded,  but  the  yard-master  of  the  Erie 
division  has  seemed  to  be  very  slow  in  doing  this. 
They  say  that  it  is  cruel  to  let  the  animals  suffer. 
.\bo"ut  five  hundred  and  lifty  cattle  have  already  been 
driven  to  Painesville, and  others  will  probably  follow. 
A  very  large  number  of  the  animals  have  died.  One 
car  ccintaiuiug  1.000  fowls  gives  forth  an  almost  in- 
tolerable stench.  The  dead  hogs  are  being  carted 
away  to  the  soap  factories,  and  many  of  them  buried 
to  avoiil  the  plague  that  must  soon  follow  if  the 
dead  animal  matter  is  not  removed.  Great  trouble 
arises  from  iusufflcient  means  of  watering  the  cattle, 
and  scores  of  them  are  constantly  dying  of  thirst. 
There  is.  of  course,  much  feeling  against  some  of 
the  otlicials  of  the  road,  the  men  saying  that  if  the 
ollicers  liad  treated  them  properly  they  would  not 
have  complained  of  the  reduction.  At  the  first  meet- 
ing, held  at  ten  a.  m..  the  prospects  of  their  propo- 
sitions being  acceded  to  were  fully  discussed.  The 
sum  of  what  was  expressed  was  that  President  Van 
(ierbill  cannot  exercise  his  power  here  as  he  could  in 
a  monarchy.    This  is  a  republic,  and  the  poor  man 


hIiuU  have  IiIh  rights  and  IiIh  family  muHt  be  «up> 
portiil.  Kurtbermore,  there  will  be  no  trouble  ut 
Collinwood,  no  fights  rir  arson  if  llie  militia  is  ke|it 
buck ;  but  tli(^  moment  the  militia  is  used  in  the  huj)- 
port  of  monopoly  then  the  luliorer  will  no  longer 
keep  quilt.  'I'here  is  much  feeling  among  the  men 
over  the  i|Ui'Stioii  of  passes  Oni'  man  said  ;  "Siip- 
i)ose  1  am  (ordered  to  run  my  train  down  to  ('lev<v 
land;  I  get  for  this  sixte<'n  cents  ;  but  I  iniiHt  return 
liere  to  report  to  my  superior,  and  for  that  I  must 
pay  my  fare  of  tweiily-tive  cents."  jle  fell  that  tliis 
was  an  nnbeanible  outrage,  Another  grave  com- 
plaint lies  in  the  fact  that  the  men  are  only  paid 
while  in  actual  service.  For  instance,  if  a  man  run8 
from  Collinwood  to  Toledo,  which  would  lake  a 
little  nK)re  than  a  day,  he  w>iulil  be  paid  for  that; 
but  hi'  is  liable  to  lie  off  there  for  lUrro  days  without 
pay,  although  re((uired  lo  be  ready  to  report  for 
duty  at  any  nioment.  In  this  way  tlic  small  pay 
earned  is  entirely  absorbed."  Matters  continiiefl  in 
this  state  until  tlie  last  of  July,  when  the  strikes  on 
the  other  roads  having  been  settled,  and  it  having 
become  plain  to  the  men  that  they  could  not  curry 
their  point,  they  ceased  tlieir  interference  with  the 
movements  of  the  road,  and  siirnitied  to  the  General 
Superirtendent  their  willingness  to  return  lo  work 
at  the  reduced  wages.  The  Superintendent  agreed 
lo  correct  some  locul  abuses  in  regard  lo  e.xtru  pay 
and  the  granting  of  passes,  and  repeated  to  the  Luke 
Shore  men  the  promise  to  increase  wages  when  the 
business  of  the  road  should  justify  sueii  a  slej).  By 
the  3il  of  August,  business  was  entirely  resumed  by 
the  Lake  Shore  road. 

There  was  considerable  excitement  also  at  Cincin- 
nati. On  the  23d  of  July  the  trainmen  on  the  Ohio 
ifc  Jlississippi  Hailroad  joined  in  the  strike,  and  pre- 
vented the  passage  of  trains.  The  employes  of  the 
Cincinnati. Hamilton  &  Dayton  Hailroad  having  been 
informed  that  their  wages" would  be  reduced  ten  per 
cent,  on  the  33d,  protested  against  the  proposed  re- 
iluction,  and  announced  their  intention  to  strike  if 
it  should  be  enforced.  The  authorities  of  this  road 
thereupon  reconsidered  their  decision,  and  the  wages 
remained  unchanged.  This  determination  was  an- 
nounced to  the  men  on  the  night  of  the  22tl,  and  con- 
sequently they  took  no  part  in  the  strike.  Cincin- 
nati was  greatly  aroused.  Mas.s-meetings  were  held 
ill  the  market  places  on  the  afternoon  of  the  ■22d, 
and  were  generally  attended  by  men  who  had  no  in- 
terests in  the  railroads  entering  Cincinnati.  They 
were  addressed  liy  speakers  of  the  communist  stamp 
and  the  excitement  was  fanned  lo  a  high  pit<-h. 
Cincinnati  contains  a  large  population  of  idle  and 
vicious  persons,  who  are  always  ready  to  join  in  an 
outbreak.  A  large  part  of  the  militia  force  of  the 
city  had  been  sent  to  Newark  to  hold  the  rioters 
there  in  check,  and  the  preservation  of  order  de- 
pended mainly  upon  the  police  and  the  better  class 
of  citizens.  The  morning  of  the  23d  of  July  found 
Cincinnati  in  a  feverish  and  dangerous  state  The 
rioters,  who  comprised  the  worst  elements  of  the 
place,  had  taken  courage  from  the  fact  that  Ihey 
had  not  neen  interfered  with,  and  had  increased  so 
rajndlvthat  they  now  compriseila  large  and  formid- 
able force.  By  the  afternoon  they  had  beconie 
threatening,  and"  had  completely  wrested  the  strike 
from  the  liands  of  the  railroad  men.  Early  in  the 
afternoon  a  crowd  of  perhaps  fifteen  hundred,  com- 
posed mostly  of  boys  from  thirteen  to  twenty-one 
years  of  age!  and  backed  up  by  sullen,  vicious-look- 
ing men.  with  their  bands  behind  their  backs,  sur- 
rounded the  Cincinnati.  Hamilton  &  Dayton  Depot. 
As  the  half-past  two  train  was  about  to  leave,  a  boy 
of  not  more  than  eighteen  sprang  upon  the  engine, 
which  had  not  vet  been  coupled  to  the  train,  and 
pulled  the  throttle.  The  engineer,  who  was  near 
by,  jumped  on  the  engine  in  time  losave  it  from  de- 
struction. The  crowd  then  demanded  that  he  should 
come  down,  but  he  stooil  by  his  post  until  an  order 
came  from  the  President  to"  run  the  engine  into  the 


BIOT. 


724 


BIOT. 


round  house  and  abandon  all  trains  for  the  day.  The 
mob  headed  by  two  or  three  villainous-looking  men, 
then  started  for  the  macliiue  and  repair  shops  of  the 
company  to  force  the  employes  to  quit  work.  At 
the  rail  shop  they  were  met  b_v  an  officer  of  the  road, 
who  asked  them  if  they  were  railroad  men  or  strikers. 
They  answered,  •'Xo,"  but  they  wanted  those  shops 
closed  up.  The  workmen  at  last  jielded.  against 
their  will,  and  left  the  shop.  The  crowd  then  went 
through  the  yard,  taking  each  shop  in  succession, 
and  compelling  the  men  to  quit  work.  This  was 
tlie  nature  of  the  strike  on  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton 
it  Dayton  road.  The  company's  emploj'es  declared 
that  if  they  had  been  permitted  tliey  would  them- 
selves have  driven  back  the  mob  and  started  the 
trains.  A  letter  from  Cincinnati  said  :  "Loud  con- 
demnation is  heard  on  all  hands  of  the  inactivity  of 
tlie  police,  who  have,  so  far  stood  by  and  watched 
tlie  progress  of  the  rioters  without  lifting  a  hand. 
The  entire  militia  force  of  the  city  is  two  lumdred 
miles  away,  and  it  is  beginning  to  be  felt  that  the 
only  protection  of  life  and  property  is  to  be  found  in 
vigilance  committees  and  individual  efforts  by  citi- 
zens. The  demand  for  muskets  and  revolvers  has 
been  so  great  as  to  completely  e.xhaust  the  stoi-k  of 
tlie  gun  stores.  It  is  noticed  that  these  arms  are 
bought  by  the  respectable  part  of  the  comnuicity. 
Bankers  are  beginning  to  fear  raids  upon  their  vaults, 
and  anxiety  is  felt  by  the  officials  of  the  United  States 
sub-treasur_v,  where  several  millions  in  currency  are 
locked  up  in  old  safes.  Threats  have  been  made  by 
the  communists  that  they  will  burn  tlie  great  niauu- 
f.ncturiug  establishments,  and  no  one  would  be  sur- 
prised if  they  were  carried  into  execution.  There 
are  men  in  this  cit_y  wlio  were  engaged  in  the  pillage 
and  arson  at  Pittsburgh,  and  the_v  do  not  liesitate  to 
say  that  they  came  here  on  the  same  mission.  This 
afternoon  the  Mayor  delivered  a  speech  to  the 
thieves  and  rapscallions  at  the  Cincinnati,  Ham- 
ilton &  Dayton  depot,  entreating  them  not  to  burn 
and  destroy.  "What  good  would  it  do  you,"  he  ask- 
ed, "to  set  fire  to  buildings?"  "It  would  show  that 
we  are  men,"  answered  a  voice  in  the  crowd. 

The  early  evening  trains  on  the  Indianapolis,  Cin- 
cinnati &  Lafayette  road  were  stopped  liy  uncoupling 
the  cars  as  fast  as  the  engineers  attempted  to  pull  them 
out.  Thousands  of  men  doing  business  in  the  city  and 
living  in  the  distant  suburbs  have  no  means  of  getting 
home  to  their  families  to-night.  If  the  present  condi- 
tion of  affairs  continues,  the  old  stage-coach  will  be 
lirouglit  into  requisition  for  transporting  inails  and 
])as>eugers.  Business  is  almost  entirely  suspended,  it 
being  impossible  to  move  goods  in  any  direction." 

At  niglitfall  on  the  23d  Cincinnati  was  almost  at 
the  mercy  of  the  mob.  During  the  night  a  party  of 
thieves  and  tramps,  having  no  connection  with  the 
railroad  strike,  set  tire  to  the  bridge  of  the  Ohio  & 
Mississippi  Railroad  over  Mill  Creek.  The  alarm  was 
quickly  given,  and  the  fire  was  \>mI  out.  The  rioters 
who  had  been  engaged  in  tlie  effort  to  burn  the  bridge 
then  witlidrew  to  a  point  on  the  river  sufficiently  re- 
mote to  secure  them  from  the  iiilerference  of  the  po- 
lice, and  passed  the  night  lliere.  At  early  daw'n  on 
tlie  2-ltli  they  seized  all  tlie  milk  and  market  wagons 
coming  into  tlie  city  bj'  that  road,  and  gutted  theni. 
The  danger  wliich  threatened  Cincinnati  on  tlie  morn- 
iug  of  tlie  2-lth  was  very  great,  and  aroused  the  au- 
thorities to  the  necessity  of  taking  more  vigorous  ac- 
tion than  they  had  _yet  tliought  necessar}'.  The  olh- 
ccrs  of  the  various  railroads  running  from  Cincinnati, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Ohio  &  Mississippi  road, 
which  was  still  engaged  in  the  strike,  determined  to 
run  their  trains  in  spite  of  the  mob,  and  accordingly 
armed  tlieir  employes  with  revolvers  and  coii]>ling 
piu^.  A  nuiiibirof  these  armed  eini)loy('s  were  |)l:iced 
on  ea(rli  train,  and  whenever  a  gang  of  roughs  under- 
took to  interfen^  with  the  running  of  thi'  trains,  they 
were  mi!t  by  the  determined  employes,  who  informed 
them  that  they  could  not  succeed  in  their  objects 
witlioul  lighting.   Tlie  rioters  did  not  choose  to  light, 


and  the  trains  were  unmolested.  The  men  of  the 
Ohio  &  Mississippi  road  refused  to  join  the  rioters  in 
plundering,  and  by  this  refusal  grt-atly  disheartened 
the  mob.  A  meeting  of  the  Police  Commissioners 
was  held  in  the  morning,  and  a  call  was  made  upon 
the  citizens  to  volunteer  as  special  policemen.  Large 
numbers  of  citizens  responded  to  the  call,  and  on 
every  side  a  stern  determination  was  manifested  to 
make  short  work  of  the  mob  should  the  necessity  for 
a  conflict  arise.  The  rioters  were  overawe<l  by"  this 
determination  on  the  part  of  the  citizens,  and  gradu- 
ally slunk  away.  By  the  night  of  the  24tli  tlie  dan- 
ger in  Cincinnati  was  practically  over.  The  city  con- 
tinued in  a  feverish  state  for  several  days  longt-r,  but 
no  further  trouble  was  experienced.  A  number  of 
arrests  of  rioters  were  made  by  the  police,  and  the 
mob  was  shown  that  the  sternest  measures  would  be 
used  against  it. 

The  strike  on  the  Pittsburgh,  Port  Wayne  &  Chi- 
cago road,  which,  began  at  Allegheny  City,  Pennsyl- 
vania, rapidly  extended  westward.  At  eight  o'clock, 
on  the  night  of  the  21st  of  July,  the  trainmen  of  this 
company  at  Fort  Wayne  joined  in  the  strike.  The 
freight  train,  which  should  have  left  Fort  Wayne  for 
Chicago  at  eight  o'clock,  was  made  up,  but  the"  brake- 
men  and  firemen  refused  to  go  on  dut}-.  The  engin- 
eer and  conductor  declined  to  take  the  train  out 
without  any  crew,  and  the  officials  were  unable  to 
obtain  substitutes  for  the  strikers.  Every  employe' 
of  the  company  peremptorily  refused  to  take  their 
places.  In  a  very  ghort  time  a  crowd  of  several  hun- 
dred men  had  gathered  at  the  railway  station  and 
proceeded  at  once  to  spike  the  switches.  Squads 
were  detailed  to  guard  the  main  and  side  tracks  ex- 
tending through  the  city,  to  prevent  the  passage  of 
trains.  News  of  the  strike  spread  rapidly,  and  soon 
the  crowd  swelled  to  several  thousand."  The  em- 
ployes of  the  Wabash  and  other  railways  appeared 
in  force,  and  encouraged  the  strikers  to  persist,  off- 
ering to  render  any  assistance  required.  The  ex- 
citement was  quickly  at  fever  heat,  and  the  officials 
announced  to  the  strikers  their  determination  to  run 
trains  out  at  all  hazards,  and  the  men  declared  that 
no  train  should  be  moved  from  the  city  by  any  pow- 
er less  formidable  than  the  United  States  troops,  un- 
til the  order  ma'iiing  the  ten  per  cent,  reduction  in 
wages  was  rescinded.  Some  of  the  general  officers 
of  the  road  attempted  to  turn  the  switches,  but  were 
driven  away  without  accomplisliing  anything.  They 
got  on  an  engine  and  made  repeated  efforts  to  take 
the  train  out  of  the  yards,  but  were  forced  to  desist. 
One  engine  wiper,  who  volunteered  to  serve  as  fire- 
man, was  taken  off  the  engine  by  the  strikers  and 
subjected  to  rough  usage.  Master  Mechanic,  Super- 
intendents and  JNIasters  oi  Transportation  were  also 
compelled  to  dismount  from  the  locomotive.  The 
police  made  several  ineffectual  efforts  to  scatter  the 
mob,  and  at  two  o'clock,  on  the  morning  of  thc22d, 
the  Mayor  read  a  proclamation  ordering  the  crowd 
to  disperse  and  refrain  from  disorderly  conduct  and 
obstruction  of  traffic.  He  was  hissed  down.  The 
proclamation  was  printed  and  circulated  among  the 
strikers,  who  paid  no  attention  to  it. 

On  the  morning  of  the  23d  of  July  the  aspect  of 
affairs  at  Fort  Wayne  was  very  threatening.  About 
eight  o'clock  a  large  force  of  strikers  visited  the  ex- 
tensive shops  of  Pittsburgh. Fort  Wiiyncaiid  Chicago 
Railway,  where  1,000  men  are  enqiloyed,  and  insist- 
ed that  they  should  be  closed  uji.  The  men  said 
they  would  not  sto])  work  until  tlie_v  received  orders 
froin  the  offieitds,  but  they  were  threatened  witli 
force  and  succumbed.  The  shops  were  at  once  closed 
up,  and  the  fires  put  out.  Committees  then  went 
east  and  west  on  liaud  curs,  and  iiulueed  the  section 
and  trackmen  for  a  considerable  distance  to  stop 
work.  These  men  came  to  the  city  in  the  afternoon, 
and  a<liled  a  very  ugly  element  to  the  crowd  already 
assembU'il.  A  rumor  prevailed  Hint  all  the  railroad 
shops  and  manufactories  in  the  city  would  be  com- 
pelled to  shut  down,  but  they  ran  all  day  as  usual 


HIOT. 


iZ.i 


KIOT. 


williimt  intprfpronco.  In  the  fiflcrnnon  the  slrikfTH 
lu^lil  II  luru^c  iricrtiii;;,  iiiiil  iiiiiilc  cxorliil.-iiil.  ilcinaiiilH 
of  llic  ruilnmil  cflliiuls.  HialiiiLC  llml  Ihi'V  wmilil  iinl 
rcsuiiu!  workunlil  the  force  wiisrc|il.i(i-(l  as  it  rxisl- 
cd  prior  to  .Iiiiir  I  si,  botli  as  to  iiiiinlirr  and  rate  of 
wilf^f'S,  1111(1  insisliii'^  upon  Ilic  almniloniiiciil  of  all 
<;lassi(icati()iis  in  tlicrank  and  pay  of  cni^'inccrs.  They 
also  a<lopt('d  an  address  to  tlie  strikers,  wlii<-li  was 
printed  and  eiriMJaleii,  and  liad  u  jrood  ('(reel.  Tlie 
address  was  as  follows: 

Stbikerh — News  from  ['iltshiirijli  ami  otlier  rail- 
road points  of  terrible  saeriliees  of  life  and  properly 
is  aoniethini;  thai  should  be  justly  eoiisiilered  hy  you 
all.  The  latest  despatches  show  thai  a  very  small 
percentai^e  of  strikers  aretakiiiL'  an  active  part  in  I  In; 
itrealiiml  lirrible  rleslniclioii  of  Hie  company's  prop- 
erly, lint  thai  il  is  mostly  done  by  oiitsi<lers,wlio,  by 
such  acts,  believe  themselves  practically  cxpressini; 
the  wishes  of  the  strikers.  Vour  friends  and  co-la- 
borers hereby  <lesire  to  express  the  earnest  hopiMind 
will  give  their  assistance,  that  you  will,  should  any 
such  thiiii;  occur  here,  endeavor,  by  every  means  in 
your  power,  to  jirolect  the  pro|ierly  of  the  comjiany 
in  this  city.  Y<mi  are  perfectly  able  to  briiiL'  iibout  a 
compromise  w  ilhoiit  violence,  or  sulTer  others  to  de- 
stroy the  property  of  the  company.  'I'o  destroy  jirop- 
erty  will  positively  not  remedy  the  malter.  but, on  the 
contrary,  cause  a  slow  restoration  of  better  times. 
Do  your  work  justly, honorably, quietly  and  thoui;ht- 
fully,  and  allow  no  disinterested  persons  to  meddle 
wdth  the  properties  you  helped  to  create, and  which 
stand  as  everlastimi  monuments  to  your  skill,  perse- 
verance and  eneriry.  Do  as  you  would  b<'  done  by, 
and  <lo  not  acl  in  too  irrcat  haste.  If  the  comjiany 
has  lieen  unjust  in  its  demands  upon  you,  settle  it  as 
peaceably  as  you  can  without  allowini;  the  destruc- 
tion of  railroad  institutions, that — to  a  very  great  ex- 
tent— constitute  the  future  prosperity,  life,  comfort 
and  pride  of  our  city. 

The  City  Council  met  in  special  session  durim;  the 
afternoon,  and  issued  a  call  to  the  strikers  to  dis- 
perse. An  extra  police  force  of  20lt  men  was  ordered 
to  be  sworn  in  at  once,  which  was  done,  and  tln' 
Mayor  was  directed  to  close  all  the  drinkimr  saloons 
of  the  city.  The  strikers  remaineil  tirin.  They  took 
possession  of  the  depots,  yards  and  shops  of  the  com- 
pany, and  )irevented  the  passaire  of  all  freii;ht  trains. 
At  the  same  time  they  made  arransiemenls  to  guard 
the  company's  properly  from  injury  or  destruction. 
Up  to  this  time  llie  Piilsburirh,  Fort  Wayne  &  Chi- 
cago Railroad  was  the  only  road  entering  Fort 
Wayne  which  was  atfected  by  the  strike.  On  the 
24lli,  however,  the  train  men  on  the  Wabash  and  the 
■  Grand  Hapids  it  Indiana  Railroads  demanded  an  in- 
crease of  ten  per  cent,  in  their  wages,  and  notified 
the  olficers  of  Iheir  respective  roads  that  they  would 
strike  if  their  deni'inds  were  not  complied  with,  j 
During  the  night  of  the  '24th,  Fori  Wayne  was  ably 
guarded  by  large  bodies  of  armed  men,  who  were 
kept  on  duty  to  iirolect  the  railway  shops,  rolling 
stock  and  private  manufactories.  The  strikers  furn- 
ished guards  wherever  desired,  and  rendered  all  the 
protection  to  properly  which  was  necessary.  At  a 
late  hour  two  gangs  of  drunken  tramps,  numbering 
from  tifty  to  a  hundred  each,  gathered  at  the  stock  j 
yards  and  railway  bridge  across  the  St.  JIary's 
river  and  made  vicious  demonstrations  and  ugly  | 
threats.  The  strikers,  upon  being  apprised  of  this,  I 
sent  squads  of  men  on  hand  cars  to  disperse  the 
mob,  which  they  ilid  most  efTei-tually,  driving  all  ! 
of  the  tramps  some  distance  beyond  the  eily  limils. 
The  men  were  kept  going  on  the  hand  cars  all  night 
to  prevent  the  g;ilhering  of  any  more  such  assem- 
blages. During  the  evening  a  large  mob  of  si'clion 
a'.iii  track  men  from  the  Western  division  of  the 
road,  many  of  them  under  the  intluence  of  liquor, 
seized  a  number  of  band  cars  and  enlered  (^ibimliia 
City,  where  the  I'ittsburgh  &  Fort  Wayne  Company 
was  buiding  a  new  depot,  and  compelled  the  men 
employed  therein  to  slop  work.     Tlu^se  liaiuls  drank 


frpoly  and  noon  becanie  very  rioloiid.  They  8l«rtcd 

for  till'   city  on   hand  cars,   iiiakin)^  Ihreutu  of  vio- 
lence and  inceniliarism.    A  force  of  Htrikern,  lenrn- 
ing  of  the  thn^ateneil  invasion,  took  un  engine  and 
coach  anil  went  out  and  met  the  mob.     1'lie  Htri- 
kers    were    well    armed,    and    they   <'onipelled    the 
drunken  rabble  to  turn  back  and  iilmiidoii  their  in- 
tended invasion  of  Fort  Wayne.  The  slrikes   in   tliiH 
as  ill  oilier  instances  were  uniformly  on  the  side  of 
good  order,  and  saved  the  city  from  the  Hcrioiis  dan- 
gers which  menacerl  it.     Passenger  trains  were  Htill 
running  on  the  I'ittsburgh.   Fort  Wayne  J:  Chicago 
Kailway  and  wi-re  not  molested.     On  the  night  of 
the  21tli  the  strikers  nolilied  all  of   their   niiiiibcr 
who  desirerl  to  come  from  Crestline  to  Fort  Wayne 
to  get  on  till;  passenger  trains,  and  if  the  condticiors 
insisted  upon  collecting   fare  they   were  instructed 
to  lake   jiossession  of  the  train  and   run   il  to  hiiit 
themselves.     Their  fare  was  remitted,  however,  by 
the  conductors,  and  all  dilliculty  was  lliu.s  avoided. 
The  officers  of  the  I'ittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne  <k  Clii- 
(■ago  Railroad  made  no  attemiit  to  move  the  traioH 
f>f  their  road.     They  appealed  to  the  Governors  of 
the  States  through   which  their  line  ran  for  protec- 
tion, and  ordererl  Ihe  discontinuance  of  all  trainH. 
The  strikers  thereupon  look  po.s.se.ssion  of  the  road, 
anil  those  a*  Allegheny  City  and  Fort  Wayne,  acting 
in  concert,  ran  the  passenger  trains  with  considera- 
ble regularity.     On  Ihe  night  of  the  a-Otli  a  secret 
meeting  of  the  strikers  was  held  at  Fort  Wayne, 
which,   among   other   things,    delerinineil    to    take 
formal    possession  of  the  road,  and   run  it  to  suit 
themselves.  The  strikers  selected  liiree  of  their  own 
number  to  till  Ihe  i)o<itions  held  liy  the  Su|ii-rinten- 
dent.  Master  .Mechanic  and  .Master   of  Transporta- 
tion.    These  otlicials  soon  learned  that  il  was  the 
intention  of  the  strikers  to  take  possession  of  llieir 
olflces  and  eontrol  the  telegraph  wires,  and  deter- 
mined to  hold   their  olfices  against  any  attempt  to 
oust  them.  They  obtained  from  the  city  authorities 
a  strong  guanl  of  police  for  Iheir  ollices,  and  made 
their  iire]iaralions  for  resistance.  The  strikers,  upon 
hearing  of  these  ]ireparalions,  wisely  decided  not 
to  attempt  the  seizure  of  the  offices,  which  would  sure- 
ly bring  them  in  contlicl  with  the  civil  authorities. 
They  had  practical  (lossession  of  the  road,  and  the 
seizure  of  the  ottiees  mentioned   would  have  given 
them  no  real  advantage.  On  the  morning  of  the  26th 
a  Committee  <if  the  Pittsburgh  A:  Fort  Wayne  strikers 
left  for  Pittsburgh  to  confer  with  the  railroad  officers^ 
having  rcceved  an  invitation  to  do  so.     They  were 
joined  at  Crestline,  Alliance  and  other  stations  by 
Committees  from  those  points  bound  on  a  similar 
errand.     On  the  same  day  a  Commillee  of  twenly- 
Iwo  train  men  of  the  Wabash  Railroad,  which  had 
been  sent  to  Toledo  to  confer  with   the  officers   of 
that   road,  returned   to   Fort  Wayne.     A  meeting  of 
the  Wabash  employes  was  at  once  called,  and  the 
committee    slated    the   results  of  their  conference. 
They  reported  a  very  satisfactory  inler\Mew  with  the 
President  of  the  road,  who  had  agreed  to  redress 
their  real  grievances  and  to  advance  their  pay  when- 
ever the  business  of  the  Company  would  admit.  The 
meeting  was  very  stormy,  one  element  desiring  to 
go  to  extremes.     Heller  counsels  (inally  prevailed, 
and  at  noon  the  meeting  adjourned,  having  decided 
to  abandon  the  strike  it  the  employes  at  other  por- 
tions of  the  line  would  do  Ihe  same.    X  Committee 
was  appointed  to  go  to  Lafayette  and  Logansport 
to  urge  the  cessation  of  the  strike,  but  this  was  not 
necessarj-,  as  the  men  at   those  places  telegraphed 
that  they  liad  decided  to  resume  work  as  soon  as 
the  Company  desired  them  to  do  so. 

The  collapse  of  the  strike  on  the  Wabash  Railroad 
caused  a  perceptible  discouragement  of  the  Pittsburgh 
&  Fort  Wayne  strikers,  and  they  were  from  this  time 
somewhat  less  detiant  than  before,  though  they  de- 
clared themselves  contidcut  of  bringing  the  company 
to  their  terms.  The  sentiment  of  the  people,  who 
were  put  to  great  inconvenience  by  the  embargo  OQ 


SIOT. 


726 


BIOT. 


freight  traffic  anci  on  travel,  was  turning  sprcdily 
against  tbu  strikers.  On  the  night  of  tlie  2Uth  the 
citizens  of  Fort  Wayne  held  a  meeting,  ami  pledged 
their  support  to  the  authorities  in  their  efforts  to  put 
down  the  strike  and  place  the  railroad  company  in 
possession  of  their  property.  The  Committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  Fort  Wayne  strikers  proceeded  to 
Pittsburgh,  and  had  an  interview  with  the  officials  of 
the  road.  The  result  was  a  refusal  by  the  Company 
to  grant  the  demands  of  the  strikers,  and  a  resolve 
on  the  part  of  the  strikers  to  continue  their  move- 
ment. Un  the  afternoon  of  the2'.)lh  an  effort  was  made 
•  by  the  officers  of  the  road  to  start  a  train  from  Fort 
Wayne.  ^Vn  engine  was  run  from  the  rotmtl  house  in- 
to the  yard,  but  the  strikers  gathered  en  masse,  and 
took  the  engine  back,  having  forced  the  engineer 
and  firemen  from  their  posts.  The  city  authorities 
now  demauiled  that  the  strikers  should  cease  their 
interference  with  the  railroad,  but  met  with  a  stub- 
born refusal.  Not  being  strong  enough  to  enforce 
the  law,  a  call  was  made  upon  the  Governor  of  Indi- 
ana for  troops.  As  has  been  related,  the  strike  on 
the  Fort  Wayne  road  at  Allegheny  Cit}',  Pennsylva- 
nia, ended  on  the  arrival  of  the  Governor  at  Pitts- 
burgh with  troops.  Seeing  that  they  were  powerless 
to  resist  tlie  force  brought  by  tlie  Governor,  the  Al- 
legheny strikers  surrendered  to  the  Company  and 
ceased  their  interference  with  the  railroad.  This 
surrender  greatly  disheartened  the  strikers  at  Fort 
Wayne  and  at  other  points  on  the  road.  Towards 
the  last  of  Jul}'  many  of  the  men  began  to  withdraw 
from  the  strike,  which  tliey  now  saw  was  hopeless, 
and  these  desertions  still  further  disheartened  their 
comrades.  On  the  3d  of  August  the  Sheriff  notified 
the  men  that  troops  were  on  tlieir  w-ay  to  Fort 
Wayne,  and  that  the  blockade  of  the  railroad  would 
be  raised  the  next  day  regardless  of  consequences. 
He  advLsed  them  not  to  provoke  a  conflict  in  which 
their  defeat  was  certain.  A  meeting  of  the  strikers 
was  then  held,  and  the  men  decided  that  they  wcndd 
return  to  work,  provided  that  the  Superintendent 
would  promise  that  no  man  should  be  removed  for 
taking  part  in  tlie  strike,  and  that  he  would  use  his 
personal  inlluence  with  the  Board  of  Directors  to 
have  all  the  grievances  of  the  strikers  redressed.  He 
readily  gave  these  pledges,  and  the  men  thereupon 
abandoned  tlie  strike  and  reported  for  duty.  From 
this  time  there  was  no  furtlier  trouble  on  the  F'ort 
Wayne  road.  Other  points  of  Indiana  were  also 
mucli  e.xcited  bytheslrike.  The  Ohio  it  Mississippi 
Railroad  runs  across  the  southern  part  of  Indiana. 
The  strike  extended  rapidly  along  this  road  from 
Cincinnati  towards  St.  Louis.  On  the  3'2d  of  July 
freight  trains  were  stopped  at  Vincennes  on  this  road, 
but  passenger  trains  were  not  interfered  with.  No 
violence  was  resorted  to  by  tlie  men  on  this  line,  and 
after  holding  out  for  several  days,  the  strikers,  dis- 
heartened liy  the  failure  of  the  movement  in  other 
parts  of  the  country,  surrendc  red  to  the  ('omiiaiiy, 
and  returned  to  duty.  (Ju  the  2odthe  train  men  and 
shop  men  on  the  Vandalia  Railroad  struck  at  Terre 
Haute  and  other  points  along  the  road.  The  ma- 
chine-shops at  Terre  Haute,  employing  about  six 
hundred  men,  were  closed.  The  strikers  were  ((uiet 
and  orderly,  and  passed  resolutions  declaring  that 
they  would  abstain  from  drinking  intoxicating  li- 
quors during  the  strike.  One  of  the  principal  cen- 
ters of  excitement  was  Indianapolis,  tlie  capital  of 
the  State.  The  strike  began  there  on  the  arid,  and 
embraced  all  the  lines  entering  the  city.  The  freight 
trains  were  stopped,  and  on  some  of  the  roads  only 
the  mail  and  express  ears  were  allowed  to  be  taken 
over  the  line.  The  Iiiiliaiiiipolis  and  St.  Louis  men 
stopped  work  on  the  li'M.  and  compelled  all  freight 
trains  along  the  eiilire  route  to  lie  over. 

On  the  2<;tli  of  July  the  tiovernorof  Indiana  issued 
the  following  proclamation:  .Many  disaffected  em- 
ployes of  the  railroad  companies  doing  business  in 
this  State  liave  renounced  their  employments  be- 
cause of  alleged  grievances  and  have  conspired  to 


enforce  tlieir  demands  by  detaining  trains  of  their 
late  employers,  seizing  and  conlri)lliuL'  their  [iroper- 
ty  intimidating  their  managers,  prohibiting  by  vio- 
lence their  attempts  to  coniluet  their  business,  and 
driving  awa}'  passengers  and  freight  offered  for 
transportation.  The  peace  of  the  community  is  se- 
siously  disturbed.  By  these  lawless  acts  every  class 
of  society  is  made  to  suffer.  The  conduct  and  hap- 
piness of  many  families  not  pani<'s  to  the  grievances 
are  sacrificed.  A  controversy  which  belongs  to  our 
courts  or  to  the  province  of  peaceful  arbitration 
or  negotiation  is  made  the  excuse  for  an  obstruction 
of  trade  and  travel  over  chartered  highways  within 
our  State  ;  the  commerce  of  the  entire  country  is  in- 
terfered with,  and  the  reputation  of  our  communi- 
ty threatened  with  dishonor  among  our  neighbors. 
This  disregard  of  law  and  the  rights  and  privileges 
of  our  citizens  and  of  those  of  sister  States  cannot 
be  tolerated.  The  machinery  provided  bj'law  for 
the  adjustment  of  private  grievances  must  be  used 
as  tlie  only  resort  against  debtors,  individual  or  cor- 
porate. The  process  of  tlie  Courts  is  deemed  suffi- 
cient for  the  enforcem^ent  of  civil  remedies  as  well  as 
the  penalties  of  the  criminal  code,  and  must  be  exe- 
cuted equally  in  each  case.  To  the  end  that  the  ex- 
isting combination  be  dissolved  and  destroyed  in  its 
lawless  form  I  invoke  the  iiid  of  all  law-abiding  citi- 
zens of  our  State.  I  ask  that  they  denounce  and 
condemn  this  infraction  of  public  order  and  endeav- 
or to  dissuade  these  offenders  against  the  peace  and 
dignity  of  our  State  from  further  acts  of  lawlessness. 
To  the  judiciary  I  appeal  for  the  prompt  and  rigid 
administration  of  justice  in  proceedings  of  this  na- 
ture. To  the  Sheriff  of  the  several  counties  I  com- 
mend a  careful  study  of  the  duties  imposed  upon 
them  by  the  statute  which  they  have  sworn  to  dis- 
charge. I  admonish  each  to  use  the  full  power  of 
his  county  in  his  preservation  of  order  and  the  sup- 
pression of  breaches  of  the  peace,  assuring  them  of 
my  liearty  co-operation,  with  the  power  of  the  State 
at'  my  command,  when  satisfied  that  occasion  re- 
quires its  exercise.  To  those  who  have  arrayed 
themselves  against  government  and  are  subverting 
law  and  order  and  Uie  best  interests  of  society,  by 
the  waste  and  destruction  of  property,  the  derange- 
ments of  trains  and  the  ruin  of  all  classes  of  labor, 
I  appeal  for  an  immediate  abandonment  of  their  un- 
wise and  unlawful  confederation.  I  convey  to  them 
the  voice  of  the  law.  which  they  cannot  afford  to 
disregard.  I  trust  that  this  admonition  may  be  so 
promptly  heeded  that  a  resort  to  extreme  measures 
will  be  unnecessary,  and  that  the  authority  of  the 
law  and  the  dignity  of  the  State,  against  which  they 
have  so  grievously  offended,  may  be  restored  and 
duly  respected  liereafter. 

The  Indiana  Central,  Lafayette  &  Illinois,  and 
Bloomington  &  Western  Railri"«ads  were  being  oper- 
ated at  the  time  of  the  strike  by  receivers  appointed 
by  the  United  States  Circuit  Court.  The  Judge  or- 
dered the  United  States  Marshal  to  protect  these 
roads  against  the  interference  of  the  srtikers,  and  it 
was  announced  that  the  force  of  United  States  troops 
quartered  in  Indianapolis  would  be  used,  if  neces- 
sary, to  enforce  the  orders  of  the  Court.  The  ne- 
cessity for  emiiloying  force  never  arose,  however. 
The  failure  of  the  strikers  in  other  jiarts  of  the  coun- 
try, and  the  manifest  determination  of  the  citizens 
to  n])h"ld  the  authorities  in  their  repressive  meas- 
ures, disheartened  the  strikers.  Throughout  the 
whole  movement  all  the  strikers  refrained  from  vio- 
lence, and  so  avoide<l  a  conllict  wilhthc'  civil  author- 
ities. After  holding  out  for  a  fi'W  days  they  la^gan 
to  show  signs  of  weakness,  and  gradually  surrt'uder- 
ed  to  their  respective  conipaniis.  By  the  1st  of  Au- 
gust, the  lr(^ullle  was  over,  and  Indiana  was  at  peaci; 
again.  The  roads  had  resumed  their  business,  and 
no  further  interruption  with  them  was  experienced. 

{;hicago  was  ((uickly  affected  by  tlie  strike.  The 
city  contains  a  large  and  well-organized  party  of  so- 
cialists and  communists,  who  on  several  occasions 


RIOT. 


727 


KIOT. 


hull  niaiiifcHlcil  uii  iiiinily  (liNpiihilidii  iiiiil  ii  dcliT- 
niiiialioii  Id  liiiiin' uii  ii  rinl  wliciicvcr  iifuviiriililc  op. 
|)i)i'liniily  sliipiilil  orciir.  Kor  miumi'  vvcrUs  iirrviniis 
to  the  riiilriiiiil  Hirikc  llirsr  iiirn  liiiil  liciii  picpiiriiii; 
for  II  |Hililic  iMcrliii;^,  iillcr  uliicli  llirv  iiilriiili'il  In 
,  niiircli  111  proccHHion  lo  llic  (lily  Hull  iilid  iIimmiiikI  of 
the  (U)iiiiii(m  Coiiiicil  Ilir  collcclioii  of  Ijii-  hiick  luxes 
(liK!  the  cily,  iiiid  the  eiiiplnyinciil  of  nil  the  iinoe- 
cuplcd  liiliniers  liy  I  he  iiiiiiiiiipiil  itiilhorilieH.  The 
eerliiiiily  of  I  he  niilroiid  sliiUe  nnehint;  Cliiiuiro  L'live 
the  eoiniiiiiiilsls  very  i;ii-al  eiicoiini;,rirMeiil .  Meel- 
iu};s  were  held  ill  viirioiis  parts  of  the  eily,  on  the 
33d  of  July,  and  were  loiiseii  to  fever  lieiil  liy  the 
news  of  tli(^  lerril)l<M)iilliii'ak  at  I'itlshur^li.  The 
eomiiiiiiiists  seemed  to  seent,  in  the  ;;eiieriil  iineusi- 
ness  that  ])reviuled,  their  opportunity  for  pliiinrini; 
the  lieuiilifiil  Lake  City  into  aiiarehy  ami  ruin.  The 
Workin^jiiien's  I'arly.  a  eoiiiMiiinist  orL'anizalion,  is- 
sued Ihe  folliiwiii;;  addres.ses  to  the  vvorkini;iiieii  of 
the  United  Stales  : 

C!oMHAi)i;s  :  In  the  desperate.  striiiDlle  for  e.vist- 
ence  now  lieinj;  iiiaintained  liy  the  workingnicn  of 
the  jrreat  railroads  throufihoiu  the  land,  we  e.xpect 
that  every  inemher  will  render  all  possilile  moral 
and  Kiibst:iiitiiil  assistance  to  our  lirelhren,  and  sup- 
port all  reasonable  measures  which  may  he  found 
necessary  to  them. 

CoMiiADKs:-  Wecall  your  attention  to  the  following 
()ueslions.  lielie villi; that  Ihe  measures su^'irested  wili, 
if  adopted,  solve  the  diHieulty  now  pendini;  on  all 
the  i^real  railroad  lines  of  the  land  :  t'i/Kt.  J^roper 
steps  should  be  taken  by  the  national  i;overnmeut  to 
enalile  it  to  take  ])ossession  of  and  operate  all  the 
railroads  anil  ti'leirraph  lines  in  the  country,  as  is 
now  done  in  all  the  more  advaiiceil  countries  of 
Euro])c.  thus  destroying'  the  present  and  most  power- 
ful monopoly  of  inodern  limes.  Sinuiil.  The  es- 
tablishment in  every  State,  and  by  the  national  i;ov- 
ernment,  of  an  eight  hour  work  day— Ihus  emiiloy- 
ing  all  the  idle  workmen  wherever  increasing  num- 
bers, ccmstantly  added  to  by  the  rigid  introduction 
of  labor-saving  machinery,  is  a  constunt  menace  to 
all  those  fortunati'  enough  to  have  employment,  and 
must  invariably  reduce  wages  to  a  rati'  consistent 
with  the  staiKlard  of  living.  The  most  ignorant  and 
iinedncaled  workers  whose  labor  can  lie  utilized. 

It  was  hoped  l>y  the  communist  leaders  that  these 
document;-,  would  bring  them  large  reinforcements 
from  the  genuine  working  classes.  Throuirhout  the 
22d  of  .luly  great  uneasiness  and  un.xiety  prevailed 
among  the  citizens  of  Chicago.  .\11  were  apprehen- 
sive of  Ihe  etTect  of  the  excitement  iiiion  th<'  poorer 
classes  of  the  cily,  many  of  whom  were  sympathiz- 
ers with  the  communists.  The  Mayor  remarked  that 
he  did  not  fear  the  Irish  or  (Jermaiis,  but  the  large 
class  of  lialf-savageI5(>lieniiaiis  who  inhabit  the  lum- 
ber district  of  the  city,  along  the  south  branch  of  the 
river.  These  men  work  for  lifty  cents  a  day,  arc 
thoroughly  imbued  with  coinmiinislic  ideas,  and  are 
ripe  for  anything.  Meetings  were  held  during  the 
day  by  Michigan  Soutlierii.  Kock  Island,  Chicago  & 
Northwestern,  and  Milwaukee  it  St.  Paul  Railroad 
ineii,  but  their  proceedings  were  kept  secret.  "No 
one  knows  what  took  place,"  says  a  letter  from  Chi- 
cago, "but  from  expressions  gleaned  among  the  men 
to-day,  it  seems  that  they  passed  resolutions  of  sym- 
pathy for  their  striking  bretliren  Kast.  The  excite- 
ment continued  during  Ihe  "Jiid.  The  streets  were 
thronged  with  people  hurrying  from  point  to  point 
in  search  of  news,  and  s])readiiig  the  most  alarming 
rumors.  The  railroad  men  appeared  to  b<'  the  most 
(juiet  class.  The  citizens  had  little  fear  of  them, 
their  dread  as  on  the  previousday.  beinge.xcited  by 
the  commuiiists.  The  city  autbnrities.  in  the  mean- 
time, w<Te  ((uietly  but  rajiidly  preparing  to  deal  with 
the  mob.  It  was  decideil,  if  a  cunlliel  did  come,  to 
put  down  the  outbreak  at  once  and  w  itli  vigor.  Mus- 
kets were  sent  to  the  various  statioii-bonsi  s  for  the 
use  of  the  police,  and  three  jiieces  of  cannon  were 
lilaced  in  charge  of  an  artillery  company  organized 


for  the  purpose.  The  mililiii  reginients  of  Ihe  lily 
were  ordered  nii<ler  ariiiH  by  the  (Jovernor,  and 
were  directi'd  to  iissiKt  Ihe  iniiiiicipal  iiuthorilicH 
whiiiever  called  upon. 

On  the  night  of  lhe2:id,ii  MiiiHs-ineeling  of  Mie 
"  Uruiul  Army  of  Starvation,"  um  they  styled  ihein- 
!  selves,  was   held   in   .Market  Street.     Ten   thoiii-uiid 
persoiiH  were  jjreseiit.     At  eight  o'(-loek  the  crowd 
began  to  gftlier,  aii<l  a  lillle  later  the  loretiliglil  pro- 
cessions from  the  various  divisions  of  Ihe  eily  arriv- 
ed, amid  the  deafening  iheers  of  Ihe  crowd.    Slaiirl» 
wiTc  at  once  iin])roviserl  and  s|)eakirs  Kiipplii'd  in 
'  tjuick  HiHcession.     Six  men  acldre>.ed  the  crowil  al 
once  in  Knglisli  and  tJermaii.  and  in  the  iiio.l  iiilJain- 
niatory  language.    The  speakers  tipenly  appealed  to 
Ihe  multitude  to  rise  and  follow  tlieexani|ile  of  llieir 
lirethrin  in  Ihe  Kast.     Said  one  of  the  men  :    "  We, 
laboring  men,  have  eoinmou  cause  with  the  railroad 
strikers  at  I'iltsbiirgli.  and   we  must  rise  up  in  our 
might,  and  li^lit  for  our  rights.     J5elter  a  thousand 
of  us  be  shot  down  in  the  streets  than   len  thousand 
die  of  starvation."     The  meeting  broke  up  al   half- 
past  eleven,  afler  resolving  to  meet  at  the  .same  place 
the  next  morning  at  len  o'clock,  to  sign  the  platform 
of  the  Laborers'  League.  They  letl  withoiil  flisorder, 
carrying  Iheir  lianner  liearing  such  inscriptions  as 
"We   waul   Work,  Not  Charity:"    "Life  by  Work, 
or  Death  by  i'ight."   It  was  evident,  on  llie'nighl  of 
the  23(1,  that  the  dissatisfaction  of  Ihe  railroad  men 
was  approaching  a  crisis.     On  the  morning  of  llie 
24th  of  .July,  it  culminated  in  a  general  open  strike 
of  the  railroad  hands.    Karly  in  the  morning  the  em- 
ployes of  the  Michigan  C<-nlraI  Railroad  sent  a  Com- 
mittee to  the  ollicers  of  that  road  and  demanded  the 
restoration  of  Iheir  fornuT  wages.    The  General  Su- 
perinleiiilciit    refused    to   accede  to   Iheir   demand, 
and  the  Committee  withdrew.    The  employes  of  the 
road  at  once  stopped  work  and  joined  the  strike. 
The  Company  made  no  etfort  to  send  out  any  trains 
during  the  day.  and  conseipiently  there  was  no  di.s- 
turbanec.     At  nine   o'clock   the  freight  men  on  the 
Illinois  Central,  who  work  in  and  around  the  yards, 
quietly   slopped   work.     They   were  the  switchmen 
and   helpers  who  make   up   the   trains,   numbering 
about  twenty-tive :   the  laborers  wli«)  handle  freight 
in  the  freight  houses,  nuinberiug  about  one  hundred, 
and  the  men  who  jiick,  assort,  and  Blore  the  freight 
in  the  cars,  numbering  about  forty.     They  were  in- 
cited to  strikt  by  a  delegation  from  the  Michigan 
Central,  and  by  the  general  feeling  of  dissatisfaction 
at  the  reduction  of  pay  w  liicli  pervaded  every  class 
of  railroad  employes.     The  strike  was  orderly,  and 
the  men  exhibited   no  ill  disposition,  save  in  excep- 
tional ca.ses.  The  first  action  taken  by  the  freight  men 
was  the  informal  appointment. by  general  consent,  of 
a  delegation  of  four  from  the  switchmen  and  irain- 
makers  to  call  upon  the  Master  of  Transportation, 
and  ascertain  whether  the  wages  could  not  lie  restor- 
ed. He  received  them  pleasantly,  and  talked  to  them 
fairly  and  si|uarely.    The  men  acted  reasonably  and 
like  men.     They  said  that  they  represenleil  only  Ihe 
switchmen.   On  .July  1st  a  special  reduction,  not  ex- 
tending to  other  employes,  had  been  made  in  their 
pay.  and  they  felt  that   injustice  had  been  done  in 
making  tliem  specially  subject  to  a  decrease  in  sahiry . 
They  had  been  called  upon  to  join  in  Ihe  guieral 
strike,  and  they  now  wanted  to  know  whellieT.  be- 
fore doing  so,  a  restoration  might  not  be  |iromised. 
If  not.  they  would  have  no  reason  to  give  Ihe  other 
strikers  for  not  joining  them,  and  so  would  be  forced 
into  Ihe   revolt.     The  delegation  elainie<l  thai   these 
reductions  had  been  made  only  on  Ihe  men  they  re- 
presented, and  this  they  considered  unfair.     It  was 
explained  that  it  was  a  mistaken  idea  that  uneipial 
reduction  had  been  made  by  skipping  certain  depari- 
meuts.  leaving  them  umiislurbed.    Of  course,  if  the 
men  wished  to  strike,  he  could  not   prevent  it,  and, 
though  lie  deploreii  such  an  action  and  hoped  they 
would  try  to  prevent  it.  and  preserve  the  harmony 
which  had  al  ways  existed,  yet.  if  they  did  stop  w  ork. 


BiOI. 


728 


RIOT. 


he  would  shut  up  the  freiglU  houses  at  once.  The 
Committee  left  ilissatistied,  however,  and  went  out 
and  reported  to  the  men,  who  started  immediately 
to  so  to  the  Michigan  Southern  yards  to  consult  with 
the  men  there.  The  result  was  the  visit  of  another 
delegation  to  the  officials,  which  was  more  unsatis- 
factorj-  than  the  first. 

The  crowd,  composed  of  som?  500  Michigan  Cen- 
tral and  Illinois  Central  men,  then  started  in  proces- 
sion to  visit  the  other  yards  and  enforce  a  strike. 
The}'  proceeded  first  to  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio.wlu're 
the  men  fell  in  readily  and  without  much  persuasion. 
The  crowd  of  howling  men  and  boys  then  marched 
to  the  Rock  Island  j-ard,  between  Fifteenth  and  Six- 
teenth Streets,  where  they  took  the  men  off  their  en- 
gines and  told  them  they  must  quit.  The  mob  shut 
the  water  off  the  tanks,  and  when  everything  was 
fixed  to  suit  them,  thej-  started  for  the  Chicago,  Bur- 
lington it  Quincy .  Here  the  men  did  not  offer  the  most 
feeble  resistance,  but  left  tlieir  engines  and  switches 
at  the  word  of  command  from  the  mob.  The  agent 
of  the  Rock  Island  freight  house  shut  the  doors  at 
their  approach,  but  was  soon  compelled  to  open 
them  again.  The  crowd  visited  the  Chicago  &  Alton 
freight  depot,  but  were  met  b}'  the  men  of  that  road 
who  had  (juit  the  Company,  having  stopped  the  traf- 
fic, both  passenger  aod  freight. 

The  numerous  outrages  of  the  mob  warned  the  civ- 
il authorities  to  be  on  the  alert,  and  every  effort  was 
made  to  prepare  for  an  emergencj-.  The  First  and 
Second  N'olunteer  Regiments  and  the  Ellsworth  Zou- 
aves were  held  in  readiness  at  their  armories;  the 
Grand  Army  of  the  Republic  prepared  to  turn  out 
with  full  ranks  whenever  called  upon ;  and  a  large 
number  of  special  policemen  were  sworn  in  and  arm- 
ed. The  ]\Iayor  issued  the  following  proclamation: 

W/iereax,  The  railroad  troubles  and  strikes  which 
have  taken  place  in  several  of  the  large  cities  in  the 
country  have,  in  most  cases,  been  attended  with  in- 
cendiarism and  plunder;  and,  whereas,  some  of  the 
employes  of  a  few  of  the  railroads  in  this  city  have 
struck  for  an  advance  of  wages,  and  have  been  join- 
ed by  the  operatives  in  some  of  our  factories;  and, 
whereas, it  is  feared  that  the  bad  and  vicious  elcnu-nt 
in  this  comnumity  will  seize  this  as  a  favorable  op- 
jiortunity  to  destroy  propert}-  and  commit  plunder  ; 
tlierefore,  I,  by  the  authority  vested  in  me  as  JIayor 
of  the  city  of  Chicago, call  on  all  good  citizens  to  aid 
in  enforcing  the  laws  and  ordinances,  and  in  sup- 
pressing riot  and  oilier  disorderly  conduct.  To  this 
end  I  request  that  the  citizens  organize  patrols  in 
their  respective  ueighborlioods,  and  keep  their  wo- 
men and  children  oil  the  jjulilic  highways.  Proud 
of  the  deserved  reputation  of  all  classes  of  our  peo- 
])le  as  law-abiding  citizens,  I  trust  and  believe  no 
act  will  be  suffered  or  permitted  by  any  of  them  now 
which  would  disgrace  us  in  our  own  estimation  and 
that  of  the  country  at  large.  The  workingmen  must 
remember  that  all  industries  are  suffering  from  fi- 
nancial dejiression  throughout  the  countryrand  that 
acts  of  violence.  inste:id  of  tending  to  rectify  tln-ir 
wrongs,  will  tend  to  deprive  them  of  all  sympathy. 
The  city  government  has  made  ample  preparation  to 
protect  the  lives  and  properly  of  all  citizens,  and  any 
lawless  acts  will  be  promptly  detected  and  punished. 

This  was  followed  by  a  second,  closing  the  li<iuor 
saloons  of  the  city,  as  f  jllows: 

W/ifriti«,  The  public  mind  is  unduly  excited  owing 
to  rumors  of  strikes.  ;iii(l  ilic  fact  tliiit  some  excited 
and  bad  men  are  e(iML'rei.Mtjiig  and  endeavoring  to 
j)rom(jte  confusiim  and  disorder,  and  deeming  it  for 
the  best  interests  of  onr  citizens  of  all  classes  that  no 
<-ansc  be  given  or  permitted  to  infhience  passions  or 
l>rejudices  ;  therefore,  by  virtue  of  the  jmwer  and 
authority  vested  in  me  asjMayor  of  the  city  of  Chica- 
go, I  hereby  order  thai  all  saio<ins  in  the  city  be  clos- 
ed, and  that  nolir(Mor  br  solil  by  any  licensed  saloon 
keeper  or  others  from  and  after  six"  o'clock  p.m.  of 
this  date  until  further  r.olice,  under  pemdtv  of  the 
law  and  forfeiture  of  license.     All  patroln'ien  and 


policemen  are  hereliy  instructed  to  see  that  this  or- 
der is  promptly  and  vigonuisiy  enforced. 

On  the  same  day,  the  Governor  of  Illinois  issued  a 
proclamation,  in  which,  after  reciting  that  troubles 
were  occurring  in  certain  States,  he  called  upon  the 
people  to  aid  in  maintaining  the  peace;  enjoined  vigi- 
lance upon  Mayors,  Sheriffs  and  others  in  authority 
in  suppressing  violence,  and  declared  all  these  ques- 
tions must  be  regulated  by  ballots  instead  of  mobs. 
The  merchants  of  the  city  also  armed  their  employes 
and  made  preparations  to  defend  their  establish- 
ments against  the  mob.  '■  The  strike,"  said  a  t'hica- 
go  letter,  written  on  the  2.5th,"  has  brought  business 
at  the  banks  to  a  complete  standstill.  The  Express 
Companies  are  unable  to  receive  currency  for  ship- 
ment, hence  the  city  banks  are  unable  to  respond  to 
the  calls  of  country  institutions  for  funds.  The  im- 
possibility of  obtaining  currency  from  New  York  is 
also  inconvenient,  and  places  some  of  the  banks  who 
had  previously  telegraphed  there  for  funds  to  be 
forwarded  by  express, in  an  awkward  position.  Ex- 
change is  virtually  unsalable  from  the  fact  that  it  is 
deemed  iiseless  to  remit  East  with  the  expectation 
that  it  will  go  through. 

The  police  and  the  mobs  have  met  face  to  face 
about  one  dozen  times.  On  Twenty-second  Street, 
which  penetrates  the  lumber  districts,  two  skir- 
mishes occurred.  The  police  were  attacked  with 
stones,  clubs,  and  missiles  of  all  kinds,  but  they  did 
not  lose  their  temper  nor  their  patience,  and  blood- 
shed was  avoided.  They  have  been  provoked  to  the 
very  verge  of  madness  several  times  during  the  day; 
many  of  them  have  been  hurt  severely  with  clubs 
and  stones,  l)ut  they  have  obeyed  orders  and  behav- 
ed admirably.  At  noon  on  the  25th,  the  aspect  of 
affairs  seemed  so  threatening,  and  the  size  of  the 
communist  mob  appeared  to  be  increasing  so  rapid- 
ly, that  the  Mayor  issued  a  proclamation  asking  all 
gt'Od  citizens  to  organize  themselves  into  safety 
guards  in  their  respective  wards,  called  upon  all  to 
respect  the  laws,  and  asked  aid  and  encouragement 
for  the  military  companies  then  under  arms.  This 
was  followed  soon  after  by  an  address  signed  by  the 
Mayor  and  a  number  of  the  leading  merchants,  bank- 
ers and  journalists  of  the  cit\-,  calling  for  a  grand 
mas.s-meeting  at  the  Tabernacle  at  half-past  three 
p.  M.  At  this  meeting  there  were  fully  sixty  thou- 
sand business  men  present,  and  a  resolution  was 
adopted  approving  the  course  of  the  authorities,  and 
standing  by  them  in  their  efforts  to  preserve  the 
peace.  A  special  meeting  of  the  City  Council  was 
also  held,  and  a  resolution  was  adopted  giving  the 
Mayor  plenary  powers.  The  merchants  held  meet- 
ings in  different  jiarts  of  the  city  at  night,  for  the 
purpose  of  eft'ecting  an  organization.  The  strength 
of  the  mob  was  variously  estimated  at  from  25,000  to 
40,000  men.  I)\iring  the  night  they  caused  serious 
trouble.  A  mob  gathered  at  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton it  Quincy  round  house  soon  after  dark,  and  be- 
gan to  put  out  the  fire  in  the  engines.  For  nearly  an 
hour  they  stoned  tile  liuilding  and  crowded  around 
the  yards,  when  all  at  once  a  squad  of  police  that 
had  been  summoned  rushed  up  and  were  met  by  a 
volley  of  stones.  The  officers  drew  their  revolvers 
and  "fired  on  the  mob,  which  retreated  at  the  first 
fire.  Three  men  fell ;  one  was  carried  away  by  the 
mob.  It  is  said  that  sixteen  were  wounded  by  the 
firing,  which  lasted  ten  minutes.  'I'he  olficers  at 
length  exliausled  their  cartridges  and  ehargeil  upon 
the  crowd  with  their  clubs,  when  they  retreated. 
Soon  after  llu'  scpiad  retired  the  rabble  returned  and 
stoppedtheslreet  carsou  the  Ilalstead  Street  viadtict. 
stoning  the  inmates  imtil  they  alighted.  One  car  was 
torn  to  pieces,  and  the  others  taken  to  the  stables. 
The  rioters  next  broUe  inio  a  gun  shop,  comjiletely 
gulled  i  I,  taking  away  fifty  breeeh-loadiug  shotguns, 
one  hundred  and  lil'ly  revolvers,  and  several  kegs  of 
gunpowder.  They  "then  passed  off  south  toward 
Bridgeport,  and  gave  no  further  trouble  during  the 
(lav. 


SIOT. 


721) 


RIOT 


Durinj;  llic  iifliTiiooii.  ii  slrcni;;  force  nf  rri;iilar 
lro(ij)M  arrivi'il  from  (Iliicuuo  from  llic  fur  WikI.  TIh' 
prospcft  wiiM  Mf)  lliniilcniiii^  Hint  il  wuH  deciiicd  bcHt 
to  linlil  llicm  III  ('liic;ii;o. 

('liicUL'o  WHS  profoiimlly  excited  on  the  inorninf; 
of  tlic  2(U\\  of  .Inly.  1111(1  il  WHS  ;;ciicriilly  fell  llial  liii- 
diiy  woiil<l  iiol  puss  willioiit  11  serious  coiillici  Willi 
the  mol).  Tlii^  rioUrrs  called  llieiiisclves  workiri;;;- 
inen,  but  llwy  were  frenerally  loafers  and  liiiinnierH 
who  never  did  an  lionesl  day's  work.  The  leaders 
were  comiiiiiiiisls.  Hut  few  honest  workin'^nien  were 
found  in  the  crowd,  anil  the  railroad  men  could 
scarcely  lie  seen  in  il.  Atioiil  nine  o'clock  in  the 
nioriiiiii;  a  nicelini;  of  self-styled  workin^mcn,  main- 
ly made  u])  of  roughs  and  loaf<Ts,  was  c.invencd  at 
Turner  Hall,  within  a  block  and  a  half  of  the  police 
station.  Nobody  seemed  to  know  what  was  jjoini; 
on,  but  it  was  understood  that  eerlain  carpenters  and 
oabiiiel  makers,  represcnlinf;,  or  claiiniiii;  to  reprc- 
senl.  their  respeclive  tradi'H,  were  irathered  thiTc  for 
Conference.  The  mob  bei;an  to  i;alher,  and  siirfjed 
U])  and  down  on  the  sidewalk  and  in  the  slreel.  a 
howlini;,  yelping  mob  of  irresponsible  idiots.  They 
talked  of  what  they  were  goiiii;  lo  do.  and  how  they 
hud  i;otleii  tliiim;s  all  their  own  way.  every  lani;iia;;e 
except  Cliinescbeini;  iiseil.  The  communistic  element 
was  largely  reprcj'ented,  many  of  the  lowest  class  of  [ 
I'oles  and  IJohemians  beini;  on  lianil.  About  ten  [ 
o'clock  a  body  of-.lweiity-live  policemen  np|»'ared  on 
the  scene.  .Vs  they  neared  the  surj|;in!;  crowd,  the 
hootiivj;  and  yellinj;  became  terrific,  and  the  mob 
began  to  pell  the  officers  with  bricks,  stones,  and 
other  missiles.  The  police  stood  the  attack  cjuietly 
for  a  few  minutes;  but  this  encourairinj;  the  mob  to 
greater  violence,  a  charjie  was  ordered,  and  the  men 
turned  upon  their  assailants,  hiltin};  ri<;lil  and  left 
with  their  clubs,  and  hitlini;  lo  hurt.  Outside  the  po. 
lice  station  was  another  detachment  of  olticers,  nuin- 
bering  about  a  score,  who  speedily  came  to  the  as- 
sistance of  their  comrades.  There  was  a  very  lively 
tight  for  a  few  minutes,  but  discipline  and  organiza- 
tion jiroved  too  much  for  the  rioters,  who  were  soon 
put  to  rout.  The  police.  Imvini;  disposed  of  the  out- 
aiders,  forced  their  way  into  tlii!  Imll.  In  the  second 
story  they  foiiml  a  panic-strii-ken  mob  of  perhaps 
one  hundred  and  lifly.  who,  in  Ihcir  frantic  etiorts 
to  escape,  ran  hilher  and  thither  like  rats  in  a  pit. 
Many  jumped  from  the  windows,  and  so  gained  the 
street,  but  some  seized  chairs  and  other  pieces  of 
furniture,  with  which  they  attempted  to  defend  them- 
selves. A  good  many  were  hurt  during  these  oper- 
ations, but  none  fatally,  and  only  one  of  the  special 
police  received  any  ilamage.  lie  was  led  back  to 
the  station,  where  it  was  found  Ihal,  aside  from  a 
cut  on  the  head,  of  no  great  depth,  he  was  all  rii;lit. 
and  lie  remained  on  station  duty  during  the  clay. 
The  crowd  spread  it.self  over  the  neighborhood,  many 
of  the  rioters  having  received  a  lesson  which  will 
lead  them  lo  respect  the  police  a  trille  more  in  the 
future.  While  ine  rioting  about  Turner  I  lull  was  in 
progress,  a  crowd  of  boys  and  roughs  gathered  about 
the  llalstead  Street  viaduct.  The  street  cars  were 
stopped,  ami  for  some  time  il  appeared  as  if  the 
roughs  were  to  have  everything  their  own  way.  A 
detachment  of  twenty-five  policemen  sent  to  disperse 
them  was  received  with  stones  and  revolvers.  The 
police  returned  the  fire  with  goo<l  elTect,  knocking 
over  several  of  the  rioters  with  their  bullets.  But 
the  crowd,  tieing  constantly  swelled  by  reinforce- 
ments, niainlainedtheir  ground.  Stones  were  thrown 
at  the  police  from  the  roofs  of  hou.ses  andfroin  alley- 
ways. Having  exhausted  their  ammunition,  the  of- 
ficers at  length  retired,  the  mob  following,  hooting, 
yelling,  anil  throwing  stones.  On  meeting  with  a 
detaciiment  sent  to  reinforce  them,  the  police  turned, 
and  made  a  vigorous  charge  on  the  rioters,  and 
scattered  them  in  all  directions. 

This  defeat  by  no  means  disheartened  the  mob, 
and  thev  gathered  again  at  the  llalstead  Street  via- 
duct.    \i\  eleven  o'clock   thev  numbered    fully  ten 


IlioUHMnd  men  and  boys.  The  undecided  peaceful- 
nesH  of  the  horde  had  vanished;  llieir  niimberHM-ein- 
ed  to  inspire  Ihem  with  the  valor  of  savugcH  ;  and  il 
was  evidenl  Ihal  they  wiTc  bent  oil  violi'iice,  and 
would  hesitate  al  nothing.  The  norlii  approach  to 
the  llalstead  .Street  viaduct,  and  the  •Iriiclure  ilself, 
were  black  with  the  mass  of  rioters.  'I"lie  aspect  of 
1  aflairs  was  ho  Ihrealeniiig  that  a  strong  body  of  po- 
lice was  sent  lo  the  viaduct  witli  ordern  to  dispefHt- 
the  mob.  The  inoiner.l  I  he  rioters  beheld  the  ap- 
proach of  the  polici',  who  marched  from  the  Ilarri- 
son  Street  station,  thi-y  broke  indiscriiiiinalely  and 
lied  lo  the  other  siile  of  the  viaduct,  houlini:  like 
fiends.  The  police  broke  into  a  run,  and  piirsiie<l 
them,  tiring  as  they  ran.  A  countercharge  was  made 
by  the  rioters  in  an  alletnpt  lo  pass  the  polici' on  the 
viaduct,  in  order  that  there  might  he  a  force  of  ilen- 
peradoes  on  each  side  of  the  beleaguered  |)eace  dc. 
tenders.  The  scheme  was  promptly  atid  credilably 
frustrated  by  a  free  use  of  the  baton  and  a  display 
of  pistols,  from  which  blank  carl  ridges  were  lireil. 
The  mob  then  i>ilched  itself  headlong  down  the  de- 
scent across  Sixteenth  Slreel,  and  a  similar  crowd 
went  east,  in  the  direction  of  the  Chicago,  liurling- 
ton  it  (Juincy  freight  houses.  There  was  a  brief 
moment  of  inactivity;  during  which  the  police  form- 
ed in  line  and  ]>repared  for  a  charge.  1  his  was  the 
signal  for  a  shower  of  stones,  pistol  shots  and  other 
missiles.  For  a  little  time  the  wildest  disorder  pre- 
vailed, and  il  was  evident  that  the  police  were  just 
a  little  alarmed,  as  well  they  might  have  been,  at  the 
overwhelming  force  arrayed  against  them.  For  half 
an  hour  the  discharge  of  weapons  was  kept  up  at 
short  intervals,  in  reply  to  stones  that  were  being 
continually  ])elted  down  from  all  sides.  With  every 
moment  otiielay,  during  which  the  rioters  were  un- 
harmed, the  belief  grew  in  their  minds  that  the  po- 
lice were  not  firing  bullets,  and  they  began  surging 
near  a  central  focus.  Several  times  did  a  few  of  the 
more  daring  attempt  to  break  in  upon  the  police, 
and  each  time  they  were  successfully  repulsed.  The 
police  had  now  but  a  few  roundsof  ammiiniiion  left, 
and  it  was  evident  they  could  not  stand  their  ground 
much  longer  unless  reinforcements  <anie.  Seeing 
that  the  rioters  were  airain  closing  in  on  his  men.  as 
if  they  knew  they  could  not  fire  many  more  times, 
the  Sergeant  gave  the  order  to  his  men  to  fire  off 
rapidly  all  the  charges  they  had  left,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  withdraw  across  the  viaduct  towards  the  sta- 
tion. The  order  was  obeyed,  and  the  police  having 
exhausted  their  ammunition,  formed  in  line,  and 
started  back  across  the  viaduct.  The  tremendous 
crowd  of  maddened  roughs  at  once  started  in  hot 
pursuit,  throwing  volley  after  volley  of  stones,  which 
fortunately  failed  to  do  any  damage.  The  police  at- 
tempted to  auaril  their  retreat  at  first,  but  soon 
found  it  absolutely  imiiossible,  and  they  turned  and 
fled.  The  chase  for  life  and  death  was  one  of  the 
wildest  excitement.  The  vast  throng  hung  closely 
upon  the  heels  of  the  jiolice,  and  did  not  cease  to 
jiursue  till  the  latter  arrived  at  Fifieenth  Street.  The 
position  of  the  police  was  now  critical  in  the  extreme. 
The  rioters  were  pressing  them  hard,  and  unless  as- 
sistance should  come  il  was  jilain  they  would  never 
reach  the  station.  At  this  moment,  however,  a  cheer 
was  heard,  and  a  body  of  veteran  cavalry  dashed  in- 
to the  street  and  rode  rapidly  at  the  rioters.  This 
force  was  followed  by  sevend  large  wagons,  bearing 
reinforcements  of  police.  These  came  up  on  a  run. 
and  the  men  dismounted  and  joined  their  comrades, 
who  had  made  so  gallant  a  stand  against  the  mob. 
When  the  rioters  saw  the  cavalrj- and  reinforcements 
of  police,  they  turned  to  retreat.  Then  began  the 
most  destructive  scene  of  the  morning.  As  they  ran 
the  police  began  firing.  One  of  the  mob  was  shot 
throu!rh  the  brain  and  instantly  killed;  another  was 
killed  by  a  projectile  hurled  by  one  of  his  own  par- 
ly. The  police  used  their  clubs  effectively,  sparing 
lio  one.  The  police  made  no  attempt  to  cross  the 
viaduct  a  second  time,  hut  stopped  a  little  northward. 


EIOT. 


7;w 


KIOT. 


Tlie  cavalrj-  pushed  on  over  the  bridsi-  and  drove 
back  the  rioters.  During  the  remainder  of  the  day 
the  cavalry  were  kept  on  duty  in  the  vicinity  of  Ilal- 
stead  Street,  breaking  up  crowds  wherever  tliey 
would  collect,  and  capturing  rioters,  over  o:ie  hun- 
dred of  whom  were  sent  to  the  station  houses.  About 
eleven  o'clock  orders  were  received  by  the  Second 
Illinois  Regiment  to  proceed  at  once  to  the  scene  of 
disturbance.  The  men  were  instantly  gotten  under 
arms,  and  the  regiment  set  out  on  the  double  quick 
for  Halstead  Street,  accompanied  by  two  pieces  of 
artillerv. 

During  the  day  additional  companies  of  regular 
troops  arrived.  The  regulars  were  posted  at  vari- 
ous Tjoints  in  the  city  which  were  believed  to  be  in 
ihinger.  The  Second  Illinois  Regiment  was  kept  on 
duty  at  the  Halstead  Street  viaduct,  and  the  First 
Regiment  was  stationed  close  by.  Parties  of  cavalry 
and  police  patrolled  the  city  during  the  day,  making 
many  arrests.  The  rioters  did  not  dare  to  gather 
in  force  again,  but  small  crowds  constantly  asseinbl- 
ed  on  the  streets  as  fast  as  broken  up,  and  while  no 
effort  was  made  to  oppose  the  troops  with  force,  the 
rioters  vented  their  rage  by  cursing  them  roundly. 
Several  minor  encounters  took  place  between  the 
police  and  the  mob  during  the  afternoon,  but  no  gen- 
eral outbreak  was  attemjited.  The  rioters  were  still 
noisy  and  loud  in  their  threats,  but  they  were  too 
thoroughly  cowed  by  the  determined  attitude  of  the 
military  and  police  to  attempt  a  renewal  of  their  ef- 
forts of  the  morning. 

The  night  of  the  26th  passed  away  without  furth- 
er disturtjance,  the  city  being  held  "bv  the  regulars, 
the  volunteers  and  the  police.  The  rioters  were  fev- 
erish and  restless,  but  avoided  a  conflict.  They  liad 
lost  their  courage,  and  were  afraid  to  meet  the  force 
opposed  to  them.  On  the  morning  of  the  27th  a 
crowd  was  reported  to  be  gathering  in  the  quarter 
known  as  "Bridgeport."  Three  cavalry  companies 
and  two  companies  of  the  Second  Regiment  were 
ordered  to  the  spot.  The  Board  of  Trade  cavalry 
and  Colonel  Agramonte's  veterans,  some  three  lum- 
drcil  strong,  repaired  to  the  scene,  supported  by  the 
infantry.  The  mob  was  dispersed  without  difflcul- 
ty.  Tiie  Halstead  Street  viaduct,  the  scene  of  the 
disturbance  on  the  previous  day,  was  held  by  the  Sec- 
ond Regiment.  The  cavalry  patrolled  the  western 
part  of  the  city  throughoui  the  day.  The  mob  was 
sullen  and  cross,  but  it  was  beaten,  and  the  danger 
was  at  an  end.  The  ])olice  and  the  cavalry  had  or- 
ders not  to  allow  people  to  gather  in  crowds  in  the 
streets,  and  this  order  was  rigidly  enforced.  The 
Mayor  issued  the  followimr  proclamation  : 

The  city  authorities  having  dispersed  all  lawless- 
ness in  the  city,  and  law  and  order  being  restored,  I 
now  urge  and  request  all  business  men  and  employ- 
ers generall}'  to  resume  work,  and  give  as  much  em- 
ployment to  their  workmen  as  possible.  I  consider 
this  the  first  duty  of  our  business  conanuuity.  I  am 
now  amply  able  to  protect  them  and  their  workmen, 
fjet  every  one  resume  operations,  and  report  any  in- 
terference at  police  head-ciuarters.  Citizens'  organ- 
izations must  continue  in  force,  and  on  no  account 
relax  their  vigilance,  as  the  cause  of  trouble  is  not 
local  and  not  3et  removed.  All  such  organizations 
should  form  themselves  into  |)crmanent  bodies, 
continue  on  duty  and  re])ort  regularly  as  heretofore. 

From  this  time  the  cxcitcinenl  in  Chicago  gradti- 
ally  sul)sidcd.  The  conunuuisl  lea<lers  and  their  des- 
perate followers  saw  that  they  were  no  tnatch  for  the 
force  at  the  conunand  of  the  authorities,  and  were 
terrilied  by  the  wholesale  arrests  of  their  conu'ades. 
They  sliuik  out  of  siglit,  and  in  aday  ortwo  Chicago 
was  enjoying  its  normal  repose.  Th<'  railroad  men, 
disliearleneil  by  the  f.-iilure  of  thi'  strikes  on  oilier 
I)arls  of  their  roads,  surrendered  to  their  n^ipective 
companies,  and  relurned  to  (hity  at  the  old  wa^es. 

fuller  parts  of  Illinois  shared  in  the  general  cx- 
i^ilement,  but  no  serious  conttict  occurred,  nor  was 
any  great  damage  done  outside  of  Chicago.     At  I'e- 


oria  a  mob  seized  several  of  the  railroads  entering 
the  city,  and  attempted  to  stop  the  running  fif  the 
trains.  The  local  authorities  took  prompt  measures 
to  put  down  the  outbreak,  and  the  volunteer  compa- 
nies of  the  town  were  onic  red  out  to  assist  the  police. 
On  the  2(ith  of  Julj-  the  police  made  a  gallant  charge 
on  the  mob,  and  arrested  three  of  the  principal  lead- 
ers. The  prisoners  were  taken  to  the  jail,  and  the 
mob  followed  with  the  intention  of  rescuing  them. 
The  military  at  once  rejjaired  to  the  jail,  and  forced 
back  tlie  mob  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  The  mob, 
deprived  of  its  leaders,  was  powerless,  and  though 
threats  were  freely  inilulged  in,  no  further  violence 
was  attempted.  On  the  27th  of  July  the  Governor 
of  Illinois  issued  the  following  proclamation  : 

Wlifrecm,  Certain  persons  active  in  the  violation  of 
In.w  have  assumed  to  interfere  with  and  prevent  the 
movement  of  railroad  trains  in  this  State,  and  have 
sought  to  intinndate  honest  workingmen  entraged  in 
the  avocations  by  which  they  earn  their  daily  bread, 
and  to  compel  them  to  cease  from  their  labor ;  and 

Whereas,  This  condition  of  affairs  continues,  and 
is  intolerable,  entailing  as  it  does  disastrous  conse- 
quences, the  nature  and  extent  of  which  it  is  impos- 
sible to  foresee;  Thu-e/'H-c.  I,  Shelby  M.  Cullom, Gov- 
ernor of  Illinois,  acting  under  and  by  the  authority 
of  the  laws  of  this  State,  do  command  all  such  riot- 
ous and  disorderly  persons  to  desist  and  return  to 
their  homes,  and  do  call  upon  all  Sheriffs,  Mayors, 
and  otlier  officers  charged  with  the  execution  of  the 
laws  to  break  up  all  conspiracies  against  the  rights 
of  property  and  of  persons,  and  to  that  end  to  em- 
ploy every  lawful  means  in  their  power,  and  do  en- 
join upon  all  good  citizens  to  assist  in  bringing  about 
the  restoration  of  order,  the  resumption  of  Imsiness, 
the  moving  of  trains, and  the  revival  of  manufactures. 
I  further  give  notice  that  the  entire  military  force  at 
my  disposal  as  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  nnlitia 
will  be  employed  for  the  support  of  the  civil  author- 
ities in  this  endeavor,  and  that  orders  will  be  given 
to  the  troops  to  use  whatever  amount  of  force  may 
be  necessary  to  compel  obedience  to  the  laws.  In 
testimony  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and 
caused  the  great  seal  of  the  State  to  be  affixed. 

There  were  slight  disturbances  at  Decatur,  Effing- 
ham, Galesburg,  Joliet,  and  Carboudale.  but  no  out- 
break. Braidwood,  an  important  place  in  the  mining 
regions,  was  profoundly  excited  by  a  strike  of  the 
miners,  but  no  trouble  was  experienced.  At  East  St. 
Louis,  on  the  Illinois  shore  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
opi)osite  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  there  was  quite  a  for- 
midable strike,  and  the  State  authorities  were  com- 
pelled to  break  it  up  by  a  c(mcentration  of  the  State 
troops. 

The  city  of  St.  Louis  is  the  terminus  of  a  number 
of  important  railway  lines.  The  Mississippi  is  here 
spanned  by  a  magnificent  iron  bridge  which  gives  St. 
Louis  direct  connection  with  the  States  lying  east  of 
the  great  river.  The  eastern  end  of  the  bridge  is  at 
East  St.  Louis,  in  tlie  State  of  Illinois.  Here  the 
shops  and  round  houses  of  the  various  railroads  us- 
ing the  bridge  are  located.  East  St.  Louis  is  thus  a 
very  important  railroad  point,  and  being  so  closely 
connected  with  its  greater  neighbor  over  the  river, 
the  strikes  on  the  two  sides  of  the  river  were  really 
one  movement,  and  must  be  Irealed  as  such.  On 
the  22d  of  July,  signs  of  excitement  and  disaffection 
began  to  show  thi'inselves  at  East  St.  Louis,  A  se- 
cret meeting  of  the  railroad  men  was  held  in  the  after- 
noon, at  which  it  was  resolved  to  make  a  formal  de- 
mand upon  the  various  lines  centering  at  St.  Louis 
for  an  increase  of  wages,  and  to  inaugurate  a  gener- 
al strike,  should  the  demand  be  refused.  After  the 
.adjournment  of  the  secret  meeting,  an  out-doormeet- 
ing  was  organized,  in  which  about  two  hundred 
members  of  the  French,  (iernian,  Bohemian,  and 
English  sections  of  the  workingmen's  party  of  the 
United  States  from  St.  Louis  participated.  Their 
coming  was  greeted  with  cheers  and  much  enthusi- 
asm.    Several  speeches  were  made  by  the  leaders  of 


EIOT. 


HIOT. 


this  H<(  lidii,  in  wliicli  Ihcy  offerfid  Bympathy  for  the 
strikers,  1111(1  plcdj^cil  tliciiisclvis  lo  Hlaii(rt)y  llicm 
ill  tlicir  Mtnmiilr.  Il  was  sliilcil  from  I  In-  hIiukI  Unit 
there'  would  be  aiiollier  iiieetiii'^  lit  nif^lit,  eiiiiiposi-d 
siriclly  of  riiilroiid  iiieii,  lit  which  a  declaration  of 
their  purpose,  mid  what  aelioii  they  proposed  lo 
take,  would  he  made.  'I'lic'  section  <pf  the  workiiiff- 
iiieu's  party  heforif  referred  lo  held  a  ineeliiiujat  Tiir- 
iii-r's  llall  ill  the  afternoon,  and  after  several  speech- 
es on  the  labor  qyeslion  in  jceneral,  and  IIk^  present 
situation  in  particular,  they  unaniniuuHly  udoptedllic 
'   foMowiiiu:  resolutions  : 

IK//</VY/«,  The  workiiiL'iiien  of  the  dllTiTciit  rail- 
roiids  in  this  country  are  risini;  iii  iiuiKKf  lo  demand 
their  just  rii;hls  ;  and,  U7/av((,v,  The  rniled  Stales 
(ioveriiiiielit  has  allied  itself  on  llie  side  of  capital 
and  against  labor;  therefore,  ItiKiitnil.  That  we,  the 
workiii;;nicn's  ])arly  of  the  United  Slates,  hearlily 
sympatliize  witii  the  employes  of  all  the  railroads  of 
the  country  who  are  altemptiiit;  lo  secure  just  and 
eqiiilalilc  reward  for  llieir  labor.  /ifWcfrf, That  we 
will  stand  by  them  in  this  most  riirhteoiis  strujigle 
of  labor  against  robbery  and  <ippressioii,  through 
i^ood  and  evil  report,  to  the  end  of  the  slrujiglc. 

The  demand  agreed  upon  by  the  meeting  of  ruil- 
roail  men  was  made  upon  the  various  C'omiainies  (in 
the  night  of  the  3'2d.  but  was  refused.  At  midnight 
a  general  strike  was  begun  on  all  the  roads  at  East 
St.  Louis.  On  Ihe  morning  of  the  'i'.hX  it  was  an- 
nounced by  the  strikers  that  iiassenger  and  mail 
ears  might  be  run  on  the  eastern  roads,  but  lliat  no 
freight  Irains  would  be  permilled  to  pass.  The  men 
were  (piiet  and  orderly,  but  determined.  The  ('om- 
panies  generally  accepted  the  situation,  and  made 
no  effort  to  run  their  freight  trains.  The  men  of 
Ihe  Toledo  tfc  Wabash  road  had  nol  had  their  wages 
reduced,  and  declared  that,  though  lliey  had  no 
irrievance  against  llieir  Company,  they  struck  out  of 
fellowship  for  the  employi's  of  the  other  roads.  An 
elTorl  was  made  during  I  lie  morning  to  start  afreight 
train  on  the  Chicago  it  Alton  road,  but  the  sirikers 
slopped  it  and  took  il  back  into  the  yard.  Every- 
thing was  very  (piiet  in  the  I'nion  depot,  and  in  the 
yards  of  the  Union  Itailway  tt  Transit  Comi)any  of 
St.  Uoiiis  during  the  moriiing.  One  slock  train  was 
allowed  lo  cross  the  bridge,  but  none  \ver(^  permit- 
ted to  puss  after  twelve  o'clock.  The  employi'S  of 
the  Transit  Company,  who  do  duly  in  KasI  SI .  l.nuis, 
tifteen  in  number,  struck  with  the  tiremen  and  brake- 
men  of  the  railroad,  TheempIo_ves  of  the  Company 
on  the  St.  Louis  side  of  the  river,  whose  duties  are 
]ierformed  at  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Ihe  Union  depot 
in  moving  trains  in  the  yard,  through  Ihe  tunnel, 
and  across  the  bridge,  did  not  formally  strike,  Iiut 
they  were  idle  for  Ihe  reason  that  there  was  nothing 
for  them  to  do,  as  the  strikers  across  the  river  would 
not  permit  the  freight  trains  lo  pa.ss.  Tlie  Transit 
Company  rescinded  their  order  for  a  reduction  of  ten 
per  cent,  on  wages,  and  notified  their  employt^s  lo 
that  effect,  but  the  latter  look  no  notice  of  it.  Dur- 
ing all.  the  trains  on  the  Missouri.  PacilicA  St.  Louis, 
Kansas  City  iV  Northern  roads  went  out  and  came 
in  as  usual,  there  lieing  no  strike  on  tlio.se  roads 
vet,  r,or  had  the  employe's  manifested  any  disposi- 
tion to  take  action  in  the  matter.  The  St.  Louis, 
Iron  Mountain  it  Southern  Railroad  lUies  not  con- 
ucet  with  the  Union  depot,  1ml  has  i's  own  depot  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  city.  Kverylhing  was  ([uiet 
on  that  road,  and  liusiness  was  progressing  in  the 
regular  way.  The  strikers  in  Kast  St.  Louis  gave  a 
special  permit  to  the  Xational  Stock  yard  people  to 
use  their  own  locomolives  to  haul  feed  to  the  yards 
for  the  stock  there.  They  also  permitted  Ihe  Union 
Railway  <.t  Transit  Company  to  select  ten  men  to 
switch  passenger  trains  coining  to  the  Relay  depot  at 
East  St.  Lmiis,  and  (iestine(i  for  the  city.  On  the 
inorning  of  the  24lh,  Ihe  East  St.  Louis  strikers,  en- 
couraged by  having  been  unmolesled  by  the  civil  au- 
thorities, changed  their  plan  of  operation  and  re- 
fused lo  allow  the  ruuning  of  passenger  trains.     Upon 


1  the  arrival  of  theeftHlern  bound  I  ruin  on  the  Vandalia 
road  at  Ihi'  Relay  house  al  Ivasi  St.  I,oiii»,  an  i-(Tort 
was  made  lo  impede  its  progresn.  After  the  short 
halt  there,  which  is  ciiHloniury  with  all  trains,  and 
when  the  train  was  just  getting  in  niollon,  a  striker 
drew  the  coupling  pin  behind  liie  mail  carand  called 
mil  roiiirlily  to  the  eondiiclor,  "(jo  on  with  your 
!  Unileii  Slates  mail  ;  we've  got  nolhing  lo  complain 
[  of  against  the  Government."  This  raxh  act  and  de- 
claration was  greeted  with  loud  shouts  by  the  (Ive 
j  hundred  strikers.  The  eondiiclor  sleppi'd  out  on  tlie 
I  platform  of  a  car  and  appealed  lo  the  niob  lo  replace 
the  coupling  pin  and  perniil  liiiii  lo  proceed.  lie 
said,  ••  I  have  one  hiiiidred  and  Iweiily-llve  passen- 
gi>rs  on  board,  and  Ihey  have  paid  their  passage  to 
eastern  points  on  the  faith  of  your  promise  lliat  you 
would  not  interfere  with  passenger  Iravel.  You  are 
in  honor  bound  lo  let  them  pass,"  (Cries  of  "Thai's 
.so."  "  Let  them  go,"  etc.]  "  Il's  a  mean,  <onleiiipl- 
ible  trick,"  said  the  plucky  conductor,  "  and  if  you 
persist  in  il,  il  proves  that  you  are  nol  honorable 
men."  The  appeal  of  the  conductor  created  a  dis- 
sension in  the  ranks  of  the  strikers,  many  of  llieiii 
contending  that  Ihe  train  should  be  allowed  lo  pro- 
ceed, and  others  declaring  il  should  not.  Nearly  an 
hour  was  spent  in  wrangling  among  the  men.  and  if- 
nally  the  Comniitlee  in  charge  decided  to  let  the  train 
go,  and  it  is  unnecessary  lo  say  il  wi'nt  very  rapidly. 
In  the  meanlime  there  was  great  e.\citeiiient  among 
the  passengers  inside,  and  two  or  throe  of  the  ladies 
fainted,  one  of  them,  an  invalid,  being  slill  uncon- 
scious when  the  train  took  its  departure.  When  the 
mail  train  on  the  Cairo  narrow  gauge  road  arrived 
at  the  Relay  house  Ihe  passenger  car  was  deluclied 
from  the  mail  coach,  and  the  eomhictor  proceeded 
without  his  passengers.  In  the  meantime  the  lead- 
ers telegraphed  across  the  river  to  their  representa- 
tives in  the  city  nol  to  allow  any  more  passenger 
trains  to  pull  out  from  Ihe  Union  depot.  Al  eleven 
o'clock,  twenty-five  strikers,  boarded  an  engine  and 
tender,  steamed  througli  the  tunnel,  and  dashed  into 
the  Union  depot.  This  was  the  first  appearance  of 
the  strikers  in  the  limits  of  St.  Louis  proper,  and 
their  arrival  caused  a  great  sensation  in  that  hitherto 
quiet  neighborhood.  They  quickly  alighted  from 
the  engine  that  had  borne  them  over,  and,  with  a 
shout,  proceeded  across  the  depot  siieds,  where  thev 
seized  two  engines  belonging  to  the  -Missouri  road, 
and,  mounting  the  engines,  steamed  rapidly  up  the 
track  a  mile  and  a  half  to  the  machine  shops  of  that 
company.  The  workmen  in  the  employ  of  the  Mis- 
souri Pacific  Railroad  at  the  machine  shops,  num- 
bering two  luindred  and  fifty,  had  been  advi.sed  by 
the  strikers  that  they  would  la-  visited  during  the 
day,  and  when  the  strikers  arrived,  Ihey  received 
them  cordially,  though  they  continued  tiieir  work; 
and  in  answer  to  the  question  whether  they  were 
willing  to  strike,  replied  that  the  Pacific  Com- 
pany "had  partially  acceded  lo  their  demands,  and 
they  thought  they  should  continue  at  work.  "  Bm 
yoii  must  help  us  out,"  replied  the  leader  of  the 
strikers,  "and  in  order  lo  do  this  you  must  quit 
work."  -V  hmg  conference  between  the  strikers  and 
workmen  ensued,  and.  al  the  end  of  half  an  hour, 
the  former,  despairing  of  success  in  inducing  the  lat- 
ter to  strike,  withdrew.  A  number  of  policemen 
stationed  at  the  machine  shops  attempted  to  prevent 
Ihe  entrance  of  the  strikers  into  the  shops,  but  their 
efforts  were  fruitless.  From  here  the  strikers  re- 
turned to  the  Union  depot,  and  at  I  wo  o'clock,  when 
the  Belleville  passenger  accommodation  train  on  the 
Cairo  road  was  about  lo  start  out,  one  of.  the  lead- 
ing strikers,  stepped  aboard  the  engine  and  whis- 
pered to  the  enirincer,  who.  with  tlie  firemen  imnn  - 
diately  left  their  posts,  and  the  strikers  announced 
that  tiie  train  would  not  be  permitted  to  leave  the  de- 
pot. Officers  of  Ihe  road  expostulated,  but  for  over 
two  hours  the  strikers  were  firm  in  their  refusal  to 
grant  the  request.  At  the  end  of  that  lime  the  tniin 
was  allowed  to  go.    A  large  force  of  police  were  on 


RIOT. 


732 


EIOT. 


hand,  but  did  not  undertake  to  interfere  with  tlie 
striliers.  Tlirce  or  four  tliousand  pjople,  composed  of 
discontenled  and  unemployed  laboring  men, gathered 
under  the  depot  sheds,  and  much  incendiary  talk 
was  engaged  in. 

As  a  result  of  these  riotous  demonstrations  the  po- 
lice cleared  the  saloons  in  the  neighborhood,  and  or- 
dered them  to  be  kept  closed.  About  four  o'clock 
another  engine,  with  the  flat  cars  loaded  with  400 
strikers  from  the  eastern  shore,  arrived  at  the  depot, 
and  were  received  witli  loud  cheers  by  the  crowd. 
The  strikers  disembarked,  formed  in  line.  and.  with 
the  music  of  the  fife  and  drum,  marched  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  Pacific  machine  shops.  At  every 
street  crossing  the  procession  was  joined  by  numbers 
of  sympathizers,  and  by  the  time  the  siiops  were 
reached  there  were  2,000  men  in  march.  Arrived  at 
the  sliO]is.  they  found  that  the  shopmen,  being  ad- 
vised of  the  approach  of  the  strikers,  had  already 
quit  work,  and  were  on  the  platform  ready  to  receive 
the  strikers.  A  representative  machinist  received 
the  visitors  and  made  a  speech  to  them,  saying  the 
shopmen  had  concluded  not  to  strike,  but  to  quit 
work  in  deference  to  the  demands  of  the  strikers. 
They  had  no  cause  of  complaint  against  their  em- 
ploj'ers,  but  would  not  return  to  work  imtil  the 
strikers  had  secured  a  redress  of  their  wrongs. 

From  this  place  the  strikers  marched  to  the  North 
Missouri  Railroad  track  on  the  levee,  where  they 
took  possession  of  an  engine  and  ten  flat  cars,  and 
boarding  them  proceeded  to  the  round  house  of  that 
company  in  the  northern  part  of  the  city,  where  they 
were  met  by  the  employes  of  the  company.  A  con- 
ference was  held,  and  as  a  result  theemploytls  agreed 
that  no  more  freight  trains  sliould  be  allowed  to  go 
out  on  the  road  from  St.  Louis.  The  strikers  re- 
turned to  the  Union  depot  at  six  o'clock. 

The  arrival  of  the  troops  had  no  perceptible  effect 
in  cooling  the  ardor  of  the  strikers,  the  leaders  de- 
claring that  they  would  avoid  collision  with  the 
troops,  but  were  determined  to  cany  their  point  at 
every  risk.  By  nightfall  nearly  all  the  strikers  had 
deserted  the  eastern  side  of  the  river,  and  were  con- 
gregated at  the  Union  depot,  where  they  passed  the 
night.  During  the  day  there  was  great  popular  ex- 
citement throughout  the  city,  and  the  strike  was  the 
absorb. ng  theme  of  conversation.  A  serious  feeling 
of  apprehension  was  abroad  among  the  people,  and 
a  general  belief  prevailed  that  the  crisis  was  bound 
to  result  in  blood  and  devastation.  Tlie  city  author- 
ities had  been  very  jjassive  since  the  beginning  of 
the  strike,  and  their  attitude  excited  much  indignant 
comment  at  the  time.  It  was  based  upon  the  fact 
that  there  were  not  1,000  stand  of  arms  in  St.  Louis 
at  the  disposal  of  the  authorities,  and  it  was  deemed  i 
best  not  to  undertake  to  interfere  with  the  mob  until 
it  could  be  done  in  an  effective  manner.  In  the 
meantime  every  exertion  was  made  by  the  munici- 
pal authorities,  in  concert  with  a  number  of  pronun- 
ent  citizens,  to  obtain  arms  and  ammunition  for  a 
force  of  five  tliousand  men.  On  the  night  of  the 
24th  the  Internationalist,  or  Communist  leaders,  who 
have  a  large  following  in  St.  Louis,  held  meetings 
in  several  parts  of  the  city,  which  were  attended  by 
monster  audiences.  The  most  incendiary  sjieeclics 
were  made  and  threats  of  burning  llie  huildinsis  of 
the  newspapers,  wliich  had  criliciscil  Ihciu  oidy.  were 
indulged  in.  Processions  of  e.M-ilcd  men  marched 
through  the  streets  yelling  and  making  other  noisy 
demonstraticms.  A  large  proportion  of  the  city  p(). 
lice  force  had  been  withdrawn  from  the  regular 
beats  and  held  in  readiness  at  tlie  points  of  danger. 
The  morning  of  the  a.")th  found  tlie  city  greatly  e.\- 
eited.  About  nine  o'clock  a  crowd  of  1.000  men  as- 
Hcmbled  in  Lucas'  market  place  arounil  a  stand  erect- 
ed by  tlie  workingmen's  party,  while  two  or  three 
thousand  spectators  gathered  in  the  vicinity.  The 
crowd  was  made  up  mostly  of  wire-wnrkers  who 
had  struck,  and  strikers  from  other  manufacturing 
establishments.     At  ten  o'clock  thev  formed  in  col- 


umn and  marched  past  the  City  Hall  to  Turner  Hall, 
where  the  executive  committee  of  the  workingmen's 
party  was  in  session.  Half  an  hour  later  a  body  of 
500,  made  up  chiefly  of  negroes,  was  sent  to  the 
levee,  and  inarched  its  entire  length  for  the  purpose 
of  inducing  the  roustabouts  to  join  them.  The  strik- 
ers said  they  were  to  receive  explicit  orders  from 
hour  to  hour,  and  expected  to  stop  aU  manufactur- 
ing establishments  before  night.     * 

A  crowd  of  2, .500  people  gathered  at  the  Union 
depot,  but  nothing  of  importance  occurred  there. 
The  only  passenger  train  which  passed  over  the 
bridge  during  the  morning  was  the  Toledo,  Wabash 
tt  Western,  the  strikers  making  an  exception  in  favor 
of  that  road  because  of  its  position  toward  the  em- 
ployes in  the  past.  On  all  the  other  roads  onlj'  the 
postal  cars  were  allowed  to  leave.  The  Chicago  & 
Alton  people  refused  to  be  dictated  to,  and  at  the  reg- 
ular hour  sent  out  their  postal  car  and  baggage  car 
and  one  passenger  coach.  The  train  reached  East 
St.  Louis,  but  the  strikers  refused  to  allow  any  but 
the  engine  and  postal  car  to  proceed.  -This  dis- 
crim.ination  was  declined,  and  the  whole  train  was 
backed  over  to  the  depot  on  the  city  side.  The 
Missouri  Pacific  machine  shops  and  freight  depots 
and  yards  were  closed,  and  none  of  the  men  were  at 
work.  They  told  the  officers  of  the  road  that  they 
were  satisfied  to  work,  but  that  it  would  only  pre- 
cipitate an  attack  and  general  trouble  with  the  strik- 
ers. The  position  of  the  men  was  approved  by  the 
company,  and  the  shops  and  depots  closed  by  mutu- 
al consent.  The  company  sent  out  three  or  four 
freight  trains  between  one  and  five  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  but  decided  not  to  start  an}'  more  for  the 
present. 

A  large  delegation  of  strikers  from  the  city  visited 
Chelteuliam,  four  miles  west  of  the  city,  during  the 
morning,  and  ordered  the  men  out  of  the  smelting 
and  fire  clay  works.  They  offered  their  employers 
to  continue  at  work  if  protected,  and  a  request  was 
sent  to  police  head-quarters  for  a  detail  of  police, 
but  it  was  refused.  The  police  force  was  on  duty 
at  station  houses,  and  the  city  was  almost  entirely 
unpatrolled.  The  force  was  kept  in  reserve,  to  be 
useil  only  when  the  strikers  should  resort  to  vio- 
lence or  a  mob  should  be  formed.  Another  urgent 
request  for  a  detail  was  received  from  officers  of  the 
Union  Street  Railway,  an  important  line,  which  runs 
from  Fourth  and  Locust  Streets  to  the  Fair  Grounds. 
The  employes  notified  the  company  that  unless  the 
recent  cut  of  ten  per  cent,  was  restored,  they  would 
strike  at  twelve  o'clock  and  stop  the  cars.  Fears 
were  entertained  for  the  safety  of  property.  The 
police  were  instructed  to  be  in  readiness  to  march 
to  the  stables  upon  the  commission  of  any  overt  act, 
but  not  before. 

A  "  Citizen  Organization  for  the  Protection  of 
Property  "  was  organized  at  the  Four  Courts.  Meet- 
ings were  held  by  citizens  in  various  parts  of  the 
e\U ,  and  companies  were  also  formed  and  officered. 
These  at  once  reported  for  duty,  and  by  nightfall 
the  organizaticm  numbered  ISM  armed  men.  A 
company  of  fifty  men  was  organized  for  gun-boat 
service, "and  placed  on  the  city  harbor  steamer,  with 
order  to  patrol  the  river.  The  work  of  organization 
was  carried  on  rapidly,  and  by  noon  the  next  day 
10.(100  cilizeiis  had  enrolled  "themselves.  At  ten 
o'clock  on  tlie  nioniiiig  of  llie  2(itli  a  procession  of 
2.000  men,  consisting  partly  of  workingmen  who 
luul  joined  the  strikers,  but  mostly  of  loafers  and 
idlers,  marched  from  Lucas  JIarkei  to  (he  manufac- 
turing district  north  of  Wasliington  Avenue.  They 
first  visited  lieh-hers'  sugar  refinery. where  some  400 
employes  were  forced  to  (|uit  work  on  the  <lay  be- 
fore, and  finding  the  doors  closed,  broke  them  open, 
rushed  in.  extinguished  the  fires  in  the  furnaces  and 
displaced  tlie  machinery,  so  the  employes  {■ould  not 
return  to  work,  as  they  had  announced  their  iuten- 
lion  of  doing.  Many  of  the  workingmen  protested 
against  injurim;  or  "destroyiiej:  iiroperly  aud  abau 


EIOT. 


7'c) 


BIOT. 


chined  llic  prorcssion  ;  but  the  iiioli  continued  ilf 
rimieli,  visilinn  iil)iiut  forty  dilTereiit  fiielorieH  luid 
ll(jiir  and  pluMinn  mills,  ((irMiiilliiii;  llie  eniployi'H, 
ii;;grei;iilinii:  iieiiily  on<-  llidusiuid,  lo  ipiit  their  work 
and  elose  the  ilcKirs,  iUtliiiui;h  llii'  eniployc't  in  iiiiiny 
cuseH  eiirnestly  prciti'sli'd  iii;aiiist  heinj;  inlerfcred 
with.  .Several  jilaniiig  mills  wcn-amon^  tiieeslaliliHli- 
ineuts  closeil  l)y  tlio  liiob.  No  resper't  of  ikthohh 
WHS  shown,  women  and  j;irls  bein^  Irc'ated  in  the 
name  manner  as  tlie  men.  All  were  forecd  to  «top 
work  whether  they  were  willinj;  or  pot.  Tlie  opera- 
tions of  the  moh  were  fienerally  oiiiform. 

A  mob  of  nei^roes  proeeetieil  to  tjii*  levee,  and  forc- 
ed llic  ollieersof  all  the  sleamboat  compunic'S  and  in- 
dependent steamers  represent'^d  there  tosiirii  pled^ics 
to  increase  (he  waives  of  all  clu.sses  of  steamboat  and 
levee  laborers.  Their  (h'un'nds  were  of  the  most  e.\- 
tortionati'  character,  lie;  increase  insisted  upon  ranj;- 
inj;  from  sixty  to  one  mnulred  pe-  cent.  They  were 
very  peremptory,  I'lid  .vould  not  allow  a  boat  lo  leave 
the  wharf  unti'  iiiciv  demands  were  complied  with. 
The  rioters,  •,vcrv  very  insolent  and  deliant  lhroiij.diout 
the  d.-iy,  and  announced  Ihcir  intention  lo  close  every 
workshop  and  place  of  mamdaclure  in  St.  Louis. 
As  was  to  liave  b<'en  expected,  the  ncfirocs  were  by 
far  the  most  turbulent  and  uimiananeable  of  the  riot- 
ers. But  little  business  was  transacted  in  the  city. 
Many  of  the  stores  were  closed,  and  tlie  work  of 
arminir  and  drilliiii;  the  citizens'  force  at  the  Four 
Courts  was  carried  on  raiiidly.  The  HherilT  also  or- 
ganized and  armed  a  posse  of  '2,0(10  men.  The  Gov- 
ernor arrived  in  the  city  (hiring  the  morning  and 
fave  his  aid  to  the  work  of  suppressing  the  disorder, 
lie  armiiis;  ami  drillim;  of  lh(r  citizens  was  carried 
on  actively  all  morning  at  the  Four  Covirts  building. 
No  outward  demonstration  wa.s  mad<'  up  to  noon 
save  that  lieavy  guards  were  on  patrol  duty  in  front 
of  the  building.  Two  large  brass  ticld-pieces  loaded 
with  shrapnel,  and  with  horses  attached  and  ready  to 
move  at  a  moment's  notice,  were  kept  in  wailing  iu 
tlie  yard  of  (he  jail  in  charge  of  a  company  of  sixty 
men.  About  half-past  ti'U  o'clock  a  large  crowd 
niarcliing  in  procession  arrived  in  front  of  the  Four 
Courts  building.  The  rioters  broke  ranks  at  once, 
,aiul  surging  up  to  the  paveiiu'iit  pressed  liard  upon 
tlie  guards,  who  were  doing  duty  on  (he  side-walk. 
The  guards  were  immediately  reinforced  by  details 
from  within,  and  the  companies  were  formed  to  re- 
sist an  attack.  A  detachment  of  police  left  (be  build- 
ing at  a  run,  charged  the  rioters,  drove  them  back  a 
short  distance,  and  arrested  two  of  their  leaders.  A 
few  stones  were  tlirown.  but  the  mob  made  no  effort 
at  resistance.  As  the  police  withdrew,  the  mob 
pressed  up  close  to  the  side-walks  again,  and  jeered 
anil  taunted  the  military  force  in  the  most  insulting 
manner,  daring  them  to  fire  and  commence  a  tight. 
The  police  pressed  the  crowd  back  again,  and  it  with- 
drew for  a  square  without  resistance.  A  number  of 
noisy  and  unruly  men  were  arrested  by  the  police 
and  conflued  in  the  jail.  No  liisturbance  occurred 
during  the  day.  In  the  afternoon  the  Governor  of 
Missouri  issued  a  proclaniatiou  calling  upon  the 
rioters  to  cease  their  disorderly  conduct  and  inter- 
ference with  private  jiroperly,  and  to  disperse.  By 
the  morning  of  the  27th  tlie  city  authorities  felt  them- 
selves strong  enough  lo  put  down  the  mob.  and  de- 
termined lo  check  the  disturbance.  The  rioters,  up 
to  this  ])erioil,  bad  been  encouraged  by  the  failure 
of  the  |)olice  to  stop  their  lawlessness,  and  many  of 
them  were  convinced  that  neither  the  Mayor,  the 
police,  nor  the  citizens'  force  woulil  dare  provoke  a 
conflict  with  tliem.  They  were  now  to  learn  their 
error.  At  an  early  hour  on  the  2Tth  the  mob  began 
to  gather  at  Schuler's  Hall,  and  by  two  o'clock  up- 
wards of  two  thousand  men  were  congregated  in  the 
immediate  vicinity,  waiting  to  obey  the  orders  of 
their  so.called  executive  eommitlee.  the  body  spe- 
cially delegated  to  direct  the  movements  of  tin  crowd. 
Tlie'last  proclamation  of  the  Mayor  and  that  of  the 
State  Goverumeul  commanding  them  to  disperse  and 


return  to  thi'ir  liomcH  or  else  take  the  conHefjiifnceB, 
was   freely  (circulated   among  them,   but   a   general 
spirit  of  deliance  prevailed,  and  liold  Ihreats  of  arm- 
eil  resistance  was  made  on  all  hands.   Inside  the  hall 
the  executive  eommille(-  were  in  Hessioii  with  closed 
doors,  and  tller(^  too.  the  Hcntiment   expressed  wa» 
that  any   attempl  on  the   part  of  |iolice  or  iiiililiu  to 
drive  them  away  should  be  resisted  to  the  laHt.  Verb- 
al orders  were  circulated   among  tin-  mob  lo  stand 
linn  and  that  an  arine(l  force  would  iK.l  dare  to  mo- 
'est  them.  Thismeeling  being  reported  to  the  Mayor, 
il  was  resolved  by  the  city  authorides  (o  break  it  up 
and  arrest  the  hfaders.   I'or  (his  purpose  lif(y  iiioiint- 
ed  police, twenty-tivif  armed  with  miiskels,  and  about 
the  same  number  with  the  usual   club  and  pistol, 
were  ordered  to  proceed  lo  the  hall  and  makethear- 
resls.    That  there  should  be  no  failure,  five  hundred 
of  the  Cilizens'  (Jiiard  and  two  compiinieH  of  the  Na- 
tional (juanl,  with  one  piece  of  arliliery,  were  order- 
ed to  accompany  and  support  the  police  should  the 
crowd  offer  any  resistance,  or  attempt  to  rescue  the 
prisoners.     This  force  left  Four  Courts  at  2.90  f.  m. 
About  three  o'clock  the  military  force,  headed  by 
the  mounted  police, appeared  coming  up  Fifdi  Slreet. 
TUr.  c(jlumn  hailed  within  a  s(piare  of  the  crowd, and 
drew  up  in  line  across  the  street,  ready  for  a  charge, 
while  (he  |)iece  of  artillery  was  prepared  for  action. 
The  military  advanced  no  further,  but  the  order  was 
i;iven  to  tin"  police  to  charge  the  crowd  and  seize  the 
hall.  About  ouc-lialf  of  the  police  swept  down  on  the 
mob  at  a  gallop,  .scattering  the  rioters  right  and  left, 
driving  fully  three  thousand  men  befont  them.  They 
drew  tlieir  pistols  and  charged  (jn  the  crowd,  riding 
their  horses  along  the  sidewalks,  using  tlieir  rev(j|v. 
ers  as  clubs  while  the  least  hesitancy  to  move  on  oc- 
curred.    In  live  minutes  the  slreet  was  cleared,  and 
not  a  rioter  was  lo  be  seen  in  (he  vicinity  of  Schil- 
ler's Hall  save  those  in  custody.  In  the  meantime  the 
oilier  part  of  the  police  force,  had  advanced  to  the 
foot  of  the  stairs  leading  to  the  above  hall.     The 
whole  squad  went  up,  and  two  minutes  later  they 
brought  down  about  seventy  men  whom  they  found 
in  the  hall,  and  placed  them  between  lines  of  police, 
armed  witb  muskets,  and  the  whole  thing  was  over. 
Every  one  iu  the  upper  [larl  of  the  buiUJing  was  ar- 
rested.    One  man  altempled  resistance,  but  a  blow 
over  the  head  from  a  club  subdued  him  very  quickly. 
Having  secured  their  prisoners,  the  police  and  mili- 
tary marched  back  to  the  Four  Courts,  and  were 
•rreeted  along  the  route  with  cheers  from  the  citizens. 
After  the  departure  of  the  police,  a  few  of  the  mob 
returned   and  indulged   in  bitter   denunciations  of 
their  leaders  for  deserting  them,  but  it  was  evident 
that  the  backbone  of  the  riotous  assemblage  was 
completely  broken,  and  that  they  would  not  likely 
have  such  another  large  gathering.  Another  victory 
was  won  bv  the  authorities  earlier  in  the  day.  When 
the  27tli    (jpeiied,  the  Union   depot  was  held  by  a 
force  of  strikers.     The  civil  authorities  resolved  to 
put  an  end  to  this  stale  of  affairs,  and  at  eleven 
o'clock  a  battalion  of  four  hundred  men  was  des- 
patched from  the  Four  Courts  lo  the  Union  depot, 
with  orders  to  lake  possession  of  and  occupy  that 
building  and  drive  out  the  strikers.     The  arrival  of 
the  military  was  a  surprise  to  the  strikers,  who  held 
(he  depot  in  large  force.    About  half-past  eleven  the 
baltaliou  marched  in  with  loaded  rifles  and  fixed 
bavoneta.     Without  the  loss  of  a  moment  the  order 
wiis  given  to  clear  the  building  and  yards,  and  the 
troop's  executed  it  with  a  will,  driving  out  the  strik- 
ers with  the  bayonet.   The  movements  of  the  troops 
were  greeted  with  cheers  and  yells.     The  depot  and 
yards'beiug  .secured,  the  authoVities  announced  thai 
iio  more  interference  with  trains  would  be  permitted 
in  St.  Louis.    Encourased  by  the  promise  of  protec- 
tion, some  of  the  roads  on  tiie  west  side  of  the  Jlis- 
sissippi  resumed  their  freight  traflic  on  the  27th,  and 
the  rest  prepared  to  do  so  in  the  next  day  or  two. 
The  cilv  authorities  also  announced  their  readiness  to 
furnish  armed  suards  for  such  shops  and  manufac- 


HIOT 


734 


EIOT. 


turing  establishments  as  desired  to  resume  work. 
Three  meetings  were  called  by  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee of  the  workingmen's  party,  in  various  parts 
of  the  city,  on  the  night  of  the  27th,  but  two  of  them 
were  total  failures,  the  speakers  not  appearing,  and 
the  small  crowds  which  gathered  at  the  appointed 
places  soon  dispersing.  The  third  meeting  brought 
together  quite  a  large  crowd,  but  before  the  meetmg 
opened  the  crowd  was  dispersed  by  a  force  of  five 
hundred  policemen.  The  mob  wasnow  thoroughly 
cowed,  and  the  danger  was  over.  The  38th  of  July 
passed  away  quietly  in  St.  Louis,  there  being  no  dis- 
turbance of  any  kind.  A  number  of  the  leaders  of 
the  outbreak  were  arrested  and  imprisoned  :  their 
followers  made  no  attempt  to  rescue  them,  having 
no  desire  to  meet  the  five  thousand  armed  citizens, 
the  regulars,  and  the  police  who  now  stood  ready  to 
crush  any  uprising.  On  the  38th,  nearly  all  the  roads 
on  the  St.  Louisside  of  the  Mississippi  resumed  their 
freight  business.  Sunday,  the  39th,  passed  away 
tranquilly,  and  by  Monday  the  danger  was  at  an  end 
in  St.  Louis,  and  the  business  of  the  city  had  resum- 
ed its  accustomed  course.  The  expulsion  of  the  strik- 
ers from  the  Union  depot  on  the  37th  coufined  the 
strike  to  East  St.  Louis.  The  strikers  cougregated 
there  in  considerable  force,  and,  being  very  bitter 
over  their  defeat  in  the  city,  declared  that  they 
would  maintain  the  blockade  on  the  Illinois  shore 
with  even  greater  vigor.  They  were  not  to  succeed, 
however.  The  Ohio  &  Mississippi,  and  the  St.  Louis 
&  Southeastern  Railroads  were  being  operated  by 
receivers  appointed  by  the  United  States  Court.  The 
Court  ordered  the  United  States  Marshal  to  prevent 
the  strikers  from  interfering  with  these  roads.  The 
strikers  resisted,  and  the  Marshal,  being  unable  to 
execute  the  orders  of  the  Court,  asked  for  troops  to 
assist  him.  Ills  appeal  was  granted,  and  orders  were 
sent  from  Washington  granting  the  Marshal  all  neces- 
sary military  assistance. 

The  City  of  San  Francisco  contains  a  large  Chinese 
population.  Between  these  and  certain  portions  of 
the  white  inhabitants  there  has  always  been  a  bit- 
ter enmity.  The  working  classes  are  especially  hos- 
tile to  the  Chinese,  as  they  regard  them  as  rivals  in 
the  labor  market;  but  the  bitterest  enemies  of  the 
Mongolians  are  the  "Hoodlums."  or  the  idle  loafers, 
street  loungers,  and  "bummers,"  of  the  city.  Many 
riots  have  occurred  between  the  Chinese  and  their 
enemies  in  San  Francisco,  and  not  long  since  it  was 
seriously  proposed  bj'  the  whites  to  organize  a  delib- 
erate movement  for  the  purpose  of  compelling  the 
Chinese  to  leave  the  entire  State  of  California.  It 
was  well  understood  in  San  Francisco  that  this  feel- 
ing of  hatred  to  the  Chinese  only  lacked  a-favorable 
opportunity  to  break  out  into  open  hostility.  The 
news  of  the  labor  troubles  in  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern States  was  received  wilh  profound  interest  in 
San  Francisco,  especialh'  by  the  working  classes. 
On  the  evening  of  the  33(1  a  workmen's  meeting  was 
held,  and  was  attended  l)y  about  10,000  persons. 
The.se  riots  were  in  no  way  connected  with  the  rail- 
road riots  east  of  the  Ro<'ky  Mountains.  They  were 
a  brutal  and  unprovoked  outbreak  of  the  worst  ele- 
Micnls  of  Ihc  city,  and  were  caused  l)v  nothing  l)uta 
love  of  violence  and  disorder  on  the  part  of  those 
who  engaged  in  them.  As  they  occurred  sinudtane- 
ously  with  the  railroad  troubles  in  the  East,  they 
are  generally  classed  with  them:  and  for  this  reason 
have  been  noticed  here. 

The  anthracite  coal  regions  of  Pennsylvania,"  gen- 
erally recognized  as  the  '  northern,'  •  middle.'  and 
■  soiuhern '  coal  basins,  arc  comprised  within  or 
bounded  by  a  line  of  mountain,  which,  foriniui;  it- 
self some  distance  eastward  from  .Mau(.li  Cliuiik, 
takes,  un<ierthe  name  of  the  '  Second  Mountain,'  a 
southwesterly  course  to  the  Susquehanna  Kivcr, 
leaving  the  towns  of  ^lan<h  Cluink,  Tama(|ua,  I'otts- 
ville,  and  Trenionl  to  the  north  ;  thence  in  a  north- 
easterly course,  as  the  "  I'eters  Mountain,"  to  a  point 
nearly  southwest  from   Tower  City;  thence   nortli- 


wcstwardly,  as  '  Berrie's  Mountain,'  again  crossing 
the  Susquehanna  ;  thence  southwestwardly  to  Tay- 
lorsville,  as  the  '  Mahantongo  Mountain ';  thence 
not h west wardly  again  in  the  direction  of  the  Susque- 
hanna, as  the  '  Line  Mountain';  thence  bearing  in  a 
southeasterly  direction,  as  the  '  Little  Mountain,' 
leaving  Sliamokin,  Ashland,  Shenandoah,  and  Ma- 
hanoy  City  to  the  south,  to  a  point  in  Union  Town- 
ship, Schu3lkill  County.  Here  the  mountain  runs 
almost  due  north  for  some  miles,  as  the  '  Catawissa 
Mountain,'  when  its  course  is  again  changed  to  south- 
easterly, as  the  '  Nescopeck  Mountain';  thence  north 
and  northwest,  as  the  '  Wyoming  Mountain  ;'  and 
thence  again  in  an  easterly  direction,  running  north 
of  Wilkesbarre  and  Scrantou,  as  the  '  Shickshinny 
Mountain.'  Within  the  area  inclosed  by  this  moun- 
tain lies  all  the  at  present  discovered  anthracite  coal 
of  Penn.sylvania.  It  embraces  not  only  the  large  ba- 
sins before  named,  but  also  a  number  of  compara- 
tivel}'  small  detached  coal  fields.  .  .  .  Within  this 
area  are  enclosed  the  coal  producing  portions  of 
Carbon,  Schuylkill,  Bauphin,  Korthumberland,  Col- 
umbia, and  Luzerne  C'ounties,  and  it  is  to  a  great  ex- 
tent occupied  by  a  series  of  majestic  mountains,  the 
Sharj),  tlie  Broad,  the  Big  Maiiano}',  the  Little  Ma- 
hanoy,  the  Locust,  the  Green,  the  Macaule}',  and 
others."  Dauphin  and  Columbia  are  agricultural  as 
well  as  mining  counties,  but  the  others  are  strictly 
mining  counties.  By  the  census  of  1870,  the  popu- 
lation of  the  purely  mining  counties  was  as  follows  : 
Carbon,  38,144;  Schuylkill,  116,4.38;  Northumber- 
lainl.  41,444  ;  Luzerne,  160,75.').  Since  the  census  of 
1870  the  population  of  these  counties  has  largely  in- 
creased. 

The  business  of  mining  coal  has  drawn  large  bod- 
ies of  men  to  these  counties,  and  has  gathered  them 
at  fixed  points,  in  cities,  towns,  and  large  mining  set- 
tlements. The  amount  of  arable  land  being  small,  on 
account  of  the  moimtainous  character  of  the  country, 
but  a  limited  portion  of  the  area  is  under  cultivation. 
The  natural  formation  of  the  coimtry  is  very  favora- 
ble to  lawlessness.  A  walk  of  a  few  minutes  from 
an}'  of  the  towns,  in  almost  any  direction,  leads  to 
glens  and  haunts  where  one  might  hide  in  safety  for 
months  from  the  police. 

Not  onh'  is  the  singular  feature  presented  of  near- 
ly the  whole  population  of  the  coal  regions  living 
in  cities,  towns  and  small  settlements,  often  called 
"  patciies,"  but  the  character  and  habits  of  the  popu- 
lation in  the  several  settlements  differ  widely  from 
each  other.  Scranton.  Wilkesbarre,  !Mauch  Chunk, 
Pottsville,  and  Tamaqua  are  all  business  centers, 
wherein  are  located  banks,  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, the  general  offices  of  railroads  and  coal  com- 
panies, large  stores,  and  where,  to  a  great  extent, 
the  wealth  of  the  region  naturally  clusters.  The  ci- 
ties and  towns  are  not  only  business  centers,  but  of- 
fer additional  inducements,  social,  educational,  and 
religious,  to  the  coal  operatorand  those  whose  means 
enable  them  to  retire  from  business,  in  the  selection 
of  a  place  of  residence.  As  a  consequence,  they  have 
lost,  in  a  great  degree,  the  distinctive  character  of 
mining  settlements,  and  dilTer,  perhaps,  from  other 
places  of  equal  size  throughout  the  country  only  in 
Ix'iiig  more  cosmopolitan  ;  this  arising  from  the 
wide  range  embraced  by  their  business  operations, 
and  the  varied  character  of  the  inhabitants.  Towns 
such  as  Ashland,  Slieuandoah,  Mahanoy  ('ity,  Mi- 
ner.sville,  St.  Clair,  Hazletou,  Pittston,  Plymouth, 
and  many  others  of  large  jjopulation,  to  a  cer- 
tain degree  partake  of  the  character  of  business 
and  social  centers,  but  the  mining  classes,  being 
liirgely  in  the  majority,  regulate  and  altogether  con- 
trol them.  Besi(l<'s  these  two  classes  of  towns  there 
are  a  great  number  of  'patches'  or  settlements, whose 
population  is  entirely  coinjiosed  of  miners  and  labor- 
ers and  those  whose  business  is  directly  or  indirectly 
connected  with  the  mines.  While  the  admixture  of 
the  foreign  element  pervades  every  part  of  the  region, 
in  larite  cities  and  (owns  native  born  <iti/,ens  of  the 


EIOT 


735 


RIOT. 


Unitcfl  Stales  liold  control,  but  ut  tlie  coHierj'  towns 
the;  power  of  tlic  forei!,Micr  Ih  iiliHolule.  lu  tlii'He  ItiHt 
»lill  fiirlh<>r  diviHions  are  made,  some  l)<'iii(^  idinoHt 
exclusively  composed  of  Irisliiiieii,  with  unlives  of 
Qiie<'iis  and  oilier  eoiiulies,  Ireland,  larijely  ill  the 
inajorily.  In  such  towns  nut  (inly  have  the  nninners, 
ensliinis  ami  inoilrs  of  th<iiii:hl df  the  Irish  people 
been  Inuisplanled,  hnl  evc-n  llic  local  prejudices  in- 
cident to  cerlaiii  localities  in  thai  lieniiliful  l)Ut  in 
many  respects  nnforlnnate  land.  Coinin;;  here  fresh 
from  the  contest  with  the  laiidloril  and  land  aj;''"' "> 
Ireland,  with  no  sorroniidini;  inthiences  to  leach 
them  their  error,  they  transfer  a  prejiidicir  whi<'li 
has  urouii  with  their  s;rowlh  anil  streii::tlieiied  willi 
their  strennth,to  the  coal  operator  and  the  boss  from 
whom  they  derive  their  siilisislencc.and  under  whose 
dirc<'lion  they  work.  Tauuhl  from  infancy  to  bi-lieve 
that  as  auainsi  them  capital  is  never  used  <'.\cept  as 
an  instrument  of  oppression,  under  the  influence, 
sometimes,  of  real  wroni;s,  but  more  fre(iuen;ly 
under  a  mistaken  belief  of  encroachnicnt  upon  their 
rij;htH,a  spirit,  of  resistance  is  aroused,  which  wicked 
anil  (lesii;ninn  wretches  have  ho  used  and  controlled 
as  to  render  the  undeti'cted  commission  of  horrid 
crimes  not  only  easy,  but,  to  a  certain  extent,  syin- 
pathiz<'d  with.  That  the  above  is  no  jusiilicaiion 
for  such  a  state  of  alTairs  is  true;  neviTlheless,  it 
I'xplains,  or  lends  toexplain,  the  ])ossiliility  of  its  ex- 
istence. Such  is  the  region  thai  has  become  notori- 
ous llirou|Tliout  the  Union  as  the  country  of  the 
Mollie  Maguires  and  the  scene  of  their  terrible 
crimes. 

The  order  of  the  "Mollie  Masiiiircs"  is  of  forciffn 
birth,  and  was  imporled  into  this  country  from  Ire- 
laud.  It  was  organized  there  by  the  Irish  peasantry 
as  a  means  of  opposins^  a  combined  resistance  to  the 
exactiims  of  the  landlords.  HroiiLjhl  lo  this  country  I 
by  the  emii;rants  who  found  work  in  the  coal  rei;ioiis 
of  Pemisylvania,  it  beiame  an  <ir;ranization  which 
souirht  to  control  the  relations  of  tlieininers  towards 
their  employers  and  to  eoiu|iel  the  latter  to  submit 
to  any  demand  the  former  minht  impose  upon  them. 
The  "  Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians"  is  a  lari^e  and 
powerful  Irish  society  extendini;  Ihrouiihout  the 
United  States.  Its  objects  are  iirofessedly  benevo- 
lent. It  is  re^jularly  incorporated  under  the  laws  of 
the  various  Stales  in  which  it  exists.  Outside  of  the 
coal  regions  of  Pennsylvania,  there  is  no  |)osilive 
proof  that  the  society  is  at  all  criminal  in  its  char- 
acter. The  worst  cjiarije  that  has  been  l)rouglit 
against  it  is  that  it  supported  and  continued  its  re- 
lations with  IheJIollie  .Maijuires  after  their  exposure, 
and  raised  a  larije  sum  by  assessments  upon  its  mem- 
bers throusrhoul  the  I'nion  to  defray  llie  expenses  of 
the  defen.se  of  the  Mollies  chari^ed  wilh  crime  in  the 
coal  regions.  The  order  is  secret,  and  wields  an  im- 
meiisi^  influence  over  its  members.  Its  members  are 
Homan  Catholics,  uolwilhstandimi  the  fact  that  it 
has  been  nomiiuitiiit  condemned  by  the  Holy  »^ee. 
and  is  under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  The  Mollie 
Masjuires  were  all  members  of  Ihe  Ancient  Order  of 
lliliernians.  In  the  coal  fields  of  Pennsylvania, 
they  controlled  the  Order,  and  jrave  tfieir  society's 
naiiie  to  it.  Hence  we  shall  speak  of  theorder  simply 
as  the  Mollie  .Mai^uires.  The  principal  work  of  the 
order  in  Irclaiiil  was  the  shooting  of  the  agents  of 
the  Irish  landlords.  It  is  said  lo  have  received  its 
name  from  a  ferocious  Irishwoman  who  particular- 
ly distinguished  herself  in  this  work.  The  Mollies 
appi'ared  in  Pennsylvania  as  early  as  Ihe  year  isr)4, 
when  it  became  evident  lo  Ihe  authorities  that  a  criin- 
iual  organization  existed  in  Ihe  counties  of  Schuylkill 
and  Carl)on.  The  members  of  this  organization  were 
popularly  lermeil  "Huckshols."  They  gave  consid- 
erable trouble  to  Ihe  authorities,  Imt  were  not  con- 
sidered especially  dangerous  during  the  next  five  or 
six  years.  The  great  demand  for  coal  which  the 
stimulus  of  flu-  Civil  War  produei'd.  and  which  set 
in  about  the  year  186-2.  drew  an  immense  population  , 
to  the  Pennsylvauia  coal  liclds,  and  as  a  verj'  large  i 


proportion  of  the  newcomcrfi   were  IrlflhDicn,  the 

Htrengtli  and  powr^rof  Ihe  Mollie  MiiKuires  incrcmt- 
ed  with  the  growth  rif  Ihe  population.  The  exiHt- 
ence  of  the  order  was  known,  but,  as  its  niemberH, 
when  (pnstioned.  stoutly  denied  their  connection 
with  it  and  preserved  the  most  rigid  H<:crecy  resijcct- 
ing  its  transaclionh.  nothing  was  known  witli  cer- 
tainty by  the  authorities. 

In  the  summer  of  iMO'i  the  (Irst  draft  for  the  pur- 
pose of  tilling  up  the  ranks  of  the  United  Slates  Ar- 
my was  ordereil.     Active  iireparatians   were  made 
by  the  .Mollies |in  Schuylkill  and  ('arljon  Counties  to 
pri'vent   the  enrolment.     In  both  counties  the  enrol- 
miiil  was  eirccted,  however.     This  led  to  nunierouH 
threats  on  Ihe  part  of  the  .Mollies,  and  in  Carbon 
Counly  lo  much  violence.     .Men  connected  with  the 
draft,  or  representing  the  capitalists  operating  the 
mines   were  assaulled.  beaten   and    murdered,  and 
houses  were  burned  by  unknown  parlies.     The   au- 
thorities seemed  powerless   lo  detect  or  punish   the 
])erpefralors  of  these  outrages,  and  tin:  country  was 
jiluniied  into  a  slate  of  terror.     Xofices  were  served 
upon   leading  coal    operators  lo  suspend  operationH 
until  after  thedisconlinuance  of  the  draft. and  bosses 
and  miners  were  warned  that  if  they  went  lo  work, 
they  would  do  so  at  the  peril  of  their  lives.     Upon 
one  occasion  in  the  summer  of  IHtilt,  a  large  body  of 
arme<l  Mollies  entered  the  town  of  .Mauch  Chunk, 
overawed  the  citizens,  seized   the  jail,  and   released 
a  nunda-r  of  Ihe   prisomrs.     From   this  lime  on  to 
INtiT,  mori-  than   tifly   nnirders  were  committed  in 
Schuylkill  Counly.     Of  these,  twenty-seven,  or  more 
than  one-half,  were  conunitled  by  unknown  persons, 
and  may  be  safely  set  rlown  to  the  .Mollie  Magnires. 
The  chief  stronghold   of  this  order,  liowever.  waa 
Carbon  Counly.  where  they  had  matters  very  much 
their  own  way.     During  all  this  while  none  of   the 
^lollies  had  been  convicted  of  Ihe  crimes  they   liad 
committed.     Arrests  of  suspected   parlies  had  been 
made,  and  they  had  been   brought   lo  trial  in  some 
instances  :  but  the  Stale  had  been  unable  lo  convict 
them.     The  friends  of  the  jirisoners  were  always  on 
hand,  ready  lo  swear  to  anything  necessary  to  se- 
cure their  acipiillal.     Whenever  a  inendier  of  the  or- 
der was  tried  for  an  offense,  a  convenient  alibi  was 
.set  u])  and  sustained   by  as  many  witnesses  as  were 
thought  necessary.     .Vn  acquittal   was  liuis  readily 
secured,  and  I  he  law  was  rendered  powerless  to  pun- 
ish the  guilty  parties.     Large  rewards  were  offered 
l)y  the  civil  aulhorities  and  the  coal-mining  com- 
panies, and  strenuous  efforts  were  made  to  l)ring  the 
murderers  to  justice,  but  up  to  1871.  no  Mollie  had 
ever  lieen  convicted  of  niurilerin  Ihe  first  degree.  So 
stroui:  had  the  Mollies  become,  especially  in  Schuj'l- 
kill  and  Carbon  counties,  that  lliev  did   not   believe 
the   authorities    could  punish  Ihem,  and  regarded 
themselves  as  at  liberty  to  carry  out  their  pfan-s  as 
they  liked. 

As  has  been  said,  the  authorities  of  the  counties 
embraced  in  Ihe  coal  regions  were  convinced  that  the 
reign  of  lawlessness  in  their  midst  was  due  to  a  pow- 
erful secret  organization  of  Irishmen,  and  they  had 
learned  that  it  was  known  as  the  Mollie  .Maguires, 
but  bevond  this  they  could  discover  nothing.  De- 
tectives had  been  set  to  work  to  ferret  out  Ihe  mys- 
terious order.but  had  been  baffled  and  forced  to  give 
up  their  elTorls  in  despair.  The  Mollies,  secure  in 
the  mvstery  wilh  which  they  enshrouded  themselves, 
continued  their  horrid  work,  and  laughed  at  the  au- 
thorities. Meanwhile  Ihe  respectable  inhabitants  of 
the  coal  regions  lived  in  a  slate  of  constant  terror. 
>so  man  could  tell  when  his  life  ndght  be  taken  or 
his  property  destroyed  by  the  terrible  order,  which 
struck  its  blows  in  the  dark  and  without  assigning 
any  reason  for  them.  So  strong  had  the  Mollies  be- 
come, that  they  even  ventured  lo  take  possession  of 
the  very  machinery  of  Ihe  law  by  causing  thenisi'lves 
lo  be  elected  lo  pulilic  offices  in  Ihe  counties  of 
Schuylkill  and  Carbon.  Having  gained  possession 
of  the  otiices  tliey  proceeded  to  manipulate  the  pub- 


RIOT. 


73  G 


RIOT. 


lie  funds  in  the  interests  of  their  orsjanization.  They 
became  a  potent  influence  in  State  politics,  and  Jolm 
Kelxoe.  county  delegate  for  the  Schuylkill  branch  of 
the  Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians,  openly  boasted  of 
his  ability  to  extend  the  influence  of  the  society  into 
national  politics.  Mollies  were  repeatedly  elected  as 
county  commissioners  and  school  directors.  In  one 
instance  a  member  of  the  society  was  sent  to  the  leg- 
islature, and  one  of  their  members  ran  for  an  assoc- 
iate justiceship,  but  was  fortunately  beaten  at  the 
polls.  So  powerful  did  the  Jlollies  become  in  the  coal 
regions,  and  so  general  was  the  feeling  of  terror  and 
insecurity  which  they  aroused,  that  the  prosperity 
of  that  section  began  to  be  seriously  affected.  It  was 
seen  that  the  immense  interests  centered  there  were 
at  the  mercy  of  a  mob  of  lawless  ruffians,  and  that 
if  these  men  were  permitted  to  extend  their  power, 
capital  and  respectable  industry  of  all  kinds  would 
be  driven  from  the  coal-fields.  It  was  therefore  re- 
solved by  certain  parties  deeply  interested  in  the 
welfare  of  the  coal  counties  that  the  Mollie  Maguires 
should  be  exposed  and  brought  to  justice. 

The  Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians  exists  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  as  well  as  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  controlled  in  this  country  and  abroad  by  a  Di- 
rectory, known  as  the  "  Board  of  Erin,"  selected 
from  members  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland. 
These  regulate  and  give  out  the  signs  and  passwords 
of  the  order,  which  are  changed  every  three  months. 
The  headquarters  of  the  order  in  the  United  States 
are  at  New  York.  The  national  officers  are  elected 
by  the  State  officers,  and  consist  of  the  National 
Delegate,  Naticmal  Secretary,  National  Treasurer, 
and  President  of  the  Board  of  the  City  and  County 
of  New  York.  Each  State  has  its  own  officers.  The 
headquarters  of  the  order  in  Pennsylvania  are  at 
Pittsburgh.  The  officers  consist  of  a  State  Delegate, 
State  Treasurer,  and  State  Secretary.  They  are 
elected  b}'  the  County  officers,  whrf  also  consist  of  a 
County  Delegate,  County  Treasurer,  and  County- 
Secretarj*.  The  county  officers  are  elected  by  county 
conventions,  which  are  made  up  by  the  officers  of 
the  various  divisions.  The  division  officers  are  the 
Division  Master  or  Body-master,  Secretary  and  Trea- 
surer, and  are  elected  by  the  members  of  their  re- 
spective divisions.  No  man  can  be  a  member  of  the 
order  but  an  Irishman  or  the  son  of  an  Irishman, and 
a  Roman  Catholic.  It  is  stated  that  there  are  over 
six  thousand  divisions  or  lodges  in  the  United  States 
and  that  the  inembership  of  the  order  is  over  one 
hundred  thousand.  From  this  large  body  of  men. 
with  the  exception  of  a  portion  of  a  division  (No.  3) 
in  Philadelphia,  not  one  word  of  condemnation  of 
the  Mollie  Maguires  of  the  coal  regions  has  been 
heard.  On  the  contrary,  every  effort  has  been  niaile 
and  money  has  been  liberally  subscribed  to  enable 
them  to  escape  justice. 

The  signs  and  passwords  of  the  Order  show  its 
foreign  character  and  sympatliies.  They  are  chang- 
ed every  three  months.  In  addition  to  the  signs  and 
passwords  given  in  the  account  of  McKejina's  init- 
iation, the  following  were  furnished  by  him  in  his 
evidence  Ijefore  the  Courts  at  the  trials  of  the  Jlollies: 
jMay  18th,  1874:  Password.— "That  the  trouble  of 
the  country  may  soon  be  at  an  end."  Anxire?: — "And 
likewise  the  men  who  will  not  her  defend."  Quar- 
RELLiNQ  Toast. — "  You  should  not  dispute  with  a 
friend."  Annu-er. — "Not  if  I  am  not  provoked." 
NioHT  Password. — "  Long  nights  are  unpleasant." 
Answer. — "  I  hope  they  will  be  at  an  end."  Sign. 
— The  front  finger  and  thumb  of  the  right  hand  to 
touch  lh(^  iu'ck-ti(^  or  top  button  of  the  sliirl.  An- 
mrrr. — Kighl  hand  to  rul)  across  forehead  touching 
hair,  .\ugusl  lOlli.  1H74  :  Password. — "  Wha!  do 
you  think  of  the  .Mayo  election?  I  think  llie  fair 
West  hasmad(^  abad  selection."  Anxirer. — "Whom 
do  you  think  will  <luly  betray?"  Quakrei.lino 
Toast. — "  Don't  get  y(uir  temper  so  high."  Answer. 
— "  Not  with  a  fricMid."  Sion. — Putting  the  thumb 
of  right  hami  into  the  pocket  of  llie])antaloons.  An- 


swer.— Putting  the  thumb  of  left  hand  on  lower  lip. 
Jan.11,187.'),PA.sswoBD:  QueUiuu. — "Gladstone's  pol- 
icy must  be  put  down :  He  is  the  s)ipport  of  the  Brit- 
ish crown."  Answer. — "But  our  Catholic  lords  will 
not  support  his  plan.  For  tine  to  their  church  they 
will  finnly  stand."  Quarrelling  Toast  ;  Qiie.itiun. — 
"Don't  give  way  to  anger."  Answer. — "  I  will  obey  a 
friend."  Night  Password  :  Qti-estian. — "The  nights 
are  getting  shorter."  Answer. — "They  will  soon  be 
at  their  shortest."  Bodv-Mastee's Toast. — "Letev- 
ery  Irish  peasant  Espousing  Erin's  cause.  In  college 
green  They  may  be  seen  Tliere  making  Irish  laws." 
Sign. — Nail  of  the  right  thumb  across  the  bridge  of 
the  nose.  Answer^—Ti-p  of  the  fore-finger  of  the 
left  hand  to  the  chin.  May  4th,  1875:  Password: 
Question. — "What  is  your  opinion  of  the  Tipperary 
election?  I  think  England  broke  her  constitution  by 
Mitchell's  rejection."  Aiiswer. — "But  didn't  O'C'on- 
nell  resign  his  oath  and  seat?  Yes,  and  by  a<ritatiou 
gained  the  emancipation."  Quarrelling  Toast  : 
(Question. — "Keep  j-our  temper  cool."  Answer. — 
"I  will  not  raise  it  to  a  friend."  Body-Masteb's 
Toast. — "Here's  that  every  Irishman  may  stand  to 
his  cause.  And  subdue  the  British  government  and 
its  coercion  laws."  Sign. — The  fore-linger  of  the 
right  hand  in  the  left  sleeve  of  the  coat.  'Answer. — 
The  thumb  of  the  left  hand  in  the  left  side  vest-pock- 
et. November  4th,  1875  :  Password. — "Here's  health 
to  every  Irishman  That  lives  in  Ireland,  To  assem- 
ble round  in  Dublin  Town  Inmemorj'  of  Great  Dan." 
Answer. — "When  born  he  found  our  country  in 
chains  aucl  slavery  ;  He  labored  hard  to  set  her  free, 
But  now  he's  in  the  clay."  Quarrelling  Toast  ; 
Question.  — "\o\\  seem  to  be  getting  vexed."  Ans- 
wer.— "Not  with  you,  sir."  Night  Password  :  Ques- 
tion.— "These  nights  are  fine."  Answer.  "Yes;  we 
shall  have  a  fine  harvest."  Sign. — Tip  of  the  fore- 
finger of  the  right  hand  to  the  hole  of  the  right  ear. 
Ans^mr. — Tip  of  the  fore-tinger  of  tlie  left  hand  to 
the  hole  of  the  left  ear.  January  22d,  1876  :  Pass- 
word :  Question. — "Home  rule  in  Ulster  is  making 
great  progress."  Answer. — "Yes,  if  every  Irishman 
would  support  the  cause."  Qjiestion. — "1  wonder  if 
Irelaudcau  gain  tenant  right?"  Answer. — "Yes,  if 
supported  by  the  Irisli  members."  Night  Pass- 
word:  Question. — •'Moonlight  is  pleasant."  Answer. 
— "Yes,  so  is  freedom."  Quakrelling  Toast  :  Qu»!- 
t/on. — "Be  calm,  sir."  Answer. — "I  am  never  too 
boisterous."  Body-Mastek's  Toast. — "Here's  to  ev- 
ery Irishman  that  crossed  the  Atlantic  wave,  That 
they  may  return  with  heart  and  hiaid  their  native 
land  to  save." 

Members  of  the  Order  are  confined  to  the  divisions 
to  which  tliej'  belong,  and  have  no  right  to  attend 
the  meetings  of  other  divisions.  This  is  a  check  up- 
on the  spread  of  dangerous  information.  A  mem- 
ber in  good  standing  may  change  his  division,  but 
for  such  a  purpose  a  card  of  rt'comnicndation  from 
the  Body-Master  of  his  late  division  is  necessary. 
Shoidd  it  be  proposed  to  use  the  card  out  of  the 
county,  the  county  delegate  places  upon  it  his  pri- 
vate mark.  The  card  may  be  presented  to  either  a 
Body-Master  or  a  County  Delegate;  if  the  former, 
tlucardis  forwarded  to  the  County  Delegate  for  the 
verification  of  his  private  nuirk.  In  leaving  the 
Stale,  a  travelling  card,  which  also  bears  the  County 
Delegate's  private  mark,  is  used.  The  use  of  the 
Body-,Master's  toast,  which  is  given  to  those  officers 
alone,  is  to  eiRible  them  to  recognize  each  other. 
The  (juarrelling  toast  is  used  to  jirevent  broils  among 
the  members.  If  a  blow  is  sinu'k  after  it  is  given, 
the  offender  is  liable  to  expulsion  from  the  order. 
Among  the  Mollie  Magidres  there  is  a  thoroughly 
arra?iged  system  for  the  couunission  of  crimes.  A 
mend)er  having  made  complaint  of  cert;iin  parties 
who  hiive  offended  him,  lU'  who  ;ire  considered  dan- 
gerous to  the  order,  the  mailer  is  referred  to  the 
Body-Master,  or  a  meeting  of  the  division,  or  to  a 
mei'iing  of  the  Body-Masters  of  all  the  divisions  and 
other  leading  men  of  the  Order. 


SIOI. 


737 


RIOT. 


Murder  is  the  mom  common  of  all  forms  of  niin- 
iHlimcnl  Willi  the  Mollies.  "  Demi  men  li'll  no  liileH," 
is  the  well  l.nown  ]iriiiei|i!e  of  llie  OrilcT.  It  is  (|iiile 
enoUKli  for  n  niiiri  to  iMiiir  I  lie  ilislike  of  one  single 
iiilliieiili;il  meiiilier  of  I  lie  Order  to  forfeit  his  own  life, 
'riie  miinler  is  i,reneially  eoniniitlecl  in  some  lonely 
pliiee,  tind  wilh  nil  the  iii;i{nivaled  feiitiires  of  iissiis- 
siniition.  Tlioii^li  the  (oiKlnet of  the  murderers  is  in 
the  liiLj'iest  (lef;ree  cowiirdly,  they  ure  re;;iirde(l  ii.s 
luToes  hy  the  Mollies,  and  liir^'e  rewards  Imve  been 
imid  by  Ihe  society  for  the  killing'  of  iiurlicularly  ob- 
noxious individuals.  SliouM  a  memlic-r  comniit  a 
niurdi-r  or  a  loliliery  on  his  individual  aecounl.  the 
act  is  endorsed  hy  Ihe  .Soeiely,  and  its  whole  inlln- 
encu  is  used  lo  screen  and  protect  the  crinunal. 
When  a  inemlxT  is  arrested  for  a  crime,  the  others 
are  assessed  in  a  certain  sum  for  the  purposi?  of 
raising  money  to  employ  counsel  lo  defend  liim. 
The  next  sle])  is  to  liiid  witnesses  enouj;li  to  estab- 
lish an  "alilii."  I'erjiiry  in  sucha  i^asebeinn  count- 
ed a  virtue  liy  the  .Mollies,  the  witnesses  are  always 
forthcomiiiL!;.  Kvideiiee  of  any  kind  that  is  wanted. 
<-an  be  promiilly  fiirnislied  hy  the  Order.  Such  is 
the  Order  of  the  Mollie  Mairuires,  and  such  are  its 
leadini;  features.  Thouirh  its  mendiers  claim  to  be 
Koman  Catholics,  the  Order  has  been  anathemati/.ed 
by  the  Koman  Catholic  Church.  The  Cliunli.  how- 
ever, has  so  far  failed  to  intluence  its  members. 
The  Order  flourishes  in  spite  of  the  clersiy.  and  while 
professing  the  utmost  ditvolion  to  tlie  C'hurcli,  eu- 
conrages  crime  and   wickedness. 

The  followinii  formations  for  Street  Jiiot  /)K<.y, pre- 
pared for  the  National  Guard  of  New  York,  l)y  Gen- 
<Tal  Win.  II.  Hrownell,  have  secured  most  flattering 
recognition  from  all  (|uarlers.  It  must  be  acknowl- 
edged that  to  provide  a  jilan  which  would  be  eflec- 
tive  under  <iH  circumstances  for  the  (|uelling  of  riots 
is  simply  impossible,  as  every  occasion  may  present 
ditferent  features,  so  that  the  means  to  employ  must 
be  left  to  the  occasi.in;  for  instance,  were  rioters  in 
possession  of  buildings  and  had  the  advantage  of 
shelter  from  roofs,  windows,  doorways,  etc.,  or  had 
barri<'ade3  of  all  conceivable  kinds,  each  occasion 
■would  present  new  conibinalions,  and  only  the  cool 
judgement  of  the  ofticer  conimanding  coulil  provide 
methods  to  successfully  cope  with  the  enemy.  While 
all  of  these  diflicidties  are  recognized  respecting  all 
fitrtifiid  iiKilix,  we  are  not  ])revented  from  providing 
plans  to  disperse  riotous  iiio/a  in  the  streets,  and  it  is 
for  this  ])urpose  these  formations  are  presented.  A 
large  proportion  of  all  riotous  mobs  consists  of  jaTiiile 
who  are  present  simply  through  curiosity,  with  no 
desire  to  commit  a  t)rea(rli  of  the  peace,  yet  before 
they  are  aware  i>f  it  are  identitied  as  rioters,  and  giv- 
ing countenance  lo  the  outbreak  with  their  pres- 
cnco.  and  it  is  presumi'd  are  willing  enough  »)  start 
for  home,  if  they  can  lie  freed  from  the  mob,  parti- 
cularly after  a  demonstration  from  Ihe  troops.  It 
■will  be  observed  that  provisions  are  made,  in  the 
movements  here  providi'd,  to  secure  this  niostdesir- 
alile  oliject,  as  opportunities  an;  olTered  at  every 
intersecting  street.  Moderation  that  will  cause  riot- 
ous mobs  to  secure  the  slightest  conlidence.  or  an 
impression  that  there  is  hesitation  on  the  part  of  the 
troops,  cannot  be  afforded,  hence  movements  should 
show  decision,  be  promptly  executed,  and  rid  of  all 
forms  that  will  cause  tlelays.  rather  depending  upon 
force  of  habit  secured  through  close  application  in 
the  drill  room.  The  movemenls  are  siiiijily  combi- 
nations from  Upton's  nilcji,  and  may  be  readily  exe- 
cuted. 

The  assembly  for  riot  duty  should  be  with  service 
tmiform.  overcoats,  ii  not  worn,  slung  in  horse  collar  ; 
form  over  left  shoulder,  the  tie  under  and  to  Ihe  rear  ' 
of  the  right  arm  pit,  canteens  wilh  wati'r,  and  haver- 
sacks with    rations,    if   possible— knapsacks   lo  be 
taken  if  ordered  lo  a  distant  point.     A  sm;.!!  detach-  [ 
ment  of  reliable  men,   in  charge  of  an  experienced  j 
oflicer,  should  be  left  in  Ihe  armory  for  its  prolec-  ] 
tion.     He'cruits  and  others,  not  having  lliu  rcqui- . 


;  site  inslnictionH  for  street  work,  Khoiild  be  left  wilh 
this  detachment  where,  under  the  tuition  of  l|j<:  ex- 
perienci'd  men,  they  may  be  laiight  to  aHhisl  malo 
j  rially  in  the  defense  of  the  building,  should  it  be 
attacked.  Field  music  iaiis  should  bi-  taken  wilh  the 
regiment  for  employ  ment,  if  necihsary,  as  un  amliu- 
lance  corjis.  Tin:  regiment  should  1m'  e(juali/ed  into 
un  even  niiinber  of  companies,  bayonets  MximI.  Be- 
fore leuvimr  Ihe  armory  details  of  murkhinen  will  be 
made,  sulllcient  in  number  lo  provide  each  company 
wilh  at  least  four  lo  act  as  tharjtslioot/rs ;  Ihey  will 
march,  if  their  company  is  in  ccilumn  of  fcmrs,  just 
oiilsidi-  of  line  of  file  closers,  and  if  in  line,  in  rear 
of  tile-  closers.  It  is  not  unusual  to  have  large:  c:rowdB 
in  front  C)f  an  armory  on  the  ordinary  oceusions  of 
"  marching  out,"  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppcjsc 
that  under  Ihe  circumstanceH  cjf  '•  Uiol  Call"  still 
greater  numbers  will  congregate.  While  these 
crowds  may  be  entirely  friendly,  the  experienc-e  ot 
many,  and  the  duly  of  the-  Commandant,  demand 
that  every  iirecaiition  be  taken  lo  provide:  for  any 
emergency,  and  it  is  this  that  prompts  the  first  for- 
mation upon  leaving  the  armory. 

I'rovisioiiforiiniiiiries  tucittdoi,  streets  hating  ii  lint 
of  hHiklin;/s  on  both  sidts.  Armories  located  on  cor- 
ners usually  have  the'  main  entrance  on  a  wide  street, 
and  are  provided  wilh  an  exit  on  the  side  street, 
which  is  more  nairow;  under  these  circiimstaneeg, 
it  would  be  preferable-  to  use-  the  exit  on  the  street 
that  will  oblige  the  crowd  to  present  the  smallest 
front  during  the  formation. 

If  Ihe  march  is  to  be  toward  the  left  of  the  exit, 
form  the  first  and  fifth  (or  fourth,  if  cjnly  eight  com- 
panies) divisions.  As  the  doorway  may  not  be  wide 
enough  fur  two  columns  of  fours  to  pass,  both  divi- 
sions should  be  faced  to  the  right  ;  the  first  division, 
with  the  Captain,  file  closers  and  sharpshooters,  on 
the  right  of  the  column  ;  the  liflh  division,  wilh  tlii- 
Captain,  tile  closers  and  sharpshooters,  on  the  left  of 
thecolumn.  At  the  command,  1,  Fonraril;  2.  Marcli  : 
given  by  the  Colonel,  both  divisions  march  l>y  Un- 
flank,  in  parallel  columns,  the  fifth  division  on  the 
right,  across  the  street  to  the  fence,  or  building-line, 
when  the  Chief  of  the  first  division  commands:  1. 
First  dieisiou:  2,  Bi/  the  If J'l  flunk  ;  3,  Makc:h.  The 
Chief  of  the  fifth  division  commands:  1,  Fifth  divi- 
sion ;  2,  liy  the  right  flnnk  ;  :i,  Makch.  The  first 
division  conlinues  the  march,  driving  the  crowd  en- 
tirely from  the  street  and  sidewalks,  and  halls  in.side 
the  building-line  of  the  first  cross-street.  The  fifth 
division  is  marched  company  distance  to  the  rear 
and  halted  ;  or,  if  near  a  crossing  street,  inside  the 
buildiug-liue.  The  other  divisions  move  out  success- 
ively in  columns  of  fours,  right  in  front,  and  form 
line  by  "  fours  left,"  in  Irac-e  of  the  first  division, 
each  at  company  distance.  All  divisicms  having  be- 
come part  of  the  column.  Ihe  fifth  division  wiM  be 
faced  about,  oflicers.  file  closers  and  sharpshooters 
in  front,  and  moved  up  to  company  distance. 

If  Hie  march  is  to  be  to  Ihe  right  of  Ihe  exit,  the 
first  and  fifth  divisions  march  out  by  the  left  Hank, 
wilh  the  first  division  on  the  right,  and.  after  reach- 
ing building-line,  the  first  division  executes  "  I'l/  the 
right  flunk,  nmrrli,"  aru\  proceeds  as  previously  ex- 
plained :  the  fifth  division,  "  hy  the  Uftflnnk,  iimrrh," 
and  hailed  afler  marching  company  distance,  or  to 
the  building-line.  The  oilier  divisions  march  onl  suc- 
cessively in  column  of  fours,  left  in  front,  and  form 
line  by  "•  fours  right."  in  the  trace  of  lirst  division, 
Ihe  fifth  division  facing  about,  and  all  closing  up  to 
company  distance. 

If  Ihe  exit  is  near  a  comer  to  the  left,  and  Ihe 
march  is  to  be  to  the  left,  the  first  and  fifth  divisions 
are  marched  out:  the  first  division  is  halted  just  in- 
side the  building-line,  and  the  fifth  division  is 
marched  a  suflicient  distance  to  the  rear  lo  admit 
die  interior  divisions  in  Ihe  column,  which  march 
out  as  follows:  column  of  fours,  right  in  front;  the 
fourth  goes  out  first  and  fonns  line  by  "fours  right," 
and  when  near  the  lifth  "fours  right  about  ' ;  llie 


RIOT. 


738 


RIOT. 


second  and  third  march  out  successively  and  form 
in  rear  of  the  first,  when  the  fifth  division  faces  about 
and  all  close  to  company  distance. 

If  the  exit  is  near  a  corner  to  the  right,  and  the 
march  is  to  be  to  the  right,  the  first  and  fifth  divi- 
sions are  formed  and  marched  out ;  tlie  first  division 
forms  line  "  hy  the  riglit  flank,  march."  and  marches 
company  distance,  or  tothebuildiug-line,  and  hailed  ; 
the  fifth  division  forms  line  "  In/ the  left  flank,  mairh." 
and  marches  to  the  rear  a  sufiicient  distance  to  admit 
the  interior  divisions,  which  march  out  in  columns 
of  fours,  left  in  front,  in  the  following  order :  the 
fourth,  forming  line  by  '•  foum  left."  and  when  near 
the  fifth  division  executing  '•fnunt  left  about;  the 
second  and  third  then  follow,  forming  line  by  "ftn/rs 
right"  in  rear  of  first  division,  when  tlie  fifth  divisicm 
faces  about  and  all  close  to  company  distance. 

Marching  to  the  place  of  disturbance  in  flanked 
column  iirder.  Being  (m  the  street  in  column  of 
divisions,  right  in  front,  the  Colonel  commands:  1, 
Flanked  column  order;  3,  March.  At  tlie  first  com- 
mand Chief  of  first  division  commands  :  1,  Firxt  di- 
vision ;  2,  Standfast.  Chief  of  fifth  division:  1, 
Forward;  2,  Guide  right.  Captains  of  third,  fifth, 
and  seventh  companies  command  such  company  :  1, 
Rightforirnrd,  fours  right.  Captains  of  fourtli,  sixth, 
and  eighth  companies  command  such  compam*  :  1, 
Left  forward,  fours  left.  The  command  ••  Alarch" 
is  repeated  by  all  Captains  of  interior  divisions  and 
chief  of  fifth  division.  The  companies  of  the  interior 
divisions  form  the  columns  as  ordered,  file  closers 
darting  through  the  intervals  between  fours,  and 
sharpsliooters  passing   around   tlie   rear  (in  double 


2 

1         1 

M 

1 

1  1 

1         1 
[] 

1-  1 

[]      [] 

.s       S 

1  1 
[]  — 

[] 

s 

[] 

c^J 

s 

o 

S       

:-  "s 

oooo 
oooo 

[]     

s     — - 

|.![1 



[]l-l 

— 



'I 

oooo 
oooo 

[J  — 

s     

s 

[] 

G    — 

1  •  1  [J 

ni-i 

[] 

o 

[]  — 

.[] 

'I  y 

[]  — 

Ill-Ill 

1       1 

i.i 

1        1      ! 

10  '.I 

lime),  to  the  siilc  of  the  guide.  The  several  eoni- 
panies  close  up  until  Ihey  are  united  in  column  of 
fours,  the  head  of  eaeli  flank  cohunn  marcl'.ing  in 
trace  of  tlic  flank  fours  of  the  hading  division.  The 
rear  division  is  niiir<-he(l  up  until  the  think  fours 
unite  with  the  rear  of  the  columns.  The  h  f t  guides 
of  the  right  <-ompanies  of  the  first  and  fifth  divisions 
<Mver  tlie  right  guides  of  the  left  conip:inii-s,  wlio 


shall  be  the  guides  of  the  divisions,  and  the  dress- 
ing, if  necessary,  shall  be  on  the  center.  All  officers, 
musicians,  colors,  signalmen,  etc.,  will  be  placed  in 
the  interior  of  the  column.  The  Colonel  wherever 
lie  deems  his  presence  necessar}'.  Lieutenant-colonel 
between  third  and  fourth  companies,  to  supervise 
right  wing.  AFajor  between  seventh  and  eighth  (or 
fifth  and  sixtli,  if  eight  companies),  to  supervise 
left  wing.  Staff,  non-commissioned  staff,  and  colors, 
in  the  center  of  the  oblong.  One  drummer  or  trum- 
IH'tcr  (the  latterpreferrcd)  between  third  and  fourth, 
and  one  between  fifth  and  sixtli  companies.  Chief 
of  first  division  in  rear  of  line  of  sharpsliooters. 
Chief  of  rear  division  in  front  of  line  of  sharpshooters. 
If  the  place  of  disturbance  is  at  a  distance  and  haste 
is  demanded,  it  would  probably  be  unnecessary  to 
drive  people  from  the  sidewalks,  until  the  trouble- 
some district  is  reached  ;  therefore,  to  facilitate  the 
march,  the  column  may  be  narrowed  as  follows.  It 
can  be,  at  any  time,  widened,  as  shown  further  on. 
Th.;  formation  liaving  been  perfected  and  the  "  /''or- 
icard.  March  "  commanded,  the  Colonel  directs  the 
chief  of  the  first  division  to  order  a  sufficient  number 
of  tours  from  right  and  left  to  rear  (equal  number 
from  each  flank)  to  enable  the  front  to  march  with 
flanks  inside  of  the  curb-line.  The  head  of  the  flank 
columns  will  unite  in  column  with  the  rear  fours  of 
the  first  division,  and  conform  to  their  movements. 
The  Commandant  of  the  rear  division  will  order  a 
sufficient  numlier  of  fours  from  right  and  left  to  the 
front  (executing  it  according  to  principles  of  "  right 
and  left  forward,  fours  right  and  left  ")  to  unite  with 
the  rears  of  the  flank  columns.  Whenever  the 
column  is  halted,  the  rear  division  will  be  faced  to 
the  rear  by  eomniand  of  its  chief  {sucji  di vision  abotit 
face),  and  will  be  faced  to  the  front  at  the  command 
foricard  to  the  column.  Should  tlie  column  be  attacked 
it  can  be  halted,  and  the  Colonel  may  command  :  1, 
Flank  companies;  2,  Fiwrs  right  and  left;  3,  Makch. 
4,  Flank  c//mpanies;  .5.  Halt.  The  last  command 
being  given  as  line  is  formed.  Fours  thrown  to  the 
rear  and  front,  forming  line  with  the  flank  columns. 
The  rear  division  will  face  to  the  rear,  as  previously 
explained.  First  Sergeants  of  flank  companies  will 
be  in  tlie  line  and  covered  b}'  the  Second  Sergeant 
of  next  company. 

If  at  any  time  it  maybe  necessary  to  entirely  drive 
the  crowd  from  the  streets  and  sidewalks,  the  Col- 
onel will  command:  1,  \stdivisiiin;  2.  Rear  fours  front 
into  line.  3,  March.  At  the  command  nairch,  flank 
colli  mil  companies  will  conform  to  the  iriercased  front 
heads  of  the  columns  marching  in  rear  of  the  flank 
fours  on  the  sidewalk  and  rear  (livision  completing  its 
front,  with  the  fours  previously  tlirown  to  the  front. 
If  onlv  one  four  has  been  thrown  to  the  front  from 
each  flank,  the  division  line  will  unite  with  them,  as 
tile  flank  fours  must  march  in  trace  of  the  rear  of  the 
flank  columns.  If  more  than  one  four  was  thrown 
to  the  front  from  each  flank,  at  the  command  to 
widen  the  rear  division  marches  forwaril,  and,  as  the 
line  is  even  with  its  leading  flank  fours  (Ihey  having 
obliqued  with  the  flank  columns)  the  Chief  commands 
Flank  fours;  2.  Left  and  rigid  front  into  line;  3, 
March,  when  they  execute  the  command  on  the  lead- 
ing fours  and  unite  with  the  division  line. 

To  form  flanked  coIuimu  nrder  from  column  of 
companies,  riglit  in  front,  the  Colonel  conimands:  1, 
Flanked  cidiinin  oriU  r ;  3.  Form  flrst  and  fifth  {or 
fourth,  if  eight  companies)  divisions:  ;!,  JIabch.  At 
second  lomni.and.Ciiiitains  of  first  and  ninth  (or  sev- 
enth, if  eight  companies),  command  :  such  company 
right  ohliiine.  Captains  of  second  and  tvnth(or  eighth, 
if  eight  companies),  eomuniud  :  xuch  conipiiniis  left 
obliijue.  Ca]itains  of  odd  numbered  interior  conqia- 
nies,  third, fifth  and  si'veiith, command:  such  company 
right  forward  :  fours  right.  Cajitains  of  even  iiuni- 
lared  interior  comiianies,  fourth,  sixth  and  eighth, 
eominand  :  such  company  left  forward,  fours  left.  The 
third  command  "  march."  is  repealed  by  all  thectip- 
tains       Wliiii   tlu'  left    of  llie   tir^t    company  reaches 


RIOT. 


7;'.o 


RIOT. 


the  cpntcr  of  the  street,  it  will  be  miirclicil  forward, 
anil  halted  when  it  lian  advanced  cdinpany  distance. 
When  I  lie  rJLdit  of  llie  scconil  I'oiiipaMy  n-ai'hi'H  the 
eenler  of  the'  slrcc-l.  it  is  niarclicd  forward,  and  halt- 
ed  when  uniliun  willi  thi^  lirst  company. the'  left  frniili; 
of  Ihe  lirst  company  Hlepi)inf;  lo  the  rear  of  llierifjlit 
guide  of  the  Hcconli,  who  shall  he  thi'  t;uide  of  the 


□  D 


>5 

►J 


2 

1 

n 

D 

1 

n 
'1 

n 

[] 

_[] 

n 

1 

• 

j_ 

Sidt'- 
walk 


I         I        I 


I I        I 


n    n    G    f] 


4 

G 

G 

t 

G 
[] 


G  10 


[] 


GD 


oooo 
oooo 


0000 

oooo 


G 


[I 
[]    — 


G 
[] 

[] 

-  G 

!»G 


[3    []    G    G    g    0    G 
"I      I      I     -III 


ed  iiKMjIumiis  of  fr,iirs.rij;hl  in  froiii.even  iiuiiilM-reil 
conipanii-K  left  in  front,  and  inarch  out  u«  followH : 
third  and  fourth,  llflh  and  sixth,  scventli  and  eighth, 
iiinlh  and  lentli  ;  oilrl  numhererl  companies  in  col- 
unui  of  fours,  uniting  with  the  ri^'ht  Hank  f'lur  of 
Ihe  tlrsl  division,  even  mnnhered  unilin;;  with  the 
left  Ihink  four.  When  Ihe  ninth  and  Icnih  compa- 
nies huv(t  clcarcil  the  Imildirn;  and  united  with  the 
Hank  columns,  they  will  e.\r-cute  ri;;lit  and  left  front 
into  line  respeclivi'ly,  thus  forminj;  the  rear  divisiim 
iin<l  complitin);  the  "formation.  The  eolunui  can  be 
narrowed  as  previously  explained.  In  clmmrinj,'  di- 
rection cure  must  be  observed  to  have  Ihe  men  on 
the  pivot  side  of  the  column  shorten  step  luilil  they 
have  passed  the  chani;ini;  point,  so  as  not  lo  advance 
more  rapidly  than  Ihe  marchi.-ic  Hank.  The  com- 
mand for  chani;ini;  would  be  .-imply.  1,  "Column 
right  (or  left;;"  2,  "  March,"  the  leading  division  ex- 
ecuting a  wheel. 

The  assaulting;  or  fighting  formation  is  tenned 
St>reH-rMoriltr.  This  formation  is  simply  a  column 
of  divisions. formed  f'li'in  "ri,lumu  nffiivrn."  ••rnliimn 
(iJ'rjnnpanii'K"  or  Ihr  ■'  JliinhidciiliiviH  nriUr."  the  com- 
mand for  forming  divisions  being  prefixed  with 
'•Htreit-r!<it  "i-dir."  To  form  from  "  Hanked  colunui 
order,"  tlu'  Colonel  commands:  1,  Streft-riot  m-der  ; 
2,  Flank  nimpauien  lift  and  riff/tt.  fr'til  inUi  Hue  ;  3, 
Mabch.  At  second  command, the  Chief  of  1st  division 
commands:  1,  Int  divinion ;  2,  I-'m-irnrd  ;  3.  (Iiiulr 
center.  Cldef  of  rear  division  commands:!.  Stifh 
dwinion;  a,  Formird;  3,  OuidteruUr.  Caplam.s  of 
right  Hank  companies  command:  X.Snch  fjinpiiny; 
2,  l,>ft  front  in>A,  Une.  Captains  of  the  left  flank 
companies  command:  1,  Siirh  company ;  2,  H'glil 
front  into  liiw.  At  command  "  innrr/i,"  repealed  by 
all  Commandants,  1st  division  will  inarch  division 
distance  and  hall. 


division,  and  the  dressing,  if  necessary,  shall  be  on 
the  center.  As  soon  as  Ihe  division  is  formed,  its 
chief  will  order  a  sufticieut  number  of  fours  from 
right  and  left  to  rear  (equal  numl)er  from  each  flank), 
to  enal)le  tiu-  division  front  to  march  with  Hanks  in- 
side of  the  curb.  The  interior  companies  will  form 
the  column,  as  ordered,  file  closers  darting  through 
the  fours,  and  sharpshooters  passing  around  the  rear 
to  the  side  of  the  guide  (in  double  iimei;  the  several 
companies  closing  up  until  they  are  united  in  columns 
of  fours,  the  head  of  each  column  marching  in  trace 
of  the  fours  thrown  to  the  rear  of  the  1st  division. 
The  rear  division  will  be  formed  on  the  same  princi- 
ple as  explaini'd  for  tlie  first,  excejiting  that  Ihe  file 
closers  and  sharpshooters  will  place  themselves  in 
front,  and  fours  from  right  and  left  be  thrown  to  the 
front,  executing  "right  and  left  forward. fours  right 
and  left,"  and  conform  to  the  column  ahead,  the  di- 
vision uuirrhing  forward  and  completing  the  "Hank- 
ed column  order." 

When  the  exit  of  an  armory  faces  a  large  open 
space,  the  flanked  column  order  may  be  formed  as 
follows  ;  First  comp;niy  being  in  column  of  files 
(double  rank),  right  in  front  :  second  company  on 
the  left  of  the  first,  in  column  of  tiles  (double  rank), 
left  in  front  -  both  march  out  in  parallel  eolunuis. 
When  Ihe  he:id  of  cohunns  are  clear  of  the  doorway 
the  first  comi)any  executes  column  right  and  Ihe  sec- 
ond company  column  left:  as  the  rears  have  execut- 
ed the  cliange.  the  first  comiiany  forms  line  by  the 
left  Hank,  the  second  company  by  the  rigiil  Hank, 
thus  forming  the  first  division  and  moving  forward. 
In  mcautime  the  odd  numbered  companies  are  form- 


\ 

1     '  1 

,         ,         1         t         1         i     1 

GG 

s 

s 

G 

G 

G 

G   G 
[0 

Zl 

G   D 

G   G   D  DD 
s 
s 

1       1 

1 

II         r         1 

1        1 

G 

G 

G 
G 

L       ,'         1 

o 

03 
O 

Ga|G 
s    ! 

s 

G 

[] 

[] 

s8 

DG   i 

•e 

3 

o 

uu 

is 

CO    J. 

1         1 

1 

1 

1     1         1 

-    - 

1       1 

G 
[] 

D  G 

:]G 

1 

f 

GD 

s 
e 
s 

G 

G 

Be 

UU 
s 
s 
s 

1     1 

r 

111    1 

GDG 

s 

S      1    g 

GG'G 

D 

s 
G 

G 

G 
s 

G 

1    1 

SB 

D  D   D 

DD 

s 
s 

s 

1         1         1  ••  1         1         1 

1         1         1  ■•  1         1         1 

Flank  companies  will  execute  front  into  line,  from 
a  halt,  as  explained  in  Tactics  (\w  quick  lime),  cor- 
responding companies  uniting  and  forming  the  in- 


HIOT. 


740 


EIOT. 


terior  divisions,  file  closers  darting  through  the  in- 
tervals, and  sharpshooters  passing,  in  double  time, 
around  either  tlank.  Rear  division  is  marched  for- 
ward, company  distance,  and  halted.  When  divi- 
sions are  formed  lithcr  fmrn  '•enlumn  of  f<tnr«." 
"  n>mpinii'ix,"  i/r  ■'column  ordrr."  tlie  right  guide  of 
each  left  company  will  remain  on  tlie  right  of  his  com- 
pany, and  will  be  covered  by  the  left  guide  of  the 
right  company;  tlie  guide  of  divisions  will  be  center. 
Right  and  left  guides  of  divisions  will  place  them- 
selves in  rear  of ,  tlie  extreme  flanli  files  of  tlieir  re- 
spective companies,  all  olHcers  and  file  closers  in  rear 
of  the  division,  and  chiefs  of  divisions,  excepting  the 
rear  division,  in  rear  of  the  center  of  their  respective 
divisions.  Sliarpshooters,  as  the  column  of  divisions 
is  formed,  will  be  placed  in  column  (as  in  column  of 
sliirmishers),  witb  equal  intervals  between  the  flanks 
of  divisions,  excepting  those  belonging  to  rear  divi- 
sion, who  will  continue  tomarchin  front  of  that  di- 
vision. Colonel  wherever  he  maj'  deem  his  presence 
necessary.  Lieutenant  Colonel  to  be  between  1st. 
and  2nd.  division.  Major  between  4th  and  5th  for  3d 
and  4th  should  there  be  four  divisions).  Staff,  non- 
commissioned staff,  music,  and  colors,  between  2(1 
and  3d,  or  3d  and  4th  divisions.  In  this  formation 
distances  between  divisions  may  be  hicrensed  or  de- 
rrea^ed,  either  uniformly  or  not,  as  circumstances 
may  demand.  Sharpsliooters,  in  either  case,  regu 
lating  tlie  length  of  their  intervals.  In  case  of  ob- 
struction to  tlie  advance  during  action,  interior  divi- 
sions may  be  put  under  cover  if  available,  althougli 
tlie  front  and  rear  should  each  have  a  division  at  Band 
for  support  or  relief,  as  may  be  necessary.  Being 
formed  in  street  riot  order,  the  column  can  be  moved 
either  to  front  or  rear,  by  simply  facing  to  the  rear 
or  front,  as  may  be  desired.  Should  fronts  not  be 
wide  enougli  to  cover  sidewalks,  they  ma}'  be  in- 
creased witli  rear  rank  men  on  each  flank.  If  an 
avenue  of  unusual  width  is  entered,  the  front  and 
rear  divisions  maybe  reinforced  by  men  from  the  in- 
terior divisions.  To  a  ford  free  pa-imge  from  front  to 
rear  for  officers  or  messengers,  for  quick  communi- 
cation, all  divisions,  when  formed  in  street  riot  order 
excepting  1st  and  rear,  will  cause  one  four  to  break 
to  the  rear  from  tlie  left  of  right  company,  the  left 
guide  of  sucli  company  (who  lias  covered  tlie  guide 
of  the  division)  placing  himself  on  the  left  of  front 
rank,  and  preserving  tlie  interval  necessary  for  the 
four.  When  a  divmon  efanen  to  be  a  renr  division,  of- 
ficers, file  clo.sers,  and  sharpshooters  pass  through 
the  intervals  created  in  the  center,  and  place  tlieni- 
selves  in  tlieir  proper  places  in  the  rear. 

If  moving  forward,  and  driving  tlie  mob.  numbers 
of  it  will  naturally  break  right  and  left  through  the 
intersecting  streets,  either  for  the  purpose  of  attack- 
ing the  flanks,  tir  to  escape  the  effects  of  severe  mea- 
sures from  thetroops;  in  either  casethe  flanks,  while 
passing,  should  be  covered,  and  for  this  purpose  is 
jirovided  the  following  iinportiint  viott  ment: 

A  K  tin  hitermcthuf  xtn it\sa  j iproachcc  1 1  he  command 
is  given:  1,  Xst  ri?id  2il  dirixonis.'i,  Anns:  3.  I'ort.  At 
tliis  command  should  the  mob  be  large  and  aggres- 
.sive.  the  second  division,  the  rear  four  being  ordered, 
"front  into  line"  (all  officers  in  front  jiassini;  lliroiiffli 
the  interval  before  closing  it),  tlie  left  guide  taking 
his  place  as  previously  explained,  may  be  moved  up 
(piickly  to  within  a  few  yards  of  the  1st.  As  the 
street  is  reached  the  comniaiKl  is  given:  1.  l.v^  diri- 
Ki'on;  2.  CotiijiiinirH  ritjlit  find  lift  turn:  3.  Mauch; 
just  as  the  building  line  is  reached,  each  ('a|itaiu  giv- 
ing tlie  proper  command  to  liis  company.  Tliis  being 
the  quickest  change  of  direction  for  afroiit,  anil 
being  done  promptly  and  resolutely,  resolves  itself 
into  a  rush  on  the  mob.  The  "tuins"  being  com- 
pleted, coiiip;uiies  are  halted  just  inside  the  line  of 
liuildings.  Should  llie  fronts  nol  be  sulllcient  to 
coiniiujiid  th<'  street  turned  into,  they  will  lie  widen- 
ed  immediately  with  rear  rank  men,  to  extenil  the  I 
line.  Sharjishooters  of  the  turned  companies  will  se.  ' 
cure  positions  (with  cover,    if  possilile)  where    Ihey' 


[  may  command  a  clear  view  of  the  mob  cut  off,  and 
'  select  the  leaders,  so  that  should  firing  be  ordered 
1  they  can  pick  off  the  most  active  rioters.  During 
\  the  execution  of  the  turns  the  column  is  still  advanc- 
ing, and  forcing  the  main  Iiody  of  the  mob  ahead  of 
it.  The  2d  division  now  having  Iiecome  the  1st  (and 
all  other  divisions  having  changed  their  numerical 
j  designation),  and  must  execute  tlie  same  as  explained 
I  above,  at  the  next  street,  again  dividing  the  mob, 
and  so  at  each  street  presenting  new  and  fresh  fronts, 
without  unnecessary  exposure;  in  fact  each  change 
being  in  itself  stdirert  attack  on  tliree  siden.  The  first 
division  must  not,  under  any  circumstances,  ap- 
proacli  the  turning  points  in  face  of  a  crowd,  until 
the  second  division  is  close  at  hand  to  take  its  place 
as  the  leading  division.  As  the  rear  of  the  column 
passes,  the  turned  flank  companies  will  hefac^d  to 
left  and  right,  execute  column  left  and  right,  and  form- 
ed to  the  front  as  the  rear  dirision,  file  closers  and 
sharpshooters  placing  themselves  in  front,  thus  com- 
pleting again  the  formation  and  shutting  out  the 
mob.  Should  the  moh  in.  the  rear  be  violent,  as  the  col- 
umn has  passed,  the  renr  division  of  the  main  column 
will  be  halted,  faced  about,  ami  cover  the  fonnation 
of  the  flank  companies,  which  will  form  division  be- 
tween the  one  halted  and  the  main  column. 


'[]  D        [] 


D      [] 


[] 


[][] 


0 


s    ^ 


"x  i'o 


-    1 

1        1 

|[:]1 

1    1 

1 

L][] 

«| 
s  s 

1        1 

II:]- 

—  -  —  — 

OF  FLANIvf 
g  street 
Riot  Order." 

n 

n     n 

D] 
[0 

n     [][] 

s 

i  s 

5  s 

^•^« 

1 

1    1 

II      1 

Oo^ 

1 
[][] 
s 
s 
s 
U[] 

1 
D"  n 

s 

[] 

n 

s      s 
[]     n 

1      1 

g.So 

o  «^ 

Oh      1 

an 

□  G 

□  [] 
s 

n 

s 
s 
s 

no 

1         1         1         1    [:]   1         I.       1         II 

1        1        1        1   [=]  1        1        1        !■  ■    1 

o 
S 

Q 


Should  it  be  deemed  necessary  at  any  tinii'  to  re- 
lieve the  first,  or:iny  division,  even  in  the  middle  of 
a  block,  the  same  syslem  can  lie  enijiloyed  as  ex- 
plained for  passing  an  intersecting  street.  It  is  ad- 
milled  that  some  ex|)osure  must  exist.  With  the 
formation  in  "street  riot  order"  it  would  be  com- 
paratively slight,  as  tlie  interior  divisions,  should 
the  resisl'ance  be  severe,  c««W  Ac  moved,  back  to  full 
distance  or  more  if  desired,  so  that  missiles  thrown 
at  the  1st  division  would  not  be  apt  tn  re;ich  tlie  2d. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  wheeling  distances  be  pre- 
served. iSiiilT  ollicers,  c(ilor<,  anil  nuisic  will  pass 
tlirough  the  intervals  iirovided  in  the  center  of  the 
division,  whenever  the  division   thev  are  in  front  of 


HIOT. 


BIOT. 


is  iiliout  lo  bcromc    the   2il    ilivisimi.     If,  an  in  frc.    pirliitprt,  (•iiiiscfli-iiioriili/.iiliiiii.     For  thin  vcrjTciuion. 

qiK-iilly  llii'  cfiHi',  nil  iiit(rsc(tiiii,'slrccl  ildcsiiol  (Tohh    IIic  knowjcilni-  llial  HlmrpKljootfrH w<T<r  with  the  cit\. 

ii'iiii.  would  Ijciipl  to  scciirtr  from  Iho  \i-Mi\vm  i>f 
MioliH  11  iiio.Ht  profound   rcKpi-ct  for  tin-  troojm  ihiry 


thr-  <iiii'  Ihul  Ihc  coliiiiiii  Ih  on.  Iiolli    cornpiiIlicH  turn 
(rinlit  iind  left )  llii'  same  us  cxpluiiicd  for  a  croHHinj; 
hired,  us  Ihc  inhj;rily  of  tlicdivision  slioulil  lie  pre- 
siTVcd.     Advanclni;  in  "sircci  riol   ordrr,"  shoulil  it 
l)c  ncci'ssary  lo  ilianu'i-  dircclion     for  iuslun(,(^  turn- 
inj;  a  ('ookt  inio  anolliiT   si  red  — //' <«  llieright,  the 
second  division  will  lie  inov<Ml  upeloHC  to  thi-   (Irtt, 
Ihc  riirlil  company  of  Ihc  lirsl  division  will  r-ontinne 
llu'  march  forward;  as  Ihc  chan^in^;    point  is  reach- 
cil  the  rear  rank  will  exiend  lollii'  Icfl  :  Ihc-  lefl  <'om. 
pany  c.vecnlcs  Ihc  lefl  I  urn.  Ihc  second  division  fliolh 
companies)  rii;lit   turn,  as  I  he  linildiriij-linc  is  reach- 
cd,  and  conlinnes  Ihc  nnircli,  IkjHi  companies  of  Ihc 
(irst  division  hallin;;  al   Ihc   liuildinu-linc.  wlicn   liie 
colunm  has  passed,  they  face  lo  the  rinht,  march  to 
tlic  riirhl  and  form  "hy   Ihc  left   Hank"  as   rear  <livi- 
sion.      If  the  chaiiiic  is  to  he  tn  the  left,  the  lefl  com- 
pany of  IIm'  lirsl  division  adv.-mccs  and  ils  rear  rank 
exh'Iids  to  the  riirhl.   the    riirht    company    execulinij 
the  riirhl  liirn,  Ihc  si-cond  <livision  cxeeutini;  the  left 
turn  and  contimiinic  Ihc   march.     IJolh    Hank   com- 
panies,   as   the    colnmn    passes,   execute    left    face, 
march  to  the  left  and  form  "by  the  rijclit   flank"  as 
the  rear  division.     All  divisions  in  rear  of  the  second 
execute  the  "turn"  at  the  chaniriui;  ])oint.  While ad- 
vancini;  in  street  rior  order,  should  a  lanrc  openinL' 
bercaehed,  such  as  a  square,   or  park,  llie  llanked 
colinnn  order  nuiy  be  used,  or  sui-h  formations  pro- 
vided by  Tactics  for  field  work,  as  Ihc  circumstances 
uniy  demand.     While  double  rank  formation  is   re- 
commended,   these    movementu  can  be   executed  in 
simile  rank,  if  necessary  owinj;  to  lack    of  ilumbers. 
Should  the  rei;imenl  eipnilizc  with  companies  of  siif- 
licicnl  size,  the  same  principles  can   be  used    with 
])latoons  and  companies  as  explained  for  companies 
and  divisions.     If  it   nuiy  be  desirable  to  divide  the 
force,  for  the  purpose  of  llankini;  barricades,  ntarch- 
inj;   in  parallel  streets   or  detacliinir  companies  for 
special  duly,  three  divisions  (or  com])anies,  if  lari;e 
enough)  are  suliicient  for  "street  riot  order." 

Firingn  are  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  officer 
eommandini:.  but  irrcat  caution  is  advised  in  clearly 
indicalim;  tlie  front  that  is  lo  fire.  It  is  sucirestcfl 
that  one  trumpeter  or  drummer  in  each  wini;  be 
used,  to   indicate   cease   firinir.     If  a   drummer,    a 


arc  resist  inj^. 

Shoulil  Arlillerv  lie  em]iloyed  with  the  re>riinenl, 
the  sections  will  be   placed  bet  ween    the  Ist  and  2<1 
diviKionH,  and  4lli  and   rdh,  or  :tdanil4lh  Cif  four 
divisions),  and,  if  not  lo  be  en(.'ai;e(l,  will,  as  un  in- 
tersectiii);   street  is  approached,  hr-  halted  until   the 
2d  division  has  passed  and  reformed,  as  explained  in 
Tactics    for   thir   passaj^i-    of   obstacles.     When    the 
companies  who  have  executed  the  "turn"  have  re. 
formed  as  rear  divisions,   the  same    rnovenienl   will 
be  executed  by  the  division  in  rear  of  the  rear  see. 
lions.     Shoulil  il   become  necessary  to  usethcjFUDH, 
owini;  to  a  hca\'y  onslauL'hl  of  the  nioli,  primiptnt** 
will  be  of  Ihc  utmost  imporlanci-,  and  from  which, 
ever  front  tin-  L'uns  arc  to  be  servetl,  sufficient  fourH 
will  lie   moved  lo   rear  to  enable  the  puns  to  lie   run 
I  out  on  the  line.     While   it  is  of  course  desirabli-   to 
move  the  fours  l>a(k.  in  order,  the  ureal  objeci  is  to 
tret   them  back  ivivifiliaUly .  and  to  accomplish  Ibis, 
captains  will   direct  in  such   manner  as  will   be  ihe 
most  practicable  for  Iheoccasion,    The  fronts  remain 
prolectinj;  the  jruns,  and  firinir  if  deemed  necessary. 
By  these   formations   it   may  be  seen  that  several 
advanlaires  arc  secured,  for  instance:   1.   A  precau. 
liouary  formation  in  leaving  the  armory.     2.  A  col- 
unm consislimj  of  an  oldonjr,  marehinfr  insicle  the 
curb,   ready  for  any  emergency,  and    which  can  be 
widened  so  as  to  entirely  clear   the    street.     ;i  The 
turns  while  in  street  riot  order,  affording  protection 
to  the  flanks  while  passing.     4.  The  rc])cated  changes 
of  fronts  caused  by  Ihe    leading  division  of   the  col- 
umn being  used  to  cover  the  flanks  at  intersecting 
slri'cts,  Ihc  2d  divisjun  as  it    passes  becoming   the 
first,  and  so  on  to  Ihe  end,  one  company  or  ilivision 
is  not  reipiircd  to  bear  the  whole  brunt  of  the  resist- 
ance as  Ihe  changes   occur  as   often   as  it   becomes 
necessary,  to  protect  the  flanks.     .'5.  Frequent  sepa- 
ration of  Ihe  mol).     Hcspccling  this   feature,  it  nuiy 
be  claimed  that  Ihe  turbulent  element  cut  off  wouhl 
soon  unite  again  willi  the  main  Ijody  ;   very  po.ssible. 
but  il  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  most  acliveof 
the  rioters  would  lie  inlhi-  front,  and  to  separate  any 
from  their  fellows  (even  if  but  temporary;,  would  be 


short  shari)   roll   should  be  given.     .-I*  the  din  in  a  |  of  vast  assistance  in  quelling  the  riot,  besides  afTord- 


Ktrertjinlit  would  prevent  to  a  great  extent,  commands 
being  heard  clearly,  the  Commandant  may  employ 
his  stall  officers  to  eommiiniaite  mmindiitU  directly  to 
officers,  when  the  noise  is  great.  The  fjeuteunnt 
Colonel  nnii  yfnjor  will  ea^•h  he  provideil  with  a  non- 
commissioned staff  officer.to  cnal>le  them  to  prompt- 
ly report  anything  of  importance;  in  this  connection 
it  will  be  remcmiiercd  that  intervals  to  pass  through 
are  provided  in  the  colunm  for  this  purpose.  The 
usual  manner  of  directing  dressings  must  be  omitted 
in  Ihe  face  of  an  angry  mob,  and  the  habit  secured 
in  company  drills  of  perfecting  alignments  l)e  de- 
pended upon,  the  dressing  in  column  being  always 
toward  the  center. 

Sharpshooters  should  be  generally  supervised  by 
the  Inspector  of  Rifle  Practice,  who  should  be  es- 
pecially detailed  for  that  purpose.  When  the  col- 
umn is  in  •'street  riot"  orrfer,  sharpshooters  will  be 
constantly  on  the  alert,  and  if  the  district  is  danger- 
ous, watch  the  windows  and  roofs  of  houses  on  the 
side  opposite  their  flanks,  and  should  a  hall  occur, 
will  immediately  seize  any  prominence  that  will  af- 
ford them  view  of  the  moh,  those  of  the  Isl  and  2d  di- 
. visions  watching  the  front,  and  those  of  the  rear 
division  watching  the  rear,  but  must  not  lire  until 
individually  ordered,  unless  they  have  special  or  gen- 
eral instruction  to  the  contrary.  Of  courseduring  a 
general  engiigement  witli  rioters,  they  could  be  in- 
structed to  pick  off  any  who  are  no'iceil  as  assail- 
ants, l^idcrscf  mobn  are  usually  shrewd  enough  to 
know  the  importance  of  disposing  of  commanding 
otJicers   of   troops,  and  thereby,  in  soini-   instances, 


ing  a  means  of  escape  for  many  innocent  people.  6. 
The  piece  being  at  arms  port,  is  clutched  firmly 
with  l)oth  hands,  can  be  used  as  a  powerful  pushing 
lever,  at  the  same  time  be  ready  for  charge  bayoneti 
orfiring,  or  to  use  the  butt  as  explained  in  the  bayo- 
net exercise.  7.  A  continuous  advance  on  the  main 
body  of  the  mob.  H.  The  simplicity  of  the  "  ttreet 
Tint  order"  as  it  can  be  formed  from  -flanhtd  column 
order,"  eobimn  of  fovrs,  rolnmn  of  enmptmie*,  or  a/U 
uniu  of  dirixi-mf,  etc.,  etc.  '^.  Artillery  can  be  em- 
ployed without  changing  the  formaticm.  In  a  street 
of  ordinary  width  a  regiment  with  five  divisions  can 
hold  four  city  tilocks  at  one  time.  and.  if  companies 
are  large  enough  to  operate  with  platoon  foniiation, 
nine  blocks  can  be  held. 

In  providing  these  formations  it  is  not  supposed 
that  an  advance  will  be  an  unbroken  march:  it  is 
therefore  very  important  for  all  officers  to  watch  the 
movements  of  the  column  tmd  guard  against  confu- 
sion that  might  follow  a  sudden  che<-k.  Command- 
ing (Itlicers  should  exercise  extreme  caution  in  en- 
tering dangerous  districts,  and  not  expose  their  men 
nee<licssly  to  the  dangers  of  fortified  defiles,  a.s 
streets  with  buildings  on  both  sides  might  be  such  in 
efTect,  These  formal  ions  are  simply  tactical:  methods 
for  tlie  erection  ordestruction  of  barricades,  defend- 
ing or  assaulting  of  foriifieil  buildings,  attack  or 
defense  in  general  of  fortified  places,  and  matters 
incidental  tiierelo,  should  be  subjects  for  private 
instruction  and  discussion,  as  publicity  might  tend 
to  neutralize  the  effect  of  any  measure  that  might  be 
employed. 


RISBAN. 


742 


ErVETING-MACHINES. 


EISBAN. — In  fortification,  any  flat  piece  of  ground 
upon  wbicli  a  fort  is  constructcil  for  the  defense  and 
security  of  a  port  or  harbor.  It  likewise  means  the 
fort  itself. 

RISBEEME.— A  work  composed  of  fascines,  such 
as  is  sometimes  constructed  at  the  bottom  of  a  town- 
wall.  A  sort  of  glacis  of  fascine-work  used  in  jet- 
ties, the  sides  of  which,  towards  the  sea,  are  so 
formed  as  to  withstand  its  violence. 

EISING. — In  Heraldry,  a  term  applied  to  a  bird 
when  represented  opeuinir  his  wings  as  if  about  to 
take  fliL'lit. 
•  RISING  FEOM  THE  EANKS.— To  pass  through 
the  successive  stages  in  the  ranks  until  a  Non-com- 
missioned Officer  attains  the  rank  of  a  Commissioned 
Officer.  Each  Non-commissioned  Officer  rising  from 
the  ranks  in  the  i^nglisli  Arun-  receives,  on  getting 
his  commission,  a  grant  of  £i.50  in  the  cavalry,  and 
of  £100  in  the  infantry,  to  enable  him  to  purchase 
his  outfit. 

RIVET. — A  metal  pin  for  connecting  two  plates  of 
metal  or  other  material  together.  The  rivet  is  put 
through  holes  in  both  plates,  and  the  projecting  ends 
are  then  beaten  down  so  as  to  represent  the  head  of 
a  nail  on  each  side,  and  thus  hold  the  plates  in  close 
contact.  Rivets  are  of  most  essential  importance  in 
armor  making,  and  in  building  iron  ships.  They 
are  often  put  through  the  holes  and  beaten  down 
while  red-hot,  in  order  that  the  coniractlon  of  the 
rivet  as  it  cools,  may  produce  more  intimate  contact 
of  the  plates.  The  principle  of  the  riveting-machine 
is  simply  the  bringing  a  powerfid  lever  to  bear  upon 
the  head  of  the  rivet,  so  that  the  smith  can  hammer 
upon  the  other  and  softened  end  without  displacing 
it.     See  Riritiiifi-iniiehines. 

EIVETINGFOEGE.— A  variety  of  forge  much  used 
in  arsenals  and  foimding  shops.  The  drawing  shows 
a  portable  riveting-forge,  having  a  pot  rotatable  by 


gearing,  and  having  three  doors,  so  as  to  employ 
three  operatives;  it  contains  a  grate-like  basket, 
which  allows  the  blast  from  the  tuyere  to  pass 
through.  At  the  bottom  of  the  basket  is  a  grate  and 
a  comb-raker,  operated  from  the  outside.      Beneath 


the  grate  is  the  tuyere  box.     A  fan  is  provided  for 
creating  a  blast. 

Various  devices  have  been  resorted  to  for  trans- 
mitting power  to  the  fan  used  on  portable  forges. 
All  the  standard  Keystone  forges  have  wlial  is  here 


shown  and  known  as  the  "  Square-Linked  Malleabh- 
Iron  Chain,"  which  is  very  satisfactory  in  operation. 
It  is  more  durable  than  cog  gear  and  more  reliable 
than  fricti(m  pulleys.  It  is  positive  in  its  action,  and 
from  its  construction  it  cannot  slip,  and  may,  there- 
fore, be  run  slack,  with  much  less  friction  upon  the 
journals  and  bearings.  As  it  neither  stretches  nor 
contracts  by  heat  or  dampness,  it  is  always  the  same 
in  all  kinds  of  exposure.  To  use  the  chain,  place  it 
upon  the  wheel,  with  the  open  hook  of  the  link  out. 
To  hook  or  imhook  a  link,  make  an  angle,  as  repre- 
sented in  the  drawing,  and  slide  the  link  out  by  a 
side  motion  :  the  two  depressions  on  the  side  of  the 
link  are  for  this  jnirpose. 

EIVETING-MACHINES.— As  manufacturers  in  the 
United  States  of  Mr.  Ralph  H.  Tweddell's  various 
Hydraulic  Machines  for  riveting,  so  extensively 
used  in  England,  Messrs.  "William  Sellers  &  Co.. 
have  largely  increased  the  applications  of  his  inven- 
tion in  riveting  armor-plates,  etc.,  as  well  as  im- 
proved the  machines.  The  improvements  in  their 
steam  riveting  machines  have  been  in  the  direction 
of  greater  strengtli  and  increased  durability,  and 
the  application  of  the  best  features  of  the  hydraul- 
ic system  to  the  steam  system.  That  is  to  say, 
they  now  make  the  steam  "riveters  do  their  work  by 
pressure,  and  not  by  impact  or  blow.  Where  the 
boiler  pressure  can  be  varied  to  suit  the  size  of  the 
rivets  being  driven,  and  can  be  maintained  at  a 
uniform  pressure  during  the  entire  w^ork,  the  steam 
riveter  will  be  in  all  respects  as  effective  as  the 
hydraulic  in  stationary  machines. 

The  attractive  feature  of  tlie  hydraulic  system  is, 
that  the  pressure  to  be  applied  in  each  case  is 
gauged  at  the  accimuilator  by  an  adjustment  of  the 
"weights,  which  determine  the  pressure  per  square 
inch  on  the  ram  of  the  machine.  If  the  water  be 
admitted  to  the  machine  from  the  accumulator 
slowly,  the  pressure  on  the  ram  will  be  that  in  the 
accuinulator  as  determined  by  the  weights,  and  if 
the  valve  is  opened  quickly,  so  as  to  admit  a  very 
free  flow  of  water  and  a  consequent  rapid  fall  of 
the  accumulator,  there  may  be  an  increase  of  the 
pressure  over  that  due  to  the  weight  from  the  im- 
petus of  the  falling  load  on  the  accumulator,  but 
not  amounting  to  aiiy  injurious  increase. 

The  very  nuich  higher  pressure  per  square  inch 
at  which  hydraulic  machines  are  run,  as  compared 
to  either  steam  or  imeumatic  machines,  makes  the 
cylinder  smaller,  and  consequently  the  machines  are 
less  cumbersome  with  equal  power,  a  matter  of  very 
great  importance  with  portable  riveting  machines, 
and  of  some  moment  in  many  kinds  of  stationary 
riveting  machines.  The  hydraulic  riveting  machine 
can  be"^  used  wherevr  power  by  belt  is  obtainable, 
and  the  pumps  and  accumulator  may  by  placed  at 
any  point  most  convenient  for  the  application  of  the 
power,  their  distance  from  the  riveting  machine  in- 
volving no  serious  loss  in  efticieucy. 

Very  extended  experience  with  the  hydraulic  ri- 
veting machine  system  in  its  various  forms  has  led 
to  make"alterations  in  the  steam-system  of 
riveting  lo  bring  it  to  the  same  standard  of 
excelh-nce.  So  long  as  it  was  believed  thai 
lilows  were  needed  lo  do  good  riveting^  by 
power,  the  imiirovemenls  in  the  machines 
were  in  Ihe  ilireclioii  of  making  themstron- 
ger  and  better  able  to  willistand  the  severe 
shocks  which  sooner  or  later  break  down 
all  such  structures.  Hydraulic  riveting  de- 
monst  rated  not  only  I  hat  tlic  work  could  be 
as  wi'll  done  witlio"ul  a  blow,  but  that  it 
<'ould  be  li(tl<  r  (l"iir  iriUniitt  a  l.lnir.  and  that 
the  riveted  material  was  stronger  when  so 
secure<t  than  when  subjected  to  the  more  severe 
treatment  under  impact.  Many  exiierimcnts  with 
steam  riveting  macliiiies  led  to  the  adoption  of  a 
system  of  very  small  steam-pipe  connections  from 
tile  boiler  to  the  riveter,  coupled    with    an    increase. 


BIVETINO  PLATES. 


i: 


HIVEH8. 


in  the  diaiMcl<r  nf  \\iv  riveting  rylindur  and  tlic,  UHC 
i>f  H  very  liii^jc  vnlvc  on  llic  iiiacliiix'  (o  permit  a  free 
lldw  (jf  sleiiiii  ill  exliiuisliiij:  mid  etlVel in;;  the  draw- 
baek  witli  llie  cliurirc  used  in  driving;  llie  rivel.  'I'liis 
iniproviiienl  lias  liioiinlit  liieHleaiii  rivelin;;  plant  up  ! 
to  the  liesi  (•(indilidiis  (if  liydniiilie  riveting,  ho  far 
as  .Htatioiiary  iiiiuliiiies  are  eiiiKeriied.  willi  tlie  one 
Hini^le  exeeplion  that  (lie  reijiilarily  of  the  Hteani 
pressure  Is  slill  left  to  llie  discri'lioii  of  llie  persons 
empl<;ved  in  doiiiu:  llie  work.  When  a  separate  boil- 
er is  eiiipl'ved  lo  run  the  rivelir  no  (jreal  Iroiilile  is 
found  in  a  close  reirulalion  of  the  sti^ani,  and  Hie 
sleam  rivelin;;  system  is  very  satisfaetory. 

The  drawiiii;  shows  what  is  known    as  the  Klaslie 
JSlow  l{iveliiii;-maehine,  and  much   used  in   arsenals 


The  machine  in  imed  In  Ave  hi/x-h,  for  heading  will 


rivets  of . 


;,  and  1  ineh  diameter  respecilvelv. 


for  a  ijreat  variety  of  the  lighter  work.  The  most 
remaniable  feature  of  the  maeliine  is  the  peculiar 
elastic  blow,  the  force  of  which  can  be  varied  at  the 
will  of  the  operator,  from  a  slight  to  a  heavy  blow, 
by  more  or  less  pressure  applied  to  the  treadle,  and 
without  moving  the  work  in  any  manner. 

A  self-acting  device  attached  to  the  maeliine  stops 
instantly  the  lilow  of  the  hammer,  allowing  the  opera- 
tor  to  withdraw  his  work.  An  adjusiable  anvil 
allows  vises  or  other  suitable  contrivances  to  be  at- 
tached, for  holding  work  of  dilTerent  shapes  and 
thicknesses,  and  an  e.xtra  treadle  (shown  in  engrav- 
ing) is  furnished  with  each  machine,  to  allow  these 
vises  to  be  operated  by  the  foot  if  desired. 

The  work,  while  in  the  machine,  is  stationary, 
thus  insuring  the  hammer  always  striking  on  the 
rivet  and  heading  it  equally.  Hotli  !:ands  of  the 
operator  being  free,  he  is  able  to  liandh-  the  work 
with  ease  and  rapidity.  The  haniiner  being  rotated 
while  the  blows  are  given,  the  work  can  be  riveted 
flush,  or  with  a  smooth,  rounded   hea  I,  as  desired. 


RIVETING  FLATEB.  In  gun-carriages.  Hie  sniull, 
S(|Uari',  thin  pieces  of  iron,  through  which  the  endH 
of  tbe  bolls  pass,  and  are  riveted  upon  them. 

BIVEBS.  Ifivers  traversing  the  theater  of  war 
occupied  by  hostile  artnies  have  a  marked  iniliience 
on  the  operations  of  each.  Whenever  they  an-  lobe 
crossed  in  the  priseneeof  an  enemy,  either  in  ad- 
vancing or  retiring,  the  use  of  artillery  and  of  Ihld- 
works  bcfionies  of  great  importance;  this,  for  the 
reason  that  the  operation  of  crossing  necessarily  con- 
sumes considerable  time,  during  whicli  tlie  urtny  iB 


divided— astraddle,  as  it  were,  the  stream-  and  re- 
quires the  aid  of  that  arm  whicli,  from  a  (i.ved 
po.sition,  possesses  the  power  of  covering  at  long 
nmge  the  movements  of  other  troops.  The  place  of 
crossing,  whether  bridge,  ferry,  or  ford,  is  simply  a 
defilethrougb  whicli  the  army  has  to  pass,  anil  which 
must  l)e  completely  covered  from  the  tire  of  theene- 
my,  who  must  not  be  permitted  to  establish  batteries 
within  range  of  the  crossing.  This  is  tiest  effected 
by  covering  every  point  accessible  to  him  with  the 
(ire  of  artillery. 

A  river  in  front  of  an  army  operating  on  the  de- 
fensive, stands  lo  it,  somewhat,  as  a  wet  ditch  dftes 
to  a  fortilication,  and  should  be  so  guarded  as  to 
make  the  cro.ssing  of  it  a  difticult.  if  not  a  hazardous, 
operation  to  an  advancing  enemy.  Points  at  which 
the  communications  of  a  country  converge  are  those 
most  advantageous  for  an  enemy  to  .select  for  cross- 
ing. These  should  be  secured  by  strong  inclosed 
works,  armed  with  artillery  of  such  power  as  to 
cau.se  liim  to  make  a  long  detour  and  to  adopt  a  less 
advantageous  point.  If  the  stream  is  navigatde, 
such  wo^ks  form  a  i)lace  of  refuge  for  the  craft  that 
ply  on  it,  and  which,  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy,  would  furnish  him  with  means  of  crossing 
and  assist  him  in  carrying  on  his  operations.  The 
size  of  the  work  will,  lo  a  great  degree,  depend  upon 
the  force  that  can  be  detached  from  the  main  body  for 
garrisoning  it  ;  but,  generally,  a  well-constructed 
work  containing  a  thousand  men,  adequately  sup- 
plied with  artillery,  will  i)rove  a  formidalile  olistacle 
to  the  crossing  army.  Points  thus  established  should 
not  be  so  numerous  as  to  cripple  the  etliciency 
of  the  defending  army  by  dispersion.  They  should 
be  rather  in  the  nature  of  bases  for  temporarj- points 
of  observation  along  the  river,  secure  against  cap- 
ture by  ww/i  (/c  »('(/«,  and  threatening  lo  the  flanks 
and  rear  of  the  crossing  army. 

A  bridge  is  protected  Iiy  a  tfte-df-punt,  the  nature 

I  and  extent  of  which  will  depend  upon  the  character 
of  the  attack  to  be  expected,  .\gainsl  mere  raiding 
parties,  a  mere  redan  or  lunette  will  aui]dy  suffice 
Two  or  three  pieces  of  artillerj-  may  be  put  in  it.  but 
it  is  preferable  to  locate  batteries,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  river,  to  Hank  the  redan  and  cross  their 
tire  in  front  of  it.  Against  a  large  force  well  sup- 
plied with  artillery,  a  Unr  of  works  must  be  thrown 
up  and  well  armed  with  artillery,  for  the  purposeof 
keeping  him  beyond  artillery  range  from  the  bridge. 
Batteries  of  heavy  pieces  are  placed,  to  flank  the 
line. 
The  operation  of  crossing  a  river  by  an   anny  in 

I  presence  of  a  vigilant  enemy,  is  one  of  great  delicacy, 
as  it  necessarilv  consumes  considerable  time,  during 
which  it  is  more  or  less  divided  and  'subject  lo  every 
disadvanlase.    Judicious  use  of  artillerj-  is  of  the 


RIZAMEDAK. 


744 


ROADS. 


first  importance.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  ' 
o-ain  a  footing  on  the  opposite  side.  This  is  usually 
accomplislied  by  stratagem  or  by  surprise.  Before 
a  large  opposing  force  can  arrive,  batteries  must  be 
established  on  the  side  from  which  the  crossing  is 
made  to  cover  with  their  tire  a  large  area  of  ground 
opposite.  Every  available  piece  must  be  put  in,  and 
the  enemy  kept  back  until  bridges  can  be  laid  and  a 
strong  line  of  infautrj'  passed  over  and  intrenched. 
Siege  guns,  owing  to  their  great  range  and  power, 
are  the  best  adapted  for  this  service.  The  batteries 
should  be  extended  tip  and  down  the  stream  for 
three  or  more  miles  on  each  side  of  the  crossing- 
place;  this,  for  the  main  purpose  of  enrtlading  thi' 
flanks  of  the  enemy  and  preventing  him  from  bring- 
ing his  artillery  to  bear  upon  the  crossing.  The 
place  for  crossing  should  be  selected,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, with  a  view  to  advantageotis  positions  for 
batteries.  The  convex  side  of  a  curve  with  hills 
dominating  the  opposite  side  gives  every  advantage. 
This  secures  a  cross-tire  upon  the  opposite  peninsula, 
under  cover  of  which  the  infantry  line  and  light  field 
batteries  can  be  thrown  forward  to  a  distance  of  two 
or  three  thousand  j-ards  and  established  in  an  in- 
trenched line  as  represented  in  the  drawing. 

If  the  enemj-  has  gun-boats  on  the  river,  especially 
if  they  are  iroii-clads,  provision  against  them  must 
be  made  by  laying  across  the  channel  lines  of  sub- 
marine mines,  with  heavy  batteries  established  for 
their  protection.  These  batteries  must  be  strongly 
intrenched.  The  operation  of  crossing  a  river  by  an 
armv  pressed  in  rear  by  another,  is  the  reverse  of 
that  Just  described.  When  practicable,  the  concave 
side  of  a  bend  is  selected,  across  which  a  line  of  tem- 
porary intrenchments  is  constructed  r  batteries  are 
established  on  the  opposite  side,  and  the  army  with- 
drawn under  protection  of  their  fire.  The  batteries 
should  cover  themselves  with  gun-pits,  and  give 
special  attention  to  sucli  artillery  as  the  enemy  may 
bring  forward  for  the  purpose  of  reaching  the  place 
iif  crossing.     See  Bridges. 

RIZAMEDAK. — In  the  East  Indies,  an  ofiicer  com- 
manding a  small  body  of  horse. 

ROADS.— When  it  is  proposed  to  construct  a  line 
of  road,  extending  between  two  places,  the  officer 
upon  w-hora  such  duty  devolves,  first  makes  himself 
well  acquainted  with  the  surface  of  the  country 
lying  between  the  two  places;  he  is  then  to  select 
what  he  thinks,  all  circumstances  being  taken  into 
consideration,  the  best  general  route  for  the  proposed 
road.  But  previously  to  laying  it  out  with  accuracy, 
it  is  necessary  to  make  an  instrumental  survey  of  the 
countr}',  along  the  route  thus  selected ;  taking  the 
levels  from  point  to  point  throughout  the  whole  dis- 
tance, and  makir.g  borings  in  all  places  where  exca- 
vations are  required,  to  determine  the  strata  through 
which  such  cuttings  are  to  be  carried, and  the  requisite 
inclinations  of  the  slopes  or  slanting  sides  as  well  of 
the  cuttings  as  of  the  embankments  to  be  formed  by 
the  material  thus  obtained.  It  is  al.so  re(iuisite,  in 
the  selection  of  the  route  for  the  i)roposeil  road,  to 
have  regard  to  the  supply  of  materials,  not  only  for 
first  constructing  it.  but  for  niaint;iining  it  in  repair. 
The  results  of  sucli  an  investigation  shoulil  l)e  reduced 
to  pli'n  and  section  ;  the  plan  of  the  road  lieing  on  a 
scale  not  less  than  (iti  yards  to  an  inch,  and  the  sec- 
lion  not  less  than  SO  feet  to  an  inch.  The  loss  of 
J/rdctivi-  power  and  conseciuent  danger  produced  by 
.steep  acclivities,  render  it  neci'ssary  that  a  jiroper 
:ind  c;irefully  determiiu-d  limitation  should  be  im- 
posed on  the  iicclivilies  or  in<'liiiati()ns  on  every  line 
of  roail.  As,  however,  in  most,  instiuuies,  this  re- 
•duction  of  hills  in  a  country  where  much  ine(|uarMy 
of  surface  exists,  is  attended  with  great  labor  and 
cxp,;nse,  greater  rates  of  inclination  must  be  allowed 
to  hills  or  roads  where  the  traffic  is  not  sulHcient  to 
repiy  the  expense  of  excavations.  A  dead  level, 
even  where  it  can  be  obtained,  is  not  the  best  course 
for  a  road:  a  certain  inclination  of  the  surface  facili- 
lates  the  drainage,  and  keeps  the  road  in  a  dry  state. 


There  is  one  certain  iudinatiou  or  acclivity,  which 
causes,  at  a  uniform  speed,  the  traces  to  slacken,  and 
the  carriages  press  on  the  horses,  unless  a  drag  or 
brake  is  used;  the  limiting  inclination  within  which 
this  effect  does  not  take  place  is  called  the  angle  nf 
repiiKe.  On  all  acclivities  less  steep  than  the  angle 
of  repose,  a  certain  amovmt  of  tractive  force  is  nec- 
essary in  the  descent,  as  well  as  in  the  ascent;  and 
the  mean  of  the  two  drawing  forces,  ascending  and 
descending,  is  equal  to  the  force  along  a  level  road. 
The  exact  course  of  the  road,  and  the  degree  of  its 
acclivities  being  determined,  the  next  thing  to  be 
considered  is  the  formation  of  its  surface.  The 
(pialities  which  ought  to  be  imparted  to  it,  are  two- 
fold: first,  it  should  be  smooth:  secondly,  it  should 
be  hard;  and  the  goodness  of  the  road  will  be  exactly 
in  proportion  as  these  qualities  can  be  imparted  to 
it,  and  permanently  maintained  upon  it.  The  means 
resorted  to  accomplish  these  objects  are:  1.  Grarel 
Jliiailx.  A  coating  of  four  inches  of  gravel  shoidd  be 
spread  over  the  road  bed,  and  vehicles  allowed  to 
pass  over  it,  till  it  becomes  tolerably  firm — men  be- 
ing required  to  rake  in  the  ruts  as  fast  as  they  ap- 
pear: a  second  coating  of  S  or  4  inches  of  gravel 
should  be  then  added  and  treated  like  the  first,  and 
finally  a  third  coating.  2.  Brnkeii  .Stone  liondn.  or 
JIcAdam  roads.  French  engineers  value  uniformity 
in  size  of  the  broken  stone  less  than  McAdam.  They 
use  all  sizes  from  U  inches  to  dust.  McAdam  coii- 
siders  from  T  to  10  inches  of  depth  of  stone  on  the 
road  sufficient  for  any  purpose.  He  earnestly  ad- 
vocates the  principle,  that  the  whole  science  of  road- 
making  consists,  in  most  cases,  in  making  a  solid 
dry  path  on  the  natural  soil,  and  then  keeping  it  dry 
by  a  durable  water-proof  coating.  3.  Broken  stone 
roads  with  a  paved  bottom  or  foundation,  or  Tilfurd 
Roiidi  ;  a  road  thus  constructed  will,  in  most  cases, 
cost  less  than  one  entirely  of  broken  stone.  4.  Hoeidx 
of  Wood.  The  abundance,  and  consequent  cheapness 
of  wood  renders  its  eiuployment  in  road-making  of 
great  value.  It  has  been  used  in  the  form  of  logs,  of 
charcoal, of  planks, and  also  of  blocks.  When  a  road 
passes  over  soft,  swampy  ground  it  is  often  made  pas- 
sable by  felling  straight  young  trees,  and  laying  them 
side  bj-  side  across  the  road  at  right  angles,  or  very 
nearly  so,  to  its  length.  This  is  the  primitive  and 
very  well  known  corduroy  road.  A  very  good  road 
has  been  lately  made  through  a  swampy  forest,  by 
felling  and  burning  the  timber,  and  covering  the  sur- 
face with  charcoal  thus  prepared.  Timber  from  6 
to  18  inches  through  is  cut  24  feet  long,  and  piled  up 
lengthwise  in  the  center  of  the  road  about  five  feet 
high,  and  then  <'Overe(l  with  straw  and  earth  in  the 
manner  of  coal  pits.  The  eartii  required  leaves  two 
good  ditches,  and  flu-  tiud>er,  though  not  split,  is 
easily  charred;  and  when  charred  the  earth  is  re 
moved  to  the  side  of  the  ditches,  and  the  coal  raked 
down  to  a  width  of  l.*)  feet,  leaving  it  two  feet  thick 
at  the  center  and  one  at  the  sides.  5.  I'lank  Iioiid.t. 
Two  parallel  rows  of  small  sticks  of  timber  (called 
sleepers)  are  imbedded  in  the  road  three  or  four  feet 
apart.  Planks,  8  feet  long  and  3  or  4  inches  thick, 
are  laid  on  these  sleepers  across  them.  Aside  track 
of  earth  to  turn  out  ujion  is  carefully  graded.  Deep 
ditches  are  dug  on  each  side  to  insure  perfect  drain- 
ajje;  and  thus  we  have  tlu  plank  road.  (!.  A'w^/.s  (// 
hartli.  These  roads  are  deficient  in  the  important 
reipiisites  of  smoothness  and  hardness,  but  they  are 
the  only  ri)ads  usually  made  in  the  fiekl  to  carry  on 
militiiry  operations.  Their  slia|ie,  when  well  made. is 
properly  formeil  wit  b  a  slope  of  but  1  in  20  e;icli  w;iy 
i'riim  llie  center.  Its  drainage  should  be  niiule  thor- 
ough by  deep  and  capacious  ditches,  sloping  not 
less  than  1  in  12,5.  Trees  should  be  removed  from 
the  borders  of  the  road,  so  as  not  to  intercept  the 
sun  and  wind.  The  labor  expended  upon  it.  will, 
however,  de|)end  upon  circumstances.  Every  hole 
or  rut  in  the  road  should,  however,  be  at  once  filled 
up  with  good  materials,  for  the  wheels  fall  into  them 
like  hammers,  deepening  them  at  each  stroke,  and 


HOBERTS  GUN. 


BOCK  DHIIX, 


lliiis  in<rcasiiiK  llic  (li-HlrnclivK  elTi'fl  of  IIk-  rominj; 
wlii<l.  The  (TDSS-scclion  of  a  road  cnibniccs:  1. 
T/if  iriilth  iij'tlif  riHiil  frnrii  HI],  to  :i(»  ficl,  arcuriliiii; 
to  ils  iiii|i<irlan<c,  anil  llic  aiiiKunl  <if  Irnvcl  iipuii  it. 
2.  Tlw  Hhiiiif  of  till'  rntiil-hid  '\'\w  bent  Hliapc  of  tlir; 
tniMMVcrsc  profile  for  a  road  on  level  f;ri>iiii(l  Ih  two 
iiii'liiied  ]ilanes  nieetinj;  in  the  center  of  rou<l,  and 
liavin;;  their  allele  sliirhtly  rounded.  On  n  Hteephill, 
the  transverse  prcjtile  slionld  he  a  siniile  slope  inclin- 
inj;  inwards  to  the  fuee  of  the' hill.  li.  h'niitpiiDin.iti-. 
4.  Ditrlii"  'Pile  ditches  shcjidd,  if  possiljic.  lead  into 
the  natural  water-courses  of  the  country.  T).  I'ln 
Hidi'diiiii'mift'if  nitlin!i:<  itml  IHIiiir/K  These  viiry  with 
the  nature  of  llic  soil. 

ROBERTS  GUN.  .\  luce.h.loadin;;  rillc  havini;  a 
ti.M'd  ehanilier  closed  by  a  iiiovahic  l>rcech-block, 
which  rotates  about  a  horizontal  a.visat  'M)"  to  thea.vis 
of  the  barrel,  lyiiii;  above  Ihea.xis  i>f  the  barrel  ami  in 
rear,  bcini;  nii>veil  from  above.  The  pieci' is  opened 
by  raisiiina  hooked  eatch-lcvc-r,  at  theen<l  of  the  tan;; 
ot  the  breecb-block,  out  of  its  notch  in  llx'  tani;  of 
the  receiver.  This  depresses  Iheforwanl  end  of  the 
block  so  as  In  e.^iMisethe  chamber.  The  reaction  of 
the  breech-lilock  spriiu;  lying  uudcrueatli  the  block 


throws  up  the  front  of  the  block  sutliciently  to  keep 
the  cartridge  from  fallinix  out  of  the  chamber  before 
the  breech  is  fullv  closed.     The  closing  is   done   by 


rctiirniMK  the  lever  to  ilH  place,  or  aiilomutically  liy 
'  r-ockin;r  Ihi-  piece.  The  back  of  the  lianinier  in  tin; 
latter  case  presses  a^'ainsl  tin-  enil  of  the  slot  in  the 
tan^  of  the  liri'ecb-block  in  w  hich  it  plays,  and  ho 
raJHCH  the  front  r,f  the  block  into  place.  '  The  piece 
is  locked  by  the  poHJIion  of  llie  breech-block,  whicli 
is  also  kept  in  place  tiy  the  enj^a^inn  "f  "k-  liook  of 
I  the  catch-lever  with  u  correspondini;  notch  in  the 
taiiL'  of  the  rcceivir.  K.vlraction  and  ejection  uc<i 
accompanied  by  a  bi'til  liver  pivoted  to  the  side  of 
the  receiver  bilow  the  chamber,  and  sinick  by  the 
breeih-bloik  face  in  its  descent. 

B0BERT80N  RIFLE.  A  breei-h-joadiiiK  Hmall-ami 
havini;  a  ti.veil  chamber  closed  by  a  movable  tireeeli- 
block,  which  rotates  alamt  a  hori/.ontal  axis  at  00" 
to  the  a.xis  of  the  barrel,  lyin^  below  the  axis  of  tUe 
barrel  and  in  front-  bein;;  moved  from  below  by  a 
lever.  By  depressini;  the  lever  the  block  is  pulled 
down  by  a  link  connecting  the  two.  By  reversing 
the  lever  the  bimk  is  raised  into  place  against  the 
end  of  the  barrel,  and  is  locked  by  the  middle  joint 
of  the  linked  condiination  rising  above  the  line  join- 
ing tlie  other  two,  and  causing  the  strain  upon  the 
block  from  the  discharge  to  tend  loward.s  brin^injr 
the  lever  more  closely  into  place.  Kxtraclion  and 
ejection  are  aecomplishcd  by  a  small  slrai!;ht  lever, 
swinging  on  a  center  below  that  of  the  block,  and 
struck  by  the  block,  during  the  opening,  near  its  cen- 
ter of  motion. 

ROBILLARD  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. -Thi.s 
system  has  bieu  ralli  d  the  ■•  system  of  demolition." 
The  enceinte  resembles  that  of  Vauban.  The  out- 
works  consist  of  ravelins,  counterguards.  and  Heches. 
The  Icrrepleins  of  all  these  works  are  intersected  by 
ditches,  which  arc  covered  either  by  masonry  or  by 
wooden  frames  and  earth,  so  that  when  the  be- 
sieger has  hreacbed  a  work,  the  defenders  obtain  at 
once  a  retrenchment  by  removing  that  masonry  or 
wood  by  the  mine. 

ROBINET.-  An  aniient  military  machine  for  throw- 
ing dart^  and  stones. 

SOCK  DEILL.-  The  two  most  important  improve- 
ments iu  modern  rock-drilling  a])paratus  consists  in 
the  use  of  compressed  air  as  a  motor,  and  the  em- 
ployment of  diamond  ))oints.     The  former  is  now 
universally  us<  d  in  operations  on  a  large  scale,  and 
is  extensively  emiikiyeil  in  coal-mining,   serving  to 
ventilate  the  shaft  besides  performing  tlie  functions 
of  a  motor.     The  driKiug-nutchines  to  which  it   is 
applied  are  various,  very  great  im|irovemenls  having 
bdii   madewitliin    the   past  few  years,  previous  to 
wiiich  time  the  old  systems  of  turniiii;  the  drill,  and 
boring  or  pounding  by  hand,  held  undisputed  swav. 
The  drawing  illiislratis  the  Band  Hock  Drill,  which 
behmgs  to  the  class  known  as  "  .striking  drills."  in 
w  liich  the  drill  steel  is  an  extension  of  "the  piston- 
rod.  The  cylinder  slides  inashell  or  guide,  whicli  is 
iu  turn  nu)unted  upon  a  tripod  with  a  uni- 
versal joint.     The  lyliiuler  is  fed   toward 
the  rock  as  fast  as  the  steel  penetrates  il. 
The  tripod   legs   arc  adjustable,    and  can 
be  placed  lu  any  position  desirable.     The 
weights  are  removable.     The  positive  valve 
movement  insures  certain  operation  when 
steam  or  air  is  admitted,   withiuit  depend- 
ing upon  close  tils  or  clean  parts.     It   al- 
lows of  a  variation  in  design  between  the 
up  and  the  down  stroke,  thus  economizing 
steam  and  increasing  the  working  capacity 
of  the  machine.      By  a   patented  feature, 
the  valve  is  moved  in  the  same  direction 
with  the  piston.     The  rotating  bar  is  made 
full  size  where  it  enters  the  ratchet,  and, 
unlike  the  other  forms,  :t  does  not    brejik. 
The  piston-rod  and  chuck,  or  drill-holder, 
is  made  rather  small  and    solid   outside   of 
the  cylinder,  whereby  a  much  greater  lift- 
ing power  's  attained  than  is  ever  possible  in  any 
otiu'r  machines  of  the   same  diameter  of  cylindeir. 
The  split  crank-nut.  feed-nut.  and  adjustabie-slides 


BOCK  DRILL. 


746 


ROCK  DRILI,, 


RAND'S  LITTLE  GIANT  ROCK  DRILL, 


Mcuiilcd  iPii  'I'limic  I   "T  DrilliiiL;  I  niumiv 


ROCKET  GAUGES. 


ROCKETS. 


provide  for  liiUiiif;  up  wear  iis  fuHt  iih  it  occiirn.  Tlic  iln  lii'ud  jh  hiiriiioiiiiU'd  l<v  ii  '"Uil  ,luit  ;  if  i-xplonioii 
llirolllc  or  slop  cock,  employed  in  llic  Uiiiid  drill  Ik  |  and  iiici-iidiiiry  i-irccl.  \<y  aolitlUir  uphrrintl  oiJu^jihil. 
pliiccd  ill  llic  siciiiii  clicsl,  where  il  cariiiol  hv  loHt  or  to  wliicli  is  iilluclieil  u  fiiMc,  wliicii  is  wl  on  (Ire  when 
injured  in  liundliii!;,  us  i.<  the  ciise  where  a  common  il  i.t  reuelied  liy  the  llamr-  of  the  hnrnin^;  eompohi- 
enlve  .illiiched  lo  the  liiwe  is  nued.  The  linhlniiif;  lion.  The  hawe  Ih  perforuli'd  Ijy  one  or  more  reitU 
coiipliiii;-  provides  for  inslanlaneoiis  conneelioii  of  for  the  escape  of  the  (,'iis  ^.'eneraled  within,  and 
the  hose  williriiil,  llie  use  of  wrencii  or  spanner  ;  il  j  .sometimes  w  ilh  a  screw-liole  to  which  u.  )?uidi:-slick 
does  uot  leak,  and  lias  no  gnsketu  Ihul  can  drop  out.  I  in  luHlened.    The  diHposilion  of  the   difltrt-ul  purt» 


Tli(t  full  !>«;;(•  enuravino;  opposite  shows  this  drill 
mounted  so  !liat  several  holes  can  be  drilled  each 
side  of  the  column  wilhout  takini;  down  the  drill  or 
movin-j;  the  column.  The  arm  is  made  so  that  by 
loosening  one  nut  it  can  be  swung  around  to  any 
position,  or  il  can  be  raised  or  lowered  on  the  col- 
umn. The  Kand  air-compressors,  used  with  this 
drill  are  of  Ihc  liorizoiilal  liuplex  lypi',  with  air  and 
steaiii  cylinders  in  line.  This  arrangement  makes  a 
machine  that  is  very  uceessilile.  that  is  correctly  de- 
signed, and  readily  available  as  an  engine  as  well  as 
a  compressor,  anil  that  lias  its  framing  so  dispo.sed 
as  to  take  the  strains  in  direct  lines.  The  engine  is 
tilled  with  the  Meyer  valve  gear,  the  cul-olT  being 
adjusted  by  a  hand  wheel,  while  the  machine  is  in 
molion.the  point  of  cul-olf  being  shown  by  a  |)ointi'r 
moving  over  a  graduated  scale.  The  machine  is  run 
with  a  wiile-oiHii  throttle,  and  is  controlled  entirely 
by  the  cut-olf.  At  the  same  time  an  ordinary  ball- 
governor  protects  the  machine  from  running  away 
in  case  of  breakage  of  the  air  pipes,  or  sudden  loss  of 
pressure  from  any  cause — a  not  infreipient  occur- 
rence. .Vltaclied  to  the  ball-governor  is  a  pressure 
governor,  whose  object  istoslacken  speed  whenever 
the  air  pressure  reacnes  the  ma.xinium  desired 
usually  li.'i  lbs.  persq.  in.  The  main  frames  are  of 
the  Corliss  pattern,  ami  very  heavy.  The  air  and 
steam  cylinders  are  tied  together  by  »  heavy  cast- 
iron  sole-plate  and  tie-rod,  whieh  take  t!ie  .strain  in 
direct  lines.  The  bi-arings  are  of  brass, very  large, and 
titled  for  taking  vij)  wear.  The  cranks  artvof  wrought 
iron,  the  crank  pins  and  cross  head  pins  of  steel. 
The  lly  wheel  is  very  heavy, in  order  to  give  smooth 
molion  when  il  is  desired  to  run  one  side  at  a  time. 
The  method  of  absorbing  the  heat  of  compression  is 
believed  to  be  the  most  perfect  in  use.  Injection  of 
water  into  the  cylinder  is  not  feasible  in  cold  cli- 
mates, owing  to  the  freezing  of  the  water  in  the  air 
pipes.  -Vt  the  same  time  the  ordinary  cast-iron  jack- 
ets for  circulaling  water  around  Ihc  cylindiT  merely 
snrve  to  keep  Ihc  melallic  parts  of  tbemacliinc  from 
becoming  overliealed.  and  have  but  an  insigniticant 
effec-t  in  cooling  the  air.  In  Ibis  compressor  the  air- 
cylinder  is  made  of  hard  brass,  owing  to  the  better 
conductivity  of  this  material,  and  as  thin  as  it  can  be 
made  with  safely:  the  cyliiuler  beads  are  hollow  and 
have  water  circulating  Ihrougli  lliein.. '11111  linally  the 
piston  and  pislon-rod  are  hollow,  and  liy  means  of 
a  telescopic  arrangemiiil  of  tubing  al  tlii'  back  end 
of  the  air-cylinder, are  kept  supplied  with  cold  water. 
The  piston  packing  consists  of  four  composit  i(m  rings 
arranged  in  pairs  at  each  end  of  the  piston.  Before 
escaping,  the  water  of  the  jiiston  cirenlalion  is  made 
to  pass  between  these  rings,  completely  around  the 
piston  in  contact  with  the  inside  cylinder  walls. 

ROCKET  GAUGES.  Brass  rings,  which  are  employ- 
ed 10  a-crrlaiii  wlielher  the  cas<-  is  exteriorly  of  the 
proper  dimensions.  ' 

ROCKETS.  — Projectiles  .set  in  motion  by  forces  re- 
siding within  themselves,  and  performing  the  two- 
fold functions  of  pieces  and  projectiles.  A  rocket 
is  essentially  composed  of  a  strong  case  of  paper  or 
wrought  iron,  enclosing  a  composition  of  nitrr.  c/mr- 
i-'>iilt\m\xiilj>liiir — I  he  same  asgiin])owder.  except  that 
tim  ingredients  are  proporliomd  for  a  slower  rati'  of 
combustion.     If  penetration  and  range  be  re(|uircd. 


will  he  readily  understood  by  reference  lo  the  draw- 
ing which  represents  u  section  throiigli  llie  loniruxig 
of  a  Congreve  rockcl. 

The  rocket  is  set  in  motion  by  the  reaction  of  a 
rapid  stream  of  gas  escaping  through  its  vents.  If 
it  hesurrounded  by  a  resisting  medium,  the  atnios- 
phere,  for  instance.,lhe  i>arliclesof  gas,  as  they  issue 
from  the  vein,  will  impinge  against  and  set  in  inotion 
certain  particles  of  air,  and  the  force  e.xpendr'd  on 
Ihe  inertia  of  these  ))articles  will  react  and  greallv 
increase  the  propelling  force  of  the  rocket.  Il  fol- 
lows, therefore,  that,  though  a  rocket  will  niove 
with  very  great  ease /■«  Tiiciio,  its  propelling  force 
will  be  increased  by  Ihe  presence  of  a  resisting  me- 
dium. WhetheT  till' ellect  will  lie  I o  accelerate  the 
rocket  depends  upon  Ihe  relation  bitween  the  resis. 
tance  w  liicii  Ihe  midinin  olTers  to  ihc  motion  of  the 
gas.  and  that  which  il  oilers  to  Ihe  motion  of  the 
rocket.  .\s  the  rate  of  combuslion  of  the  composi- 
tion is  independent  of  the  pressure  of  the  gas  in  Ihe 
bore,  it  follows,  Ihat  if  Ihe  size  of  the  vent  be  con- 
tracted, the  flow  of  the  gas  throuirh  ilwill  be  accele- 
rated. The  slreiiL'lh  of  the  case,  and  the  friction  of 
Ihe  gas,  which  increases  as  the  vent  diminishes, 
alone  limit  the  reduclion  of  Ihe  size  of  the  vent. 
For  vents  of  the  same  size,  but  of  diJTerenl  shapes, 
:  that  one  which  allows  the  gas  lo  escape  most  free- 
ly, will  be  most  favorable  to  the  flight  of  Ihe  rocket. 
A  conical  form  of  vent,  with  the  larger  orilice  ne.\t 
to  the  bore,  will  allow  the  gas  to  escape  more  rapidly 
than  one  of  cylindrical  form. 

As  the  composition  of  a  rocket  bums  in  parallel 
layers  of  uniform  thickness,  the  amount  of  gas  gen- 
erated in  any  given  time,  or  the  velocity  ot  its  e.xit 
from  the  case,  ilepends  on  the  extent  of  the  intlamcd 
surface.  Experience  shows  that  to  obtain  the  re- 
(piired  surface  of  intlammatiou.  it  is  necessary  to 
form  a  very  long  cavity  in  the  nniss  of  the  composi- 
tion. This  cavity  is  generally  called  the  /ji>re.  In 
small  rockets,  the  bore  is  as  a  general  thing  formed 
by  driving  the  composition  around  a  spindle  whicii 
is  afterward  withdrawn  ;  but  in  the  larger  ones.  Ihe 
composition  is  driven  into  the  case  in  a  solid  mass 
by  a  jiowerfnl  hydrostatic  press,  and  then  bored  out 
with  a  bit.  In  all  rockets  the  bore  should  be  con- 
centric with  the  case:  its  shape  should  be  made 
conical  to  facilitate  the  drawing  out  of  the  spimlle, 
and  to  diminish  the  strain  on  tlie  case  near  its  head, 
by  reducing  the  amount  of  surface  where  the  pres- 
sure on  the  unit  of  surface  is  greatest. 

Suppose  the  rocket  in  the  stale  of  rest,  and  the 
composition  ignited:  the  tlame  immediately  spreads 
over  the  surface  of  the  bore,  forming  the  gas,  which 
issues  from  the  vent.  The  escape  is  slow  in  Ihe 
first  moments,  as  the  density  of  Ihe  gas  is  so  slight; 
but  as  the  surface  of  the  intiammalion  is  large  com- 
pared lo  the  size  of  the  vent,  the  gas  accumulates 
rapidly,  and  its  density  isconlinually  increased  until 
the  velocity  of  Ihe  escaiie  is  (piite  sufficient  lo  over- 
come all  of  the  several  resistances  which  Ihe  rocket 
always  offers  to  molion.  These  resistances  are,  in- 
ertia, friction,  the  component  of  weight  in  Ihe  direc- 
tion of  motion,  and,  alter  motion  lakes  place,  the 
resistance  of  Ihe  air.  The  constant  pressure  on  the 
bead  of  the  bore  accelerates  Ihe  motion  of  the  rocket 
iiniil  llii    resistance  of  Ihe  air  equals  the  propelling 


EOCKETS. 


748 


EOCKETS. 


force;  after  tins,  it  viiW  remain  constant  until  the 
burning  surface  is  sensibly  diininished.  When  the 
gas  ceases  to  flow,  the  rocket  loses  its  distinctive 
character,  and  becomes,  so  far  as  its  movement  is 
concerned,  an  ordiuar)-  projectile.  The  increase  in 
the  surface  of  combustion  wherebj'  more  gas  is  de- 
veloped in  the  same  time,  and  the  diminution  in  the 
weiglit  of  all  the  remaining  composition,  cause  the 
point  of  maximum  velocity  to  be  reached  with  in- 
creased rapidity.  If  the  weight  of  the  rocket  be 
increased,  tlie  instant  of  maximum  velocity'  will  be 
prolonged,  but  the  amount  will  remam  the  same.  A 
change  in  the  form  of  the  rocket  wliich  increases  the 
resistance  of  the  air.  will  have  the  effect  to  diminish 
the  maximum  velocity.  The  maximum  velocity  of 
French  rockets,  and  the  distances  at  which  they  are 
attained,  are  given  in  the  following  table  : — 

Caliber.  Distance.       Maxm.  Velocity. 

2i  inches.  121  yds.  378  vds. 

8i     ••  '  139    ■'  364 "  •• 

According  to  the  calculations  of  Piobert,  for  small 
rockets  it  takes  about  J  second  for  the  gas  to  attain 
its  maximum  velocity  of  837  yards. 

It  is  readily  seen  that  the  propelling  force  of  a 
rocket  changes  its  direction  with  the  axis  along 
which  it  acts;  it  follows,  therefore,  that  without 
some  means  of  giving  stability  to  this  axis,  the  path 
described  will  be  very  irregular,  and  so  much  so,  at 
times,  as  to  fold  upon  itself:  and  instances  have  been 
known  where  these  projectiles  have  returned  to  the 
point  whence  they  started.  An  example  of  this  ir- 
regular motion  may  be  seen  in  "serpents,"  a  species 
of  small  rockets  witho\it  guide-sticks.  Tlie  two 
means  now  used  to  give  steadiness  to  tlie  flight  of  a 
rocket  are,  roUition,  as  in  the  case  of  a  rifle-ball,  and 
the  rcfistance  of  the  n/'r.  as  in  an  arrow . 

The  first  is  exemplified  in  Hale's  rocket,  where  ro- 
tation is  produced  around  the  long  axis  by  the  escape 
of  the  gas  through  live  small  vents  situated  obliquely 
to  it.  In  his  first  arrangement,  the  inventor  placed 
the  small  vents  in  the  base,  completely  surroimding 
the  large  central  vent,  so  that  the  resultant  of  the 
tangential  forces  acted  around  the  posterior  extrem- 
ity "of  the  axis  of  rotation.  In  185.5,  this  arrange- 
ment was  changed  by  reducing  the  number  of  the 
small  vents  to  three,  and  placing  tliem  at  the  base  of 
the  head  of  the  rocket.  The  rocket  thus  modified  is 
the  one  uow  used  by  the  United  States  Government 
for  war  purposes. 

A  Congreve  rocket  is  guided  by  a  long  wooden 
stick  attached  to  its  base.  If  any  cause  act  to  turn 
it  from  its  proper  direction,  it  will  be  opposed  by  re- 
sistances equal  to  its  tnoment  of  inertia  aud  the  lateral 
action  of  the  air  against  the  stick.  The  effect  of  these 
resistances  will  be  increased  by  placing  the  center  of 
gravity  near  the  liead  of  the  rocket,  and  by  increas- 
ing the  surface  of  the  .stick.  In  itignnl  rockets,  where 
the  case  is  made  of  paper,  the  stick  is  attached  to 
the  side  by  wrapping  around  twine ;  and  there  is  but 
one  large  vent,  whicli  is  in  the  center  of  the  case.  In 
•ww-rockets  the  stick  is  attached  to  the  <'enter  of  the 
base,  and  tlie  large  central  vent  is  replaced  by  seve- 
ral smaller  ones  located  near  its  circumference. 
The  former  arrangement  is  not  so  favoraI)le  to  accur- 
acy as  tlie  latter,  inasmuch  as  rotiilioii  will  be  pro- 
diu-eil  if  the  force  of  propulsion  and  the  resistance  of 
the  ;iir  do  not  act  in  thes:imc  line.  Ucukels  are  gfn- 
vTiiWwtirrd  frinn  tiilicx (tr  f/"ft{ !■>■  :  but  sliould  nccasion 
re(|uire  it, 1  bey  may  be  lired  directly  from  the  ground, 
care  being  taken  to  raise  the  forward  end  by  prop- 
ping it  uj)  with  a  stick  or  stone.  As  the  motion  is 
slow  in  the  first  moments  fif  its  flight,  it  is  more  liable 
to  be  deviated  from  lis  pri)])er  dircclioii  at  Ibis  time 
than  any  other:  for  this  re:isiiii  the  ccinrlueling  tube 
Shf>uld  fie  as  long  as  practicable,  say  from  live  to  ten 
feel.  Take  lli:it  ])(irlion  of  llie  trajectory  where  the 
velocity  is  unifiirni.  The  weight  of  the  rocket  ap- 
plied at  its  center  of  gravity,  and  acting  in  a  verlical 
direction,  and  the  pro|ieHing  force  acting  in  the  di 
reclioii  (if. its  lengtli,  are  two  forces  the  oblicpie  rr. 


sultant  of  which  moves  the  rocket  parallel  to  itself ; 
but  the  resistance  of  the  air  is  oblique  to  this  direc- 
tion: and  acting  at  the  center  of  figure,  a  point  situ- 
ated between  the  center  of  gravity  and  extremity  of 
the  guide-stick,  produces  a  rotation  which  raises  the 
stick,  and  thereby  changes  the  direction  in  which  the 
gas  acts.  As  these  forces  are  constantly  acting,  it 
follows  that  each  element  of  the  trajectory  has  less 
inclination  to  the  horizon  than  the  element  of  an 
(irdin;iry  trajectory  in  which  the  velocity  is  regarded 
its  equal.  When  the  velocity  is  not  anifvrm,  the 
!  position  of  the  center  of  gravity  has  a  certain  not- 
iceable influence  over  the  form  of  the  trajectory. 
To  understand  this,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  that 
the  component  of  the  resistance  of  the  air  which  acts 
on  the  head  of  the  rocket  is  greater  than  that  which 
acts  on  the  side  of  the  stick.  It  is  also  necessary  to 
consider  that  the  pressure  of  the  inflamed  gas  acts 
in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  resistance  of  ihe  air, 
that  is  to  say,  from  the  rear  to  the  front,  and  that  the 
center  of  gravity  is  near  the  rear  extremity  of  the 
case. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  trajectory,  when  the  mo- 
tion of  the  rocket  is  accelerated,  its  inertia  is  op- 
posed to  motion,  and  being  applied  at  the  center  of 
gravity,  which  is  in  rear  of  the  vent,  the  point  of 
application  of  the  moving  force,  it  acts  to  prevent 
the  rocket  from  turning  over  in  its  flight.  But  when 
the  composition  is  consumed,  the  center  of  gravity 
is  thrown  further  to  the  rear,  aud  the  velocifj'  of  the 
rocket  is  retarded,  the  inertia  acts  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  the  effect  will  then  be,  if  the  center 
of  gravity  or  inertia  is  suiHciently  far  to  the  rear,  to 
cause  it  to  turn  over  in  the  direction  of  its  length. 
If  the  rocket  be  directed  toward  the  earth,  this  turn- 
ing over  will  be  counteracted  by  the  acceleration  of 
velocity  due  to  the  weight,  and  the  form  of  the  tra- 
jectory will  be  preserved. 

When  the  wind  acts  obliquely  to  the  plane  of  fire, 
its  component  perpendicular  to  this  plane,  acting  at 
the  center  of  figure,  will  cause  the  rocket  to  rotate 
around  its  center  of  gravity.  As  the  center  of  figure 
is  situated  in  rear  of  the  center  of  gravity,  the  point 
will  be  thrown  toward  the  wind,  and  the  propelling 
force  acting  always  in  the  dire'ction  of  the  axis,  the 
rocket  will  be  urged  toward  the  direction  of  the 
wind.  To  make  an  allowance  for  the  wind,  in  firing 
rockets,  they  should  be  pointed  toward  the  opposite 
side  from  which  the  wind  comes,  or  with  the  wind 
instead  of  against  it.  If  the  wind  act  in  the  plane 
of  fire  from  front  to  rear,  it  will  have  the  effect  to 
depress  the  point,  and  with  it  the  elements  of  the 
trajector}-  in  the  ascending  branch,  and  elevate  them 
in  the  descending  lirancli ;  as  the  latter  is  shorter 
than  the  former,  the  effect  of  a  front  wind  will  be 
to  diminish  the  range.  The  converse  will  be  true 
for  a  rear  wind. 

Rockets  were  used  in  India  and  China  for  war 
purposes  before  the  discovery  of  gunpowder  ;  some 
writers  fix  the  date  of  their  invention  about  the  close 
of  the  ninth  century.  Their inferio"'  force  and  accu- 
racy limited  the  sphere  of  their  operations  to  incendi- 
arypurposes,  until  the  year  1804.  when  Sir  "William 
C'ongreve  turned  his  atlenlion  to  their  improvement. 
This  officer  sulistiluled  sheet-iron  cases  for  those 
formed  of  pajier,  which  iiKibled  him  to  use  ;i  more- 
powi'rful  conipiisition  :  lie  iilso  made  the  guide-sliick' 
shorler  and  lighter,  :uid  removed  a  source  of  iuac-' 
curacy  of  flight  by  attaching  the  stick  to  the  center 
of  the"  base  instead  of  fixing  it  to  the  side  of  the  case 
as  liefore.  He  also  stales  that  he  was  enabled  by 
his  improvements  to  increase  the  ramje  of  (i-pdr. 
rockets  fnini  (illO  lo  2,000  yards.  Under  his  direc- 
li(>n  llwy  were  ]irepared,  and  used  successfully  at 
llie  sieiic  of  lioulogue  and  Ihe  battle  of  Leipsie.  At 
Ihe  lalier  jihicethey  were  served  by  a  special  corps. 
The  advantages  clainu'd  for  rockets  over  cannon  are, 
unlimited  si/e  of  projectile :  iiorlaliilily;  freedom 
from  recoil:  rajiidily  of  discharge;  and  Ihe  terror 
i  which  lliiir  iiiiisc-  ami  liery  trail  produce    on  mouiil 


ROCKET  THOUGH. 


74iJ 


HODLICH   LITTER. 


cil  1r<)<i|)s.  'Pile  MMiiicniiis  conililiiiiis  In  lie  fiiinilcrl 
in  llicir  CDnHtnu'liiiii  in  orilcr  In  olitaiii  iic<Minu!y  of 
Hii;lil,  and  the  iim-crliiinl  y  of  iinsirviiif;  the  ((itiipn- 
Miliiili  uniMJuriMl  for  n  Iciitclli  of  liriir,  iirc  ililticiillii-s 
iiol  yfl  I'litircl}'  oviTcunic,  and  whiclj  have  iniK'li 
restricU'd  llicir  iiscfulncKH  for  f;cmrnl  iiiililary  pur- 
poses. Sec  //ii/r  W'lir  llnrlt-rt,  l.ifr-Hiiniini  UnrhrU,  and 
M(l,-il„ll(tl(rH  II, ll,     ll<„-l.;l. 

ROCKET  TROUGH.  A  small  niikcl  witli  a  Ijciiii- 
.Hplicriiid  licad  of  wood,  whicli  is  frii|ni'rilly  rinploy- 
cd  fur  liriiin  mines.  To  use  il,  a  wooden  troiii;li, 
willi  a  smooth  inliTior,  must  he  plaeed  from  llie 
cliariic  to  the  point  where  the  roeki't  is  lo  star! ;  tin 
lubes  have  been  reioinmended,  but  are  found  not  to 
answer.  The  rocket  is  then  plaeed  in  llu;  end  of 
the   trough,  the  ([uiek-niatch  with  which  il  is  pro- 


vided is  lighted,  and  the  rocket  starts  with  very 
great  velocity,  penetrates  the  charge,  and  fires  it. 

When  the  rocket  has  to  pass  elbows,  or  when  il  is 
desired  to  lire  s<'veral  mines  al  the  same  moment,  a 
rocket  is  placed  at  each  turn  of  the  trough,  with  its 
((uick-match  secured  around  a  nail  ;  the  first  rocket 
arriving  at  the  i)oinl  where  the  other  is  placed,  tires 
il.  In  order  the  better  to  in.sure  the  first  rocket  tiring 
these<'ond,  a  quantity  of  powder  (j  ounce)  should  be 
scattered  about  the  match  of  the  latter,  protected  by 
a  wedged-shape<l  slip  of  deal,  nailed  to  the  bottom 
of  tile  trough  ;  the  rocket  meeting  this  passes  over 
the  powder,  which  its  rapid  motion  would  otherwise 
disperse. 

A  rocket  may  be  made  to  easily  turn  in  a  circular 
trough,  when  the  radius  of  thai  part  is  not  less  than 
twice  the  length  of  the  rocket.  In  order  to  prevent 
tlie  smoke  of  tlii^  charge  penetrating  the  gallery 
through  the  trough,  one  or  two  small  iron  traps 
may  be  placed  in  the  trougli,  wliich,  being  raised 
by  the  rocket,  fall  again  by  their  own  weight,  and 
cut  olT  all  comiuunication  between  the  gallery  and 
the  charge. 

A  rocket  six  inches  long  will  travel  100  yards  at 
Ipast,  and  its  velocity  is  so  great,  that  two  rockets 
tired  at  the  same  moment,  to  run  very  dilTereul  dis- 
tances, leave  no  perceptible  interval  in  the  times  of 
their  arrival.  This  properly  of  rockets  renders  it 
easy  to  proportion  the  trains  of  mines  to  lie  tired  sim- 
ullaueously,  whicli,  with  the  powder-liose,  requires 
great  nicety. 

The  ordinary  rocket  for  this  service  contains  J  of 
an  ounce  of  a  compositir'U  formed  f  of  fine  powder, 
I  of  saltpeter,  and  !  of  charcoal  dust.  These  ingre- 
dients should  be  very  carefully  mi.xcd.  to  make  the 
rocket  burn  uniformly.  Its  usual  diameter  is  near- 
ly J  of  an  inch,  and  entire  weight  aliout  1^  ounce. 
Rockets  may  be  made  much  smaller  when  required. 
See  Il(i.r-triifi  and  Mi'itk. 

ROCKET  WAGON.  A  conveyance  ditlering  from 
the  (jrdinary  I'uld  ammunition  wagon  in  the  boxes 
being  made  deep  enough  lo  receive  about  2.5  Hale's 
rockets,  resting  vertically  in  each  box,  and  in  having 
no  center  boxes. 

ROCK  FIRE.— A  composition  which  burns  slowly, 
is  difficult  to  extinguish,  and  is  used  to  set  tire  lo 
buildings,  ships,  etc.  That  wliich  is  put  into  shells 
is  cast  in  cylindrical  cases  of  paper  having  a  prim- 
ing in  their  axes.  The  composition  consists  of  nm'ii. 
3  purls;  mlph'ir.  4;   niter.  10;  regulux   of  antimony. 


I  ;  viiill'>n-tttttiiir,  1  ;  turiHiitiuf,  1.  To  prepare  rock- 
lire,  pulverize  the  Hiilphur.  niter,  and  anllinony  sep. 
aralely  ;  mix  tliirm  well  with  Ihe  hands,  anil  iiuhh 
Ihem  through  sii-ve  No.  2  ;  melt  the  tallow  lirsi, 
then  Ihe, rosin,  slirring  the  mixture  with  Hputulas  ; 
add  the  lurpenline,  and  next  the  oilier  materiulH  in 
small  ipiantilies  ut  a  time,  stirring  the  wholi;  con- 
stantly with  largr-  spatulas.  I,el  one  portion  of  the 
composition  bi-  mellid  before  more  ih  added,  and 
work  with  great  precaution  to  pri'vent  it  from  taking 
lire.  When  Ihe  comfiohitioii  li'-eomeH  of  a  brown 
color,  and  while  vapors  are  rjisi'iigaged,  liii'.  (Ire  is 
p<:rmilled  lo  go  down  ;  and  when  the  composition  i» 
sufllcienlly  fluid  the  cases  are  (llled  with  the  ladle 
not  more  than  Ihree-fourths  full. 

The  cases  are  made  of  rocki^t-paper  in  Hie  iiiaii- 
ner  de.scriberl  for  [lort-fire  cases.  The  priming  lubes 
are  made  of  cartridge-paper,  pasted  after  tlie  lirsl 
turn,  and  rolled  hard.  The  cas«'S  are  arranged  in  a 
frame,  Ihe  lower  end  of  each  inserted  in  a  sorrket, 
in  the  center  of  which  is  a  spindle  to  support  the 
priming  tube.  TIk'  upper  ends  of  the  cases  are 
lield  in  place  by  short  cylindrical  spouts  attached  to 
the  lower  side  <if  a  reservoir  wdiicli  rests  on  the  lop 
of  Ihe  frame.  The  coinposiiicm  is  poured  into  tli< 
reservoir,  and  Ihe  frame  is  gently  shaken  lo  settle 
the  composition  in  Ihe  casi's  uiilil  they  are  tilled. 
When  the  composition  has  become  .solid,  the  cylin- 
ders are  taken  out  of  the  frame  and  trimmed;  Hie 
priming  tubes  anr  charged  with  composition  No.  1 
for  mortar-fuses,  driven  the  same  as  niortar-fii.sfs: 
the  ends  of  the  cylinders  are  last  dipped  in  mealed 
powder.  When  rock-fire  cannot  be  had  lo  put  into 
shells,  the  papier  cases  may  be  tilled  with  ]>ort-lire 
composition,  driven  as  usual;  or  pieces  of  port-tire 
may  be  inserted  in  the  shells.  See  (JompudliunH  and 
Fivfitarka. 

ROC|C  MOKTARS.^ Excavations  resembling  the  in- 
terior of  murlars,  formed  out  of  solid  rocks,  of  which 
there  are  several  in  the  Island  of  Malta,  executed 
upon  a  large  scale  for  the  defense  of  the  harbors, 
etc.  The  following  interesting  experiments  have 
been  made  on  two  of  these  mortars  situated  in  St. 
.Julian's  and  St.  George's  Bays.  Isl.  At  St.  Julian's, 
140  pounds  of  powder  was  inclosed  in  a  .sort  of  cask 
prei)arcd  lo  tit  the  chamber  of  the  mortar,  and  being 
lodged  there,  a  large  cane  tube  filled  w  illi  <)uickmalch 
was  applied  lo  a  groove  cut  along  the  upper  surface 
of  the  bore  to  receive  it,  and  a  bottom  of  wood  cov- 
ered the  chamber.  The  stones  were  then  piled,  by 
four  men,  within  the  mortar  a?  they  were  brought 
to  it  in  baskets  containing  about  120  pounds  each  ; 
a  dozen  stones,  weighing  from  120  to  MO  pounds  each, 
were  first  put  in,  then  fifty  baskets  of  other  stones. 
from  (JO  to  30  pounds,  then  fifty  more,  of  20  to  H 
pounds  each,  amounting  in  the  whole  to  upward  of 
10  tons.  This  operation  being  completed,  a  piece  of 
portfire  was  fixed  lo  Ihe  end  of  the  tube  at  the  mouth, 
which  communicated  through  a  hole  in  the  cask  to 
the  powder.  In  this  manner  it  was  fired  as  is  usual 
in  proving  ordnance,  and  ranged  about  700  yards. 
2d.  The  same  mortar  was  loaded  with  ISO  pounds  of 
powder  and  about  ten  tons  of  stones  ;  the}-  spread 
ccmsiderably  more  than  the  first  time,  but  did  not 
range  quite  so  far.  The  explosion  this  time  cracked 
the  mortar  in  a  direction  nearly  vertical,  leaving  a 
fissure  in  the  rock  about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  wide, 
ten  feet  in  the  rear  and  four  feet  in  front.  3d.  The 
other  mortar  of  similar  dimensions  was  tired  with  a 
charge  rather  larger  than  the  first  of  these,  but  the 
effect  was  not  quite  so  considerable :  from  whence: 
it  is  concluded  that  the  first  proportion  should  not  be 
exceeded,  especially  if  after  repeated.  The  stones 
used  in  these  experiments  were  chiefly  fragments  of 
ihe  rock,  which,  having  been  exposed  lo  the  air, 
were  become  something  harder,  and  did  not  sutler 
so  much  as  might  be  expected  from  such  \-iolcnt  ex- 
plosions, wbicii  in  some  degree  resembled  the  tre- 
mendous discliar;ri-  of  a  volcano. 

HODLICH  LITTER.— A  large  litter  for  two  or  more 


HODMAN  CUTTEE. 


750 


BODMAN    GtH. 


vvoimded  meu,  suspended  between  two  oxen.  The 
drawing  shows  the  manner  of  its  construetiou  and 
use.      It  is  too  large  and  unwieldy  to  be  of  prnc- 


tbeory  was  established,  and  his  new  mode  of  casting 
was  ado])ted  by  the  War  Department.  As  a  result 
of  General    Rodman's  theory,    he   claimed  that  he 


tical  or  any  general  application  :  and.  moreover,  the 
movements  of  all  oxen  are  very  slow,  and  this  un- 
fits tliem  for  purposes  of  militarv  transport.  See 
Litta-. 

SODMAN  CUTTER.— An  instrument  used  for  mak- 
ing indentations  in  castings.  The  indenting  part  of 
the  tool  is  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid,  having  a  rhom- 
bus for  its  base,  the  diagonals  of  which  are  respect- 
ively one  inch  and  two-tentlis  of  an  inch  :  the  height 
of  the  pyramid  one-tenth  of  an  inch.  In  late  ex- 
periments the  form  of  the  pyramid  has  been  changed 
and  improved  somewhat  by  causing  it  to  make  a 
longer  line,  and  mark  minute  differences  more  ac- 
curately. The  volume  of  an  indentation  made  with 
this  tool  is  taken  as  the  measure  of  the  work  re- 
quired to  produce  it,  and  is  inversely  proportional 
to  the  hardness  of  the  specimen,  that  is  (denoting 

k 
by // the  hardness  of  any  specimen),  /?=-....(!) 

k  denoting  any  convenient  constant,  and  t'  the  vol- 
ume of  the  indentation  corresponding  to  H. 

It  has  been  found  b}'  experiment  that  a  pressure 
of  10,000  on  the  base  of  the  pjTamid  makes  an  in- 
dentation, in  the  softest  metals  used  in  guns,  about 
nine-tenths  of  an  inch  long.  The  maximum  inden- 
tation, one  inch  in  length,  of  the  instrument  is  there- 
fore assumed  as  the  unit  of  hardness;  and  denoting 
by  V  the  volume  corresponding  to  an  indentation 
one  inch  in  length,  we  obtain  from  equation  (1). 
K 
1  =  — ,  or  A'=  V; 

V 
and,  in  general, 

V 

V 

or,  putting  I  =  tlie  numl)er  of  tenths  of  an  inch  in 
the  length  of  anv  given  indentation, 
V      1000 

//  =    -  = : 

V  I' 

since  pyramids  are  to  each  other  as  the  cubes  of  any 
similar  dimensions. 

A  pressure  of  less  than  10.000  will  probably  be 
found  better  suited  to  the  purpose,  with  the  im- 
proved tools.  A  better  standard  of  comparison  may 
be  found  in  some  metal  of  an  uniform  density  and 
hardness,  easily  obtainable  in  all  places.  The  silver 
coin  of  the  country  will  best  fulfill  these  conditions. 
The  volume  of  the  cavity  made  in  this,  by  the  adopt- 
ed unit  of  pressure,  may  be  assumed  as  the  unit  of 
hardness;  and  this,  divided  by  the  volume  of  the 
cavity  in  any  sample  tested,  will  denote  the  hardness 
of  that  sample  as  compared  with  that  of  silver  coin. 
See  f'/rritUir  ('utter. 

RODUAN  GUN.-  Tlie  principal  difficulty  formerly 
experienced  in  manufacturing  very  large  cast-iron 
cannon  was  the  injurious  strains  produced  by  cool- 
ing the  casting  from  the  exterior.  As  far  back  as 
Ww  year  1H44,  (ieneral  Hodman,  of  the  Ordnance 
Department,  sought  to  discover  the  means  to  over- 
come this  difficulty.  After  much  observation  and 
study,  he  developed  his  theory  of  the  strains  pro- 
duced by  cooling  a  casting  like  that  of  a  cannon, 
and  as  a  remedy  for  them  he  proposed  that  canntm 
should  be  cast  on  a  hollow  core,  and  cooled  by  a 
stream  of  water,  or  air.  i)assing  through  it,  Afler 
an  elaborate  series  of   experiments  the  truth   of   liis 


could  cast  cuuuou  of  any  practicable  size,  and  asked 
that  a  15-inch  cast-iron  gun  might  be  made.  This 
was  done  in  18r>0,  and  the  gun  was  successfully  test- 
ed shortly  afterwards.  General  Rodman  then  pro- 
jected a  20-inch  gun,  which  was  made  at  the  Fort 
Pitt  Foundry  in  i863,  under  his  directions. 

Formerly  it  was  customary  to  use  but  one  kind  or 
size  of  grain  of  powder  for  all  cannon,  whatever 
their  siz^e.  General  Rodman  proposed  for  his  large 
cannon  that  there  should  be  a  proportional  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  grain,  expecting  thereby  to  get  as 
high  a  velocity  for  the  projectile  without  a  corres- 
jionding  increase  in  the  strain  on  the  breech  or  weak 
part  of  the  piece  :  this  led  to  the  introduction  of  our 
present  mammoth  powder.  He  also  thought  that 
the  powder  which  would  produce  the  least  strain  on 
the  gun,  giving  certain  initial  velocity  to  the  pro- 
jectile, would  be  that  which  should  develop  its  gas 
as  the  space  behind  the  projectile  increased  ;  or  in 
other  words,  that  the  powder  should  burn  on  an  in- 
creasing instead  of  a  decreasing  surface.  With  this 
object  in  view  he  proposed  to  compress  the  sub- 
stance of  the  powder  into  short  hexagonal  prisms, 
which  could  be  easily  fitted  together  without  loss  of 
space.  These  prisms  were  perforated  with  longitu- 
dinal holes,  from  which  the  comljustion  of  the  pow- 
der spread.  While  this  idea  has  to  a  certain  extent 
been  confirmed  by  experiment,  this  powder  has  not 
been  officially  adopted  in  this  country  ;  it  is  under- 
stood that  it  "has  been  to  a  certain  extent  in  Russia 
for  service  in  heavy  rifle-guns. 

The  several  operations  in  the  manufacture  of  this 
gun  are  molding,  easting,  eooUng.  andfinf-shing.  These 
are  noticed  in  detail  under  the  separate  headings. 
When  these  several  operations  have  been  complied 
with,  a  ring,  about  three  inches  thick,  is  taken  off 
the  gun-head  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  muzzle,  and 
as  near  thereto  as  is  practicable.  This  ring  is  not 
reamed  out  or  turned  upon  the  exterior,  but  is  a  sec- 
tion of  the  rough  casting.  When  two  rings  are  taken 
from  the  same  liead,  the  one  nearer  to  the  muzzle  is 
marked  number  1,  the  other  number  '2.  In  the  15- 
inch  gun  the  distance  of  ring  No.  1  from  the  face  of 
the  muzzle  measured  to  the  center  of  the  ring  is  3.7 
inches;  and  of  ring  No.  3,  7.5  inches.  In  a  iO-inch 
gun  the  distance  of  No.  1  is  three  inches  ;  of  No.  2, 
(if  inches.  Each  ring  is  cut  through  by  planing  a 
groove  0.5  inch  wide   from  the  exterior  to   the  core 


until  the  initial  strain  breaks  the  unplaned  part,  and 
the  ring  springs  open.  The  width  of  the  groove  at 
the  exterior  is  now  measured,  and  its  increase  over 
0,5  inch  divided  by  the  original  circumference  of 
the  ring  will  l)e  the  extension  per  inch  oftlic  nu'lal 
on  till'  exterior,  Tliis  extension  per  in''h  is  then 
conipareil  with  tlie  extension  per  inch  obtained  l)y 
actual  experiment  witlia  specimen  of  the  same  iron, 


BODMAN  OUK. 


751 


RODMAN  (fON. 


uiid  llie  corrcspoiiilinjj  HtrcHB   roriiiiied  lo  |irii(lii(:e  it 
will  lie  the  initial  Iriisioii. 

For  ixiiinpic,  the  rinu;  from  a  l.'i-iiieli  (run  lii'ad  is, 
Wiy.  'i^*  illellcs  ill  ilillllieler ;  the  willtll  of  llie  LTOOVe 
before  the  liiirsliiiLr  of  tlKMing  in  0..")  ineli,  unilufter- 
warils  II. Cm  iiicli,  slin\vi:;i^  a  total  e.vtC'Union  on  tlie 
exterior  of  O.lij  iiieli,  llieu 

0.15  O.l.'i 

—  = =  .IK1127 

T  38  1  li).;W 
for  the  extension  per  incli  of  inelal  on  the  exterior. 
Upon  exaniinalioii  of  the  tests  of  lliis  iiielul  we  tiiiil 
Hie  stress  eorrespoiidini:  lo  this  exleiision  per  inch  lo 
be  yo.OOl}  pounds  per  scpmre  inch,  wlii(-]i  will  lie  Hie 
initial  tension  of  llie  rinu,  siipposin^r  the  iron  lo  pos- 
sess the  same  teiiaeity  and  elaslieily.  and  that  llie 
l)reakinu;of  llie  rinsjenlirely  relievi'd  it  of  si  rain. which 
it  cannot  prolialily  do.  To  illustrate  the  elVe<-l  of  this 
initial  strain  upon  Hie  strength  of  the  ^iiii,  let  us 
suppose  that  the  initial  slniiii  of  extension  upon  the 
exterior  of  a  nun  one  ( iililier  thick  and  of  which 
the  teiiaeily  of  iron  is  :il).(H)(l  pounds  |ier  si|uareincli 
—is  l.'i.DKit  ])oiinds  per  s(|uare  inch,  the  ir.ctal  at  the 
surface  of  the  bore  will  he  subjected  lo  a  compres- 
sive strain  of  l."),IK)l)  ]>oun(ls  per  s<iuare  inch. 

Now  if  we  suppose  the  tansenlial  strain  due  to  the 
acti<m  of  a  central  force,  such  as  liri'd  gunpowder,  , 
to  decrease  directly  as  llie  distance  from  the  axis  of 
the  bore  iiicn^ases,  and  that  an  inlerior  force  just 
sullicient  to  relieve  the  iiielal  at  the  surface  of  the 
bore  from  compression  has  been  applied,  then  will 
the  exterior  of  the  liun  be  hrouijhl  to  a  strain  of  ex-  j 
tension  of  an, (Mill  pounds  per  square  iiu'h.  Now  in- 1 
crease  the  interior  pressure  of  gas  iiiilil  the  metal  at 
the  surface  of  the  bore  is  under  a  tensile  strain  of 
:fO,OOI)  pounds  per  square  incli,  and  the  tensile  strain 
of  the  nielal  on  the  exterior  of  Hie  gun  will  be  in- 
creased to  ;iil.llO0  pounds  per  square  inch  also,  and 
the  whole  thickness  of  Hie  walls  of  the  gun  would 
be  brought  to  the  breaking  strain  al  the  same  instant, 
which  is  the  object  of  initial  strain,  liiit  in  practice 
we  know  that  t\\v  strain  ilue  to  a  <cnlral  force  di- 
minishes in  a  liigiier  ratio  than  directly  as  the  dis- 
tance from  Hie  axis, and  this  would  riM|uire  an  increase 
of  initial  strain  in  order  to  bring  the'  outer  portions 
of  metal  to  the  breaking  point  at  the  same  lime,  while 
on  the  oilier  liaiiil  Hie  fact  that  a  given  increa.se  of  I 
load  or  strain  will  produce  a  much  greater  extension  t 
when  applied  to  a  specimen  near  to  its  lireaking  strain 
than  when  applied  to  the  same  specimen  when  [ 
strained  within,  or  even  considerably  above  Hie  limits 
of  its  permanent  elasticity,  causes  Hie  maximum  re- 
sistance of  a  L'un,  having  too  little  initial  strain,  to 
apiiroacli  more  nearly  than  it  woiilil  otherwise  do  lo 
what  its  maximum  resistance  would  be  with  a  proper 
initial  strain. 

The  law  of  diminution  of  tangential  strain  from 
the  hoTo  outward  in  a  gun  is  not  and  cannot  he  ac- 
curately known,  nor,  therefore,  can  the  exactly  pro- 
per initial  strain  be  determined.  But.  as  the  fore- 
going reasoning  shows,  after  the  initial  strain  shall 


of  the  bore,  it  may  vurj'  conHidcrably  above  tliul 
point  willioiil  alTecting  to  nnv  conKiflerahle  degree 
Hie  niaximiim  rehislance  of  ifie  gun  ;  and  we  there- 
fore know  that  we  are  safe  in  fixing  Hie  inilial  Hiruin 
at,  or  a  little  above,  that  which  the  law  of  iliiiiinii- 
lion  of  strain  as  the  distance  from  the  axis  increaHeit, 
would  give. 

The  initial  lension-rliigs  for  Uodiiiaii  guns, on  being 
planed  through,  shoiihl  open  on  the  exterior  0.2-'> 
inch  for  aO-inch  guns;  0.17  inch  for  12-incli  ri(le» ; 
0.15  inch  for  10-incli  rifles.  'I"he  properties  of  Iron 
employed  and  Hie  rale  of  cooling  should  be  bo  regii- 
laledasto  |iroduce  these  fipenin;;H.  If  the  rings  do 
not  open  siiltiriciilly,  add  more  walerand  fire  longer, 
which  will  insure  a  higliertension.  If  Hie  rings  open 
loo  much  diminisli  the  (piantity  of  water  and  the 
lenglli  of  time  Hie  fire  is  kept  up  in  Hie  pit.  The 
gun  should  not  in  aiij'  case  be '•  steamed";  but,  if 
necessary,  Hicr  water  may  li-avc  the  r-aslinir  al  200" 
or  205".  The  more  rapid  Hie  cooling  Hie  higher  the 
iron,  and  Hie  more  rapidly  the  inlerior  is  cooled  over 
Hk;  exterior  the  grealir  the  tension.  If  a  higher  den- 
sity <if  the  metal  is  reipiired  a  less  fire  will  be  reipiired 
in  the  pit.  Cold  iron  should  not  he  jiiit  into  a  noul 
of  melted  iron.  If  the  iron  is  not  high,  it  should  lie 
kept  in  fusion  and  evenly  stirred  till  a  .satisfactory 
result  is  oblained.  In  planing  Hiroiigh  the  rings  for 
inilial  tension  they  should  be  so  rlamjied  in  the 
jilaning-mailiiiie  that  one-half  should  be  free  to  spring 
open  when  Hie  thickness  is  so  far  reduced  by  planing 
that  the  inilial  strain  will  iircak  Hie  metal  thus  left. 
In  other  words,  the  planing  should  be  continued  till 
the  ring  parts.  The  thickness  of  the  metal  broken 
should  he  ac(;urately  measured,  as  also  the  amount 
of  opening  in  its  exterior.  For  10-inch  guns  the 
tlii<;kncss  of  the  broken  part  of  the  ring  should  be 
about  one-tenth  of  the  whole  Hiickness  of  the  ring. 
Should  it  he  less,  more  water  and  a  longer  continued 
tire  in  lh<-  pit  will  correct  Hie  defect.  The  amount 
of  initial  tension  on  the  exterior,  which  General  Hod- 
man thought  should  obtain  in  a  properly  constructed 
gun,  was  about  one-half  the  uliiniate  tenacity  of  the 
metal.  Bloomtield  gun-iron,  when  emjiloyed  in 
211-incli  guns,  should  b<'  so  far  decarbonized  as  to 
have  a  density  of  7.24  to  7.20.  with  a  tenacity  of 
H2. 000  pounds.  When  employed  in  12-ineh  rifles  it 
should  have  a  density  of  from  7.21!  to  7. 28. with  a  ten- 
acity of  ;i2,000  pounils.  When  employed  for  12-ineh 
shot  to  be  chilled  at  the  point  it  should  have  a  den- 
sity of  from  7.32  to  7.3.'5.  Hichniond  gun-iron,  when 
for  10-inch  rilies,  should  have  a  density  of  from  7.2H 
lo  7.:io.  with  a  tenacity  of  32.000  pounds. 

In  the  manufacture  of  4. .5-inch  siege  rifles  the  afi- 
pli<alion  of  the  water-cooling  process  is  impracticable, 
owing  to  the  great  length  and  small  size  of  the  bore. 
These  guns  are,  therefore,  cooled  from  the  exterior. 
The  best  quality  of  gun-iron  should  be  employed  in 
these  guns,  with  a  density  not  to  exceed  7.25,  say 
from  7.22  to  7.25.  The  guns  should  be  cooled  slowly 
in  covered  pits.  The  following  are  some  of  the  par- 
ticulars and  charsies  of  Rodman  trims  : 


Name  of  tiiiii. 

1 

1-3 

■s  . 

am 

u 

1 
Weight. 

Service  Charge. 

IN 

Smooth  Bores. 

In. 

243.5 

In. 
210. 

In. 
04. 

48. 

41.6 

32. 

Lbs. 

15200 

Lbs.               1    Lbs. 

100 

Lbs.      Lbs 

10><0 

l.~>-inch   <Ui 

190.          105. 
177. li     '  155.94 
130.  Ill')      11).")..") 

49100          50  mammoth.               17 

'   1?-'      *«• 

13-iiicli    do 

10-iiicli    do 

32731             30  cannon. 

7 

3 

1 

(   42.)  1 

^  280,      -^ 
127    1  100 

S-incli    do 

123.5        110. 

(1»  tor  shot.    ( 
2.5.  i;          «405                      10 

68         48 

be  eijual   to  that    estimated  on  the   hypothesis   that  1      See  Caittiiig.   Cnxt-inm   (fiitiji,  C<H)ling.  Finithing, 
this  strain  is  inversely  as  the  distance  from  Hie  axis  |  Molding,  Ordnaitre,  and  Sfo-roant  ArtUlery. 


BODMAN  FKESSUSE  PLUG. 


752 


BOONIAT  LINE. 


RODMAN  PRESSURE   PLUG.— An   invention   used 

■vvlu'U  it  is  (If.sired  to  ascertain  tlie  pressure  per 
square  inch  exerted  by  tlie  powder  on  tlie  surface  of 
the  bore  of  a  piece.  To  apply  this  instrument,  it  is 
fir.st  taken  apart  by  unscrewing  the  cap  and  removinsr 
tlie  piston  and  disc  containing  the  knife.  The  whole 
is  then  thoroughly  oiled  with  sperm  oil.  This  done, 
place  a  copper  disc  in  the  plug,  and  after  it  the  di.sc 
containing  the  knife,  the  latter  being  did  down  so 
as  not  to  cut  the  copper  disc.  Next  pass  the  piston 
into  the  hole  in  the  stem  of  the  cap,  and  screw  the 
cap  into  its  place.  For  this  operation  the  plug  is 
held  horizontally  in  a  vise.  A  small  copper  gas- 
check  is  then  inserted  into  the  hole  on  top  of  the  pis- 
ton; a  wooden  drift  is  used  to  set  the  gas-check  firm- 
ly in  its  place,  and  a  small  wad  of  cotton-waste  is  in- 
serted over  the  gas-check;  the  plug  is  now  put  into 
the  empty  cartridge-bag,  with  its  grooved  end  at  the 
bottom  and  center  of  the  bag,  and  the  bag  tied 
tirnih'  to  it  from  the  outside,  with  twine  passing 
around  the  grooves  on  the  bottom  of  the  plug.  The 
powder  is  next  put  in,  care  being  taken  to  distribute 
it  evenly  aroimd  the  plug.  The  bag  is  tied  close  to 
the  powder  so  as  to  make  the  cartridge  firm  and 
compact.  When  inserting  the  cartridge  into  the  gun, 
care  is  taken  that  the  plug,  when  at  the  bottom  of 
the  bore,  is,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the  axis  of  the 
piece.  After  the  discharge,  the  plug  is  removed  from 
the  bore  by  a  rake  made  for  the  purpose;  the  cap  is 
unscrewed,  the  copper  disc  is  removed,  and,  after 
being  wiped,  the  cut  made  upon  it  by  the  knife  is 
measured,  from  end  to  end,  with  a  pair  of  dividers. 
The  dividers  are  then  applied  to  the  scale  and  passed 
down  the  two  long  lines  tmtil  they  intersect  a  cross 
line  the  length  of  which  corresponds  to  the  width  of 
the  dividers;  the  figures  at  this  point  indicate  the 
number  of  pounds  pressure  to  the  square  inch. 
Pressure  plugs  are  cjf  three  sizes:  one  for  the  12-inch 
rifle  and  13-inch  and  1.5-inch  smooth-bores;  one  for 
the  100-pouuder  Parrott  ritle  and  8-inch  and  10-inch 
smooth-bores;  and  one  for  smaller  calibers. 

RODMAN  TESTING-MACHINE.— A  macliine  used 
to  determine  the  capacity  of  any  metal  to  resist  a 
tensile,  tranm^en<f,  t.'>rdj>nal,  or  crushing  forcv.  It  is 
also  used  to  obtain  the  indenting  force.  By  a  com- 
bination of  levers  and  cog-wheels,  the  action  of  the 
power  employed  is  greaUy  augmented  and  trans- 
mitted to  the  specimen  under  trial.  The  machine 
consists  essentially  of  a  system  of  three  levers,  A  C, 


of  strain  than  1,000  pnMuds  are  noted  on  the  small 
lever,  which  is  provided  witli  a  sliding  weight,  and 
graduated  from  zero  to  ten,  each  number  represen'- 
mg  an  additional  hundred  pounds.  Or  the  first  de- 
nomination there  are  ten  weights,  representing  a 
strain  of  10.000  pounds,  and  of  the  second,  there  are 
nine  weights,  representinga  strain  of  90,000  pounds. 
The  aggregate  strains  of  all  the  weights,  or  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  machine,  being  100,000  pounds. 

The  errors  incidental  to  the  use  of  this  machine 
are  due  to  three  causes:  1st.  Weight  of  its  differ- 
ent movable  parts,  2d.  Motion  of  the  centers  of 
gravity  of  the  levers  towards  or  from  their  fulcrums. 
i5d.  Friction. 

7'/»'./;>.''i  cause  of  error  is  avoided  in  practice  by 
means  of  the  adjusting  weights  already  described. 
The  system  is  brought  into  perfect  equilibrium,  so 
that  any  increase  of  W  will  be  balanced  by  a  pro- 
portionate increase  of  P. 

The  gemiid  cause  of  error  is  comparatively  unim- 
portant, because  the  levers  A  C  and  A'  C"  are  so  ad- 
justed as  never  to  make  a  large  angle  with  a  hori- 
zontal line  passing  through  the  fulcrum,  and  in  the 
case  of  the  lever  A"  C",  which  makes  a  larger  angle, 
the  shape  is  such  as  to  bring  the  center  of  gravity 
very  near  the  center  of  motion.  Let  D  denote  the 
distance  through  which  the  center  of  gravity  moves; 
a  denote  the  distance  of  the  center  of  gravity  from 
the  center  of  motion  ;  L  denote  the  angle  described 
by  the  lever  during  the  breaking  of  a  specimen.  In 
general  the  levers  are  so  adjusted  that  the  line  con- 
necting the  centers  of  gravity  and  of  motion  is  hori- 
zontal whefi  the  movement  of  the  lever  is  half  com- 
pleted. .  •  .  T>  ^  a  versine  i  L.  It  is  evident  that 
one  or  both  of  these  factors  is  very  small  in  each 
case. 

T/ie  third  cause  of  error  is  made  as  small  as  pos- 
sible by  the  use  of  knife-edges  and  steel-plates,  and 
is  practically  inconsiderable. 

The  determination  of  the  absolute  breaking  and 
other  strains  involve  the  elimination  of  errors  iiue  to 
friction,  etc.,  but  for  obtaining  the  comparative 
strength  of  specimens,  the  machine  is  all  tliat  can 
be  desired.     See  Testing-mae/tities. 

ROGNIAT  LINE.— A  system  of  defense  has  been 
proposeil  by  General  Rogniat,  the  spirit  of  the  ar- 
rangement of  which  partakes  botli  of  the  bastioned 
ImeWith  double  flanks,  and  of  the  line  with  inter- 
vals.     Points  of  250  yards  apart  are  taken  for  the 


250  y<l 


A'  C",  and  A"  C",  The  position  of  the  fulcrum  in 
each  of  these  cases  is  denoted  by  F  F' and  F",  re- 
spectively. The  power  is  applted  at  P,  and  the  posi- 
tion of  the  weights  is  denoted  by  W.  Tlie  levers  are 
connected  bv  rigid  rods.  The  mechanical  advantaire 
of  the  levers  AC  is  10  to  1 ;  that  of  A'  C  is  20  to'l, 
and  that  of  A"  C"  is  10  to  1.  We  have,  therefore, 
bv  the  formula  for  compound  levers, 
W     10     20     10 

— ==  — X  — X— =2000,  A  weight  of  (jiie 
Pill  '  [ 

pound,  thrrefore,  applied  to  the  platforms  of  the  sus-  i 
pending  rod  on  the  same  lever,  exerts  a  force  of  200  | 
pounds  on  the  straps  connecting  with  the  main  lever, 
and  of  2,000  pounds  at   the   jioint  where   the   strain 
ads  upon  the  .sam])le.  I 

The  weights  used  are  of  two  denominations,  viz, 
half-pounds  ;ind  !ivc  pounds,  represent  in;,'  respec- 
l,ively  1,000  and  10,000  pounds.     Smaller  increments 


salients  of  the  lunettes;  their  faces  and  the  flanks 
are  placed  in  defensive  relations;  and  lietween  them 
a  redan,  with  a  pan-coupee,  is  placed  to  flank  the 
faces,  without  intercepting  the  fire  of  the  flanks  ;  a 
straight  curtain  is  carried  from  the  redan,  aiid  leaves 
an  interviil  of  ten  yards  between  it  and  the  flanks  of 
the  lunettes  for  sorties.  With  regard  to  tlie  pro- 
files, the  lunettes  receive  the  minimum  |irofile  lioth 
for  tlie  li;inipet  ami  ditch.  The  reihiiis  are  simple 
e|)auleiiieiits  to  cover  caiiiioii  fired  in  barbette  :  and 
the  curtains  consist  of  a  trench  witli  the  earth  tlirown 
in  front  to  form  a  parapet,  which  is  so  arranued  that 
the  infantry  may  uiari'li  from  the  treneli  In  order  of 
liiittle  over  it. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  system  are,  Jirst, 
the  short  time  re(|iiireil  to  form  the  works,  by  w'liich 
an  iirmy  may  intrench  its  lield  of  li;itlle  in  (inV  night; 
.vcnitd.  the  lunettes  form  the  lirst  line  of  the  (in|('r  of 
battle,  and  contain  only  infantry,  and  the    battericb 


ROGUE'S  MARCH. 


IWA 


ROLL  OF  A  DRtm. 


lire  pliiccil  ill  lli(!  rc(luiis,wli<rc  llicy  iirr  mure  Hciurc, 
prolifl  the  liiiK'llc'S,  1111(1  willidriiw  the  tlri'  i)f  tlic 
ftK-iiiy's  artillery  from  llic  Imiclli's  ;  M/;y/,  llic  fur- 
tains  lire  well  (hfcmlcil  liy  iiifiiiitry,  wlm  ciiii  Hiilly 
from  lliciii  111  11  iiiniiiciil'.H  wiiniiiiLr,  iiii<l  aiili-d  hy  llic- 
lifjlil  arlillrry  and  <avalry,  wliii  di'lK.inlic  lliroiiL'li 
llic  iiilcTvaU  lii'twciii  llic  ciirhiiiis  anil  liiiicllcs,  anil 
aUarU  till'  I'liciny  in  llanU.  If  llic  Hanks  of  his  posi- 
liiin  arc  mil  Hcciircd  liy  nalunil  iilisliiclcs,  (icn.  UiiK- 
iiial,  proposes  to  throw  up  tow.irds  the  r<'ar  a  hItoii;; 
Htpiare  redmilit  on  eaeli  llank.  and  to  place  a  heavy 
battery  in  the  inierval  liclwcciilhe  rcdoulil  ami  the 
adjacent  luneilc. 

Lines  with  inlcrvals  arc  peculiarly  adapted  to  viry 
well  disciplined  and  active  troops.  The  works 
thrown  in  advance  consliliite  the  lirst  line  of  '.lie 
order  of  lialllc,  iiniiinsl  which  the  lirst  shock  of  the 
eiicniy  is  partially  thrown  away,  and  he  dare  not 
attempt  to  niiilcet  I  hem,  for  an  endeavor  to  pene. 
Irate  I hrouirh  the  intervals  would  expose  his  Hanks 
to  a  close  and  deadly  cross-lire.  If  the  enemy  is 
repulsed,  the  main  body  of  the  army,  wliicli  is 
drawn  up  in  rear  of  the  works  immediately  assumes 
Ihcotrcnsive,  and.  by  a  vi!;orous  advance  movement, 
cliarj^cs  the  eiK'iiiy  in  turn,  relying  on  the  works  to 
<Mver  lis  retreat  if  driven  hack.  In  every  combina- 
tion of  this  nature  the  flanks  are  the  weak  points; 
they  should  rest,  if  practicable,  on  some  unassailable 
point,  as  a  marsh,  river,  etc.;  otherwise  very  strong 
works  should    be  thrown   up  for  protection.      See 

ROGUE'S  UARCH.     Derisive  music  performed   in 

drivini;  away  a  person  under  popular  iiidi!j;nHtioii, 
or  when  a  soldier  is  druinined  out  of  a  re;;iment. 

ROI  D'ARMES.-  Kini,'-at-Arms.  an  oltiier  formerly 
of  i;reat  authority  in  armies;  he  directed  the  Heralds, 
pn  sided  at  their  chapters,  and  had  the  jurisdiction 
of  armories. 

ROLL  CALL.  In  military  life  it  is  necessary,  for 
the  sake  of  discipline,  audio  prevent  soldiers  from 
wanderini;  about  indiscriniinately  at  all  hours,  as 
well  as  for  the  purpose  of  having  them  available  at 
any  moment  in  case  their  services  are  re(piired,  that 
the  men  of  a  resiment,  company,  or  detaclimcnt 
should  be  present  to  answer  their  names  during  cer- 
tain H.vi'd  periods  of  the  day,  or  at  any  time  the 
t'ommandini;  OtHcer  may  think  advisable.  This  act 
is  termed  It'dl-ralt.  In  the  I'nited  States,  there  are 
daily  at  least  three  roll-calls,  viz.,  at  riveiili',  rUrent, 
and  tat.toi'.  They  are  made  on  the  company  parades 
by  the  1st  Sergeants,  mperinUiuhd  hy  <i  CiniimiK-fidiied 
Offlcer  of  the  company.  At  all  established  toll-calls, 
e.\<'ept  dress-parade,  after  the  companies  are  dis- 
niis.sed,  each  olficer  supcrintendinsj  ihecompany  roll- 
call  reports,  to  the  Ailjutanl  or  other  otticcr  dcsii;- 
nated,  the  result  of  tiie  roll-call;  the  Adjuliint  or 
officer  designated  reports  the  result  of  the  roll-call 
to  the  C'ommandinjr  Officer.  Immediately  after  rec- 
eitle  roll-call  (after  stable-duty  in  the  cavalry),  the 
tents  or  quarters,  and  the  space  around  tliem.  are 
put  in  order  by  the  men  of  the  companies,  superin- 
teii  led  by  the  elii<'fs  of  s(|uads,  and  the  guard-house 
or  icuard-lcnl  bv  the  giiiird  or  ])ris(iners. 

ROLLER  HANDSPIKE.— .Vn  imiilement  for  work- 
ing the  ecceutric  rollers  of  casemate  carriages,  and 
is  made  of  round  iron  tapering  to  tit  the  mortise  in 
the  eccentric.  It  may  be  made  .single  like  a  truck 
handspike,  or  with  two  branches  to  tit  in  both  mor- 
tises of  llic  roller  at  the  same  time. 

ROLLERS.— Solid  cylinders  of  wood,  used  in  mount- 
ing guns  upon  their  carriages,  or  shifting  them  from 
one  carriage  to  anotlirr.  and  in  moving  them  oj;  the 
grouml.  Their  dimensions  vary  with  the  service  for 
which  they  are  intended.  When  a  gun  is  moved  on  rol- 
lers, they  must  be  horizontal,  and  handspikes  should 
be  applied  to  guard  against  >>.ccident.  when  the  gun 
has  a  tendency  to  roll  olT.  The  rollers  must  be  phwed 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  they  are  in- 
temied  to  move,  projecting  eipiallv  on  each  side  of  the 
axis  of  the  gun.    The  gun  upon  rollers  maybe  moved. 


eillier  by  hauling  upon  it  with  ropes,  or  by  iiieunnof 
Icverw.     Whi'n  a  gun  is  moved  on  rollers,   it    pan»eH 
over  twice  llie  iliHiance  passed   by  tlie  rollers  them- 
selves.    The  term  "roller"  is  also  applied  to  a  imuh- 
sive  roller  of  iron,   weighing  about  4J   Ions,   liuviii); 
faces  IM  inches  broad,  which  are  userf  in   the    incor- 
poration of  L'linpowder. 
'     ROLLING  BOARD.     A  smoolli  piece  of  plunk,  willi 
'  a  strap  lacked  over  I  he  upper  side  near  the  end  under 
which  the  hand  in  placed  in  using  it.   It  is  employed 
I  in  makim;  the  cases  of  port-(ires  and  the  like. 
I      ROLLING  FIRE.      1 .   A  discharge  of  musketry  by 
sipldiers  ill  Mm  ,  in  quick  Huccevsion,aiid  in  the  order 
I  in  which  they  stand.    2.    \  lire  where  the  axis  of  the 
•  piece  is  parallel,  or  nearly  so.  with  the  ground  or 
water,  and  the  projectile    reboiind.s  over  the  snrfatre 
in  a  succession  of  ricocliels. 

ROLLING-HITCH.  In  cordaL'c,  auseful  hitch  form- 
ed  as  follows  :  Pass  the  end  of  a  rope  round  u  piece  'if 
limber— take  it  round  a  second  lime  riding  the  stand- 
ing part  then  carry  it  across  and  up  throuf;li  the 
bight.      See  <'nrilit(/e. 

ROLLING  MILL.  One  of  the  most  important  of 
modern  ins  ii|iio:is  for  the  working  of  metals.  It 
was  first  iiilroduccd  practically  by  Mr.  ('orb  in  17H4, 
and  since  then  has  gradually  become  more  and  more 
useful,  as  its  capabilities  have  been  developed.  The 
rolls  may  be  engraved  so  as  to  impress  a  pattern 
on  the  bar  as  it  passes  through  ;  this  is  done  by  the 
brass-workers  to  a  great  extent  :  and  tiilies  of  brass, 
cojiper,  tin,  etc.,  are  also  operalcd  on  in  a  similar 
way,  a  mandrel  or  rod  of  iron  being  lilted  inside  the 
tube,  to  sustain  the  pressure  of  the  rollers. 

In  its  simplest  form  a  rolling-mill  consists  of  two 
cast-iron  cylinders  placed  with  their  axes  horizon- 
tally one  above  the  other,  as  shown  in  the  drawing, 
and  connected  by  spur-gearing  so  as  to  revolve  at 
the  .same  velocity.  The  surface  of  the  rolls  may  be 
eilh<r  smooth,  as  is  the  case  in  the  plate-mills,  or 
grooved  into  various  jiattcrns,  as  in  those  used  for 
tiie  production  of  merchant  bars.  The  reduction  in 
the  size  of  the  bloom  in  effected  by  regulating  the 


vertical  distance  between  the  two  rolls,  by  the  mac 
of  grooves  diminishing  regularly  in  size,  or  by  a 
combination  of  both  methods. 

As  the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  rolls  is  constant 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  it  is  nccessarf,  after 
the  bar  has  pas.sed  tlirciiigh  one  groove,  to  return  it 
by  lifting  it  over  the  top  roll,  in  order  to  bring  it  in 
position  to  pass  through  the  next  smaller  one,  and  so 
on  in  succession.  This  maj'  be  easily  done  with 
blooms  of  small  size,  but  is  attended  with  considera- 
ble difficulty  when  it  is  required  to  handle  large 
masses  of  iron,  and  in  any  casegives  rise  lo  a  certain 
loss  of  time  and  conseipient  waste  of  iron  by  scaling, 
from  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  in  a  highly  heated 
condition  for  a  longer  time  than  is  absolutely  re- 
quired. Very  heavy  mills,  such  as  are  used  for 
armor-plates,  retjuire  to  be  reversed  at  each  passage 
of  the  pile,  the  distance  between  the  rolls  being  (li- 
minished  each  time.      See  Imn. 

ROLL  OF  A  DRUM. — The  continuous  and  uniform 


BOLL  0?  ABM3. 


754 


SOMAN  LEGIONS. 


beat  of  the  drum  for  a  certain  time.  What  is  known 
as  tlie  umg-riiU  is  a  lieat  by  which  troops  were  former- 
ly assembled  at  any  particular  spot  of  rendezvous  or 
parade. 

fiOLL  OF  ARMS.— A  heraldic  record  of  arms,  either 
verbally  l)laz(>nid  or  illuminated,  or  both,  on  a  long 
strip  of  vellum,  rolled  up.  instead  of  being  folded 
into  leaves.  Rolls  of  arms  are  the  most  important 
and  most  authentic  materials  for  the  history  of  early 
Heraldry.  In  England  they  go  back  to  the  reign  of 
Henrj-  III.,  the  oldest  being  a  copy  of  a  roll  of  that 
reign,  containing  a  list  of  "the  arins  borne  by  the 
Sovereign,  the  Princes  of  the  Blood,  and  the  princi- 
pal Barons  and  Knights  between  1216  and  1373,  ver- 
bally blazoned  without  drawings.  The  original  has 
been  lost,  but  the  copy,  which,  having  been  made 
by  Glover.  Somerset  Herald,  in  1586,  is  called  "Glov- 
er's Roll,"  is  in  the  English  College  of  Arms.  This 
roll  exhibits  Heraldry  as  at  that  early  period  already 
consolidated  into  a  system.  In  the  British  Miiseum 
is  a  copy  of  another  roll  of  the  middle  of  the  ISth 
century,  containing  700  coats  tricked,  that  is,  drawn 
in  pen  and  ink.  The  Jivll  nf  Ctifrhirenxk  is  a  heraldic 
j3oem  in  Norman-French,  reciting  the  names  and 
Arms  of  the  Knights  present  at  the  siege  of  C'aerlave- 
rock  in  1300.  It  has  been  published  with  notes  by 
SirN.  II.  Nicolas.  Copies  exist  of  rolls  of  the  Knights 
who  wire  with  Edward  I.  at  the  Battle  of  Falkirk. 

KOMAN  CANDLE.— A  long  and  strong  tube  charg- 
i"!  with  stars,  which  are  thrown  out  successively  by 
a  charge  of  powder  placed  under  each  star.  The 
ends  of  gvmliarrels,  20  inches  long,  are  used  for 
cases.  When  jiaper  cases  are  used,  make  them  about 
.65  to  .7incli  interior  diameter,  and  1-inch  exterior 
diameter:  roll  them  like  port-lire  cases.  Three  drifts 
of  different  lengths  are  used;  they  are  made  of  hick- 
ory or  other  hard  wood,  with  brass  tips  on  the  lower 
ends. 

Put  in  tlie  case  a  ladleful  of  clay,  and  drive  it  with 
ten  blows  of  the  mallet;  then  a  hidleful  of  composi- 
tion, which  is  driven  in  the  same  way;  next  a  charg- 
er of  powder  and  a  star,  which  is  gently  pressed 
down,  then  another  ladleful  of  composition,  a  second 
charger  of  powder,  and  anotlier  star,  driving  the 
composition  and  pressing  down  tlie  star  gently  ;  con- 
tinue until  the  ten  stars  are  in.  and  add^i  half  ladle- 
ful of  composition.  Prime  the  candle  with  a  strand 
of  quick-match  (i  inches  long,  held  in  place  against 
the  side  of  the  case  by  a  little  coin])osition  driven  in 
on  its  ends.  Cover  the  end  of  thec;indle  witli  a  strip 
of  paper  pasted  on.  Roman  candles  are  inserted  in 
lioles  boreil  in  frames,  or  tied  with  wire  or  twine  in 
the  direction  in  which  they  are  to  tlirow  their  stars. 
The  stars  used  for  Roman  candles  liave  a  hole  through 
their  axes  coriiiuunicating  the  fire  to  the  charge  l)e- 
hiw,  wliich  thnnv>  it  out.      See  FirnriirlL.i. 

ROMAN  LEGIONS.— To  a  truly  illustrious  French- 
man, whose  reverses  as  a  minister  can  never  obscure 
his  acliievements  in  the  world  of  letters,  we  are  in- 
debted for  tlie  most  profound  and  most  ekxiucnt  es- 
timate that  we  possess  of  the  im]iortance  of  the  Ger- 
manic element  in  European  civihziition,  ;ind  of  the 
extent  to  which  the  huuiaii  r;icc  is  indebted  tothose 
brave  warriors  wlio  long  were  tlie  uiicoii(|uered  an- 
tagonists.and  linally  became  t hi' coiKiuerors  of  impcri- 
ul  Rome.  .M;iiiy  very  eventful  years  liave  passed 
3iway  since  ,M.  (Juizot  delivered  from  the  chair  of 
modern  history  at  Paris  hiscourse  of  lectures  on  the 
history  of  Civilization  in  Europe.  During  those  years 
the  s]iiril  of  earnest  iiii|uiry  into  the  germs  and  pri- 
mary iIevelo]iiiienls  of  existing  iiistiiulioiis  has  be- 
come more  and  more  active  and  uiiiversiil,  and  the 
merited  celebrity  of  .M.  Guizol's  work  li;is  propor- 
tionately increased.  Its  admirable  ;iiialysis  of  tlie  I 
(■oinplex  ])olit:cal  and  social  organizations  of  which 
the  modern  civilized  world  is  made  up,  must  have 
led  thousands  to  trace  with  keener  interest  the  great 
••rises  of  times  past,  by  which  the  cliaraeteristics  of 
llie  present  were  determined.  The  narrative  of  one 
^.'f    lliese  great  crises,  of    the  i  poi-h    .\.  I),   '.l.  when 


Germany  took  up  arms  for  her  independence  against 
Roman  invasion,  has  for  England  this  one  attraction 
— that  it  forms  part  of  her  national  history.  Had 
Arminius  been  supine  or  unsuccessful, her  Germanic 
ancestors  would  have  been  enslaved  or  exterminated 
in  their  original  seats  along  the  Eyder  and  the 
Elbe.  Great  Britain  would  never  have  borne  the 
name  of  England,  and  the  mighty  English  nation, 
whose  race  and  language  are  now  overrunning  the 
earth,  from  one  end  to  the  other,  would  have  been 
utterly  cut  off  from  existence.  Arnold  may.  indeed, 
go  toofarinsaj'ing  that  they  are  wholly  unconnected 
in  race  with  the  Romans  and  Britons,  who  inhabited 
that  country  before  the  invasion  of  the  Saxons;  and 
that,  "nationally  speaking, the  history  ofCtesar's  in- 
vasion has  no  more  to  do  with  them  than  the  natural 
history  of  the  imimals  which  then  inhabited  the 
forests."  There  seems  ample  evidence  to  prove  that 
the  Romanized  Celts  whom  her  Teutonic  forefathers 
found  there  influenced  materially  the  char;icler  of 
that  nation.  But  the  main  stream  of  her  people 
was  and  is  Germanic.  The  English  language  amply 
proves  this.  Arminius  is  more  truly  one  of  Britain's 
national  heroes  than  Caractacus;  and  it  was  his  own 
primeval  fatherland  that  the  brave  German  rescued 
when  he  slaughtered  the  Roman  legions  eighteen 
centuries  ago, in  the  marshy  glens  between  the  Lippe, 
and  the  Ems. 

Dark  and  disheartening,  even  to  neroic  spirits, 
must  have  seemed  the  prospects  of  Germany  when 
Arminius  planned  the  general  rising  of  his  country- 
men against  Rome.  llalf  the  land  was  occupied 
by  Roman  garrisons ;  and.  what  was  worse,  many 
of  the  Germans  seemed  patiently  acquiescent  in  their 
state  of  bondage.  The  braver  portion,  whose  pa- 
triotism could  be  relied  on,  was  ill  armed  and  un- 
disciplined, while  the  enemy's  troops  consisted  of 
veterans  in  the  highest  state  of  equipment  and  train- 
ing, familiarized  with  victory,  and  commanded  by 
otticers  of  proved  skill  and  valor.  The  resourcesi 
of  Rome  seemed  boundless  ;  hertenacitj-of  purpo.se 
was  believed  to  be  invincible.  There  was  no  hope 
of  foreign  svmpatliy  or  aid  ;  for  "the  self-governing 
powers  that  had  tilled  the  Old  World  had  bent  one 
after  another  before  the  rising  iiower  of  Rome,  and 
had  vanished.  The  earth  seemed  left  void  of  inde- 
pendent nations. 

The  German  chieftain  knew  very  well  the  gigantic 
power  of  the  o])iiressor.  Arminius  was  no  nuie  sav- 
age, fighting  out  of  mere  animal  instinct,  or  in  igno- 
rance of  the  might  of  his  adversary.  He  was  familiar 
with  the  Roman  language  and  civilization;  he  had 
served  in  the  Roman  armies  ;  he  had  been  admitted 
to  the  Roman  'itizenship  and  raised  to  the  rank  of 
the  equestrian  order.  It  was  part  of  the  subtle  po- 
licy of  Rome  to  confer  rank  and  privileges  on  the 
youth  of  the  leading  families  in  llie  nations  which 
she  wished  to  en.slave.  Among  other  young  German 
chieftains,  Arminius  and  his  brother,  who  were  the 
heads  of  the  noblest  house  in  the  tribe  of  the  Cher- 
usci.  had  been  s?lected  as  tit  objects  for  the  exercise 
of  this  insidious  system.  Roman  refinements  and 
dignities  suececdecl  in  denationalizing  the  brother, 
who  assumed  the  Roni:iii  name  of  Flavins,  and  ad- 
hered to  Roiur  throiigliout  .'ill  hiT  wars  against  his 
country.  .Vrminius  leiiKiined  uiiboughl  by  honors 
or  wealth,  iincorrupled  by  refinement  or  luxury.  He 
aspired  to  ;inil  obtained  from  Roman  enmity  a  higher 
title  than  ever  could  have  been  given  him  by  Roman 
favor.  It  is  in  the  Ji.'ige  of  Rome's  greatest  historian 
that  liis  n;inie  has  come  down  to  us  with  the  ))roud 
;idilition  of  "  I,ilier;ilor  li;nid  ilubie  Germiiiiiie ". 
Ottcii  miisl  tlie  young  cliieftaiii,  while  iiieililaling 
the  exploit  which  h;is  thus  iniiiiort;dized  him,  have 
anxiously  revolved  in  his  miuil  the  fiite  of  the  many 
great  men  who  had  been  crushed  in  the  attempt 
which  he  was  about  to  renew— the  attempt  to  stay 
the  chariot-wheels  of  triumpbiint  Koine.  Could  he 
hope  to  succeed  where  Hannibal  and  .Mitliradates 
li;id  perislied  y      Wliiil  had  lieeii   llic   doom    nl  \'iri:i- 


II 


ROHAK  LEGIONS. 


(.}.} 


ROMAN   LEGIONS. 


thus?  iind  wliul  wiirninir  ii!j;iiiii»l  viiiii  viilor  wa.s  writ-  i 
Icn  on  the  (Ic.toliilc   site  wlirii-    NiiiiiiUiliii  diici'   Imd  | 
flourished?     Nor  was  a   cauiion    wanliii!;  in  hcciich  ; 
Mcarir  liomc  and  more  rcccnl  limes.   'I'lii'  <laids  liad 
fruillrsslv   slruirixlrd  for  ciL'liI  years  airainHl   Ca'sar; 
an<l  the  nallaiil  X'crcinirclorix,  wlio  in  l!ic   last   year 
of  llic  war  liad  roii-rd  all  Ids  coijiilryiMcn  to  insur- 
rection, who  had  cut   oil'   Roman   detaehmenls,  and 
brouiihl    Ca'sar  himself  lo   Ihe   e.Mrenie  of   peril  at 
Ali'sia     he.  too,  had  linally  snecundied.and  hail  heen 
led  eaplive  in  Ca'sar's  triMmi)h.  and   had   then   been 
butchered  in  cold  blood  in  a  Roman  dungeon. 

It  was  lru<' thai  Home  was  no  jouL'er  Ihe  srt'Ht 
military  republic  wlucli  for  so  many  au'cs  had  shat- 
tered liie  l<ini:doms  of  the  world.  Her  system  of 
siovernmcnl  was  chaniicil :  and  afler  a  century  of 
rcvolulion  and  civil  war.  she  had  placed  herself  un- 
der IIk'  despotism  of  a  single  ruler.  Rut  the  disci- 
pline of  her  Iroopswas  yet  unimpaired,  and  her  war- 
like  spirit  seemed  unabalcd.  Thi'  lirst  year  of  the 
empire  hail  been  siLCnalizcd  by  conqucsls  as  valuable 
as  any  niiincd  by  {he  republic  in  a  corrcspondini^  j 
jierioil.  It  is  u  jireal  fallacy.  Ihoui^h  apparently 
sandioncd  l>y  i^rcat  authorilies.  to  sujipose  that  the 
foreign  policy  pursued  by  Aui;uslus  was  pacific-;  he 
certainly  reeoinmended  such  a  policy  to  his  succes-  j 
sors  (iiieertnm  iiiitii  an  per  iiirididiii.  Tac,  Ann.,  i.,  j 
II).  but  he  him.sclf.  until  .Vrminius  broke  his  spirit, 
had  followed  a  very  dilTcrent  course.  Resides  his 
ISpanish  Wiirs.  his  (Jenerals,  in  a  series  of  t;enerally 
aiiiire.ssivc  cam]iaii;ns,  had  extended  the  Roman 
friinlier  from  the  Alps  to  the  Danube,  and  had  re- ^ 
duced  into  sidijei'tion  the  lari;e  and  important  coun- 
tries that  now  form  the  territories  of  all  Austria 
south  of  dial  river,  and  of  Kasl  Switzerland.  Lower  j 
Wirlemlicrsi.  Ravaria.  the  Valtelline,  and  the  Tyrol. 
While  the  proL^ress  of  the  Roman  arms  thus  pressed 
the  Oermans  from  Ihe  south,  still  more  formidalilc 
inroads  had  been  made  by  the  imperial  lei.nons  on 
the  west.  Roman  armies,  nioviuir  from  the  ])rovince 
of  Uaul,  established  a  chain  of  fortresses  alonj;  Ihe 
right  as  well  as  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and.  in  a 
series  of  victorious  cumpaiffns.  advanced  lheirea!j;les 
us  far  as  the  Elbe,  which  now  seenu'd  added  to  the 
list  of  vassal  rivers,  to  the  Nile,  the  Rhine,  the 
Klione.  the  Danube,  the  Taijus.  the  Seine,  and  many 
more,  that  acknowlediied  the  supremacy  of  the 
Tiber.  Roman  licets  also,  sailini;  from  the  harbors 
of  Gavil  alonii  (he  (Jerman  coasts  and  up  the  estua- 1 
rius,  co-operated  with  the  land-forces  of  the  empire, 
and  seemed  to  display  even  more  decisively  than  her 
armies,  her  overwheliniiii;  superiority  over  the  rude 
Germanic  tribes.  Throuiihout  the  territory  thus 
invaded,  the  Romans  had,  with  their  iisual  mililary 
skilK  eslablislied  fortitied  posts:  and  a  powerful  army 
of  occupation  was  kept  on  foot  ready  lo  move  ins- 
tantly on  any  spot  where  any  po|iular  outbreak  miijhl 
be  attempted. 

Vast,  however,  and  admirably  orirani/.ed  as  the 
fabri<^  of  Roman  power  appeared  on  the  frontiers 
andinthe  provinces,  there  was  rottenness  ai  the  core. 
In  Rome's  unceasiua;  hostilities  with  foreiirn  foes, 
and  still  more  in  her  Ions;  series  of  de.solalinv:  civil 
wars  the  free  middle  classes  of  Italy  hail  almost 
wholly  disappeared.  Above  the  posilion  which  they 
had  occupied,  an  oliiiarchy  of  wealth  had  reared 
itself;  beneiith  that  position,  a  dejrraded  mass  of  pov-  j 
erty  and  misery  was  fermentini;.  Slaves,  the  chance 
sweepiuirs  of  every  eoni|uered  country,  shoals  of 
Africans.  Sardinians.  Asiatics,  Illyrians,  and  others, 
made  up  the  bulk  of  the  populiilion  of  the  Ilidian 
peninsula.  The  foidest  prolliixacy  of  niiinners  was 
general  in  all  nuiks.  In  universal  we;iriness  of  rc-vo- 
liition  and  civil  war.  and  in  consciousness  of  being 
too  debased  for  self-government,  the  nation  had  sub- 
niilled  itself  to  the  absolute  authority  of  Augustus 
Adulation  was  now  the  chief  function  of  the  senate; 
and  the  gifis  of  genius  and  accomplishments  of  art 
were  devoted  to  the  elabonilion  of  eloi|uenlly  false 
panegyrics  upon  the  prince   ami   his   favorite   cour- 


tiers. With  billir  indiginition  must  Ihe  (iermnn 
chieftuin  have  beheld  all  this  and  coiitrasled  willi  il 
Ihe  roiigii  worth  ijf  his  own  (countrymen  ;  their  brii- 
very,  their  lldelity  lo  their  word,  their  manly  inde- 
pendence of  spirit,  their  love  of  their  national  free 
inslilulioiis,  and  their  loalhi:!g  of  every  pollulioii 
and  meanness.  Abovi;  all,  li<r  must  have  thought  of 
Ihe  domeslic  virtues  that  hallowed  a  (irriiian  home; 
of  the  respect  lliere  shown  lo  Ihe  fi-male  cliaructcr, 
and  of  the  pure  alTection  by  which  llial  respect  waB 
repaid.  His  soul  must  have  burned  within  liiin  ut 
Ihe  contemplation  of  such  a  race  j'icldinj^  l(i  tlicse 
debased  Italians. 

Slill,  lo  persuade  Ihe  Germans  lo  combine,  in  spile 
of  Iheir  frei|Uenl  feuds  among  Ihemselves,  in  one 
sudden  outbreak  against  Rome  ;  lo  keep  Ihe  scheme 
concealed  from  the  Roimms  until  the  hour  for  action 
arrived  ;  and  then,  wilhout  possessing  a  single  walled 
town,  without  military  stores,  without  training  lo 
teach  his  insurgent  countryini'n  to  defeat  veieran  ar- 
mies and  storm  forliHcalions,  seemed  so  periloiiK  an 
enterprise,  that  probably  Arminius  would  have  re- 
ceded from  il  biid  not  a  stronger  feeling  even  than 
patriotism  urged  him  on.  Among  Ihe  Germans  of 
high  rank  who  had  most  readily  submitled  lo  Hie 
invaders,  ynd  become  zealous  partisans  of  Roman 
authority,  was  a  chieftain  named  Segesles.  Ilin 
daughter.  Thu.snelda,  was  pre-eminent  among  the 
noble  maidens  of  Germany.  Arminius  had  sought 
her  li;uid  in  marriage;  but  Segesles,  who  probably 
diseernid  the  younj'  chief's  disalTeclion  to  Rome. 
forbade  his  suit,  and  strove  to  precbide  all  coinnni- 
nic;ilion  between  him  and  his  daughter.  Tliusnelda, 
however,  symiialhized  far  more  with  the  heroic  spirit 
of  her  lover  than  with  the  lime-serving  policy  of  lier 
father.  An  elopement  b:irtled  Ihe  precautions  of  Se- 
gesles. who.  disappointed  in  his  hop,.'  of  preventing 
the  marriage,  accused  Arndnius  before  Ihe  Ronuin 
(iovernor  of  having  carried  olT  his  d;iughler,  and  of 
phmning  treason  against  Rome.  Thus  assailed,  and 
dreading  to  see  his  bride  torn  from  him  by  the  ofti- 
cials  of  the  foreign  oppressor,  Arminius  delayed  no 
longer,  but  bent  all  his  energies  to  organize  and  exe- 
cute a  general  iusurreclion  of  Ihe  greiit  mass  of  his 
countrymen  who  hitherto  had  submitted  in  sullen 
hatred  to  the  Roman  dominion. 

A  change  of  Governors  h;Lil  recently  taken  place 
w  hicli,  while  it  inateri;dly  fiivored  the  ultnuale  suc- 
cess of  Ihe  insurgents,  served,  by  Ihe  immediate  ag- 
gravation of  the  Koman  oppressions  which  il  pro- 
duced, to  make  the  native  po])ulatioii  more  univers- 
ally eager  to  take  arms.  Tiberius,  who  was  after- 
ward Emperor,  had  recently  been  recalled  from  Ihe 
conuuiind  in  Germany,  and  sent  into  I'annonia  to  put 
down  a  dangerous  revolt  which  had  broken  out  a- 
iTidnsI  the  Romans  in  lluit  i>rovince.  The  German 
patriots  were  thus  delivereil  from  Ihe  stern  supervi- 
sion of  one  of  Ihe  most  suspicious  of  mankind,  and 
were  also  relieved  front  having  lo  conlentl  again.st 
Ihe  high  military  talents  of  a  veteran  commander, 
who  thoroughly  understood  their  national  character, 
and  also  the  nature  of  the  country,  which  he  him- 
self had  priiicii)idly  subdued.  In  the  room  of  Tiber- 
ius, Augustus  sent  into  Germany,  Q"'"'''''""  Varus, 
who  had  lately  returned  from  the  proconsidale  of 
Syria.  Varus  was  a  lr\ie  representative  of  Ihe  higher 
classes  of  the  Romans,  among  whom  a  general  taste 
for  literature,  a  keen  susceplibilily  lo  all  inlellecnial 
gratifications,  a  minute  acquaintance  with  the  prin- 
ciples and  practice  of  their  own  ii;itional  juris|)ru- 
dence,  a  careful  training  in  the  schools  of  the  rhel- 
oriciiuis  and  a  fondness  for  cither  jiartaking  in  or 
wa'ching  the  intellectual  strife  of  forensic  oratory, 
had  become  generally  diffused,  wilhout,  however, 
having  humanized  the  old  Roman  spirit  of  cruel  in- 
difference  for  human  feelings  and  human  sufTerinsn', 
and  without  acting  as  the  least  checks  on  nnprinc  i- 
pled  avarice  and  ambition,  or  on  habitual  and  gro.'S 
protiigaey.  Accuslomed  lo  govern  tlie  depraved 
and  ilehased  natives  of  Svria.  a  rmmlrv  «  here  enur- 


ROM  4N  LEGIONS. 


/.3 


6 


EOMAN  LEGIONS. 


age  in  man  and  virtut  in  woman  liad  for  centuries 
been  unknown,  Varus  thoaght  that  he  might  gratify 
his  licentious  and  rapacious  passions  witli  equal  im- 
punity among  the  high-minded  sous  and  pure-spirit- 
ed daughters  of  Germany.  When  the  General  of  an 
army  sets  the  example  of  outrages  of  this  description, 
he  is  soon  faithfullj'  imitated  by  his  officers,  and  sur- 
passed by  his  still  more  brutal  soldiery.  The  Rom- 
ans  now  habitually  indulged  in  those  violations  of 
the  sanctity  of  the  domestic  shrine,  and  those  insults 
upon  honor  and  modesty,  by  which  far  less  gallant 
spirits  than  those  of  our  Teutonic  ancestors  have 
often  been  maddened  into  insurrection. 

Arminius  found  among  the  other  German  Chiefs 
many  who  sympathized  with  him  in  Ijis  indignation 
at  their  country's  abasement,  and  many  whom  pri- 
vate wrongs  had  stung  yet  more  deeply.  There  was 
little  difficulty  in  collecting  bold  leaders  for  an  at- 
tack on  the  oppressors,  and  little  fear  of  the  jiopula- 
tion  not  rising  readily  at  those  leaders'  call.  But  to 
declare  open  war  against  Rome,  and  to  encounter 
Varus's  army  in  a  pitched  battle,  would  have  been 
merely  rushing  upon  certain  destruction.  Varus 
had  three  legions  under  him.  a  force  which,  after  al- 
lowing for  d<'tachments,  cannot  be  estimated  at  less 
than  fourteen  thousand  Roman  infantry.  He  had 
also  eight  or  nine  hundred  Roman  cavalry,  and  at 
least  an  equal  number  of  horse  and  foot  sent  from 
the  allied  states,  or  raised  among  those  provincials 
who  had  not  received  the  Roman  franchise.  It  was 
not  merely  the  number,  but  the  quality  of  this  force 
that  made  them  formidable  ;  and,  however  contempt- 
ible  Varus  might  be  as  a  General.  Arminius  well 
knew  how  admirably  the  Roman  armies  were  organ- 
ized and  officered,  and  how  ijcrfectly  the  legionaries 
understood  every  maneuver  and  every  duty  which 
the  varying  emergencies  of  a  stricken  field  might  re- 
quire. Stratagem  was,  therefore,  indispensable ; 
and  it  ^vas  necessary  to  blind  Varus  to  their  schemes 
until  a  f.ivorable  opportunity  should  arrive  for  strik- 
ing a  decisive  blow. 

For  this  purpose,  the  German  confeiierates  fre- 
quented the  headquarters  of  Varus,  which  seem  to 
have  been  near  the  center  of  the  modern  country  of 
Westplialia,  where  the  Roman  General  conducted  him- 
self with  all  the  arrogant  security  of  the  governor  of 
a  perfectly  submissive  province.  There  Varus  grati- 
fied at  once  his  vanity,  his  rhetorical  tastes,  and  his 
avarice,  by  holding  courts,  to  which  he  summoned 
the  Germans  for  the  settlement  of  all  their  disptites, 
while  a  bar  of  Roman  advocates  attended  to  argue 
the  cases  before  the  tribunal  of  Varus,  who  did  not 
omit  the  oijportunity  of  e.vacting  court-fees  and  ac- 
cepting bribes.  Varus  trusted  implicitly  to  tlie  re- 
spect which  the  Germans  pretended  to  pay  to  his 
abilities  as  a  .iudge,  and  to  the  interest  which  they 
affected  to  take  in  the  forensic  eloquence  cf  their 
conquerors.  .Meanwhile,  a  succession  of  heavy  rains 
reuilered  the  country  more  difficult  for  the  operations 
of  regular  troops,  and  Arminius,  seeing  that  tlie  in- 
fatuation of  Varus  was  complete,  secretly  directed 
tlie  tribes  noar  the  Weser  and  the  Ems  to  take  up 
arms  in  open  revolt  against  the  Romans.  This  was 
represented  to  Varus  as  an  occasion  which  required 
his  prompt,  attendance  at  the  spot ;  but  he  was  kept 
in  studied  ignorance  of  its  being  part  of  a  concerted 
national  rising;  and  he  still  looked  on  Arnnnius  as 
his  submissive  vassal,  whose  aid  he  might  rely  on  in 
facilil.-iting  the  man-li  of  bis  troo|)sag.'iiusl  the  rebels,  i 
an<l  iue.\tinguishiugthe  local  disturbance.  lie  there- 
fore set  his  army  in  motion,  and  marched  eastward 
in  a  line  parallel  to  thecourseof  the  Lippe.  For  some 
distance  his  r()\itc  lay  along  a  level  plain;  but  on  ar- 
riving at  the  tract  between  the  curve  of  the  niiper 
part  of  that  stream  and  the  sources  of  tin-  Kius,  the 
country  assumes  a  very  dilTerciit  character;  luid  here, 
in  the  territory  of  the  modern  little  principality  of 
Lippe,  it  was  that  Arminius  had  fixed  the  scene  of 
ills  enterprise.  A  woody  and  hilly  region  intervenes 
between  the  heads  of  the  two  rivers,  and  forms  the 


watershed  of  their  streams.  This  region  still  retains 
the  name  (Teutoberger  =  Teutobergicnsis  .saltus) 
which  it  bore  in  the  days  of  Arminius.  The  nature 
of  the  ground  has  probably  also  remained  unaltered. 
The  eastern  part  of  it,  round  Detmold,  the  modern 
capital  of  the  principality  of  Lippe,  is  described  by  a 
modern  German  scholar.  Dr.  Platte,  as  being  a  "  ta- 
bleland intersected  by  numerous  deep  and  narrow 
valleys, which  in  some  places  form  small  plains,  sur- 
rounded by  steep  mountains  and  rocks,  and  only  ac- 
cessible by  narrow  defiles.  All  the  valleys  are  trav- 
ersed by  rapid  streams,  shallow  in  the  "dry  season, 
but  subject  to  sudden  swellings  in  autumn  and  win- 
ter. The  vast  forests  which  cover  the  summits  and 
slopes  of  the  hil\s  consist  chiefly  of  oak ;  there  is  little 
underwood,  and  both  men  and  horse  would  move 
with  ease  in  the  forests  if  the  ground  were  not  broken 
bygullys.or  rendered  impracticable  by  fallen  trees." 
This  is  the  district  to  which  Varus  is  supposed  to 
have  marched:  and  Dr.  Platte  adds,  that  "  the  names 
of  several  localities  on  and  near  that  spot  seem  to  in- 
dicate that  a  great  battle  has  once  been  fought  there. 
We  find  the  names  ■  das  Winnefeld '  (the  field  of  vic- 
tory),'die  KnochenlKihn'  (the  bone-lane), 'die  Knoch- 
enleke'  (the  bone-brook),  '  der  Mordkessel'  (the  ket- 
tle of  slaughter),  and  others." 

Contrary  to  the  usual  strict  principles  of  Roman 
discipline.  Varus  had  suffered  his  army  to  be  accom- 
panied and  impeded  by  an  inunense  train  of  baggage- 
wagons  and  by  a  rabble  of  camp  followers,  as  if  his 
troops  had  been  merely  changing  their  quarters  in  a 
friendly  country.  When  the  long  army  ipiitted  the 
firm  level  ground,  and  began  to  wind  its  way  among 
the  woods,  tlie  marshes,  and  the  ravines,  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  march,  even  without  the  intervention 
of  an  armeil  foe, became  fearfully  apparent.  In  many 
places,  the  soil,  sodden  with  rain,  was  impracticable 
for  cavalrj',  and  even  for  infantry,  until  trees  had 
been  felled,  and  a  rude  causeway  formed  through 
the  morass.  The  duties  of  the  engineer  were  faniil- 
iar  to  all  who  served  in  the  Roman  armies.  But  the 
crowd  and  confusion  of  the  columns  embarrassed 
the  working  parties  of  the  soldier}',  and  in  the  midst 
of  their  toil  and  disorder  the  word  was  suddenly 
passed  thrtmgh  their  ranks  that  the  rear  guard  was 
attacked  by  tlie  barbarians.  Varus  resolved  on  press- 
ing forward;  but  a  heavy  discharge  of  missiles  from 
the  woods  on  either  Hank  taught  him  how  serious 
was  the  peril,  and  he  saw  his  best  men  falling  round 
him  without  the  opportunity  of  retaliation;  for  his 
light-armed  au.\iliaries,wlio  were  principally  of  Ger- 
manic race,  now  rapidly  deserted,  and  it  was  impos- 
sible to  deploy  the  legionaries  on  such  liroken  ground 
for  a  charge  against  the  enemy.  Choosing  one.  df  the 
most  open  and  firm  spots  which  tliey  could  force 
their  way  to,  the  Romans  halted  for  the  night ;  and, 
faithful  to  their  national  discipline  and  tactics,  form- 
ed their  camp  amid  the  harassing  attacks  of  the  rap- 
idly thronging  foes,  with  elaborate  toil  and  system- 
atic skill,  the  traces  of  which  are  impressed  perma- 
nently on  the  soil  of  so  many  European  countries, at- 
testing the  presence  in  the  olden  time  of  the  imperial 
eagles. 

On  the  morrow  the  Romans  renewed- their  march, 
the  veteran  officers  who  served  under  Varus  now 
proliably  directing  the  operations. and  hoping  io  find 
the  Germans  drawn  up  to  meet  them,  in  which  case 
they  relied  on  their  own  superior  discipline  and  tac- 
tics f<irsueli  a  victory  as  sbouhl  reassure  the  suprem- 
acy of  Jtome.  But  .\riiiinius  was  far  too  sage  a  com- 
mander to  lead  on  his  followi'rs.wilh  tlu'lr  unwieldy 
broadswords  ami  inefficient  defensive  armor,  against 
the  Roman  legionaries,  fully  armed  with  helmet, 
cuirass,  greaves,  and  shield, wlio  were  skilled  to  com- 
mence the  {■onllict  with  a  murderous  volley  of  javel- 
ins, hurled  upon  the  f,)e  wiien  a  few  yards  distant, 
and  then,  with  their  short  cut-and-thrusl  swords,  to 
hew  their  way  llirougb  all  opiiosil ion. preserving  the 
utmost  stea<liricss  and  <'oolncss,  anil  obeying  eacli 
w<ird  of  comma  lid  in  the  Ml  idsl  of  strife  and  slaughter 


ROMAN  LEGIONS. 


757 


ROMAN  LEGIONS. 


Willi  till;  Hiinii-  precision  mid  iiliTlncsH  as  if  upon  pa- 
rade. Ariiiiiiiiis  swlTcnd  llic  Itomaiis  lo  iiiarcli  oiil 
from  llicir  ( iimp,  to  form  llrst  in  line  for  aclioii.  ami 
llicn  ill  <'oliiinii  for  iiiarcliiiiLr.willioiil  tlirsliow  <ifop. 
p<isilioii.  Kor  S(jMic  (lislam-c  Varus  was  allowi'il  lo 
move  on. only  liarassnl  liy  sUlHiI  sl<irmislics,liiil  strii;;- 
Slinj;  vvilli  ilillicully  throiifrh  the  broken  !j;roiin(l.  the 
toil  and  ilislress  of  liis  men  lieiiii,'  aunravaled  liy 
heavy  torrents  of  rain,  which  liiirsi  upon  the  devoted 
li'Hions,  as  if  the  aiii^ry  ltimIs  of  (lermany  were  pour- 
iiii;  out  the  vials  of  their  wnilh  upon  the  invaders. 
After  some  little  lime  their  van  approached  a  ridire 
of  hiL;h  woody  i^rouiid, which  is  one  of  tlii'  oll'shoots 
of  the  ureal  llercyniaii  forcsl.aiid  is  situated  lie- 
Iween  the  iiiodern  villa?;es  of  Driliuri;  and  iiicli'fclil. 
Arinmius  had  caused  barricades  of  hewn  trees  to  he 
formed  here,  so  as  to  add  to  tli<'  naliiral  diltleultles 
of  the  passaire.  Kalisiue  and  discouraL'ement  now 
benan  to  betray  iheniselves  in  the  l{omaii  ranUs. 
Their  line  liecame  less  steady:  liauLraLce-waiions  were 
abandoned  from  the  impossibility  of  forcing;  them 
aloiij; ;  and,  as  Ibis  li:ippened.maiiy  soldiers  left  their 
riinUs  and  crowded  round  the  wa^^ons  to  s<'cure  the 
most  valuable  portions  of  their  property  ;  each  was 
busy  about  his  own  afl'airs,  and  jiurposely  slow  in 
liearinj;  the  word  of  coniinand  from  his  olticers.  .\r- 
niinius  now  fjave  the  siiriial  for  a  ijeneral  attaeU. 
The  tierce  sliouls  of  the  (Jermans  pealeil  throiiLrli  I  he 
ijloom  of  the  forests,  and  in  Ihronu'ini;'  mulliludcs 
they  assailed  the  ranks  of  the  invaders,  pouriiii;  in 
clouds  of  darts  on  the  encumbered  leiiionaricH,  as 
they  slrusiirled  n|)  the  ijleiis  or  tloiindered  in  the  mor- 
asses, and  watchini;  every  opporliinily  of  charnin^ 
tliroui^h  the  intervals  of  the  disjoinled  column,  and 
so  cuitius;  ofT  the  communication  between  its  sever- 
al brigades.  Ariniiiius.  with  a  chosen  band  of  per- 
sonal retainers  rounil  him,  cheered  on  his  eounlry- 
men  b}'  voice  ami  example,  lie  and  bis  men  aimed 
their  weapons  particularly  at  the  horses  of  the  Ro- 
man cavalry.  The  wounded  animals,  slipping  about 
in  Ihc  mire  and  llieir  own  blood,  threw  their  riders 
and  pluniicd  amoim;  the  ranks  of  the  lejrions,  disord- 
ering; all  around  tlieiii.  N'ariis  now  ordered  the  troops 
to  be  eounlermarclied,  in  the  hope  of  reachini;  Ihc 
nearest  Roman  narrison  on  the  Lippe.  Rut  ret  real 
ni>w  was  as  inii>racticable  .-is  advance:  and  the  fallim; 
back  of  the  Konians  only  ain;niented  the  courage  of 
their  assailants, and  caused  tiercer  and  more  frecpient 
charges  on  the  Hanks  of  the  disliei'rtened  army.  The 
Roman  oflicer  who  commanded  the  cavalry,  Numo- 
nius  Vala,  rode  olT  with  his  si|iiadrons  in  the  vain 
hope  of  escapinj;  by  thus  abandonini;  his  comrades. 
Unable  to  keep  toi^ether  or  force  tlieir  way  across  j 
the  woods  and  swamps. the  horsemen  were  overpow- ' 
ered  in  detail,  and  shiuirbtered  to  IIk'  last  man.  The  ; 
Uoinan  infantry  still  held  together  and  resisted,  but  j 
more  throiiiih  ilie  instinct  oif  discipline  and  bravery 
than  from  any  hope  of  success  or  escape.  Varus,  • 
after  heiii!;  severely  wounded  in  a  charse  of  llir  (ter- 
nians  aiiainst  his  part  of  the  rolnmn,  coniniitted  sui- 
cide to  avoiil  fallini;  into  the  hands  of  those  whom 
he  had  exasiierated  by  bis  oppressions.  One  o'  the 
I/ieiitenant-j;enerais  of  the  army  fell  tisihtiiiu;:  the  oth-  ] 
er  surrendered  to  the  enemy.  Rut  mercy  io  a  fallen  1 
foe  hail  never  been  a  Konian  virtue. and  those  amon;; 
her  leijions  who  now  laid  down  their  arms  in  hope 
of  ([uarter.  drank  deei>  of  the  cup  of  siilTerin^  which 
Rome  luid  held  to  the  li]is  of  ni:iny  a  brave  but  un- 
fortunate enemy.  The  infuriated  (lernians  slauixh- 
lered  their  oppressors  wilh  deliberate  ferocity,  and 
those  prisoners  who  were  not  hewn  to  pieces  on  the 
spot  were  only  preserved  to  perish  by  a  more  cruel 
death  in  cold  lilood. 

Tlu'  bulk  of  the  Roman  army  fought  steadily  ami 
stubbornly,  fre<iuently  repellin;.;  the  masses  of  the 
assailants,  but  gradually  losing  the  compactness  of 
their  array,  and  becoming  we:iker  and  weaker  be- 
neath the  incessant  shower  of  darts  :md  the  reiterat- 
ed assaults  of  the  vigorous  and  nnencumliered  (ler- 
nians.     At  last,  in  a  series  of  ilesperate  attacks,  the 


column  was  pierced  Ihrougli  and  through,  two  of 
the  eagles  caiilured,  and  the  Rorii.an  host,  which  on 
Ihc  yislir  morniuL'  had  marched  forih  in  Hiich  pride 
anil  might,  now  broken  up  into  cimfimed  fragmentB, 
either  fell  lightini:  beneath  the  overpowering  num- 
bers of  theenemv,  or  perished  in  the  swumpn  and 
woods  in  unavailing  eirorls  at  Highl.  Few,  vi-ry  few, 
ever  wiw  again  the  left  bank  of  Ihc  Khine.  (>m-  bo- 
dy of  veterans,  arraying  tlieriiKelvcH  in  u  ring  on  a 
little  mound,  beat  olf  every  charge  of  tlie  OerniauH, 
.■inil  prolonged  their  honorable  resistance  to  the  clone 
of  that  dreadful  day.  The  traces  of  a  feeble  altempt 
at  forming  ;i  ililch  and  mound  attesti-d  in  after  ycafH 
Hie  spot  where  the  last  of  the  Ifoman.s  passed 'their 
night  of  sullering  and  despair.  Rut  on  the  morrow, 
this  -emiiant  also. worn  out  wilh  hiingi-r. wounds. unci 
toil,  was  charged  by  tlu;  victorious  Germans. and  citli. 
erniassacri-dontheHpot,  or  ofTered  up  in  fearful  rites 
at  the  altars  of  tht;  deities  of  the  old  mythology  of 
the  Norlli.  A  gorge  in  the  mountain  ridire,  tliroiigli 
which  runs  the  modern  road  between  I'aderborn  and 
I'yrmonl.  leads  from  Ihespot  where  the  heat  of  the 
battle  raged  lollie  Exstersteine,  a  cluster  of  bold 
and  grotesque  rocks  of  sandstone,  near  wliicli  i.s  a 
small  sheet  of  water,  overshadowed  by  a  grove  of 
aged  trees.  According  to  local  tradition,  Iliis  was 
one  of  the  sacred  groves  of  the  ancient  Gernian.s, 
and  it  was  here  tb;it  the  Roman  captives  were  slain 
in  sacrilici;  by  the  victorious  warriors  of  Arrninius. 
Never  was  victory  more  decisive,  never  was  the 
liberation  of  an  ojipressed  people  more  instantaneous 
and  coniplele.  Throughout  (iermuny  the  Roman 
garrisons  were  assailed  and  cut  off  :  imd,  witliin  a 
few  weeks  after  Varus  had  fallen,  the  German  .soil 
was  freed  from  the  foot  of  an  invader. 

.\t  Rome  the  tidings  of  the  liattle  were  received 
with  an  agony  of  terror,  the  reports  of  which  we 
should  deem  exaggerated,  did  they  not  comi-  from 
l{oman  historians  themselves.  They  not  only  tell 
emphalically  liow  great  was  the  awe  which  the 
Romans  felt  of  the  prowess  of  the  Germans,  if  their 
various  tribes  could  be  brought  to  unite  for  a  com- 
mon i>iirpose,  but  also  they  reveal  how  weakened 
and  debased  the  population  of  Italy  had  become. 
Dion  Cassiiis  says  (lib.  Ivi..  SCI  2:i).  ""Then  Augus- 
tus, when  be  beard  the  calamity  of  Varus,  rent  his 
garment,  and  was  in  great  attiiclion  for  the  troops 
he  had  lost,  and  for  terror  respecting  the  Germans 
and  thetJaiils.  And  his  chief  alarm  was,  that  he 
expecled  them  to  push  on  against  Italy  and  Rome; 
and  thire  remained  no  Roman  youth  fit  for  military 
duty  that  were  worth  speaking  of,  and  the  allied 
populations  that  were  at  all  serviceable  had  been 
wusleil  away.  Yet  be  prepared  for  the  emergencv 
as  well  as  his  means  allowed,  and  when  none  of  the 
cili/ins  of  military  age  were  willing  to  enlist,  he 
made  them  cast  lots,  and  punished  by  contisoation 
of  goods  and  disfranchisement  every  fifth  man 
among  those  under  thirty-five,  and  every  tenth  man 
of  those  above  that  age.  At  last,  when  he  found 
that  not  even  thus  could  he  make  many  come  for- 
ward, he  put  some  of  them  to  death.  So  he  made  a 
conscription  of  discharged  veterans  and  of  eman- 
ci|>aled  slaves,  and,  collecting  as  large  a  force  as  he 
could,  sent  it,  under  Tiberius,  with  all  speed  into 
Germany." 

Dion  mentions,  also,  a  number  of  terrific  portents 
that  were  believed  to  have  occurred  at  the  time,  and 
the  narration  of  w  hich  is  not  immaterial,  as  it  shows 
the  slate  of  the  public  mind,  when  such  thius^s  were 
so  believed  in  and  so  interpreted.  The  suniniit  of 
the  Alps  were  said  to  have  fallen,  and  three  columns 
of  tire  lo  have  bla/ed  up  ''rom  them.  In  the  Campus 
Martins,  the  temple  of  Ihc  war-god.  from  whom  the 
founder  of  Rome  bad  sprung,  was  struck  bv  a 
thunder-bolt.  The  nightly  heavens  glowed  sevend 
times,  as  if  on  tire.  JIany  comets  blazed  forth  to- 
gether ;  and  tiery  meteors,  shaped  like  spears,  had 
shot  from  the  northern  ipiarter  of  the  skvdown  into 
the  Roman  camps.     It  wa.s  said,   too,  that  a  statue 


nOMAN  LE&IONS. 


758 


SOMAN  LEGIONS. 


of  Victory  wliich  had  stood  at  a  place  on  the  frontier, 
pointing  tlie  way  toward  Germany,  Iiad  of  its  own 
accord  turned  round,  and  now  pointed  to  Italy. 
These  and  other  prodigies  were  believed  by  the  :nul- 
titude  to  accompany  the  slaughter  of  Varus's  legions, 
and  to  manifest  the  anger  of  the  gods  against  Rome. 
Augnstus  himself  was  not  free  from  superstition; 
but  on  this  occasion  no  supernatural  terrors  were 
needed  to  increase  the  alarm  and  grief  that  he  felt, 
and  which  made  him,  even  months  after  the  news  of 
the  battle  had  arrived,  often  beat  his  head  against 
the  wall,  and  exclaim,  "Quintilius  Varus,  give  me 
•  back  ray  legions."  We  learn  this  from  his  biographer 
Suetonius;  and,  indeed,  every  ancient  writer  who 
alludesto  the  overlhrnw  of  Varusattests  the  import- 
ance of  the  blow  ,'igainsl  the  Rom;in  power,  and  the 
bitterness  with  which  it  was  felt.  The  Germans  did 
not  pursvie  their  victory  beyond  their  own  territory; 
but  that  victory  secured  at  once  and  forever  the  in- 
dependence of  the  Teutonic  race.  Ronie  sent,  in- 
deed, her  legions  again  into  Germany,  to  parade  a 
temporary  superiority,  but  all  hopes  of  )iernianent 
conquests  were  abandoned  by  Augustus  and  his  suc- 
cessors. The  strong  blow  which  Arminius  had  struck 
never  was  forgotten.  Roman  fear  disguised  itself 
under  the  specious  title  of  moderation,  and  the  Rhine 
became  the  acknowledged  boundary  of  the  two  na- 
tions until  the  tifth  century  of  the  present  era  wlien 
t'le Germans  became  the  assailants,  and  c;irved  v.ith 
their  conquering  swords  the  provinces  of  imperial 
Rome  into  the  kingdoms  of  modern  Europe. 

It  will  be  interesting  in  this  connection  to  append 
a  brief  account  of  that  civil  war  in  which  C'»sar  and 
Pompey  contended  for  the  mastery  over  Rome  and 
the  Republic.  In  his  first  Commentary  Gesar  record- 
ed his  campaigns  in  Gaul, — campaigns  in  which  he 
reduced  tribes  which  were,  if  not  hostile,  at  any 
rate  foreign,  and  by  his  success  in  which  he  carried 
on  and  maintained  the  potency,  traditions  and  pur- 
port of  the  Roman  Republic.  I^  was  the  ambition 
of  the  Roman  to  be  master  of  the  known  world.  In 
his  ideas  no  more  of  the  world  was  really  known 
than  had  become  Roman,  and  any  extension  to  the 
limits  of  this  world  could  only  be  made  by  the  addi- 
tion of  so-called  barbarous  trilies  to  the  number  of 
Roman  subjects.  In  reducing  (iaul,  therefore,  and 
in  tighting  with  the  Germans,  ;ind  going  over  to 
Britain,  Ciesar  was  doing  that  wliicii  all  good  Ro- 
mans wished  to  see  done,  and  was  rivaling  in  the 
West  the  great  deeds  which  Pompey  had  accom- 
plished in  the  East.  In  his  second  Commentary  lie 
is  forced  to  deal  with  a  subject  whicli  must  have 
been  less  gratifying  to  Roman  readers.  He  relates 
to  us  the  victories  which  he  won  with  Roman  le- 
gions over  other  legions  equalh'  Roman,  and  by 
which  he  succeeded  in  destroying  the  liberty  of  the 
Keiuiblic.  It  must  be  acknowledged  on  Ctesar's  be- 
half that  in  truth  liberty  had  fallen  in  Rome  before 
Ca'sar's  time.  Power  had  produced  wealth,  and 
wealth  had  produced  corruption.  The  tribes  of 
Rome  were  bought  and  sold  at  the  various  elections, 
and  a  few  great  ojigiirclis.  cither  of  tliis  faction  or  of 
Ihal,  divided  ;tmong  thcnisclvcs  llie  pliiccs  of  trust 
iind  honor  aM<l  jiower,  and  did  so  witli  hauils  ever 
oi)enfor  the  gnispiug  of  public  wealth.  \n  honest 
man  with  clean  hands  and  a  con.scicnce,  with  scru- 
I)les  and  a  love  of  country,  became  unfitted  for  ))ub- 
iic  <'mployment.  Cato  in  these  days  w:is  simply  ri- 
diculous; and  even  Cicero,  though  he  was  a"  trim- 
mer, was  much  too  honest  for  llie  times,  Laws  were 
vvrcsted  from  their  purposes,  and  the  very  'I'riliuncs 
of  the  people  had  become  the  worst  of  tyraiils.  It 
was  necessary,  p,-rhaps,  tlial  I  here  shoulii  be  a  mas- 
ter ; — .so  at  least  (^lesiir  iliouglit.  He  had,  no  doidjt, 
Heen  this  necessity  duriiig-all  these  years  of  fighting 
in  Gaul,  and  had  resolved  that  he  would  not  jx;  less 
than  First  in  the  new  order  of  Ihings.  So  he  crossed 
Ilie  [{ubicou. 

The  reader  of  this  second  Commentary  will  find  it 
less  alluring  than  the  first.    There  is  less  in  it  of  adven- 


ture, less  of  new  strange  life,  and  less  of  that  sound, 
healthy,  joyous  feeling  which  sprang  from  a  thor- 
ough conviction  on  Caesar's  part  that  in  crushing  the 
Gauls  he  was  doing  a  thoroughly  good  thing.  To 
us,  and  our  way  of  thinking,  his  doings  'in  Gaul 
were  stained  with  terrible  cruelty.  To  him  and  to 
his  Romans  they  were  foul  with  no  such  stain.  How 
other  Roman  conquerors  acted  to  other  conquered 
])('ople  we  may  learn  from  the  fact,  that  Caesar  ob- 
tained a  character  for  great  mercy  by  his  forbearance 
in  Gaul.  He  always  writes  as  though  he  were  free 
ir-'im  any  sting  of  conscience,  as  he  tells  us  of  the 
punishments  which  policy  called  on  liim  to  inflict. 
But  as  he  writes  of  these  civil  wars,  there  is  an  ab- 
sence of  tliis  feeling  of  perfect  self-satisfaction,  and 
at  the  same  time  he  is  much  less  cruel.  Hecatombs 
of  Gauls,  whether  men  or  women,  or  children,  he 
could  see  burned  or  drowned  or  starved,  mutilated 
or  tortured,  without  a  shudder.  He  could  give  the 
command  for  such  operations  with  less  remorse  than 
we  feel  when  we  order  the  destruction  of  a  litter  of 
undesirable  puppies.  But  he  could  not  bring  him- 
self to  slay  Roman  legionaries,  even  in  fair  figliting, 
with  anything  like  self-satisfaciion.  In  this  he  was 
either  soft-hearted  or  had  a  more  thorough  feeling  of 
country  than  generals  or  soldiers  who  have  fought  in 
civil  contests  since  his  time  have  shown.  In  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses  and  in  those  of  Cromwell  we  rec- 
ognize no  such  feeling.  The  American  Generals 
were  not  so  restrained.  But  Cscsar  seems  to  have 
valued  a  Roman  legionary  more  than  a  tribe  of 
Gauls. 

Nevertheless  he  crossed  the  Rubicon.  We  have 
all  heard  of  his  crossing  of  the  Rubicon,  but  Ca;sar 
says  nothing  about  it.  The  Rubicon  was  a  little 
river,  now  almost  if  not  altogether  unknown,  running 
into  the  Adriatic  between  Ravenna  and  .\riminum — 
Rimini, — and  driving  the  provinces  of  so-called  Cis- 
alpine Gaul  from  the  territory  under  the  immediate 
rule  of  the  magistracy  of  Rome.  Caesar  was,  so  to 
say,  at  home  north  of  the  Rubicon,  He  was  in  his 
own  province,  and  had  all  things  vmder  his  com- 
mand. But  he  was  forbidden  by  the  laws  even  to  en- 
ter the  territory  of  Rome  proper  while  in  the  command 
of  a  Roman  province  :  and  therefore,  in  crossing  the 
Rubicon,  he  disobeyed  the  laws,  and  put  himself  in 
opposition  to  the  constituted  authorities  of  the  city. 
It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  very  much  was 
thought  of  this,  or  that  the  passage  of  the  river  was 
in  truth  taken  as  the  special  sign  of  Ca>sar's  purpose, 
or  as  a  deed  that  was  irrevocable  in  its  consetiuenc- 
es.  There  are  various  pretty  stories  of  C;esar's 
hesitation  as  he  stood  on  the  brink  of  the  river, 
doubting  whether  he  would  plunge  the  world  into 
civil  war.  AVe  are  told  how  a  spirit  iippeared  to 
him  and  led  him  across  the  river  with  martial  mu- 
sic, and  how  Ciesar,  declaring  that  the  die  was  cast, 
went  on  and  crossed  the  fatal  stream.  But  all  this 
was  fable,  invented  ou  Caesar's  behalf  by  Romans 
who  came  after  Ciesar.  Cicsar's  purpose  was,  no 
doubt,  well  understood  when  he  brought  one  of  his 
legions  down  into  that  corner  of  bis  province,  but 
oilers  to  treat  with  him  on  friendly  terms  were  made 
by  Pompi'y  and  his  party  after  he  had  established 
himself  on  tlie  Roman  siile  of  the  river. 

When  the  civil  war  began,  Ca\sar  had  still,  ac- 
cording to  the  assigmuent  iiiiidc  1o  him,  two  years 
and  a  half  left  of  liis  allofed  iicriod  of  government 
in  the  llircc  provinces;  but  his  victories  and  his 
power  had  been  w;itche<l  with  anxious  eyes  from 
Rcmie  and  the  Senate  h;id  atfcmpled  to  decree  that 
be  should  be  rec:illed.  I'oiiiiiey  w;is  no  longer  Cie- 
Siir's  friend,  nor  did  Ciesar  expect  liis  friendship. 
Ponqiey,  who  had  lately  Jilayed  his  cards  but  badly, 
and  mi'ist  have  felt  tlui't  he  tuid  jih.yed  them  badly, 
had  bei'ii  freed  from  bis  boiidiige  to  Ca'sar  by  the 
death  of  Crassiis,  the  third  triumvir,  by  (he  death  of 
.Iiilia,  Ca'sar's  daughter,  ;ind  by  llie  course  of  lliings 
in  Rome.  Il  had  been  an  uiiualund  alliance  ar- 
ranged by  Ca'sar  with   the  sole  view  of  cliiipim;-  his 


BOMAN  LEGIONS. 


750 


ROMAN  LEGIONS. 


riviil'H  vviriKH.     'I'lic  fipi-iiiars  ol    I'cjiii|](  y  li^i'l  liillicr- 
to  been  HO  l)l'iv;lil,    Hiiil    lie    n\>i>   Imd    mi-iihiI    I"   lii' 
(llviiic.     Wliili' slill  a   hiiy.  Ijr  Mail   I'liiiiiiiaiiili'il  anil 
<:i)ii(jii(nMl.    women    liml   irlninl   liiin.    iiml   >iolilicr.s 
liiiil   worslii|>|)('(l  liini.      Snilu   Intil    callcil  liiin    tlic 
Orcal:  and.    as   we  arc   tolil.  Iiail   raiscil  his   lial   lu 
liini  in  token  of   liorior.     He   hail   lieen  alloweil  IIk' 
j^lory  of   a   Iriuinph  while  yel  ayonlh.  anil  had  Hi- 
iini|iheil  u  .second  liriielieforc  he  hud  n  uchiil  middle 
life,      lie  had  triimi|iheil   a'.:aiM  a  third  time,  and  the 
three    Irinmplis   had  heeji  won  in  the  three  qnarlers 
of  the  n'lolie.      In    all  thin'.:s  he   had  lieen  siieeessfnl, 
and  in  all  tilings  happy,      lie  had  driven  (he  swarm- 
in;;  pirates  from  every  harhor  in  the  .Mediterranean, 
and  had  tilled    Komi-   with   corn,      lie  had   retnrneil 
a  eon(|neror  with  his  le'j;ions  from  the  Kasl.  and  had 
dared  tii  dishand  them,  that  he  mi^dil  livea;;ain  as  a 
private  cit.i/en.     And  afterlhat,  wiii-n  it  was  llionL;hl 
necessary   that  the  cityshonid  be  saved,  in  her  need, 
from  the  factions  of  her  own  citizens,  he   had   been 
made  soh^  C'onsnI.     Il  is  easier   now   In  nnderstand 
the  character  of  I'ompey  than  the   ))()si(ion  which, 
by  his  unvaried  successes,  he  had  made  for  himself 
in   the   minds  both  of   the  nobles  and  of  the  people. 
Even    up    to  this    time,  even    after   Ciesar's  wars  in 
(}aul,  there  was  somethinu:  of  divinity  hamrim;  about 
Pompev,  in  which  the   liomans  of  the  city  trusted. 
He  hail   been   imperious,  but    calm   in   manner   and 
self-possessed     allowini;  no  one  to  !)e  his  equal,  but 
not    impatient   in   making;   sfooil   his  claims-    i;ranil, 
handsome,  lavish  when  policy  required  it,  rapacious 
when  much  needed,  never  self-induli;ent,  heartless, 
false,  politic,    andiilious,    very  brave,  ami  a  Roman 
to  tlic  backbone,      lint  hehadthis  failing;,  this  weak- 
ness;- -when  the  time  for  the  last    striiimie  came,  he 
(lid  not  quite  know  wdial  il  was  that  he  desired  to  do; 
he  did  not  clearly  see  his  future.     The  thin,u;s   to  he 
done  were  so  ^ri'eal,  that  he  had  not  ceased  to  doubt  ] 
conccrninL:  them  when  Ihe   moment  came  in  which  i 
doubt  was  fatal,     t'a'sar  saw  it  all,  and  never  doubt- 
ed.    Tliat  little  tale  of  Cu'sar  standing'  on  the  bridije 
over  the  Rubicon  iHinderiULi;  iis  to  liis  future  course, 
-  divided    between   obedience   and   rebellion,-   it    is 
very   pretty.      But    there    was    no   such    pondering;, 
and  no  such   division.     Ciesar  knew  very  well  wh;it 
he  meant  and  what  he  wanted. 

Cii'sar  is  full  of  his  wrongs  as  he  be^^ins  his  sec- 
ond n;irr;itive.  lie  tells  us  how  his  own  friends  are 
silenced  in  the  Senitte  and  in  the  city  :  how  his  ene- 
mies, Seipio,  Cato,  and  I.entulus  the  (  onsul,  iirevail; 
how  no  one  is  allowed  to  say  a  word  for  him.  "I'om- 
pey himself,"  he  s;iys,  "ur^;ed  on  by  the  enemies  of 
Caesar,  and  because  he  was  unwiUinir  that  any  one 
should  equ;d  himself  in  honor,  had  turned  himself 
altogether  from  t'iesar's  friendship,  and  Inul  gone 
back  to  the  fellowship  of  their  common  enemies, — 
enemies  whom  he  himself  h:id  created  for  Ciesiir  dur- 
ini;  Ihe  time  of  their  :illiance.  At  the  same  time 
<-onscious  of  the  scandal  of  these  two  le;;ions  which 
he  h:ul  slopped  on  their  destined  ro;td  to  Asia  and 
Syri;i  and  taken  into  his  own  luinil.  he  w:is  anxious 
that  the  ipiestion  should  hi'  referred  to  arms."  Those 
two  legions  are  very  grievous  to  C'ii'sar.  One  wa.' 
the  legion  which,  as  we  remember,  I'ompey  had 
given  U])  to  friendsliip, — and  the  Republic.  When, 
in  the  beginning  of  these  contests  between  the  two 
riv;ds.  the  Senate  had  decided  ou  we;diening  each 
by  ilem;uuling  from  each  ;i  legion.  I'ompey  had 
asked  (';e>ar  for  the  restitution  of  th:it  which  he  had 
so  kindly  lent.  (';esar,too  proud  to  refuse  payment 
of  Ihe  debt,  had  sent  tliat  to  his  former  friend,  and  1 
had  also  sent  another  legion,  as  demanded  to  the 
Sen;ite.  They  were  reipiircil  nominally  for  service 
in  the  East,  and  now  were  in  the  h:uids  of  him  who 
had  been  tVesar's  f.iend  but  h;nl  become  his  enemy. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  C;es;ir  t;dks  of  the  infamy  or  ; 
scandal  of  the  two  legions  !  lie  repeats  his  com-' 
plaint  as  to  the  two  legions  again  and  again. 

In  the  month  of  .January  Cesiir  was  at  Ravenna,  1 
just  north  of  the  Rubicon,  and  in  his  own  province. 


,  MeKHUjjeH  paHM  belwecri  him  and  the  Scnalf,  and  lie 
|)ropoHeH  his  l<;rMis.  Tiie  Senate  also  proposcK  jtH 
terms.  lie  must  lay  down  his  arms,  or  he  will  Im- 
csteenn-d  an  iriemy  by  ''"'  If'public.  All  Home  in 
diHiurbed.  The  account  Ih  CitHur'n  accoiiiil  but  wi- 
imagine  that  Home  was  diMlMrlii-d.  "Kohliers  an- 
reeruiled  over  all  Italy  ;  arms  are  ilenuinded,  laxcH 
are  levied  on  llii'  mimicipalilies,  and  money  is  biken 
from  the  sarred  shrines;  all  laws  divine  and  human 
are  disregarded."  Thin  (lesar  complains  to  his 
soldiers  his  wrori'/s.  and  Ihe  crimis  of  I'om|M-y.  lie 
tells  them  how  they.  und<  r  his  guidance,  have  been 
victorious,  how  nniler  him  they  have  "paci(ir-d"  all 
(bail  and  (iermany.  and  he  calls  upon  them  lode, 
fend  him  who  has  enabled  them  to  r|o  such  great 
tilings.  He  has  but  one  legion  with  him,  but  timt 
legion  declires  Unit  it  will  obey  him,  -  him  ami  Ihe 
Tribunes  of  the  people,  some  of  whom,  acting  on 
Ca'sar's  side. have  rome  over  from  Rome  to  Ravenna. 
We  (;an  ap|)reciate  Ihe  spirit  of  this  allusion  to  the 
Tribunes,  so  that  there  may  seem  to  be  still  soim- 
link  between  Ca'sar  and  the  civic  authorilies.  Wlien 
the  soldiers  have  expressed  Iheir  goodwill,  he  goe.s 
to  Arimimwn.  and  so  the  Rubicon  is  passed. 

There  are  still  more  messages.  (';esar  exprt-».ses 
himself  as  greatly  irrievcdthal  he  should  be  snbj.-cted 
I  to  so  nnuh  suspense,  nevertheless  he  is  willing  to 
sufl'er  anything  for  the  Repulilic  ;  -''omnia  pali  rei- 
publicjt'Causa."  Only  let  I'ompey  go  to  his  jjrovince, 
let  the  legions  in  iind  about  Home  be  disbanded,  let 
all  the  old  forms  of  free  government  be  restored, 
and  panic  be  abolished,  and  then, — when  that  i.s 
done,— all  dillieulties  may  be  settled  in  u  few  min- 
utes' talking.  The  Consuls  ;niil  I'ompey  send  back 
word  thill  if  (':esar  will  go  b;iek  into  Uatd  and  rlis- 
miss  his  army,  I'ompey  shiill  go  at  once  to  Spain. 
But  Pompev  and  the  Cimsuls  with  their  troops  will 
not  stir  till  C'lesar  shall  have  given  security  for  his 
departure.  Each  demands  that  the  other  shall  first 
alKindon  his  position.  Of  course  all  these  nu-ssages 
mean  nothing.  C'lesar.  eom|ilaining  bitterly  of  in- 
justice, sends  a  portion  of  his  sm;ill  :iriny  still  farther 
into  the  Roman  territory.  Marc  Antony  goes  to 
Arezzo  with  five  cohorts,  and  C'lcsar  occupies  three 
other  cities  with  a  cohort  each.  The  marvel  is  that 
he  was  not  attacked  and  driven  back  by  Pompey. 
We  may  probably  lonclude  that  the  soldiers. though 
under  the  command  of  I'ompey.  were  not  trustworthy 
as  against  Cicsar.  As  C'lpsar  regrets  his  two  legions, 
so  no  doubt  do  the  two  legions  regret  their  com- 
mander. At  any  rate. the  consular  forces  with  I'om- 
pey and  the  Consuls  and  a  host  of  Senators  retreat 
southwards  to  Brundnsium. — Brindisi, — intending 
lo  leave  Italy  by  the  port  which  we  shall  use  before 
long  when  we  go  eastwards. 

During  this  retreat,  the  first  blood  in  the  civil  war 
is  spilt  at  Corfinium.  a  town  whiih  if  it  now  stood 
at  all.  would  stand  in  the  Abbruzzi.  Ciesjir  there 
is  victor  in  a  small  engagement,  and  obtains  po.s- 
session  of  the  town.  The  Pompeian  officers  whom  he 
finds  there  he  sends  away,  and  allows  them  even  to 
carry  with  them  money  which  he  believes  lo  have 
been  taken  from  the  public  treasury.  Throughout 
his  route  southward  the  soldiers  of  Pompey,  who 
had  heretofore  lieen  his  soldiers, — retnni  lo  him, 
I'ompey  and  the  Consuls  still  retreat,  anil  slill  Ciisar 
follows  them,  though  Pompey  had  boasted,  when 
first  warned  to  bew;ire  of  C;i>sar,  that  he  had  only 
to  stamp  upon  Italian  soil  and  legions  would  arisi- 
from  the  earth  ready  to  obey  him.  He  knows,  how- 
ever, that  away  from  Rome,  in  her  provinces,  in 
Macedonia  and  .Vchaia,  in  Asia  and  Cilicia,  in  Sici- 
ly, Sardinia,  and  Africa,  iu  Mauritania  and  the  two 
Spains,  there  are  Roman  legions  which  as  yet  know- 
no  Ca'sar.  Il  may  be  belter  for  Pompey  thai  he 
should  stamp  his  fool  somewhere  oul  of  Italy.  At 
any  rate  he  sends  the  obedient  Consuls  and  his  al- 
leudant  Senators  over  to  Dyrracbium  in  lUyria  with 
a  part  of  his  army,  and  follows  with  the  remainder 
as  soon  as  Csi'sjif  is  at  his  heels.     Civsar  makes  an 


KOMAN  LEGIONS. 


7(;o 


ROMAN  LEGIONS. 


efEort  to  intercept  him  and  his  fleet,  but  in  that  he 
fails.  Thus  Pompey  deserts  Rome  and  Italy, — and 
never  again  sees  the  imperial  city  or  the  fair  laud. 

Csesar  explains  to  us  why  he  does  not  follow  his 
enemy  and  endeavor  at  once  to  put  an  end  to  the 
struggle.  Pompey  is  jirovideil  with  shipping  and  he 
is  not;  and  he  is  aware  that  the  force  of  Home  lies 
in  her  provinces.  Jloreover,  Rome  maj'  Ije  starved 
hj-  Pompey,  unless  he,  Ca;sar,  can  take  care  that 
the  corn-growing  countries,  which  are  the  granaries 
of  Rome,  are  left  free  for  the  use  of  the  city.  He 
must  make  sure  of  tlie  two  Gauls,  and  of  Sardinia, 
and  of  Sicily,  of  Africa  too,  if  it  may  be  possible. 
He  must  win  to  his  cause  the  two  Spains,  of  which 
at  least  the  northern  province  was  at  present  devot- 
ed to  Pompey.  He  sends  one  Lieutenant  to  Sardinia 
with  a  legion,  another  to  Sicily   with  three  legions, 

-and  from  Sicily  over  into  Africa.  These  provinces 
have  been  allotted  to  partisans  of  Pompey  ;  but  C'a'- 
sar  is  successful  with  them  all.  To  Cato,  the  virtu- 
ous man,  had  been  assigned  the  government  of  Sici- 
ly; but  Cato  flnds  no  Pompeian  army  read,\  for  his 
use,  and,  complaining  bitterly  that  he  has  been  de- 
ceived and  betrayed  by  the  headof  his  faction,  runs 
away,  and  leaves  his  province  to  Ciesar's  officers. 
Caesar  determines  that  he  himself  will  carry  the  war 
into  Spain.  But  he  found  it  necessary  first  to  go  to 
Rome,  and  Csesar,  in  his  account  of  what  he  did 
there,  hardh-  tells  us  the  whole  truth.  We  quite  go 
along  with  him  when  he  explains  to  us  that,  having 
collected  what  sort  of  a  Senate  he  could, — for  Pom- 
pey had  taken  away  with  him  such  Senators  as  he 
could  induce  to  follow  him, — and  having  proposed 
to  this  meagre  Senate  that  ambassadors  sliould  be 
sent  to  Pompey,  the  Senate  accepted  his  suggestion; 
but  that  nobody  could  be  induced  to  go  on  such  an 
errand.  Pompej-  had  already  declared  that  all  who 
remained  in  Rome  were  his  enemies.  And  it  may 
probably  be  true  that  Coesar,  as  he  says,  lound  a 
certain  Tribune  of  the  people  at  Rome  who  opposed 
him  in  all  that  he  was  doing,  though  we  should  ima- 
gine that  the  opposition  was  not  violent.  But  his 
real  object  in  going  to  Rome  was  to  lay  hand  on  the 
treasure  of  the  Republic. —  the  sanetius  a'rarium, — 
which  was  kept  in  the  temple  of  Saturn  for  special 
emergencies  of  State.  That  he  sliould  have  taken 
this  we  do  not  wonder :  but  we  ilo  wonder  that  he 
should  have  taken  the  trouble  to  say  that  he  did 
not  do  so.  He  professes  that  he  was  so  hindered  by 
that  vexatious  Tribune, that  he  could  not  accomplish 
the  purposes  for  which  he  had  come.  But  he  cer- 
laiidy  did  take  the  monev,  and  we  cannot  doubt  but 
that  he  went  to  Rome  especially  to  iret  it.  Ca'sar, 
on  his  way  to  Spain,  goes  to  Marseilles  which,  un- 
der the  name  of  Massilia,  was  at  this  time,  as  it  is 
now,  the  most  thriving  mercantile  port  on  the  Med- 
iterranean. It  belonged  to  the  province  of  Furth- 
er Gaul,  but  it  was  in  fact  a  colony  of  Greek  traders. 
Its  possession  was  now  necessary  to  C'a-sar.  The 
magistrates  of  the  town,  when  called  upon  for  their 
adhesion,  gave  a  most  sensible  answer.  They  pro- 
test that  they  arc  very  fond  of  Ca-sar,  ;ind  very  fond 
of  Pompey.  They  don't  understand  all  these  affairs 
of  Rome,  and  regret  that  two  such  excellent  men 
should  (juarrel.  In  the  mean  time  they  prefer  to 
liold  tlieir  own  town.  (!sesar  speaks  of  this  decision 
as  an  injury  to  himself,  and  is  instigated  by  such 
wrongs  against  him  to  besiege  the  city,  which  he 
does  botli  by  land  and  sea,  leaving  olIicer>  there  for 
the  purpose,  and  going  on  himself  to  Spain. 

At  this  time  all  Spain  was  held  by  tliree  ollieers. 
devoted  to  t)ie  <'ause  of  Pompey,  tliougli,  from  wliat 
has  gone  before,  it  is  clear  that.  Ca'sar  fears  notliing 
from  the  south.  Afranius  <'onnnanded  in  the  nortli 
and  east,  holding  the  southern  spiir^  of  the  Pyre- 
nees. Petrcius,  who  was  stationed  in  l.usitania, 
in  the  southwest,  according  to  llie  agreement,  luir- 
ries  up  to  the  assistance  of  Afranius  as  soon  as 
Oitsar  approaches.  The  Ponipeian  and  Ca'sarean 
armies  are  brought  into  close  quarters  in  the  neigh- 


borhood of  Ilerda(Lerida),  on  the  little  river  Sicoris, 
I  or  Segre,  which  runs  into  the  Kbro.  They  are  near 
j  the  mountains  here,  and  the  nature  of  the  fighting  is 
I  controlled  by  the  rapidity  and  size  of  the  rivers,  and 
I  the  inequality  of  the  ground.  Ca-sar  describes  the 
I  canijiaign  with  great  minuteness,  imparting  to  it  a 
wonderfid  interest  b}'  the  clearness  of  his  narrative. 
Afranius  and  Petreius  hold  the  town  of  Ilerda,  which 
i  is  full  of  provisions.  CiBsar  is  very  nnich  pressed 
I  by  want,  as  the  corn  and  grass  have  not  yet  grown, 
and  the  country  supplies  ot  the  former  year  are  al- 
j  most  exhausted.  So  great  are  his  difficulties,  tliat 
tidings  reach  Rome  that  Afranius  has  conquered  him. 
Hearing  this,  many  who  were  still  clinging  to  the 
city,  doubtful  as  to  the  side  they  would  take,  go 
j  away  to  I^ompey.  But  Csesar  at  lasts  manages  to 
make  Ilerda  too  hot  for  the  Pompeian  Generals.  He 
takes  his  army  over  one  river  in  coracles,  such  as  he 
had  seen  in  Britain;  he  turns  the  course  of  another; 
fords  a  third,  breaking  the  course  of  the  stream  by 
the  bulk  ot  his  horses;  and  bridges  a  fourth.  Afra- 
nius and  Petreius  find  that  they  must  leave  Ilerda, 
and  escape  over  the  Ebro  among  the  half-barbarous 
'  tribe  further  soutli,  and  make  their  way,  if  possible, 
among  the  Celtibri, — getting  out  of  Aragon  into  Ca-s- 
tile,  as  the  division  was  made  in  after-ages.  Caesar 
I  gives  us  as  one  reason  for  this  intended  niarcu  on 
the  part  ot  his  enemies,  that  Pompej'  was  well  known 
by  tliese  tribes,  but  that  the  name  of  CaHsar  was  a 
name  as  yet  obscure  to  the  barbarians.  It  was  not, 
however,  easy  for  Afranius  to  pass  over  the  Ebro 
without  Ca>sar's  leave,  and  Caesar  will  by  no  means 
give  him  leave.  He  intercepts  the  Pompeiaus,  and 
now  turns  upon  them  that  terrible  engine  of  want 
from  which  he  had  suffered  so  much.  He  continues 
so  to  drive  them  about,  still  north  of  the  Ebro,  that 
they  can  get  at  no  water;  and  at  last  they  are  com- 
pelled to  surrender.  During  the  latter  days  of  this 
contest  the  Afranians,  as  thej-  are  called — Roman  le- 
gionaries, as  are  the  soldiers  of  Ca'sar — fraternize 
with  their  brethren  in  Caesar's  camp,  and  there  is 
something  of  free  intercourse  between  the  two  Ro- 
man armies.  The  upshot  is  that  the  soldiers  of  Afra- 
nius resolve  to  give  tliemselves  up  to  Casar,  bar- 
gaining, however,  that  their  own  (ienerals  shall  be 
secure.  Afranius  is  willing  enimgh;  lint  his  brother- 
general,  Petreius,  with  more  of  the  Roman  at  heart, 
will  not  hear  of  it.  We  shall  hear  hereafter  the 
strange  fate  of  this  Petreius.  He  stops  the  conspir- 
acy with  energy,  and  forces  from  his  own  men,  anil 
even  from  Afranius,  an  oath  against  surrender.  He 
orders  that  all  Casars's  soldiers  found  in  their  camp 
shall  be  killed,  and,  as  Casar  tells  us,  brings  back 
the  affair  to  the  old  form  of  war.  But  it  is  all  of  no 
avail.  The  Afranians  are  so  driven  by  the  want  of 
water,  that  the  two  Generals  are  at  last  compelled  to 
capitulate  and  lay  down  their  arms.  Five  words 
which  are  used  by  Ca'sar  in  the  description  of  this 
affair  give  us  a  strong  instance  of  his  conciseness  in 
the  use  of  words,  and  of  the  capab  lity  for  couci.se- 
ness  whicli  the  Latin  language  ;itfords.  "  Preme- 
baiitur  Afraiiiaiii  pabnlatioiie.  aciualiantnr  a^gra." 
"Tlie  soldiers  of  Afranius  w<'re  much  distressed  in 
the  matter  of  forage,  and  could  obtain  water  only 
witli  great  difiicuhy."  These  twenty  words  trans- 
late tliose  five  which  Casar  uses,  perliiips  with  fair 
accnracy;  but  many  more  than  twenty  would  pro- 
bably have  been  used  by  any  English  historian  in 
dciiiiiig  with  the  same  facts. 

Ca'sar  treats  his  conipatriofs  with  tlie  iiliiiost  gen- 
erosity. So  many  con(|Uered  (^luls  he  would  have 
sold  as  slaves,  slaughtering  their  leaders,  or  lu"  would 
have  cut  off  their  liands,  or  have  driven  them  down 
upon  the  river  and  have  allowed  (hem  to  perish  in 
tlie  waters.  But  his  coiiipiercd  foes  are  Roman  sol- 
diers, anil  he  simply  <lemands  lh;it  the  iirniy  of  Afra- 
nius shall  be  disbanded,  :iMd  that  the  leaders  of  it 
shall  go,  whither  they  please.  1  le  makes  tlieui  a 
sja'cch  in  which  he  explains  liow  badly  they  huvr 
treated  him.     Nevertheless  he  will  hurt  no  one.    He 


BOUAN  LKOTONS. 


•(;i 


BOMAN  LE0I0N8. 


lias  1>oni<'  il  all,  luiil  will  lii-ar  il,  palli-ntly.  I.rl  llii'  ^ 
OriKTals  only  li'avi-  llic  I'mvivcc,  anil  li-l  lln- army  j 
whirli  llicy  liavi'  led  hr  ilisliaiiili'd.  lie  will  iiiil 
keep  a  SdliliiT  who  dues  mil  wIkIi  Id  slay  willi  liiin, 
ami  will  even  |)ay  lliosc  wlioiii  Afraiiiiis  liaH  hccii  iiii-  j 
alilr  III  pay  (ml  "f  liis  own  fumls.  'I'Iiiihc  wIid  have 
lioiiscs  and  lam!  ii!  Spain  may  n-main  llicrc.  'I'liosc 
who  liavr  none  Iw  will  lirsl  fcrd.  ami  afterwards 
take  l>ack,  if  mil  to  Ilaly.  iil  any  rale  to  tlir  liordc-rs 
of  Italy.  Till'  properly  w  liieli  lii.s  own  .soldiers  have 
taken  from  them  in  the  ehanees  of  war  shall  he  re- 
tnriH'd  to  them,  and  he  onl  of  his  own  pocket  will 
compensate  Insown  men.  He  performs  his  promise, 
and  takes  all  tho.se  who  do  not  <'lioo.sc  to  reniaii,  to 
th('  haidcs  of  the  Var.  which  divides  the  Province 
from  Ilaly,  and  there  sets  them  down,  full,  midonhl,  ] 
of  uratilnde  to  their  conqueror.  Never  was  there 
such  clemency,  or  we  may  say,  lielter  ]iiiliev|  Ca'- 
sar's  whole  <'ampaii;n  in  Spain  had  oeenpiid  him 
oidy  forty  days.  In  I  he  mean  time  Decimus  lirntiis, 
to  whom  we  remember  that  Ca'sar  had  ijiven  the 
command  of  the  ships  which  he  prepared  a':;ainst  the 
Veneti  in  the  west  of  Haul,  and  who  was  hereafter 
to  he  one  of  those  who  slew  him  in  the  Capitol,  ob- 
tains a  naval  victory  over  IIk'  mncli  mori'  miniiToiis 
Heel  of  the  .Massilians.  They  hail  prepared  seven- 
teen bii;  ships,  "naves  lonija' "  they  are  calli'd  by 
Ca'sar, — and  of  these  Hrntus  either  destroys  or  lakes 
nine.  In  his  ne.\t  book  (tesar  proceeds  to  tell  us 
how  thin;;s  went  on  at  .Marseilles  both  by  sea  and 
land  aftiT  tliis  atTair. 

In  his  chronicle  of  the  (iallic  war,  Ca'sar  in  each 
book  completed  the  narrative  of  a  year's  cam])ais;n. 
In  treatiiis;;  of  the  civii  war  he  devotes  the  ;ir^t  and 
second  books  to  the  doiji;;s  of  one  year.  There  are 
tliri'c  distinct  c|)isodes  of  the  year's  campaign  narrat- 
ed in  the  second  ;  -the  taking  of  .Marseilles,  the  siib- 
jiigalion  of  the  southern  pidvince  of  Spain. — if  that 
can  be  .said  to  be  subjugated  which  gave  it.self  very 
readily, — and  the  destruction  of  a  Homan  army  in 
Africa  under  the  hands  of  a  barb:irian  king.  But  of 
all  Ca'sar's  writings  it  is  perhaps  the  least  interesting, 
as  il  tells  us  but  lilth'  ol  what  C.'esar  did  himself,- - 
and  in  fact  contains  chietly  C.'csar's  records  of  the  do- 
ings of  his  Kieutenanis  by  sea  and  land.  He  la'gins 
by  telling  us  of  the  enormous  exertions  made  both  by 
the  besiegers  and  by  the  besi<'ged  at  .Massilia  which 
town  was  now  Inld  by  Domitius  on  tiie  part  of  Pom- 
pey, — to  suiiplement  whom  at  sea  a  certain  Nasidius 
«  as  sent  wil  h  a  large  licet.  Young  lirutus,  as  will  be 
renu'inbered,  was  attacking  the  harbor  on  behalf  of 
Ciesar,  an<l  had  alreaily  obtained  a  victory  over  the 
Massilians  before  Nasidius  came  up ;  and  Trebonius, 
also  on  the  i)art  of  Ca'sar,  was  besieging  the  town 
from  the  land.  This  Decimus  Brutus  was  one  of  those 
conspirators  who  afterwards  conspired  against  Ciesar 
and  slew  him, — and  Trebonius  was  another  of  the 
number.  The  wise  Oreeks  of  the  city,-  more  wise 
than  fortunate,  however,  had  explained  to  Ca'sar 
when  he  lirsl  expressed  his  wish  to  have  the  town  on 
his  side,  that  really  to  them  there  was  no  diU'erence 
between  Pompey  and  Cjesar,iiotli  of  whom  they  loved 
with  all  their  hearts, — but  they  had  been  oompelled 
to  l)ecome  partisans  of  I'ompey,  the  I'ompeian  Gen- 
eral, Domitius,  being  the  lirst  to  enter  their  town: 
and  now  they  find  themselves  obliged  to  tight  as 
l'om|)eians  in  defence  of  their  wealth  and  their  homes. 
Thus  driven  by  necessity,  they  light  well  and  do  their 
very  best  to  favor  the  side  wiucli  we  must  hencefor- 
ward call  that  of  the  Kciiublic  as  against  an  autocrat: 
— for,  di.ving  this  siege  of  .Marseilles.  Ciesar  had  been 
appointed  liafator,  ami  a  law  to  that  elTect  had  been 
passed  at  Home,  where  the  j)assing  of  such  a  law  was 
no  doubt  easy  enough  in  the  absence  of  I'ompey,  of 
the  Consi;ls.  and  of  all  tlie  Senators  who  were  Pom- 
pey's  friends. 

The  .Mas.silians  had  now  chosen  their  side.and  they 
do  their  very  best.  We  are  told  that  the  Ca'sarean 
troops,  from  the  very  high  groimd  on  which  Trebon- 
ius had  placed  his  camp.  <-oidil  look  (low  n   into  the 


town,  und  Hce  "  liow  all  tin;  youth  who  had  been  left 
ill  thr-  city,  anil  all  tin;  elders  with  their  children  and 
wives,  aiid  the  sentinels  of  the  cilv,  eitliiT  strelt-hed 
their  hands  to  heaven  from  the  wafis,  or,  entering  tin- 
temples  of  the  ininiorlid  gods,  unil  throwing  tlieiii 
selves  before  I  heir  sacn-d  innigeH.prayedlhut  IhcJir'uv- 
enly  powers  would  give  them  victory.  Nor  was  tlirre 
one  among  them  w  ho  did  not  believe  that  on  IhereHuIt 
of  that  day  depended  all  that  they  lia<l,"  namely, 
liberty,  property  and  life;  for  I  he  .Massilians.doiibtlesH, 
had  hear<l  of  Avari<  iiir.,  of  .\lesia.  and  of  L'.xellodu- 
luim.  ••  Whi'ti  the  battle  was  begun,"  siiys  Ca'sar, 
"the  .Massilians  failed  not  in  valor;  but.  inindfid  of 
the  lessons  they  had  just  received  from  their  lownH- 
men,  fought  with  thi'  belief  that  the  pri'sent  was  tlieir 
only  opportututy  of  doing  aughl  for  their  own  pres- 
ervation ;  and  I  hat  to  those  who  should  fall  in  buttle, 
loss  of  life  wiiuld  only  comi'  a  little  sooiht  than  to 
the  others,  w  ho  wouhl  have  to  undergo  llie  same  fate, 
shoidd  the  city  li<'  taken."  Cesar,  as  he  wrol<'  this, 
doubtless  thought  of  what  he  had  done  in  (iaul  when 
policy  demanded  from  him  an  exireiiiily  of  crm-Ily  • 
and.so  writing,  he  enhanci'i  I  the  clemency  with  which, 
as  he  is  about  to  tell  us. he  afterwards  treated  the  Mas- 
silians. When  the  time  came  it  did  not  suit  him  to 
depo])ulatea  rich  town,  the  trade  of  whose  merchant.s 
wasbenelicial  both  to  U<imeand  to  the  j'rovinci'.  He 
is  about  to  tell  us  of  his  mercy,  and  therefore  explains 
to  us  beforehand  how  little  was  mercy  expecleil  from 
him.  We  feel  that  every  line  he  writes  is  weighed, 
though  the  time  for  such  weighing  must  have'  been 
very  short  with  one  wliosi-  bands  were  so  fidl  as  were 
always  the  hands  of  Ca'sar. 

Nasidius,  whom  we  mtiy  call  Pompey's  Admiral, 
was  of  no  use  at  all.  The  -NlassiKans.  tempted  by  his 
coming,  attack  bravely  the  ship  which  hears  the  Hag 
of  young  Brutus;  l)ut  young  Brutus  is  too  quick  for 
Ihem,  an<l  the  imhappy  Massilians  run  two  of  their 
biggest  vessels  against  each  other  in  their  endeavor 
to  pin  that  of  the  Ca'sarean  Admirid  between  them. 
The  JIassilian  Heel  is  utterly  dispersed.  Five  are 
stmk.  four  are  taken:  one  gets  oil'  with  Na^idius.  who 
runs  away,  making  no  elTort  to  light  ;  who  has  been 
sent  there,— so  Casiir  hints,  by  Pompey, not  togive 
assistance,  but  only  to  preteml  to  give  assistance. 
One  ship  gets  back  into  the  harbor  with  the  sad  tid- 
ings; and  the  JIassilians — despairing  only  for  a  mo- 
ment at  the  lirst  blush  of  the  bad  news— determine 
that  their  walls  may  still  be  defended.  The  town 
was  very  well  supplied  with  such  things  as  were  need- 
<'d  for  liefence.  the  peoph'  bi-ing  a  provident  people, 
w  ell  instructed  and  civilized. with  meausat  theirconi- 
maud.  We  are  told  of  great  poles  twelve  feet  long, 
with  sharp  iron  lieads  to  them,  which  the  l)esiegers 
could  throw  with  such  force  from  the  engines  on  their 
walls  as  to  drive  them  through  four  tiers  of  the  wicked 
crates  or  stationaiy  shields  which  the  Casareans  built 
up  for  their  protect  ion. — believing  that  no  force  could 
drive  a  weapon  through  them.  As  we  reail  of  this 
we  cannot  but  think'nf  Armstrong  and  Whitfield 
guns. and  iron  plates,  and  granite  batteries,  and  earth- 
works. These  terrible  darts,  thrown  from  "  balislji'." 
are  very  sore  upon  the  Ca'sarcans ;  Ihiv  therefore 
contrive  an  inunense  tower,  so  high  that  it  cannot  be 
reached  liy  any  weapon,  so  built  that  no  wood  or  ma- 
terial subject  io  fire  shall  be  on  t'r.e  outside.— which 
they  erect  story  by  story,  of  very  great  strength.  And 
as  they  raise  this  stepby  step,  each  story  is  secured 
against  fire  and  against  the  enemy.  The  reader, — 
prol)ably  not  an  engineer  himself.-  is  disposed  to 
think  as' he  strugglesthrough  this  minute  description 
of  the  erection  which  Ca'sar  gives,  and  emleavors  to 
realize  the  way  in  which  it  is  done,  that  Casar  must 
himself  liave  served  speciidly  as  an  engineer.  Hut  in 
truth'iie  was  not  at  this  siege  himself,  and  had  noth- 
ing to  do  with  the  planning  of  the  tower,  and  must 
intliis  instance  at  least  have  got  a  written  description 
from  his  ofiicer,— as  he  probably  did  before  when  he 
built  the  memorable  bridge  over  the  Hhine.  .Vnd 
when  the  tower  is  finished, tlicv  make  a  long  covered- 


SOMAN  LEGIONS. 


762 


ROMAN  LEGIONS. 


way  or  shed, — musculum  or  muscle  Cassar  calls  it ; 
and  with  this  they  form  for  themselves  a  passage 
from  the  big  tower  to  a  special  point  in  the  walls  of 
the  town.  This  muscle  is  so  strong  with  its  sloping 
roof  that  nothing  thrown  upon  it  will  lirealv  or  burn 
it.  The  JIassilians  try  tubs  of  flaming  pilch,  and 
great  fragments  of  rock  ;  but  these  siinply  slip  to  the 
grovmd.and  are  pulled  away  with  long  poles  and  forks. 
And  the  CiEsareaus.  from  the  height  of  their  great 
tower,  have  so  terrible  an  advantage  !  The  Massil- 
ians  cannot  defend  their  wall,  and  a  breach  is  made, 
or  almost  made. 

The  Massilians  can  do  no  more.  The  very  gods 
are  against  them.  So  they  put  on  tlie  habit  of  sup- 
plicants, and  go  forth  to  tlie  conquerors.  The}'  will 
give  their  city  to  Cfesar.  Ciesar  is  expected.  Will 
Trebonius  be  so  very  good  as  to  wait  until  CsBsar 
comes?  If  Trebonius  should  proceed  with  liis 
work  so  that  the  soldiers  should  absolutely  get  into 
the  town,  then — Trebonius  knows  very  well  wliat 
would  happen  tlieu.  A  little  delay  cannot  hurt. 
Nothing  sliall  be  done  till  Caesar  comes.  As  it  hap- 
pens, C'a-sar  has  alreaily  especially  ordered  that  the 
city  shall  be  spared  ;  and  a  kind  of  truce  is  made, 
to  endure  till  Ciesar  sliall  come  and  take  possession. 
Trebonius  lias  a  difficulty  in  keeping  his  soldiers 
from  the  jilunder :  but  he  does  restrain  them,  and 
besiegers  and  besieged  are  at  rest,  and  wait  for 
Ca'sar.  But  these  5lassilians  are  a  crafty  people. 
Tlie  Ca;sarean  soldiers,  having  agreed  to  wait,  take 
it  easily,  and  simply  amuse  themselves  in  these  days 
of  waiting.  When  they  are  quite  off  their  guard,  and 
a  liigh  wind  favors  th^  scheme,  the  Massilians  rush 
out  and  succeed  in  burning  the  tower,  and  the 
muscle,  and  the  rampart,  and  the  sheds,  and  all  the 
implements.  Even  though  the  tower  was  built  with 
brick,  it  burns  freely — so  great  is  tlie  wind.  Then 
Trebonius  goes  to  work,  and  does  it  all  again.  Because 
there  is  no  more  wood  left  round  about  the  camp, 
he  makes  a  rampart  of  a  new  kind — hitherto  unheard 
of — with  bricks.  Doubtless  the  Cesarean  soldiers 
had  tirst  to  make  the  bricks,  and  we  can  imagine 
what  were  their  feelings  in  reference  to  the  jlas- 
silians.  But  however  that  may  be,  they  worked  so 
well  and  so  hard  that  the  Massilians  soon  see  that 
their  late  success  is  of  no  avail.  Nothing  is  left  to 
them.  Neither  perfidy  nor  valor  can  avail  them, 
and  now  again  they  give  themselves  up.  They  are 
starved  and  suffering  from  pestilence,  their  fortifica- 
'tions  are  destroyed,  they  have  no  hope  of  aid  from 
without — and  now  they  give  tliemselves  up — intend- 
ing no  fraud,  •■rexe  dedere  sine  frimde  O'listituunt." 
Domitius,  who  is  the  Pompeian  General,  manages  to 
escape  in  a  ship.  He  starts  with  three  sliips,  but 
the  one  in  which  he  himself  sails  alone  escapes  the 
hands  of  "young"  Brutus,  Surely  now  will  Mar- 
seilles be  treated  with  worse  treatment  than  that 
which  fell  on  the  Gaulish  cities.  Bnt  such  is  by  no 
means  C'a'sar's  will.  Caesar  takes  their  pulilic  trea- 
sure and  their  ships,  and  reminding  them  that  he 
spares  I  hem  rather  for  their  name  and  old  char- 
acter than  for  any  merits  of  theirs  shown  towards 
him,  leaves  two  legions  among  them,  luid  goes  to 
Home.  At  Avaricum,  when  the  (iaiils  had  fought 
to  defend  their  own  liberties,  he  had  destroyed 
everybody  ; — at  Alesia  he  had  decreed  the  death 
of  every  inhabitant  when  they  had  simply  asked  him  | 
leave  to  pass  through  his  camp:-  at  U.xellodununi 
he  had  cut  off  Ihe  hands  and  poked  out  the  eyes  of 
Gauls  who  liail  dared  to  tight  for  their  country. 
But  the  (iauls  were  barbarians  wlmm  it  was  neces- 
sary that  Ciesar  should  pacify.  The  .Massilians  were 
Greeks,  and  a  civilized  people — and  might  be  very 
useful. 

Hefore  coming  on  to  Marseilles  there  had  been  a 
little  more  for  (^'icsar  to  do  in  Spain,  where,  as  has 
been  jireviously  narrated,  he  Imd  just  compelled 
Afranius  and  I'etreius  to  lay  down  their  iinns  :iii{l 
disband  their  legions.  .loiried  with  them  liad  been 
a  third  Pompeian  General,  one  Varro — a  trulv  dis- 1 


I  tinguished  man,  though  not,  perhaps,  a  very  great 
General — of  whom  Oiesar  tells  us  that  with  his 
Roman  policy   he    veered    between    Pompeian   and 

t'a'sarean  tactics  till,  unfortunately  for  himself,  he 
declared  for  Ponipey  and  the  wrong  side,  wiien  he 
heard  that  Afranius  Wiis  having  his  own  way  in  the 
i  neighborhood  of  Lerida.  But  Varro  is  in  the  south 
of  Spain,  in  Andalusia — or  Ba-tica,  as  it  was  then 
called — and  in  this  southern  province  of  Spain  it 
seems  that  CiEsar's  cause  was  more  popular  than 
that  of  Ponipey.  Ca'sar,  at  any  rate,  has  but  little 
difficulty  with  Varro.  The  Pompeian  officer  is 
desertecl  by  his  legions,  and  gives  himself  up  very 
quickly.  Ciesar  does  not  care  to  tell  us  what  he  did 
with  Varro,  but  we  know  that  he  treated  his  brotlier 
Roman  with  the  utmost  courtesy.  Varro  was  a 
very  learned  man,  and  a  friend  of  Cicero's,  and  one 
who  wrote  books,  and  was  a  credit  to  Rome  as  a 
man  of  letters  if  not  as  a  General.  We  are  told  that 
he  wrote  490  volumes,  and  that  he  lived  to  be 
eighty-eight — a  fate  very  uncommon  with  Romans 
wiio  meddled  with  jiublic  iiffairs  in  these  diiys. 
Ciesar  made  everything  smooth  in  the  south  of 
Spain,  restoring  the  money  and  treasures  which 
Varro  had  taken  from  the  towns,  and  giving  thanks 
to  everybody.  Then  he  went  on  over  the  Pyrenees 
to  Marseilles,  and  maile  things  smooth  there. 

But  in  the  mean  time  things  were  not  at  all  smootll 
in  Africa.  The  iiiime  of  Africa  was  at  this  time  giv- 
en to  a  small  province  belonging  to  the  Republic,  ly- 
ing to  the  east  of  Nnmidia,  in  which  Carthage  had 
stood  when  Carthiige  was  a  city,  containing  that  pro- 
montory which  juts  out  toward  Sicily,  and  having 
Utica  as  its  Roman  capital.  It  has  been  already 
said  that  when  Ciesar  determined  to  gain  possession 
of  certain  provinces  of  the  Republic  before  he  fol- 
lowed Pompej'  across  the  Adriiitic,  he  sent  a  Lieuten- 
ant with  three  legions  into  Sicily,  desiring  him  to  go 
on  to  Africa  as  soon  as  things  should  have  been  ar- 
ranged in  the  i.sland  after  the  Csesarean fashion.  The 
Sicilian  nnitter  is  not  very  troublesome,  as  Cato,  the 
virtuous  man,  in  whose  hands  the  government  of  the 
island  had  been  intrusted  on  liehalf  of  the  Republic, 
leaves  it  on  the  arrival  of  the  Ciesarean  legions,  com- 
plaining bitterly  of  Pompev's  conduct.  Then  CiV- 
sar's  Lieutenant  goesover  to  Africa  with  two  legions, 
as  commanded,  proposing  to  his  army  the  expulsion 
of  one  Attius  Varus,  who  had,  according  to  Cicsar's 
story,  taken  irregular  possession  of  the  province, 
keeping  it  on  behalf  of  Ponipey,  liut  not  allowing 
the  Governor  appointed  by  the  Repulilic  so  much  as 
to  put  his  foot  on  the  .shore.  This  Lieutenant  was  a 
greiit  favt)rite  of  Ciesar,  by  naiue  Curio,  who  had 
been  elected  Tribune  of  the  people  just  when  the  Sen- 
ate was  making  its  attempt  to  recall  Ciesar  from  his 
command  in  Gaul.  In  that  emergency, Curio  as  Tri- 
bune bad  been  of  service  to  Ctesar,  and  Ctesar  loved 
the  young  man.  He  was  one  of  tlio.se  who,  though 
noble  by  birtli.  hiid  flung  themselves  among  the  peo- 
ple, as  Catiline  hiid  done  and  Clodius, — unsteady, 
turbulent,  unseruiiulmis.  vicious,  needy,  fond  of 
pleasure,  riipiicinus.  but  well  educiilcii,  bnive  and 
clever.  Ciesar  liimself  hiid  been  such  a  man  in  his 
j'outh.  and  could  easily  forgive  such  faults  in  the 
character  of  one  who,  in  addition  to  such  virtues  as 
have  been  named,  possessed  that  farther  and  great- 
er virtue  of  loving  Ca>sar.  Cicsiir  expected  great 
tilings  fi'iim  Curio,  and  trusted  him  thoroughly.  Cur- 
io, with  niiiiiy  ships  iiinl  his  two  legions,  hinds  ill  Af- 
ricii,  and  prepares  to  win  the  province  for  his  great 
friend.  lie  does  obtain  some  littli'  advantage,  so 
thiit  he  is  called  ••Iniperator"  by  his  soldiers, — a 
name  not  given  to  a  General  till  he  has  been  victor- 
ious in  the  field ;  but  it  seems  clear,  from  Ciesar's 
telling  of  the  story,  tliiit  Curio's  own  officers  and 
own  soldiers  distrusted  liiin,  and  were  doublfiil 
whi'lher  they  would  follow  him,  or  would  taUe  pos- 
session of  the  ships  iiiid  return  to  Sicily  ;  —or  would 
go  over  to  . Villus  \iinis,  who  h;id  been  their  Com- 
inaiider  ill  Italy  before  Ihev  hiid  deserleil  from  I'oni- 


ROMAN  LEGIONS. 


7(1 


ROMAN  LEGIONS 


pey  (()  Cii'siir.  A  foiinnil  of  wur  is  held,  and  lliiTC 
IS  iimcli  iloiiM.  It  is  not  only  or  cliiclly  of  Atliiis 
Varus  lliclr  Uoniaii  cnrniy,  Hull  lliry  an-  afraid: 
but  tlirrc  is  .lulia  iu  llicir  iici^jrljliorliood,  the  Itirij;  of 
Numidia,  who  will  ccrtaiidy  tii;lil  for  N'ariis  and  a- 
gaiiisl  Curio.  IIi'  is  I'oinpc  y's  dcilarccl  friend,  and 
i'(lMally  declared  as  (lesar's  foe.  lie  lias,  loo, special 
grounds  of  (luiirre!  ai;ainst  Curio  liiniself ;  and  if  lie 
comes  in  person  with  his  army,-  lirini;ini;  such  an 
army  as  he  can  lirinj;  if  he  pleases, — it  will  certainly 
.  go  badly  with  Curio,  should  Curio  be  distanl  from 
'  his  earn]).  Tiu'ii  Curio,  not  content  with  his  cipiineil 
of  war.  and  iinxious  that  his  soldiers  should  support 
him  ill  his  desire  to  liuhl,  makes  a  speech  to  the  le- 
gionaries. We  must  reniember.  of  <'oiirse,  that  Ciu- 
Hiir  gives  us  the  words  of  this  spe<'cli,  and  that 
CsBsar  must  himself  have  put  the  words  together. 

It  is  begmi  in  the  third  person.  He,— that  is  Curio, 
— t(01s  the  null  how  ii.seful  they  were  to  Ca'sar  at 
Cortiiiium,  the  town  at  which  tiiey  went  over  from 
Pcmipey  to  Ca'sar.  Hut  in  the  second  Hentence  he 
breaks  into  the  lirsl  person  and  puts  the  very  words 
into  Curio's  iiioutb.  ••  Kor  you  and  your  services," 
ho  says,  "were  copied  liy  all  the  towns;  nor  is  it 
without  cause  that  Ca'sar  thinks  kindly  of  yon,  and 
th  '  I'ompeians  unkindly.  For  I'onipey,  having  lost 
no  battle,  but  driven  by  the  result  of  your  deed,  lied 
from  Italy.  Me.  whom  Ca-sar  holds  most  dear,  and 
Sifiily  and  Africa  without  which  hecannol  hold  Uotiie 
and  Italy,  Ca'sarhas  intrusted  to  your  honor.  There 
are  some  who  advise  you  to  ilesiTt  me,  for  what 
can  be  more  desirabh-  to  such  men  than  that  they  at 
the  same  time  should  circumvent  me, and  fasten  upon 
you  a  foul  Clinic  ?  ....  Hut  you, — have  you 
not  lieard  of  the  things  done  by  Ca'sar  in  Spain, 
two  armies  beaten. two  ttenerals  conipiered.  two  )>ro- 
vinces  gained,  and  all  tliis  done  in  forty  days  from 
that  on  which  Ca'sar  lirst  saw  his  eiH'Uiy  /  Can  those 
who,  uninjured,  were  unable  to  stand  against  him. 
resist  him  ninv  when  they  are  coiupiered  ?  And  you, 
who  followed  Ca'sar  when  victory  on  his  side  was 
uncertain,  now  that  fortune  lias  declared  herself,will 
you  go  over  to  the  ccmquered  side  when  you  are 
about  to  realize  the  reward  of  your  zeal  y  .  .  .  . 
But,  perhaps  I  hough  you  love  Ca'sar,  you  distrust  me. 
I  will  not  say  much  of  my  own  deserts  towards  yon, 
—which  are  iiiileed  U'ss  as  yet  than  I  had  wislied  or 
you  had  expected."  Then,  iiaving  thus  declared  that 
he  will  not  speak  of  himself,  he  does  venture  to  say 
a  few  words  on  the  subject.  "But  why  should  I 
pass  ovcrmy  own  work,  and  the  result  that  has  been 
as  yet  achieved,  and  my  own  fortune  in  war?  Is  it 
displeasing  to  you  that  I  brought  over  the  whole  ar- 
my, safe,  without  losing  a  ship?  That,  as  I  came,  at 
my  tirst  ouslauglit,  1  should  have  dispersed  the  licet 
of  the  enemy  ?  That,  in  two  days,  I  should  have 
been  twice  viclorious  with  my  cavalry  :  that  I  should 
have  cut  out  two  hundred  transports  from  the  ene- 
my's harbor;  Unit  I  should  have  so  haras.sed  the  ene- 
my that  neither  by  hind  nor  sea  could  they  get  food  to 
supply  their  w;iiits/  Will  it  please  you  "to  repudiate 
such  fortune  ;inil  such  guidance,  and  to  connect 
yourself  with  tlie  ilisgrace  at  Cortiniiini.  the  tliglil 
from  Italy,"  iiiimely,  Pompey's  flight  to  Dyrrach- 
ium, — ■■  the  siirremierof  Spain,  an<l  the  evils  of  this 
African  war?  I  indeed  havewisheil  to  be  called  Ca-- 
.sar's  soldier,  and  you  have  called  me  your  Imperator. 
If  it  repents  you  of  having  done  so,  I  give  you  back 
the  compliment,  (iive  me  back  my  own  name,  lest 
it  seem  that  in  scorn  you  have  called  me  by  tliat  title 
of  honor."  This  is  very  spirited  ;  and  the  merely  rhe- 
torical assertion  by  C;esar  tli;it  Curio  thus  spoke  to 
his  soldiers  is  in  itself  interesting,  as  showimr  us  the 
way  111  which  the  legionaries  were  treated  by  their 
Commanders,  and  in  which  the  greatest  General,  of 
that  or  of  any  age.  thought  it  natural  tlnil  a  leader 
should  address  his  troops.  It  is  of  value,  also,  as 
showiui;  the  ditliculty  of  keeping  any  legion  true  to 
either  side  in  ;i  civil  w:ir,  in  which,  on  either  siile. 
the  men  must  tight  for  a  Commander  thev  had  learned 


to  respi'ct,  and  iigaiiisl  aCominander  Ihi'y  respecK-d, 

the  Commander  in  each  caw  being  a  Roman  Im- 
perator. Curio,  too,  as  we  know,  was  a  man  who 
on  such  jin  occasion  would  use  words.  Hut  that  In- 
used  till'  words  here  put  into  his  mouth,  orany  w.ird« 
like  them,  is  very  improbable.  (  ii'sar  was  an.vloiiH 
to  make  the  bisl  apology  he  coiihl  for  the  gallant 
young  friend  who  had  perished  in  his  cause,  ami  has 
Khown  his  love  by  makiiii;  tin-  man  he  loverl  memor- 
able to  all  posterity. 

Hut  before  the  dark  hour  eoiiies  upon  him  tlir 
young  man  has  a  gleam  of  success,  which  hail  he 
really  spoken  the  words  put  into  his  moiilli  by  Ciesar, 
would  have  si-emed  to  justify  them.  He  attacks  the 
army  of  his  fellow -Konian,  \arus,  and  beats  it,  driv- 
ing it  bark  into  I'tica.  lie  then  resolves  to  besiege 
the  town, and  Ciesar  implies  that  he  would  have  been 
successful  through  tlieCa'sarean  sympathies  of  the 
townsmen,-  had  it  not  been  for  the  apiiroach  of  the 
terrible  .Jiiba.  Then  comes  a  rumor  which  reaches 
Curio,  :inil  which  reaches  \ariis  loo  inside  the 
town,  that  the  Numidian  King  is  hurrying  to  the 
scene  with  all  his  forces.  IIi'  has  tinisheil  another 
atTair  that  he  had  on  hand,  and  can  now  look  to  his 
Homan  friends,-  and  to  his  Homaii  enemies.  .Iiiba 
craftily  sends  forward  his  I'ra-feet,  or  Lieutenant, 
Sabura,  with  a  small  force  of  cavalry,  and  Curio  is 
led  to  imagine  that  .liiba  has  not  come,  and  that 
Sabura  has  been  sent  with  scanty  aid  to  the  relief  of 
Varus.  Surely  he  can  give  a  good  account  of  Sabura 
and  tlnil  small  body  of  Numidian  horsemen.  We 
see  from  the  very  hrst  that  Curio  is  doomed.  Ciesar, 
in  a  few  touching  words,  makes  his  apolegy.  "The 
young  man's  youth  had  much  to  do  with  it,  and  his 
high  spirit  ;  his  former  success  too,  and  his  own 
faith  in  his  own  gooii  fortune."  There  is  no  word 
of  reproach.  Curio  makes  another  speech  to  his 
soldiers.  "Hasten  to  your  jirey."  he  says,  "hasten 
to  your  glory!"  They  do  hasten. — after  such  a 
fashion  that  when  the  foremost  of  them  reached 
Sabura's  troops, the  hiudermost  of  them  are  scattered 
far  back  on  the  road.  They  are  cut  to  pieces  by 
Julia.  Curio  is  invited  by  one  of  his  officers  to  es- 
cape back  to  his  tent.  Hut  Cu'sar  tells  us  that  Curio 
in  that  last  moment  replied  that  having  lost  th« 
army  with  which  Ca'sar  had  trusteii  him,  he  would 
never  again  look  Casar  in  the  face.  That  he  did 
say  some  such  words  as  these,  and  that  they  were 
repeated  by  that  ollicer  to  Ca'sar,  is  probable  enough. 
"  So  tigliting  he  is  slain  :"— and  there  is  an  end  of 
the  man  whom  Ciesar  loved. 

What  then  li;ippeued  was  very  sad  for  a  Roman 
army.  Many  hurry  down  to  the  ships  at  the  sea  ; 
but  there  is  so  uuicii  terror,  so  iiiucli  confusion,  and 
things  are  so  badly  done,  that  but  very  few  get  over 
to  Sicily.  The  remainder  endeavor  to  give  diem- 
selves  up  to  Varus  ;  after  doing  which,  could  they 
have  done  it, their  position  would  not  have  been  very 
bad.  A  Homan  surrendering  to  a  Roman  would,  at 
the  worst,  but  tind  that  he  was  compelled  to  change 
his  party.  Hut  .luba  conies  up  and  claims  them  as 
his  prey",  and  Varus  does  not  dare  to  oppose  the  bar- 
b;irian  king.  .luba  kills  the  most  of  them,  but  sends 
a  few,  whom  he  thinks  may  serve  his  purpose  and 
add  to  his  glory. b:ick  to  his  own  kingdom.  In  doing 
which  Jubii  bi'iiaved  no  worse  than  Ciesar  habitually 
behaved  in  Gaul;  but  Civsar  always  writes  as  though 
not  <mly  a  Homan  must  regard  a  Roman  as  more 
than  a  man,  but  as  though  also  all  others  must  so 
reirard  Honians.  .\nd  by  making  such  assertions  in 
thiir  own  lichalf,  Honians  were  so  regarded.  We 
are  then  told  that  the  barbarian  Kingof  rsumidia  rode 
into  I'tica  triumphant,  wilii  Roman  senators  in  his 
train  ;  and  the  names  of  two  sjiecial  Roman  Senators 
Ciesar  sends  down  to  posterity  as  having  been  among 
that  base  number.  As  far  as  we  can  spare  them, 
they  shall  be  spared. 

("ii'sar  besrins  the  last  book  of  his  last  Commentary 
by  telling  us  that  this  was  the  year  in  which  he(Ca"- 
s;"ir   was  by  the  law  permitted  to  name  a  Consul.     He 


BOHAN  LEGIOirS. 


764 


BOMAN  LEGIONS. 


names  Publius  Servilius  to  act  in  conjunction  with 
himself.  Tlie  ineauing  of  this  is,  that,  as  Csesar 
had  been  crtatefl  Dictator.  Pompcy  liaving  taken 
witli  him  into  Illyria  the  Consuls  of  the  previous 
year,  Ca?sar  was  now  the  only  magistrate  under 
whose  authority  a  Consul  could  be  elected.  No  doubt 
he  did  choose  the  man.  but  the  election  was  supposed 
to  have  been  made  in  accordance  with  the  form  of 
the  Republic.  lie  remained  at  Rome  as  Dictator  for 
eleven  days,  during  which  he  made  various  laws,  of 
which  the  chief  object  was  to  lessen  the  insecurity 
caused  bj'  the  disruption  of  the  ordinary  course  of 
things;  and  then  he  went  down  to  Brindisi  on  the 
track  nf  Ponipey.  He  had  twelve  legions  with  him,  I 
but  he  was  badly  off  for  ships  in  which  to  transport  1 
them:  and  hoownsthat  the  healtli  oftliemen  is  bad, 
an  autumn  in  the  south  of  Italy  having  been  severe 
on  men  accustomed  to  the  healthy  climate  of  Gaid  and 
the  north  of  Spain.  Pompey,  he  tells  us,  had  had  a 
whole  year  to  prepare  his  army. — a  whole  year, 
without  warfare,  and  had  collected  men  and  sliips  : 
and  money,  and  all  that  support  which  assent  gives,  ; 
from  Asia  and  the  Cyclades,  from  Corcyra,  Athens, 
Bitliynia,  Cilicia,  PhaMiicia,  Egypt,  and  the  free 
states  of  Achaia.  He  had  with  him  nine  Roman 
legions,  and  is  expecting  two  more  with  his  father- 
in-law  Scipio  out  of  Syria.  He  has  three  thousand  i 
archers  from  Crete,  from  Sparta,  and  from  Pontus;  ' 
he  has  twelve  hundred  slingers,  and  he  has  seven 
thousand  cavalry  from  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  and 
Thrace.  A  valorous  Prince  from  Macedonia  had 
brought  him  two  hundred  men,  all  moimted.  Five 
hundred  of  Galatian  and  German  cavalry,  who  had 
been  left  to  overawe  Ptolemy  in  Eg_ypt,  are  brought 
to  Pompey  by  the  filial  care  of  yoimg  Cnicus.  lie 
too  had  armed  eight  hundred  of  their  own  family 
retainers,  and  had  brought  them  armed.  Autiochus 
of  Commagena  sends  liim  two  luindred  moimted 
archers, — mercenaries,  however,  not  sent  without 
promise  of  high  payment.  Dardaui, — men  from  the 
land  of  old  Troy,  Bessi,  from  the  banks  of  the  lle- 
brus,  Thessaliaus  and  Macedonians,  have  all  been 
crowded  together  under  Pompey's  standard.  We 
feel  that  Ca'sar's  mouth  waters  as  he  recounts  them. 
But  we  feel  also  that  he  is  preparing  for  the  triumpli- 
ant  record  in  which  he  is  aljout  to  tell  us  that  all 
these  swarms  diil  he  scatter  to  the  winds  of  heaven 
with  the  handful  of  Roman  legionaries  which  he  at 
last  succeeded  in  landing  on  the  shores  of  Illyria. 
Pompey  has  also  collected  from  all  parts  ■'  frumenti 
vim  maximam" — "a  great  power  of  corn  indeed."  as 
an  Irishman  would  say,  translating  the  words  lite- 
rally. And  he  has  covered  the  seas  with  his  ships, 
so  as  to  hinder  Cajsar  from  coming  out  of  Italy.  He 
has  eight  Vice-admirals  to  command  his  various 
fleets, — allot  whom  Ciesar  names;  and  overthem  all 
as  Admiral-in-Chief,  is  Bibulus.who  was  joint-consul 
with  CiEsar  before  C;esar  went  to  (Taul,  and  who 
was  so  harassed  during  his  Consulship  by  the  Ca^sar- 
eans  that  he  shut  himself  up  in  his  house,  and  allowed 
Ciusar  to  rule  as  sole  Consul.  Now  he  is  about  to 
take  his  revenge  ;  but  the  vengeance  of  such  an  one 
as  Bibulus  <;annot  reach  Ciesar. 

(';esar  having  led  his  legions  to  Brindisi,  makes 
tliem  a  speech  which  alnmsl  beats  in  impudence 
anything  that  he  ever  s;iid  or  did.  lie  tells  them  that 
as  they  have  now  nearl_y  finished  all  bis  work  for  him, 
— they  have  only  yet  to  lay  low  the  Republic  with 
Pompey  the  Great,  and  all  the  forces  of  tlie  Ki'])Mb- 
lic  —  to  which,  however,  have  to  be  adde(l  King 
Ptolemy  in  Egyjit,  King  Pliarnaces  in  Asia,  luid 
King  Juba  ill  Numidia;  they  had  better  leave  be- 
hind them  at  lirindisi  all  their  liltle  iirojierty,  the 
spoils  of  former  wars,  so  lli;it  tliey  may  jiack  the 
tighter  in  the  boats  in  which  he  means  to  seiel  them 
across  to  Illyria,— if  only  they  can  es<-ape  the  nier- 
oies  of  ex-Consul  Admiral  Bibulus.  There  is  no 
suggestion  that  at  any  future  lime  they  will  receiver 
their  jiroperty.  For  their  future  hopes  tln^y  are  to 
trust  entirely  to  (.;a;sar'H  gi'iierosity.   Willi  (iiie  shout 


they  declare  their  readiness  to  obey  him.  He  takes 
over  seven  legions,  escaping  the  dangers  of  those 
"rocks  of  evil  fame,"  the  Acroceraunia  of  which 
Horace  tells  us. — and  escaping  Bibulus  also,  who 
seems  to  have  shut  himself  up  in  his  ship  as  he  did 
before  in  his  house  during  the  Consulship.  Caesar 
seems  to  have  made  the  passage  with  the  conviction 
that  had  he  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Bibulus  every- 
thing would  have  been  lost.  And  with  ordinary 
precaution  and  diligence  im  the  part  of  Bibulus  such 
would  have  been  eventually  the  result.  Yet  he 
makes  the  attempt — trusting  to  the  Fortune  of  Ca;sar 
— and  he  succeeds.  He  lands  at  a  jilace  which  he 
I  calls  Palieste  on  the  coast  of  Epirus,  considerably  to 
1  the  south  of  Dyrrachium,  in  Ill_\Tia.  AtDyrrachium 
Pompey  had  landed  the  3ear  before,  and  there  is  now 
stored  that  wealth  of  ])rovision  of  which  Ca?sar  has 
spoken.  But  Bibulus  at  last  determines  to  be  active, 
and  he  does  manage  to  fall  upon  the  empty  vessels 
which  Ciesar  sends  back  to  fetch  the  remainder  of 
:  his  army.  "  Having  come  upon  thirty  of  them,  he 
;  falls  upon  them  with  all  the  wrath  occasioned  by  his 
own  want  of  circumspection  and  grief,  and  burns 
them.  And  in  the  same  tire  he  kills  the  sailors  and 
the  masters  of  the  vessels — hoping  to  deter  others." 
Ca'sar  tells  us,  "  bj'  the  severity  of  the  punishment." 
\  After  that  we  are  not  sorry  to  hear  that  he  potters 
■  about  on  the  seas  very  busy,  but  still  incapable,  and 
that  he  dies,  as  it  seems,  of  a  broken  heart.  He  does 
indeed,  catch  one  ship  afterwards — not  laden  with  sol- 
diers,  but  coming  on  a  private  venture,  with  child- 
ren, servants,  and  suchlike,  dependants  and  follow- 
ers of  Ciesar's  camp.  All  these,  including  the  child- 
ren. Bibulus  slaughters,  down  to  the  smallest  child. 
We  have,  however,  to  remember  that  the  story  is 
told  b}'  C'fBsar.  and  that  Caesar  did  not  love  Bibulus. 
Marc  Antony  has  been  left  at  Brindisi  in  command 
of  the  legions  which  C;esar  could  not  bring  across  at 
his  first  trip  for  want  of  sufficient  ship-room,  and  is 
pressed  very  miich  by  Caesar  to  make  the  passage. 
There  are  attempts  at  treaties  made,  but  as  we  read 
the  account  we  feel  that  Caesar  is  only  obtaining  the 
delay  which  is  necessary  to  him  till  he  shall  have 
been  joined  by  Antony.  We  are  told  how  by  this 
time  the  camps  of  Ca'sar  and  Pompey  have  been 
brought  so  near  together  that  they  are  separated  only 
by  the  River  Apsus — for  Caesar  had  moved  north- 
wards towards  Pompey's  stronghold.  And  the  sol- 
diers talked  together  across  the  stream:  "nor,  the 
while,  was  any  weapon  thrown — by  compact  between 
those  who  talked."  Then  Civsar  sends  Vatiuius,  as  his 
ambassador,  down  to  the  river  to  talk  of  peace ;  and 
Vatiuius  demands  with  a  loud  voice  "whether  it 
should  not  be  allowed  to  citizens  to  send  legates  to  citi- 
zens, to  treat  of  ]ieace-  a  thing  that  has  been  allowed 
even  to  deserters  from  the  wilds  of  the  Pyrenees  and  to 
robbers — especially  with  so  excellent  an  object  as  to 
hinder  citizens  from  fighting  with  citizens."  This 
seems  so  reasonable,  that  a  da_v  is  named,  and  Labi- 
entis— who  has  deserted  from  tVesar  and  become 
Pompeian — comes  to  treat  on  one  side  of  the  river, 
and  Vatiuius  on  the  other.  But — so  Cicsar  tells  the 
story  himself— the  Caesarean  soldiers  throw  their 
wj'apons  at  their  old  General.  They  probably  cannot 
endure  the  voice  iir  sightof  one  whom  they  regard  as 
a  reni'gade.  Eabienus  escapes  under  the  protection 
of  those  who  are  with  him — but  he  is  full  of  wrath 
against  Cjvsar.  "After  this,"  sa}'s  lie,  "  let  us  cease  to 
speak  of  treaties,  for  there  can  be  no  peace  for  us  till 
f'a'sar's  head  has  been  brought  to  us."  But  the  col- 
loquies over  the  little  stream  no  doubt  answered  Cie- 
sar's  purpose. 

Ca'sar  is  very  anxious  to  get  his  legions  over  from 
Italy .  and  even  scolds  Aiitcmy  for  not  liringiiig  llieiii. 
There  is  a  story-  whi<'h  heddcsiKil  tell  himself  -  Ihat 
he  put  himself  into  a  small  boat.  inti'Uding  to  <-ross 
over  to  Briedisi  in  astorm,  to  hurry  in;itters,  and  that 
he  encouraged  llie  awestruck  master  of  the  boatby  re- 
minding him  that  he  would  carry  "  Ca'sar  anil  his 
fortunes."     Thi'  stnrv  goes  on  to  sav  that  the  sailors 


BOHAN  LEGIONS. 


I  D.) 


ROMAN  LEGIONS. 


altoiiiptcd  tlur  trip,  liul  wen-  driven  Imck  hy  llir  li-m- 
pi'Sl.  Al  liisl  llicn'  spriiifjH  up  u  hoiiIIi  vvIikI,  mill  An- 
tony veiil.urcs  with  iiis  lloliUii,  iilllii)M';li  the  war- 
Hliip-i  of  I'oinpcy  Htill  llolil  llii'  hiu,  and  (jiiiird  tlic  II- 
Ivrian  coast.  Uiil  Cn'sar's  (Icncral  is  hNccis>fid,  and 
llic  second  liall  of  I  he  Ca'sarean  army  iscarrieil  norlli- 
ward  tiy  favoririij  hree/es  towards  Ihc  shore  in  the 
very  si;;lit  of  I'onipey  and  liis  soldiers  al  Dyrrachinin. 
Two  ships,  however,  laj;  hehind.  and  fall  into  the 
hands  of  one  Olacilius,  an  olUcer  hejonjtini;  to  I'oin- 
pcy. 'I'lic  two  ships,  one  full  of  recruits  and  the  other 
of  veterans. auree  to  surrender, ( )tacilius  liavinj;  sworn 
Ilia!  he  will  not  hurt  tiie  men.  "  lli-rc  you  may  hoc," 
nays  Caesar,  "how  much  safely  to  men  there  is  in 
presence  of  mind."  The  recruits  do  as  they  have  un- 
dertaken, and  ;,'ive  themselves  U|) ;  w  lieriMipon  Ota.- 
«:ilius,  alto;retlK'r  (lisre;;ardiiin  his  oath,  like  a  true 
Konian,  kills  every  man  of  them.  Hut  the  veterans, 
(lisreuardini;  I  heir  word  also,  and  kni>wini;  no  doubt 
to  a  fraction  the  worth  of  the  word  of  ()la<ilius,  run 
their  shii)  ashore  in  the  niirht,  and,  willi  much  ti^lit- 
inLT.  i;et  safe  to  Antony.  ( 'a'sar  implies  that  the  re- 
cruits I'vcn  would  have  known  belter  had  they  not 
been  sea-sick :  liul  that  even  bili;e-water  and  bad 
weather  combined  had  faili'd  to  touch  the  ancient 
courage  of  the  veteran  legionaries.  They  were  still 
jjnod  men — "  item  conlli<tali  et  tempestatis  ft  senti- 
iiH-  viliis." 

We  are  then  told  liow  Mclflliis Scipio,  coming  out 
of  Syria  with  his  legions  into  Macedonia  almost  suc- 
■  ceeds  in  robbiiii;  the  temple  of  Diana  of  Kphesus  on 
his  way.  lie  ,i;ets  t<]i;elher  a  body  of  Senators,  wdio 
arc  to  give  evidence  that  he  counts  the  money  fairly 
as  hi!  takes  it  out  of  the  temiJe.  Hut  letters  come 
from  Pompey  just  as  he  is  in  the  act,  and  he  does 
not  dare  to  delay  his  journey  even  to  complete  so 
pleasant  a  transaction.  He  comes  to  iiieel  I'omjjey 
and  to  share  his  command  at  th<'  i;r<'at  battle  that 
must  soon  be  fouiiht.  We  hear.  loo.  how  (Jiesar 
sends  his  l.ieulenanls  into  Thessaly  and  -Ktolia  and 
Macedonia,  to  try  what  friends  he  has  there,  to  lake 
cities,  and  to  get  food.  He  is  now  in  a  land  which 
lias  seemed  specially  to  belong  to  Poni])ey;  but  even 
here  they  have  heard  of  Ca'sar,  and  the  Gre<'ks  arc 
simply  an.vious  to  be  friends  with  the  strongest  Uo- 
man  of  Ihc  day.  They  have  to  jud!:e  which  will  win, 
and  to  ailliere  to  him.  For  the  poor  (reeks  there  is 
miK'h  dilliculty  in  forming  a  judgment.  Pri'seutly 
we  shall  see  the  way  in  »  hich  (';esar  gives  a  lesson 
on  that  subject  to  the  citizens  of  Goinphi.  In  the 
mean  lime  he  joins  his  own  forces  to  those  lately 
brought  by  Antony  out  of  Italy,  and  resolves  that  he 
will  force  Pompey  to  a  tight. 

We  may  divide  the  remainder  of  his  last  book  of 
the  second  Commentary  into  two  episodes. — the  first 
beinii  tlie  story  of  what  occurreil  within  the  lines  at 
P(^lra.  and  the  se<i)nd  the  account  of  the  crowning 
battle  of  Phar.salia.  In  the  first  Pompey  was  the  vic- 
tor,— but  the  victory,  great  as  il  was,  has  won  from 
the  world  very  little  notice.  In  the  second,  as  all 
the  world  knows,  Ca'sar  was  triumphant  and  hence- 
forward dominant.  And  yet  Ihe  alTairal  Petra  should 
have  made  a  Pharsalia  unnecessary,  and  indei'd  im- 
possil)le.  Two  reasons  have  conspired  to  make  Pom- 
pey's  complete  success  at  Peira  unimportant  in  the 
world's  esteem.  This  Commentary  was  written  not 
by  Pompey.  but  by  Ca'sar;  and,  then,  unfortunately 
for  Pompey.  Pharsalia  was  allowed  to  follow  Petra. 
It  is  not  very  easy  to  unravel  Caesar's  story  of  the 
doinirs  of  the  two"  armies  at  Petra.  Nor.  were  this 
ever  so  casv  a  task,  would  our  limits  or  Ihe  purport  of 
this  volunie  allow  us  to  al  tempt  to  give  that  narra- 
tive in  full  to  our  readers.  (  ;esar  had  managed  to 
join  the  legions  which  he  had  himself  brought  from 
Italy  with  those  which  had  crossed  afterwards  with 
Antony,  and  was  now  anxious  for  a  battle.  His  men. 
thouiiii  fewer  in  number  than  they  who 'followed 
Pompey. were  lit  for  tighting.  and  knew  all  the  work 
of  soldierlUiT.  Pompi-y's  men  were  for  the  most  part 
beginners;  — but  Ihey  were  learning,  and  every  week 


added  to  their  expr-rii'iiite  was  a  wei-k  in  l'oni|>i;y'« 
favor.  With  hope  of  forcing  a  battle,  Ciesur  inuiiuf;- 
ed  to  get  his  army  between  Dyrrachiuni,  in  which 
were  kept  all  Poinpey's  stores  and  wealth  of  war.and 
the  army  of  his  opponent, so  that  Pompey. as  regard- 
1(1  any  :ipproach  by  land  was  shut  off  from  iJyrra- 
<:hium.  IJiit  the  sea  was  open  to  him.  His  fleet  was 
everywhere  on  the  coast,  while  Ciesar  had  not  a  ship 
that  could  dare  to  show  its  bow  upon  the  waters. 

There  was  a  sleep  rocky  promontory  some  few 
miles  north  >)f  Dyrriichiiim,  from  wdienc<!  there  was 
easy  access  to  the  sea,  c:dled  I'etra,  or  Ihe  rock.  At 
this  point  Pompey  could  touch  Ihe  sea.  but  l)itwecii 
Petra  and  Dyrraciiiiini  Ciesarheld  Ihe  country.  Here, 
on  this  rock,  taking  in  for  the  use  of  his  army  a  cer- 
tain somewhat  w  ide  ainoiint  of  pasturage  at  the  foot 
of  the  rock,  l'om|)ey  placed  his  army,  and  made  in- 
trenchmcnlsall  round  from  sea  to  sea, fortifying  him- 
self as  all  Homan  (ieni-rals  knew  how  to  do,  with  u 
bank  and  ililcli  and  twenty-four  turrets  and  earth- 
works tlnil  would  make  the  place  absolutely  impreir- 
nable.  Tli<-  length  of  his  linis  was  (ifleen  Koinan 
miles, —  moretlain  thirteen  Knglish  miles,  -  so  that 
within  his  works  he  might  have  as  much  space  an 
possible  to  give  him  grass  for  his  horses.  So  placed, 
he  had  all  tiie  world  al  his  back  to  feed  him.  Not 
only  could  he  get  at  that  wealth  of  stores  which  be 
had  amassed  at  Dyrrachium.  and  wliirh  were  safe 
from  CiCsar,  but  the  coasts  of  (Greece,  and  Asia,  and 
Egvpl  were  open  to  bis  ships.  Two  things  only  were 
wanting  to  him.—sullicient  grass  for  his  horses,  and 
water.  The  lllyrian  country  at  his  back  was  one  so 
unproductive, being  rough  and  mountainous. that  the 
inlndiitants  tliem.selves  were  in  ordinary  times  fed 
upon  imported  corn.  And  Pompey,  foreseemg  some- 
thiiii;  of  what  might  happi'U.had  taken  care  to  emp- 
ty tiie  slore-houses  and  to  leave  the  town  behind 
liim  destitute  and  impoverished.  Nevertlieless  Cu;- 
s;ir.  Inivim:  got  the  body  of  his  enemy,  as  il  were, 
imprisoned  at  Petra.  was  delermineti  to  keep  big 
prisoner  fast.  So  round  and  in  fnmlof  Pompev'slines, 
he  also  m;ide  other  lines  from  sea  to  sea.  lie  began 
by  erectini:  turrets  and  placing  small  detachments  on 
the  little  hills  outside  Poinpey's  lines,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent his  enemy  from  getting  the  grass.  Then  he  join- 
ed these  towers  by  lines,  ami  in  this  way  surrouniled 
the  other  lines,  —  thinking  that  so  Pompey  would 
not  be  able  to  send  out  his  horsemen  for  forage;  and 
again,  that  the  horses  inside  at  Petrn  might  gradual- 
ly be  starved ;  and  again  "that  the  rei)Utation," — 
"  auctoritatem,"  — "  which  in  the  estimation  of  for- 
eisn  nations  belonged  chielly  to  Pompey  in  this  war. 
would  be  lessened  when  the  story  should  have  been 
told  over  the  world  that  Pompey  "had  been  besieged 
bv  Ciesar,  and  did  not  dare  to  tight." 

"We  are.  iierhaps,  too  much  disposed  to  think— 
'  reading  our  history   cursorily— that  Ca;sar  at  this 
I  time    "was     evervbody,     and     that     Pompey    was 
'  hardly  worthy  to"  be  his  foe.     Such  passages  in  the 
'  Commentary  "as  that  above  translated— they  are  not 
many,  but  a  few  suffice— show  that  this  idea  is  er- 
roneous.    Up  to  this  period  in  their  joint  courses 
Pompev  had  been  the  ;rreater  man  :  Ciesar  bad  done 
very  niuch.  but   Pompey  had  done  more— and  now 
he  had  on  his  side  almost  all  that  was  wealthy  and 
respectable  in   Rome.      He  led    the    Conservative 
parlv.  and  was  still  confident  that  be  bad  only  to 
bide  his  time,  and  that  Ca-sar  must  fall  before  bira. 
'  Ciesar  and  Cicsareaiis  were  to  bini  as  the  spirits  of 
the  devolution   were  in   France  to  Louis  XVI.,  to 
Charles  X..  and  to  I.ouis-Philippe.  before  they   had 
made  their  powers  credible  and  formidable  :  as  the 
Keform  Hill   and   Catholic   Emancipation  were   to 
such  men  iis  George  IV.  and  Lord  Eldon.  while  yet 
I  they  could  be  opposed  and  postponed.     It  was   im- 
pos"sible   to   Pompey  that  the  sweepings  of  Rome, 
.  even   with  Ciesar  and  Ctesar's  army  to  help  them, 
should  at  least  prevail  over  himself  and  over  the 
Roman  Senate.     "He  was  said  at  that  time."  we  are 
a"-aiu  uanslaliug  Ctesar's  words,  "to  have  declared 


ROMAN  LEGIONS. 


766 


ROKAN  LEGIONS. 


with  boasts  among  liis  owd  people,  that  he  would 
not  himself  deny  that  as  a  general  he  should  be  coa- 
sidered  worthless  if  Caesar's  legions  should  now  ex- 
tricate themselves  from  the  position  in  which  they 
had  rashly  entangled  themselves  without  very  great 
loss" — ••mdiimiiclHrimfiito" — loss  that  would  amount 
wellnigh  to  destruction.  And  he  was  all  but  right 
in  what  he  said.  There  was  a  great  deal  of  fighting 
for  the  plots  of  grass  and  different  bits  of  vantage- 
ground — fighting  which  nuist  have  taken  place  al- 
most between  the  two  lines.  But  Caesar  suffered 
under  this  disadvantage,  that  his  works,  being  much 
the  longest,  required  the  greatest  number  of  men  to 
erect  them  and  prolong  them  and  keep,  them  in 
order  :  whereas  Porapey,  who  in  this  respect  had 
the  least  to  do.  having  the  inner  line,  was  provided 
with  much  the  greater  number  of  men  to  do  it. 
Caesar's  men,  being  veterans,  had  always  the  ad- 
vantage in  the  actual  lighting;  but  in  the  mean 
time  Pompey's  untried  solders  were  obtaining  that 
experience  which  was  so  much  needed  b}'  them. 
Nevertheless  Pompej'  suffered  very  much.  They 
could  not  get  water  <m  the  rock,  and  when  he  at- 
tempted to  sink  wells,  C'lesar  so  perverted  the 
water-courses  that  the  wells  gave  no  water.  C;esar 
tells  us  that  he  even  dammed  up  the  streams,  mak- 
ing little  lakes  to  hold  it,  so  tliat  it  should  not  trickle 
down  in  its  undergroimd  courses  to  the  comfort  of 
his  enemies;  hut  vve  should  have  thought  that  anj' 
reservoirs  so  made  must  soon  have  overflown  them- 
selves, and  have  been  useless  for  the  intended  pur- 
pose. In  the  mean  time  Ca;siir's  men  had  no  bread 
but  wdiat  was  made  of  a  certain  wild  cabbage — 
■■chara" — whicli  grew  there,  which  they  kneaded  up 
with  milk,  and  lived  upon  it  cheerfufly,  though  it 
was  not  very  palatable.  To  show  the  Pompeians 
the  sort  of  fare  with  which  real  veterans  could  be 
content  to  break  their  fasts,  they  threw  loaves  of 
this  composition  across  the  lines,  for  they  were 
close  together  and  could  talk  to  each  other,  and  the  i 
Pompeians  did  not  hesitate  to  twit  their  enemies 
with  their  want  of  provisions.  But  the  Cesareans 
had  plenty  of  water— and  plent3'  of  meat :  and 
thej'  assure  Ca-sar  that  they  would  rather  eat  the 
bark  off  the  trees  than  allow  the  Pompeians  to 
escape  them. 

But  there  was  always  this  for  Cffisar  to  fear — that 
Pompey  shotdd  land  a  dctachtuent  behind  his  lines 
and  attack  him  at  the  hack.  To  lander  this  Caesar 
made  another  intreuchmeut,  with  ditch  and  bank, 
running  at  right  angles  from  the  shore,  and  was 
intending  to  join  this  to  his  main  work  by  a 
transverse  line  of  fortifications  running  along  that 
short  portion  of  the  coast  which  lay  between  his 
first  lines  and  the  second,  when  tliere  came  upcm 
him  the  disaster  which  nearly  destroyed  him. 
While  he  was  digging  his  trenches  and  building  his 
turrets  the  fighting  was  so  freq\u-nt  that,  as  Caesar 
tells  us,  on  one  day  there  were  six  battles.  Pompey 
lost  two  thousand  legionaries,  wliile  CiEsar  lost  no 
more  than  twenty  ;  but  every  Ca'sarean  engaged  in 
a  certain  turret  was  woundefl  ;  and  four  officers 
lost  their  eyes.  CiEsar  estimates  that  thirty  thous- 
and arrows'  were  thrown  upon  the  men  defending 
this  tower,  and  tells  us  of  one  Sca'va,  .'in  oHi<'cr,  who 
had  two  hundred  an<l  thirty  lioles  made  by  these 
arrows  in  his  own  shield.  We  can  onl}-  surmise 
that  it  must  have  been  a  very  big  sliield,  and  that 
there  must  have  been  nuich  trouble  in  counting  tlu/ 
holes.  Ca'sar,  however,  was  so  mucJi  pleased  that 
he  nave  Hcicva  a  large  sum  of  money-  something 
over  i'500,  and,  allowing  liim  to  skip  over  six  inter- 
mediate ranks,  made  him  at  once  first  centurion— or 
I'riiiiipilus  of  the  legion.  We  remember  no  other 
record  of  such  quick  promotion-  in  prose.  There 
is,  indeed,  the  well-known  case  of  a  common  sailor 
w.ho  did  a  gallant  action  aiul  was  made  First-Lieu- 
teuant  on  the  spot ;  but  that  is  told  in  ver.se,  and  I  lie 
common  sailor  was  a  lady. 

Two   perfidious  (lauls  to  whom   Ciesar  had  l)icn 


very  kind,  but  whom  he  had  been  obliged  to  check 
on  accmmt  of  certain  gross  pecidations  of  which 
they  had  been  guilt)-,  though,  as  he  tells  us,  he  had 
not  time  to  punish  them,  went  over  to  Pompey,  and 
told  Pompey  all  the  secrets  of  C'a'sar's  ditches,  and 
forts,  anil  mounds — finished  and  unfinished.  Before 
that,  Ca'sar  assures  us,  not  a  single  man  of  his  had 
gone  over  to  the  eneni}',  though  many  of  the  enemy 
had  come  to  him.  But  these  perfidious  Gauls  did  a 
world  of  mischief.  Pompey,  hearing  how  far  Ctesar 
was  from  having  his  works  along  the  sea-shore 
finished,  got  together  a  huge  fleet  of  boats,  and  suc- 
ceeded at  night  in  throwing  a  large  body  of  his  men 
ashore  between  Ca;sar's  two  lines,  thus  dividing 
Caesar's  two  forces,  and  coming  upon  them  in  their 
weakest  point.  Caesar  admits  that  there  was  a 
panic  in  his  lines,  and  that  the  slaughter  of  his  men 
was  very  great.  It  seems  that  the  very  size  of  his 
own  works  produced  the  ruin  wliich  befell  them,  for 
the  different  parts  of  them  were  divided  one  from 
another,  so  that  the  men  in  one  position  could  not 
succor  those  in  another.  The  affair  ended  in  the 
total  route  of  the  Csesarean  army.  Ca'sar  actually 
fled,  and  had  Pompey  followed  him  we  must  sup- 
pose that  then  there  must  be  an  eu'.l  of  Ca-sar.  He 
acknowledges  that  in  the  two  battles  fought  on  that 
day  he  lost  960  legionaries,  32  officers,  and  32 
standards.  And  then  Cai'sar  tefls  us  a  story  of 
Labienus,  who  had  been  his  most  trusted  Lieutenant 
in  the  Gallic  wars,  but  who  had  now  gone  over  to 
Pompey,  not  choosing  to  fight  against  the  Kepublic.  ' 
Labienus  demanded  of  Pompey  the  C'lcsarean 
captives,  and  caused  ♦hem  all  to  be  slaughtered, 
asking  them  with  scorn  whether  veterans  such  as 
they  were  accustomed  to  run  away.  Ca?sar  is  very 
angry  with  Labienus ;  but  Labienus  might  have  de- 
fended himself  by  saying  that  the  slaughter  of  pris- 
oners of  war  was  a  custom  he  had  learned  in  Gaul. 
As  for  those  words  of  scorn.  Cresar  could  hardly 
have  heard  them  with  his  own  ears,  and  we  can  un- 
derstand that  he  should  take  delight  in  saying  hard 
things  of  Labienus. 

Pompey  was  at  once  proclaimed  Imperator.  And 
Pompey  used  the  name,  though  the  victory  had,  alas! 
been  gained  over  his  own  fellow-countrymen.  "  So 
great  was  the  effect  of  all  this  on  the  spirits  and  con- 
fidence of  the  Pompeians,  that  they  thought  no  more 
of  the  carrying  on  of  the  war,  but  only  of  the  victory 
they  had  gained."  And  then  Caesar  throws  scorn 
upon  the  Pompeians.  making  his  own  apology  in  the 
same  words.  "They  did  not  care  to  remember  that 
the  small  number  of  our  soldiers  was  the  cause  of 
thei-r  trimnph.  or  that  the  uneveuuess  of  the  ground 
and  narrowness  of  the  defiles  had  anything  to  do 
with  it:  or  the  occupation  of  our  lines,  and  the  panic 
of  our  men  between  their  double  fortifications,  or 
our  army  cut  into  two  parts,  so  that  one  part  coidd 
not  help'the  other.  Nor  did  tliey  adil  to  Ihisthe  fact 
that  (jur  men,  pressed  as  they  wert,  could  not  en- 
gage themselves  in  a  fair  conflict,  and  that  they  in- 
deed suffered  more  from  their  own  numbers,  ami 
from  the  narrowness  of  the  ravines,  than  from  the 
enemy.  Nor  were  the  ordinary  chances  of  war 
brought  to  mind, — how  small  matters,  such  as  some 
unfoimiled  suspicion,  a  sudden  panic,  a  remendiered 
superslilion.  may  create  great  misfurlune;  nor  liow 
often  the  fault  of  a  General,  or  the  mistake  of  an  of- 
ficer may  liring  injury  upon  an  army.  But  they 
spread  allroad  the  report  of  the  vict<jry  of  that  day 
throughout  all  the  world,  sending  forth  letters  and 
tales  as  though  they  had  conquered  solely  by  their 
own  valor,  niir  was 'it  possible  Ihal  there  should  after 
this  be  a  reverse  of  llu'ir  circumstances."  Such  was 
the  alTair  of  P<'lra,  by  which  the  relative  position  in 
the  worUl-liislory  of'  Ca'sar  and  Pompey  was  very 
nearly  made  the  reverse  of  what  it  is. 

Ca-sar How  acknowledges  that  he  is  driven  to 
change  the  whole  ))lan  of  iiis  campaign.  lie  ad- 
dresses a  siieecli  to  his  nu-n,  and  exi)lains  lo  them 
Ihal  Ibis  defeat,  like   Ihal  of   Gergovia,  may  lead  to 


ROMAN  LEGIONS. 


7<i7 


ROHAN  LLGI0H8. 


Ilicir  fill  Nil-  succpss.  The  virtory  ill  Alfsiii  liiid 
»|iriiii;;  fmin  the  (Icfcul  of  (!iT(;i)viii.  Ih'Chumc  the 
(iiiuls  hull  been  iiKlucnl  Id  lii;lil;  iiiiil  fniiii  llic  rr- 
vcrscH  ciiiliircil  williiii  the  liiicH  of  I'clrii  iniL'lil  <'i)inc' 
III!'  siiiiic  fdrtunc;  fijr  suicly  now  liii'iiriiiy  of  I'otm- 
pcy  would  iiol  frar  a  Imlllc.  Sonic  few  ofllirrs  lie 
pimislii's  1111(1  ili'LTiidrs.  His  own  words  ri/spi'Clinj; 
ills  army  iiflcr  llirir  drfnil  lire  very  loiicliiuj;.  "  Ho 
i;rral  ii  ^rirf  hail  iiMiic  from  Ihis  disaster  iipnn  tlie 
whole  army,  and  soslronfia  desire  of  rei)airiiiu  ils 
disgrace,  thai  no  one  now  desired  the  plaee  of  Tri- 
laiiie  or  Cenlurion  in  his  lei;ion;  iiiid  all,  tiy  way  of 
self-imposed  piiiiislimenl.  siihjecled  Iheinselves  lo  iii- 
(•renseii  toil;  and  every  mall  liiirned  willi  a  desire  to 
light.  Some  from  llie  hii,dier  ranks  were  so  stirred 
by  ('ivsar's  speech,  thai  lliey  llioiiirht  that  they 
.should  stand  their  ground  where  they  were  and  light 
where  they  slood,"  Uiit  Ca'sar  was  loo  good  a  Gen- 
eral  for  that.  Jlc  moves  on  Inwards  the  south-easl, 
and  ill  rclrcatiinigels  the  heller  of  I'ompey,  wlio  fol- 
lows him  with  only  half  a  licarl.  .\flcr  a  short  wiiile 
I'ompcy  gives  up  llie  pursuit.  His  fallier-inlaw, 
Seipio,  has  broiighl  a  great  army  from  the  east,  and  is 
in  'rhessalv.  As  we  read  Ihis  we  ciinnol  fail  lo  remem- 
ber how  short  a  time  since  it  was  thai  Casar  himself 
was  I'ompcy's  falher-in-law,  and  that  I'ompey  was 
Cifsai's  friend  because,  willi  too  uxorious  a  love,  he 
clung  to.Iulia,  his  yoiin<;  wife.  Ponipey  now  goes 
eastward  lo  unite  his  arinylo  that  of  Seipio.  and  Ca'- 
sar.  niaUing  his  way  iiilo  Thessaly  by  a  more  hoiuIi- 
ern  roiile,  joins  cerlain  forces  under  his  Ijieutenanl 
Calviniis,  who  had  been  watching  Seipio,  and  who 
barely  escaped  falling  into  I'ompcy's  hands  before 
he  could  reach  C'lesar.  Mill  wherever  fortune  or 
elianee  could  iiilcrfere,  the  Gods  were  alwaj's  kind 
lo  Ca'sar. 

Then  ("a'sar  tells  us  of  his  IrealinenI  of  two  towns 
in  'riiessaly,  (  oimplii,  and  Metropolis,  rnliickily  for 
the  poor  (tomiihiaiis.  Ca'sar  reaches  (ioiiiplii  iirsl. 
Now  the  fame  of  I'ompey's  victory  at  I'eira  had  been 
spread  abroad:  and  the  ({oiiiphians.  who,  to  give 
them  their  due,  — would  have  been  just  as  willing  to 
favor  Ca'sar  as  l^ompey,  and  who  only  wanted  to  be 
on  the  winning  side  Ihal  Ihey  miglil  hold  their  little 
own  in  safi'ty,  believed  that  things  were  ixoing  badly 
with  C'u'sar.  They  therefore  shut  their  gates  against 
Ca'sar,  and  sent  olT  messengers  to  l'onii)ey.  They 
can  liold  iheir  town  against  Ca'sar  for  a  little  while, 
bill  I'ompey  must  come  quickly  to  their  aid.  Poni- 
pey comes  by  no  means  nuick  enough,  and  the  Gom- 
phiaiis' capacity  to  hold  I  heir  own  is  very  short-lived. 
Al  aboul  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  Ciesar  begins 
to  besiege  the  town,  and  before  sunset  he  has  taken 
il,  and  given  il  lo  be  sacked  by  his  soldiers.  The 
men  of  .Metropolis  were  also  going  lo  shut  their 
gates,  but  luckily  they  hear  just  in  time  what  had 
happened  at  Gomphi,  and  open  them  instead. 
Whereupon  Civsar  showers  protection  uiion  Metro- 
polis; and  all  the  other  towns  of  Thessaly,  hearing 
what  had  lieen  done,  also  learn  what  (^a-sar's  favor 
means. 

I'ompey,  having  joined  his  army  to  that  of  Seipio, 
shares  all  his  honors  willi  his  father-in-law.  When 
we  hear  Ibis  we  know  thai  I'ompey's  position  was  not 
eoniforlable.  and  that  he  was  under  constraint.  He 
was  a  man  who  would  share  his  honor  with  no  one 
unless  driven  to  do  so.  .Vnd  indeed  his  coniiiian<l 
at  present  was  not  a  pleasant  one.  It  was  much  for 
a  Hoinaii  eomniander  lo  have  with  him  the  Himian 
Senale,  but  the  Seiialors  so  placed  would  be  ii]it  to  be 
less  obedient  than  trained  soldiers.  They  even  aecu.se 
him  of  keeping  them  in  Thessaly  because  he  likes  to 
lord  it  over  such  followers.  Hut  they  were,  neverthe- 
less, all  certain  thai  Ca'sar  was  about  to  be  destroyed: 
and,  even  in  Pom])ey's  camp,  they  iiuarrel  over  the 
rewards  of  victory  which  they  think  thai  they  will 
enjoy  at  Home  when  Iheir  oligarchy  shall  have"  been 
re-esiabiished  by  Ponipey's  arms. 

IJefore  the  great  day  arrives  Laliienus  again  ap- 
pears on  the  .scene:  and  Ca'sar  puts  into  his  mouth  a 


!  speech  whirli  heof  eoiirHc  inlendh  us  lo  compare  with 
lUieresiill  of  lliecoMiiiig  battle.  "  Do  not  think,  O 
I'ompey,  thai  Ibis  is  the  army  whieli  coiiipiers  (jiiiil 
and  liermany,"  where  l>abieiiiis  himself  was  se- 
cond ill  comiiiand  under  Ciesar.  "I  was  present  al 
all  those  balllc'-.and  speak  ofatliint:  which  I  know. 
A  very  small  party  of  Ihal  army  rriiiains.  .Many 
I  have  perished.- as  a  inatler  of  r-oiirse  In  ho  many 
I  bailies.  The  autumn  pestilence  killi'd  iiianv  in  llaly. 
.Many  have  gone  home.  Many  have  been  iefl  on  the 
olhershore.  Have  you  not  heard  from  cnir  own 
friends  who  remained  behind  sick.  Ihal  these  eohorls 
.)f  Ciesar's  were  made  up  al  I'rindisi  ■'"•  made  up  bill 
llie  other  day,  I,abieiiiis  implies.  "  This  army,  in- 
deed has  been  renewed  from  levies  in  the  two  fiaiils; 
I  bill  all  that  il  had  of  slrenglh  perished  in  those  two 
buttles  al  Dyrraehiiim :"-  in  the  eoiilesls,  thai  is, 
within  the  lines  of  I'elra.  Iponthis  I, abieniis  swears 
thai  he  will  not  sleej)  under  canvas  again  until  he 
slee|)s  as  victor  over  Ciesar:  and  Potnpey  swears  the 
.same,  and  everybody  swears.  Then  Ihey  all  go 
away  full  of  I  he  comini;  victory.  We  daresay  I  here 
was  a  great  deal  of  false  conlidenee  :  but  as  for  the 
words  wliieh  Ciesar  i)uls  into  lb<' mouth  of  Labieniis. 
we  know  well  how  niueli  cause  Ciesar  had  to  dislike 
Labienus,  and  we  doubt  whether  they  were  ever 
spoken.  At  lenglh  the  battle-tield  is  elio.sen.— near 
the  town  of  Pharsaliis,  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Knipeiis  in  Thessaly.  The  bailie  has  acijiiired  world- 
wide fame  as  that  of  Pliarsalia.  which  we  have  been 
taught  to  regard  as  the  name  of  the  plain  on  whieli 
it  was  fought.  Neither  of  these  names  occur  in  the 
'Commentary,  nor  does  that  of  the  river:  and  the 
actual  spot  on  which  the  great  contest  took  place 
seems  to  be  a  nialter  t)f  doubt  even  now.  The 
ground  is  Turkish  soil.—  near  lo  the  inounlains  which 
scivirate  modern  (ireece  from  Turkey  and  is  not 
well  adapted  for  llie  researches  of  hislorical  travelers. 
C:esar  h;id  been  keeping  bis  men  on  Ihe  march  clo.se 
to  Pompey.  till  I'ompey  found  that  he  could  no  long- 
er abstain  from  tighting.  Then  came  Labienus  witli 
his  vaunts,  and  his  oath. — and  al  length  the  day  and 
the  field  were  chosen.  Ca'sar  at  any  rale  was  ready. 
\\  Ihis  time  Ca':;ar  was  lifty-lwo  years  old,  and 
I'ompey  was  live  years  his  elder. 

Ca'sar  tells  us  ihat  I'ompey  had  110  cohorts,  or 
eleven  legions.  Had  the  legions  been  full,  Pom- 
pey's  army  would  have  contained  (;ri.(K)0  legionaries; 
but  Ca'sar  slates  their  numberat  4.").f)00  or  something 
over  two-thirds  of  the  full  number.  He  does  not 
forget  to  tell  us  once  again  that  among  these  eleven 
were  the  two  legions  which  he  had  given  up  in  obe- 
dience to  Ihe  demand  of  Ihe  Senale.  Pompey  him- 
self, with  these  two  very  legions.  pla<-ed  himself  on 
the  left  away  from  the  river:  and  there  also  were  all 
his  auxiliaries,— not  counted  with  Ihe  legionaries. — 
sliniiers,  archers,  and  cavidry.  Seipio  commanded 
in  tile  centre  with  the  legions  he  had  brought  out  of 
Syria.  So  Ciesar  tells  ns.  We  learn  from  other 
sources  that  Lentuliis  connuaniled  I'ompey's  right 
''  will'/.  Ivins  on  the  river— ami  Domitius,  whom  we 
'  remember  as  tryins;  lo  hold  .Marseilles  against  young 
Brutus  and  Trebonius.  Ihe  left.  Ca'sar  had  80  eo- 
horts.  or  eisht  legions,  which  should  have  number- 
■  ed  4H.0O0  men  had  his  legions  been  full— but.  as  he 
;  tells  us.  he  led  but  ^'.J.nno  legionaries,  so  that  his 
ranks  were  deticieni  by  more  than  a  half.  As  was 
his  custom,  he  had  his  tenth  legion  lo  the  right, 
away  from  the  river.  The  ninth,  terribly  thinned 
by  what  had  befallen  il  within  the  lines  al  Pelra. 
joined  to  the  eleventh,  lay  next  the  river,  fomiing 
part  of  Civsar's  left  wing.  Antony  commanded  the 
left  wiug.  Domitius  Calvinus,  whom  Ciesar  .some- 
times calls  bvone  name  and  sometimes  by  Ihe  other, 
the  centre.— "and  Sulla  the  right.  Ca'.sar  placed  him- 
self to  the  right,  with  his  tenth  legion,  opposite  lo 
Pompey.  .\s  f:ir  as  we  can  learn,  there  was  but 
little  in"  the  nature  of  Ihe  ground  to  aid  either  of 
Ihem:  —  and  so  the  tight  began. 

There  is  not  much  complication,  and  perhaps  no 


ROMAN  LEGIONS. 


r(i8 


SOMAN  LEGIONS. 


great  interest,  in  the  account  of  the  actual  battle  as 
it  is  given  by  Ca;sar.  C.Tsar  makes  a  speech  to  his 
army,  which  was,  as  we  have  already  learned,  and 
as  he  tells  us  now,  the  accustomed  thing  to  do.  No 
falser  speech  wa.'j  ever  made  by  man,  if  he  sjjoke  the 
words  which  he  himself  reports.  He  tirst  of  all  re- 
minds them  how  they  themselves  are  witnesses  that 
he  has  done  his  best  to  insure  peace  : — and  then  he 
calls  to  their  memory  certain  mock  treaties  as  to 
peace  ;  in  which,  when  seekingly  delay,  he  had  pre- 
tended to  engage  himself  and  his  enemy.  lie  had 
never  wasted,  he  told  them,  the  blood  of  his  soldiers, 
nor  did  he  desire  to  deprive  the  Republic  of  either 
army — ''alterutro  exercitu" — of  Pompey's  army  or 
of  his  own.  They  were  both  Roman,  and  far  be  it 
from  him  to  destroy  aught  belonging  to  the  Repub- 
lic. We  must  acknowledge  that  Cfesar  was  always 
chary  of  Roman  life  and  Roman  blood.  He  would 
spare  it  when  it  could  be  spared  ;  but  he  could  spill 
it  like  water  when  the  spilling  of  it  was  necessary  to 
his  end.  He  was  very  politic  :  but  as  for  tenderness, 
— neither  be  nor  any  Roman  knew  what  it  was. 
Then  there  is  a  story  of  one  C'rastinus,  who  declares 
that  whether  dead  or  alive  he  will  please  Coesar. 
He  throws  the  Jirst  weapon  against  the  enemy  and 
does  please  C'ii'sar.  But  he  has  to  please  by  his 
death,  for  he  is  killed  in  his  effort.  Pompey  orders 
that  his  first  rank  shall  not  leave  its  order  to  advance, 
but  shall  receive  the  shock  of  Cresar's  attack.  Cie- 
sar  points  out  to  us  that  he  is  wrong  in  tills,  because 
tlie  very  excitement  of  a  first  attack  gives  increased 
energy  and  strength  to  the  men.  Coesar's  legionar- 
ies are  told  to  attack,  and  they  rush  over  the  space 
intervening  between  the  lirst  ranks  to  do  so.  But 
they  are  so  well  trained  that  they  pause  and  catch 
their  breath  before  they  throw  their  weapons.  Then 
they  throw  their  piles  and  draw  their  sworils,  and 
the  ranks  of  the  two  armies  are  close  pitted  against 
each  other.  But  Poiupey  had  thought  that  he  could 
win  the  battle,  almost  without  calling  on  his  legion- 
aries for  any  exertion,  b\-  tlie  simple  strategic  move- 
ment of  his  numerous  cavalry  and  auxiliaries.  He 
outnumbered  t'icsar  altogether,  but  in  these  arms  he 
could  overwhelm  him  with  a  cloud  of  horsemen  and 
of  archers.  But  Csesar  also  had  known  of  these 
clouds.  He  fought  now  as  alwavs  witli  a  triple  rank 
of  legionaries, — but  behind  his  third  rank, — or  rath- 
er somewhat  to  their  right  shoulder, — he  liad  drawn 
up  a  choice  body  of  men  picked  from  his  third  line, 
— a  fourth  line  as  it  were, — wliose  business  it  was  to 
stand  against  Pompe3''s  clouds  when  the  attempt 
sliould  be  made  by  these  clouds  upon  their  right 
Hank.  Ca?sar's  small  body  of  cavalry  did  give  way 
before  the  Pompeian  clouds,  and  the  horsemen  and 
tlie  archers  and  the  slingers  swept  round  upon  C'a'- 
sar's  flank.  But  they  swept  round  upon  destruc- 
tion. Ciiesar  gave  the  word  to  that  fourtli  line  of 
[ticked  men.  "Illi — they,"  says  Ca'sar,  "ran  for- 
ward with  the  greatest  rapidity,  and  with  their  stand- 
ards in  advance  attacked  the  cavalry  of  I^<mipey 
with  such  violence  that  none  of  them  could  stand 
their  groimd  ; — so  that  all  not  only  were  forced  from 
the  ground,  liut  being  at  once  driven  in  panic,  they 
souglit  tlie  shelter  of  the  highest  mountains  near 
Ihem.  And  wlien  they  were  thus  removed,  all  llie 
archers  and  the  slingers,  desohite  and  unarmed,  willi-  j 
out  any  one  to  take  care  of  them,  were  killed  in 
heaps."  Sucli  is  Ciesar  s  account  of  Pompey's  great 
attack  of  cavalry  which  was?  to  win  the  liattle  with- 
out giving  trouble  to  tlie  legions. 

Ci«sar  acknowledges  that  Pompey's  legionaries 
drew  their  swords  bravely  and  began  their  sliiire  of 
the  fighting  well.  Tlieii  at  once  lie  tells  us  of  the 
failure  on  the  part  of  the  cavalry  and  of  the  slaughter 
of  the  poor  auxiliary  slingers,  and  in  the  very  next 
sentence  give  us  to  understand  that  tlie  battles  was 
won.  Though  Pompey's  legions  were  so  much  more 
numerous  than  those  of  Ca'sar,  we  were  told  that 
<Jiesar's  tliird  line  attacked  tlie  Pom])eiiin  legionaries 
when  Ihev  were  •defessi"— worn  out.     The  few  co- 


horts of  picked  men  who  in  such  marvelous  manner 
had  dispersed  Pompey's  clouds,  following  on  their 
success,  turned  the  flank  of  Pompey's  legions  and 
carried  the  day.  That  it  was  all  as  Cajsar  says  there 
can  be  little  doubt.  That  he  won  the  battle  there 
can,  we  presume,  be  no  doubt.  Pompey  at  once 
flew  to  his  camp  and  endeavored  to  defend  it.  But 
such  defense  was  impossible, and  Pompey  was  driven 
to  seek  succor  in  flight.  He  found  a  horse  and  a 
few  companions,  and  did  not  stop  till  he  was  on  the 
sea-shore.  Then  he  got  on  board  a  provision-vessel, 
and  was  heard  to  complain  that  he  had  been  betrayed 
b_y  those  very  men  from  whose  hands  he  had  ex- 
pected victory.  We  are  told  with  much  picturesque 
effect  how  Caesar's  men,  hungry,  accustomed  to  en- 
durance, patient  in  all  their  want,  found  Pompey's 
camp  prepared  for  victory,  and  decked  in  luxurious 
preparation  for  the  senatorial  victors.  Couches  were 
strewn,  and  plate  was  put  out,  and  tables  prepared, 
and  the  tents  of  these  happy  ones  were  adorned 
with  fresh  ivj-.  Tlie  senatorial  happy  ones  have  but 
a  bad  time  of  it,  either  perishing  in  their  flight,  or 
escaping  into  the  desert  solitudes  of  the  mountains. 
Ca'sar  follows  up  his  conquest,  antl  on  the  day  after 
the  battle  compels  the  great  body  of  the  fugitives  to 
surrender  at  discretion.  He  surrounds  them  on  the 
top  of  a  hill  and  shuts  them  out  from  water,  and 
they  do  surrender  at  discretion.  With  stretched-out 
hands,  prone  ujion  the  earth,  tliese  late  conquerors, 
the  cream  of  the  Roman  power,  who  had  so  lately 
sworn  to  conquer  ere  they  slept,  weeping,  beg  for 
mercy.  Coesar,  having  said  a  few  words  to  them 
of  his  clemenc}',  gave  them  their  lives.  He  recom- 
mends them  to  the  care  of  his  own  men,  and  desires 
that  they  may  neither  be  slaughtered  nor  robb--d. 
Caesar  says  he  lost  only  200  soldiers  in  that  battle — 
and  among  them  80  officers,  all  brave  men.  That 
gallant  C'rastinus  was  among  the  30.  Of  Pompey's 
army  15,000  had  been  killed,  and  34,000  had  sur- 
rendered !  180  standards  and  it  eagles  were  taken 
and  brought  to  Caesar.  Tlie  numbers  seem  to  us 
to  be  almost  incredible,  whether  we  look  at  those 
given  to  us  in  regard  to  the  conqueror  or  the  con- 
quered. Caesar's  account,  however,  of  that  day's 
work  has  hitherto  been  taken  as  authoratative.aud  it 
is  too  late  now  to  question  it.  After  this  fashion 
was  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  won,  and  ihe  so-called 
Roman  Republic  brought  to  an  end. 

But  Caesar  by  no  means  tiiouglit  that  this  work  was 
done  ; — nor  indeed  was  it  nearly  dime.  R  was  now 
clearly  his  first  duty  to  pursue  Pompey, — whom, 
should  he  escape,  the  outside  provinces  .and  distant 
allies  of  the  Republic  would  soon  supply  with  an- 
other army.  "  Ca'sar  thought  that  Pompey  was  to 
be  pursvied  to  the  neglecting  of  all  other  things."  In 
Ihe  mean  time  Pompey,  who  seems  to  have  been 
panic-struck  by  his  misfortune,  fled  with  a  few 
friends  down  the  ^gean  Sea,  picked  his  young  wife 
up  at  an  island  as  he  went. and  made  his  way  to  Egypt. 
The  story  of  his  murder  bytho.se  who  had  the  young 
King  of  Egypt  in  their  keeping  is  well-known  and 
need  not  detain  us.  Ca'sar  tells  it  very  shortlj'. 
Pompey  sends  to  young  Plolemy  for  succor  and  as- 
sistance, trusting  to  past  frieiKisliip  between  himself 
Mild  the  young  King's  father.  Plolemv  is  intlie  hands 
<if  eunuchs,  adventurers,  and  eut-lhroat  soldiers, 
and  has  no  voice  of  his  own  in  the  matter.  But  these 
rutflans  think  it  well  to  have  Pompey  outof  tlieway, 
and  therefore  they  murdi'r  him.  Achillas,  a  royal 
satrap,  and  Seiilimius,  a  Roman  soldier,  go  out  to 
Pompey's  vessel,  as  messengers  from  the  King,  and 
induce  them  to  coiiie  down  inlolheir  boat.  Then,  in 
the  very  sight  of  his  wife,  he  is  slaughtered,  and  his 
head  is  carried  away  as  iiroof  of  tlie  deed.  ISucli  was 
the  end  of  Pompey,  for  whom  no  fortune  had  .seemed 
to  )»•  too  great,  till  ('a'siir  came  uiion  the  scene.  We 
are  told  by  the  Roman  jioel,  Euean.  who  took  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia  as  h';'  dillieult  theme,  that  Ca-sar 
could  bear  no  superior,  and  I'oiiipey  no  e()ual.  The 
poet  probably   wished  to  make  the  latter  the  more 


BOaiANS. 


700 


KOHAN  WA£S. 


miifrnaiiiniouK  Iiy  the  ('(imiiariHdii.  To  lis,  as  w<!  fx- 
lUiiinclhi-  clmniflcr  of  the  Uv(i(ici](TiilH,  ( 'ii'Hiir  kwiiih 
nt  least  tin  i<'al(iiiH  of  power  at*  his  son-in-law,  und 
ciTlainlv  was  I  lie  more  sncccssfiil  of  tlic  (wo  in  cx- 
cluclinf;  all  otiicrs  from  a  slian;  in  the  powi-r  wliicli 
lie  covctcil.  Honipcy  in  tiii'  triumvirate  admitteil  his 
junior  to  more,  as  he  must  have  fell  it,  than  e(|nal 
power:  Coe.sar  in  the  triuinvirale  simply  madc^  a 
Stepping-stone  of  the  great  man  who  was  his  elder. 
Pompi'y  (itThessaly  was  forced  to  divide  at  least  the 
nnnieof  his  i)ower  with  Seipio,  his  last  fath<-r-ir.-law  : 
but  Ciesar  never  gave  a  shred  of  his  mantle  to  be 
Worn  by  another  soldier. 

In  speaUing,howi'vi-r,  of  the  eharaeler  of  Fompey, 
and  in  eomparing  it  with  thai  of  his  greater  rival. "it 
may  probalily  be  said  of  him  that  in  all  his  contests, 
both  military  and  political,  lie  was  governed  by  a 
love  of  olil  Home,  and  of  (lie  Republic  as  the  great- 
est national  institution  which  tiic  world  has  ever 
known,  and  by  a  feeling  wliicli  we  call  patriotism, 
and  of  which  (':esar  was,  -  perhaps,  we  may  .say,  too 
great  to  be  capable.  Fompey  desired  to  lead,  Init  to 
lead  the  beloved  Kepulilie.  Ciesar,  earing  nothing 
for  the  things  of  old,  with  no  reverence  for  the  past, 
utterly  destitute  of  that  tenderness  for  our  former 
footsteps  which  makes  so  many  of  us  cling  with 
pa.ssionate  fondness  to  convicled  errors,  dcsiri'd  to 
create  out  of  the  ilust  of  the  Hepublir-, — which  fate 
and  his  genius  allowed  him  to  recast  as  he  would,-- 
eomcthing  which  should  be  better  and  truer  than 
the  Hepublio. 

The  last  seven  chapters  of  the  third  book  of  this 
Commentary  form  a  commencement  of  the  record  of 
the  Alexandrine  war, — which,  beyond  those  seven 
chapters.  Ca'sar  himself  did  not  write.  That  he  should 
have  written  any  Commentary  amidst  the  necessary 
toils  of  war,  and  the  perhaps  more  pressing  emerg- 
encies of  his  jjolitical  condition,  is  one  of  the  mar- 
vels of  human  power.  He  tells  us  now,  that  having 
delayed  but  a  few  days  iuAsia,  lie  fc;llo\ved  I'ompey 
♦irst  to  Cyprus  and  then  to  Kgyjil,  taking  with  him 
•IS  his  entire  army  three  thousand  two  liundredmen. 
"  The  rest,  worn  out  with  wounds,  and  battles,  and 
toil,  and  the  greatness  of  tli(^  journey,  could  not  fol- 
low him."  But  he  directed  thai  legions  should  be 
made  up  for  him  from  the  remnants  of  I'ompcy's 
broken  army,  and,  with  a  godlike  trust  in  the  obe- 
dience of  absent  vassals,  he  went  on  to  Kgypt.  He 
tells  us  that  he  was  kept  in  Alexandria  by  Etesian 
winds.  But  we  know  also  that  Cleopatra  came  to 
hiin  at  Alexandria,  requiring  his  services  in  her  con- 
test for  the  crown  of  Kgy|it;  and  knowing  at  what 
price  she  bought  them,  we  doubt  the  persistent  mal- 
ignity of  the  Etesian  w  inds.  Had  Cleopatra  been  a 
swarthy  Nubian,  as  some  have  portrayed  her.  Ciesar, 
we  think,  would  have  left  Alexandria  though  the 
Etesian  winds  had  blown  in  his  very  teeth.  All  winds 
filled  Cicsar's  sails.  Ctesar  gets  possession  of  Cleo- 
patra's brother  Ptolemy,  who,  in  accordance  with 
their  father's  will,  was  to  have  reigned  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Ins  sister,  and  the  -Vlexandrians  rise  against 
him  in  great  force.  He  elays  Photiuus,  the  servant 
of  King  Ptolemy,  has  his  own  ambassador  slain, 
and  burns  the  royal  fleet  of  Egypt,— burning  with  it, 
unfortunately,  the  greater  part  of  the  royal  library. 
'■  These  things  were  the  beginning  of  the  Alexand- 
rine war."  'fhese  are  the  last  words  of  Ciesar's  last 
Commentary.     See  Ho/iian  WurK. 

EOMANS.— Before  the  establishment  of  the  mess  [ 
al  the  Horse  Gtiards,  which  was  formerly  paid  out 
of  the  King's  privy  purse,  and  subsequently  charged 
in  the  extraorilinaries  of  the  army,  the  Captain  of 
the  Guard  at  St.  James's  kept  a  table  for  the  sub- 
alterns attached  to  that  duty.  In  order  to  enable 
the  Captains  to  support  these  expenses,  a  certain 
number  of  men  were  allowed  to  work  in  the  metro- 
polis, on  condition  that  they  left  tiicir  pay  in  the 
hands  of  tiieir  Ollicers:  these  men  were  called  lio- 

BOUAN  WALL.— Traces  are  found  in  Great  Bri- 


tain of  four  great  walls  built  by  the  Komun  Con- 
(pierors.  Two  were  liuilt  by  Agricola,  the  first  in 
A.  I).  7!),  and  the  second  in  A.  u.  Hi,  extending  from 
the  Erilh  r,f  Kirth  to  Ihi-  Frith  of  Clyde.  As  thifi 
proved  i.isiilllcient  to  keept  Imck  the  northern  barbar- 
ians,  Ha<lrian  in  a.  i>.  I'iO  llnislieil  the  most  famous 
of  all  the  walls,  from  the  Solway  to  Newcastle  on 
Tyne.  Tills  was  (IH  Entrlish  miles  in  length.  In  a.  r>. 
200  SeveriiH  built  another  wall  a  few  yards  above 
that  of  Hailrian.  which  was  guarded  by  10,000 
men. 

ROMAN  WARS.  In  the  infancy  of  Home,  she  had 
many  wars  but  few  conquests  in  her  matiirily  she 
had  few  wars  and  many  conquests.  When  the  pow- 
er of  Carthage  faileil,  Itrnne  no  longer  had  a  rival  : 
her  wars,  or  rather  invasions,  after  that  event,  were 
generally  of  her  own  seeking  ;  and  they  were  many. 
Pome  was  nosooner  able  tosay,  "Cartilage  must  be 
destroyed."  ihaii.in  her  heart,  sliealso  .said,  tlif  nnjiire 
of  Alcxiiitihr  nhiill  he  miiu .  First  .Macedonia  fell  lier 
grasp,  and  Perseus  was  hurled  from  the  throne  of 
Philip  anil  .\lexaiider,  at  which  time  siie  graciously 
gave  the  Greeks  their  liberty,  /.  c.  gave  them  law. 

Attains,  King  of  Fergamus,  dying  about  this  time, 
left  his  kingdom  to  tlie  Pomans,  by  will :  or,  in 
other  words,  seeing  the  world  sink  beneath  tlieir 
power,  he  preferred  giving  them  a  bloodless  victory, 
and  cloaked  an  ignoble  dereliction  rif  right  under  the 
specious  name  of  a  voluntary  donation.  Anlioehus, 
the  great  King  of  Assyria,  was  destined  next  to  fall 
before  them.  He  was  at  this  period  the  most  power- 
ful and  o|)ulent  prince  of  all  Alexamler's  siiccefsors; 
and  had  he  accepted  the  adviceand  aid  of  Hannibal, 
there  would  have  been  at  least  a  chance  for  his  es- 
caping the  all-grasping  power  of  Pome.  But  he, 
fearing  lest,  if  anything  should  lie  done.  Hannibal 
would  have  all  the  credit,  was  careful  to  go  directly 
contrary  to  the  advice  of  that  (ieneral.  The  Po- 
nians  defeated  him  almost  without  loss  of  blood — 
stripping  him  of  great  part  of  his  dominions — tri- 
umphed over  him — extorted  from  him  an  immense 
tribute,  and  left  him  only  enough  to  grace  the  Iri- 
uniph  of  another  campaign.  Two  other  great  civics 
shared  the  fate  of  Carthage,  and  nearly  at  the  same 
time:  Corinth,  one  of  the  m  blest  cities  of  Greece, 
was  tittcrly  destroyed  by  Mummius,  the  Consul,  for 
ofTcring  some  indignity  to  the  Homan  embassadors 
— and  Numantia,  the  capital  of  Spain.  Thiscity  after 
sustaining  a  siege  of  fourteen  years,  was  reduced 
by  Sclpio.  The  inhabitants,  being  unable  to  hold  out 
any  longer,  fired  the  city  over  their  own  heads,  and  all 
pirislied  in  the  flames ;  and  Spain  became  a  Homan 
province. 

The  corruption  of  the  senate,  and  the  sedition  and 
fall  of  the  Gracchi,  together  with  various  distur- 
bances next  arise  to  view  in  tracing  the  history  of 
Pome.  Then  follow  the  reduction  of  Nuniidia,  and 
the  civil  wars  in  the  republic,  excited  by  the  ambi- 
tion of  Marius  and  Sylla.  w  liicli  terminated  in  the 
perpetual  dictatorship  of  the  latter.  But  it  will  not 
comport  with  our  present  design  to  enter  into  a  de- 
tail of  these  particular  events.  Pome  was  perhaps 
never  more  powerful  or  happy  than  in  the  days  of 
Scipio  Africanus,  or  about  the  times  of  the  Punic 
wars.  She  then  experienced  great  misfortunes  and 
calamities;  but  those  untoward  events,  instead  of 
weakening  or  exhausting  her.  called  forth,  nay,  even 
created  new  energies.  From  the  invasion  of  Hanni- 
bal, she  rose  invincible:  and  while  that  consummate 
warrior  held  his  ground  in  Italy,  she  sent  armies  into 
Spain.  Africa.  Greece  and  Macedon.  A  great  part 
of  those  immense  region^  which  Alexander  subdued, 
soon  shared  the  fate  of  the  empire  of  Carthage  :  and 
in  tho.se  days,  with  the  Pomans,  to  proclaim  war 
was  to  insure  a  triumph — and  to  invade  was  to  con- 
quer. 

W  lien  we  look  for  a  period  in  the  Poman  historj-, 
in  which  there  is  the  greatest  union  of  power,  wis- 
dom, virtue  and  happiness,  it  will  doubtless  be  found 
not  far  from  the  times  of  which  we  are  now  speak- 


KOMAN  WARS. 


770 


ROMAN  WARS. 


ing.  The  Hoinans,  in  earlier  times  of  tlie  repiililic, 
■were  more  virtuous  and  patriotic  tlian  now — but 
tlien  tliej'  were  weal\:  iu  tlie  Augustan  age  they  were 
certainly  more  enligiitened,  scientific  and  polished 
— but  then  (hey  were  less  brave  ;  or  it  not  less  brave, 
their  virtue  was  forever  gone,  and  with  it,  tlie  found- 
ation of  tlieir  prosperity  and  happiness.  Tlie  con- 
quest of  Africa,  Asia,  and  Greece  at  once  poured  in- 
to the  coffers  of  Rome  immense,  incalculable  riches. 
On  this  almost  boundless  tide  of  prosperitv  a  set  of 
men  were  soon  seen  floating,  of  a  very  different  char- 
acter from  C'iucinnatus.  Fabricius  and  Regulus.  To 
the  most  desperate  bravery  they  united  unbounded 
ambition  ;  and  to  the  strongest  expression  of  regard 
to  their  country  they  united  a  total  want  of  princi- 
ple. The  wealth  of  tlic  world  like  a  mighty  river, 
jioured  into  Rome ;  and  many  individuals  acquired 
fortunes  which  transcended  royal  magnificence. 

The  elevation  of  Rome  to  such  an  astonisliing 
height  of  power  and  splendor,  drew  to  her  men  of 
parts,  of  taste,  of  ambition  and  enterprise — and  in 
short,  men  of  every  description,  and  almost  every 
nation.  The  descendants  of  the  ancient  Romans 
soon  became  few  in  comparison  with  the  immense 
multitude,  who  by  some  means  or  other,  acquired 
citizeusliip,  or  obtained  a  residence  in  Italy  ;  and 
Rome  herself  experienced  as  great  a  change  as  the 
nations  she  conquered  :  for  while  she  drew  the  arts, 
elegance  and  science  from  Greece,  she  drew  wealth, 
luxury,  eflfeminacy,  and  corruption  from  Asia  and 
Africa,  and  she  drew  a  swarm  of  hungry  fortune 
hunters  from  everj-  corner  of  the  eartli,  who  pene- 
trated her  inmost  recesses — outnumbered  and  over- 
whelmed her  ancient  people — in  short,  conquered 
their  conquerors,  corrupted  their  morals,  and  put  a 
final  period  to  their  liberties. 

The  civil  wars  of  Rome  which  soon  follow  the  peri- 
od of  whicli  we  have  been  speaking,  unfold  to  the 
reader  a  spectacle  equalh'  dreadful  and  disgusting. 
Many  persons  who  had  witnessed  the  destruction 
of  Carthage  were  still  alive,  and  saw  all  Italy  deluged 
in  blood  by  Marius  and  Sylla.  From  the  destruc- 
tion of  Carthage  to  the  perpetual  dictatorship  of 
Sj'lla,  was  a  little  rising  of  seventy  years.  During 
the  latter  part  of  this  jieriod,  Lucius  Sylla,  envying 
the  power  and  glory  of  Caius  JMarius,  involved  the 
republic  in  a  most  bloody,  disgraceful,  and  destruc- 
tive war.  After  various  turns  which  their  affairs  took 
in  the  progress  of  this  eventful  struggle — after  they 
had  destroyed  half  a  million  of  men,  including  the 
best  part  of  the  Roman  people — had  humbled  Rome 
and  Ital}- — had  shed  the  noblest  blood,  and  pros- 
trated the  dignity  of  the  republic,  Sylla,  an  execra- 
ble monster  of  cruelty,  tyranny  and  ambition,  was 
able  to  triumph  over  virtue,  liberty  and  justice.  He 
seated  himself  quietly  in  the  exercise  of  despotic 
power,  and  became  jierpetual  dictator.  Rome  never 
saw  another  moment  of  freedom. 

The  Romans,  in  the  times  of  Scipio,  may  be  com- 
jjared  with  the  Greeks  iu  the  time  of  Themistocles, 
and  the'  triunipli  of  (ireece  over  Persia,  with  that  of 
Rome  over  t'artliage.  In  both  cases,  the  conquerors 
were  corrupted  by  wealth,  and  inebriated  by  luxury. 
We  miglit  go  further  and  say,  that  the  Peloponnc- 
siaii  war,  which  succeeded  the  elevation  of  Greece, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  her  ruin,  resembled  the 
civil  wars  of  Rome,  begun  b.y  Marius  and  Sylla — 
carried  on  byCu'sarand  Pomjiey,  and  terminated  by 
Augustus.  But  the  lirmiiess  of  the  Roman  charac- 
ter—the  uaturi' iif  their  civil  policy,  aiidlbc  immense 
extent  of  their  conquests,  enabled  them  still  to  be 
powerful,  in  spite  of  all  their  corruptions :  and  bad 
the}'  been  otherwise,  there  seemed  to  be  no  nation 
near  them  who  could  have  derived  advantage  from 
tlieir  weakness.  They  seem  to  have  been  raised  iq)  and 
endowed  with  universal  dominion,  that  they  miicbt 
evidence  to  the  world  liow  far  a  ualioii  can  he  liap- 
py,  and  how  long  she  can  exist  wilhout  virtue  or 
freedom. 

The  ambition  of  the  demagogues  as  well  as  of  the 


despots  and  tyrants  of  Rome,  in  one  essential  arti- 
cle, led  tbem  to  promote  the  true  and  just  policy  of 
the  empire  :  that  was  to  attach  the  provinces  as 
strongly  as  possible  to  the  interest  of  Rome — to  dis- 
solve them  down  to  one  common  mass  -to  preserve 
their  extensive  territories  entire — to  cement  them 
together  b}'  various  alliances,  and  to  preserve  the 
empire  undivided.  The  strength  of  empires  consists 
in  their  union.  The  Greeks  wanting  this,  soon  fail- 
ed ;  and,  in  our  own  times,  Poland,  which  ought, 
from  her  numerous  advantages,  to  have  been  one  of 
the  most  ])Owerful  kingdoms  in  the  world,  has  ex- 
hibited a  deplorable  spectacle  of  weakness  and  mise- 
ry, by  means  of  her  internal  divisions.  Our  own 
country  had  well  nigh  been  swallowed  in  the  same 
gulf. 

The  Roman  community,  launched  at  once  on  such 
a  sea  of  luxury,  wealth,  and  glory,  was  variously 
affected.  While  all  were  struggling  for  eminence 
and  power,  it  fortunately  happened  that  the  reins  of 
government  fell  into  strong  and  energetic  hands.  Of 
this  description,  generally  .speaking,  were  most  of 
the  first  competitors,  and  of  the  triumvirates.  The 
softening  power  of  luxury — the  sudden  inundation 
of  Grecian  elegance  and  refinement,  and  tlie  eleva- 
tion of  conscious  greatness  and  empire,  combined 
with  her  native  gravity  in  forming  the  genius  of 
Rome.  About  this  period,  it  began  to  bud  ;  soon  af- 
ter this  was  its  fairest  bloom  and  richest  maturity. 
If  the  genius  of  Rome  was  of  a  heavier  mould  than 
that  of  Greece,  it  possessed  a  more  commanding 
gravity;  if  it  had  less  fire,  it  was  more  tranquil,  ma- 
jestic, and  solemn;  and  more  hearts  will  vibrate  with 
pleasure  to  the  plaintive  and  elegant  notes  of  the 
Roman,  than  to  the  electric  fulininations  of  the  Gre- 
cian muse. 

In  the  year  680  from  the  building  of  the  city,  the 
republic  was  freed  from  tlie  tyranny  of  Sylla,  by  the 
death  of  that  odious  tyrant.  But  two  men,  of  far 
more  extensive  views  and  refined  ambition  than  ei- 
ther Jlarius  or  S3dla,  were  alread_y  prepared  to  run 
the  same  race.  Cneus  Pompey,  bad,  by  various  arts, 
as  well  as  by  great  abilities,  become  the  most  popu- 
lar man  in  Rome,  and  was  considered  as  the  great- 
est commander  in  the  Repulilic.  Crassus  possessed 
that  authority  and  infiuence  which  great  eloquence 
and  immense  wealth,  combining  with  all  the  wiles  of 
ambition,  could  procure  him.  He  was  the  richest 
man  in  Rome.  While  Pompey.  who  warmly  es- 
poused the  Marian  faction,  strove  to  gain  the  favor 
of  the  people  by  abrogating  man}'  of  the  tyrannical 
laws  of  Sylla,  Crassus  employed  his  amazing  wealth 
in  donations,  distributions  of  corn  among  the  poor, 
in  public  feasts  and  entertainments .;  and  it  is  said 
that  he  supported,  at  his  own  private  expense,  the 
greatest  part  of  the  citizens  for  several  months — ex- 
nenditures  sufficient  to  have  exhausted  the  treasures 
of  the  greatest  princes.  In  the  progress  of  their  con- 
test for  power,  their  animosities  broke  forth  on  every 
occasi(m.  in  opposition  more  or  less  direct,  and  by 
means  more  or  less  violent. 

At  this  period,  while  the  destinies  of  Rome  seemed 
to  biing  in  doubtful  suspense,  three  characters  ap- 
peared of  very  differei't  complexions,  but  equally  ex- 
traordinary, "equally  to  be  remembered,  but  with 
very  dilTcrent  sensations,  in  posterity ; — Catiline,  Cic- 
ero, and  Ca'sar.  One  of  these  men  procured  for 
himself  immortal  fame  by  his  atrocious  villainy,  one 
by  his  unrivalled  eloi|uence,  and  one  by  liis  ambition, 
bniyery,  and  good  fortune.  .luliusCa'sar  in;iy  lie  re- 
garded .-is  the  greatest  of  the  Roman  coiiim;inders. 
In  him  the  military  genius  of  Rome  disjilayed  its  ut- 
most strength  ami  iierfectiou;  but,  as  yet.  lie  was 
not  known  in  that  grouj)  of  great  clianu'lers  and  per. 
soilages,  who,  now  iiillamcd  with  ambition,  were 
jirejiaring  to  carve  ;mi(1  divide  the  world  among  tbem. 
Lucius  Catiline  is  alh^wed  by  all  writers  to  have  pos- 
sessed every  (|ualily  of  a  great  man  but  integrity  and 
virlue ;  instead  of  which  he  liehl  {'very  priiK'iple. 
and  practised  every  vice  which  could  form  a  most 


ROHAN  WARS. 


771 


ROHAN  WARS. 


iiifiimouH,  iitriK'ioiis  iinil  lUiuiiiloiicil  villiiin.  I'ohwhh- 
(•(1  of  II  body  mid  mind  ((iiiiilly  slroii;^  mid  viijoroiiH, 
ho  was  l)ol(l,  ciitcriirisiim,  and  iiidiiMlrioiis.  IIcIk-h- 
itatcd  al  no  <Tiiclly  lo  i^ralify  liin  revenue — lie  uh- 
Hlaincd  from  no  crinic  wliicli  could  suliscrvc  Ids 
pleasures-  he  valued  no  labor  or  peril  lo  i;ralify  Ids 
ainhilion.  Caliline  pereeiviiii;  hiniselT  nol,  anionj; 
tlie  most  favored  rivals  who  w<'re  eoiirlliij;  llii'  nds- 
tress  of  the  world,  determined  on  ^etlini;  her  into 
his  |)ossessiori  by  violence.  His  end  was  the  saniir 
as  tin  irs,  hut  his  means  were  more  unwarranlable. 
He  plann(Hl  and  orijanized  one  of  lh(^  deepest,  most 
extensive-  and  darini;  conspiracies  recorded  in  bis- 
tory.  The  leadim;  objec-tsof  his  conspiracy  were,  to 
put  out  of  I  he  way  by  one  fxencral  massacre,  all  who 
would  he  liliely  to  oppose  his  measures  to  ])illai;e 
the  city  of  |{ome — to  seize  all  public  treasures,  ar- 
senals and  stores  to  establish  a  despotic  ;;oveni- 
nient  to  revohilionize  the  whole  republic,  and  to  ac- 
complish all  these  measures  by  an  armed  force. 

This  sam;uinary  ]ilot  was  detected  and  crushed  by 
Oicero,  the  j;reat  and  justly  celebrated  orator  of 
Uome.  The  accomplices  of  Caliline  were  seized  and 
put  to  death  ;  and  Catiline  himself,  who  had  as- 
sembled an  army  of  I  welve  thousand  men,  was  en- 
counlered,  defealed  and  slain.  But  if  Home  esea|)ed 
this  threaleiuni;  sulf,  it  was  that  she  miL;hl  fall  into 
a  snare,  apparently  less  dreadful,  but  eipnilly  strong 
and  conclusive  as  to  her  fate.  Iler  days  of  virtue 
and  j;!ory  weri^  past;  benceforlh  she  was  to  be  ruled 
wit  ha  rod  of  iron.  The  dissensions  of  Pompey  and 
Crassus  were  (pneled  by  the  mediation  of  Ca'sar,  who 
stepped  in  between  them,  outwitted  them  both,  and 
became  the  head  of  the  lirst  triumvirate.  Ilavini; 
amicably  ai^reed  to  govern  in  copartnership,  Pom- 
pey chose  Spain,  Crassus  chose  the  rich  and  bi.xur- 
io\is  provinces  of  Asia,  and  lo  C.esar  was  allotted  the 
powerful  and  warlike  nation  of  (Jaid,  as  yet  uncon- 
(piered.  What  was  1  he  result  ?  Pomjiev  basked  for 
a  moment  in  the  sjilendors  of  Rome,  and  his  fame  was 
trumpeted  by  th(M'lo(iuence  of  Cicero.  Crassus  was 
8lain  by  the  Parthians.  endeavoring;  to  enlaricc  his 
territories,  anil  C;esar  conquered  the  Uauls  \n'i  t/iuiix- 
ajut>  battle:!.  Pompey  could  not  bear  an  eipnd,  nor 
CiBsar  a  superior.  They  were  mutually  jealous- 
they  differed — they  prepared  for  war.  The  Semite 
ami  nobility  of  Rome,  and  pride  and  strenulh  of  It- 
aly sided  with  Pompey  :  Ca'sar  relies  wholly  on  those 
veteran  legions  with  whom  he  had  subdued  the 
fierce  and  martial  tribes  of  (Jaul  and  (Tcrmany.  >('o 
civil  war  ever  equalled  this.  It  was  a  melancholy 
sight  to  see  Uome  i;iven  up  to  tyranny  and  blood — 
to  see  that  august  and  venerable  republic  for  ever  a- 
bandoned  to  her  evil  genius.  These  were  not  the 
feeble  bickerings  of  |)etty  controversy  ;  JIarius  and 
Sylla,  the  leaders  of  the  former  civil  broils,  bore  lit- 
tle comparison  with  C.-esarat  the  head  of  his  legions, 
or  with  the  great  Pompey,  who  could  almost  raise 
armies  out  of  the  earth  by  the  stomp  nf  Ih'k  ftiot. 

This  eventful  struggle  was  at  length  closed  by  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia,  rendered  truly  famous  by  the 
grand  object  for  which  they  fought — the  greatness 
of  the  force  employed  on  either  siile,  and  the  tran- 
scendent reputation  of  both  commanders.  The  Rom- 
an ICmpire  was  the  prize  ;  and  liolh  the  armies  and 
the  Generals  were  the  best  the  world  could  alford. 
Pompey  was  utterly  defeated,  and  many  of  his  army, 
won  over  by  the  magnanimous  clemency  and  gener- 
osity of  Ca'sar,  were  content  to  change  sides.  The 
conduct  of  Pompey  in  this  battle,  which  was  to  de- 
cide his  fate,  has  ever  been  considered  as  strange  and 
unaccountable.  So  far  from  displaying  that  courage, 
intn'pidity,  and  fortitude,  and  those  powers  of  com- 
mand which  he  was  supposed  to  jiossess,  that,  from 
the  very  tirst  onset,  he  appeared  like  a  man  frighten- 
ed out  of  his  senses:  he  scarcely  attempted  to  rally 
his  men — was  among  the  foremost  that  lle<l,  and  nev- 
er made  another  effort  to  retrieve  his  cause.  From 
facts  so  glaring,  we  are  almost  induced  to  believe  that 
much  of  Poinpey's  greatness,  as  a  soldiei  and  com- 


Mumder,  (u>nHiHted  in  llie  elegant  drawirif^R  of  Cicero, 
and  other  purliul  writers.  The  true  lest  of  bravery, 
skill,  and  fortitude,  ih  to  Hec  them  disjilayed  wlien 
they  are  most  necessary — to  Hee  tliein  shine  in  dan- 
ger, surmount  dilllciilly.and  triumph  over  adversity. 
Vet  no  one  can  doubt  that  I'ompiy  was  a  man  of 
great  and  spli-ndid  talents  :  but  who  could  eipial 
Ciesar? — A  man  superemimnt  in  the  wliole  range  f)f 
spiritual  enrlowmciils.  Nature  seemed  to  scant  Idni 
in  nothing.  Among  |)liiloHOpliers,  mathematicians, 
|)oets,  and  orators,  he  could  shine.  |[e  could  plan 
and  e.\e(-ut( — be  ooidd  negotiate  or  light — he  coiild 
Rain  and  improve  an  advantage.  For  seven  years  in 
his  (iailie  wars,  his  lif(-  was  a  continual  Heries  of  fa- 
tigues and  dear-bought  victories  :  anil  no  General, 
but  one  as  great  as  Ciesar,  f:oulil  have  encounlered 
him  without  apprehension  and  dismay. 

'I'he  battle  of  Pharsalia  was  foiiLdit  52  years  before 
Christ,  and  7b2  from  the  building  of  the  city.  I'om- 
|)ey  lli'd  an  uiduiiijn'  ixile  into  ICgypt,  and  was  there 
miserably  murdered  by  the  command  of  Ploleniy. 
Thus  the  reins  of  government  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Cicsar,  and  he  was  left  undisputed  master  of  the 
world.  The  clemency  of  Ctesar  on  this  occasion  was 
as  illustrious  as  his  victories  had  been.  He  entered 
into  no  measures  against  many  persons,  who,  under 
professions  of  neutrality,  had  evidently  sided  with 
Pompey.  He  did  nothing  which  bore  any  resem- 
blance to  the  horrid  proscriptions  of  Marius  and  Syl- 
la. He  endeavored,  in  most  instances,  to  forget  and 
forgive.  liut  the  reign  and  triumph  of  Julius  Citsar 
was  short.  He  soon  fell  a  saeriliee  to  that  spirit  of 
freedom  and  indel)endenre  which  had  raised  bis 
I'ountry  to  her  exalted  rank:  for  though  the  demons 
of  discord,  and)ition,  and  party  rage,  had  now  for 
a  long  i)eriod,  aimed  all  their  shafts  at  good  and  vir- 
tuous men— though  torrents  of  the  richest  blood  had 
Howed  incessantly  for  many  years,  yet  some  men 
were  still  left  whose  constancy  and  virtue  ever 
stemmed  the  strong  current  of  the  times.  Cato  and 
Cicero  were  still  alive,  whose  stem  virtues  and  com- 
manding eloiiueneecontimied  to  remind  the  Homans 
of  their  better  days.  From  the  battle  of  Pharsalia 
to  the  death  of  Csesar  was  eight  years.  During  this 
period  he  went  on  and  prospered.  By  a  rapid  series 
of  journeys  and  expeditions  he  saw,  awed  and  sub- 
jugated all  places  and  all  opposition.  His  arm  per- 
vaded, his  vigilance  detected,  his  spirit  animated, 
his  generosity  won.  and  his  power  crushed  in  all  di- 
rections. His  great  and  active  genius  seemed  uni- 
versally to  bear  down  all  before  him;  but  in  reality 
not  all ;  a  plot  at  length  was  laid,  as  it  were  in  his 
own  bosom,  which  hurled  him  in  a  moment  from 
the  high  summit  whither  he  had  climbed. 

Brutus  and  Cassius,  at  the  head  of  about  si.xty 
Senators,  entered  into  a  conspiracy  to  take  liim  oft 
by  assassination.  Their  object  was  to  arrest  the  pro- 
gress of  despotic  power,  to  restore  the  authority 
of  the  senate,  and  the  ancient  forms  of  the  republic; 
an  object  lauihdile  in  itself,  but,  alas,  how  far  from 
being  practicable!  Their  plot  was  deeply  laid,  but 
seems  to  have  been  carried  into  effect  not  without 
a  wonderful  concurrence  of  accident,  or  rather  of 
providence.  Whilst  Ca'sar  was  on  his  way  to  the 
senate  house,  where  he  was  to  perish,  a  slave,  it  is 
said,  who  had  discovered  the  conspiracy,  pressed 
forward  in  the  crowd  to  apprise  him  of  his  danger, 
but  could  not  gel  to  him  for  the  press.  Another 
person  put  into  bis  hands  a  paper,  which  would 
have  saved  him,  containing  an  account  of  the  con- 
spiracy; this  he  handed  to  his  secretary  without 
breakinir  the  seal.  After  he  was  sealed  in  the  sen- 
ate house,  the  conspirators  approached  and  ile- 
spalcbed  him  with  their  daggers  without  resistance, 
and  retired  lo  the  capitoi.'where  they  put  them- 
selves in  a  state  of  defence.  Thus  fell  ihe  first  and 
doubtless  the  greatest  of  the  Ctesjirs.  in  Ihe  ■'iClh  year 
of  his  ase.  anil  in  the  8th  of  his  sole  administration. 
No  Roman  ever  achieved  more  arduous  enterprises 
than  he.    He  rose  to  supreme  power,  in  opposition 


ROMAN  WARS. 


I  i  . 


ROMAN  WARS. 


to  men  of  great  abilities  and  of  much  greater  re- 
sources than  himself.  Whatever  standing  he  ac- 
([uired,  lie  maintained,  and  his  enemies  could  only 
destroy  him  by  treachery,  under  the  mask  of  friend- 
ship. Rome  did  not  owe  to  Caesar  the  loss  of  her 
liberties ;  they  were  lost  before  he  was  born.  He 
was  allured  to  seize  the  dazzling  prize,  which  to  all 
observers,  had  evidently  become  the  sport  of  fortune, 
and  was  liable  to  be  grasped  by  him  who  was  bold- 
est and  most  lucky.  Had  Pompey  prevailed  over 
Cfesar,  it  is  highly  doubtful  whether  Rome  would 
have  experienced  a  happier  destiny. 

The  fall  of  C'sesar  seemed  only  to  accelerate  the 
establishment  of  imperial  government.  Octavius,tlie 
grand  nephew  of  Ciesar,  and  heir,  by  will,  to  hia 
ifortunes  and  name,  was  soon  at  the  head  of  a  new 
triumvirate,  viz.  Jiimself,  Mark  Antony,  and  Lepi- 
dus.  This  new  triumvirate,  proclaiming  themselves 
the  avengers  of  Ciesar,  now  hastened  to  make  war 
upon  the"  conspirators,  whose  army  was  headed  by 
Brutus  and  Cassius.  Had  the  Roman  people  de- 
sired their  ancient  liberty,  which  they  certainly 
would  had  they  understood  the  import  of  the  word, 
or  had  the}'  entertained  any  just  notions  of  freedom, 
the}'  now  enjoyed  an  opportunity  of  regaining  it : 
but  so  far  from  that,  the  triumvirate  were  able  to 
excite  the  popular  indignation  against  the  conspira- 
tors, and  in  fact,  gained  the  people  over, to  their 
cause.  The  standard  of  liberty  was  deserted,  and 
the  wretched  infatuated  people  were  now  employed 
in  rivetting  those  chains  which  were  never  more  to 
be  broken.  The  conspirators  were  crushed  with 
little  trouble ;  and  in  shedding  the  blood  of  the  last 
patriots  of  Rome,  the  sublime  Cicero  fell  a  victim  to 
the  merciless  rage  of  .\ntony,  and  the  base  and  cruel 
policy  of  Octavius.  It  sooii  appeared  that  the  tri- 
umvirs had  comliined  with  no  other  view  than  as  a 
present  expedient,  which  was  to  be  laid  aside  when 
occasion  should  offer.  Accordingly  Lepidus  was  very 
quickly  rejected,  and  as  he  was  neither  a  soldier  nor 
a  statesman,  he  had  no  means  of  redress.  Antony 
and  Octavius  presently  differed,  and  once  more  mar- 
shalled the  forces  of  that  mighty  people  under  their 
hostile  standards.  Their  quarrel  was  decided  at  the 
battle  of  Actiuni.  A  sliort  time  after  which,  Antony 
expired  in  Egypt,  aii<l  left  Octavius  without  a  com- 
petitor. 

In  the  30th  year  before  Christ,  and  T24th  from  the 
building  of  Rome,  commenced  the  imperial  reign  of 
Octavius,  imder  the  titles,  of  Emperor  and  Augus- 
tus. Rome  now  became  an  empire  in  the  more  strict 
and  proper  sense  of  the  word;  and  notwithstanding 
the  degeneracy  of  the  Roman  people,  it  continued 
for  several  centuries  to  be  the  most  powerful  empire 
in  the  ancient  world.  The  connnotions  and  wars — 
the  luxury  and  wealth — the  corruptions  and  loss  of 
public  virtue  among  the  Romans,  did  not  extinguish 
but  rather  called  forth  and  perfected  their  genius 
for  literature.  The  sciences  were  assiduously  cul- 
tivated, and  men  of  learning  received  tlie  warmest 
patronage  and  the  auiplc!st  encouragement  from  those 
great  and  opulent  men  whose  wealth  was  immense, 
and  whose  tratHc  was  in  states  and  kingdoms :  in- 
deed, many  of  those  great  men  wctc  themselves  the 
favorites  of  tlie  muses.  They  studied  the  liberal  sci- 
ences and  <'legant  arts  with  a  diligence  scarcely 
known  in  modern  times.  Scipio  Africanus.  accord- 
ing to  the  tesliiiuiny  of  Cicero,  was  as  eminent  for 
mental  improvement,  as  he  was  in  the  art  of  war. 
Cato  was  a  man  of  great  learning  and  wisdom  :  and 
those  great  men  who  composed  the  two  triumvir- 
ates, especially  the  first,  were  highly  accomplished 
in  the  liberal  sciences. 

Wlien  we  consider  that  Cicero  was  a  profession- 
al man  -  that  fur  a  course  of  years,  many  of  the  most 
iiTiporl.'int  causes  in  the  vast  republic  were  ably  man- 
aged liy  him-  that  he  was  a  statesman  and  a  great 
leader  in  llie  politics  of  his  time — that  lie  was,  at 
times,  a  civil  magistrate,  a  soldier,  and  a  governor, 
and  patron  of  provinces,  we  may  truly  be  astonish- 


ed at  the  extent  and  success  of  his  studies.  His  vo- 
luminous writings  which  have  come  down  to  us, and 
which  form  the  most  perfect  standard  of  classic  ex- 
cellence, leave  us  in  doubt  which  to  set  foremost, 
whether  the  .strength  of  his  understanding,  or  the 
powers  of  his  imagination — or  which  we  shall  ad- 
mire most,  his  genius  or  industry.  It  is  no  partial 
admiraticm  by  which  those  writings  are  preserved  : 
the  united  voice  of  all  enlightened  nations  have  de- 
clared their  merit,  and  judged  them  worthy  of  im- 
mortality. The  same  may  be  said  of  the  writings  of 
Virgil,  and  Horace,  and  many  others.  But  the  ap- 
probation of  men  of  taste  and  learning,  in  all  nations 
has  set  the  literary  productions  of  the  Augustan 
age  above  all  panegyric.  They  will  be  read  and  ad- 
mired so  long  as  works  of  genius  and  taste  are  held 
in  estimation.  The  Roman  empire  now  appeared 
in  its  utmost  splendor.  Though  less  virtuous  and 
happy,  and  probably  less  powerful  than  in  former 
periods,  yet  the  concentrated  wealth  of  the  world, 
the  external  pomp  of  so  vast  a  monarchy,  threw 
round  her  a  dazzling  glory  which  the  most  distant 
nations  beheld  with  admiration  and  dread.  Embas- 
sadors from  remote  kingdoms  daily  arrived  to  do 
homage,  to  court  alliance,  or  solicit  protection. 

Augustus  held  the  reins  of  government :  there  was 
no  competitor — no  rival.  The  people  long  fatigued 
with  war,  were  very  glad  to  enjoy  peace,  though  un- 
der the  reign  of  a  despot.  There  was  no  Brutus  nor 
Cassius  to  conspire  or  to  .assassinate.  Cato  was  no 
more;  and  Cicero,  one  of  the  last  hmiinaries  of  Rome, 
had  been  murdered,  and  his  head  and  hands  cut  off 
and  fixed  upon  the  tribunal,  where  the  thunders  of 
his  eloquence  had  so  often  struck  terror  to  the  hearts 
of  tyrants.  The  spirit  which  animated  the  Romans 
in  the  days  of  Fabricius  was  gone  for  ever;  liberty 
had  taken  her  flight  from  the  earth,  or  had  retired 
to  the  sequestered  bower  of  the  .savage,  while  gorge- 
ous pride  lifted  her  head  to  heaven,  and  trampled  on 
innocence,  equity,  and  law.  Augustus  was  an  art- 
ful, insidious  tyrant :  whilst  one  of  the  triumvirate, 
he  had  been  careful  to  destroy  all  the  virtuous  men 
who  had  escaped  the  bloody  proscriptions,  the  civil 
wars,  and  the  violent  commotions  which  were  before 
his  time.  When  his  power  was  confirmed,  he  en- 
deavored to  fascinate  the  people — to  lull  them  into 
security — to  inebriate  them  with  luxury — to  dazzle 
them  with  his  pomp  and  glory,  and  by  all  possible 
means  to  extinguish  in  them  the  true  Roman  spirit, 
and  so  to  quality  and  sweeten  .slavery  itself,  as  to 
cimse  them  to  drink  it  down  with  a  pleasing  relish: 
he  succeeded;  for  never  was  a  people  so  changed  in 
temper,  habit,  mode  of  thinking,  and  national  char- 
acter. But  detraction  itself  cannot  deny  that  Au- 
gustus was  a  General,  a  Statesman,  and  a  very  great 
inan.  Though  void  of  the  magnanimous  spirit  of 
Cincinnatus, "Brutus,  and  Regvdus,  yel  he  affected  to 
revere  the  character  of  the  ancient  Rom;ins,  and 
seemed  desirous  tliat  a  semblance  of  freedom  should 
still  miirk  the  character  of  his  countrymen.  Wlien 
he  saw  himself  in  the  undisturbed  possession  of  em- 
pire, the  severities  of  his  administration  relaxed,  and 
he  held  the  reins  of  government  with  lenity,  dignity 
and  wisdom.  Fewmonarchs  have  enjoyed  a  longer 
or  more  prosperous  reign.  Ills  genius  was  less  war- 
like than  lliiit  of  .lulius  Ca>sar;  yet  in  the  course  of 
his  reign,  he  h;iil  v;irious  opportunities  of  showing 
himself  cajiiUile  of  comm;ouling  armies  and  of  di- 
recting very  exlunsive  milit;iry  operations.  But  his 
greatness  was  of  the  1r:uiquil  and  pacific  kind,  and 
he  showed  little  ambilion  to  enlarge  his  dominions. 
Tlie  reign  of  Auguslus  was  active,  energelic,  and 
loni;.  It  was  his  lioast  thai  he  found  Rome  built 
of  brick,  but  that  he  U'ft  it  liuill  of  marlile. 

The  R(un:in  empire,  during  ;i  period  of  21(1  years 
from  the  iireession  of  Auguslus  In  lli;il  of  Conuuo- 
dus,  conliLiiied  Die  middle  and  souUiern  parts  of 
Eurojie,  the  norlhirn  |);irls  of  Africa,  and  the  west- 
ern jiarts  of  Asi;i.  In  llie  directions  and  advice  of 
Augustus  to  his  succe.s.sor,  it  w;is  warmly  reuom- 


BOUAM  WAKS. 


773 


fiOHAN  WABB. 


ni('ii(l<'(l  lliiii  llic  c'liipiri'  sliuiild  ikiI  Iji'  riilnr>;r-(l ;  nr- 
ciinliiiijly,  Ilic  weak  iinii  ilViMiirjiilc  IOjii|nT<)r!«  liad 
III!  iiiclinatiiiii  iior  :il>ilily  lo  ilo  il,  iinil  llic  valiant 
and  warlilii-  nciicnilly  fmiiiil  liMsiMC'-s  i'niiii;;li  in  dc- 
fcndiriLC  wlial  llu'v  alrcuily  Imd  ;  while  llic  wise  and 
prndinl  ucrc  Hciisilily  inl|)rl■^sl■d  willi  the  prnprii'lv 
(if  llii'advicp  of  Anj;nstus.  'Plir'  I'Mipirc'  was,  indi'i'd, 
of  vaMl  cxlcnt :  and  if  wr  casl  our  cyrs  upon  a  nnip, 
we  sliall  dircclly  sec  that  it  lonipridicniliMl,  us  an 
rlcnant  hisliirian  rcniarkH,  "  llii'  fairr.sl  part  of  tlic 
carlli.  and  llir  most  civili/.cd  purlion  of  mankind." 
Dnrini;  this  iicriod,  howi'vcr,  very  <'iinsid(Tal)h'  ad- 
dilions  were  made  to  Ihc  rmpirc.  ajid  wi'  hclii'vc, 
moiT  or  IrsH  in  Ihc  Hirer  (piarlrr-i  of  llic;;lolic.  In 
Europe,  the  (iallic  and  (Jerman  provinces  were  en- 
lari;ed,  the  island  of  (ireal  Urilain  was  suhdued,  and 
Hcvi'ral  lari^iM'onnlrics  on  this  side  and  licyond  the 
Danulic,  as  Illyriiim,  Dacia,  I'annonia.  Ac.  The  Km- 
pcror  'Trajan,  in  order  to  proseiule  lli<;  war  with  the 
l)a<-iain,  creeled  a  sln]iendoiis  liriilirc  across  the 
Daniilic  ;  the  ruins  of  which  remain  lo  this  day,  and 
alTord  a  sublime  spc<'imen  of  ancicnl  archilcotiire. 

The  cruelly,  depravitv.  folly,  and  eiiorinoiis  vices 
of  tlu^  Kniperors  generally  form  a  striking  feature  in 
this  period.  They  seem  lo  have  been  iitlerly  losi  to 
all  sense  of  justice,  honor  or  duty.  Had  they  fol- 
lowed the  examples  ipf  .lulius  or  Auijiislns  ('ii-sar,  the 
Romans  would  scarcely  have  had  reason  to  rcijret 
Ihc  eslablLshmcnl  of  a  form  of  {rovernmeni  which 
rescued  them  from  deplorable  wars  and  wastini;  rcv- 
oliilions,  urj^ed  on  by  the  raije  of  various  powerful 
parties  succeeding  one  another.  Indeed,  it  is  siir- 
prisins;  that  the  illiislrious  examples  of  those  great 
men  should  be  deserted  immcdial<'ly,  an<i  so  soon 
forsioltcn  ;  and  it  can  be  accounted  for  in  no  other 
way  than  by  supposini;  that  the  reins  of  jjovcrnment 
fell  into  the  weakest  and  vilest  of  hands.  When  we 
consider  the  advantages  the  lirst  Einjierors  of  Home 
possessed,  it  can  scarcely  be  doublcil  that  many  of 
them  were  the  lowest,  the  most  detestalile  and  aban- 
doned villains  that  ever  swayed  a  scejjtre.  The  Kinsis 
of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  thoiijrli  barbarous  and  bloody 
tyrants,  were  almost  without  ii  slain  in  comparison 
■with  tliosc  •■  harpyfootcd  furies."  The  Henrys  and 
Edwards  of  Emrland  :  the  Loinscs  of  France;  the 
Gothic,  and  Chinese  monarclis  were  sa^es,  philoso- 
phers, philanthropists,  andsaiiils,  in  comparison  with 
them;  nor  can  we  read  tlie  history  of  Rome  without 
wondcrin;;  how  it  was  possible  for  that  once  power- 
ful and  majinaiiimous  jicojile  to  be  so  sunk  and  de- 
praved as  io  endure  the  tyranny  of  such  monsters, 
instead  of  hurlim;  tliem  with  iiidi;;nanl  scorn  from 
the  throne  which  they  so  deeply  disjjraced. 

If  the  fate  of  Poland,  in  our  own  times,  stands  as 
a  beacon  cxhibilins;  a  dreadful  testimony  to  the  na- 
tions of  the  earlli  of  the  cfTects  of  bad  i;overnment  ; 
we  may  certainly  derive  a  still  stronijer  testimony 
from  this  period  of  the  Roman  history.  The  wars  of 
Marius  anil  Sylla,  of  Ca-sar  and  Pompey,  and  of  Au- 
gustus and  Aniony.  had  deiiKinstraled  the  power  of 
individuals  to  enslave  the  Stale.  Those  wa.'s  had  al- 
most exterminated  the  ancient  Romans — I  hey  had 
extinguished  almost  all  the  srt'iit  imd  eminent  fami- 
lies, and  fpiite  all  the  great  men  who  dared  to  speak 
and  act  like  Romans.  At  the  same  time  an  immense 
multitude  of  foreijiners  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
poured  into  Rome;  and  the  army,  which  always 
governcil  Rome,  was  composed  of  a  mercenary  ra- 
pacious crew,  as  void  of  pulilic  spirit  as  of  all  sense 
ef  justice  and  honor.  An  empire  governed  by  a 
Prince  as  prolligale  and  abandoned  as  weak  and  ig- 
norant,  and  who  was  merely  the  tool  of  a  mutinous, 
ill-disciplined,  ami  vicious  soldiery,  must  certainly 
experience  the  worst  of  governments  ;  and  must  feel 
their  worst  effects:  accordingly,  the  lustre  of  Rome 
faded — her  power  decayed — her  virl  ue  jind  happiness 
were  for  ever  lost,  and  she  was  abandoned  to  every 
evil  and  calamity. 

From  various  internal  causes,  the  strength  of  the 
Koiuau  empire  declined  greatly  during  the  two  lirst 


centuries  of  the  ('liristian  Era;  she  \va»  not  only  ab- 
Koliitely  but  comparatively  weaker.  .Many  of  the 
Asiatic  provinces  Merined  only  to  observe  a  nominal 
subjection;  ami  the  l'arlbia:iH.  cHpecially  in  tliut 
rpiartiT,  gained  slrcni^th,  ronc  and  Iriiiniphed,  and  sift 
Rome  at  deliance.  'I"lie  nalioiiH  of  (iaiil  and  fiiTmu- 
ny  grew  strong,  and  often  showed  signs  of  revolt, 
and  even  miliealions  llial  they  were  one  day  to  truiii- 
ple  upon  the  asliis  of  their  coni|UiTorH. 

The   Romans  soon  gave  inelunclioly  proofs  of  Ihi; 

j  decay  of  learning,  as  well  as  of  civility  and  polile. 

'  ness.  We  liavi'  spoken  of  llie  rjiplnrable  fate  of  (-'i- 
cero.  Augustus,  under  Ihc  infamous  prc>tenc;e  of  ap- 
peasing liie  resentment  of  .Mark  Aniony,  had  murd- 
ered and  mangled  the  great  man.  The  crafty  lyrunt 
well  knew  how  necessary  it  was  for  liitn  to  silence 
thalelo(pn-nce  which  must  have  shaken  his  throne, 
and  to  exierminale  that  \irliie  which  rnust  have 
thrown  continual  embarrassments  in  the  way  of  liin 
ambitious  schemes.  Macenas,  the  great  friend  of 
Virgil  and  Horace,  still  lived;  but  be  only  lived  as  a 
llatteriT,  to  form  new  modes  tif  ailulatirju,  and  to  act 
the  i,Tin'.;ing  parasite.  In  the  course  of  the  reign  of 
the  twelve  Ciesars,  the  Roman  horizon,  which  had 
been  once  illuminated  with  cjne  immense  constella- 
tion of  poets,  orators,  philosophers,  statesmen,  he- 
roes, and  sages,  was  left  in  dreary  darkness.  And  if 
we  descend  to  the  reign  of  Conimodus,  we  shall  see 
few  lights  on  Ihal  once  splendid  horizon,  l(Ut  such 
as  most  resembled  the  horrid  ;:lare  of  tarlarean  tires. 
Vcl  the  names  of  .Seneca,  Lucian,  I'liny,  Josephiis, 
Quinlilian,  Tacitus,  Juvenal,  I'lutarch,  .Justin,  and 
(Jalen,  were  s(;attered  down  this  tract  of  lime  ;  long 
after  which  Longinus  tiourished;  and  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  the  Kniperor,  was  a  great  philosopher,  and  an 
ornament  of  the  rejiublic  of  letters. 

The  nature  and  fnrin  of  the  Roman  legion,  a  mili- 
tary eslablishmeiit  and  grand  inslriiinent  of  the  Ro- 
man i>ower,  by  which  Rome  coni|ueri'd  and  govern- 
ed the  world  had  been  improved  through  every  pe- 
riod of  the  republic,  and  greatly  so  by  .lulius  Ca-sar, 
as  well  as  by  some  of  his  successors.  The  main 
strength  of  the  legion  consisted  in  a  body  of  infant- 
ry, divided  into  ten  cohorts  and  fifty-five  companies, 
which  comp;inies  were  more  or  less  full.  Kacli  co- 
hort was  commanded  by  a  Prefect  or  Tribune,  and 
each  company  by  a  Centurion.  The  first  cohort, 
which  always  claimed  the  post  of  honor  and  carried 
the  eagle,  contained  1,10.5  soldiers,  the  most  approv- 
ed for  bravery  and  fidelity.  The  remaining  cohorts 
consisted  each  of  .W.") ;  and  the  infantry  of  a  legion, 
in  its  most  improved  stale,  amounted  to 6,100  men. 
Theirarins, which  were  uniform, consisted  of  a  helmet 
with  a  lofty  crest,  a  breastplate  or  coal  of  mail, 
greaves  on  their  legs,  and  on  their  left  arm  a  con- 
cave Ijuckler,  of  an  oval  form,  four  feet  in  length 
and  two  and  a  half  in  breadth.  The  buckler  was 
formed  of  light  wood,  covered  with  bull's  hide  and 
strengthened  with  plates  of  brass.  Thvpiliim.  a  long 
and  heavy  spear,  was  the  most  efTeclive  of  the  Ro- 
man we;ipons.  Wilh  this  they  tisually  conquered, 
ll  was  ;ibout  six  feet  long,  and  terminated  in  a  trian- 
gular point  of  steel  eighteen  inches  in  length.  This 
drciidful  javelin,  when  "  launched  from  the  vigor  of 
a  Roman  arm,"  often  pierced  helmets,  breast  plates, 
and  bucklers;  nor  was  there  anv  cavaln.-  that 
chose  to  venture  within  its  reach.  AVhi'n  the  pilum 
was  thrown,  which  was  commonly  within  the  dis- 
tance of  ten  or  even  six  yards,  the  soldier  drew  his 
sworil  and  closeil  wilh  the  enemy.  The  sword  was 
a  two-edged,  short,  well-tempered  blade,  fitted  to 
strike  or  push,  the  latter  of  which  the  Romans  were 
instructed  to  prefer. 
The  legion,  in  l>attle  array,  stood  eight  deep,  pre- 

i  serving  the  distance  of  three  feet  between  both  the 

;  ranks  and  files:  so  that  each  one  had  a  sntlicient 
space  lo  move  and  wield  his  arms  in;  and  this  loose 

I  order  gave  great  celerity  to  their  movements.  It  is 
remarked,  perhaps  justly,  by  Mr.  Gibbon,  that  the 

I  strength  of  the  phalanx  was  unable  to  contend  with 


BOUAN  WARS. 


774 


SOMAN  WABS. 


the  activity  Of  the  legion.  But  could  the  phalanx 
of  Alexander  have  contended  with  the  Itgion  of  Ju- 
lius Caesar,  each  under  the  eye  and  animated  by  the 
spirit  of  those  great  commanders,  a  difEereut  con- 
clusion perhaps'might  be  drawn.  A  body  of  cavalry, 
consisting  of  ten  troops  or  squadrons,  was  an  essen- 
tial appendage  of  each  legion.  The  lirst  troop  of 
horse  was  the  companion  of  the  tirst  cohort  and  con- 
sisted of  132  men.  The  other  nine  consisted  each 
of  66  men,  and  were  attached  to  the  remaining  nine 
cohorts.  The  cavalry  of  a  complete  legion  amount- 
ed to  T26  men.  Their  defensive  arms  were,  a  hel- 
met, a  very  oblong  shield,  light  boots,  and  a  coat  of 
mail.  Their  effective  weapons  were  a  javelin  and  a 
long  broadsword.  Thus  the  regular  infantry  and 
cavalry  of  a  legion  amounted  to  6.826  men  :  besides 
which,  severallight  armed  troops,  called  auxiliaries, 
where  attached  "to  it,  which,  together  with  all  the 
various  attendants  for  baggage,  &c,  swelled  each  le- 
gion to  upwards  of  12,000  men.  To  every  legion 
were  assigned  ten  engines  of  the  larger  size,  and  fif- 
ty-live of  the  smaller,  for  throwing  large  stones  and 
heavy  darts.  The  force  of  these  engines  was  such 
as  to  produce  astonishing  effects  on  walls  and  tow- 
ers, and  they  are  thought  by  some  writers  of  note  to 
have  been  Tittle  inferior  in  utility  to  cannon.  The 
camp  of  two  complete  legions  usual!}'  occupied  an 
exact  square  of  nearly  700  yards  on  each  side.  This 
spot  was  levelled  by  the  pioneers,  and  the  tents  were 
then  pitched  in  the"  form  of  regular,  broad  streets — 
the  prajtorium  or  General's  qiuirters  in  the  center. 
The  whole  square  was  then  surrounded  by  a  rampart 
12  feet  high,  compactly  formed  of  wood  and  earth, 
and  also  inclosed  by  a  ditch  12  feet  broad  and  deep. 
When  this  camp  was  to  be  left,  it  is  incredible  how 
soon  the  legions  would  be  in  motion.  Their  tents 
being  struck  and  packed,  each  legionary  loaded  him- 
self with  his  arms,  kitchen  furniture  and  provisions, 
sometimes  for  many  days ;  and,  wit^  this  weight, 
which  says  Mr. Gibbon,  w-ould  oppress  the  delicacy  of 
a  n:odern  soldier,  they  would  march,  by  a  regular 
steo,  20  miles  in  six  hours. 

The  military  discipline  of  the  Romans  was  exceed- 
ingly strict.  They  were  accustomed  to  various 
athletic  exercises  ;  and  their  armor  in  running  and 
leaping,  was  scarcely  considered  as  an  incumbrance. 
Such  were  some  of  Ihe  military  arrangements  of  the 
Romans ;  and,  in  order  to  form  some  idea  of  their 
armed  force,  it  may  be  observed,  that  tlie  peace  es- 
tablishment of  Adrian  and  his  successors  consisted 
of  thirty  of  these  formidable  legions,  which  were 
usually  stationed  on  the  banks  of  large  rivers,  and 
along  the  frontiers  of  their  extensive  dominions.  The 
author  just  cited  says,  that  under  the  Emperors,  the 
legions  were  more  or  less  permanently  stationed,  as 
follows,  viz.  three  legions  in  Britain — sixteen  on  the 
Rhine  and  Danube,  where  it  was  early  discovered 
that  most  force  was  necessary — eight  on  the  Euph- 
rates— and  in  Egypt,  Africa,  and  Spain,  a  single  le- 
gion was  sufficient  for  each.  Besides  all  these,  a 
powerful  armed  force  was  always  stationed  in  Italy, 
to  watch  over  the  safety  of  the  capital,  and  of  the 
Emi)eror.  These  were  called  city  cohorts  and  pr;e- 
torian  guards;  and  we  shall  see  hereafter,  that  these 
troops  were  principally  instrumental  in  the  ruin  of 
the  empire. 

From  theiall  of  the  Roman  empire,  a  period  of 
darkness  ensued,  ecjually  dreadful  for  its  length  and 
for  the  number  and  greatness  of  its  calamities  \!,>i>n 
mankind.  To  trace  the  history  of  those  times,  is  like 
making  a  progress  through  chaos,  amidst  upper, 
nellicr,  and  surroiuidiiig  (iiirkness.  We  willlirsl  no- 
tice th<'  fortunes  (jf  Conslanlinople,  conunonly  call- 
ed the  Eastern,  and  in  late  periods  of  history,  the 
Greek  empire.  The  successorsof  Constantine.whoni, 
in  this  article,  it  will  be  impossible  for  us  even  to 
name,  were  more  fortimate  in  tlie  east  than  in  the 
west.  The  nuinl)erless  swarni'J  of  barbarians,  wliii  li, 
in  these  tinu's,  poured  down  from  tlie  north  of  lOii- 
rope,  generally  directed  their  course  more  westward- 


ly  and  inundated  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  even  Af- 
rica. The  empire  of  Constantinople  was  various  in 
its  extent  ;  sometimes  its  territories  were  very  ex- 
tensive, and  at  others  were  limited  almost  to  the  city 
walls.  But  this  city  was  destined  to  enjoy  a  great 
and  almost  peculiar  felicity.  It  stood  unrifled  and 
imimpaired  through  all  the  storms  and  revolutions  of 
the  dark  ages.  It  was  never  taken  bj'  the  barbarians 
of  the  north,  nor  of  the  east.  It  was  even  fortunate 
enough  to  escape  the  rage  of  civil  war,  and  to  sur- 
vive for  many  ages  to  triumph  over  the  vices  of  its 
degenerate  inhabitants  :  till,  at  length,  it  was  taken 
by  Mahomet  II.,  Emperor  of  the  Turks,  in  the  year 
14.53, — 977  years  after  the  conquest  of  Rome  by  the 
Goths.  During  tliis  long  period,  the  reader  will  find 
few  things  in  the  histor}-  of  Constantinople  worthy 
of  very  particular  notice.  That  empire  neither 
abounded  in  heroes,  philosophers,  poets,  orators,  nor 
historians.  Yet  the  preservation  of  that  one  city  to 
so  late  a  period,  was  certainly  an  importan  link  in 
the  chain  of  events  whicli  restored  the  arts  and  sci 
ences.  The  writers  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  especial, 
ly  tlie  Crusaders,  speak  in  the  highest  terms  of  the 
greatness  and  splendor  of  Constantinople.  Her  final 
subjugation  to  the  Turks  appears  to  have  been  a  just 
judgment  of  Providence  upon  her,  since,  though 
bearing  the  Christian  name,  she  almost  uniformly 
carried  a  hostile  front  to  all  Christian  powers — made 
more  wars  upon  them,  and  exercised  more  animosity 
towards  them,  than  she  did  towards  Pagans  and  3Ia- 
hometans.  If  we  except  Constantinople,  the  whole 
of  Europe,  from  the  fall  of  Rome  to  the  establish- 
ment of  Charlemagne,  resembled  a  troubled  ocean. 
The  most  splendid  cities,  the  most  populous  coun- 
tries,  and  the  most  delightful  regions  of  the  earth, 
were  harassed  and  overwhelmed  with  ruin  and  des- 
olation. We  naturally  tirst  turn  our  eyes  toward 
Italy,  whose  wretcheil  inhabitants  were  the  severest 
sufferers  of  all.  The  historians  of  those  times  say 
that  their  sufferings  exceeded  all  conception — that 
neither  pens  nor  pencils  can  describe  the  barliarity, 
the  rage,  and  the  violence  of  their  savage  conquer- 
ors. All  their  effects  were  converted  into  plunder  ; 
their  men  of  every  age  and  character  were  put  to  the 
sword  or  dragged  into  slavery;  their  women  subject- 
ed to  the  most  brutal  violence,  and  their  cities  and 
villages  wrapped  in  flames. 

We  can  give  the  reader  no  juster  idea  of  the  mis- 
eries of  Rome,  than  by  noticing  to  him,  that  during 
this  period,  that  devoted  city  was  besieged  and  tak- 
en by  storm  five  times  in  the  space  of  twenty  years. 
Tho.se  northern  invaders,  after  having  conquered 
and  in  a  measure  destroyed  the  niiwarlike  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Roman  provinces,  fell  with  a  fury  upon 
one  another,  and  several  gloomy  centuries  were 
wiisted  away  in  the  horrors  of  the  most  bloody  and 
desolating  war.  The  Mediterranean  Sea  did  not  se- 
cure the  northern  shores  of  Africa  from  those  terri- 
ble invasions.  An  immense  horde  of  Vandals  found 
their  way  thither  and  settled  in  those  fruitful  coun- 
tries. But  their  settlement. so  far  from  taking  a  regu- 
lar, consistent  and  pacific  form,  remained  a  perpetu- 
al scourge,  and  accomiilishcd  the  utter  ruin  of  those 
once  opulent  regions.  .'\Iaiikliul  in  those  unha]ipy 
times,  seemed  iitterl_v  lost  to  all  mental  improvement 
as  well  as  to  all  sense  of  humanity.  For  several  ages 
the  whole  iiuman  race  scarcely  iiroduced  one  orna- 
ment, or  could  boast  of  one  illustrious  character  to 
illiMiiini'  the  universal  gloom, or  to  cast  a  partial  beam 
•if  liglit  tlirougli  the  intellectual  chaos:  so  far  from 
it,  that  those  days  were  sjiciit  in  destroying  the  no. 
blest  works  of  art  and  genius.  A  diligeiii  search  was 
maile  for  the  most  vahiable  productions  of  aiiti(|ui- 
t}',  not  to  preserve  and  treasure  iiji,  but  to  deinoHsh, 
to  burn,  and  to  destroy.  Nor  did  barbarians  alone 
pursue  Ihe  work  of  deslri.etiou;  the  superstitions  of 
the  apostate  Christian  Church,  in  too  many  instan- 
ces, lent  their  aid  to  that  infernal  work.  In  this  cur- 
sory  survey,  it  would  be  impossible  to  notice  Ihe 
;  sliglit  shades  of  diflerenecin  the  situation  of  the  nu- 


ROMAN  WAE8. 


n.) 


aOUAN  WARS. 


iniioiis  proviiiccH  of  I  lie  IJofimn  cnipirc.  And  hk 
these  liiiK^M  produced  no  liisloriiitiK.  il  would  lie  iir- 
rof;iuK;(^  to  iitteinpl  to  tell  llie  render  what,  wiiB  VC"- 
iiii?  oii.geueriiijy  spciiUintj.iii  the  eaHlern  purls  of  the 
world.  We  could  siiy  lillle  more  lliaii  lliat  llie  em- 
pire of  Cliiua  stood  lirm  iu  its  streii;;!!!.  luiviii^  ul- 
reiidy  llourislied  for  niuuy  ii};es.  Iiidiii  mid  I'ersiii 
liiive  l>eeii  subject  to  chamres,  divisions  and  revolu- 
tions from  timi^  iuunc^morial— especially  the  former; 
and  the  (tre<lv  writers  are,  [x-rhaps,  the  only  hislori- 
ans  who  ever  wrot(t  correctly  llic  Persian  history.  I' 
was  but  partially  known  before,  and  has  been  far 
less  so,  since  the  AuL^ustan  aL'<'.  The  north  of  ICil- 
rope  was  only  known  by  the  inenMlible  swarms  of 
barbarians  which  issueil  from  it,  anil  overwhelmecl 
the  civilized  world.  (.)f  the  history  of  Arabia  we 
shall  soon  have  occasion  to  speak  ;  and  conccridn^ 
the  immense  interior  of  Asia,  commoidy  called  'I'ar- 
tary,  the  best  of  modern  i;eoij;raphers  are  yet  uhuosl 
wholly  ifrnoraiil.HS  also  of  the  nuddle  rcfiions  of  Af- 
rica, The  Island  of  (Ireat  Mritain  has  been  known  in 
history  since  the  time  of  its  coi!i|Uesl  by  ,lulius  Cw- 
sar.  The  IJritous  made  a  formidabli'  resistance  to 
Ills  arms,  and  were  never  but  partially  conquered. 
When  the  Roman  empire  fell,  that  island  shared  in 
the  {general  calamities.  The  ]}ritish  called  over  to 
their  aid  the  Saxons,  a  nation  from  (iermany,  to  as- 
sist them  asjainst  the  fury  of  the  I'icts  and  Scots,  by 
wlioni  they  were  invaded.  The  Sa.xons,  led  l)y  llen- 
i;ist  and  llorsa,two  |iowcrfnl  chieftains  readily  obey- 
ed the  call,  and,  ai-i-ordini;  to  the  fashion  of  the 
ajje.  came  over  in  such  luunbers,  as  not  onl^-  to  re- 
pel the  IMcts  anil  Seots.but  to  conquer  and  enslave 
the  Hritons  themselves.  Thev  therefore  settled  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  island,  and  at  lens^lh  erected 
themselves  into  seven  petty  but  indeiiendent  king- 
doms, commonly  c:dled  the  Saxon  heptarchy.  These 
were  at  len;;th  united  into  one  n;overnment  by  Ej;- 
bert,  who,  about  the  year  HdO,  reii^ned  over  them  all 
and  founded  the  Eni^lish  monarchy.  This  brings  the 
English  history  to  the  close  of  the  period  whii'h  was 
to  be  the  subject  of  the  present  article.  Arabia  forms 
the  southwest  corner  of  .Vsia,  It  is  a  tract  of  coun- 
try considerably  more  than  a  thousand  nules  square, 
and  is  peninsulated  by  the  Persian  (iulf  on  the  cast, 
and  the  Red  Sea  on  tlie  west  of  it.  This  jjreat  coun- 
try is  supposed  to  have  been  peopled  orii^inally  by 
the  family  of  Islmiacl  the  son  of  Abraham.  Of  Ish- 
niael  it  was  foretold,  that  he  should  be  an  archcr,and 
that  his  hand  should  be  aijainst  every  man,  and  ev- 
ery man's  hand  aijainst  him.  This  prediction  seems 
to  have  been  ftilly  accomplished  in  his  po.sterity. 
The  Arabs  have  ever  been  excellent  horsemen  and 
archers,  formidable  with  the  bow  and  tlie  lance, and 
tlwy  have  been  wild  men,  and  have  dwelt  in  the  des- 
ert, A  siiii^ular  circumstance  in  their  history  is,  that 
they  have  never  been  compiered  or  subjujiated  by 
any  n.ation,  althouiih  it  has  been  attempted  succes- 
sively by  the  Chaldeans,  the  Persians,  the  Romans, 
and  in  late  ages,  l)y  the  Turks.  In  the  beirinning  of 
the  seventh  century, a  tire  Ijroke  out  in  Arabia,  which 
for  a  while,  threatened  to  involve  in  its  tl,-imcs  all 
Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  n'uiarkcd  by  an  able  histori- 
an, as  a  wonderful  synclu'onism,  that  the  very  same 
year  in  which  the  Uonian  pontilV  was  proclaimed  uni- 
versal bishop,  Mahomet,  the  grand  impostor,  forged 
the  Alcoran  in  a  cave  of  Jlecca.  The  usurpations 
of  the  Komisli  church  were  complete — the  beast  was 
at  its  full  growth,  and  was  then  ready  to  begin  his 
reign.  It  wovdd  thence  seem  ])robable,  th,'it  the  beast 
and  the  false  prophet  began  and  will  end  their  career 
nearly  together. 

It  is  a  matter  of  doid)t,  whether  the  great  exploits 
and  astonishing  elevation  of  some  men.  are  to  be  set 
down  to  the  account  of  their  extraordinary  natural 
endowments,  or  to  a  favorable  coincidence  of  events 
in  the  world  aroiuid  them.  Mahomet,  from  an  ob- 
scure parentage,  birth  and  education. rose  to  a  height, 
and  with  a  rapidity,  almi>st  without  a  parallel.  From 
the  occupation  of  a  tradesman  he  retired  to  a  cave 


In  Mecca,  where  he  pretended  he  had  frequent  in- 
terviews with  an  angel,  by  whose  assistaMce  and  di- 
rection he  wrote  the  Kofun  on  the  plate  bones  of 
cunielH,  He  at  li'iigth  insiied  from  the  cuvi-,  and 
began  to  publish  his  mission  lollie  [leople  of  .Mecca. 
.\  storm  was  soon  raisid  a^'aiiist  him  there,  and  he 
lied  from  Mecca  to  .Mediiiu,  in  Arabia.  This  IliKht 
the  Alahomelans  call  the  /nr/nru.  and  regard  il  aH 
their  grand  enoc'',  US  w<r  do  the  birth  of  (  hri.Hl.  The 
followers  of  >Ia..oiiira  soon  lieiame  niiinerouH— In; 
subdued  or  rather  revolutionized  his  native  eoiinlry, 
and,  in  a  short  time,  all  the  neighboring  coiinlrieK. 
His  religion  spread  with  his  arms,  and  wuK  embruc- 
id  wherever  he  conquered. 

The  Saracens,  as  .Mahomet's  followers  were  called, 
after  his  death  still  pursued  their  conqueHts  ;  and,  in 
a  very  short  time,  all  the  west  of  Asia,  the  north  of 
Africa,  and  the  .south  of  Europe  were  overrun  by 
this  dreadful  inundation  ;  which,  if  possible,  wa» 
more  sanguinary  and  exterminating  than  that  of  the 
(Joths  and  \andals.  A  linal  slop  however,  was  put 
to  the  progress  of  the  Saracens  in  Europe  bv  (harlcH 
-Martel,  who  defeated  them  with  gre.it  slaiii/hler  mar 
the  Pyrenees,  killing,  it  is  said  ;I70,(K)0  of  them  in 
one  day.     This  batllit  was  fought  in  the  year  7:i4. 

Mahomet  declared  himself  to  hi;  the"  prophet  of 
God,  sent  into  the  world  to  enlighten  and  reform 
mankind  ;  and  that  he  was  clothed  with  greater  light 
and  powers  than  either  .Moses  or  Christ.  Ilis  doc- 
trines and  morality  were  drawn  from  such  source* 
as  would  best  suit  the  prejudices,  and  obl:iin  cur- 
rency  among  the  iialinnH  «  horn  he  conquered.  They 
were  extracted  from  the  .lewisli  and  Christian  Scrip- 
tures—from oriental  traditions— from  the  legendary 
trash  of  the  rabbles,  and  indeed,  from  the  inventive 
genius  of  Mahomet  himself,  whose  knowledge  of 
mankind  enabled  him  to  foresee  how  the}'  miidit 
easiest  hi'  led  and  governed.  He  taught  the  unity  of 
(iod,  and  the  universality  of  his  providence,  or  rath- 
er, in  the  strictestesensc."the  doctrines  of  the  fatalist. 

His  selu'me  of  morality  allowed  the  full  indul- 
gence of  the  i)assions,  being  exactly  suited  to  the 
most  depraved  mind  ;  and  he  so  managed  the  affairs 
of  a  future  state,  that  they  could  have  no  influence 
in  favor  of  virtue  or  in  opposition  to  vice. 

It  was  not  without  reason,  that  he  relied  on  the 
natural  disposition  of  men  for  the  ultimate  success 
of  his  doctrines,  but  his  main  arguments,  for  their 
propagation,  were  lire  and  sword. 

The  kingdoms  of  Europe  in  general,  as  to  their 
extent  and  boundaries,  .seem  to  liave  been  parcelled 
out  by  accident,  or  more  jiropcrly  by  nature.  Spain 
is  marked  out  by  oceans  and  mountains— France  by 
oceans,  mountains,  and  rivers— Germanv  and  Italy 
in  like  manner.  .\s  early  as  the  period" under  con- 
sideration, sonic  remote  vestages  may  be  discovered 
of  the  present  Euroi)ean  establishments.  Early  in 
the  sixth  century,  Clovis  laid  the  foundation  of"the 
French  monarchy ;  at  which  time  the  rage  of  emi- 
gration by  nations  had  generally  subsided,  either 
becuuscthe  wilds  of  Europe  hail  poured  forth  all 
their  daring  si)irits,or  because  a  general  repletion  of 
the  southern  provinces  had  rendered  a  kind  of  retlux 
necessary.  Xo  part  of  Europe  had  oftener  been 
traversed  and  ransacked  than  France:  but  as  they 
found  less  plunder  there,  they  generally  pushed  for- 
ward to  othereonntrics.  The  Franks  at"  lensth  made 
a  settlement  there,  after  having  driven  out  and  des- 
troyed several  Gothic  nations,  who  had  previously 
dispossessed  the  Romans  and  ancient  Gauls.  Froiii 
the  Franks  the  country  is  supposed  to  have  obtained 
the  name  of  France.  The  Franks,  after  maintain- 
ing long  and  bloody  wars  with  subsequent  invaders 
for  several  ages,  at  length  found  themselves  united 
by  a  more  regular  form  of  government  under  Clovis, 
who  is  reckoned  the  founder  of  the  first  dj-nastr  of 
French  monarchs. 

During  the  period  now  before  -is.  the  f.ace  of  Eu- 
rope was  changed. as  we  have  already  stated,  bv  the 
Gothic  ;.ud  Saracen  eruptions.      The  lirst  care   of 


BOMAN  WARS. 


77C 


BOUAN  WARS. 


these  barbarous  invaders  was  to  destroy  and  for- 
ever to  obliterate  the  inhabitants,  the  institutions, 
tlie  manners  and  customs  of  the  countries  wliicli 
they  subdued.  A  far  more  difficult  task  than 
this  was  to  maintain  their  acquisitions  agaiust 
subsequent  invaders  :  for  the  north  of  Europe,  like 
an  immense  storehouse  of  nations,  poured  forth  in- 
numerable hordes,  in  rapid  succession.  These  were 
equally  hostile  to  each  other,  and  knew  nothing  but 
to  make  war — to  kill  and  ravage  wherever  they  came. 
Wiietlier  it  was  owing,  liowever,  to  the  softening 
influence  of  mild  climates,  combined  with  the  scat- 
tered rays  of  science,  humanitj-.  and  order  which 
had  escaped  the  overwhelming  tlood  of  darkness: 
or  whether  to  the  imperceptible  influence  of  various 
unknown  causes  upon  individuals — the  people  in  the 
south  and  west  of  Europe,  instead  of  sinking  into  a 
savage  state,  l)egan,  in  the  sixth  ccntur}',  to  assume 
a  regular  form  of  government, which,  though  bad  in 
itself,  yet,  imder  the  influence  of  a  natural  course  of 
causes  idt  imately  led  on  to  the  present  state  of  Europe. 
The  nurthern  barbarians  entertained  a  high  sense 
of  freedom,  and  each  of  them  considered  himself  as 
entitleii  to  a  lil)eral  .share  of  whatever  his  trilie  should 
conquer.  Each  great  chieftain,  therefore,  granted 
out  and  divided  the  conquered  lands  to  the  high  of- 
ficers ue.\t  himself,  and  they  subdivided  the  same 
among  their  followers  or  vassals  ;  tmder  this  ex- 
press condition,  that  each  man  should  do  militarj' 
service  a  certain  part  of  his  time  to  his  immeiiiate 
lord,  and  that  each  lord  or  great  vassal  of  the  court 
should  also  di  militarj-  service  to  the  Grand  Chieftain 
or  King.  This  division  of  property  which  prevailed 
in  every  part  of  Europe,  was  grounded  wliolly  on 
military  policy  ;  it  became,  in  fact,  the  only  organ- 
ized system  of  defense  for  several  centuries, and  has 
obtained  the  name  of  \\\e  feudal  xy^tem .  This  system 
of  property,  government,  and  war,  although  it  must 
be  regarded  as  a  happy  change  from  a  direful  plunge 
of  the  human  species  into  anarchy,  and  all  the  deg- 
radations of  a  savage  state. _vet  was  radically  defective 
and  certainly  conduced  to  protract  the  ages  of  dark- 
ness. Still,  however,  it  left  room  for  the  slow  oper- 
ation of  causes  which  would  naturally  correct,  im- 
prove, and  elevate  the  human  mind  ;  and  which 
would  at  length  originate  other  causes,  far  more  ef- 
ficient and  rapid  iu  rending  the  veil  of  darkness. and 
once  more  ushering  the  nations  into  the  light  of 
science  and  civility.  Tlmse  who  would  see  this  sub- 
ject handled  with  great  elegance  and  perspicuity, 
may  find  it  in  the  first  volume  of  Dr.  Robertson's 
History  of  Charles  V.  AVe  shall  here  only  observe 
that  the  exorbitant  power  of  the  middle  order  was 
the  grand  defect  of  the  feudal  systetn.  The  great 
lords  held  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  their  own 
subjects:  and  also  the  right  of  making  war  in  their 
own  defense.  Of  course,  if  with  such  an  extent  of 
prerogative,  the}'  confederated,  they  always  out- 
weighed the  King — if  they  were  at  war  with  each 
other,  which  was  often  the  case,  the  King  had  no 
control  over  them, because  it  wasimpossihle  for  him 
to  raise  or  command  an  army  witlioiit  their  assist- 
ance. On  the  one  hand,  tlierefore.  the  liands  of  tlie 
mcmarch  were  lied  :  and.  the  other,  the  lowest  order 
were  little  better  than  abjei'l  shives  to  their  immedi- 
ate governors.  The  feuilal  governments  were  at  no 
great  remove  from  the  very  worst  of  oligarchies. 
The  want  of  Dower  in  the  prince,  and  the  force  of 
the  nation  so  divided,  rendering  them  weak  against 
invasion.  This  weakness  was  increased  by  the  jeal- 
ousies and  turbulence  of  the  great  lords,  who  fre- 
quently occ:isioned  civil  wars. and  at  length  reduced 
them  to  a  slate  of  anarchy,  frfun  which  Ihev  coiilii 
only  be  recovered  and  reunited  by  union,  and  ii 
strong  sense  of  ctoinnion  diinger. 

In  the  midst  of  the  fluctuating  wiives  of  war,  revo- 
lution, and  iinarchy,  the  ]iowerfiil  genius  of  Charle- 
magne erected  anew  empire  in  Euroiie;  which,  for  a 
moment  bid  fair  to  cut  sliorl  the  reign  of  darkness, 
and  re-establish  those  iiistilulioiis  which  im])rove  and 


adorn  society.  His  dominion  comprehended  tho 
fairest  parts  of  Europe;  France,  Germany  and  Italy. 
This  event  took  place  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century.  But  as  nothing  can  be  more  uninteresting 
than  the  sterile  histories  of  the  wars  and  revolutions 
of  the  dark  ages,  so,  even  wliat  is  known  of  the 
battles,  the  sieges,  the  victories,  the  conquests,  the 
elevation,  and  the  grandeur  of  Charlemagne,  will 
be  little  more  improving  to  tlie  reader  of  history, 
than  to  tell  him  that  Charlemagne  was  a  soldier  of 
fortune — that  he  fought  bravely,  and  was  generally 
victorious;  in  a  word,  that  he  established  a  huge  em- 
pire, consisting  of  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  crude 
materials — incongruous,  disjointed  members,  and 
which  he  governed  for  several  years  not  by  anj-  reg- 
ular plan  of  civil  polic}-,  which  the  nations  were 
then  as  incajiable  of  receiving  as  of  organizing,  but 
hy  a  strong  military  arm,  which  he  wielded  with 
dexterity  and  success  ;  and  that,  when  he  expired, 
Ills  empire  fell  into  pieces.  In  justice,  however,  to 
this  great  monarch,  it  must  be  noticed  that  he  was 
far  from  resembling  the  fierce,  cruel,  and  barbarous 
chieftains  of  the  Goths  or  Saracens.  Instead  of  de- 
serving the  title  of  Attila,  the  senurge  of  God,  and 
the  ternrrofmen,  he  is  justly  celebrated  for  cultivat- 
ing the  arts  of  peace — for  encouraging  men  of  learn- 
ing and  wisdom,  and  for  promoting  various  import- 
ant civil  institutions.  Perhaps,  Init  for  him,  Europe 
had  still  remained  under  the  cloud  of  Gothic  ignor- 
ance. He  merits  an  honorable  rank  among  those 
great  and  powerful  minds,  which  evinced  the  possi- 
bility of  checking  the  strong  current  of  the  times; 
and,  could  he  have  lived  and  reigned  for  a  century, 
he  might  have  raised  Europe  from  her  degraded 
state.  But  time,  and  a  long  series  of  events,  could 
onl}'  mature  those  seeds  of  order  and  virtue,  which 
under  his  administration  began  to  vegetate,  but 
which,  in  a  manner,  disappeared  with  him.  and  left 
the  world  in  still  palpable  darkness. 

During  the  283  years  following  the  reign  of  Coni- 
modus,  and  up  to  ihe  extinction  of  the  Western  Em- 
pire uuder  Augtistulus,  there  is  little  else  to  contem- 
plate but  the  most  deadly  disorders,  the  most  agon- 
izing struggles,  and  the  deepest  and  most  ostensible 
deca}'.  IJut  an  empire  containing  a  hundred  and 
twenty  millions  of  jieople — founded  in  power,  wealth 
and  policy — strengthened  by  every  auxiliary  of  hu- 
man greatness — triumphing  over  all  enemies,  and 
elevated  almost  beyond  the  reach  of  invasion,  could 
only  perish  Ijy  tlie  gradual  progress  of  internal  dis- 
order. The  misfortunes  of  Rome  sprung  from  her 
own  bosom,  and  it  can  scarcely  be  said  that  she  had 
enemies,  till  she  had  formed  and  trained  them  to  the 
arts  of  war.  In  the  ISOth  year  of  the  Christian  era, 
Commodus  ascended  the  throne.  No  reign  was  more 
inauspicious  than  his,  nor  is  the  memory  of  any  prince 
more  deeply  covered  with  infamy.  He  formed  a  per- 
fect contrast  to  his  illustrious  father,  INIarcus  Aure- 
lius.  It  would  be  impossible  in  this  compend  to 
draw  a  character  more  black,  detestable  and  deprav- 
ed than  that  of  Commodus.  A  detail  of  his  vices 
would  occupy  more  space  than  we  can  allow  to  the 
whole  subiect  of  tliis  article.  We  can  .'iay  but  lit- 
tle more  than  that,  during  his  reign,  the  administra- 
tion of  government  was  totally  abaudcmed,  and  the 
numerous  projis  of  a  falling  empire,  which  had  ex- 
isted a  century  before  this,  were  now  no  more.  At 
the  seat  of  government  there  was  nothing  but  lux- 
ury, riot  and  murder.  In  the  iirovinces,  extreme 
disorder,  ra|iacity,  misery  and  revolt  ]irevailed.  On 
the  frontiers,  tlic  burning  of  cities  and  the  blood  of 
thous.'Uids  marked  the  footste])Sof  inv.Msion.  In  Il;ily, 
disalfeclioiKcoiispirac}-,  jealousy,  terror,  detestation, 
revenge,  fury  and  despair,  surrounded  Ihe  Ihroiu — 
tilled  the  capital  inspired  every  heart,  and  painted 
destruction  on  every  face.  In  the  army  there  was 
licentiousness,  outrage,  mutiny  and  desertion.  The 
soldiers,  in  multitudes,  forsook  their  standards,  and 
in  numberless  and  fierce  banditti,  infested  llie  high- 
ways.    The  redress  of  wrongs  and  the  recovery  of 


ROMAN  WA£S. 


777 


EOU&M  WAB8. 


riKli'f  t'xpirod  willi  civil  juslifc  ;  iukI  while  llic  crii- 
pirc  felt  those  slvdim  Imt  viiiii  slriin^les,  which  were 
occaMionecl  liy  I  hi'  rciu'linn  of  Iwr  niihinil  I'drcc,  her  uii 
ion,  power,  and  Miililiiry  ri'piiliilioM  viiiiishcil.iiiiil  h'ft 
hiT  iiM  iriimeiis<'  clmoM  of  (liscordaiil  principles.  An 
illiislrioiH  pareiilaj^e  i^tiVf  hit;h  expeelalioiis  of  Com- 
liiodiis,  lull  his  (Miiidiict  soon  lianished  all  liope.l.  lie 
<'xlMhile(l  cruellies  al  which  even  Nero  would  have 
shuddered,  and  lie  was  even  more  elTeininale  Ihan 
Sardanapalus.  It  seems  a  pity,  for  the  honor  of  hu- 
manity, that  the  name  of  so  infamous  a  monster 
should  have  been  ))reserved.  His  feeble  am!  lii'cnti- 
ous  rciiin  produced  calaiinties  to  his  country,  after 
his  vices  had  destroyed  him,  and  he  was  no  more.  Jle 
was  no  sooner  laUen  oil'  by  a  conspiracy,  conducted 
bv  his  favorite  mistress,  than  the  ehniee  of  the  army 
aiid  senate  clothed  with  the  imperial  pin'plc,  llelve- 
tius  I'erlinax.  lie  was  aliove  111)  years  of  aire -had 
served  under  tlu^  illustrious  Anionines — and  was  al- 
vfays  noted  eipially  for  bravery  and  wisdom,  lie 
bad  risen  from  a  private  soldier,  IhroUijh  all  the 
irrades of  military  honor  to  thai  of  ;)nelorian  prefect. 
With  modesty  and  reluctance  hv  assumed  the  <lia- 
<lom,  which  he  was  ileslincd  to  wear  and  to  s;ra('e 
only  lorn;  enough  to  ilenionslrate  his  merit,  and  to 
enroll  his  name  amongst  the  most  excfllent  ot  the 
Uoman  Emperors. 

If  the  degenerate  Uomans  discovered  their  mis- 
lalie.  in  elevating  to  the  throne  a  man  wdiose  adminis- 
tration v.'as  utterly  repugnant  to  their  wishes,  he 
much  sooner  discovered  his,  in  thiid<ing  it  possible 
to  renovate  the  empire,  now  going  rapidly  into  an 
irrecoverable  decline.  The  ijoman  armies,  which 
under  the  Scipios  had  subdued  Africa  and  Asia — 
which  underCifsar  had  exlendc<l  the  cmi)ire  beyond 
the  Danube,  and  which  under 'rrajan  had  con(|uered 
beyond  the  Kujihratcs.  were  now  the  scorn  and  ridi- 
<'ule  of  the  barbarians.  'I'hrough  a  tntid  want  of 
discipline,  all  suliordinatiou  was  lost — all  niilitary 
spirit:  nothing  remained  but  discord,  sedition  and 
outrage,  rerlinax  commeiuc<i  an  adnunistration  vig- 
orous, systematic  and  comprehensive.  The  em|)ire, 
through  her  wide  regions  felt  his  power,  and  saw 
and  revered  the  equity  that  marked  all  his  move- 
ments. It  was  soon  perceived  that  I'ertinax  would 
aim  to  suppress  those  irr.-gularities  and  restore  tie 
discipline  of  thearmy  to  its  ancient  severity — that  he 
would  revive  the  institutions  of  civil  justice,  and  re- 
trieve the  fallen  (iignity  of  th<'  Roman  name.  Hut 
ala.< !  his  noble  intentions  and  excellent  schemes 
could  not  be  elTectuated  by  mortal  prowess  :  the  na- 
tion was  too  far  gone — too  deeply  sunk  in  vice  and 
luxury.  The  palace,  the  court,  and  the  capital  were 
tilled  and  surrounded  with  a  swarm  of  execrable 
villains,  whom  the  vices  of  Commodus  had  rendered 
necessary — w  hom  his  weakness  had  cpdioldencd,  and 
the  corruption  of  the  times  had  furnished  in  abund- 
.*\uce.  His  first  care  was  to  displace  these — to  exalt 
men  to  power  who  were  worthy  to  rule,  ami  to  re- 
strain and  punish  the  insolence  of  the  prietoriau 
guards. 

He  had  just  entered  on  this  salutary  but  arduous 
work,  when  he  was  informed,  one  day,  that  a  muti- 
ny was  raising  in  thearmy.  He  liad  only  time  to 
walk  to  the  gate  of  his  palace,  when  he  perceived  a 
large  body  of  soldiers  rapidly  advancing  with  angry 
clamors  and  menacing  imprecations.  .\s  they  drew 
near,  he  stood  his  ground  and  with  a  firm  dignity  de- 
mandeil  their  business.  Without  making  any  rejily. 
a  Scythian  soldier  struck  him  dead  al  a  lilow.  His 
head  was  severed  frcun  his  body  and  carried  on  a 
pole  to  the  camp:  wliere  immediately  after  the  em- 
pire was  otTered  at  public  sale  to  the  highest  bidder. 
It  was  bid  olT  by  a  sordid  wretch,  who  ass\imed  the 
purple,  liut  who,  in  a  few  days.  sutTcred  all  the  se- 
verities of  the  fate  of  I'ertinax.  witliout  any  of  the 
pity  and  regret  which  will  follow  the  nuMuory  of  that 
great  man  io  the  latest  posterity.  It  is  a  matter  of 
regret  that  so  little  is  known  of  Pertinax.  th;it  so  few 
circuinstauces  have  escaped  oblivion,  which  would 


more  dearly  elueidate  his  private  character:  and 
especially,  that  .so  short  a  lime  was  allowed  him  for 
ilisplaying  thc'  energy  of  conunand.  the  wisdom  ot 
legislation,  and  tlie  greatness  of  man.  HislorianH, 
however,  unite  in  allowing  him  to  rank  with  the 
most  worthy  men  who  ever  governed  Home.  Ilm 
energy  was"  guiiled  by  justice  his  authority  was 
tempered  with  swei-lness,  and  all  his  Huperemiiient 
(pndities  combined  to  form  a  character  Iridv  great 
and  amiable.  Were  it  safe,  however  at  this  (lislance 
of  time,  one  might  conjecture  that  hi'  was  too  severe 
and  hastv  In  his  first  e-isaysof  reformation.  Had  he, 
by  some  politic  and  impenetrable  movement  contriv- 
ed  to  separate  and  remove  to  a  distance  his  lici'Mli- 
ous  soldiery,  till  he  could  have  levied  and  diHcii)lin- 
ed  an  army  to  his  miia.  perhaps  he  might  have  en- 
joyed a  loiiger  and  more  fortunate  reign.  iJut  what 
power  can  renovate  a  nation  totally  elli  iniiuite  and 
corrupt  1  I'ertinax,  by  his  abililiis  and  address,  aH- 
cended  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  rank  anions 
men.  His  reverses  were  so  mimerous,  great  and 
suilden.  that  historians  have  given  him  the  peculiar 
appellation  of  the  Ifiiiiix  //nil  'if  f'rlnne. 

i'Voni  the  death  of  l'(rlinax  till  that  of  Au;;ustulu8, 
the  last  of  the  Koman  Kmperors  of  the  West,  wa» 
'282  years,  during  which  time  no  less  tlian  lifly-six 
Emperors  swayed  the  see))tre  in  succession.  Their 
nanu's  it  is  not  nc-cess;iry  to  ricord :  anil  for  an 
account  of  their  vices  (for  little  more  is  ri'corded 
of  themj.  the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  history 
of  the  decline  of  the  Koman  empire:  on  which  part 
of  history.  Gibbon  is  the  ablest  and  most  elegant 
writer  in  our  language.  The  artful  and  insi'Mous  en- 
deavors of  that  writer  to  subvert  Christianity,  and 
to  substitute,  no  one  knows  what,  in  its  place,  are 
obvious  to  every  reader  :  yet  his  merit  as  a  writer 
cannot  be  ipiestioned  :  anil  although  his  opposition 
to  Christianity  lietrayed  him  into  many  gross  absurd- 
ities suited  to"  the  complexion  of  his  prejudices,  yet 
his  history  of  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  Koman  em- 
pire is  one  of  the  noblest  of  historical  productions. 
So  much  has  been  already  said  conceriung  the  de- 
cline of  the  Roman  empire  that  the  reader  may  be 
surprised  wIk'U  he  luiderstandstluit  it  stood  upwards 
of  two  centuries  after  this  period.  lint  that  empire 
could  onlv  die  a  lingering  death.  West  of  it  lay  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  south  lay  Africa,  which,  since  the 
fall  of  Carthage,  was  without  power,  east  lay  A.sia, 
dissolved  iu  luxury,  always  ready  to  be  conquered, 
as  soon  as  attacked,  and  enslaved  as  soon  as  invad- 
ed :  and  so  far  from  subduing  Rome  that  they  were 
even  too  effeminate  to  maintain  a  form  of  govem- 
u'.ent  over  themselves. 

The  barbarous  nations  which  lay  nor*h  of  the  .>m. 
pire  were  indeed  numerous  and  warlike:  but  they 
could  not  subdue  the  Romans,  till  they  had  learned 
of  them  the  art  of  war.  And  the  power  of  Rome, 
under  the  Emperors,  lay  chieliy  in  the  uothern  prov- 
inces, where  it  was  most  needed.  As  we  have  al- 
ready said,  sixteen  or  twenty  legions  generally  lay 
I  bordering  on  the  IChine  and  Danube.  The  barba- 
I  rians,  in  these  times,  were  generally  poorly  clothed 
and  fed.  and  had  few  arms!  as  well  as  little  knowl- 
edge of  the  ;irt  of  war.  Their  invasions  were  like 
those  of  a  hungry  lion,  whom  fierce  appetite  impels 
to  rush  on  the  point  of  the  spear,  in  order  to  seize  its 
'  prey;  and  their  chief  ditiiculty  was  want  of  union. 
Their  tribes  were  composed  of  warlike,  fierce,  im- 
p.-tuous  spirits;  but  they  were  unsettled,  barbarous, 
roviuir.  independent,  aiid  jealous  of  the  power  of 
their  chiefs,  as  well  as  tenacious  of  the  honor  of 
their  tribes.  Yet  the  nations  composing  the  north- 
ern hive  could  not  but  experience  a  gradual  improve- 
ment. Their  proximity  to  a  great  and  enlightened 
people,  with  whom  they  were  at  perpetual  war— 
their  strength  of  body— their  intellectual  vigor,  and 
their  ambition  to  acquire  tho.se  arts  which  had  so 
long  rendered  the  Romans  invincible,  must,  in  time, 
hiivv  produced  their  natural  and  unavoidable  effects. 
In  the  barbarian  armies  and  coimlries  there  must 


SOMAN  WAB8. 


778 


BOHAN  WABS. 


have  been  a  multitude  of  Honians:  niuubers  having 
fled  from  justice,  or  induced  to  rove,  from  disgust 
at  their  own  capricious  and  tyrannical  government, 
would  naturally  seek  an  asylum  in  the  wilds  of  Eu- 
rope, and  among  a  more  free  and  equitable  people. 
Numbers  being  detained  there  would,  at  length 
yield  to  necessity,  and  voluntarily  remain  in  a  land, 
whither  they  had  been  dragged  as  captives,  assimil- 
ating by  ilegrees  to  its  cu.stoms  and  habits. 

The  Gauls  and  Germans,  from  the  period  now  be- 
fore us,  composed  the  strength  of  the  Koman  armies: 
and  great  numbers  of  these  nations,  whom  we  shall 
indiscriminately  call  the  Goths,  and  Vandals,  and 
Huns,  were  now  admitted  into  the  Roman  service, 
either  as  legionaries  or  auxiliaries.  Some  of  them 
were  promoted  to  the  highest  stations,  both  civil  and 
military,  and  even  wore  the  imperial  diadem  and 
purple.  Many  of  these,  either  never  had,  or  else  lost 
all  attachment  to  Rome;  and  rejoining  their  countrj'- 
men,  carried  and  diffused  among  them  the  arts  of 
war,  and  advantages  of  disciplined  valor.  From  the 
reign  of  Commodus  to  the  extinction  of  the  Western 
Empire,  history  presents  one  uniform  scene  of  dis- 
order, vice  and  misery.  We  have  almost  constantly 
before  our  eyes,  a  great  empire  going  rapidly  to  de- 
struction under  the  influence  of  bad  government.  A 
very  few  of  the  Emperors,  however,  during  this 
dreary  period,  were  both  able  statesmen  and  com- 
manders. Had  it  been  their  fortune  to  have  reigned 
in  happier  times,  and  over  a  more  virtuous  people, 
their  administrations  would  have  done  more  import- 
ant service  to  mankind.  But  their  best  measures 
and  greatest  exertions,  seemed  only  to  have  the  ef- 
fect of  medicines  given  to  the  sick  after  his  disease 
has  become  incurable;  they  might  a  little  procras- 
tinate, but  could  not  prevent  the  moment  of  dissolu- 
tion. About  the  year  of  Christ  267,  the  Emperor 
Valerian  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Persians,  when 
no  less  than  thirt}'  persons  in  various  parts  of  the 
empire  assumed  the  imperial  purple,  with  the  titles 
of  CiBsar  and  Augustus;  and  each  of  thein  endeavor- 
ed to  support  his  claims  and  titles  b}'  the  sword. 
There  can  be  no  stronger  proof  than  tliis  of  the  ex- 
treme wretchedness  of  those  times.  All  was  tuuuilt, 
war,  distrust,  cruelty  and  the  most  bloody  revolu- 
tions. But  there  are  two  circumstances  in  the  pe- 
riod of  history  now  before  us.  which  merit  the  par- 
ticular attention  of  the  reader,  viz.  the  establislmient 
of  the  Christian  Religion  throughout  the  empire.  Ijy 
means  of  the  conversion  of  the  Emperor  Constantine. 
surnamed  the  Great;  and  his  removal  of  the  seat  of 
government  from  Rome  to  the  ancient  city  of  By- 
zantium, which  he  rebuilt  and  called  Constantinople, 
or  the  Citu  i>f  ('nnxtuntine.  We  have  already  notice<l 
the  rapid  spread  of  the  Christian  Religion".  In  the 
days  of  Constantine  it  had  penetrateil  almost  every 
part  of  the  empire.  No  sooner,  therefore,  did  that 
prince  declare  in  favor  of  it,  than  it  became  tlie  re- 
ligion of  the  court,  the  capital,  and  soon  of  the  em- 
pire itself.  This  was  tridy  an  amazing  change,  and 
forms  one  of  the  most  memorable  icras  in  eeclesias- 
tical  liistorv;  a  meek  and  humble  religion  uid<nown 
to  the  world,  or  if  known,  (les])ised  ;ind  ])crsecuted, 
set  on  foot  by  a  few  oljscurc  persons  in  .ludea,  and 
propagated  only  by  tlie  force  of  rational  conviction, 
spread  and  prevailed  against  all  opposition  over- 
turned the  altars  and  silenced  the  oracles  of  the 
heathen;  and  at  last,  through  hosts  of  prejudices  for- 
tified by  anti(iuify,  and  sanctioned  by  universal  cf.s- 
tom.  madi^  its  way  to  the  throne  of  the  C'a;sars.  It 
was  like  a  "stone  cut  out  of  a  mountain  without 
hands,  ix-coniing  a  great  mountain  and  tilling  the 
whole  earth."  There  are  various  accounts  given, 
and  various  opinions  formed,  concerningthe  conver- 
sion of  t'onstanline.  Whether  his  minil  was  swayed 
by  the  power  of  truth,  or  by  temporal,  ])olitie;d  and 
interested  motives,  is  not  easy  to  determine.  It  is 
related  anil  believed  by  some  that  his  conversion  ' 
was  miraculous.  They  say  that  he  saw  in  tlu'  heav-  : 
ens  the  sign  of  the  cross,  with  this  inscription  in  ni-  ' 


diant  letters.  By  this  conquer,  and  that  upon  this 
he  immediately  embraced  Christianity.  His  life 
I  and  conduct  were  by  no  means  eminent  for  christian 
virtue,  nor  was  he  wholly  free  from  crimes  of  the 
deepest  die. 

From  this  period  the  Christian  Church  was  loaded 
with  lionor,  wealth  and  power ;  nor  did  her  virtues 
ever  sustain  a  severer  trial.  The  chief  dignitaries 
of  the  empire  could  scarcely  do  less  than  imitate  their 
master,  and  Christianity  soon  became  a  necessary 
qualification  for  public  office.  The  church  now  no 
longer  apper.red  in  her  ancient  simplicit)'  and  purity; 
lords  and  princes  were  among  her  converts,  and  she 
was  dressed  in  robes  of  state.  Her  ceremonies  were 
increased — her  forms  of  worship  were  loaded  with 
pomp  and  splendor — her  doctrines  were  intermingled 
with  the  senseless  jargon  of  a  philosopliy  eijually 
absurd  and  vain;  and  the  way  seemed  prepared,  not 
only  for  the  decay  of  Christiim  doctrine  and  moral- 
ity, but  of  every  science  which  distinguishes  civiliz- 
ed from  savage  nations.  After  various  wars  and 
competitions,  Constantine,  in  the  year  of  Christ.  320, 
became  sole  master  of  the  Roman  empire.  He  cer- 
tainly did  whatever  could  be  done,  by  an  accom- 
plished General  and  statesman,  towards  restoring  the 
empire  to  its  ancient  glory.  But,  alas !  he  did  not 
reign  over  the  ancient  Romans.  His  people  had 
been  often  defeated,  humbled,  enslaved,  and  tram- 
pled in  the  dust.  The  true  Roman  spirit  was  long 
since  utterlv  extinguished  ;  and,  as  we  had  occasion 
to  observe.  Italj'  itself  was  filled  with  a  mighty 
heterogeneous  mass  of  population,  of  no  fixed  char- 
acter. His  strong  genius  for  a  moment  sustained, 
but  could  not  ultimately  save,  the  falling  fabric.  The 
ambition  of  Constantine  gave  a  more  fatal  blow  to 
the  Roman  empire  than  even  the  vices  of  Commodus. 
To  secure  to  himself  aglory  equal  with  that  of  Rom- 
ulus, he  formed  the  resolution  of  changing  the  seat 
of  empire.  Tlie  place  upon  Avhirh  he  pitched  as  a 
new  capital,  and  which  shoidd  immortalize  his  name 
was  indeed  well  chosen.  The  ancient  city  of  Byzan- 
tium enjoyed  the  finest  port  in  the  world,  on  the 
straits  of  Bosphorus,  which  communicate  with  those 
inland  seas,  whose  shores  are  formed  by  the  most 
opulent  and  delightfid  countries  in  Europe  and  Asia. 
Thither  Constantine  caused  the  wealth  of  the  empire 
to  be  conveyed,  and  directly  a  new  and  splendid 
city  arose  which  was  able  to  rival  ancient  Rome. 
Tliat  proud  capital,  so  long  the  mistress  of  empire 
suddenl}'  became  but  a  s:itellite,  and  was  forsaken 
by  honor,  wealth,  and  glory  ;  since  the  Emperor,  and 
ail  who  were  devoted  to  his  interest,  used  every  pos- 
sible means  to  exalt  the  new  seat  of  empire. 

This  wound  was  deadly  and  incurable.  It  proved 
fatal  not  only  to  one  city,  but  to  the  western  empire. 
Rome  was  utterly  abandoned  by  Constantine.  nor 
was  it  much  alleviated  under  his  successors,  among 
whom  a  permanent  division  of  the  empire  taking 
place,  Rome  and  Italy  fell  under  the  government  of 
a  series  of  weak,  miserable,  short-lived  tyrants  who 
rose  by  conspiracy  and  fell  by  murder  in  rapid  suc- 
cession; till,  in  the  4T(!th  -year  of  the  Christian  Era, 
Augustulus,  the  last  of  the  Roman  Emperors,  was 
con(|uered  and  dethroned  by  Odoacer.  King  of  the 
lleruli,  who.  at  tlie  head  of  an  immense  army  of 
barbarians,  overran  all  Italy,  iiiid  put  a  period  to  the 
western  empire.  Thus  ended  Rome,  after  having 
stood  122!)  years  ;  and  when  we  consider  the  lengtli 
of  her  duration,  her  character,  and  the  nature  and 
extent  of  her  resources,  we  shall  not  hesitate  to  pro- 
nounce her  the  most  ])ow(Tful  and  iiii|iorlant  city 
wliieli  ever  existed,  and  as  standing  ;it  the  lie;id  of 
the  first  rank  of  citi<'S.  But  if  this  remark  is  true  of 
Rome  in  tlii!  times  of  \vhi(;h  we  are  now  siieaking,  it 
will  serve  to  awaken  our  admiration,  when  we  con- 
sider that  R(une  survived  even  this  shock  ;  and,  as 
tliongh  destined  to  bear  rule,  from  being  the  head  of 
a  powerful  em]iire,  she  so  on  became  the  head  of  an 
ecclesiastical  institution  not  less  powerfnl;  she  spread 
her  wings  over  all  Europe. 


HOMPU. 


770 


HOPE. 


liotnpu. 


ROMPU.-  Ill  H(riililr.v,iiliriiiii|)- 
|ilii  (I  In  a  clicvriin  wlii'ii  llic  iipprr 
[):irl  is  Uikcii  olV,  am!  remuiuH  above 
il  in  till'  lii'lil. 

HONCONE.— The  name  givrTi  by 
siiMic  :iiilliiirs  to  till'  rmiHinr,  u  kind 
cif  |p:nli/,:iii. 

RONDACHE.  In  luicicnt  warfare, 
a  rirciilar  sliiclil  <iiiTic(l  by  foot- 
Boldiurs  lo  pmlccl,  I  hi'  upper  piii'l of  Ibc  person,  bav- 
in}; a  slit  in  I  be  upper  pari  for  seeinf;  tbroii;;b.  and 
another  at  the  side  for  Ibe  point  of  the  sword  lo  puss 
tbroiii^b. 

RONDEL.  In  forliliealion,  a  round  tower,  some. 
times  <'re(lci|  at  tiie  foot  of  a  basljon. 

RONDELLE.  A  small  round  shield  wliieli  was 
formerly  used  iiy  ligbl-armed  infantry.  Il  was  about 
1|  feet  in  leni^tli.  A  Itniuhllitr  was  an  Areber  or 
Pikeman  who  carried  the  ronthUe. 

RONFLEURS.  Frederick  the  Great  applied  this 
name  to  s<iiue  12. pounders  of  22  calibers,  weii.diin}; 
;i2,0{)  pounds,  wbieli,  before  the  batlli'  of  I.eulhen, 
lu^  had  drawn  from  the  neiyhliorini;  f<irlress  of  (jlo- 
l^an.  The  eli.'iriie  for  the  LTun  was  .T  ))ounds. 
'  ROOKER  AMBULANCE  SADDLE.  An  ordinary  ca- 
valry saiUile,  having  an  attachment  consistim;  of 
two  upright  bars  cut  and  hinged  in  the  middle,  a 
cross-bar  at  the  toji  of  the  u|)riirbls  to  support  the 
bead,  a  canvas  back,  and  two  strong  lealher  straps 
with  buckles, so  arrange<l  as  to  support  the  apparatus 


to  1)6  more  or  less  inclined,  to  suit  the  rider.     Wlien 
the  upright  bars  are  placed  iu  the  canvas,  they  need 


not  again  be  taken  out,  but  may  be  folded  at   the 
b.inges,  and,  with  the  straps  inside,  may  be  rolled 


into   a  coinpael    bundle  and    allai^jied   bv  Ibe  coal- 
straps  to  the  canlle.     Thi^  weight  rif  llie  aUachnient 

I  is  about  1 J  pounds. 

When  inteniled  to  be  iiKcd  il  may  bo  thiiB  ad- 
justi-d  :    I'nstrap  il  from    Ibe   canlle  and   place  the 

,  sick  or  wounib'd  man  iti  the  saddle:  insert  the  iron 
keys  in  ibe  lower  ends  of  the  uprigbis  in  the  (rye- 
bolls,  espedally  atlaclied  to  the  saddle  for  Ibis  pur- 
pose,  on  each  side,  near  the  base  »{  the  canlle;  put 
on  the  cross-bar  and  key  il ;  hook  the  straps  to  tlie 
eyelets  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  uprights,  having 
llrst  buckled  the  lower  ends  of  the  straps  into  the 
staphs  in  front  of  the  pommel ;  then  by  the  middle 
buckles  elevate  or  depri'ss  tin-  bead,  lis  maybe  re- 
qinred.  An  iindirella  m.iy  be  readily  atlacbed, 
though  not  an  essential  part  of  the  apparatus.  The 
form  or  arrangement  of  this  contrivance  is  sliown 
in  the  drawing.  All  hough  it  possesses  mi-rit  and 
would  at  timi'S  be  of  servicr',  it  has  never  been  ex- 
tiiisively  nse<l  tiicaiise  of  increasing  Ibe  weight  and 
mimlKT  of  articles  a  soldier  has  to  carry. 

ROPE.  Hopes  are  generally  made  of  vegetable 
libres,  and  dilTer  onlv  from  twine  in  their  inucli 
greater  thickness.  I'lie  libre  most  commonly  used 
ishenip;  but  large  quantities  of  plantain  fibre. called 
manila  hemp,  made  from  the  leaf-stalks  of  ikiimi 
ti'Ttilin,  are  also  employed,  especially  for  llie  large 
ropes  used  for  various  purposes  f>n  board  ships. 
HojH'S  consist  of  many  thicknesses  of  yarn,  whiili 
is  spun  by  band  in  various  places  called  rope. walks. 
The  spinner  has  a  large  bundle  of  the  libre  loosely 
gathered  around  bis  waist,  from  which  be  pulls  out 
a  few  fibres,  and  attaches  them  to  a  hook  iu  the 
turning-wheel  or  whirl,  which  is  stationary,  and  im 
worked  by  an  assistant.  Experience  teaches  him 
what  number  of  fibres  to  draw  out.  and  how  to 
twist  them  so  as  to  bold  tirndy  on  to  the  hook.  He 
then  walks  slowly  backward  down  the  rope-ground, 
gradually  drawing  out  or  regulating  the  pulling 
out  of  the  fibres  so  as  to  make  an  equal  yani.  which 
receives  the  neces.sary  twist  from  the  whirl.  When 
he  has  got  to  the  end  of  the  walk,  another  spinner 
takes  the  yarn  from  th<'  hook  of  the  whirl,  and  tixes 
it  to  a  reel,  which  is  then  set  in  motion,  and  be 
attaches  a  second  portion  of  hemp  Irom  his  own 
supply  to  the  hook,  and  iiroceeds  down  the  walk  as 
the  previous  one  had  done.  In  the  meantime,  the 
first  spinner  gradually  walks  up  tlie  ground,  care- 
fully guiding  his  length  of  yarn  as  it  is  wound  on  the 
reel.  When  he  readies  the  reel  it  stops,  and  he 
waits  until  the  see<ind  spinner's  length  is  completed. 
He  then  in  his  turn  takes  it  off  the  hook,  and  twists 
it  on  to  ills  own  :  and  the  reel  being  again  started, 
receives  the  additional  length  from  the  .second  man, 
and  so  on  until  the  full  length  reipiired  is  made  up. 
The  next  oper.it  ion  is  called  irfirpiiig,  and  consists 
in  stretching  out  the  number  of  yams  required  for 
a  rope.  These  are  all  slightly  twisted  again  separ- 
ately, and  stretched  to  an  e(pial  length.  Then,  if 
they  are  intended  for  tarred  ropes,  each  yam  is 
drawn  separately,  either  lemrthwise  or  in  a  hank. 
through  a  kettle  of  hot  tar.  ^rhe  superHuous  tar  is 
removed  by  drawing  it  through  a  hole  lined  with 
oakum.  In  the  next  process,  called  Uiying,  two  or 
more  yarns  are  attached  to  hooks  on  a  whirl,  so  that 
whenit  is  turned  they  will  be  twisted  together  the 
contrary  way  of  the  original  twist  they  received  in 
the  first  spinning.  When  this  is  done  It  is  called  a 
strand.  Then  as  many  of  these  strands  as  arc  re- 
quired for  the  rope  arestretched  at  full  length,  and 
are  attached  at  each  end  to  whirls.  One  of  the 
whirls  has  but  one  hook,  to  which  all  the  strands 
are  attached  ;  the  other  has  as  many  hooks  as  there 
are  strands. one  always  being  central,  and  a  strand  is 
attached  to  it.  The  whirls  are  then  put  iu  motion, 
but  in  opposite  directions,  and  this  causes  the  outer 
strands  to  be  laid  with  great  regularity  and  firmness 
around  the  central  oni'.  Such  is  the  ordinary  pro- 
cess of  rope-making ;  but  machines  have  bei'n  in- 
vented which  produce  ropes  with  such  mathematical 


BOSASD  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. 


780 


KOSETTES. 


precision  tliat  the  strength  of  the  rope  may  be  cal- 
culated with  gre.it  exactness.  Captain  Huddart  has 
the  merit  of  effecting  these  improvements;  and 
verj-  few  applications  of  mechanism  are  more  beau- 
tiful in  their  details  than  those  which  he  has  worked 
out.  They,  however,  do  not  alter  the  principle  of 
the  manufacture.  Within  the  lai-t  few  years  a  great 
improvement  has  been  patented  by  Mr.  Edward 
Sang  of  Edinburgh,  and  is  now  in  profitable  use  in 
the  large  establishment  of  the  Efliuburgh  and  Leith 
Ropery  Company.  It  consists  of  a  machine  wliich 
spins  the  yarn  from  material  supplied  as  before  by 
hand,  but  it  does  away  with  the  long  walk,  and  can 
be  used  in  a  small  room. 

Large  ropes  are  either  what  is  called  cable-laid  or 
Jinirser-laid.  The  former  consists  of  three  large 
strands,  each  made  up  of  three  smaller  strands.  A 
cable-laid  rope  of  eight  inches  circumference  ismade 
up  in  this  way  of  nine  strands,  each  containing  37 
original  yarns,  or  altogether  333  yams.  A  hawser- 
laid  rope  consists  of  o'nly  three  strands,  each  con- 
taining a  sufficient  number  of  yarns  to  make  up 
the  required  thickness.  The  numerous  lives  and 
the  vast  property  depending  on  the  efficiency  of  the 
ropes  employed  in  shipjung  have  caused "  a  great 
amount  of  ingenuity  and  care  to  be  brought  to  "bear 
on  the  manufacture.  One  very  great  improvement 
of  modern  times  has  been  the  'introduction  of  wire 
ropes,  which  are  now  e.xteusivelv  used  in  rigging 
ships,  and  for  other  purposes.  They  are  generally 
made  of  iron  wire,  sometimes  but  riot  always  gal- 
vanized. The  twisting  is  effected  in  the  same  waj' 
as  that  in  which  the  strands  of  a  hempen  rope  are 
laid  together. 

The  following  tiible  shows  the  weight  which  man- 
ila  rope  in  daily  >ise  will  sustain,  simijly  and  when  j 
rove  in  tackles.  Hemp  rope  is  about  one-third 
stronger.  Due  allowance  has  been  made  for  loss  of 
.strength  by  wear  and  tear.  Look  for  the  weight  to 
be  raised,  or  the  next  larger,  in  the  column  headed 
with  the  number  of  sheaves  in  the  purchase  of  tackle. 
The  circumference  of  the  rope  required  will  be  found 
on  the  same  line  in  the  left-hand  column. 


will  bear  without  breaking,  multiply  tite  sqiiare  of 
the  circumfereiiex  by  the  tabular  iiU7nbm-, 


2 
I 

O 

O 

S  o 

O   M 

a 

o 

White. 

Tarred. 

3- 

strand 

4- 
strand 

3-      1      4- 
strand  strand 

Hemp -^ 

Manila - 

( 

Inches. 

2.5  to    6 
6     to    8 
2.5  to    6 
G     to  12 

1140 

1090 

810 

7G0 

1330 
1200 

mo 

835 

850 
825 

1000 
940 

i 

Single. 

Number  of  Sheaves  in  Purchase. 

o  is 

5 

1.... 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

540 

1,080 

1,3.50 

1,485 

1,620 

1,755 

1-... 

844 

1,688 

2,110 

2,321 

2,,532 

2,743 

if" 

1,215 

2,430 

3,038 

3,342 

3,645 

3.949 

\i... 

l,(i,54 

3,308 

4,135 

4.559 

4,962 

5,376 

2.... 

2,160 

4,320 

5,400 

5,940 

6,4«0 

7,020 

ar... 

21... 

2,734 

5,468 

5,835 

6,519 

8,202 

8,8861 

3,375 

6,750 

8,438 

9,282 

10,125 

10,969l 

n... 

4,084 

8,168 

10,210 

11,231 

12  252 

13, 273! 

3.... 

4,860 

9,720 

12,1.50 

13.365 

14,580 

15,795! 

3f.. 
;3|... 

5,704 

11,408 

14,360 

15,68fi 

17  112 

18,538 

G,4I5 

12,830 

16,018 

17,657 

19,245 

20,854' 

33... 

7,.594 

15,188 

18,985 

20,884 

22,782 

24,681; 

4.... 

8,040 

17,280 

21,601) 

23,760 

25,920 

28,080' 

4-... 
4... 

9,753 

19,516 

21,393 

26,H31 

29,2,59 

31,697 

10,935 

21,870 

27,338 

30,072 

32,795 

35.529 

4:... 

12,184 

24,368 

30,460 

33,. 506 

36,5.52 

39,598 

5.... 

13,. 100 

•27,000 

33,750 

37,125 

40,500 

43,875 

5i... 
5  ... 

14,881 

29,768 

37,210 

40,931 

44,652 

48,373 

16,335 

32, 070 

41,838 

45,922 

49,005 

53,089 

5  ... 

17,954 

35,908 

44,885 

49,373 

53,862 

58,3.50 

6  ... 

18,2r.2 

36,.504' 45,630 

.50,193  .55,756 

60,319 

61... 

fs\... 

19,H05 

39,(nO|  49,51 3L54, 465'. 59,415 

64.367 

21,421 

42,8121 ,53,.5,53  ns.'.lllH  (14,263 

69,018 

GJ... 

23,11)0 

46,200;  57,750  i\:\S<2r,'  09, 300 

75,075 

7.... 

24,843 

49,7861  62,208  CH,! l«i 74,.529 

80,740 

8.... 

32,448 

64,890  81,1211  89,232107,341 

105,1.5(1 

To  ascertain  the  strain  in  pounds  which  a  ro 


For  ropes  in  daily  use,  the  unit  should  be  dimin- 
ished one-third  to  meet  the  reduction  in  strength  by 
wear  and  exposure.  A  safe  general  rule  for  all  ropes 
is  this  :  One-fourth  the  square  of  the  circumference 
gives  the  breaking  weight  in  tons  of  2000  lbs.  When 
using  tackles,  multiply  the  weight  thus  found  by 
one-half  the  number  of  sheaves  in  the  blocks.  Strapg 
are  applied  by  passing  them  around  the  object,  put- 
ting one  bight  through  the  other,  and  hooking  to 
this;  or,  afler  putting  it  through,  winding  all'the 
strap  around  the  rope  or  spar,  and  hooking  to  both 
bights. 

Ropes  should  be  placed  in  the  U])per  stories  of 
buildings,  coiled  up  and  labeled  :  large  ropes  on 
skids,  allowing  free  circulation  of  air  ;  small  ropes 
hung  up  to  the  joists,  on  pins  or  hooks.  Ropes 
should  not  be  coiled  until  perfectl)'  dry  ;  they  should 
be  uncoiled  every  year,  and  stretched  out  for  s('veral 
days  in  the  dry  reason.  Ropes  long  in  store  lose 
their  strength.     See  Bh>i-I,-s.   Cordar/  .  ami  Tnciclix. 

EOSAKD  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— In  this  .sj's- 
tem,  the  bastions  and  ravelins  are  retrenched,  and 
the  flanks  are  formed  of  good  casemates,  which  se- 
cure the  defense  of  the  main  ditch.  The  tenaillons 
and  counter-guards,  however,do  not  sufficiently  cover 
the  bastion  and  ravelin.  The  first  covered-way  has 
retrenched  places  of  arms,  and  the  second  is  defend- 
ed by  lunettes,  which  communicate  with  the  place 
by  means  of  g:illeries.  The  great  defect  of  the  sys- 
tem is  the  possibility  of  reaching  the  enceinte  from 
the  covered-way  of  the  ravelm. 

ROSE. — The  heraldic  rose  is  drawn  in  a  conven- 
tional form, as  in  the  drawing,and  never  with  a  stalk, 
except  when  expressly  directed  by  the  words  of 
blazon.  Being  sometimes  argent  and  somctimts 
gules,  it  cannot  be  designated  proper  :  but  when 
blazoned  "  barbed  and  seeded  proper,"  it  is  meant 
that  the  barbs  are  to  be  green,  and  the 
seeds  gold  or  yellow.  The  rose  gules 
was  the  badge  of  the  Plantaaenets  of 
the  House  of  Lancaster,  and  the  rose 
argent  of  that  of  York.  The  York  rose 
was  sometimes  surrounded  with  rays 
as  of  the  sun,  termed  ruse  en  soleil.  As 
a  mark  of  cadency,  the  rose  has  been  used  as  the 
difference  of  the  seventh  son, 

ROSE  ENGINE.— A  peculiar  kind  of  turning  lathe 
having  special  chucks  for  the  production  of  those 
jiatterns  of  curved  lines  called  by  tlie  French  m.iittfs, 
from  I  he  slight  resemblance  which  the}' bear  to  a 
fidl-blown  rose,  and  hence  the  term  rnse-eiigini'.  The 
rose-engine  lallie  differs  from  the  common  lathe  in 
this,  that  the  center  of  tlie  circle  in  which  the  work 
revolves  is  not  a  lixed  point,  but  is  made  to  oscil- 
late with  a  slight  motion  whilelhe  work  is  revolving 
U])on  it,  the  tool  being  all  llu'  time  stationary,  and 
hence  the  figure  will  l)e  "out  of  round,"  as  the  turn- 
ers call  it,  or  will  deviate  from  the  circular  figure  as 
nuicli  and  as  often  as  the  motion  is  given  to  the  cen- 
ter. 

ROSETTES.-  Two  small  bunches  of  ribbons,  that 
wcri'  altaclied  to  the  loops  by  which  the  gorget  of  an 
(illicer  was  .suspended  ou  his  chest. 


Eose. 


BOSIN. 


781 


ROSTHORN  OUN   METAi. 


E08IN.  — An  cxiidiitioii  from  trccH  bclonfjirif;  to  the 
r()nif<Tii'  or  lirlrilii-,  iinil  l\w  rcKiiliic  left  in  the  still, 
lifter  tin-  oil  or  spirit  of  turpcnlini' 1ms  been  ilislillcd. 
It  is  very  conihiislililc,  iiikI  is  used  in  li'^lil-liiill  and 
curcass  i'otii|)<isilioM. 

ROSS  SCHINDER.  A  name  Riven  to  foot-soldierH 
wild  svcre  in  the  li;ihil  of  usinjj  tlie  <//»«7v«/!or  glaite- 
(/inKniii  to  liiiMisiririLC  llie  knights'  horses. 

ROSTER  ROLLSTER,  A  tixeil  order  preHcrvcd  in 
inililiiry  clepiirtinents  iis  the  rotation  in  which  indi- 
viduals, eornjianies,  or  lar;;er  bodies  are  Vailed  on  to 
serve.  In  Kiii;land,  rei;inieiits  proceed  on  fi>rei;;n 
service  accord inj;  In  the  rosier.  In  the  I'ni led  States, 
the  followinii  roles  in  reiiard  ti>  the  rosier  apply  to 
Hervice  both  in  K^iri'ison  and  in  the  lield  :  All  deliiils 
of  servicer  should  he  by  roster,  but,  oHieers  or  en- 
listed men,  when  detailisl,  must  serve  whether  ros- 
ter be  kept,  or  not  ;  havini;  performed  the  service, 
thi'y  niay  appeal  to  superior  authority  if  they  deem 
themselves  a;;irrieve<l.  The  iluti<s  pc'rfornieil  bv  de- 
tail are  of  three  classes:     T\w  JirHt  i'^'.i.s comprises 


tain  commaniliiid  a  hallalion  lemiiorarily  Ih  exeiiipl 
from  detail,  and  duly  falling  to  him  pasHfH.  Lit-ut- 
enunl  Colonels  and  .Slajors  are  on  one  roster.  Tlir;y 
may  \w  detailed  for  ilulies  of  the  llrst  and  hCfiond 
cIiiHseH,  when  the  iiiiporlance  of  the  ;;uardH  and  dc- 
tacliinenls  rei|iiires  it.  Their  rosier  is  kept  at  ilivi- 
Hion  and  bri);;adc  lieail(|iiarlerB.  In  llif:  company, 
Ht-rgeants,  corporals,  ami  privates  form  distinct  roH- 
tors.  OIHcerH,  Don-commissioned  olllcers,  and  sold- 
iers  take  duties  of  the  llrst  dasH  in  the  (jrrier  stateil, 
viz,  thi^  llrst,  for  the  detail,  takes  the  f;rand  ^uardH  : 
the  next,  the  interior  Kiiurds ;  thit  last,  the  police 
Unard  :  and  the  .same  rule  in  regard  to  the  details  and 
duties  of  the  second  class.  In  the  details  for  the 
third  class,  the  senior  ollicer  takes  the  larKCht  par- 
ty. The  party  tirst  for  detail  lakes  the  service  out 
of  camp. 

When  the  ofticer  whose  tour  it  is,  is  not  able  to 
take  it,  or  is  not  present  at  the  hour  of  marching, 
the  next  after  him  takes  il.  When  a  iruard  has  passed 
the  ch:nn  of  ■  .niiiicl-    i.r  :iii  iutrrinr  ^'uard  has  rcacli- 


Koturv  iSri(i<;e  franc. 


1st.  arrand  uiiani'*  and  outposts:  2d.  interior  guards, 
as  of  magazine,  hospital,  etc.;  8d,  orderlies ;  4tli, 
police  guards.  The  an  aiul  cla^s  comprises— 1st.  de- 
tachments to  protect  laborers  on  military  works,  as 
field-works,  communications,  etc.;  2d,  working  part- 
ies on  such  works;  ;<d,  detachments  to  protect  fat- 
igues. The  third  Hush  comprises  General  C'ourts- 
Ulartial,  and  all  fatigues,  without  arms,  in  or  out  of 
the  camp.  In  the  C'av;ilrv,  stable-guards  form  a 
separate  roster,  and  count  before  fatigue. 

The  rosters  are  distinct  for  each  class.  Ollicers 
are  named  on  them  in  the  order  of  rank.  The  de- 
tails are  taken  in  succession  in  the  order  of  the  ros- 
ter, beginning  at  the  head.  Lieutenants  form  one  i 
roster,  and  1st  and  Od  Lieutenants  are  entered  on  it 
alternately.  The  senior  Isl  Lieutenant  is  the  first  on 
the  roster:  the  senior  2d  LienteiKint  is  the  second,  '■ 
etc.  The  Captains  form  one  roster,  and  are  exempt 
from  fatigues,  except  to  superiuleud  issues.     A  Cap- 


ed  its  post,  the  otlicer  whose  tour  it  was  cannot  then 
take  it.  Me  lakes  the  tour  of  the  officer  who  has 
taken  his.  When  an  officer  is  prevented  by  sickness 
from  taking  his  tour,  he  becomes  first  for  detail  on 
being  restored  to  duty,  the  general  rule  being  that  the 
officer  longest  off  duty  is  the  first  for  detail.  These 
rules  apply  equally  to  non-commissioned  officers  and 
soldiers.  Duties  of  the  first  and  second  classes  are 
credited  on  the  roster  when  the  guards  or  detach- 
ments have  passed  the  chain  of  sentinels,  or  an  inter- 
ior guard  has  reached  its  post :  fatigue  duties  when 
the  parties  h;ivt<  passed  the  chain  or  begun  the  duties 
in  camp.  Every  officer,  non-coraraissioncd  officer, 
or  soldier,  on  duty  of  the  tirst  class,  or  who  is  of  the 
next  detail  for  such  duty,  takes,  when  relieved,  the 
duty  of  the  second  or  third  class  that  has  fallen  to 
him  during  that  time,  unless  he  has  marched  forde- 
tachunni  of  more  th;in  twenlv-foiir  hours. 
ROSTHORN  GUN  METAL.— An  alloy  composed  of 


SOTABY  BRIDGE  CBANE. 


782 


EOTAET  PLANING  MACHINE. 


55.04  parts  copper  ;  42.3(5  zinc;  1.77  iron;  and  0.83 
tin;  or,  according  to  anotlicr analysis,  .57. ()3  copper; 
40.-2'3  tin  :   1M  ir^m  ;   :m,\  0.15  tin" 

ROTARY  BRIDGE  CRANE.— A  novel  form  of  rotary 
crane  po.-^sessing  mam*  advantages  for  certain  kinds 
of  work  in  foundries.  It  consists  of  a  mast  and  jib, 
as  in  an  ordinary  jib  crane,  but  is  provided  with  a 
circular  overhead  track  carrying  the  outer  end  of 
the  jib,  or  the  rotary  bridge,  so  that  the  latter  may 
easily  have  a  much  greater  length  th.an  the  jib  of  aii 
ordinary  jib  crane,  and  so  that  all  diagonal  braces 
are  dispensed  with  and  the  entire  space  under  the 
bridge  left  unobstructed.  Cranes  of  this  construc- 
tion are  built  of  capacities  from  3  to  12  tons  for  op- 
eration by  hand,  and  of  any  desired  capacity  for 
operation  b}'  power. 

The  engraving^  on  page  781  shows  the  manner  of  its 
arrangement.     The  frame  consists  of  wrought-iron 


Cranes  of  Ibis  t3'pe  can  be  adapted  to  heavy  and 
light  work  of  all  kinds,  especially-  in  foundries,  erect- 
ing shops,  etc.  When  arranged  for  operation  by 
power  their  capacity  can  be  indefinitely  extended. 
They  are  particularly  applicable  to  existing  build- 
ings the  shape  of  which  does  not  adapt  them  to  Ihe 
application  of  traveling-cranes,  and  in  which  the 
construction  does  not  adequately  provide  for  the 
strains  which  would  residt  from  the  use  of  the  jib 
cranes.     (See  Jln'dyc  ('rnnr,  Cranes,  sinAJib  Crane. 

ROTARY  PLANING-MACHINE.— This  time  and 
labor-saving  machine,  so  constantly  employed  in  the 
armory. is  a  comparatively  recent  invention.  Its  con- 
struction, and  method  of  attachment  and  operation, 
are  easily  understood  after  an  examination  of  the 
drawing  herewith,  representing  the  machine  as 
made  by  Messrs.  Manning,  Maxwell  &  Moore,  New 
York.     The  machine  is  especially  adapted  to  facing 


channel  beams,  the  mast  and  the  bridge  each  being 
composed  of  two  such  channel  irons.  The  operating 
mechanism,  for  the  operation  b}'  hand,  is  contained 
wholly  within  the  two  housings  at  the  foot  of  the 
mast,  and  its  construction  and  action  are  identical 
with  those  of  the  jib  crane,  to  which  a  reference  is 
made  for  further  particulars.  The  same  mechanism 
is  also  utilized  for  hoisting  and  lowering  at  several 
speeds,  and  for  causing  travel  of  the  trolley  in  either 
direction  upon  the  bridge.  Rotation  is  effected  by 
simply  pushing  or  pulling  the  suspended  load,  ex"- 
cept  in  cranes  of  largj  size,  which  are  provided  with 
a  power  mechanism  for  this  purpose.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  upper  bearing  of  the  crane,  by  which  the 
head  of  the  mast  is  carried,  is  such  as  to  avoid  any 
severe  lateral  strains  upon  the  roof,  the  weight  being 
carried,  at  one  end  of  the  bridge,  by  the  mast,  and 
at  the  other  by  the  circular  track  which  issujiported 
from  the  ground  by  suitable  posts. 

This  type  of  crane  affords  all  the  conveniences  of 
the  ordinary  jib  crane,  while  avoiding  the  limitation 
in  the  vertical  movement  of  the  load  imposed  by  the 
diagonal  braces  of  the  latter.  It  also  avoids  the  se- 
vere lateral  strains  upon  the  building  which  result 
from  the  use  of  jib  cranes,  and  thus  dispenses  with 
the  heavy  walls  or  bracing  necessary,  where  jib 
cranes  are  employed,  to  aft'ord  the  proper  support  of 
the  upper  end  of  the  mast  of  such  cranes.  The  jiosts 
supporting  the  circular  track  can  easily  be  so  placed 
as  to  cause  little  if  any  obstruction  upon  the  floor, or, 
if  the  roof  1)(!  stiff'  enough,  tlie  track  maybe  hung 
dire(;tly  frotn  it  without  resorting  to  special  jxists. 
The  bridge,  being  supported  at  both  ends,  can  con- 
veniently have  much  greater  span  than  the  Jil)  of  a 
jib  crane,  the  outer  end  of  which  is  necessarily  over- 
hung. With  rotiiry  bridge  cranes  of  ordinary  ca- 
pacity a  span  of  50  feet  is  entirely  feasible,  and  in 
this  way  the  crane  can  lie  made  to  cover  a  circidar 
floor  100  feet  in  diameter. 


off  valve  seats,  etc.  It  has  two  horizontal  discs,  the 
upper  secured  by  radial  arras,  adjusted  to  suit  the 
position  of  the  studs  in  the  valve  seat ;  the  lower, 
cairying  the  cutter  and  its  slide,  revolves  freely 
against  the  upper,  and  is  held  in  its  place  by  a  king 
bolt  passing  through  its  center.  This  lower  plate  is 
also  secured  b)-  a  circulargib  upon  its  circumference, 
which  admits  of  taking  up  the  wear.  It  is  an  annu- 
lar gear,  having  teeth  cut  on  its  inner  periphery, 
from  which  it  receives  its  rotary  motion  by  means 
of  its  connection  with  the  bevel  gear  anci  crank. 
The  crank  may  be  replaced  by  a  puile_y  if  power  be 
convenient.  The  double  bevel  shaft  acts  like  a  back 
gear  and  admits  of  a  change  of  speed.  Either  bevel 
is  thrown  into  gear  at  pleasure  by  the  movement  of 
a  pin  in  a  slot  operated  by  the  hand  wheel.  If  the 
outer  bevel  is  in  action,  it  gears  directly  into  the 
lower  plate ;  if  the  inner  bevel,  it  is  slow  geared  to 
the  outer,  and  that  to  the  plate.  The  revolving 
lower  plate  is  fitted  with  a  V  slide  and  the  tool  post, 
anti  is  fed  by  a  screw  and  star  wheel,  arranged  to 
give  a  large  variation  in  the  feed,  from  roughing  to 
finishing,  etc.  The  cutter  is  conveniently  fed  down 
by  the  operation  of  a  nut  on  the  cutter  spindle  acting 
against  the  tool  post.  The  radial  arms  which  secure 
this  machine  to  the  studs  are  so  finished  with  slots  as 
to  give  a  wide  range  of  adjustment.  The  nuts  and 
their  bearings,  in  the  washers  which  jam  the  radial 
arms,  nrv  curved  to  admit  of  their  being  firndy 
secured  witliout  springing  the  miichine,  even  though 
the  studs  should  be  a  little  out  of  line.  In  case  the 
stud  holes  in  a  small  valve  seiit  should  come  inside 
the  plates,  four  other  radial  arms  are  furnished  with 
the  machine,  fitted  with  a  T  slot,  and  witli  a  hole  at 
the  other  end  corresponding  to  the  hole  for  Ihe  old 
stud,  thnsairording  facilities  for  extreme  cases. 

The  points  <'laimcd  for  this  tool  are  the  great,  .sa- 
ving in  time  and  l;dior  over  old  methods;  also  ii  sav- 
ing  in  files,  and  the  fact  that  the  job  may  be  done 


BOTATION. 


m.'j 


BOTATIOK. 


arrnratrly,  u«  llii'  pliiirs  may  Ik;  nfX  IriK;  with  the; 
liiivvoni  parts  of  llic  viilvr  siMit,  anil,  coiiMriinciilly, 
the  nrw  face  will  lie  likewise  true.  Il  is  readily  seen 
thai  llie  work  (Nine  is  exactly  in  line  w'tli  llie  travel 
of  the  valve  stein,  thereby  preventing'  the  yoke  from 
Blipi)in);  uj)  ami  down  tin;  valvo,  as  w<-ll  as  all  extra 
friction  on  the  valve  stem.  No  more  nniterial  need 
be  n'nioved  than  is  absolutely  nc^cessary  to  true  up, 
thus  saviiif;  the  seat.  The  work  is  doni;  by  a  contin- 
uous cut,  and  the  loss  of  time  from  the  return  motion 
of  the  onlinary  planer  avoidiil.  'I'liere  is  also  no 
hreakinj;  out  of  the  edires.  The  savin;;  <lainu'd  hy 
tluMnakers  over  the  old  methods  is  from  75  to  80 
JKT  cent.,  and  lOl)  per  cent,  in  tiles,  as  none  need  he 
used.  After  the  seat  is  planed,  the'  machine  can  he 
lifted  olT  and  placed  on  a  table  which  is  supplied 
with  stationary  adjusting  colunms  ard  chuck  for 
holdini;  the  valve,  when  the  Kali'f  is  ]ilaneil.  In  many 
instances,  when  the  work  is  done  in  round  houses, 
the  table  is  essential  to  a  more  perfect  an<l  satisfa<'- 
tory  job.  Il  is  estimated  that  an  ordinary  locomo- 
tive valve  seat  can  be  thoroughly  trued  u|)  in  two 
liours.  These  machines  are  strong  and  well  titled 
lip,  are  easily  handled, and  will  be  found  an  excellent 
tool  in  every  respect.  They  are  principally  made  in 
three  sizes,  IH,  22,  and  '21)  inches. 

The  following  drauini;  rejiresents  a  machine  spe- 
cially designed  for  faciiii;  plain  surfaces,  in  iron 
work,wlier<'  large  luunbersof  pieces  of  the  same  kind 
are  used;    ou  this  class  of  work  it  is  without  doubt 


1  riafre  weri'  runnin);  from  Kast  to  WcBt  alon^f  a  par- 
i  allel  of  lalituilc,  so  as  lo  co;nplel(- the  circuit  in  34 
,  liours,  he  would  he  at  rest  relative  to  the  eurth'H 
axis.  If,  therefore,  we  wish  to  talk  of  tilmiluU  mo- 
tion, it  must  be  measured  rilnlirr  to  rixKi>  poinlH  or 
directioiiH  ;  and  in  the  violation  of  this  ohvioiis  con- 
dition lies  tlic  error  most  comiiionly  met  with.  TliUB, 
to  show  that  the  earth  rotates  about  its  axis,  we  mu^ 
observe  its  motion  relatively  to  the  line  joining  it 
with  the  moon;  and  we  observe  that  the  moon 
comes  to  the  meridian  at  intervals  of  ^roughly;  2.'! 
hours.  Does  the  earth  rotate  in  'i'>  hours?  We  know 
that  it  does  not,  and  the  error  consistH  in  treating  as 
an  ahmlnle  rotation,  a  rotation  measured  relative  to 
a  line — that  joining  the  earth  and  moon-  which  U 
itself  turning.  If  we  lake  the  iiiterval.s  of  the  Kiin'8 
crossing  the  meridian,  we  lind  21  hours — a  miicll 
<;loser  approximation:  liut  still  not  exact,  liecaiiHC 
our  line  of  referinei — that  joining  the  earth  and  sun 
-  is  slowly  turning.  Would  we  have  an  absolute 
measure,  we  must  choose  a  fixfd  line,  or  one  ho  near- 
ly fixed  that  its  motion  will  he  absolutely  insensible. 
J^uch  is  the  line  joining  any  llxeil  star  with  the  earth, 
and  the  time  of  the  earth's  iiluiiiliitf  rotation  about  itH 
axis  is  2;!li  •'•IJni  4.00'  -the  interval  between  culmi- 
nations of  the  same  fixed  star.  The  dilTerence  be- 
tween absolute  and  relative  rotation  in  any  planet 
gives  rise  to  the  dilference  between  {UcKi'lrrfil  and 
the  miliir  day:  and  the  jilanet's  j'ear  contains  just 
"«e  more  of  the   former  than   of   the  latter.     Kow, 


superior  to  any  reciprm-iiling  planer  tli;ii    e;ni    he 
made;  in  many  cases  the  finished  work  can  be   re- 
moved and  replaced  l)y  new   work   while   the   ma- 
chine is  still  fining  at   the  opposite  end.     There  are 
2S  cutters,  in  the  2")-iucb.   machine  shown,  secured 
in  a  heavy  plate   wheel.  b;inded  with  wrought   iron 
and  driven   by    worm  and   worm-wheel:    tiiis   ]il;ile 
wheel  liiis  a   heavy  steel  spindle,  and  is  carried   in 
a  traveling  head  on  the  bed  jihite,  the  work  remain- 
ing stationary.     It  has  an  automatic  variable    feed, 
and  the  head   is   moved   back   by  an    independent 
coimtershaft.     This  machine  will  face  a  surface  'iH 
inches  high  and  11  feet  long.     The  IS-inch  machine  j 
lias  22  cutters,  and   will   face   a   surface   l.S   inches 
high  and  8  feet  long.     The   ;i2-inch   machine  has  36  1 
cutters,  and  will  fiiee  a  surface  32  inches    high    and  \ 
14   feet    long.     The   weights    of   the    machines    are 
I'i.llK),  SOiin!  and  1!122.")  pounds  respectively.  I 

ROTATION.  -There  is.  perhaps,  no  elementary  idea  i 
which  lias  been  the  subject  of  so  much  popular  mis- 1 
conception  as  that  of  rot;ition.  This  is  probably  due 
to  the  vagueness  of  the  definitions  commonly  given. 
All  motion  that  we  c;in  observe  is  rilntiir;  for  in- 
stance, any  lixed  oljjcct  on  the  earth's  surface  has  a 
certain  motion  rHutnv  to  the  earth's  axis,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  diurnal  rotation  ;  the  earth  itself  has 
a  certain  motion  nintire  to  the  sun,  in  consequence 
of  its  annual  revolution  :  the  sun  has  a  certain  mo- 
tion ?■</'(<'>(' to  the  so-called  fixed  stars;  and  it  is 
]iossible  that  the  whole  stelhir  sy.stem  may  have  a 
motion  ir'ntiiv  to  something  in  space  beyond  its 
boundaries.  Now,  the  motion  of  an  object  on  the 
earth's  surface  dilTers  according  to  the  way  it  is 
measured:  a  passenger  sitting  in  ii  railway  carriage 
is  at  rest  if  his  motion  irkitirc  to  the  carriage  be  con- 
sidered ;  he  has  the  same  motion  as  the  carriage  if 
It  be  measured  rWaii'Bf  to  the  rails:  and  if  the  car- 


sujipnse  for  a  mnniiiit  lli;it  tin'  iiirlh  were  to 
revolve  only  ^]j,  iiart  as  fast  as  il  now  does,  there 
would  be  '/lie  xidfreal  day  in  the  year,  and  there 
would  be  no  solar  day  at  all— in  other  words,  there 
would  be  no  rotation  of  the  earth  with  reference  to 
the  line  joining  it  with  the  sun  :  that  is.  the  earth 
would  turn  always  the  same  side  to  the  sun  :  yet  il 
would  be  (ihmliitdi/  rotating  about  its  axis  once  in  a 
year.  This  is  the  case  which  we  observe  in  the 
moon's  motion  relative  to  the  earth,  and  we  see  at 
once  that  the  moon  must  rotate  ahmUtUly — that  is, 
with  reference  to  fixed  directions  in  space — in  the 
exact  time  in  which  she  completes  one  revolution 
about  the  earth.  Tlio.se  who  say  the  moon  does  not 
rotate  ou  her  axis  make  preciselv  the  .same  mistake 
as  those  who  fancied  that  the  earth  is  immovable, 
and  that  moon,  sun,  and  stars  revolve  about  it  every 
day.  There  is  a  physical  cause  for  this  peculiarity 
in  "the  moon's  motion,  which  leads  to  very  important 
consequences  with  reference  to  the  future  of  the 
solar  system. 

Several  elemiiilary  theorems  regarding  rotation 
may  now  be  enuneiatcd  ;  but  the  proofs, though  very 
simple,  will  be  given  merely  in  outline.  Any  dis- 
l>lacement  f/'/intovr  given  to  a  plane  figure  in  its  own 
])lane —  as  to  a  sheet  of  paper  lying  on  a  table— is 
equivalent  to  a  single  rotatiim  about  a  definite  axis. 
Let  A,  B  lie  any  two  points  of  the  figure,  and  let 
them  lie  displaced  to  A'.  H'  respectively.  .Join  AA', 
BB'.  and  bisect  them  in  <i  and  A  by  perpendiculars 
meeting  in  O.  Then,  it  is  easy  to  show  that  (1.) 
OA'=(").V.  (>H'  =  OB,  and  therefore  O  is  the  *i;n« 
point  of  the  plane  figure  in  its  first  and  second  posi- 
tions. (2.)  AO.\.'  =  BOH':  and  this  is  therefore  the 
angle  through  which  the  whole  has  turned  about 
the  p'>int  ()."  If  .V.V  and  BIV  are  parallel,  this  con- 
struction fails ;  but  in  this  case,   if  -VB  and  A'B'  do 


HOTATION  OF  PKOJECTILES. 


(84 


BOTATION  OF  FROJECTILEB. 


not  intersect, the  motion  is  simply  one  of  translation: 
if  tliey  do  intersect,  the  point  of  intersection  is  the 
axis.  Any  number  of  successive  rotations  about  dif- 
ferent points   constitute,  of  course,  a  displacement, 


and  are  therefore  reducible  to  one  rotation.  Two 
equal  and  opposite  rotations  about  different  points 
give  rise  to  a  mere  translation.  The  first  two  of  these 
propositions  are  true  of  figures  ou  a  spliere  as  well 
as  on  a  plane  surface  ;  for  the  figure  above  lias  only 
to  be  drawn  with  great  circles  instead  of  straight 
lines,  and  the  proof  applies  letter  for  letter.  Only, 
here,  the  first  case  of  e.xception  cannot  occur,  be- 
catise  two  great  circles  mu.it  intersect.  Hence  it 
follows  that  if  the  center  of  a  sphere  be  fi.xed,  any 
ilisplacement  whatever  is  equivalent  to  a  rotation 
about  some  axis  ;  that  is,  after  any  motion  whatever 
of  a  rigid  body,  one  point  of  which  is  fixed,  there  is 
always  one  line  of  particles  which  remains  undis- 
turbed. Hence  rotations  about  anj- number  of  axes 
passing  through  the  same  fixed  point  may  be  com- 
pounded into  one  :  and,  generally,  any  motion  what- 
ever of  a  rigid  body  may  be  decomposed  into  two. 
one  of  which  is  a  motion  of  translation  of  some 
chosen  point,  aud  the  other  rotation  about  some  axis 
through  that  point.  Tims,  in  the  case  of  the  moon, 
■we  have  a  motion  of  translation  of  its  center  in  its 
orbit,  and  one  of  rotation  about  its  axis :  or  we  may 
combine  them  into  a  single  rotation  in  the  period  of 
a  lunar  month  about  a  fixed  axis  passing  through  the 
earth's  center.  Again,  any'displacement. of  aplanc 
figure  in  its  plane,  or  of  a  spherical  figure  on  a  sphere, 
may  be  produced  by  the  rolling  of  a  curve  fixed  in 
the  figure  upon  another  fixed  on  the  plane  or  sphere. 
Hence,  the  most  general  motion  of  a  body  with  re- 
ference to  one  point,  consists  in  the  rolling  of  a  cone 
fixed  in  the  body  upon  another  fi.xed  in  s^^aee,  their 
vertices  being  at  the  chosen  point.  To  this,  when 
the  cones  in  question  are  right  circular  cones,  belong 
the  precession  and  nutntion  of  the  earth  and  of  a  top, 
the  evolutions  of  an  ill-thrown  quoit,  etc.  Sec  i^o- 
tatiiin  <-/'  I'fi'jiiiilm. 

ROTATION  OF  PROJECTILES.— The  principal  cause 
of  the  deviation  of  a  projectile  is  its  rotation  com- 
bined with  the  resistance  of  the  air.  It  is  proposed, 
in  the  first  jjlace,  to  show  how  rotation  may  be  pro- 
duced, and  in  the  second,  to  show  how"  rotation 
combined  with  the  resistance  of  the  air,  produces 
deviation. 

If  the  projectile  be  spherical  and  homogeneous, 
rotation  is  produced  by  the  bounding  or  balloting  of 
tlie  ball  in  the  liore,  arising  from  th^  windage.  In 
this  case  the  axis  of  rotation  is  horizonlal,  and 
passes  through  the  center  of  the  ball;  Ihe  direction 
of  rotation  depends  on  the  side  of  the  projectile 
which  strikes  tlie  surface  of  the  bore  last ;  if  it'strike 
on  lli<!  upjK-r  siilc,  the  front  surface  of  the  projectile 
will  move  upward  ;  if  on  the  lower  side,  this  siirface 
will  move  downward.  The  velocity  of  rotation 
from  this  cause  depends  on  the  windage,  or  depth 
of  the  indentations  in  the  bore,  the  charge  being  the 
same.  It  has  been  found  to  be,  for  ordinary  wind- 
age, about  30  feet  for  a  24  pdr.  shell  fired"  with  2{ 
lbs.  of  powder. 

If  from  the  structure  of  the  ball,  or  from  some  de- 
fect of  manufacture,  Ihe  center  of  gravity  do  not 
coincide  with  the  (■(•nler(jf  figure,  rotation  gcncrallv 
takes  place  around  the  center  of  gravil}-.  This  arises 


from  the  fact  that  the  resultant  of  the  charge  acts  at 
the  center  of  figure,  while  inertia,  or  resistance  to 
motion,  acts  at  the  center  of  gravity,  and  is  perpen- 
dicular to  a  plane  containing  the  resultant  of  the 
charge  and  tlie  centers  of  figure  and  gravity.  For 
the  same  charge,  the  velocity  of  rotation  is  pro- 
portional to  the  lever  arm,  or  perpendicular,  let  fall 
from  the  center  of  gravity  to  the  resultant  of  the 
charge.  Knowing  the  position  of  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  ball  in  the  bore,  it  is  easy  to  foretell  the 
direction  and  velocity  of  rotation.  In  general  terms, 
the  front  surface  of  the  projectile  moves  toward 
the  side  of  the  bore  on  which  the  center  of  grav- 
ity is  situated,  and  tlie  velocity  of  rotation  is  great- 
est when  the  line  joining  the  centers  of  gravity  and 
figure  is  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  bore. 

The  effect  of  rotation  in  producing  deviation  of 
projectiles  may  be  studied  under  two  heads:  1st. 
When  the  projectile  is  spherical  and  concentric.  2d. 
When  it  is  spherical  and  eccentric. 

The  simplest  case  is  that  of  a  homogeneous  spheri- 
cal projectile,  rotating  around  a  vertical  axis  passing 
througli  the  center  of  gravity. 

Let  ^1  B  (!  I>,  in  Fig.  1,  represent  the  great  circle 
cut  out  of  the  sphere  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of 


Fig.  1. 

rotation,  and  suppose  rotation  to  take  place  in  the 
direction  A  C  B.  aud  the  motion  of  translation  in 
the  direction  ^1  B;  it  is  evident  that  each  point  of 
the  circle  moves  in  the  direction  A  B,  whh  a  velocity 
which  is  equal  to  the  velocity  of  translation,  plus  or 
minus  the  component  of  its  velocity  of  rotation  in 
the  direction  of  the  axis  A  B,  which  is  equal  to  the 
projection  of  the  arc  over  which  the  point  moves  in 
a  unit  of  time  ou  the  line -1  B.  The  points  C  and 
D  have  the  greatest  velocity  in  the  direction  of  this 
line,  .!  B,  and  the  points  ,1  and  B  the  least.  All 
the  points  in  the  semi-circle  .1  C  B  rotate  in  a  for- 
ward direction,  and  the  components  of  their  veloci- 
ties of  rotation  must  be  added  to  that  of  translation; 
while  the  points  in  the  serai-circle  B  D  A  move  back- 
ward in  rotation,  and  the  components  of  their  veloci- 
ties must  be  subtracted  from  it.  A  body  moving  in 
the  air  draws  with  it  a  film  of  the  particles  which 
surround  it,  and  these  particles  set  in  motion  the  ad- 
jacent iiarticles,  and  so  on  from  one  layer  to  another; 
the  number  of  particles  set  in  motion  and  their  reac- 
tion <m  the  surface  of  the  projectile,  depend  on  the 
velocity  of  the  moving  surface;  now  it  has  been 
shownlhat  the  surface  -4  C  B  moves  with  a  greater 
velocity  than  the  opposite  side,  the  reaction,  or  pres- 
sure upon  it,  must  be  greater  than  upon  the  latter, 
and  the  projectile  will  be  urged  in  the  direction  0 D. 
In  Fig.  2,  let  ^l  ('  I!  1>  represent  the  great  circle 
cut  out  of  an  eccentric  projectile  perpendicular  to 


Fig.  a. 

the  axis  of  rotation,  and   containing   the   center  of 
figure  O,  and  the  center  of  gravity  (")'.   Suppose  the 


ilOTTBERO  SYSTEM  OF  FOBTIFICATION. 


785 


HOUND  BULLET. 


uiotioiiH  of  rotntion  and' tntiisliilioii  III  [nkv  place  ui* 
ill  tlio  prt'ccdiiif;  ciisc',  il  follows  llial  llwsaiiif  cause 
will  opcraUr  in  lliis,  as  in  the  pnccdjnf;  case,  lo  de- 
vialc  llic  j)rojcclilr  in  the  direction  ''-/V.-Jiiit  there 
is  another  and  more  powerful  cause  operalinir  to  di'- 
viate  the  ))rojeelilc'  In  the  same  ilireelion,  and  Ihal 
is,  the  nrcal<'r  pressure'  on  IIk;  side  .1  <' /I  arisin;^ 
from  the  greater  surfaces  olTercrl  to  the  air  in  <'onse- 
(pience  of  the  eccentrieily .  These  phenomena  nniy  lie 
easily  illustrated  hy  the  very  simple  and  ingenious 
apparatus  devised  by  I'rof.  ,\la[;iius,  of  Merlin.  I,et 
(\  in  Kii;.  ;i,  represent  a  li;;ld  brass  eylinil<T,  deli- 
cal(^ly  suspended  in  a  riiii;,  and  made  to  revolve 
very  rapiiUy  around  its  vertical  a\N,  by  mi-ans  of  u 


'0 


.-n 


striii!!;,  after  the  maimer  of  a  to]);  let  tliis  riiii;  be 
Buspended  at  the  extremity  of  a  wooden  lever  Ji', 
which,  in  turn,  is  suspended  by  a  delicate  wire  from 
the  ceiliiii;,  so  that  il  may  rotate  freely  in  a  horizon- 
tal direction;  let  /'  be  a  counterpoise,  and  A'  the 
(iireclion  of  a  slroni;  current  of  air  blowing;  upipn 
the  cylinder  from  a  fan-blower.  It  is  invariably 
found,  that  tlie  a.\Ls  of  the  cylinder  will  move  in  tlie 
opposite  direction  from  the  side  which  is  movinj; 
toward  the  current  of  air  from  the  blower  (see  direc- 
tion of  the  arrows);  but  if  there  be  no  rotation  of  (he 
c.vlinder  the  axis  will  remain  st;ition;iry. 

The  follo\viu£r  conclusions  ;ir<'  olivious: — If  a  pro- 
jectile be  spherical  and  concentric,  rotation  takes 
place  from  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  bore 
aroimd  a  liorizcmtal  axis,  and  the  elTcct  will  bo  to 
shorten  or  lengthen  the  range,  as  the  motion  of  the 
front  surface  is  downward  or  upward. 

If  the  projectile  be  eccentric,  the  moti<in  of  the 
front  surface  is  generally  toward  tlie  side  on  which 
the  center  of  gravity  is  situated,  and  the  deviation 
takes  place  in  this  direction. 

The  extent  of  the  deviation  for  tlie  same  charge, 
depends  on  the  position  of  the  center  of  gravity;  the 
horizontal  deviation  being  the  greatest  when  the 
centers  of  gravity  and  tigure  are  in  a  liorizontal 
plane,  and  the  line  which  joins  them  is  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis  of  the  piece  :  tlie  vertical  devia- 
tion will  be  the  greatest  when  these  centers  are  in  a 
vertical  plane,  and  wdicii  the  line  which  joins  them 
is  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  piece.  If  the  axis 
of  rotation  coincide  with  the  tangent  to  the  trajec- 
tory throughout  the  lliglit.  all  points  of  the  surface 
have  the  same  velocity  in  the  direction  of  the  motion 
of  translation,  ami  there  will  be  no-deviation.  This 
explains  why  it  is  that  a  ritle-projectile  will  move 
through  the  air  more  accurately  than  a  projectile 
from  a  smooth-bored  gun.  See  Diriiitiim,  Initial 
Vehcity  of  lintali'in,  li'iliitinn,  and  Vthflty  of  lio- 
iation . 

EOTTBEKG  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATIOK.— This  en- 
ceinte consists  of  a  bell  of  isolated  forts  and  cava- 
liers, the  rampart  of  which  is  caseniated.  A  case- 
mated  wall,  situated  in  the  ditch  at  the  salient  of  the 
bastion  adjoining  the  cavalier,  serves  to  Hank  that 
work.  The  exterior  fronts  of  the  forts  are  covered 
by  a  couvre-face  formed  of  a  double  covered-way; 
the  inner  one  serving  as  reduit  is  secured  against 
entilade  l>y  a  caseniated  bonnet.  The  ditch,  which 
is  partially  wet,  receives  its  defense  from  the  c;iva- 
lier  and  the  flanks  of  the  bastions.  The  r:ivelin  and 
its  reduit  are  caseniated  ;  but  the  casemates  of  the 
gorge  of  the  reduit  are  opened  to  the  rear  to  be  ex- 
posed to  the  view  of  the  place,  whilst  the  ditch  be- 
fore the  faces  is  defended  by  a  reverse  gallery   con- 


Htnicled  at  the  salient  of  the  ravelin.  On  tlie  cupi- 
lalH  of  the  forts  are  easemated  flechcH  with  a  cover- 
ed-way capable  of  mainlainlng  a  protriu:ted  rli'fenHC. 
The  loss  of  one  fort  does  nril  entail  the  fall  of  the 
others. 

ROTTEN  STONE  A  mineral  consiiting  cln<(ly  of 
alundna,  with  about  10  percent  of  carlionaceouB 
matter,  and  a  little  silica.  It  Ih  Niipponed  to  be 
formed  by  decoin|)osition  of  sliale.  It  is  found  in 
iJerbyshirc,  Kngland,  in  Wales,  and  near  Albany,  ih 
the  .State  of  New  York.  It  is  brown  ;  either  grayish, 
reddish,  or  bhurkish.  It  Is  soft,  and  easily  scraped 
to  powder,  and  is  well-known  lo  soldiers,  being  much 
used  for  cli-aning  anil  polishing  brass  and  other 
metals. 

EOUOE  CROIX.'  One  of  the  pursuivants  attaching 
to  the  heraldic  establishment  of  Kngland,  generally 
allowed  lo  be  the  most  ancient,  Ihoiigh  the  period  of 
institution  is  uncertain.  The  title  is  derived  from 
the  Red  Cross  of  St.  (Jeorge,  the  Patron  Saint  of 
ICmxhinil. 

ROUGE  DRAGON.-  The  title  of  a  pursnivancy 
founded  by  Henry  VII.  on  the  day  before  his  coro- 
nation. The  name  is  taken  from  the  supposed  En- 
sign of  Cadwaladyr,  the  last  King  of  tin-  ISritons,  an- 
cestor of  that  Monarch.  The  red  ilragon  was  also 
sometimes  used  bv  Henry  VII.  as  a  supporter. 

ROUGHING. ~A"  mode  of  treating  horse-shoes  dur- 
iii'r  --liiipiiy  weather,  when  ice  is  lying  on  the  ground. 
The  ohi  mode  of  carrying  out  this  operation  is  con- 
sidered an  inconvenient  and  exceedingly  injurious 
plan.  A  new  method  of  roughing  is  recomiiiended 
be  Mr.George  Fleming,  a  Veterinary  Surgeon  of  the 
Hoyal  Engineers,  which  consists  in  the  fnsertion  of 
a  small,  pointed,  scpiare  plug  of  steel,  measuring 
from  1  to  3  inches  fnearly  always  the  former)  at  the 
heel,  and.  if  desirable,  at  the  toe  also  of  each  shoe, 
in  a  simple  square  hole  punched  at  these  points. 
The  result  is  stated  to  be  most  satisfactory,  horses 
being  enabled,  in  the  most  frosty  state  of  tlie  roads, 
to  do  their  work  as  in  ordinary  weather.  The  army 
horses  at  Chatham  were  so  roughed  during  the  win- 
ter of  IKTri,  and  nothing  could  have  been  moresati.s- 
factor)'. 

The  term  roiig/iing  is  also  ajiplied  to  the  action  of 
a  rasp  on  a  fuse,  to  make  it  bite  in  the  fuse-hole. 

ROUGH  RIDER. -In  the  artillery  or  cavalry,  an  In- 
strurlnrof  equitation,  and  assistant  to  the  Hiding- 
master.     One  is  allowed  to  each  troop  or  battery. 

ROULEAUX.— Round  bundles  of  fascines,  wiiicli 
are  tied  together.  They  serve  to  cover  men  when 
the  works  are  pushed  close  to  a  besieged  town,  or  to 
mask  the  head  of  a  work. 

ROULETTE. — An  instrument  used  in  engraving. 
mechanical  drawing,  and  plotting,  for  makingdotted 
lines.  It  has  a  wheel  and  points,  which,  for  use  on 
paper,  is  dipped  into  India-ink,  so  that  the  points 
impress  a  series  of  black  dots  or  marks  as  the  instru- 
ment passes  over  the  paper.  Different  patterns  of 
dots  are  used  for  national,  state,  county,  and  town- 
ship lines,  canals,  roads,  railways,  etc.  Sec  Dotting. 
pill. 

ROUND.  -  In  artillery,  a  roimd  of  ammunition " 
comprehends  the  charge  of  powder,  the  projectile, 
and  the  priming  or  friction  tube.  To  fire  one  or  mora 
rounds  is  to  discharge  each  gun  in  succession  from 
a  battery  or  a  portion  of  it.  until  the  turn  comes 
round  for  the  first  gun  to  lire  again.  Light  artilleiy 
can  come  into  action  and  tire  one  rountl  in  "28  sec- 
onds, timing  from  the  order  "  .Vction  front,"  to  the 
discharge  of  the  piece;  and  in  1.5  seconds  if  the 
first  cartridge  and  shot  be  carried  in  a  box  on  the 
giin  axle-tree. 

ROUND-BAR. — In  ordnance,  a  nielallic  cylinder, 
which  has  licen  reduced  from  a  larger  cylinder  by 
rollim;  friction. 

ROUND  BULLET.— The  object  of  small-arms  is  to 
attain  animate  objects  ;  their  projectiles  are,  there- 
fore, made  of  lead,  and  are  generally  known  as  buL 
lets.    They  are  both  round  and  oblong  ;  but  in  con. 


KOUNDEL. 


780 


EODTE  STEP. 


sequence  of  the  great  improvements  that  were  made 
of  late,  in  adapting  the  principle  of  the  rifle  to  small- 
arms,  the  oblong  ball  is  now  very  gcucrallj-  used  in 
all  military  services,  the  round  bullet  being  chiefly 
retained  for  use  in  case-shot. 

Round  bullets  are  denominated  by  the  number 
contained  iu  a  pound  ;  this  method  is  often  used  to 
express  the  caliber  of  small-arms :  as,  for  instance, 
•the  caliber  of  the  old  musket  was  17  to  the  pound, 
and  the  rifle  was  33.  In  1856,  these  two  calibers 
were  replaced  by  one  24  to  the  pound,  that  of  the 
new  rifle-musket.  The  number  is  sometimes  prefixed 
to  the  word  gauge  in  which  case  the  rifle-mnsket 
would  be  calleda  'Ugauge  gun.  This  mode,  however, 
is  principally  used  to  designate  sporting-arms. 

The  oblong  bullet  is  denominated  by  its  diameter 
and  weight :  for  instance,  the  new  rifle-musket  ball 
lias  a  diameter  of  C'SS  in.,  and  it  weighs540  grains. 
See  Bullet.  Oblong  Bullet,  and  Projectiles. 

BOUNSEL. — 1.  A  disk  of  iron  having  a  central 
aperture,  through  which  an  assembling-bolt  passes. 
It  serves  to  separate  the  stock  and  cheeks.  2.  A 
shield  used  by  the  Norman  soldiers.  3.  A  semi- 
circular bastion  in  early  fortification  as  introduced  by 
Albert  Dlirer.  This  bastion  was  about  300  feet  in 
diameter  and  contained  roomy  casemates  for  the 
troops.     Also  written  Bouiidelie. 

HOHNDHEADS.— A  name  given  by  the  adherents 
of  Charles  I.,  during  the  Engli.sh   civil  war,  to  the 
Puritans,  or  friends  of  the  Parliament,  who   distin- 
guished themselves  bj'  having  their 

I 1     hair  closel_y  cut,  while   the  CaValiers 

I  (^    C~^  I     wore  theirs  in  Ion?  ringlets. 
y<^    ^^j        EOUNDLE— ROUNDLET.— In  Herald- 
\     /'^     /      ry,  a  general  name  given  to  charges 
of  a  circular  form,  which,  iu  English 
Heraldry,  have   more   s|)ecial  names 
indicative  of  their  tinctures  theroun- 
Eoundlet         die  or  being,  for  example,   called  a 
bezant :  and  the  roimdle  gules,  a  torteaux. 

ROUND  POWDER.— In  case  of  emergency,  and 
wlun  powder  cannot  be  procured  from  the  mills,  it 
ma3'  be  made,  in  a  simple  and  expeditious  manner, 
as  follows  :  Fix  a  powder-barrel  on  a  shaft  passing 
through  its  two  heads,  the  barrel  having  ledges  on 
the  inside ;  to  prevent  leakage,  cover  it  with  a  close 
canvas  glued  on,  and  put  the  hoops  over  the  canvas. 
Put  into  the  barrel  10  lbs.  of  sulphur  in  lumps,  and 
10  lbs.  of  charcoal,  with  60  lbs.  of  zinc  balls  or  of 
small  shot  (down  to  No.  4,  0.014  in.  in  diameter 
nearly) ;  turn  it,  by  hand  or  otherwise,  30  revolu- 
tions in  a  minute.  To  10  lbs.  of  tliis  mixture  thus 
pulverized,  add  30  lbs.  of  nitre,  and  work  it  two 
hours  with  the  balls;  water  the  40  lbs.  of  composi- 
tion with  2  quarts  of  water,  mixing  it  equally  with 
the  hands,  and  granulate  with  the  graining-sieve. 
The  grains  thus  made,  not  being  pres.sed,  are  too  soft. 
To  make  them  hard,  put  them  into  a  barrel  having 
5  or  6  ledges  projecting  about  0.4  in.  inside  ;  give  it 
at  first  8  revolutions  in  a  mimile,  increasing  gradual- 
ly to  30.  The  compression  will  be  proportionate  to 
the  charge  in  tlie  liarrel,  which  sliould  not,  however, 
be  more  than  half  fidl  ;  continue  tliisoiieraliin  until 
llie  density  is  such  that  a  cubic  foot  of  the  powder 
.shall  weigh  S,5r)  oz.,  the  mean  density  of  round  pow- 
der ;  strike  on  the  staves  of  the  barrel  from  time  to 
time,  to  prevent  the  adhesion  of  the  powder.  Sift 
the  grains  and  dry  the  powder  as  usual.  That  which 
is  too  fine  or  loo  coarse  is  returned  lo  tlie  pulveriziii"-- 
barrcl.  This  powder  is  round,  and  the  grain  is  sufil- 
oiently  hard  on  the  surface,  but  the  interior  is  soft, 
which  makes  it  unlit  for  keeping,  and  may  cause  it 
to  burn  slowly.  This  defect  may  be  reinedied  by 
making  the  grains  at  tir.sl  very  small,  and  liy  rolling 
tliem  on  a  sheet  or  in  a  barrel,  watering  tliem  froiii 
lime  lo  time,  and  adding  pulverized  cumposilion  in 
small  projiortions;  in  this  way,  the  grains  will  be 
formed  liy  successive  layers;  they  are  then  scparat- 
<-d  according  to  size,  glazed  and  "dried,  ll  appears 
from  experiments  tliat  the  aimple  incorporation  of  the  | 


materials  makes  a  powder  which  gives  nearly  as  high 
ranges  with  cannon  as  grained  powder.  The  incor- 
porated dust  from  the  rolling-barrel  may  be  used  in 
case  of  necessity.     See  Gunpmodtr. 

ROUND  ROBIN. — A  name  given  to  a  protest  or  re- 
monstrance signed  by  a  number  of.  persons  in  a  cir- 
cular form,  so  that  no  one  shall  be  obliged  to  head 
the  list.  The  Round  Robin  originated"  in  Prance, 
and  the  name  is  derived  from  the  words  rond,  round, 
and  ruhan,  a  ribbon. 

ROUNDS. — An  OSicer,  or  Non-commissioned  Of- 
ficer who.  attended  by  one  or  more  men,  visits  the 
sentinels  on  post,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  they 
are  vigilanl.  The  design  of  rounds  is  not  only  to 
visit  the  guards,  and  keep  the  sentinels  alert,"  but 
likewise  to  discover  what  passes  in  the  outworks, 
and  beyond  them.  See  Grand  BoundH  and  Visiting 
Bounds. 

ROUND-WIRE.— In  ordnance,  a  metallic  cylinder 
which  has  been  reduced  from  a  larger  cylinder  by 
rubbing  friction. 

ROUT. — To  put  to  ro^tt  is  to  defeat  and  throw  into 
confusion.  It  is  not  a  retreat  in  good  order,  but 
also  implies  dispeision. 

ROUTE. — An  open  road  ;  the  course  of  march  of 
troops.  Instruction  for  the  march  of  detachments, 
specif3'ing  daily  marches,  the  means  of  supply,  are 
given  from  the  headquarters  of  an  army  in  the  deld, 
and  are  called  marching  routes. 

ROUTE  MARCHES.— Three  marches  are  used  in 
peace  to  conduct  a  body  of  troops  from  one  station 
to  another.  They  are  used  in  war  for  the  purpose 
Of  assembling  the  fractions  of  an  armj-  on  its  base  of 
operations,  of  conducting  troops  through  a  district 
or  country  where  there  is  no  enemj-,  etc.  The  liealth, 
comfort  and  convenience  of  the  troops  are  the  prin- 
cipal things  to  be  considered  in  arranging  the  details 
of  their  execution.  When  the  body  of  troops  to  be 
moved  is  large  it  should  be  subdivided  into  smaller 
bodies,  and  These  detachments  are  sent  by  different 
roads.  Caution  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  cross- 
ing of  the  columns  on  the  march,  as  one  would 
then  have  to  wait  to  allow  the  other  to  pass,  and  the 
delay  caused  to  the  waiting  column  would  be  irk- 
some in  the  extreme.  Since,  in  executing  marches 
of  this  kind,  there  is  no  danger  to  be  expected  from 
an  enemy,  the  precautions  taken  in  the  other  kinds 
of  marches  to  guard  against  attack  may  be  omitted. 
Route  marches  are  designated  as  ordinary,  forced 
and  mil,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  made.  The  ordinary  route  march  does  not  ex- 
ceed 30  miles  per  day.  Forced  marches  are  extre- 
mely exhausting  upon  the  troops  and  should  not 
exceed  30  miles  per  day.  They  should  only  be  re- 
sorted to  in  time  of  peace  under  pressing  circum- 
stances. They  are  much  used  in  war,  when  a  rapid 
concentration  of  troops  is  to  be  made,  or  when  a 
strategical  combination  is  to  be  effected.  Railroads 
have  become  in  recent  years  the  great  factor  in  ra- 
pid and  cheap  means  of  moving  troops,  and  are  of 
especial  service  when  the  time  given  to  the  troops  to 
reach  their  destination  is  short,  and  the  distance  is 
great.  The  marches  made  by  the  several  corps  of 
the  French  army  in  1805,  by  which  this  army  was 
assembled  upon"  the  Rhine  is  an  example  in  point. 
Napoleon  issued  his  orders  for  the  corps  to  move  on 
three  diftereni  routes,  each  of  the  seven  corps  being 
divided  into  three  divisions,  following  each  olheron 
three  successive  days.  The  ;irrangements  were  per- 
fect :  all  crossings  of  columns  were  avoided;  the 
marches  for  each  day  were  of  proper  length  :  the 
great  natural  routes  were  followed,  and  the  <letach- 
mcnts  arrived  in  succession  and  without  interference 
at  their  destination.     See  Marches. 

ROUTE  STEP.— A  style  of  march,  whereby  the  men 
ciirry  their  ;iriiis  at  will,  keeping  the  muzzles  eleva- 
te<l ;  they  are  not  re(|uircd  to  preserve  silence,  or  to 
keep  the  step,  but  each  man  covers  the  tile  in  his 
front.  The  column  of  fours  is  the  habitual  coliunn 
of  route.  The  route  step  is  at  the  rate  of  from  two 


aOUTINE. 


78; 


EOWEL. 


miloa  anrl  a  half  to  tlirue  inilos  \>v.r  lioiir.  The  col- 
UMiii  ijf  fourH  liciii;^  ill  iniircli,  to  iimrcli  in  llic^  I'liule 
*<'y',tlic  ('aplaiii  coiiiiiiaiKis:  1.  Jiaiitr  ule/i,  2.  Mauoh. 
Al  I  lie  rominaiul  mri?x/i,  tli(^  men  carry  tlicir  arms  at 
will,  kccpiiij!;  till!  inuzzlcH  elevated  ;  they  are  iiot  re- 
quired to  preserve  silenee,  or  to  keep  the  step,  liut 
each  liiiaii  covers  the  file  in  his  front.  The  ranks 
preserve  the  dislaiiee  of  thirty-two  inches  from  each 
oilier.  To  resume  the  cadeiieeil  sic]),  llie  ("ai)lain 
coiiimiiiids  :  1 .  < 'i/iii /la/ii/,  2.  AvTv.firios  At  I  lie  se- 
cond eiimmaiid,  the  arms  an^  liroiinht  to  the  rif;ht 
shoiililer,  and  the  cadenced  step  is  resumed.  The 
company  mareliiiif;  in  line  may  also  march  in  the 
route  step,  the  rear  rank  falliiif;  hack  to  thirty-two 
inches.  The  company  in  route  stej)  changes  direc- 
tion by  the  same  commands  as  when  in  the  caden- 
ced step. 

ROUTINE.— Capacity  or  the  faculty  of  arrang- 
ini;  ;  a  certain  method  rather  acquired  liy  habit  and 
practice  than  by  study  and  rule.  It  sii^nilies  also  a 
(leneral  custom  or  usaije,  established  by  habit,  and 
followed  mechanicallv. 


macliinc  for  arsenal  use.  The  Kpindle  in  of  Hteel 
fitted  to  a  steel  tube  with  which  it  revolves,  and  in 
which  it  slides  longitudinally.  The  wear  is  thus 
confined  to  the  tuhe  wliere  it  "is  easily  taken  up  by 
means  jirovided  for  the  purpose,  and  the  trouble 
experienced  with  machines  where  the  npindle  slides 
in  the  same  lieariu'zs  in  which  it  revolves  is  wholly 
avoided.  'I'lie  spindle  head  is  carried  on  a  luver  con- 
necled  by  a  universal  joint  to  a  swinging  arm.  A.s 
this  arm  is  strongly  webbed  and  is  provided  with  a 
long  bearing  on  the  outside  of  the  sleeve  forming 
the  ujipi-r  bearing  for  the  vertical  shaft  al  the  corner 
of  the  machine,  additional  supports  are  dispensed 
with,  and  the  tables  is  left  clear  for  the  reception  of 
large  work.  Through  the  agency  of  arm  and  lever 
the  cutter  can  be  easily  brought  to  any  part  of  the 
work.  lioth  the  sjiindh;  head  and  the  stud  carrying 
the  intermediate  piillej'  are  movalde,  to  enable  them 
to  be  shifted  to  take  up  the  slack  of  the  belt.  The 
spindle  has  a  vertical  adjustment  of  1|  inches,  and 
the  clamps  are  made  double  faced  and  reversible. 
Either  a  spring  rest  for  keeping  the  cutter  from  the 


BOOTING  MACHINE.-  A  shaping-machine  which 
works  by  means  of  a  router-cutter,  adjustable  itself 
and  revolving  above  a  bed  with  universal  horizontal 
adjustment,  so  as  to  permit  the  cutler  to  follow  along 
a  traced  line,  and  thus  cut  to  a  shape,  or  groove  to 
a  depth,  the  work  upon  the  table.  It  is  adapted 
for  work  in  metal  or  stone  ;  in  the  latter  case,  black 
diamonds  are  used.  Paneling  in  relief  or  intaglio, 
raised  or  sunken  carving,  circular  slotting,  slotting, 
key-seating,  beveling,  and  bordering  may  be  done 
upon  it. 

Tlic  drawing  shows  a  very  convenient  routing- 


work  until  the  lever  is  depressed,  or  a  .solid  rest,  aa 
shown  iu  the  drawing,  niaj'  be  used,  but  the  solid 
rest  is  safer  and  more  convenient.  The  table  will 
take  on  a  plate  24x32  inches  which  can  be  comple- 
tcly  routed  without  being  shifted  more  than  once. 
Six  cutters,  from  -j's  to  4  inch  in  diameter,  and  a  tool 
box  fitting  the  side  of  the  body  accompany  each 
machine.  An  attachment  for  cutting  straight  lines 
is  also  used.  The  speed  is  7,000  to  87000  revolutions 
per  minute. 

KOWEL. — The  pointed  part  of  a  riding  spur,  made 
in  a  circular  form,  with  rays  or  points  like  a  star. 


KOTAL. 


788 


ROYAL  GUNPOWDER  FACTORY. 


ROYAL. — 1  A  small  mortar  wbicb  carries  a  shell 
Tvhose  diameter  is  5.5  inches.  It  is  mounted  on  a 
bed  like  other  mortars.  2.  In  England,  one  of  the 
soldiers  of  the  first  regiment  of  foot,  called  the 
Royal,  and  supposed  to  be  the  oldest  regular  corps 
in  Europe. 

ROYAL  ARTILLERY  INSTITUTION.— An  establish- 
ment organized  at  Wuolwicli  in  the  year  1888.  The 
building  was  erected  at  government  expense,  and  is 
supported  partly  b}'  subscriptions  from  the  officers 
of  the  regiment  and  parth'  by  government.  It  con- 
tains a  museum,  lecture-room,  laljoratory,  theatre, 
and  printing  press.  Reports,  verbatim,  of  all  lectures 
which  have  been  delivered  are  issued  periodically  to 
all  its  members.  It  is  a  repository  for  the  sale  of 
militarv  books,  stationery,  etc. 

ROYAL  CORPS  OF  ENGINEERS.— A  component 
portion  of  the  Army  of  the  British  Empire.  A  si- 
milar Corps  exists  in  all  regular  armies.  It  is  the 
scientific  and  constructive  branch,  intrusted  with 
the  making  and  defending  of  all  military  wi>rk,i,  and 
the  attack  and  conquest  of  similar  works  belonging 
to  an  enemy.  It  is  true  that  civilians  are  often  em- 
ployed to  construct  the  buildings  themselves,  at  a 
stated  price :  but  the  Military  Engineers  make  the 
plans,  and  are  responsible  to  the  country  for  their  ef- 
ficiency. For  a  number  of  years  past,  contractors 
have  been  at  work  on  fortifications  at  Portsmouth 
and  in  other  parts  of  the  kingdom,  but  on  plans  and 
under  orders  for  which  the  Engineer  Department  of 
the  Government  is  responsible. 

The  Royal  Engineers  of  the  United  Kingdom 
form  one  Regiment  or  Corps.  The  officers,  in  time 
of  peace,  are  scattered  all  over  the  world.  There  is 
no  half-pay,  except  on  per  ma  Tie /it  retirement;  and 
no  unemployed  list.  They  have  much  wear  and  tear 
of  earlier  age  than  other  officers.  Their  regular  pay 
corresponds  to  the  active  pay  of  other  officers  of 
the  same  rank  :  but  thej'  exclusively  receive  in  ad- 
dition extra  pay,  atnounting  to  one-half  their  ordin- 
ary pay  wlien  on  dut_y  at  home,  and  equaling  their 
ordinary  pay  when  emplo}'ed  abroad  or  in  the  Lon- 
don district.  There  is  an  establishment  of  Engineers 
in  each  military  command,  to  conduct  and  superin- 
tend all  the  military  buildings  and  works.  The  en- 
tire force  is  imder  a  particular  Department  of  the 
War  Office,  that  of  the  Inspector  General  of  fortifi- 
cations. Until  the  year  17(i3,  the  duties  of  Jlilitary 
Engineers  were  discharged  by  officers  taken  from  the 
regular  army.  In  tliat  year,  however,  the  Corps  of 
Engineers  was  formed,  greatly  to  the  advantage  of 
the  military  service.  In  1783,  it  was  made  a  Hayal 
Corps,  and  a  distinctive  uniform  adopted.  Several 
companies  of  artificers  were,  in  1812,  converted  into 
sappers  and  miners,  and  placed  under  the  Engin- 
eers. 

The  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  of 
this  valuable  Corps  arc  all  workmen  who  have  learn- 
ed some  mechanical  trade  ;  hence  their  skill  in  all 
constructive  operations.  The  Ordnance  Survej'  has 
been  intrusted  to  tlie  Corps.  For  many  purposes  the 
mi'uare  Uiit,\\H-y  attend  to  special  and  peculiar  work; 
and  at  such  times  their  emohniirni  is  always  increas- 
ed. They  often  buy  their  discliarge,  in  order  to  go 
into  civil  employments,  wlien  the  prospects  are  very 
good.  The  men  enlist  for  12  years,  with  power  to 
re-engage  (if  wanted)  for  nine  more  ;  but  tliey  can 
purchase  their  discliarge  at  any  lime.  They  have  to 
pay  more  for  their  discharge  th:in  other  Corps  in  tlie 
army,  having  r(^ceived  more  instruction  at  the  na- 
tional expense.  Officers  iiilcnded  for  tli<'  Kngineers 
enter  the  Koyal  Militarj- Academy  ascaiU'ts  liy  open 
competition,  and  psiss  out  from  time  to  time  for  com- 
missions. When  in  the  Corjis,  promotion  is  by  se- 
niority, the  purchase  system  having  never  been  in- 
troduced. Tlie  head-(|uarlers  are  at  Chatham,  where 
there  an;  Engineer  I'arracks.  The  Corps  is  groujxd 
into  battalions  an<l  companies.  Tlien;  are  432  olli- 
cers  of  Royal  Engineers  serving  in  India,  their  sub- 
ordinates  "being  natives.      See  Corpn  of  Engineira. 


ROYAL  ENGINEER  INSTITUTION.— A  similar  In- 
stitution to  tliat  established  by  the  royal  artillery  at 
Woolwich,  but  of  older  date  (1813),  and  formed  at 
Chatham.  It  contains  a  library  of  12,000  volumes, 
and  publishes  yearly  a  volume  of  professional  papers, 
with  the  view  of  conveying,  to  all  members  of  the  In- 
stitute, the  knowledge  and  e.xperience  acquired  by 
each  officer  of  the  corps.  It  publishes  besides  a 
small  monthly  paper,  printed  at  the  expense  of  the 
Institution. 

ROYAL  GUN  FACTORIES.— Government  establish- 
ments at  Woolwicli  for  the  construction  of  great 
guns  for  the  use  of  the  British  Army  and  Navy.  For 
a  very  long  period  there  had  been  at  Woolwich  a 
small  factory  for  the  manufacture  of  brass  cannon, 
but  guns  of  cast-iron  were  obtained  from  private 
foundries  by  contract.  At  last  it  was  determined 
that  Government  should  become  in  part  its  own  gun- 
founder,  and  extensive  work-shops  were  erected  in 
1855—6.  The  adoption  of  the  Armstrong  wrought- 
iron  gun  into  general  use  in  the  service,  in  1859,  ar- 
rested the  further  making  of  cast-iron  guns,  and  oc- 
casioned again  a  great  expenditure  in  the  erection  of 
shops  and  "costly  machinerj',  which  have  since  been 
adapted  to  otlier  systems  of  wrought-iron  ordnance 
adopted  into  the  service  imder  the  name  of  "  Wool- 
wich." The  factories  may  now  fairly  be  regarded  as 
among  the  most  remarkable  sights  in  the  Kingdom. 
In  each  department,  whatever  the  process,  it  is  re- 
jjeated  over  and  over  again,  till  long  parallellines  of 
similar  mills  are  seen, each  busily  fashioning  a  separate 
gun.  Iron  at  red-heat  is  first  wound  round  a  solid 
core  (representing  the  bore  of  the  future  gun),  as  tape 
might  be  round  a  pencil;  and  then  by  the  action  of 
successive  blows  from  a  steam-hammer  (there  is  one 
of  100-tons),  the  strips  are  welded  into  a  compact 
cylinder  t>f  wrought-iron  of  extreme  density.  This 
cj'linder,  after  undergoing  several  heatings,  and  also 
poundings  with  the  steam-hammer,  is  encompassed 
with  wrought-iron  rings  of  immense  strength,  which 
are  shrunk  on,  and  then  transmitted  to  the  boring 
mill.  Here  the  proper  caliber  is  imparted  to  it; 
in  another  department,  the  bore  is  rifled;  in  anoth- 
er, the  outside  of  the  gun  is  carefuUj^  turned;  and 
in  yet  another,  the  whole  is  polished  and  browned. 
A  gun  is  several  weeks  in  its  passage  through  these 
many  processes.  By  the  ingenuity  of  Sir  William 
Armstrong,  the  Superintendent,  and  Dr.  John  An- 
derson, his  able  assistant,  every  part  of  the  difficult 
manufacture  has  been  reduced  to  a  question  of  ma- 
chinery. Many  thousand  guns  have  to  this  time 
been  turned  out  complete  of  which  upwards  of  7.000 
are  now  available  for  military  and  naval  use.  The 
cost  of  the  guns  as  now  made  is,  on  an  average,  as 
follows;  12-pounder,  £82;  20-pounder,  £124;  40- 
pounder,  £206;  70-pounder.  £375;  35-ton  gun,  £2,156. 
The  Royal  Gun  Factory  at  Woolwich  was  estimated 
to  cost  for  1878—9  the  sum  of  £203,948,  of  which  £5, 
242  were  for  management;  £78,650  for  the  wages  of 
artificers  and  laborers;  £12.671  for  buildings  and 
m;ichinery:  and  £104,190  for  stores  to  be  consimied 
in  llieiniiiuifactureof  guns.  Muchof  tlie  machinery 
now  used  in  the  manufacture  of  guns  was  originally 
developed  at  the  engineering  and  founding  estab- 
lislimeiit  of  SirWilliam  Armstrong  &  Co.,  at  Elswick, 
wliii'li  was  for  some  time  used  as  an  auxiliary  and 
supiilement  to  the  gun  factory  in  Woolwich  Arsenal, 
the  guns  being  turned  out  at  a  contract  price,  paya- 
ble after  tliey  had  passed  a  rigid  inspection.  The 
coniiectiDn  between  the  Government  and  the  Elswick 
linn  r(:iM(l   in  1S(;3.      See  (Imi-tnakimi. 

ROYAL  GUNPOWDER  FACTORY.— Tlie  establish- 
ment at  Waltliam  Abbey,  in  which  much  of  the  gun- 
powder required  for  the  British  Army  and  Navy  is 
made.  It  is  built  on  all  the  newest  and  most  ap- 
l)roved  princiiiles  to  insiu'e  safety,  economy,  and 
efficiency;  but  even  here  accidents  occasionally  Iiap- 
jicn  in  this  dangerous  manufacture,  and  roofs  and 
sides,  purposely  left  loose  so  as  to  oiler  but  little 
resistance,  are  scattered  to  the  winds.     Between  the 


ROYAL  LABORATOKY. 


rno 


HOYAL  MARINE  AETILLEHT. 


different  mills  mud-banks  ani  raised,  and  fjroves  of 
trcf'S  lliirkly  pliintr'il,  to  lessen  the  eoneiission,  and, 

us  far  !IM  possihlr,  jitiiit  Ilie  eatiistrophe  wlieii  one 
lioiise  is  iinforttiiiiitely  exploded.  A  series  of  raised 
canals,  at  the  same  lime,  is  ready  to  flood  the  whole 
pla(^e,  or  to  alTord  a  i)rerarioiis  shelter  to  the  men 
eni|)loved,  if  time  be  available  to  maki'  use  of  it. 
The  efiar};(^  forlhis  factory  for  lH7H-7i)  was  Xl(t4.4:!l), 
of  wliieli  L2l),lt'.y2  were  for  iiiaiiaLreiniiit  and  waives, 
Xl!»,()!l(i  for  buililiiij;s,  and  t'-ll,7IJ4  for  raw  material. 
'I'hcre  are  about  2(H)  worUiiien.  When  the  (gunpow- 
der is  made,  it  is  sent  down  the  Lea,  to  the  maga- 
zines at  Woolwich  and  I'urlleet. 

ROYAL  LABORATORY.  An  exlensive  militarvman- 
ufacturini;  diparlMKnl  in  Woolwich  Arsenal.  Al- 
thiniilh  it  has  existed  for  many  years,  it  was  only  in 
In.'"),')  that  the  present  very  larire  establishment  was 
orfi;aniz<'d.  Here  are  foundries  for  the  caslini;  of 
shot, shell,  i;rape.  I'tc:  apparatus  for  the  manufacture 
of  iiercnssioii-ca])s,  which  are  formed-  hundreds  at 
a  tinu' — out  of  the  copper  sheet;  presses  where  rifle- 
bullets  are  squeezed  into  shape  ;  fuses  in  all  stajres  of 
manufacture  and  a  thousand  other  instances  of  com- 
bined inL'enuity  and  power.  Conspicuous  amont; 
the  mecbanism  nuiy  be  mentioned  the  makins  <if 
paper  for  carlridi^es,  and  subsciiuently  themakinff 
and  tillin;;  of  the  cartridires  themselvi'S.  (lovern- 
ment  liberally  grants  permission  (throuiih  the  War 
Otiice)  to  inspect  the  fa<'tory.  The  cost  of  the  Lab- 
oratory varies  considerably,  aecordini;  to  the  accu- 
nmlation  of  stores.  In  addition  to  the  Royal  Labor- 
atory, there  are  also  Laboratories  —  though  on  a  com- 
paratively small  scale— at  Portsmouth  and  Devon- 
]iort.      See  l,n>«>r<it'>rti, 

ROYAL  LABORATORY  FUSE.-  This  fuse  consists  of 
the  followiui;  parts  :  A,  the  l)rass  stock  or  body;  B, 
the  brass  screw-plug  closing  rear  end  of  fuse;  (',  the 
lead  pbniger:  I), the  brass  thimble;  E, the  brass  safe- 
ty-wire: and  P,  the  fulmin;ite.  The  body  has  a  solid 
liead,  having  on  the  outside  a  sijuare  recess  for  fuse 
wrench. and  on  the  inside  a  shar])  jiin  projecting  from 
the  center.  The  screw-plug,  H,  Inis  a  hole  tlirougli  i 
its  center  which  is  covered  by  a  thin  disk  of  brass 
secured  on  by  solder ;   two  small  recesses  in  the  bot- 


tom of  the  plug  facilitate  its  insertion  with  a  wrench. 
The  lead  plunger,  C,  lias  also  a  central  hole  through 
it,  in  the  front  end  of  which  is  placed  the  fulminate 
cap;  the  plunger  h;is  also  two  slight  projections 
from  its  sid<'S  >i|ion  which  rests  the  l)ra.ss  thimble. 1^. 
Uunning  through  holes  in  the  heads  of  fuse  body 
and  thind)le,and  to  one  siiie  of  center  and  resting  on 
top  of  the  plunger,  is  the  twisted  safety-wire,  E.  In 
order  to  prevent  the  easy  withdrawal  of  the  safety- 
wire  a  suuUl  hole  is  bored  into  one  sid(^  of  fuse  body 
and  down  to  tlu^  bole  through  which  the  wire  is  in- 
serted, and  into  this  is  poured  melted  lead.  A  strong 
cord  facilitates  the  extraction  of  the  wire  before  tir- 
ing. Inserted  in  a  loaded  shell  with  the  s;ifety-wire 
removed. and  meeting  with  a  resisting  object  inflight, 
the  plunger  is  thrown  forward  sheering  off  tlie  shoul- 
ders; the  fubninate  striking  the  pin  is  ignited,  the 
brass  disk  closing  hole  through  screw  plug  is  l)lown 
out,  and  the  l)ursting-ch;irge  of  shell  i;:nited.  See 
Vuxf. 

ROYAL  MARIUE  ARTILLERY  AND  LIGHT  INFAN 
TRY.-  1.  Alimitednumljerof  candidates  will  be  nom- 
inated to  compete  for  admission  into  the  Koyjd  Na- 
val College.  Greenwich,  as  probationary  Lieutenants 
in  tlie  Uoyal  Marines. 

LI.  Theexamiuation  will  be  conducted  liv  the  Civil 


Service  CommisHionerH,  and  will  be  held  once  a  year 
commencing  on  the  second  Wr-dnesday  in  AngiiRt. 

III.  No  candidate  will  b<'  i-ligible  who  is  under  lOA 
or  above  18  years  of  age  <jn  the  tut  of  f>ctober  fol- 
lowing the  exandnalion. 

IV.  Public  notice  will  be  given  in  May  of  each 
year  of  the  mindn'r  of  vacancies,  and  of  the  nundjcr 
of  caiulidates  to  be  nomimited  to  compete  for  them. 

V.  A  candidati'  who  (|ualiticB,  but  is  not  siiccrrsH- 
ful  in  the  idiiipetilion,  will  be  allowed  to  compete 
again  at  the  next  examiiiftlion  if  iKjt  over  age;  but  a 
candidate  -vhofidls  to  qualifv  will  not  be  admitted  to 
compete  again  ;  and  nocan(fidale  wid  be  allowed  to 
comi)ete  more  than  twice. 

VI.  Every  candidate  will  be  required  to  be  at  least 
.T  f<'et  T)  inches  in  lieiLdit  and  to  pass  the  m<'dical  ex- 
amiiialiou  aceoriling  to  tlie  prescribed  regulation,  un- 
der the  direeti(]U  of  the  .Medical  Director  (Jeneral  of 
the  N;ivy.  !!<■  nnist  be  in  good  heidth,  and  free  from 
any  physical  defect  of  body,  impediment  of  speech, 
defect  of  sight  or  hearing,  and  also  from  any  predis- 
position to  constitutional  or  liereditary  disease,  or 
wciikness  of  any  kind,  and  must  l)e  in  all  respects 
well  developed,  and  active  in  proportion  to  his  age. 
Any  ciindidate  rejected  at  the  medical  examination 
will,  subject  to  the;qiproval  of  the  Board,  be  finally 
excluded  from  the  Uoyal  .Marines. 

VII.  Each  candi<late,  before  the  examination,  will 
berecpiired  to  produce  the  following  certificates,  viz. : 
(1)  A  registrar's  certificate  of  birtli,  or  declaration 
thereof  made  before  a  magistrate.  (2)  A  certificate 
of  good  conduct  for  the  twoyciirs  previous  from  the 
masters  of  the  schools  at  which  be  may  have  been 
educ;ited  ;  or,  if  educated  at  home,  frimi  his  tutors, 
or  the  clergy m;in  of  the  parish  in  which  he  has  re- 
sided for  that  period.  (3)  A  certificate  of  good  health 
and  physical  devek)pment  from  the  Medical  Director 
General.     (4)  A  certificate  of  height. 

VIII.  A  candidate  will  be  retpiired  to  pass  a  pre- 
liminary examination  in  the  following  subjects,  the 
maximum  nundier  of  marks  obtainable  for  each  be- 
ing as  stated :  — 

1.  Writing  English  from  dictation     Marks. 

correctly  in  a  good  legible  hand 

No  marks  allowed. 
3.  Arithmetic 300 

3.  Alget)ra  (including  quadratic 
equations  and  tlie  three  i)rogres- 
sions) .500 

4.  Geometry  (up  to  the  standard  of 
the  sixth  book  of  Euclid's  Ele- 
ments)         600 

5.  Plane  trigonometry  (including 
definitions,  fundamental  form- 
uliP,  and  the  solution  of  plane 
triangles) GOO 

IX.  The  further  examination  will  be  proceeded 
witli  immediatclj'  on  the  conclusion  of  the  prelimi- 
nary examination.  Candidates  who  fail  in  tlie  pre- 
limiuary  examination  will  be  informed  of  their  failure 
as  soon  as  possilMc,  and  the}'  will  then  be  released 
from  further  attendance. 

X.  The  subjects  of  the  further  examination  and 
the  m;iximum  of  marks  obtainable  for  each  subject 
will  be  as  follows: 

1.  Applied  mathematics  (viz.,      Maximum 

elementary    statics,   dy-  Marks, 
namics.   and  hydrostat- 
ics)  .'. 1000 

2.  Physics  (viz.  sound,  light, 

heat,     magnetism,    and 
electricitv.'. 1000 

3.  Chemistrv." 600 

4.  Latin....: 1500 

5.  Greek 1000 

6.  English  lan;ruage  and  com- 

position..'.   1000 

7.  History,  ancient  and  mod- 

ern.With  geography 1000 

8.  French .". 1000 


BOYAL  MARINES 


790 


HOYAL  MIXITAEY  ACADEMY. 


9.  German,  Spanish,   or   Ital- 
ian    KHXI 

(Freehand 400 

I  Geometrical....  400 


10.  Drawing 


oaoo 

XI.  A  candidate  may  be  examined  in  as  many  of 
the  above  subjects  as  he  cliooses.  A  certain  number, 
corresponding  to  a  merely  elementary  knowledire.  will 
be  deducted  from  the  marks  gained  by  a  candidate 
in  each  subject,  except  drawing  and  applied  mathe- 
matics. 

XII.  To  qualify,  a  candidate  must  pass  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners  in  the 
subjects  specified  in  Par.  VIII.,  and  in  two  at  least  of 
the  subjects  of  the  further  examination.  He  must 
also  obtain  such  an  aggregate  of  marks  as  shall  indi- 
cate, in  the  judgment  of  the  Commissioners,  a  com- 
petent amount  of  general  proficiency. 

XIII.  The  successful  candidates  will  be  appointed 
Lieutenants  on  probation.  Tliey  will  proceed  to  the 
Royal  Naval  College  at  Greenwich  at  tlie  commence- 
ment of  the  season  following  the  examination,  viz. 
on  the  1st  of  October. 

XIV.  At  the  end  of  the  first  session  they  will  be  ex- 
amined, and  commissions  in  the  Light  Infantry  will 
be  granted  to  all  who  shall  pass  a  satisfactory  exami- 
nation. The  dates  of  the  commissions  so  granted  will 
depend  upon  the  number  of  marks  obtained.  Those 
who  do  not  pass  satisfactorily  will  be  finally  excluded 
from  the  Royal  Marines. 

XV.  From  those  who  pass  highest  at  this  exami- 
nation, officers  will  be  selected  to  qualify  themselves 
to  fill  vacancies  in  the  Royal  Marine  Artillery. 

XVI.  Tlie  ofticers  thus  selected  will  remain  at  the 
College  a  second  session,  at  the  end  of  which  they  will 
be  examined,  and,  if  they  pass  satisfactorily,  will  re- 
ceive commissions  in  the  Artillery. 

XVII.  Officers  who  fail  to  obtain  commissions  in 
the  Artillery  may  retain  their  rank  as  Lieutenants  in 
the  Light  Infantry. 

XVill.  Artillery  and  infaiitry  officers  will  be  posted 
on  the  list  of  their  respective  corps  in  the  order  in 
which  they  pass  their  final  examination  at  G;-eeuwich. 

XIX.  Oflicers  of  the  Royal  Marines  on  probation 
will  receive  5s.  3d.  a  day.  Those  who  are  permitted 
to  remain  a  second  session  to  qualif}-  for  the  artillery 
will  be  allowed  Is.  6d.  a  day  mess  allowance  during 
that  session. 

XX.  ORicers,  on  passing  out,  will  join  their  re- 
spective divisions,  and  be  instructed  in  their  drill  and 
military  duties  for  service  ashore  and  afloat. 

XXI.  Each  successful  candidate  at  the  examina- 
tion for  entrv  must  deposit  the  sum  of  £80  with  the 
AccountantGeneral  of  the  Navy  before  he  can  be  ap- 
pointed Lieutenant  on  probation  for  the  Rojal  Ma- 
rines, to  provide  for  his  equipment  at  the  Royal  Naval 
College  and  on  joining  his  division. 

XXII.  The  uniform  for  officers  on  probation  will 
be  a  blue  patrol  jacket,  blue  working  jacket,  mess 
jacket,  un(iress  trowsers,  sword,  and  forage  cap. 

flOYAL  MARINES.— A  body  of  men  raised  for  ser- 
vice as  soldiers,  either  on  shore  or  on  board  ship, 
and  jjlaced  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Ad- 
miralty. The  whole  regiment  is  never  afloat,  only 
portions  of  it,  the  rest  being  statif)aed  at  some  of  the 
naval  seajiort  towns.  The  Itoyal  Marines  were  first 
raised  in  1()U4,  and  have  been  considerably  strength- 
ened sinc(!  the  commencement  of  this  century.  Tliey 
rank,  when  acting  with  the  troojis  of  the  line,  be- 
tween tlie4;tth  and  rjOth  regiments.  The  Itoyal  Ma- 
rines arc  a  non-purchaser  corps,  and  the  ollieers,  as 
in  the  artillery  and  engineers,  rise  by  seniority.  The 
corps  now  possesses  a  marine  forcu'  of  arlillcry,  con- 
sisting of  13  companies,  which  is  a  most  cll'ective 
and  valual)le  body  of  men.  The  head-(|uarters  of 
the  Royal  .Marine  Artillery  are  at  East  ney. near  Ports- 
moiilh.  Many  of  the  chief  garrisons  in  the  .south 
of  England  have  divisifms  of  the  Marines  quartered 
in  them,  such  as  Woolwich,  Chatham.  Portsniciutli, 


Plymouth.     The  strength  of  the  corps  amounts  to 
14,000  men  and  287  officers.     See  Marines. 

ROYAL  MILITARY  ACADEMY.  —  1.  The  Royal 
^Military  Academy  at  Woolwich  is  maintained  for 
the  purpose  of  affording  a  preparatory  education  to 
candidates  for  the  Royal  Artillery  and  Royal  Engin- 
eers ;  this  education  will  be  chiefly  technical,  and 
will  in  no  obligatory  subject  be  carried  bej'ond  the 
point  useful  to  both  corps  alike. 

Regukitions  fvr  Admission,  eto. 

2.  Admission  to  the  Royal  Military  Academy  a3 
cadets  will  be  granted  to  the  successful  candidates 
at  an  open  competitive  examination.  The  examina- 
tions will  be  conducted  by  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
missioners,and  held  twice  a  year,December  and  July. 

3.  Notice  will  be  given  from  time  to  time  of  the 
day  and  place  of  the  examinations, and  ot  the  vacan- 
cies  to  be  competed  for  at  eacli  examination. 

4.  The  limits  of  age  will  be  from  sixteen  to  eight- 
een, the  candidates  being  required  to  be  within  those 
limits  on  the  1st  day  of  the  January  next  following 
for  the  winter  examination,  and  on  the  1st  of  July  for 
the  summer  examination. 

5.  Candidates  for  admission  to  the  December  or 
July  examination  must  send  to  the  Military  Secretary, 
not  less  than  one  month  before  the  1st  December  or 
1st  July  respectively, an  application  to  be  examined, 
accompanied  by  the  follo\ving  papers  : — (n)  An  ex- 
tract  from  the  register  of  his  birth,  or  in  default,  a 
declaration  made  by  one  of  his  parents  or  guardians 
before  a  magistrate,  giving  his  exact  age.  (b)  A 
certificate  of  good  moral  character,  signed  by  a 
clergyman  of  the  parish  in  which  he  has  recently  re- 
sided, or  by  the  tutor  or  head  of  the  school  or  college 
at  which  he  has  received  his  education  for  at  least  the 
two  preceding  years,or  some  other  satisfactory  proof 
of  good  moral  character. 

6.  When  a  candidate  who  has  once  been  examined 
applies  to  be  examined  again, he  will  only  be  required 
to  forward  a  certificate  as  to  moral  character  for  the 
interval  between  the  two  examinations. 

7.  The  number  of  trials  allowed  will  not  exceed 
three. 

8.  All  candidates  will  be  inspected  by  a  Medical 
Board  ;  and  no  candidate  will  be  allowed  to  proceed 
to  examination  by  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners 
unless  certified  by  the  Board  to  b«  free  from  bodily 
defects  or  ailments,  and  in  all  respects,  as  to  height 
and  physical  qualities,  fit  for  her  Majesty's  service. 
Cases  of  exceptional  shortness  of  stature  will  be  re- 
ferred to  the  War  Office  for  special  consideration. 

9.  A  candidate  will  be  required  to  satisfy  the  Civil 
Service  Commissioners  in  the  following  subjects  : — 
(1)  Mathematics,  viz.  (a)  arithmetic,  and  the  use  of 
common  logarithms  ;  (h)  algebra,  including  equa- 
tions, progressions,  pennutationsand  combinations, 
and  the  binomial  theorem  ;  {e)  geometry,  up  to  the 
standard  of  the  sixth  book  of  Euclid  ;  (rf)  plane  trig- 
onometry, including  the  solution  of  triangles.  (2) 
French,  German  or  some  other  modern  language, 
the  examination  being  limited  to  translation  from 
the  language  and  granunatical  questions.  (3)  Writ- 
ing English  correctly  and  in  a  good  legible  hand, 
from  dictation,  and  English  conqiosition.  (4)  The 
elements  of  geometrical  drawing,  including  the  con- 
struction of  plane  scales  and  the  use  of  sinqile  mathe- 
matical instruments.  (5)  Geography.  A  thorough 
knowledge  of  each  of  the  four  branches  of  mathe- 
matics will  be  required.  The  Commissioners  may, 
however,  if  they  think  fit,  dispense  with  this  prelim- 
inary examination,  except  as  regards  mathematics, 
English  composition,  and  geometrical  drawing,  in 
the  case  of  any  candidate  wlio  has  satisfied  them  on 
a  previous  occasion, 

10.  No  marks,  will  be  allotted  for  the  above  pre- 
liminary examination  excepting  for  mathematics 
(2000),  "for  English  composition  (.500),  and  for  geo- 
metrical drawing  (300). 

11.  The  "ftirtiier  examination"  will  be  proceeded 
with  immediately  on  the  conclusion  of  the  "prelim- 


BOTAL  MILITAHT  ACADEMT. 


7ft  1 


SOTAL  MILITARY  ACADEKT. 


iimry  cxiuiiiiiiilion."  Ciiriilidiilcs  wlin  fail  in  the  jirr- 
liiniiiary  I'xainiMiilinii  will  be  iiiforiiiril  of  iIk  ir  fiiil- 
iire  as  soDiias  possible. and  tin  y  will  llicii  be  njlC'ttHCil 
from  further  atleiKiaiiee. 

13.  The  sul)jects  of  tlie  fiirlher  exaniinalioii  and 
the  niaxiiniiin  niiinber  of  iiiarUs  oblainable  for  eaeh 
subject  will  be  as  follows  : 

Shirks. 
(1)  Mathematics,  viz.  further  i|iiestioMs  and 
problems  on  thesubjcels  of  I  he  iiualifyin); 
examination,  and  the  elements  of  the  fol- 
lowini;  sul)jeels  :  theory  of  ei|uations;  an- 
alytical geometry;  conic  sections;  solid 
geometry  ;  diirerentinl  and  integral  calcu- 
lus; statics;  and  dynamics  4000 

(3)  Knitlish  :  KuicHsh  literature,  lindted  to 
specilied  authors;  and  Eni;lish  history, 
limited  to  certain  li.xed  periods  ;  the  au- 
thors and  periods  bemg  iiotilieil  before- 
hand      2000 

,Qs  ,„      .         .         (    Latin 2000 

(3)  Classics,  VIZ.     .^    ^,^^.,.^   2000 

(4)  French,  the  examination  to  be  partly  col- 
lofjuial 2000 

(J>)  tiernian.the  'examination  to  be  partly  col- 
loquial       2000 

(6)  Anyone  of  the  following  langnaffcs  at  the 
option  of  the  candidate, viz.  Italian,  Rus- 
sian, Si>Hnish,or  llindostanee  :  the  exam- 
ination to  l)e  partly  colloquial 2000 

(7)  Experimental  sciences. viz.  (u)  chemistry 
and  heat ;  or  {!/)  electricity  and  magnet- 
ism      2000 

(8)  (ieneral  and  physical  geography  and  geol- 
ogy  ■ 2000 

(9)  Drawing,  free-hand 1000 

Of  these  nine  subjects,  candidates  will  not  be  al- 
lowed to  take  up  more  than  four,  exclusive  of  draw- 
ing. In  all  the  sidijects,  a  very  great  importance 
■wfll  be  attached  to  the  accuracy  in  numerical  re- 
sults. 

13.  A  certain  number  will  be  deducted  from  the 
marks  gained  by  a  candidate  in  each  subject, except 
mathematics  ;  and  the  remainders  will  be  added  to 
the  marks  gained  by  the  candidate  in  the  prelimi- 
nary examination  in  mathematics,  English  compo- 
sition, and  geometrical  drawing.  The  resulting  total 
will  determine  the  candidates  place  in  the  competi- 
tive list;  the  successful  candidates  being  those  who 
stand  first  on  the  list  up  to  the  ntmiber  of  vacancies 
competed  for. 

Optional  Examination  in  Mathematicn. — Detailed 
Syllabux. 

14.  Further  questions  and  problems  on  the  sub- 
jects of  the  qualifying  examination.  The  theory  of 
equations:  (irst  ]>rinciples.  Analytical  gcometr}': 
problems  on  straight  line  and  circle.  Conic  sections; 
elementary  properties,  w  ith  easy  problems,  both  on 
the  analytical  and  gecmietrical  methods.  Solid  geom- 
etry :  first  pricniples,  with  easy  exercises.  Differen- 
tial calculus.  Differentiation  of  functions  of  one  in- 
dependent variable.  Taylor's  and  Maclaurin's  theo- 
rems: applications.  Maxima  and  minimaof  functions 
of  one  independent  variable.  Method  of  iurtnitesi- 
nials  :  first  principles,  with  easy  applications.  Tan- 
gents and  normals  to  curves.  Points  of  inflexion. 
Curvature  of  curves.  Involutes  and  cvolutes.  Inte- 
gral calculus.  Elementary  integrations.  Integration 
considered  as  summation.  Rectification  and  quadra- 
ture of  plane  curves.  Statics;  equilibrium  of  forces 
and  couples  iuone  plane.  Friction:  center  of  gravity; 
mechani<'al  powers.  Problems  on  elenu-ntary  statics: 
the  graphical  or  geometrical  method  of  treating  such 
problems  sliould  be  studied  as  well  as  the  analytical. 
No  applications  of  the  differential  calculus  to  statics 
will  be  re(iuired.  Dynamics  :  elenunlary  principles : 
projectiles;  motion  of  a  heavy  particle  on  a  snumth 
curve;  centrifugal  force  ;  simple  pendulum.     Prob- 


lems and  exercises.  No  applications  of  the  dliTercntiai 
calculus  will  be  recjuired. 

TerriiH  af  I'liijment. 

l.'i.  The  terms  of  payment  for  carletfl  at  the  Royal 
Military  Academy  are  regulated  by  the  followini^ 
articles  of  hrr  -Majesty's  warrant  of  the  27lli  Decem- 
ber. IH70,  for  the  pay  atid  promotion  of  the  Army: 

I'di/iiiiidjirr  (■(Kiel. — The  paym<:nt  to  be  contributed 
on  behalf  of  a  cailet  shall  be  as  follows,  and  shall  be 
pai<l  half-yearly  in  advance  : — 

Annually. 
£ 

Queen's  cadets  (if  any) Nil. 

ioT  the  son  of  an  olHcer  of  the  Army  or  Navy 
who  has  died  in  the  service,  and  whose  fam- 
ily is  left  in  pecuniary  distress  (subject  to 

the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  Slate; 20 

For  the  son  of  an  ollicer  below  the  rank  of  Col- 
onel or  Regimental  Field  (Jllicer  in  theArmy, 
and  Captain  orCommander  in  theNavy,or  an 
Instructor  at  the  Royal  Jlililary  College  or 

Staff  College 40 

For  the  son  of  a  Colonel  or  Regimental  Field-ofli- 
cer  in  the  Army, or  of  a  Ca|>tain  or  Command- 
er in  the  Navy,  or  of  a  Professor  at  the  Royal 
Military  Academy,  or  Royal  Military  College, 

or  Staff  College 60 

For  the  son  of  a  General-officer  who  is  not  Col- 
onel of  a  Regiment,  or  of  a  Vice  or  Rear-ad- 
miral      70 

For  the  son  of  an  Admiral  or  of  a  General-officer 
who  is  Colonel  of  ;i  Regiment  or  in  receipt  of 

Indian  Colonel's  allowances 80 

For  the  son  of  a  private  gentleman 12.'5 

Sralc  of  payment,  Iwtr  nmrputcd. — In  determining  the 

rate  of  payment — 
«.  A  General-officer  on  the  half-pay  of  his  last  regi- 
nuutal   commission   shall  pay  in  accordance 
with  such  regimental  :ank. 

b.  Officers  who  have  sold  their  commissions  shall  be 

regarded  as  private  gc  iitlemen. 

c.  Officers  on  retired  full  or  half-pay  after  2-5  j'ears' 

service,  or  officers  of  less  than  2.5  years'  ser- 
vice, if  placed  on  half-piiy  by  reduction  of  es- 
tablishment, or  on  account  of  ill  health,  shall 
pay  in  accordance  with  their  last  substantive 
regimental  rank.  The  cases  of  officers  volun- 
tarily retiring  to  half-pay  before  completing 
2-5  years'  service  shall  be  specially  considered. 

d.  Officers  of  the  departments  of  the  Army  and  Navy 

according  to  their  relative  rank,  of  the  perma- 
neut  staff  of  the  militia,  adjutants  of  the  vol- 
imteer  force,  as  well  as  Indian  military  and 
naval  officers,  shall  be  treated  on  the  same 
terms  as  military  or  n:ival  officers. 

e.  The  sons  of  deceased  oftic crs  shall  be  contributed 

for  in  accordance  with  the  foregoing  regula- 
tions in  regard  to  the  rank  or  classification  of 
their  fathers. 

Sickne««  and  rustication. — If  a  cadet  be  absent  a 
whole  term  in  c(msequence  of  sickness  or  rustication, 
a  payment  of  £10  shall  be  req\nred  for  the  privilege 
of  his  name  being  kept  on  the  rolls  of  the  establish- 
ment, and  for  a  vacancy  beinir  guaranteed  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  next  term. 

Orphans. — In  the  case  of  a  cadet  who  is  an  orphan, 
whose  annual  contribution  is  only  £20.  the  amount 
to  be  paid  when  absence  extends  over  a  whole  term 
shall  be  determined  by  the  Secretary  of  State. 

Sick/w/i«. — If  a  cadet  be  absent  from  sickness  dur- 
ing a  portion  of  the  term,  his  pay  shall  continue  to 
be  issued  and  credit<d  to  his  account,  but  no  refund 
of  tlic  contribution  shall  be  permitted. 

Jhmticatlon. — If  a  cadet  be  rusticated  or  removed 
during  a  term,  his  daily  pay  shall  cease  from  the  date 
on  which  he  is  sent  away,  and  the  contributioa  made 
for  the  half-year  shall  be  forfeited. 

^'".V  "fcaJet.^The  pay  of  a  cadet  shall  be  3s.  a  day. 
It  is  issued  to  cover  the  expenses  of  regimental  doth- 


KOTAL  MILITARY  ACADEMY. 


792 


ROYAL  MILITARY  ACADEMY. 


ing,  messing,  washing,  and  otlier  contingencies;   All 

other  necessary  expenses  of  this  nature,  as  well  as 
weekly  pocket  money,  postage  of  letters,  bootmakers' 
and  tailor.s'  bills  for  repairs,  etc.,  which  cannot  be 
covered  by  his  pa}-,  shall  be  chargeable  to  his  parent 
or  guardian  in  addition  to  the  regulated  contribution. 
Extra  payiitents  for  radets. — Each  cadet  on  first 
joining  shall  be  required  to  pay,  in  addition  to  the 
regulated  contribution,  a  sum  of  A'25  t6  cover  the 
expenses  of  uniform,  books,  etc.,  aud  to  bring  with 
him  the  articles  of  clothing  of  which  he  will  receive 
notice,  aud  wliicli  must  aifterward  be  kept  up  at  his 
own  expense.  He  shall  also  be  required  to  pay  the 
regidated  contribution  in  advance,  for  each  half-year 
of  the  time  during  wliich  he  remains  imder  instruc- 
tion, and  a  deposit  of  £5  on  account,  for  contingent 
expen.scs,  which  latter  sum  he  shall  be  required  to 
make  up  on  returning  to  tlie  Royal  Militarj-  Academy 
after  eacli  vacation,  to  cover  any  expense  that  may 
be  incurred  on  his  account  during  the  ensuing  halt- 
year. 

Government  and  Organization. 

16.  The  Field  3Iarshal  Commandiug-in-Chief  will 
be  the  President  of  the  Royal  Jlilitary  Academy. 

17.  An  independent  inspection  by  a  Board  of  Visi- 
tors, appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War,  and 
reporting  to  him, will  be  made  once  a  year.  Such  Visi- 
tors will  not  be  a  permanent  body,  but  will  not  all  be 
changed  at  the  same  time.  Tlie  report  of  this  Board 
will  be  presented  to  Parliament. 

18.  The  Academy  will  be  under  the  control  of  a  Gov- 
ernor, a  military  man,  selected  with  special  refer- 
ence to  his  qualifications  for  superintending  both  in- 
struction and  discipline,  and  ajipointed  bj'  and  re- 
sponsible to  tlie  Secretary  of  State  for  War,  through 
the  Field  Marshal  Cominaudiug-in-Chief. 

19.  The  Governor,  by  virtue  of  Ins  office, will  have 
local  rank  superior  to  that  of  any  of  the  officers  em- 
ployed under  him. 

20.  The  tenure  of  the  appointment  is  regulated  by 
the  following  article  of  the  royal  warrant  of  tlie  27th 
December,  1870: — The  appointment  of  Governor  of 
the  Royal  Military  Academj'  ....  shall  be  for 
seven  years,  with  power  of  re-appointment;  but  shall 
in  all  cases  terminate  after  fourteen  years,  or  at  the 
age  of  sixty. 

21.  The  Governor,  with  tlic  approval  of  tlie  Sec- 
retary of  State  for  War,  will  liave  the  power  of  ap- 
pointing and  removing  the  Professors  and  Instruc- 
tors. 

22.  The  organization  will  be  on  a  military  basis. 

23.  The  Governor  will  be  solely  responsible  for 
discipline  and  for  the  general  superintendence  of  the 
studies, 

24.  He  will  be  assisted  in  the  arrangements  of 
the  studies  by  the  Academy  Board,  composed  of  the 
Professorsor  Senior  Instructors  of  the  different  bran- 
ches. The  head  of  each  liranch  will  have  the  gener- 
al power  of  supervision  and  inspection  over  the  stu- 
dies of  Ids  department,  witli  the  duty  of  reporting  on 
lliem  to  the  Governor. 

25.  The  Governor  will  from  time  to  time  assemble 
and  confer  witli  all  tlie  Professors  and  Instructors  of 
eacli  separate  braiu'li  on  matters  relating  to  it. 

2(j.  The  Governor  will  be  assisted  by  a  Staff-offi- 
cer, not  imder  the  rank  of  ('{iptaiii.  who  will  be  sec- 
retary ami  treasurer,  and  liave  charge  of  tlie  records 
correspondence  and  accounts  of  the  establishment, 
and  make  all  local  payments  connected  therewith, 
and  receive  the  contriliutions  for  the  cadets.  This 
appointment  will  be  for  seven  years,  with  power  of 
re-api)oiiitnieiit. 

27.  Tlie  cadets  will  form  one  company  under  a 
Captain,  assisted  by  four  Lieutenants,  charged  with 
the  discipline  out  of  stiiili<-s  and  the  drill,  one  of 
whom  will  be  Adjutant  and  (Quartermaster. 

28.  Tlie  Professors  and  Instructors  may  be  either 
military  men  or  civilians. 

211.  The  Professors  and  Instniclors  will  have  cer- 
tain limited  powers  of  piinisliiiienl,  withinaiul  with- 


out the  halls  of  study.at  the  discretion  of  the  Gover- 
nor, to  whom  they  will  report  all  punishments  which 
tliey  may  inHict. 

80.  The  Chaplain  will  be  specially  appointed  by 
the  Secretary  of  State,  and  will  give  instruction  in 
classics. 

31.  The  tenure  of  offlce  of  the  Professors  and  In- 
structors is  regulated  by  the  following  article  of  the 
royal  warrant  of  27th  December  1870: — The  Pro- 
fessors and  Instructors  at  the  Royal  Military  Acad- 
emy shall  be  appointed  for  six  years,  with  power  of 
re-appointment.  Tlieir  term  of  office  shall  not  con- 
tinue after  the  age  of  fifty-five,  unless  an  extension 
be  specially  recommended  by  the  Governor  and  ap- 
proved by  the  Secretary  of  State. 

32.  No  Professor  or  Instructor  will  be  permitted 
to  give  private  instruction  to  a  cadet,  either  during 
the  vacation  or  at  any  other  time,  or  be  allowed  to 
prepare  candidates  for  admission  to  the  Academy. 

33.  The  Governor  will  liave  the  absolute  power  of 
rustication  and  removal,  and  also  of  sentencing  a 
cadet  for  misconduct  to  lo.=!e  places  in  the  list  of 
successful  candidates  for  commissions  ;  when  expul- 
sion is  necessary,  the  case  will  be  referred  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  through  the  Field  Marshal  Command- 
ing-in-Chief. 

34.  Tlie  name  of  an}' cadet  expelled  for  misconduct 
will  be  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  Field  Marshal 
Commanding-in-C'liief,  and  will  be  made  known  to 
the  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  to  the  Secretary 
of  State  for  India,  in  order  to  prevent  his  being  ad- 
mitted into  her  Majesty's  naval,  military,  or  Indian 
service. 

35.  A  sword  will  be  given  at  each  final  examina- 
tion as  a  special  reward  for  excellence  in  conduct. 

36.  The  Governor  will  cause  registers  to  be  kept  of 
all  serious  punishments  awarded,  and  of  the  offences 
which  have  caused  them. 

37.  He  will  inspect  accounts  of  every  description 
connected  with  the  Academy,  and  certify  those 
which  require  it. 

Ciiiirse  of  Instruction. 

38.  The  length  of  the  course  of  instruction  will  be 
two  years  and  a  half. 

39.  If  any  cadet  fail  to  come  up  to  the  required 
standard  at  two  examinations,  or  be  found  unable  to 
qualify  in  his  studies  for  a  commission  within  three 
years,  to  be  counted  from  the  commencement  of  the 
term  in  which  he  first  joins,  or  to  acquire  a  sufficient 
proficiency  in  military  exercises,  lie  will  be  removed. 
No  extension  of  tlie  above  period  of  three  3'ears  will 
be  granted  on  account  of  absence  from  any  cause 
excepting  illness.  Cases  of  protracted  absence  on  ac- 
count of  illness  will  be  specially  referred  for  decision 
to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War  through  the  Field 
]Marslial  Commanding-in-Chief. 

40.  Tlie  following  sulijects  will  form  the  course  of 
obligatory  studies: — (1)  Mathematics,  including  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  phme  trigonometry;  practi- 
cal mechanics,  with  the  application  of  uKithematics 
to  machinery.  (2)  Fortification,  field  and  ]iermanent; 
such  a  cour.sc  as  is  suitable  to  cadets  (lualifying  for  the 
Artillery,  and  tiie  requisite  amount  of  geometrical 
drawing.  (3)  Artillery;  such  a  course  as  is  suitable 
to  cadets  qu;ilifyiiig  for  the  Engineers.  (4)  Military 
dniwiug,  willi  iield  sketching  aud  reconnaissance. 
(Ti)  ^Military  history  and  geography.  (0)  P'rcneh  or 
(term;iii,  at  the  student's  choice.  (7)  Elementaiy 
chemistry  and  iiliysics.     (8)  Drills  and  exercises. 

41.  Ill  addition  to  the  obligator}'  course,  every 
cadet  will  be  allowed,  at  his  option,  to  take  up  cer- 
tain volunt:iry  subjects,  viz.:— (1)  Higher  niatliema- 
lics.  (2)  Higher  portions  of  fortification.  (3;  Any 
of  the  following  liiiiguagi's  :  —  German  or  French, 
Itali;iii,  KiiHsian,  Spanish,  or  lliiidostanee.  (4)  Free- 
hand, figure,  and  landscape  dr;iwing.  (5)  Higher 
chemistry.  (0)  Latin  and  (7)  Greek  ;  instructiims  in 
these  subjects  to  he  given  by  the  Chaplain. 

42.  Marks  will  be  assigned  to  the  obligatory  sub- 


EOTAL  MTIITART  ASYLUM 


o:'. 


ROYAL  MILITAEY  COLLEGE  AT  8ANDHTJE8T. 


ieots  of  instruotioii  in  Uu:  followiiiK  proportions:  — 
MiilhemuticH  nnd  mcclmiiics,  7  ;  forlificiitioii,  7;  art- 
illery, 5;  iiiililiiry  driuviiin  and  rcconnaissaMci',  (! ; 
military  history,  etc.,  li ;  oni^  inoilcrn  lan;;uan(^ 
French  or  (irrinan,  3;  elementary  chitnislry  anil 
physics,  2  ;  drills  and  exercises — mainial,  platoon, 
and  company  drill,  ^  :  <;ymnustics,  A ;  riding  and 
Bword  exercises,  ^  ;  artillery,  3;  lolal  liA. 

43.  Tlie  volunlary  sulijects  shall  lie  valued  as  fol- 
lows :-  lli'.;lier  ni:ilh<iiiiilics,  T)  :  higher  fori  ilicatioii, 
H;  Latin.  3;  (!reeU,  3;  any  of  the  following  lan- 
gnages  -  French  or  (iernian,  Italian,  Rnssian,  Span- 
ish, or  llindoslanee,  3:  fri'chanil,  ligurc,  ami  land- 
scape drawing,  3;  higher  chemistry,  2. 

44.  No  ohligalory  subject  shall  gain  a  cadet  any 
marks  unless  he  obtain  a  minimum  of  one-lmlf  the 
marks  in  it. 

45.  Xn  cadet  will  be  ensured  a  commission  unless 
he  qualify  by  olilaining  at  least  oue-lialf  marks  in 
the  obligalory  course  in  mathematics  anil  mechanics, 
fortiticalion,  and  artillery,  and  one-half  of  the  total 
aggregate  of  the  marks  allotted  to  all  tlu^  obligalory 
subjects. 

4(i.  No  voluntary  subje<-t  shall  gain  a  cadet  any 
marks  unless  he  obtain  a  unnimimi  of  at  least  one- 
third  of  the  marks  assigned  to  that  ])ortion  of  it  in 
which  he  is  examined.  The  marks  gained  in  tlie 
volunlary  subjects  will  be  added  to  those  obtained  in 
the  obligalory  subjects  to  make  a  second  total,  ac- 
cording to  wliich  cadets  shall  be  finally  jilaced. 

47.  The  periodical  cxandnations  will  be  entirely 
co7iducted  by  examiners  independent  of  the  Academy 
the  wliole  of  the  marks  except  those  reserved  for 
note-books  and  drawing  being  allotted  according  to 
their  results. 

Staff  of  till'  FMnbllshnunt, 

48.  The  following  will  be  the  Staff  of  the  establish- 
ment : — (lovernor.  Secretary  and  Treasurer,  Captain 
commanding  company, ;!  r^ieutenanls.  Adjutant  and 
(Quartermaster, ;\Iedical  ( )lticer,Chai)laiii,4  Professors 
and  Instructors  of  mathematics  and  mechanics, 4  Pro- 
fessors and  Instructors  of  forlitication  and  geometri- 
cal drawing,  3  Professors  and  Instructors  of  artillery, 
4  Professors  and  Instructors  of  military  drawing, etc., 
and  I'rofessor  and  Instructor  of  militarj-  history  and 
geography,  2  Professors  and  Instructors  of  French 
and  (Jerman,!  Professor  and  Instructor  of  tigure  and 
landscape  drawing,and  1  Professorand  Instructor  of 
chemistry. 

49.  The  pay  and  allowances  of  the  ofliccrs  are 
regulated  by  Ihe  following  articles  of  her  Majesty's 
warrant  of  the  37th  December  1870: — The  pay  of  the 
otlicers  of  the  Royal  Military  Academy  shall  be  as 
follows:  — 

Governor,  A'l. WO  yearly,  inclusive  of  all  allowances 
except  quarters,  and  in  addition  to  his  unattached 
pay  as  a  General-officer  or  his  pay  as  Colonel  Com- 
mandant of  royal  artillery  or  royal  engineers,  in  the 
event  of  his  holding  such  rank;  Secretary  anilTreasur- 
cr,  not  of  lower  rank  than  Captain, £400  ye;irly,inch: 
sivc  of  all  allowances  except  quarters,  and  in  addi- 
tion to  regimental  pay:  Captain  of  eomi)any,  12s. 
daily,  and  regimental  pay  (also  forage  allowance  for 
one  horse,  quarters,  fuel,  and  light,  and  2  soldier 
servants)  :  Lieutenants,  each  4s.  daily, and  regimenlal 
pay  (also  quarters,  fuel,  ami  light,  and  1  soldier 
servant):  .\djutant  and  (.Quartermaster, 5s.  ihuly.and 
regimenlal  pay  as  Lieutenant  (;dso  quarters, fuel, and 
light,  forage  allowance  for  1  horse,  and  3  soldier 
servants);  Surgeon, according  to  his  rank  in  the  Army 
^lediial  Deimrtment:  Cli;ipliun  and  Classical  Instruc- 
tor, i'400  ye;irly,  and  quarters,  fuel,  and  light  :  Pro- 
fessor of  nuUhematics,  if  a  civili;in,  t'550  to  £700 
yearly,  by  a  lricimi:d  increase  of  £50;  Professor  of  j 
inathematics,  if  ;in  officer,  £5.50  yearly,  without  in- 1 
crease;  Instructors  of  matheuKitics,  if"civilians.£350 
to  £500  each  yearly,  by  a  triennial  increase  of  £50; 
Instructors  of  mathematics,  if  ollicers,  £450  yearly,  I 
without  increase;  Professor  of  fortilicatioii,  £.550  [ 
yearly;  Instructors  of  fortification  and  geometrical  ^ 


drawing,  each  X4.50 ;  Professor  of  artillery,  jCiSO; 
Ilislnictors  of  artillery,  £450;  Professor  of  military 
drawing,  £.550  ;  Inslriiclorsof  military  drawing,  each, 
X'4.50;  Professor  of  military  history,  £500  ;  Professor 
of  French,  £350;  Professor  of  German,  £;J50;  Pro- 
fessor of  lanilscapi^  drawing,  £^50  ;  and  Professor  ot 
chemistry,  £400.  ) 

The  above  scale  of  pay  (and  allowanccH)  Hliall  in- 
clude all  rennmeralion  of  every  kind  except  any  ad- 
ditional piiy.  beyond  hisordiiiarv  regimenlal  pay,  to 
which  an  iilticer  may  be  entilliil  by  brevet  rank  or 
as  a  reward  for  distinguished  service  in  the  tield, 
and  no  |)erson  heriiifler  to  be  appointed  to  any  of  the 
above  appointments  shall  be  entitled  to  pension 
or  su])erannuation  allowance  for  services  in  such  ap- 
point  mint. 

50.  The  appointments  of  Military  Professors  and 
Instructors  are  open  to  officers  of  all  ranks. 

51.  No  perse  in  whatever  belonging  to  the  Ko>al 
.Military  Academy  is  to  receive  a  present  from  any 
cadet,  or  from  the  relations  or  friends  of  any  cadet. 

53.  Commissions  as  Lieutenants  in  the  royal  artil- 
lery or  roval  engineers  will  be  confcrrefl  iijjon  can- 
didates who  qualify  in  accordance  with  Pars.  39  to 
45. 

.53.  The  commissions  of  such  Lieutenants  as  are 
recommended  by  the  Governor  of  the  Academj',  and 
afterwards  pass  through  their  practical  course  at 
Woolwich  and  Chatham  in  a  satisfactory  manner, 
will  be  ;inlcd:ilid  (i  months. 

ROYAL  MILITARY  ASYLUM.— An  Educational  Go- 
vernment Institution  at  Chelsea,  near,  but  wholly 
distinct  from,  tlie  Royal  Hospital  for  jiensioned  sol- 
diers. Its  object  is  Ihe  suitable  education  for  trade, 
etc.,  of  .500  male  children — generally  orphans — of 
IJritish  soldiers.  For  these  there  area  model  school 
and  an  infant  school,  and  the  boys  have  a  complete 
militarj-  organization,  with  scarlet  uniform,  band, 
etc.  As  a  res\ilt  of  their  training,  a  large  proportion 
of  the  pupils  ultimately  volunteer  into  the  -Army. 
The  School  was  originally  established  in  1803  by  the 
late  Duke  of  York, whence  it  is  still  commonly  known 
as  the  "Duke  of  York's  School."  Originally  a  simi- 
lar school  for  soldiers'  daughters  was  included  but 
was  not  found  to  answer,  and  has  been  discontinued. 
Attached  to  the  School  is  a  trainii.g  establishment 
for  military  schoolmasters,  known  as  the  Normal 
School.  The  total  cost  of  the  whole  Institution  is 
about  £1 1,-500  per  annum. 

ROYAL  MILITARY  COLLEGE  AT  SANDHURST.  - 

1.  The  Koviil  ^Military  College  is  m:iintained  for 
the  purpose  of  affording  a  special  military  education 
to  Sub-lieutenants  of  cavalry  and  infantry  recently 
appointed,  and  to  successful  candidates  in  the  com- 
petitive examinations  for  commissions. 

3.  The  number  of  Sub-lieutenants  admitted  to  the 
( 'oUege  will  vary  according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
service. 

3.  The  dates  of  admission  will  be  the  10th  of  Feb- 
ruary and  lOtli  of  September  in  each  year. 

4.  The  College  terms  will  bi — (")  from  the  10th  of 
Februarj'  to  the  30th  of  July,  with  suspension  of 
stmly  during  a  fortnight  at  Easter :  (Ii)  from  the  10th 
of  September  to  the  15tli  of  December.  The  inter- 
mediate periods  will  constitute  the  vacations. 

5.  The  Commander-in-Chief  will  be  the  President 
of  the  Koyul  Military  College. 

f'l.  The  College  will  be  under  the  command  of  a 
Governor,  who  will  be  solely  responsible  for  discipline 
and  for  the  general  superintendence  of  the  studies. 

7.  He  will  be  assisted  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
studies  by  a  Board,  composed  of  the  Professors  or 
Senior  Instructors  of  the  different  branches.  The  head 
of  each  branch  will  have  the  general  power  of  super- 
vision and  inspection  over  the  studies  in  his  depart- 
ment,with  the  duty  of  reporting  on  them  to  the  Gov- 
ernor. 

8.  The  Governor  will  be  assisted  by  a  Staff-officer, 
who  will  be  responsible  in  his  temporary  absence  for 
the  charge  of  the  establishment.     This  officer  will 


BOYAL  MILITAEY  COLLEGE. 


794 


EOYAL  MILITAEY  COLLEGE. 


have  the  custody  of  the  records  and  the  correspond- 
ence of  the  College,  and  will  give  the  Governor  such 
assistance  as  he  may  require. 

9.  The  Quartermaster  will  perform  the  duties  of 
Acting  Commissary. 

10.  The  Sub-lieutenants,  being  commissioned  offi- 
cers, are  imder  the  Mutiny  Act  and  Articles  of  War. 
and  must  conform  to  her  Majesty's  regulations  in  all 
respects.  While  resident  at  the  "College,  they  will  be 
subject  to  such  rules  and  regulations  as  are,  or  raa\' 
be  from  time  to  time,  established  for  the  maintenance 
of  good  order  and  discipline. 

11.  The  Governor  will  have  the  power  of  removing 
for  a  period  not  beyond  the  corresponding  period  in 
the  next  term  anj'  Sub-lieutenant  guihy  of  insuljor- 
dinate  or  ungentlemanlike  conduct,  or  of  repeated 
acts  of  irregularity,  and  will  report  the  circumstances 
to  his  Royal  Highness,  the  Field  Marshal  Command- 
ing-in-Chief. 

12.  Sub-lieutenants  reported  for  habitual  inatten- 
tion to  their  studies,  or  failing  to  pass  satisfactorily 
through  the  probationary  examination  at  the  end  of 
their  iirst  term,  will  be  speciall}-  brought  imder  the 
notice  of  his  Royal  Highness,  with  a  view  to  their 
oases  being  considered  fis  to  the  necessity  of  removal 
from  the  College. 

13.  In  cases  requiring  more  serious  notice,  a  stu- 
dent if  commissioned,  will  be  liable,  on  the  report  of 
the  Governor  to  his  Royal  Highness,  to  be  removed 
from  the  service,  or,  if  not  commissioned,  to  be  re- 
moved from  the  list  of  candidates  awaiting  their  com- 
missions. 

14.  Sub-lieutenants  who  misconduct  themselves 
during  their  residence  at  the  College  will  be  liable  to 
the  forfeiture  of  the  antedate  to  which  they  would 
otherwise  be  entitled  in  accordance  with  Par. 38.  The}' 
will  also,  if  temporarily  removed  from  the  College  for 
misconduct,  be  liable,  under  the  provisions  of  the 
royal  warrant  of  the  1.5th  of  February,  1875,  to  the 
forfeiture  of  pay  for  such  period  as  the  Secretary  of 
State  may  direct. 

15.  The  Sub-lieutenants  will  be  distributed  in  di- 
visions of  not  less  than  25,  each  division  being  under 
the  immediate  charge  of  one  of  the  Professors  or  In- 
structors selected  by  the  Governor. 

IG.  The  officers  of  divisions  will  be  the  channel  of 
communication  on  all  subjects  between  the  Sub-lieu- 
tenants and  the  Governor.  They  will  mess  with  their 
divisions,  anil  will  exercise  a  general  superintendence 
over  them,  for  which  they  will  be  responsible  to  the 
Governor. 

17.  During  the  hours  of  study  the  Sub-lieutenants 
will  be  under  the  charge  of  the  Professors  and  Instruc- 
tors, to  whose  orders  they  will  be  required  to  pay  im- 
plicit obedience. 

IM.  Sub-lieutenants  will  salute  the  Governor  and  As- 
sistant to  the  Governor  on  all  occasions, whether  in  or 
out  of  uniform,  and  the  Professors  and  Instructors 
when  on  duty,  on  parade,  or  when  imder  instruction. 

19.  The  Sub-lieutenants  will  be  required  to  appear 
at  all  times  in  imiform,  excejit  when  on  leave  of  ab- 
sence, or  otherwise  exempted  by  the  Governor. 

20.  Tlie  study  undress  may  be  worn  at  all  times 
when  Sulj-licutcnaiits  arc  under  instruction, with  the 
exception  of  riding  or  ]iarade,  when  they  will  wear 
their  undress  uniform.  The  forage  cap  will  be  worn 
with  the  study  imdress. 

21.  The  cour.se  of  instruction  for  each  Sub-lieuten- 
ant wUl  last  during  two  terms.  The  following  will 
be  the  subjects  of  study: — (n)  Queen's  Regulations 
and  Orilers  for  the  Army,  regimental  interior  econo- 
my, accoiuits,  and  corresiKindence  ;  (//)  military  law; 
(r)  the  elements  of  tactics  ;  (d)  field  fortification,  and 
the  elements  of  permanent  fortification:  (e)  military 
topography  and  reconnaissance;  (/)  infantr}' and  field 
artilU'ry  drill,  riding,  and  gynmastics. 

22.  A{  theendbf  the  course  the  Sub-lieutenants  will 
be  re(|uired  to  jjass  an  examination  in  the  field  ami  on 
paper,  and  those  who  pass  the  examination  will  be 
gazetted  to  regiments  in  which  there  may  be  vacan- 


cies for  Sub-lieutenants,  with  a  view  to  their  complet- 
ing the  period  of  service  required  before  they  can  be 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  Lieutenant. 

23.  Ou  the  pass  list  of  the  examination  prescribed 
in  the  foregoing  paragraph.  Sub-lieutenants  will  be 
placed  in  one  of  the  three  classes,  according  to  their 
proficienc}',  as  shown  at  the  examination. 

24.  The  examination  will  be  qualifj-ing,  not  com- 
petitive, and  the  candidates  will  be  arranged  alpha- 
betically in  each  class. 

25.  The  standard  of  qualifications  for  the  respective 
classes  will  be  decided  upon  from  time  to  time  by  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  War,  and  announced  to  the 
Sub-lieutenants  at  the  commencement  of  their  course. 

26.  Marks  will  be  allotted  to  the  subjects  in  tlie 
following  proportions: — Queen's  Regulations,  etc., 
U:  military  law,  2;  elements  of  tactk-s,  3;  fortifica- 
tion, 3;  military  topography  and  reconnaissance,  3. 

27.  In  tactics,  fortification,  and  military  topog- 
raphy and  reconnaissance,  one-fourth  of  the  marks 
will  be  reserved  for  notes  and  drawings  done  during 
the  course. 

28.  In  accordance  with  the  power  vested  in  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  by  Art.  3  of  the  royal  warrant  of  the 
30th  October,  1871,  he  has  decided  that  the  Lieuten- 
ants' commissions  of  oflicers  who  pass  in  the  1st  class 
will  be  antedated  two  years ;  and  those  of  officers 
who  pass  in  the  2d  class,  12  months.  No  antedate 
will  be  granted  to  officers  who  pass  in  the  third  class. 

29.  Every  antedate  will  date  back  from  two  years 
subsequent  to  the  date  of  the  original  commission  as 
Sub-lieutenant.  No  commission  as  Lieutenant  will  be 
granted  until  the  oflicer  has  served  two  years  as  Sub- 
lieutenant. 

30.  Under  the  provisions  of  that  portion  of  Art.  3 
of  the  royal  warrant  of  the  30th  of  October,  1871, 
which  is  amended  by  the  royal  warrant  of  the  30th 
of  January,  1875,  Sub-lieutenants  may  be  removed 
from  the  service  if  they  fail  to  pass  the  examination 
at  the  Royal  Military  College  within  two  years  from 
the  date  of  their  commissions  as  Sub-lieutenants. 
They  will  be  allowed  to  be  re-examined  once,  at  the 
ililitary  College,  provided  two  years  from  the  date 
of  their  commissions  as  Sub-lieutenants  shall  not  have 
expired. 

31.  In  order  to  ensure  due  diligence  during  the 
whole  period  of  residence,  there  will  be  a  probation- 
ary examination  at  the  end  of  the  first  term  in  the 
work  of  the  term.  No  Sub-lieutenant  will  lie  per- 
mitted to  reside  for  more  than  one  year  at  the  College, 
except  in  cases  of  protracted  illness,  or  long  absence 
from  any  unavoidable  cause,  or  liis  being  prevented 
from  imavoidable  cause  from  undergoing  the  final 
examination. 

32.  The  mess-rooms,  ante-rooms,  and  quarters  of 
the  Sub-lieutenants  are  furnished  in  all  essentials  by 
the  goverument :  plate,  linen,  and  china,  and  every 
article  of  mess  equipment,  are  supplied  by  the  go- 
vernment, and  no  contributions  on  those  accounts- 
will  be  required  from  Sub-lieutenants. 

33.  The  messes  will  be  conducted  in  every  re- 
spect like  a  regimental  mess,  with  strict  regard  to 
economy. 

34.  All  unmarried  officers  of  the  College  will  be 
rcciuired  to  nu'ss  with  the  Sub-lieutenants.  Tho.se 
officers  who  are  married  will  mess  with  the  Sub- 
lieutenants if  re(iuired  to  do  so  by  the  Governor. 

35.  Sub-lieutenants  will  provide  themselves,  be- 
fore the)'  join  the  ('ollege,  with  the  prescrilied  imi- 
form,;uid  with  thebooksand  instnmu'nts  required  for 
their  instruction. 

3(!.  Svib-lieutenants  will  pay  for  their  messing  and 
washing.  The  amount  iliu'  from  each  officer  for  his 
messing  and  washing  will  be  paid  by  him  monthly 
to  the  Paymaster  of  the  College. 

37.  AH  Sub-lieutenants  will  be  required  to  contri- 
bute a  certain  sum  monthly  to  meet  the  expenses  of 
a  s))((ial  laundry  wliich  has  been  found  to  be  re- 
(piisite. 

38.  No  person  whatever  belonging  to  the  Royal 


BOYAL  REGIMENT  OF  ARTILLERY. 


705 


ROYAL  SHALL  ARMS. 


Military  College  will  receive  a  present  from  any  Sub- 

HiMilciiaiil.iir  from  Uic  rolitlioiiM   or  fricndH   of  uny 
Sub  li<'utfri:iiil . 

ROYAL  REGIMENT  OF  ARTILLERY.  A  Imlliilion 
usually  loMipriscs  K  (•(]iii|iaiiii-s.  .\1  a  time  when 
the  niimlicr  was  IK, (101).  the  re;,nmenl,  comiiriHed  11!) 
fompunies  iinil  troops,  averai;inij;  somewhat  over  IfiO 
men  eaeli.  At  other  times,  the  eompanies  have  va- 
ried from  l;i(t  to  21111  uien  each.  The  eompanies  and 
haltalions  of  fool-arlihery  are  desif:uat<'d  by  ordinid 
luunbers,  such  as  'lilh  eom|)any,  12th  Ipallalinn  ;  '  the 
troops  of  liorse-arlillcry  are  desJLCMaleil  Ijy  letters, 
such  as  '  I)  troop.'  There  are  nominally,  ri  olliecrs 
for  each  eoiniiany  and  troop  ;  hut  .some  of  these  are 
usually  alisenl  on  staff  or  briirade  duties.  In  battles 
and  sieves,  a  brignde  of  this  artillery  usually  consists 
of  either  two  or  thn'c  companies,  attached  to  a  di- 
vision of  the  regular  army.  Kach  company  with 
its  quota  of  ij;uns  and  stores  of  all  kinds,  constilules 
a,fieU-baUirii;  and  each  troojj  with  its(iuota,  consti- 
tutes u  UorKC-hiitlery.  It  has  been  pro|)osed  to  aban- 
don the  terms  dimpaiinunAlriiiip  altoij;elhtr,  as  bein;j; 
properly  apjilicable  only  to  infantry  and  cavalry,  and 
to  use  only  the  term  hulU'rij:  but  this  change  has  not 
yet  taken  jjlace.  Anionf?  the  oHicers  of  the  Royal 
Artillery,  there  are  no  Majors,  Ensifrns,  or  Cornets; 
e(|uivalenl  services  are  rendered  by  officers  other- 
wise desii^naled.  The  men  are  chiefly  classified  as 
gunners  and  ilrivers. 

The  Army  Estimates  for  185!)  lit)  will  afford  pretty 
correct  information  concerning  the  present  state  of 
the  Royal  Artillery. 

Royal  Foot  Artillery. 

Conimi.ssioned  Officers, 918 

Non-connnieeioned  Officers, 1,785 

Kank  and  File 23,351 

lioyal  /lorKC  Artillery. 

Commissifined  Officers, 78 

Non-commissioned  Officers, 148 

Rank  and  File 3,120 

Total,      27,400 
Of  this  number,  8707  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  East  Indies,   to  be  jiaid  for  out  of  Indian  reve- 
nues.    There  were  also  voted  5:i()8  horses  for   the 
foot-artillerv,  and  IHSO  for  the  horse. 

BOYAL  SCOTS.— The  regimental  title  given  to  the 
1st  Regiment  of  Foot.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  old- 
est regular  corps  in  Europe;  the  men  originally  came 
from  Scotland,  and  entered  the  French  army,  but 
afterwards  returned  to  England  in  l(i33,  during  tiie 
reign  of  Ch;irles  1.,  and  then  received  the  title  of 
Royal  Kei;iment  of  Foot. 

ROYAL  SMALL  ARMS.— The  following  arms,  etc., 
are  manufactured  at  the  Uoyal  Snudl-arms  Factory  : 
1.  JIartini-lIeur}' rifles  and  carbines.  2.  Triangular 
bayonets.  3.  8word-bayonets  of  various  patterns. 
4.  The  Enfield  breech-loading  revolver.  5.  Lances. 
6.  Leather  scabbards  for  triangular  and  sword  bay- 
onets. The  details  of  the  .Marlini-IIenry  system  and 
the  principal  features  of  the  Enfield  revolver  have 
been  set  forth  in  tin- articles  Martini-Henry  Rifie  and 
Enfield  Breech-loading  Revolver.  Inasmuch  as 
these  arms  differ  in  many  points  of  fabrication  from 
the  usual  jirocesses  and  operations  employed  in 
manufacturing  small-arms,  we  herewith  give  a  de- 
tailed description  of  the  fabri<:ation  of  the  Martini- 
Itenry  rilie  : 

The  barrel  is  made  of  soft  or  mild  steel  prepared 
by  the  "  Siemens-Martin"  process,  this  metal  hav- 
ing been  found  to  be  of  a  very  imiform  nature.  The 
barrel  bars  or  molds  are  obtained  by  contract  in 
lengths  of  15  inches,  the  diameter  for  rifle  bars  be- 
ing li  inch.  The  barrel  bar  is  heated  to  a  white 
heat  and  passed  through  the  barrel  rolling-mill, 
■which  consists  of  ten  pairs  of  rolls  arranged  alter- 
nately horizontally  and  vertically,  when  it  is  drawn 
out  in  one  heat  to  the  full  length  recpiired  (about  36 
inches),  taper  in  form,  and  solid.  It  is  next  passed 
to  the  Ryder  forgins;  nuichine,  where  the  '•  Knox 


form"  is  forged  on  the  breech  end  and  the  barrel 
cut  to  length,  then  passed  through  a  Htraijjhtening 
muchine,  I'xamined  for  straightiiess,  and  viewed  a« 
finished  forged.  The  ends  of  the  barrel  are  clamp- 
milled  for  size  and  length,  anrl  then  ilrilled  up  about 
li  inch  at  each  end,  the  diamelerof  the  holes  drilli-d 
being  0.430  inch.  This  operation  is  called  "  enter- 
ing the  bore,"  and  is  very  carefully  tested  to  uce  that 


The 


Fit,'.  1, 

the   starting  of  the  bore  is  true  and  correct, 
barrels  are  now  ready  for  drilling. 

The  barrels  while  being  drilled  are  placed  verti- 
cally in  a  machine.  Fig.  1.  where  they  revolve  with 
a  speed  of  300  revolutions  per  minute, the  holes  al- 
ready made  at  each  end  acting  as  guides  for  the  set 
of  three  drills  used  in  this  operation.  The  method 
of  using  these  drills  insures  a  long  hole  of  small  di- 
ameter being  drilled  perfectly  true,  and  until  this 
method  was  tried  and  adopted  this  was  found  to 
be  a  most  difticidt  task:  The  ilrills  consist  of,  first, 
"  the  core-drill,"  for  roughly  cutting  away  the  met- 
al. This  is  run  in  half  an  inch,  when  the  barrel  is 
taken  out  and  emptied  of  swarf  or  cuttings  by  plac- 
ing it  (H'er  a  jet-pipe, wlien  a  strong  stream  of  wash- 
ing liquor  thoroughly  clears  out  the  bore.  Another 
half  inch  is  drilled  in  the  same  manner, and  the  bore 
again  washed  out.  The  second  drill  or  half-round  bit 
is  now  used.  This  drill  is  0.130  inch  iu  diameter. and 
having  only  a  cut  of  0.05  inch  to  make  in  clearing  the 
hole. is  run  down  the  one  inch  the  core-drill  has  clear- 
ed without  any  risk  of  deviating  from  the  truth.  The 
barrel  is  then  again  washed  on!  and  No.  3  drill  made 
use  of.  This  has  a  slock  fitting  the  hole  already 
bored,  and  ending  in  a  small  -{',,,  inch  drill,  which, be- 
ing supported  by  the  stock,  (Irills  away  the  center 
perfectly  true  with  the  a.xis  of  rotation,  ready  for 
the  ■'  core  "  or  "  roughing  drill  "  to  start  again.  If 
this  system  is  rigidly  carried  out  inch  by  inch  it  is 
possible  to  drill  a  hole  three  or  four  feet  deep  with 
an  error  of  less  than  0.005  inch.  A  set  of  drills  con- 
sists of  these  three  just  described,  and  three  sets  of 
ditTerent  lengths  are  used.  When  one-half  of  the 
barrel  has  been  drilled,  it  is  turned  end  for  end.  and 
the  operation  repeated  until  the  lioles  meet  in  the 
center.  This  system  of  drilling  originated  at  the 
Royal  Small-arms  Factory,  and  is  not  in  extensive 
use  elsewhere. 

After  drilling,  the  hole  is  broached  out  with  long 
square  bits,  on  one  side  of  which  a  strip  of  oak  is 
placed.  Long  strips  of  writing  paper  are  evenly 
placed  between  the  strip  and  bit,  one  upon  another, 
and  the  bit  is  run  tlirous:h  the  barrel  until  the  hole 


BOTAL  SKAI.L-ARMS. 


796 


EOYAL  SMALt-AEMS. 


is  broached  out  to  tlie  required  diameter.  Tliis  op- 
eration is  more  of  a  buruisliing  character  than  a  cut- 
ting one,  producing  a  fine,  clear,  polished  surface, 
down  which  a  shade  is  readily  thrown  by  holding 
the  barrel  at  the  proper  angle  to  the  light.  As  shad- 
ows thrown  off  straight  surfaces  are  projected  in 
straight  lines  on  any  true  surface  on  which  they  are 
thrown,  the  eye  cau  be  taught  by  practice  to  detect 
any  inaccuracy  in  the  bore  of  a  barrel  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  edges  of  the  shadow  thrown  ilown  it.  In 
order  to  insure  absolute  certainty  that  no  barrel 
should  be  passed  on  for  the  exterior  to  be  turned 
which  had  not  the  bore  perfectly  true,  the  following 
mechanical  test  has  been  devised,  viz  :  A  steel  rod 
is  stretched  taut  between  two  horizontally  fixed 
head-stocks,  having  a  collar  in  the  center  and  at  one 
end,  which  tit  the  bore  Ioosel}',so  that  the  barrel  can 
freely  revolve  on  the  rod.  If  the  bore  is  straight,  the 
end  of  the  barrel  where  there  is  no  collar  on  the  rod 
will  run  perfectly  true;  but  if  not  straight,  it  will  re- 
volve eccentrically,  and  its  motion  is  easily  detected 
by  any  unskilled  person.  Every  barrel  is  passetl 
through  this  test  before  the  e.xterior  is  commenced 
upon.  The  bore  is  also  tested  for  size  by  the  col- 
lars on  the  rod. 

The  next  operation  is  to  support  and  hold  the  bore 
true  while  the  outside  is  turned  perfectly  concentric 
with  it.  After  a  number  of  experiments  to  find  out 
a  means  of  fixing  a  true  turned  hush  or  collar  on  a 
rough  exterior,  the  present  metliod  of  running  sul- 
phur in  a  liquid  state  between  the  barrel  and  bush 
was  adopted.  By  this  means  the  exterior  of  a  barrel 
can  be  turned  perfectly  true  with  the  bore  without 
injury  to  the  inside.  The  barrel  is  placed  vertically, 
when  two  plugs, whose  centers  coincide  with  tlie  axis 
of  the  barrel  are  placed  in  the  breech  and  nuizzle  ; 
the  bush  is  then  held  over  it  anil  melted  sulphur  is 
poured  in  between  barrel  and  bush.  This  gives  a 
"bearing  for  the  outside  perfectly  true  with  the  bore. 
The  barrel  is  next  rough-tunieil,  tinished-turned, 
draw-polished,  gauged,  chambered  for  proof,  and 
screw-thread  cut  in  breech  end,  to  take  the  "  hutts  " 
•used  to  close  the  breech  during  first  proof.  This 
system  of  turning  a  barrel  enables  its  exterior  to  be 
brought  to  a  definite  size,  and  is  greatly  superior  to 
the  old  method  of  grinding  barrels  on  a  large  stone 
and  afterwards  striking  tliem  up.  The  barrels  now 
undergo  the  first-proof  test  which  is  necessary  in 
order  to  detect  inferior  quality  of  metal  and  flaws 
which  do  not  appear  on  either  the  exterior  or  inter- 
ior surfaces.     The  first-proof  charge  is  7^  drams  of 


sawn  to  length  and  brazed  on.      The  barrel  is  now 
linislied-bored  and  set,  and  is  then  ready  for  rifling. 

The  rifling  is  done  with  a  cutter  having  a  head  of 
suitable  form  for  the  rifling  required.  This  is  fitted 
into  a  groove  cut  in  a  box  about  eight  inches  in 
length  and  fitting  the  bore.  It  is  drawn  through  the 
barrel  by  a  rod  fastened  to  one  end  of  the  cutter  box, 
the  other  end  of  the  rod  being  coupled  into  the  spin- 
dle of  the  head-stock  or  traversing  saddle.  On  the 
spindle  is  a  pinion  geared  into  a  sliding  rack  carried 
by  the  same  saddle.  The  end  of  the  rack  is  fitted  to 
slide  backward  and  forward  along  a  fixed  bar,  which 
can  be  set  at  any  angle  necessary  to  rotate  the  spin- 
dle and  cutter  box  to  the  amount  of  spiral  required. 
From  four  to  five  cuts  are  needed  for  each  groove, 
and  tlie  cutter  is  fed  up  by  a  screw  tapped  into  the 
end  of  the  cutter  box,  to  which  a  r(3d  is  attached, 
which  works  through  the  center  boss  of  a  hand 
wheel.  A  spiral  groove  is  cut  along  this  rod, in  which 
a  feather  fixed  in  the  boss  of  the  hand  wheel  slides, 
enabling  tlie  feed-screw  to  be  screwed  in  or  out  by 
the  hand  wheel  as  required.  An  index  is  connected 
with  the  hand  wheel,  enabling  the  operator  to  read 
off  the  depth  of  cut.  The  barrel  is  fixed  in  a  rotat- 
ing chuck,  which  is  divided  so  that  any  number  of 
grooves  required  can  be  cut  inside  the  bore.  The 
rifling  is  of  uniform  twist  of  1  in  23  inches,  or  one 
and  a  half  turns  in  the  length  of  bore  (3.S  inches). 
The  form  of  rifling  is  that  known  as  the  "Henry  rifl- 
ing;" the  grooves  are  seven  in  numbr,  and  are  0.007 
inch  in  depth. 

The  barrel  is  suspended  inside  a  hollow  rotating 
spindle  by  a  plug  inside  the  muzzle  end,  ruuning  on 
a  plug  fixed  in  headstock  at  tlie  breecli  end.  A  guide- 
screw  is  securely  fixed  on  the  rotating  spindle,  and 
carries  a  nut  fixed  to  traversing  tool-holder,  which 
holds  a  peculiar  form  of  chasing  tool.  The  teeth  for 
cutting  the  screw-thread  on  the  breech  end  are  on 
the  under  side,  so  that,  being  set  over  the  top  of  the 
rotating  barrel,  it  can  be  lifted  in  and  out  of  the 
thread  which  is  beiug  cut,  in  the  shortest  possible 
lime  and  distance,  without  chopping  the  thread. 
The  screw  being  entirely  finished,  the  barrel  is  then 
driven  from  it,  while  the  breech  end  of  it  is  cham- 
bered up  for  the  cartridge.  The  entire  operation 
of  boring  and  reaming  is  performed  in  the  lathe  re- 
presented in  Fig.  2.  The  barrel  is  now  breeched  up 
to  body,  the  action  assembled  for  proof,  and  the 
rifle  undergoes  the  second-proof  test.  The  second' 
proof  charge  consists  of  5  drams  of  powder,  a  bullet 
weighing  715  grains,  and  a  cork  made  half  an  inch 


Fig.  2. 


powder,  a  lead  plug  of  7\n  grains,  and  over  the  lat- 
ter a  cork  wad  lialf  an  incli  in  thickness.  Twenty 
barrels  are  proviul  at  the  same  time  in  a  cast-iron 
proof  batter}-. 

The  seat  for  the  fnmt  sight  is  next  cross-milled 
end  dove-tailed,  and  the  steel  for  the  front  sight  is 


in  thickness.  The  biirnls  are  proved  in  a  proof 
battery  something  similar  to  that  used  for  the  first 
proof. 

The  back  sight-bed  is  soldered  on  to  the  barrel, 
and  also  secured  in  its  place  by  two  screws.  Both 
the  back  sight  and  front  sight  are  ()ilJu.st<.-J  "m-\  rag- 


UOTAL  SMALL  ABHS. 


71)7 


BOTAL  SHALL  ABHS. 


ulalnd  from  the  axis  of  the  bore,  and  when  vicwinj; 
tlic  liiirrcls  for  Hi;;litin;;  the  jircutest  care  Ih  tukeii  to 
see  that  Ijoth  Hijilils  arc  exactly  in  iKwilioii.  The 
body  and  harnl  arc  lirowncd  separately,  the  follow- 
ing beini;  I  lie  l)r(>\vniiii;  mixture  at  present   in   use: 

Spirits  of  wine 5  ounces. 

Spirits  of  nitre 8       " 

Tincture  of  steel 8       " 

Nitric  acid 4       " 

Sulplnirict  acid ;(       " 

Blue  vitriol 4       " 

Water 1  (jallon. 

The  proei'ss  is  as  follows:  The  barrels  and  bodies 
are  tirst  scalded  in  a  solution  of  soda  for  twenty  mi- 
nutes and  are  then  waslied  in  a  clean  water.  The 
browninj;  mixture  is  applied,  and  they  are  placed  in 
a  damp  heat  for  about  one  and  a  half  hours,  when 
they  are  scalded  atcain,  and  wdien  coo!  the  rust  is 
scratched  off.  This  process  is  repeated  four  times, 
and  then  the  barrels  are  cleaned  off  and  oiled.  The 
whole  operation  of  browning  leqnires  about  eight 
hours. 

The  body  which  is  to  contain  the  l)reech  action  is 
made  from  a  specially  lough  chiss  of  mild  steel.  Hars 
of  this  metal,  4  or  5  feet  in  length  and  2  inches  by  U 
inch  in  section,  are  obtained  by  contract.  The  body 
is  blocked  direct  off  the  end  of  the  bar  by  five  blows 
under  a  IH-cwt.  steam-hammer.  The  lirst  blow  gives 
a  rough  tigure,  and  measuresolT  lhei|uantity  of  metal 
required.  The  second  blow  fullers  in  the  sides  of  the 
body,  to  displace  the  metal  when  working  the  hole 
through  it.    The  third  blow,  b3-  means  of  a  cliisel  in 


Fig.  3. 

the  upper  die.  splits  tlie  metal  in  the  center,  driving 
out  the  sides  of  the  body  to  till  the  die,  and  leaving 
the  impression  of  the  hole  to  be  made  througli  the 
body  full  size  at  the  top.  The  fourt!;  blow  drives  a 
full-sized  drift,  i)laced  in  the  hole  jnst  maih'  by  the 
chisel,  clean  through,  shearing  down  the  sides,  and 
driving  tlirough  the  small  pieei'  left  at  the  bottom  of 
the  hole.  The  hole  made  tlirough  the  body  is  now  3 
inches  by  J  ineli  by  3','  inches,  and  the  metal  wasted  is 
only  3i  07..  in  weight.  The  fifth  blow  cuts  ;he  body  off 
the  bar.  A  mandrel  is  now  driven  in  the  hole,  and  a 
blow  is  struck  upon  the  ends  to  S(|uare  them  tip,  when 
the  body  is  ready  for  stamping.  The  boiiy  is  reheated 
and  a  cold  steel  mandrel  driven  into  it,  when  it  is  at 
once  placed  under  a  powerful  steam-hammer.  On  tlie 
anvil  of  thi.s  hammer  is  the  lower  die  of  a  pair,  the  im- 
pression cut  in  the  pair  of  dies  being  that  of  the  fin- 
ished size  of  forged  body.  One  heavy  and  suilden 
blow  is  given,  with  force  suflicient  to  make  the  metal 
flow  into  every  corner  of  the  impression.  If  this  is 
not  done  at  the  first  blow,  it  cannot  with  safety  be 
attempted  by  a  second  blow  without  reheating,  as  the 


surplus  metal  (lows  over  between  the  faces  of  the  dies 

in  the  form  of  a  thin  lin,  cliilled  and  black,  and  this 
A-oidd  swallow  up  itself  the  force  of  u  second  blow 
and  perhajis  split  one  of  the  dies.  Tlie  body  is  next 
annealed,  scali-  pickled  off,  fin-trimmed,  and  passed 
as  "  finished  forged." 

The  hole  in  the  liody  is  first  drifled  out  by  means 
of  long  slightly  tapered  drifts,  wliicli  are  drawn 
through  if,  and  the  liole  produced  in  tins  man- 
ner is  used  as  a  starting  point  for  all  tlie  sub.se- 
quent  operations,  .\fter  drifting,  four  bodies  are 
Iilaced  on  a  revolving  cross-shaped  fixing,  the  arms 
of  which  exactly  fit  the  holes  in  the  bodies,  while  a 
transverse  slide  carrying  two  tooMiolders,  one  on 
each  side,  turns  up  both  sides  of  the  four  bodies  at 
one  operation.  This  operation  leaves  the  sides  of 
the  body  equal  in  thickness  and  true  willi  tiie  center 
hole.  Twelve  bodies  are  next  fixed  on  a  revolving 
head,  and  tlie  barrel  ends  are  all  cut  square  and 
true,  the  sto(-k  ends  being  treated  in  the  same  man- 
ner. The  hole  for  the  barrel  is  then  drilled,  tappeil, 
and  the  burr  thrown  up  by  the  tapping  is  smoothed 
down.  The  face  is  eased,  so  that  when  a  gauge  is 
screwed  in  it  stands  exactly  true.  The  body  is  now 
placed  in  a  drilling  jeg,  and  the  adjusted  face  is 
screwed  tight  up  against  a  rib  in  the  jeg,  while  the 
six  axis  holes  of  various  sizes  are  drilled,  three  in 
each  side.  The  drills  run  througli  hardened  steel 
bushes  fixed  in  the  sides  of  the  drilling  jeg.  These 
axis  holes,  after  being  tested  for  ae<'uracy,  become, 
in  c(mjunction  with  the  large  hole  in  the  body,  the 
base  points  for  the  remaining  operations. 

A  number  of  drilling-maciiines  now  operate  to  cut 
away  the  metal  so  as  to  form  the  socket  to  receive 
the  stock  butt.  The  hole  is  drilled  and  tapped  to 
receive  the  screw  end  of  the  stock-bolt,  which  se- 
cures the  butt  in  the  socket.  Pins  in  the  axis  holes 
in  the  left  side  of  the  body,  hold  it  while  the  knuckle 
seat  for  breech-block  is  roughly  cut  out  and  the  seat 
milled  out  square  and  true.  A  number  of  minor 
'milling,  drilling,  and  tapping  operations  bring  the 
body  into  the  siiape  and  figure  recpiired,  and  it  is 
then  S(-rewed  on,  or  "  breeched  up."  to  the  barrel. 
The  barrel  is  now  placed  vertically  with  the  end  of 
the  chamber  resting  on  the  collar  "of  a  plug,  which 
enters  and  exactly  fits  the  chamber,  and  the  face  of 
the  barrel  is  drawn  very  tightly  down  on  this  col- 
lar by  means  of  plugs  pushed  through  axis  holes  in 
the  body.  Small  mills  are  now  run  on  a  spindle 
tlirough  the  block  axis-hole  and  finish  cutting  out 
the  knuckle  seat  of  the  block  to  a  positive  length 
from  the  face  of  the  barrel.  This  length  between  the 
knuckle  seat  of  the  block  and  the  face  of  the  barrel 
is  rigidly  maintained,  so  as  to  insure  that  any  block 
will  interchange  or  fit  in  any  body.  In  order  to  in- 
sure that  this  may  be  the  case,  "each  breeched-up 
barrel  and  body  is  accurately  gauged  with  hardened 
steel  gauge-blocks.  Care  is  alsolaken  to  see  that 
the  striker  hole,  in  the  faceof  the  gauge-block,  coin- 
cides with  the  axis  of  the  bore  of  barrel  to  insure  the 
cap  of  thecartridge  beingstnick  in  the  center.  The 
barrel  and  body  are  now  passed  on  for  assembling 
the  action  for  second  proof. 

A  particular  form  of  emery  wheel,  called  a  "rim 
wheel,"  is  employed  for  finishing  up  some  of  the  com- 
ponents. Its  use  has  enabled  unskilled  labor  to  take 
the  place  of  a  high  class  of  skilled  workmen,  and  the 
work  is  better  finished.  For  instance,  the  slot  of  the 
back-siglit  leaf  is  first  drifted  to  its  true  size.  By 
this  it  is  held  in  a  fixing  attached  to  a  vertical  axis, 
and  both  edges  with  cap  attached  can  be  passed  a- 
cross  the  face  of  the  rim  wheel,  maintaining  it  per- 
fectly true,  and  grinding  the  edges  of  the  leaf  and 
cap  parallel  to  each  other.  The  sides  are  done  in  the 
.same  manner.  Having  given  a  description  of  the 
processes  of  manufacture  for  the  barrel,  and  body, 
it  will  be  unnecessary  to  describe  the  manufacture  of 
the  other  components.  The  method  pursued  in  the 
manufacture  of  all  is  precisely  that  followed  in  the 
case  of  the  body.    All  the  parts  are  first  of  aU  forged 


ROTAL  SMALL  ARMS. 


798 


ROYAL  "WARRANT. 


in  dies,  tlie  fin  is  trimmed  off,  they  are  piclded  to  re- 
move scale,  and  then  undergo  numerous  milling, 
drilling,  and  other  machine  operations  until  they  are 
brought  to  the  correct  figure,  when  thej'  are  viewed, 
gauged,  and  either  case-hardened,  browned,  blued, 
hardened,  and  tempered,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be. 
The  barrels  of  carbines  and  pistols  are  treated  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  rifle  barrel.  In  order  to  insure 
an  absolute  interchangeabilitj'  of  the  various  parts 
the  most  exact  system  of  gauging  is  a  necessity,  and 
the  strict  view  which  is  enforced  prevents  the  possi- 
bility of  any  defective  parts  being  assembled  in  an 
arm. 

The  blade  of  the  triangular  bayonet  is  made  of 
tool  or  sharp  steel,  the  socket  of  mild  steel,  the  lock- 
ing ring  of  wrought  iron,  and  the  locking-ring  screw 
of  steel.  The  blade  and  socket  are  welded  together ; 
the  blade  is  tapered  imder  a  Ryder  hammer,  and  then 
rolled  out  in  segmental  rolls  to  the  required  length 


and  a  triangular  figure.  The  socket  is  stamped  to 
size  and  then  goes  through  several  machine  opera- 
tions, such  as  drilling,  milling,  slotting,  etc.  The 
blade  is  hardened  and  tempered,  groimd  and  pol- 
ished, the  socket  being  browned.  The  locking-ring 
is  well  blued,  and  its  screw  is  case-hardened.  The 
breech-block,  lever,  butt-plate,  and  iron  screws  are 
case-hardened.  This  is  done  by  carefully  packing 
them  in  iron  boxes,  in  which  they  are  surrounded 
with  bone  cuttings  or  animal  charcoal.  An  iron 
plate  is  laid  on  the  top  of  the  box,  and  it  is  placed  in 
a  furnace  and  raised  to  a  red  heat.  Tiie  length  of 
time  that  the  various  articles  are  left  iu  the  furnace 
depends  on  the  amount  of  case-hardening  required ; 
and  when  removed  from  the  furnace  they  are  chilled 
in  a  lank  of  cold  water.  They  are  then  cleaned,  oiled, 
and  examined  by  gauges  to  ascertain  whelher  the 
case-hardening  has  altered  tlieir  form.  The  follow- 
ing components  are  hardened  by  heing  raised  to  a 
certain  temperature  and  tlien  cooled  in  oil.  They 
arc  afterwards  tempered  by  "blazing,"  that  is  by 
heating  them  again  until  the  oil  or  suet  with  which 
they  have  been  covered  bursts  into  a  flame  :  Strik- 
er, main-spring,  indicator,  extractor,  sight-spring, 
catch-block  spring,  trigger-spring,  block-axis  pin, ex- 
tractor-axis, sight-slide,  and  steel  screws,  etc.  The 
following  components  are  l)lued  ;  Up]>er  and  lower 
bands,  upper  and  lower  hand-pins,  guard  and  tjand 
swivels,  fore-end  hook-screws,  sight-leaf,  lever  catch- 
block  and  pin,  guard,  nose-cap,  the  rod-holder,  etc. 
They  arc  polished,  cleaned  with  lime  to  remove  all 
grease,  and  are  then  covered  with  powdered  char- 


coal and  raised  to  a  temperature  of  about  550°  Fah- 
renheit. 

A  milling-machine  and  a  screw-head  slotter  com- 
bined, arranged  for  taking  the  short  milling  cuts,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  box-shaped  head  is  placed  on 
a  planed  iron  table,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  groove 
to  catch  oil  and  chips.  The  cross  slide  is  adjusted 
by  a  screw  that  projects  in  front,  and  squared  by  a 
wrench.  The  sliding-table  is  operated  for  a  hand 
lever  and  the  motion  is  gauged  by  an  adjustable 
stop  behind.    A  vertical  movement  is  commimicat- 


Fig.5. 

ed  to  the  knee  slide  by  means  of  a  rack  and  gear, 
operated  by  a  hand  lever  in  front,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing.  For  slotting  screws,  a  sliding  vise  is  fur- 
nished, so  arranged  that  the  front  or  movable  jaw 
tightens  on  the  screw  to  be  slotted  by  means  of 
two  springs  under  the  jaw.  The  jaw  is  linked  so 
that  it  is  operated  wholly  by  the  hand  lever  which 
feeds  the  vise.  With  the  machine  with  the  lever 
vertical  motion,  screws  can  also  be  fed  up  under  the 
saw  which  greatly  increases  its  capacity.  Counter- 
shaft has  adjustable  self-oiling  hangers.  Fig.  4,  re- 
presents the  usual  form  of  slotting-machine,  supplied 
with  slotting-bar  counter-balances,  so  as  to  run  with- 
out jarring.  It  is  driven  by  a  variable  crank,  with 
quick,  return  motion ;  has  bearing  for  slotting-bar 
adjustable  vertically,  to  suit  the  diilerent  heights  of 
work  ;  has  compound  tables,  with  circular  plate  and 
centering  stud  ;  and  the  feed  is  self-acting,  so  as  to 
be  perfectly  balanced.  Fig.  5,  represents  the  screw 
polishing  machine,  with  bearings  so  inclosed  as  to 
entirely  prevent  the  admission  of  the  emery  used  for 
polishing  the  work.  This  is  the  peculiar  property 
of  this  machine,  and  being  specially  adapted  for 
polishing  small  parts  of  arms,  etc.,  such  as  screws, 
studs,  nuts,  collars,  etc.,  which  are  usually  finished 
with  oil  and  emery,  its  durability  is  thus  secured. 
The  counter-sliaft  of  this  machine  has  a  speed  of  450 
turns  per  minute.  The  machines  here  described 
together  with  those  illustrated  and  discussed  in  the 
article— Fabrication  of  fiee-abms — will  assist  the 
reader  in  gaining  a  knowledge  of  light  gun  machin- 
ery. See^Eiifieid  Breech-loading  Jicvolver,  Fabrica- 
tion  of  Fire-arms,  Martini-IIenry  Hifle,  and  Small, 
arms. 

ROYAL  WARRANT.— An  act  of  the  Sovereign,  au- 
thorising, for  military  purposes,  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  War  to  issueUules  and  Regulations  for  the 
guidance  of  the  several  Departments  of  the  Army. 
Royal  warrants, where  the  Army  is  concerned,  relate 
to  all  matters  touching  the  soldier,  his  pay,  clothing, 


BUBBERS. 


799 


EUBEN  AND  FORNEROD  FUSES. 


travelling,  food,  etc.,  and  are  is>iued  from  lime  to 
tirni',  1)y  llie  War  OfHoe,  in  Armj^  Circulars,  for  the 
observance  of  all  ciineerned. 

RUBBERS. — SlriiMix  heavy  fili'S,  p'nerally  made  of 
an  inrcricir  kind  of  Hteel;  lliey  measure  from  1^  to  IH 
iiuOies  Ion;;,  from  :,'  inch  to  2  inches  0]i  every  side, 
and  are  made  very  convex  or  fish-bellied.  Ilubbers 
are  only  for  coars<>  manufa<'turintr  jiurposes,  when 
tlw  object  is  rather  to  briijliten  llie  surface  of  the 
work  than  to  give  it  any  speeilie  form.     See  File. 

BUBBLE. — A  common  kind  of  masonry,  in  wliieli 
tlic  slo]ii-s  are  irregular  in  si/e  and  shape.  Walls 
faced  wilb  ashlar  are  generally  packed  with  rubble 
at  Ibe  back.  Uublile  is  of  various  kinds,  according 
to  the  amounl  of  dressing  given  to  the  stones.  Com- 
mon rubble  is  liuilt  with  stones  left  almost  as  they 
come  from  the  quarry.  Hammer-dressed  lubble, 
is  .so  called  when  the  stones  are  squared  with  the 
mason's  hammer;  coursed  rubble,  when  the  stones 
are  squared  and  eipial  in  heiibt.  etc. 

RUBEN  AND  FORNEROD  COMBINATION  FUSES. 
— These  two  Swiss  fuses  are  alike  in  principle,  and 
differ  only  in  that  the  larger  one  has  two  tiers  of 
burning  composition  and  is  capable  of  burning  20 
seconds,  twice  the  length  of  time — as  a  time-fu.se — 
that  the  smaller  one  can  burn.  The  fuses  consist  of 
three  principal  parts,  the  body, A,  the  inertia  igniter, 
B,  and  the  pereussion-fuse  attaelunent,  C.  A  and  B 
constitute  the  lime-fuse.  The  former  is  made  of  an 
alloy  of  ecjual  parts  of  lead  and  tin,  while,  I?,  andC, 
are  of  brass.  The  body.  A,  is  provided  on  its  e.xterior 
with  a  screw-thread  by  means  of  which  it  is  con- 
nected with  Hie  shell;  the  central  cylindrical  part 
is  also  provided  with  a  screw-thread,  into  which  tits 
the  assembling  screw  of  igniter,  B,  which  binds  all 
the  different  parts  of  the  time-fuse  together. 

Tlie  bod}-  A  of  the  larger  fuse  (Fig.  1,)  is  com- 
posed of  three  parts,  </,  //,  c;   the  upper  part  (i,  or  the 


t'egulator,  is  a  ring  of  truncated  form  ;  it  has  a  prim- 
ing chamber,  andaenanncl  cm  its  under  side,  inclos- 
ing compressed  mealed  jiowder.  The  chamber  opens 
e.xtcrnally  npon  a  thin  part  of  the  wall  and  internally 
upon  the  core.  Tlie  channel  is  covered  by  a  disk  of 
foil.  The  rim  of  the  regulator  is  divided  into  50  eqmd 
parts,  each  one  representing  one-tifth  of  a  second. 
The  part,  h,  has  also  a  cham!)er;ind  similar  channel  of 
compressed  mealed  powder;  the<'hainber  opening  on 
top  for  communiciition  witii  the  cb;innel  of  a,  and  on 
the  outside  for  escape  of  gas,  the  outside  opeinng  being 
covered  with  wa.x.  Between,  a.  and,  b,  and  glued  to 
the  top  of,  b.  is  a  washer  of  thick  cloth,  wilb  a  small 
hole  through  it  just  over  opening  to  chandjer  of,  h. 
The  lower  part,  c,  has  on  its  under  siile  a  circular 
channel  of  ritle-powder  covered  by  a  perforated  <lisk 
of  copjier— a  piece  of  gauze  separates  the  powder  and 
copper  ring;  a  vertical  channel  tilled  with  rilie  pow- 
der allows  a  communication  between  powder  in,  /', 
and  the  ritie  powder  in,  c  ;  separating,  b,  and,  c.  and 
glued  to  the  top  of  latter,  is  a  washer  of  cloth  exact- 
ly similar  to  one  separating,  (/,  and,  b.  The  outside 
rim  of  this  piece  is  also  graduated  into  -50  equal  parts, 
each  one  reading  one-fifth  of  a  sec(md. 

The  igniter.  B,  consists  of  the  parts,  d,  e,  f.  and 
g;  the  stock,  rf,  has  a  cylindrical  cavity,  at  the  center 
of  the  bottom  of  which  projects  a  shar|)  pin-point; 


fotir  radial  holes  at  bottom  of  cavity  allows  the  gas 
from  igniter  to  escape  and  spri'ad  into  a  circiilar 
groove  around  the  outside  of  the  slock  ;  a  brass 
washer  separates  the  hexagonal  rim  of  the  head  of 
the  slock  from  the  regulator  or  part,  «,  of  lh<;  body. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  stock  there  is  a  cyliniirical 
projecting  cup  filled  with  the  same  composition  as 
that  in  the  igniter,  and  also  covered  with  a  solution 
of  rubber.  The  cylindrical  plunger,  <■,  has  in  the 
center  of  its  ba.se  a  recess  which  contains  the  fulmi- 
nate priming,  whieli  is  Ijelieved  to  be  made  of  five 
parts  chloralc  of  potassa,  one  of  sulphide  of  antimo- 
ny, and  one  of  powdered  glass,  all  coated  with  a 
solution  of  rubber;  the  crown-shaped  spring,  /",  is 
stamped  out  of  a  thin  pieceof  steel;  it  has  four  spring 
leaves;  the  bottom  of  the  spring  is  shaped  to  fit  tlie 
base  of  the  [ilunger  and  to  expose  the  fulminate  in 
plunger:  the  screw-cap,  y,  clo.ses  the  lop  of  the  stock, 
d;  a  hole  tlirough  its  center  allows  the  cylindrical 
projection  on  top  of  plunger  to  pass  through  and 
centers  the  plunger  in  spring  and  cj'lindrical  cavity 
of  stock. 

The  percussion  atlaclimenl,  (!,  consists  of  five 
parts,  A,  k,  vi,  n,  o;  the  hollow  cylindrical  stock  /(  has 
a  solid  bottom,  pierced  with  a  small  central  hole  for 
passage  of  gas  from  the  fulminating  composition 
into  the  shell ;  this  hole  is  closed  by  u  piece  of  fine 
netting,  or  gauze,  to  prevent  the  powder  in  the  shell 
from  penetrating  fuse-slock  or  bodj- ;  a  shoulder 
turned  on  its  exterior  fixes  its  iiositinn  in  the  fuse- 
hole  of  shell;  the  cylindrical  plunger,  k,  has  through 
its  axis  a  longitudinal  channel,  at  the  head  of  which 
is  secured  a  sharp  steel  projecting  point ;  forward 
movement  of  the  pbmger,  except  upon  impact  in 
flight,  is  prevented  by  a  steel  crown-shaped  spring, 
m,  similar  to  the  one  l;eretofore  described.  A  hollow 
cylinder,  n,  centers  the  plunger  and  is  long  enough 
to  permit  the  pin  point  to  reach  and  pierce  the  ful- 
minate on  impact;  the  slock  is  closed  by  a  brass  ring, 
w,  resting  on  a  shoulder  turned  in  lop  of  stock. 

The  action  of  the  combination  is  as  follows  :  Upon 
the  infiammalion  of  the  charge,  the  plunger  is  thrown 
back,  the  spring  being  compressed,  and  the  plun- 
ger, with  its  fulminate,  strikes  the  metallic  point ; 
the  gas  due  to  the  consequent  ignition  passes  througli 
the  openings  in  the  wall  of  the  lube,  spreads  into 
the  circular  groove  around  the  outside  of  the  tube, 
ignites  the  priming  of  the  burning  column,  and  thus 
causes  the  inflammation  of  the  section  of  this  column 
in  contact  with  it ;  intlammalion  spreads  along  the 


burning  prism,  and.  reaching  its  origin,  is  communi- 
cated to  the  second  tier  (if  fuse  is  set  for  more  than 
10  seconds),  and  so  on  to  the  chamber  and  recess  of 
rifled  powder  which  communicates  with  the  powder 
in  shell.  The  combustion  of  the  priming  of  com- 
pressed powder  produces  sutficient  heat  to  melt  the 
thickness  of  metal  which  closes  the  priming-cham- 
ber, and  thus  affords  a  broad  outlet  to  the  gas  from 
the  burning  column.    From  experiments  made  in 


KUB  IRON. 


800 


ETTMSET  GUN. 


Switzerland,  it  is  believed  these  fuses  offer  entire 
security  against  premature  ignition,  the  shells  being 
given  the  most  violent  shocks  which  could  be  re- 
ceived in  transportation,  loading,  or  unloading.  The 
ignition  is  very  certain,  even  wUh  reduced  charges. 

Should  the  fuse  strike  any  resisting  object  before 
the  burning  composition  has  reached  the  point  tc 
wliich  the  time-fuse  was  set,  the  plunger  or  percus- 
sion attachment,  C,  is  thrown  forward,  the  spring 
being  compressed,  and  the  pin  point  pierces  the  ful- 
minate at  base  of  igniter,  B,  and  the  gas  resulting 
has  direct  access  to  bursting  charge  of  the  shell. 

The  smaller  fuse  shown  in  Fig.  2,  has  the  same 
general  features  as  the  larger  ;  it  differs  from  it  in 
that  it  has  but  one  layer  of  composition,  which  burns 
10  seconds.  The  body.  A,  is  in  two  parts  only  :  the 
regulator  a  with  its  circular  groove  of  compressed 
mealed  powder  has  on  its  outside  rim  50  equal  div- 
isions representing  fifths  of  seconds.  The  lower 
part  of  the,  b,  covers  the  jjercussion  attachment,  C, 
and  has  running  vertically  through  one  side  a  hole 
filled  with  rifle-powder  ;  this  is  the  channel  of  com- 
munication between  burning  composition  of  time- 
fuse and  bursting  charge  of  shell.  The  conical  out- 
side surface  of  the  igniter,  B,  is  roughened  to  facili- 
tate turning  of  the  assembling  screw  which  binds  the 
different  parts  of  the  fuse  ;  bj'  loosening  and  tight- 
ening this  screw  the  regulator  is  set  to  the  required 
time.  The  different  parts  of  this  fuse  function  as 
those  of  the  larger  fuse.   See  Ftixe. 

KUB-IEON. — A  plate  on  a  carriage  or  wagon-bed, 
against  which  the  fore-wheel  rubs  when  turning  short, 
is  called  a  wheet-guard  plate  in  a  field  artillery-car- 
riage; one  is  placed  on  each  side  of  the  stock. 

EUFFLE. — A  low  vibrating  sound,  which  is  beat 
upon  the  drum,  but  not  so  loud  as  a  roll.  It  is  gen- 
erallj-  performed  in  paying  militarj-  compliments  to 
general  ofiicers,  and  at  militarv  funerals. 

EULE  BEITANNIA.— One  of  the  national  anthems 
of  Great  Britain,  which  has  been  described  by  South- 
ey  as  "  The  political  hymn  of  this  country  as  long  as 
she  maintains  her  political  power."  Its  original  ap- 
pearance was  in  a  mask  entitled  Alfred,  the  words  by 
James  Thompson,  the  poet,  and  David  Mallet,  anil 
the  music  by  Dr.  Arne,  which  was  performed  for  the 
first  time  on  Aug.  1,  1740,  before  Frederick,  Prince 
of  Wales,  at  his  residence  at  Cliefden.  The  words  of 
the  ode  are  believed  to  be  the  composition  of  Mallet. 
Alfred -wm  altered  by  Mallet  in  1751,  when  three 
stanzas  of  Mule  Britannia  were  omitted,  and  three 
others,  by  Lord  Boliugbroke,  substituted  for  them  ; 
but  it  is  the  ode  in  its  original  form  that  has  taken 
root. 

EULE  NISI.— In  the  English  and  Irish  courts  of 
law,  is  a  technical  term  denoting  the  first  step  in  an 
interlocutory  application  to  the  Court,  sucli  as  an  ap- 
plication for  a  new  trial.  The  usual  course  is  for  the 
party  who  takes  the  initiative  to  move,  ex  jmrte,  for 
a  Rule  Nisi,  i.  e.,an  order  of  the  court  that  something 
shall  be  done,  unkss  the  opposite  party,  within  a  cer- 
tain time,  usually  three  or  six  days,  show  cause,  i.e., 
some  good  reason  why  the  thing  proposed  should  not 
be  done.  AVlien  tlie  party  ol)tains  a  rule  nisi,  he  sends 
a  copy  of  it  to  the  other  parly,  who  must  then,  at  the 
time  appointed, show  cause, and  if  the  cause  is  deemed 
sufficient,  the  rule  is  discharged,  i.  e.,  the  application 
is  refused ;  if  the  cause  is  insufficient,  tlie  rule  is 
made  absolute,  i.  e.,  the  opposite  party  is  boimd  to 
do  the  thing  asked,  otherwise  he  will  be  lialile  lo 
some  disadvantage  or  to  imprisonment  according  lo 
the  nature  of  tlie  subject  matter. 

EULES  OF  FIRE. -Those  for  ordnance  which  fire 
borizontall}',  result  from  the  knowledge  of  the  mean 
ti-ajectort/. which,  like  the  mean  trajectory  of  the  mus- 
ket, comprises  all  the  causes  of  error  which  can  mod- 
if}'  the  fire  ;  Iiut  the  trajectory  of  artillery  ])rojectiles 
being  more  constant  in  its  form,  the  results  are  more 
accurate,  a  consequence  of  the  fact  that  as  the  cali- 
ber of  the  arm  incrr'ases,  each  ])arti<ular  trajectory 
npproaclies  more  nearly  the  aaiin  trajeetnri/. 


When  canister  is  fired,  the  balls,  having  broken  the 
case, escape  in  the  form  of  a  cone, and  striking  against 
each  other,  and  against  the  sides  of  the  piece,  di- 
verge more  or  less  according  to  the  distance  ;  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  balls  are  "found  to  be  near  the  cen- 
ter, and  the  rulenoffire  are  still  based  upon  the  know- 
ledsreof  the  mean  trajectory. 

EUMP  PAELIAMENT.— In  order  to  bring  about 
the  condemnation  of  Charles  I.,  Oliver  Cromwell,  on 
Dec.  6,  11)48,  sent  two  regiments,  .under  the  com- 
mand of  Colonel  Pride,  to  coerce  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. Forty-one  members  of  the  "  Long  Parlia- 
ment" who  were  favorable  to  accommodation  were 
imprisoned  in  a  lower  room  of  the  house,  IGO  were 
ordered  to  go  home,  and  only  60  of  the  most  violent 
of  the  Independents  were  admitted.  The  clearance 
was  calletl  J'rifle'.i  Purge,  and  the  ))rivileged  mem- 
bers ever  afterward  passed  by  the  name  of  the 
Rump,  forming,  as  it  were,  the  fag-end  of  the  "Long 
Parliament".  This  assembly,  in  conjunction  with 
the  army,  brought  about  the  arraignment,  trial,  and 
condemnatian  of  Charles  I.  Five  years  later  the 
"Rump  Parliament,"  forgetting  that  it  was  but  the 
creature  of  the  armj',  attempred  to  make  a  stand 
against  certain  demands  on  the  part  of  the  soldiers. 
The  result  was  that  Cromw-ell  filled  the  House  with 
armed  men;  the  speaker  was  pulled  out  of  tlie  chair, 
the  mace  taken  from  the  table,  the  room  cleared, 
the  door  locked,  and  the  Parliament  declared  to  be 
dissolved.  Supreme  in  the  three  Kingdoms,  Crom- 
well convoked  an  assembly  which  assumed  the  title 
of  Parliament,  and  actjuired  from  the  name  of  one 
of  its  most  prominent  members,  a  leather-seller, 
called  Praisegod  Barebones,  the  name  of  the  Bare- 
hoties  Parliament.  The  Barebones  Parliament,  after 
subsisting  five  months,  was  dissolved,  and  Cromwell, 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  Protector,  convoked  two 
Parliaments,  and  dissolved  them  for  refusing  to 
sanction  his  measures.  On  Oliver  Cromwell's  death, 
and  Richard's  succession  to  the  Protectorate,  the 
military  ^Malcontents,  coalescing  with  the  Indepen- 
dents in  Richard's  Parliament,  declared  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Rump  illegal,  and  restored  that  Assembly 
to  its  functions.  With  the  revival  of  the  Rump,  its 
quarrel  with  the  army  revived ;  and  the  troops,  again 
surrounding  Westminster  Hall,  expelled  it  on  Oct.  30, 

1659,  a  provisional  government  of  officers  assuming 
the  direction  of  affairs.  But  the  general  dissatisfac- 
tion having  led  to  a  coalition  between  the  Presbyte- 
rians and  Royalists,  the  army,  unable  to  carry  on  the 
government,  was  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  once 
more  restoring  the  Rump,  which  had  been  twice 
ign'ominiously  expelled.  The  advance  of  Monk, 
however,  with  the  urmy  of  Scotland  led  to  a  general 
crj-  throughout  the  countrj*  for  a  Free  Parliament. 
A  number  of  the  members  who  had  been  excluded 
h}'  Pride's  Purge  reappearing  in  the  House,  placed 
the  Independents  in  the  minority ;  and  on  Mar.  16, 

1660,  the  despised  and  derided  Rump  at  last  solemn- 
ly decreed  its  own  dissolution.  Tlie  most  prominent 
members  of  the  Rump  Parliament  were  Vane  and 
Ilazleriff. 

EUMSEY  GUN. — A  breech-loading  rifle  having  a 
fixed  chamber  closed  by  a  movable  breech-block, 
which  slides  in  the  line  of  the  b:irrel  by  indirect  ac- 
tion, being  moved  by  levers  from  below.  Tlie  arm 
resembles  in  its  general  features  the  Winchester. 
Its  peculiarity  consists  in  having  two  magazine- 
tubes,  one  on  each  side  of  the  barrel  and  beneath  it. 
From  these  the  cartridges  are  fed  alternately  into  the 
corresponding  carriers,whicli  are  moved  up  and  down 
by  levers  operiiled  liy  a  slidiiig-rod.  This  rod  is 
drawn  to  and  from  the  ojicrator  by  two  thumb- 
pieces,  one  of  which,  for  the  right  hand,  is  within 
Die  trigger-guard,  and  the  other  lies  along  the  barrel 
in  a  ])osition  readily  accessilile  by  the  fingers  of  the 
left  hand  when  supporting  the  piece  in  the  natural  po- 
sition of  tiring.  The  niech;iiiisiii  for  communicating 
'.his  reciprocal  motion  to  the  carrier  levers,  consists 
mainlv  of  an  oscillating  lever  hing  between  the  other 


RUN. 


801 


K088ELL INTEEHUPTEE. 


two,  iiriil  ils  cciiiriccUonH  in  tlio  formof  sprinj^s,  Htopg, 
and  pins,  wliicli  an:  (li'siKncil  for  directing  tlic  stroke 
on  cacli  (if  ilM  sides  allcrnnli-ly. 

RUN.  -Tlic  greatist  drtirce  of  swifliiess  in  niareli- 
in|^.  It  is  e.\<'(;iiti'(l  tin  llic  same  principles  as  the 
il(/iil>l<-(/iiii'k,  Ijnt  Willi  ^^reater  Hpc'cd.  In  I'inf^land. 
tlie  Hanniiig  Drill  forms  part  ot  llie  Irainini;  of  ii 
soldier.  It  comes  under  tlie  lieud  of  ;;ynuiastic 
training;,  »nd  is  ordered  to  lie  carried  out  ni  all  in- 
fantry reiriments.  Tlie  object  of  it  is  to  make  the 
men  supple,  active,  and  capalile  of  bearini;  fati;;ne. 
On  allcrnate  days  the  men  run  with  arms  and  accou- 
termenls. 

RUNNING  FIGHT.— A  ballli'  in  which  one  party 
flees  and  (lie  niher  pursues,  but  tlie  parly  lleeing 
keeps  up  t  lie  <-inilest. 

RUNNING  FIRE.— A  constant  lire  of  musketry  or 
cannon. 

RUNNING  FUSE.  'I'lie  runninfj-fuses  most  used 
are  those  known  in  lOiiiilauil  as  liirkfnnVH  fit«i\  and 
in  this  eoimlry  as  Sufi  li/-fiini'  and  'hiij'n  fnxe.  The 
common  fuse  ordinarily  used  in  blastinj;  with  pow- 
der is  of  this  kind,  ll  consists  essenliallj'  of  a  col- 
umn of  line  i^imiiowder  enclo.sed  in  llax,  hemp,  or 
cotton, and  made  up  willi  dilTerent  coverinirs  accord- 
ing to  till,'  use  lo  which  it  is  applied.  When  intend- 
ed fot  immciliale  use  on  li^lil  work  in  dry  ground, 
it  is  unprotecled  by  additioniilcoverinc;s.  When  in- 
tended lor  use  in  wet  unround  or  under  water,  it  is 
covered  with  varnished  tape  or  gulla-perclm. 

These  fuses  cause  ii;nilion  by  conveying  flame  to 
the  charge  to  be  exploded.  They  are  somewhat  un- 
certain in  their  rate  of  burning,  but  average  about 
one  yard  in  a  minute.  The  ordinary  varieties  must 
be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  ])lace,  and  preserved  from  con- 
tact with  grease  or  oil.  The  gulla-perelia-covered 
varieties  are  liable  lo  become  injnn d  by  keeping. 
from  the  deterioration  of  the  gutta-percha.  Before 
using,  care  must  be  taken  that  cracking  of  the  gut- 
ta-percha has  not  occurred.  They  .should  be  able  to 
resist  water  for  tweiilv-fonr  hours.     See  i'Vvf. 

RUNNING  THE  GAUNTLET.— A  punishment  for- 
merly enforced  in  the  ICnglish  Navy,  and  which  was 
intlicted  also  on  soldiers.  The  mode  of  procedure 
was  as  follows.  When  a  soldier  was  senlenced  to 
run  till' fffi'iiUlit,  the  regiment  was  paraded  in  two 
ranks,  facing  one  another,  eaiMi  soldier  having  a 
switch  in  his  hand,  and  as  the  criminal  ran  between 
the  ranks  naked  from  the  waist  upwards,  he  was 
lashed  l)y  the  soldiers.  While  he  ran  the  drum  beat 
at  each  end  of  the  ranks.  Sometimes  he  ran  three, 
five,  or  seven  times,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
offence.  Ilappilj'  such  a  barbarous  pimishment  no 
longer  dissraces  that  Army  or  Navy. 

RUPTURE  OF  SHELLS.— When  tliV  charge  of  pow- 
der contained  in  a  shell  is  intianied,  the  gases  devel- 
oped expand  into  the  cavity,  the  expau,sive  force 
increasing  and  producing  rupture  when  sufficient  to 
overcome  the  tenacity  of  the  metal.  Kuplure  will 
take  place  in  the  direction  of  least  resistance,  or  fol- 
lowing the  least  thickness  of  metal.  If  the  shell  be 
spherical  and  homogeneous,  and  the  cavity  also  be 
spherical  and  concentric  with  the  exterior,  the  .sur- 
face of  rupture  must  be  composed  of  lines  normal  to 
both  the  interior  and  exterior  surfaces  of  the  shell. 

Let  Ii  be  the  radius  of  the  exterior,  and  ;•  the  ra- 
dius of  the  interior  surface  ;  7',  the  tenacity  of  the 
metal  I'omposing  the  shell,  and  p.  the  pressure  of 
the  gases  on  a  unit  of  surface  required  to  overcome 
the  tenacity  of  the  metal. 

Let  ('  be  the  radius  of  the  circle  in  which  the  sur- 
face of  rupture  intersects  the  interior  surface  of  the 
shell,  or  the  interior  circle  nf  rupture.  The  elTective 
pressure  exerted  on  the  area  of  this  circle  to  produce 
rupture  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  components  of  all 
the  normal  pressures,  acting  on  the  spherical  seg- 
ment of  which  it  is  the  base,  taken  iHTpendicularTy 
to  the  plane  of  this  circle;  therefore  .t/iT-  is  the  pres- 
sure of  the  gases  which  tends  to  break  the  sphere. 

Under  this  supposition,  ruplure  .should  follow  the 


surface  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone  of  which  this  circle 

is  the  smaller  base.  The  surface  of  this  frustum  is 
e<)ual  to  the  dillerence  of  the  surfaces  of  two  cones 
wliosi:  common  apex  is  at  the  center  of  the  sphere. 
The  base  of  the  smallrr  is  'iiit',  and  its  slant  height 
;•;  ils  surface  is  therefore  equal  to  nC'r.  The  surface 
of  the  larger  cone,  whose  generatrix  is  the  radius  of 
the  exterior  sphere,  being  to  the  smaller  as  Jl'  is  to 

r'-,  will  be  nCr ;  and  IheirdifTerence,  or  the  area 

r» 
of  the  surface  of  rnplnre,  will  ihen  erpial 


"■<v-')- 


If  the  pressure  of  the  gases  acted  normally  to  the 
surface  of  ruplure,  or  in  the  direction  of  the  tenacity, 
this  surface  multiplied  by  7' would  give  the  total  re- 
sistance, to  which  the  pressure  of  tin;  gases  should 
be  e<iual:  1ml  it  acts  obliquely,  and  lo  produce  ru[)- 
tureshoidd  be  increased  by  aquanlily  wlii.  h  depends 
upon  the  angle  which  the  jiressure  makes  with  the 
normal.  Denoting  this  quantity  by  d,  we  shall  have 
the  relation. 


pnC'  =  TnCi 


p^T- 


GO 


d 

+ — 


In  this  expression,  the  value  of  rf  is  unknown,  and 
cannot  be  practically  determined,  but  it  evidently  di- 
minishes as  the  direction  of  the  pressure  approaches 
the  normal  to  the  surface  of  rupture,  and  when  they 
coincide,  d  becomes  0.  At  the  same  time  6'increa.ses, 
and  the  value  of  p  diminishes,  until  r'becomes  equal 
to  r.  its  maximum  value.  Therefore,  the  section  of 
easiest  rupture  of  a  hollow  sphere  [lasscs  through  a 
great  circle,  and  the  pressure  which  is  in  KpiHHirio 
with  the  tenacity  of  the  metal,  will  be  given  by  mak- 
ing  i"=r,  and  (?=0,  in  the  foregoing  formula,  which 
will  then  become, 


p=T 


o>io-y 


When  the  pressure  is  less  than  this  value  of  p,  the 
shell  w  ill  resist  rupture;  when  greater  than  this  value, 
rupture  will  take  place. 

The  required  pressure  being  known,  the  correspond- 
Ing  density  will  result  from  Noble's  formula, 

p=14.63 ; 

\—ad 

this  density  multiplied  by  the  weight  of  water  that 
will  till  the  cavity  gives  the  weight  of  the  bursting 
charge.     See  Priijeciila*  and  S/ielh. 

RUSE.— A  trick  or  stratagem.  The  success  of  a 
ruse  depends  mainly  on  the  Commander's  knowledge 
of  human  nature  in  general,  and  of  his  opponent's 
character  in  particular.  Its  object  is  to  deceive  the 
enemy  as  to  your  designs.  If  you  desire  a  general 
action,  spread  reports  of  the  weakness  of  your  army 
and  appear  to  avoid  one.  If  the  contrary,  put  on  a 
bold  face,  aiel  appear  desirous  to  engage.  The  em- 
plovment  of  ruse  or  stratagem  is  particularly  appli- 
cable to  operations  having  for  their  object  the  forc- 
ing of  any  long  line  whicii  it  is  impossible  for  anen- 
cnTy  to  giiard  at  all  points,  such  as  mountain  ranges, 
rivers,  entrenched  lines,  etc. 

RUSSELL  INTERRUPTER.— -\n  electrical  interrupt- 
er devised  bv  I.ieul .  .V.  II. Knssell. Ordnance  Corps. L'. 
S.  Army,  for  the  Schullz  chronoscope.  The  change 
consists"  in  replacing  the  detached  mercury  inter- 
rupter now  in  use  by  alight  metallic  spring,  which  is 
pressed  against  the  tumii'g-fork  on  the  inner  side  of 


BUSSELL  MAGAZINE. 


802 


EUSSELL  MAGAZINE  GUN. 


one  prong,  making  the  fork  its  own  interrupter  when 
the  electrical  current  is  passed  through  it.  Tlie 
drawins;  shows  the  new  device.  B,  is  a  brass  plate 
which  is  fastened  to  tlie  table  by  the  screw,  d,  work- 
ing through  the  slot,  g,  into  the  base  of  the  clamp. 
This  screw  shoidd  have  a  milled  head,  as  at,d'.  Riv- 
eted or  screwed  to  the  plate  B  is  an  elastic  strip,  e, 
fitted  with  a  screw, or  simply  with  projections  as  at,  /' 
to  hold  the  spring,  s.  A  screw,  t,  works  through  the 
plate,  B,  agaiust  the  strip,  e,  thereby  raising  or  low- 
ering the  end  of  the  latter.  By  this  means  tlie  spring, 
,«,  for  which  a  piece  of  watch-spring  may  be  used, 
can  be  pressed  against  the  platinum  point,  p,  fixed  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  counterpoise,  »(,  of  the  tuning- 
fork.  The  fork  and  the  spring  are  connected  with 
the  opposite  poles  of  a  galvanic  batterv,  and  the  cur- 
rent is  made  and  broken  at,  ;),  by  the  vibration  of 


the  fork.  For  adjustment  the  plate,  B,  is  slipped 
under  the  table  and  fostened  by  the  screw,  d,  so  that 
the  spring,  n,  is  just  out  of  contact  witli  the  point,/). 
The  wires  being  adjusted,  the  circuit  is  completed 
at,  p,  by  a  turn  of  the  screw,  t,  and  the  electro-mag- 
nets becoming  magnetized  draw  the  prongs  apart. 


BUSSELL  MAGAZINE.— This  magazine,  devised  for 
the  Hotchkiss  gun,  is  intended  to  provide  for  one 
continuous  supply  of  the  cartridges  by  the  insertion 
of  tin  boxes  containing  five  cartridges  each  in  the 
channel  of  the  butt-stock.  Each  box  contains  a 
spring,  which  assists  gravity  in  producing  a  rapid 
descent  of  the  cartridges,  The  feeding  apparatus 
is  a  combination  of  a  ratchet  and  spiral  spring.  To 
the  inside  of  the  magazine-tube  springs  are  secured 
by  solder.  The  oppo  ite  side  of  the  tube  is  slotted 
for  the  reception  of  the  sliding-bar  or  ratchet,  to 
which  springs  are  attached  in  a  similar  manner.  Piv- 
oted to  the  bar  is  an  arm  at  the  front  of  which  is  a 
projection,  over  which  hooks  a  corresponding  pro- 
jection on  the  breech-bolt.  When  the  breech-bolt 
is  withdrawn  the  arm  and  ratchet  are  compelled  to 
move  with  it  until  the  projection  rides  under  a  bev- 
eled shoulder  at  the  end  of  the  groove  in  which  it 
.slides,  when  the  arm  is  released  and  the  magazine- 
spring  returns  it  and  the  ratchet  to  their  first  posi- 
tion. It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  ratchet  is  moved 
automatically,  being  drawn  back  by  the  bolt  and  re- 
turned by  the  magazine-spring.  AVhen  the  ratchet 
is  withdrawn  each  spring  connected  with  it  passes 
beliind  the  head  of  the  cartridge  next  in  rear  of  it ; 
when  returned  the  cartridges  are  carried  forward, 
the  2d  replacing  the  1st,  which  will  have  entered  the 
chamber,  the  3d  the  2d,  and  so  on.  The  magazine 
carries  !)  cartridsres. 

EUSSELL  MAGAZINE-GUN.— This  gim  devised  by 
Lieut.  \.  II.  Russell,  Ordnance  Corps,  U.  S.  A., 
contains  many  features  of  novelty.  The  breech- 
closing  bolt  operates  by  a  handle  preferably  at  the 
side  of  the  arm  as  in  other  bolt  guns,  but  instead  of 
a  partial  rotation  of  the  bolt  in  locking  and  imlock- 
iug,  the  force  applied  to  the  handle  is  at  all  times 
in  a  direction  nearly  parallel  with  the  bore  of  the 
barrel.     The  locking  is  effected  bj-  a  cross-shaft  in 


This  l)reaks  contact  at.  p;  the  prong  flies  back  and 
ccmtinues  to  vibrate,  the  contact  being  made  and 
l)rc)keu  at  every  vibration  .V  battery  of  four  15un- 
sen's  cells  works  the  intcrru])ter.  The  advantages 
of  this  device  over  the  ohl  interrupterare  as  follows: 

1.  The  adjustments  are  exceedingly  simple,  and  they 
retpiire  but  little  time,  while  witli  the  delaelicd  mer- 
cury interrupter  they  are  very  delicate  and  dillicult. 

2.  The  manipulation  is  very  simple  and  rapid,  a  mere 
turn  of  the  screw  producing  vibration,  '.i.  The  \ise 
of  tlie  mercury  cup  is  entirely  avoided.  4.  Extra 
electro-magnets  for  the  interrupter  .are  dispensed 
with,  and  ihe  strength  of  the  battery  can  be  greatly 
re(hiced.  5.  The  arrangement  is  cheap  and  simple, 
and  not  easily  deranged  This  interrujiter  has  been 
in  constant  use  for  several  years,  and  it  has  been 
practically  and  successfully  tested  with  tlie  machine. 


the  bolt  a  little  longer  than  the  diameter  of  the 
bolt,  having  cam-shaped  ends  which  extend  into 
seats  ill  the  receiver.  In  opining  the  lireech  these 
cam  projections  are  turned  by  Ihe  tirst  movement 
of  the  handle,  which  is  a  (livulal  movement,  until 
the  bolt  is  unlocked, when  a  lurtlicr  backward  move- 
ment of  the  handle  gives  a  powcrfid  cam  action  to 
start  the  cart  ridge, and  at  tlw  same  time  slightly  starts 
the  firing-|)iu  backward.  The  tinal  closing  move- 
ment has  the  same  powerful  action  to  seat  the  cart- 
ridge in  its  chamber.  The  magazine  feeds  the  cart- 
ridge sidewise,  eilhcr  up  through  the  bcittcim  of  tlie 
receiver,  as  in  the  I.ec  gun,  or  at  the  side  of  the  re- 
ceiver, and  in  the  latter  case  a  swinging  pusher 
forces  the  upper  one  of  the  column  of  carlrlilges 
sidewise  into  the  receiver  in  front  of  the  bolt.  Lieut. 
Hussell  has  invented  n  very  simple  metallic  feed  case. 


IIUBSELL  PRISM  RANGE  FINDER. 


803 


RUSSIAN  ARHT. 


constructed  of  a  single  piece  of  bent  sheet  metnl, 
wliich  will  contain  just  enuiifili  ciirlriclircH  to  Mil  the 
nmga/iue  of  this  |j;un,  from  wliich  the  iiiii};ii/,ine  ciin 
be  recharged  us  ra|)iilly  as  a  siiifjlc  carlrid;:;!'  couhi 
be  placed  in  the  receiver.  These  feed  eases  are  little 
if  any  more  cosily  than  paper  Ixixes,  and  are  to  l)e 
thrown  .lU'ay  when  einiily.  ('apt.  liiverinore,  C  8. 
A.,  has  joiiilly  with  l.icwi.  lliissell,  made  improve- 
ments in  maj;a/.ine  arms,  and  has  also  invented  a 
series  of  l)reech  movements  for  small-arms.      Sec 

MiKldZilK-qilll . 

RUSSELL  PRISM  RANGE  FINDER.— This  instru- 
ment is  sIkiwm  in  [lerspeetive  in  Fii;.  1-  A  is  the 
prism,  I!  Ilic  franu';  «,  //,  r,  rf,  and  c  arc  the  apertures 
for  ohscrvatidiis ;  I,  I,  I,  Uu:  clamps  which  retain  the 
prism  in  place  ;  and  m  is  Ihc  rini;  to  which  the  slrini; 
may  l)e  attached.  Near  each  apertun^  is  shown  an 
arrow-mark  to  indicate  approximately  the  direction 
in  which  the  observer  should  look  into  the  prism. 
The  aperture  at  ii  has  two  of  these  marks,  the  rit;ht- 
hand  otu'  for  use  in  connection  with  the  aperture  h 
and  the  left-hand  one  with  the  ajjcrture  c.  The 
aperture  e  is  used  iu  connection  with  rf,  6  with  a,  and 


Kiu.  1. 

c  also  with  a.  A  square,  nuirked  on  the  surface 
between  the  apertures  (/  and  i\  indicates  that  they 
correspiuid  to  a  ri^ht  angle,  and  the  acute-an};cle  mark 
between  the  apertures  c  and  a  indicates  their  use  to<;e- 
ther  for  laying  oil  anacute  angle.  The  apertures  a  and 
i  are  used  together  for  laying  olT  an  obtuse  angle.  No 
!  andle  is  provided  but  the  instrument  is  to  l)e  grasp- 
ed by  tlie  sides  between  Ihe  thunil)  and  forefinger, 
usually  of  the  hand  oi)positc  the  object  seen  liy  re- 
tlecticm.  The  tip  of  the  tiuger  shoidd  usually  cover 
the  aperture  opposite  to  the  one  into  which  the  ol)- 
server  is  looking,  in  order  to  cut  ofT  colored  rays 
wliich  might  interfere  with  clear  vision.    For  ins- 


tance, while  looking  through  n  and  obtaining  the 
reflection  through  />.  the  observer  should  cover 
e;  and  while  obtaiuing  the  retiection  tlirough  <■  he 
should  cover  d  ;  while  looking  into  d  he  should  cov- 
er ((,  &c.  The  proper  inuvge  to  be  selected  is  easily 
found,  as  it  remains  steady,  while  other  images 
which  nuiy  be  seen  move  very  quickly  when  tlie 
prism  is  turned  horizontally.  The  iirinciples  of  re- 
flection are  the  same  as  for  the  Weldon  prism. 

Three  triangular  prisms  might  be  substituted  for 
the  one  six-sided  prism,  and  witli  this  arrangement 
the  method  of  observation  might  be  learned  rather 
more  readily,  as  there  would  be  no  need  of  covering 
up  the  apertures,  wliilc  the  held  of  view  would  be 
somewhat  enlarged.  Fig.  3,  shows  such  an  arrange- 
ment :  A,  15,  and  C  are  triangular  prisms  made  on 
the  Weldon  principle — A  for  a  right  angle,  B  and  C 
for  acute  and  obtuse  supplementary  angles  respecti- 
vely. The  frame  D  supports  the  three  prisms.  It 
is  doubtfid,  however,  if  any  real  or  very  great  ad- 
vantage would  here  obtain  over  the  six-sided  single- 
prism  form.  Sec  JVolan  JRanffe-Jind^;r,  Pratt-  Rn'ngi'- 
jindcr,  Telemeter,  Watkin  liange-finder ,  and  Weldon 
Rwige-finder. 


RUSSENSTEIH  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— This 

Hystiin  closely  follows  I'ugan.  Only  the  bastiong 
are  very  siniple.  Strong  revetments  are  given  to  the 
escarps. 

RUSSET  LEATHER.  When  new,  njsset  leather 
equipments  would  be  striking,  but  probably  would 
not  ai-eord  well  with  Ihe  plaiimess  of  our  urm^  uni- 
forms. They  would  be  rallier  conspicuous  in  the 
held  and  easily  discolored,  presenting  an  appearance 
the  reverse  of  military  spruceness.  When  repairs 
are  made  the  new  parts  would  form  a  striking  con- 
trast to  the  older  ones — since  there  is  no  blacking  in 
this  case  to  render  them  uniform  in  color.  When 
new,  russet  leather  would  furnish  hamlsome  horse 
ei|uipmiiils,  but  the  stains  inciilent  iijion  the  sweat- 
ing of  the  animal,  rain,  and  the  spattering  of  mud 
could  not  be  easily  elfaced.  Any  endeavors  to  clean 
such  harness  would  jjrobably  result  in  leaving  areas 
of  a  murky  reddish-brown  color. 

The  (|ucstion  of  whether  the  Army  should  be  sup- 
))li<Ml  with  oak  or  hendock-tanncd  leather  has  been 
agitated  from  time  to  time  during  and  since  the  war. 
The  government  still  clings  to  oak.  and  nearly  all  its 
specitications  call  for  oak-tanned  leather,  cotwilh- 
standing  the  fact  that  the  greater  part  of  the  leather 
used  during  the  war  was  bad  hemlock,  rendered 
more  worthless  by  attempts  to  make  it  imitate  oak 
leather.  \  large  portion  of  the  leather  sold  to  the 
government  since  the  war  has  doubtless  been  hem- 
lock. Of  late  years  Ihe  methods  of  tanning  with 
hemlock  bark  have  improved  with  astonishing  rap- 
idity, and  now  it  is  the  chief  material  used.  Dur- 
ing the  past  few  years  hemlock  leather  has  risen 
greatly  iu  the  estimation  of  consumers.  Tlierecan 
be  no  doubt  that  as  now  made  it  is  a  valuable 
product. 

There  are  few  Army  olflcers  who  know  anything 
about  leather, and  it  is  not  possible  for  Army  Inspect- 
ors, no  maU('r  how  great  their  egotism  may  be,  to 
detect  imitations  that  defy  the  skill  of  expert  tanners 
themselves.  Lieutenant  b.  ,\.  Lyle,  U.  S.  Army,  in 
a  report  made  in  1877,  urged  that  a  mixed  commis- 
sion of  Army  otticers,  civil  or  mechanical  engineers, 
and  practical  tanners  be  appointed  by  tlie  govern- 
ment to  make  a  scientilic  investigation  into  the  rel- 
ative merits  of  the  several  tannages  and  to  determine 
definitely,  if  possible,  for  what  purposes  the  differ- 
ent tannages  could  be  advantageously  used.  These 
points  should  be  settled  in  time  of  peace,  when  there 
is  no  pressing  need  for  large  supplies.  See  }Iarne»n 
and  Ltnther. 

RUSSIAN  ARMY.  -One  of  the  chief  Continental  Ar- 
mies of  Eurojic,  Early  iu  1H70,  a  new  Bill  was  sub- 
niitteJ  to  the  Emperor  and  Ihe  Imperial  Council  for 
the  reorganization  of  the  Russian  Ami)',  and  by  an 
Ukase  dated  November  16  of  the  same  year,  it  be- 
came Ihe  mililarj'  law  of  the  country.  This  Hill  laj'3 
down,  as  a  first  principle,  that  the  defense  of  the 
Russian  territory  is  a  sacred  duly  incumbent  on 
every  Russian  subject  without  distinction  of  class  or 
position.  Military  service  is  therefore  obligatory, 
and  substitutes  are  not  admitted  into  Ihe  ranks  of 
the  army.  All  young  men  who  have  attained  the 
age  of  20  are  liable  to  be  drawn  as  Conscripts.  A 
drawing  by  lot  lakes  place  to  decide  who  shall  re- 
main ai  home,  after  undergoing  six  week's  training. 
These  men,  for  6  consecutive  years,  form  part  of  the 
reserve.  The  duration  of  military  service  is  fixed  at 
15  years,  divided  as  follows:  Four  years  under  the 
Colors;  two  on  Fourloiigli :  nine  in  the  Reserve,  with 
the  exception  of  Ihe  Horse  Artillery.  Cavalry,  and 
Frontier  (iuards.  The  defence  of  Ihe  country  is  pro- 
vided for  by  regular  Iroops  or  Land  Forces  and  Na- 
tional Legions."  The  Land  Fiyrces  are  composed  of 
— 1.  The  active  army,  completed  by  the  annual  Con- 
tingents: 2.  The  Reserves,  composed  of  time-e.\- 
pired  soldiers,  called  into  the  ranks  in  lime  of  war  ; 
Z.  The  (Cossacks  :  4.  Specially  organized  troops. 
The  National  Legions  are  composed  of  all  the  men 
not  included  in  the  regular  army,  but  capable  of 


EUSSIAN  AKMY. 


804 


KUSSIAN  AHMT. 


bearing  arms,  from  the  age  of  20  inclusive  up  to  that 
of  40.  They  are  divided  into  two  classes: — 1.  Men 
destined  to  fill  up  the  vacancies  in  the  ranks  of  the 
army,  or  to  complete  the  Reserve  in  case  of  paucity 
of  numbers  :  2.  Men  forming  the  Depots  of  the  Le- 
gions. There  are  besides  two  classes  of  volunteers 
admitted  into  the  army :  young  men  who  have  com- 
pleted their  education  in  public  shools,  and  those 
who  have  formed  or  still  form  part  of  the  Legions. 
The  former  are  bound  to  serve  in  the  active  army  for 
3  or  6  months  or  2  years,  according  to  their  educa- 
tion and  proficiency.  Tliose  who  have,  on  drawing 
for  the  conscription,  been  exempted  from  joining 
the  Colors  are  incorporated  in  the  National  Legions, 
and  are  compelled  to  go  through  an  annual  course 
of  training.  Other  classes  of  individuals  may  also 
be  exempted  from  service  in  the  active  army,  such, 
for  instance,as  fathers  of  families:  but  they  arc  liable 
to  be  called  out  in  case  of  an  insutflcient  supply  of 
Conscripts. 

Russia  has  a  male  population  of  3G  millions,  and 
the  number  of  young  men  who  annually  attain  the 
age  for  being  drawn  in  the  conscription  is  set  down 
at  600,000.  Estimating  the  mortalitj'  of  the  men 
under  4  per  cent.,  and  those  not  on  active  duty  at 
2  per  cent,  the  defensive  forces  of  Russia  have  been 
computed  as  follows: — 


Legionaries. 

Active 
Army. 

Reserve. 

Age. 

1st 

2nd 

Series. 

Series. 

21 

200.000 

200,000 

32 

193,000 

196,000 

23 

184.000 

192,000 

24 

177,000 

188,000 

25 

170.000 

184,000 

26 

163.000 

180,000 

27 

157,000 

17().000 

28 

l.M.OOO 

172,000 

29 

ir)i,ooo 

169,000 

30 

148,000 

166.000 

31 

145,000 

163.000 

32 

142.000 

160,000 

33 

139,000 

157,000 

34 

136,000 

154,000 

35 

133,000 

151,000 

36 

... 

275,000 

37 

209,000 

38 

263,000 

Making, without  counting  the  time-e.vpired  soldiers, 
5,806,000  men.  The  active  army,  it  will  be  seen,  is 
set  down  at  1 ,086,000  men.  In  lime  of  peace,  how- 
ever, this  number  is  not  kept  under  arms,  for  al- 
though in  special  branches  the  duration  of  the  ser- 
vice is  fixed  at  7  years,  the  Infantry  is  generally  dis- 
chiirged  during  the  last  2  years  of  service  ;  so  that 
the  army  may  really  be  set  down  at  700.000  men  un- 
der the  colors,  and  300,000  more  on  furlough.  As 
an  adjunct  to  this  army  of  1.000,000  of  men,  the 
first  class  of  legionaries  comprises  1.1 10,000  men,  all 
of  whom  may  be  called  upon  to  fill  up  tlie  ranks. 
The  reserve  is  composed  of  1,305.000  men,  and  by 
the  time  this  part  of  the  law  comes  in  force,  they 
will  be  all  good,  solid  troops,  having;  |)assed  Ihroiisli 
the  ranks  of  the  army.  Th<'  si<cind  class  of  Ici^ion- 
iiries,  as  shown  in  the  above  table,  is  comj)osed  of 
2,275,000  men,  all  of  whom  will  he.  trained  to  the 
iu«  of  arms  when  drawn  by  the  conscription,  and 
tJiey  will  count  amongst  them  nearly  half  a  million 
of  lime  e.vpired  troops.  The  Russian  peace  footing 
is  estiinjiled  to  li;ivi-  been  incrciLsed  by  about  .'"lO.OOO 
men  ill  1875.  The  troops  reinforced  are  cliielly  Die 
Cavalry  and  lIors(^  Artillery,  who  have  been  put  on 
a  permanent  w;ir  ff)Oling.  and,  being  mostly  station- 
ed along  railway  lines  in  the  western  provinces,  are 
leady  for  immediate  action  in  the  field. 


The  Russian  Territorj'  is  divided  into  14  military 
districts;  the  country  occupied  by  the  Cossacks  of 
the  Don  forms  a  separate  district,  with  a  special  or- 
ganization. The  jiermaneut  army  is  divided  into 
47  divisions  of  infantry,  7  brigades  of  rifles,  10  divi- 
sions  of  cavalry,  .50  brigades  of  field  artillery,  26  bat- 
teries of  horse  artillery,  5  brigades  of  engineers ;  the 
numerical  strength  of  the  whole  active  army  may 
be  put  down  in  peace  time  at  33.043  oflicers  and 
735,539  men,  and  in  time  of  war  at  43,3.55  officers 
and  1,358,672  men.  The  infantry  is  compased  of  12 
regiments  of  the  guard,  16  regiments  of  grenadiers, 
4  Caucasian  regiments,  4  battalions  of  rifles  of  the 
guard.  20  of  rifles  of  the  line,  4  Caucasian  and  4 
Turkestan  rifles,  and  148  regiments  of  infantry,  giv- 
ing a  total  of  196  regiments  of  the  line.  These  are 
massed  into  3  divisions  of  infantry  of  the  guard,  4 
of  grenadiers,  40  of  infantry,  and  7  brigades  of  rifles. 
The  division  in  the  Russian  army  is  the  highest  unit, 
there  being  no  Corpx  d'nrmee  except  in  the  guards. 
Each  divisi-m  of  infantry  is  composed  of  2  brigades, 
each  brigade  of  2  regiments  of  3  battalions  each, 
with  the  exception  of  the  2  brigades  of  the  4  Caucas- 
ian divisions,  wliich  have  3  regiments.  Each  bat- 
talion is  composed  of  4  companies.  The  cavalry  is 
divided  into  active  cavalry  and  reserve  squadrons. 
The  active  cavalry  comprises  10  regiments  of  the 
guard,  77  of  the  line  (including  21  of  Cossacks),  and 
4  of  Caucasian  troops.  The  guards  are  composed 
of  4  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  2  of  lancers,  2  of  hus- 
sars, 1  of  grenadiers,  and  1  of  Cossacks.  The  Rus- 
sian cavafry  is  divided  into  20  divisions,  viz.  4  of 
the  guards  (3  mixed  and  1  division  of  Cossacks^,  14 
of  the  line,  and  2  of  Caucasian  cavalry.  Each  divi- 
sion comprises  4  regiments  divided  into  2  bri- 
gades :  1  of  lancers,  1  of  dragoons,  1  of  hussars, 
and  1  of  Cossacks ;  each  regiment  having  the  same 
number.  Thus  the  1st  division  contains  the  1st  hus- 
sars, the  1st  lancers,  etc.  Each  brigade  of  cavalry  of 
the  guard  has  2  regiments ;  the  2nd  division  has  3 
brigades.  Each  regiment  has  4  squadrons,  with  a 
strength  of  224  combatants. 

The  reserve  squadrons,  -whose  duty  in  time  of 
peace  is  to  train  horses  and  provide  their  regiments 
with  them,  will  in  time  of  war  fill  the  vacancies  pro- 
duced by  the  campaign. 

The  field  artillery  is  composed  as  follows  : 

Bnttwice  of  9-prs 141  witli  1128  guns  and  .3.3&4  wagons. 

UiUtrries  of  4  (irs 94    "       752    '■       "    \^M 

Batteries  of  luiti-ailleiirs   ..     47    "       376    "       '*      762        *' 

Giving  n  tot.il  of  . .  282  "  225B  "  "  561)0 
Each  brigade  of  foot  artillery  is  composed  of  6 
batteries  (3  batteries  of  9-prs.,  3  of  4-prs.  and  1  of 
mitrailleurs).  The  horse  artillery  of  the  regular  ar- 
my is  composed  of  21  batteries  and  5  batteries  of  the 
guard,  2  depot  and  1  instruction  batteries;  each  bat- 
ter_y  is  formed  of  6  guns.  The  organization  of  these 
batteries  into  brigades  has  been  changed  with  the 
exception  of  those  of  the  guard,which  are  still  form- 
ed iiilo  1  brigade.  Throughout  the  rest  of  the  army, 
2  batteries  are  attached  to  each  division  of  cavalry, 
anil  come  under  the  immediate  command  of  the  Di- 
visional Coiiimander.  These  will,  however,  he  soon 
increased  to  6  batteries  of  the  guard  {1  (Jossack),  and 
28  batteries  of  ordinarj' horse  artillery  (7  Cossack), 
of  8  guns  each.  There  will  be  besides  14  Cos.sack 
batteries  in  reserve.  The  5  bri>;ades  of  engineers 
comprise  1  battalion  of  sappers  of  the  guard,  1  of 
grenadiers,  and  9  of  sapjiers  and  miners,  total,  11 
battalions;  6  half-battalions  of  pontoon  train.  There 
were  at  the  time  of  the  reorganizalion  of  the  army  3 
classes  of  troops  which  did  not  belong  to  the  active 
army  :  (1)  the  Lacal  or  Sctleiitdry  '/'rccp.i  (35  battal- 
ions of  garrison  infantry,  and  18  battalions  of  infant- 
ry of  the  line);  (2)  the  Interior  Service  Troops  (71 
batlalionsj;  and  (3)  the  Reserve  Troops  (73  Hat- 
lalions  of  the  line,  10  of  rifles.  5('>  s(|iia(lvon9  of 
cavalry,  6  brigades  of  artillery,  and  1  liattiilioiis  o( 
sappers).  In  ilie  military  districts  of  Russia  in  Asia, 
the  inesent  organization  has  been  maintained  for  the 


HUSSIAN  ARMY. 


805 


BUSSIAN  ABHT. 


Jooal  trnop«;  l)iil  in  (IkmiIImt diHlriclHllicy  liiivobfcn 
rci)rfjimi/cil,  iiiiil  fi)rrn  now  '.ill  rci,'irMinlM  of  1  coni- 
piinics  ciicli  of  j^iirrisun  inf;inliT.  iin<l  I'.l'.l  liiilliilioiiH 
of  ilrpol,  troops.  Wlirn  I  lie  urniy  is  niohili^ril.  Ilii' 
HlTcnj^lli  of  tiic  (icpol  l);iUalions  is  raised  to  IIIOK  men 
viw.U  by  means  of  tlie  ni<ii  of  tlie  1st  class  of  tlie  mi- 
litia. On  war  brealtini;  out,  llie  '2n(l  class  of  the  mi- 
litia will  l)e  formed  into  11)4  infantry  hattidions  of  4 
companies  each  anil  with  a  nominal  str.'iii;th  of  10(10 
men.  The  duty  of  these  battalions  will  he  (o  keep 
up  the  comnnniicati'"is  and  i;uard  the  rear  of  the 
army  in  the  lield  and  to  irarrison  the  towns.  The 
CoHsiu'k  I ri'i'ps  [iri-  divided  into  regiments  and  .'iftni'tif 
(sections  of  100  men);  the  strenijth  of  each  reninii'nt 
varies  accordini;  to  the  luiinber  of  .i"(»m»  called  out. 
The  whole  male  population  is  <)blij;e(l  to  serve.  By 
an  order  issued  in  1H72,  the  Cossacks  have  been 
formed  into  a  body  of  men  perfectly  ortcanized  in 
time  of  peace,  easily  asjendiled  and  added  to  the 
<'avalry  divisions  in  time  of  war.  I'nder  the  new  ar- 
lautrenicnls  they  will  supply  (V2  rcfjimenls  and  )1'2 
batteries  in  time  of  war.  In  peace  time  they  have 
21  reijimcnts  and  H  horse  batteries  under  arms.  The 
strensith  of  the  Oossat^ks  lies  between  ."lO.OOO  and  ^>~),- 
000  men,  with  a  reserve  of  HO, 000  more. 

The  supreme  command  of  the  Uiissian  army  is 
vested  in  the  Kmperor,  with  a  War  Ministry  under 
liini.  This  iMiuistry  is  divided  into  /iiimn/j-.  includ- 
ini;  a  war  council  of  iiermanent  committiis,  who 
deal  with  all  the  technical  ipiestions  ajipertaining  to 
the  (lilTcrenl  branches  of  the  .service.  The  mode  in 
Russia  of  ollicerinij  the  army  docs  not  difTer  much 
from  that  of  other  ('ontinental  Armies.  The  young 
men  who  decide  on  a  military  career  proceed  at  the 
ajre  of  10  to  one  of  the  military  schools,  whence,  at 
t lie  age  of  10  or  20,  having  jiasscd  an  examination, 
they  obtain  an  ensigncy,  and  then  follow  the  various 
jjrailcs  without  furilier  examination.  A  second  cap- 
tainc)'  is  reached  in  about  8  years'  service,  and  then 
merit  can  gain  the  epaulettes  of  a  (Jeneral  in  a  very 
short  time.  Candidates  for  the  StalT  have  to  pass 
through  the  Nicholas  Staff  Academy.  The  Russian 
infantry  is  armed  with  15erdan  breech-loading  ritle. 

The  cavalry  of  the  Russian  army  consists  of  two 
divisions  of  cavalry  of  the  Guard,  seven  of  the  Line, 


Authorized  WarE.stablislunent  of  a  Russian  Cavalry 
Regiment. 


Officer  Commanding 

Lieut enant  Colonels 

Regimental  Adjutant 

"  Paymaster 

"  Quartermaster 

"  Instructor  at  Arms 

Officer  commanding  Non-Combatanls 

Trumpet  Major 

Senior  Surgeon 

Junior  Surgeon 

Veterinary  Surgeon 

Chaplain 

Stpiadron  Commander 

('aptain 

StalT  Captain 

Lieutenants 

Cornets 


Regi- 
ment. 


Senior  Sergeants  Major 4 


Cadets  . 

Junior  Sergeants  JIajor 

Non-commissioned  Officers. 

Trumpeters 

Privates 

Officers'  Servants 


8 

16 

56 

16 

676 


841 


Squad- 
ron. 


4 
14 

4 
68 

7 


207 


and  one  of  the  OaiiraRiis;  the  first  diviHJon  of  the 
(iiiard  contains  sevin  regiments,  that  of  the  Cau- 
casus four,  all  other  six  regimiiits.  Kach  is  eoin- 
posefl  of  four  sipiadrons;  thus  there  anr  ."iO  regimentH, 
or  2;i4  sipiailrons,  of  regular  cavalry  in  tli<;  army. 
With  the  r\\ception  of  those  of  the  (iuard  and  of  the 
('aucasus,  each  division  consists  of  two  regimenln 
of  dragoons,  tw<i  of  lancrTs,  and  two  of  hussars.  All 
dragoons,  and  the  rear  rank  in  hussar  anil  lancer 
regiments,  are  armeil  with  lierdan's  breecli-loadinc 
carbine.  Cuirassiers,  hussars  and  lanirers,  and  all 
non-commissioned  ollicers,  with  Smith  and  Wesson's 
breech-loading  revolver.  Dragoons  are  armed  with 
a  long  rille  of  the  Krinker  converted  pattern— even- 
tually they  will  be  served  out  with  l)erdan's--tliey 
carry  ;J3  roimds  each.  All  mounted  troops  wear  a 
sabre,  varying  in  sliaiie  and  weight  for  the  ditlerent 
branches.  Tliere  are  two  est.ablishincnts  for  cavalry, 
namely,  the  War,  and  llu'  Peace;  in  the  f(jiiui;r  there 
are  l^H  men  [ler  S(pia<lron,  in  the  latter  112  men. 

The  generally  recognised  constitution  of  a  brigade 
of  artillery  is  four  battalions  of  eight  guns  each.  To 
each  division  of  infantry  there  is  attachecl  a  brigade, 
consisting  of  two  O.iiounders  and  two  4-pounder.s. 
The  (Irenadicr  Artilli  ry  Brigade  of  tin-  Caucasus  has 
three  mountain  batteries  in  addition,  and  l!)th,  20tli,  ' 
and  21st  Causasian  Divisions  have  an  extra  4-poun- 
der  attached  to  them.  The  Horse  Artillery  15rigade 
of  the  Guard  consists  of  five  4-i)Oun(ler  batteries. 
The  other  seven  Horse  Brigades  have  but  two  bat- 
teries of  the  same  caliber:   there  are  thus- 

48  Batteries,  Titled         il-pounders, 

10,'}         '•  "  ...         ...        4-pounders, 

4         "  ■■  ...  ...         .'i-i)ounders, 

18  Horse  Batteries,  rilled  ...  4-pounders, 
and  it  is  intend<'d  to  raise  .OO  mitrailleuse  batteries. 
The  guns  are  mostly  bronze,  Krujip's  breech-loaders, 
the  weight  of  the  4-pounders  being  (jj  cwt.,  of  the  9- 
pounders,  12j.  The  smaller  gun  (carries  130,  the 
larger  120  rounds  of  amnninilion.  Tlie  fuses  are 
mostly  percussion;  the  lime-fuse  is,  however,  being 
rapidly  introduced  into  the  service.  The  larger  gun 
is  frequenth'  used  as  a  siege  piece,  its  projectile 
weighing  30  lbs.  All  non-commissioned  oflicers  and 
gunners  are  armed  with  short  dragoon  sword  and 
breech-loading  revolver,  for  which  they  carry  12 
rounds  in  a  small  pouch. 

The  Corps  of  Engineers  in  the  Russian  army  con- 
sists of  "Sappers  and  Miners"  and  "Poutouiers ;" 
the  former  include  engineer  field  |iarks,  siege  parks, 
telegraph  parks,  whilst  the  latter  merely  the  bridging 
corps.  There  are  11  battalions  of  sappers,  and  six 
half-battalions  of  poutouiers ;  each  of  these  latter 
carries  sufficient  pontoon  boats  to  make  a  bridge  700 
feet  in  length.  As  in  the  infantry,  so  in  the  sappers, 
each  battalion  is  composed  of  four  comiianies ;  the 
peace  and  war  establishment  being  entirely  distinct. 
The  Infantry  of  the  Russian  army  consists  of  three 
divisions  of  Guards,  four  of  Grenadiers,  41  of  the 
Line,  and  seven  brigades  of  RiHcs  ;  each  division  is 
composed  of  four  regiments,  those  of  the  Guards 
numbered  according  to  their  division,  those  of  the 
Grenadiers  from  1  to  1(5,  whilst  those  of  the  Line  run 
from  1  to  11)4 :  the  regiments  of  regular  Ritlcs  are 
sfj'led  numerically  from  1  to  20:  the  brigades  of 
Turkestan  and  the  Caucasus  have  territori;d  desig- 
nations. Each  regiment  is  coniposeil  of  three  bat- 
talions except  in  the  case  of  those  from  73  to  84  in- 
clusive, which  have  four  battalions.  These  are 
again  subdivided  into  tive  companies,  four  of  the 
Line,  one  of  Rifles — these  latter  companies,  on  serv- 
ice, are  amalgamated  and  form  an  extra  battalion 
styled  the  Combined  liitle  Battalion.  Battalions 
have  four  separate  establishments,  viz.: — 1.  The 
War  Establishment.  2.  The  Increased  Peace  Estab- 
lishment. 3.  The  Peace  Establishment.  4.  The 
Cadre  Establishment.  The  total  strength  of  the 
Russian  Infantry  is  188  regiments,  consisting  of  580 
battalions,  with  32  rifle  battalions  in  addition,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  G12 battalions  of  the  regular  army;  but 


BUSSIAN  AEMT. 


806 


EUSSIAN  AKMT, 


t^CO  CO  »f>-  t^ 

p;-  ^  ^  t-d  "^ 

Is'  ijia 

T      P  CO 


(-*  h-*  h-*  H-^  M 


to  (OK)  WW 


w  w  to  to  to 


to  to  to  to  to 


X  OD  00  00  00 


C5  I— '  C5  05  CS 


00  CD  00  00  00 


!-■  1-1  h-  i->  to 
>-^  Ifk  O  >£•  O 

O  cn  o  o  o 


rf^  rf^  »**■  rf*-  l^ 


too  &3  to  W 


0^  O^  C9  A  C3 


to  OS  02  to  CO 
O  O  O  4^  >-* 
CO  H-  1^^  CO  rf^ 


Lieutenant  Colonel. 


Captain. 


Lieutenant. 


Sub-Lieutenant. 


Sergeant  Major. 


Cadet. 


Senior  Non.-com.  Officer. 


Junior  Non.-com.  Officer. 


Bombardier. 


Laboratory  Men. 


Gunners. 


Trumpeters. 


Drivers. 


Officers'  Servants. 


Riding. 


Artillery. 


H-  N-  to  ^  CO 
.^  to  H-  C5  to 
O  (f-  it'O*. 


GOOD  00  00  00 


>:  :2 


GO*    i^  o  a 


(o:    bststs 


ii^:    oii;^!^ 


Train. 


Total. 


O 

c 
a 


Ammunition. 


Provision. 


Park. 


Sanitary. 


Others. 


Ammunition  Boxes. 


9^ 


a 

o 


H 


W 


there  are  also  48  frontier  battalions  of  irregular  troops. 
Eventually  the  whole  of  tlie  infantry  will  be  armed 
with  the  Berdan  rifle,  which  as  yet,  however,  has 
only  been  served  out  to  the  division  of  the  Guard, and 
Grenadier  division,  and  Rifle  battalions.  The  Krin- 
ka  and  Earle  rifles  now  are  the  principal  weapons  in 
use.  Every  soldier  carries,  in  two  pouches,  OO 
rounds.  Forty  rounds  in  addition  are  carried  by 
the  regimental  train,  and  60  more  by  the  army  re- 
serve train.     Non-commissioned  officers  of  line  bat- 


Authorized  Establishment  of  a  Battalion  of  Sappers 
and  Miners. 


Colonel  Commanding 

Lieutenant  Colonel 

Battalion  Adjutant 

"         Paymaster 

"        Quartermaster. 

Instructor  in  Arms 

Administrative  Officers... 

Battalion  Drummer 

Bugler 

Senior  Surgeon 

Junior        "        

Captains 

Suljalterns 

Cadets 

Sergeants  Major 

Senior  Non-com.  Officers 
Junior         "  " 

Sappers  and  Miners 

Drummers 

Buglers 

Officers'  Servants 


Battalion. 


1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

'1 
2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

16 

4 

4 

16 

56 

832 

12 

12 

20 


988 


Company. 


1 

4 
1 
1 
4 
14 
208 
3 
3 
5 


244 


talions,  and  all  ranks  in  the  Guard  and  Grenadier 
divisions,  carry  a  short,  two-edged  sword  in  addi- 
tion to  the  bayonet,  which  is  invariably  fixed  when 
troops  are  on  the  move. 

In  addition  to  the  above  the  men  receive  a  "  mess 
allowance,"  varying  in  amount,  but  averaging  about 
l]d.  per  diem, and  the  following  rations  free— Flour, 
21bs.;  barley,  :Jlb.;  salt,  \  oz. 


Authorized  War  Establishment  of  a  Half  Battalion 
of  Pontoniers. 


Colonel  Commanding 

Battalion  Adjutant 

"      Paym'ster  &Q'rm'.ster 

"         Drummer 

Bugler 

Senior  Surgeon 

V<'tcrniary  Surgeon 

Ca))tains 

liidii  tenants 

Sub-Lieutenants 

Ensigns 

Sergeants  Major 

Senior  Non-com.  Officers 

Junior  "  "        

Pontoniers 

Drivers 

Drummers 

Buglers 

Officer's  Servants 


Half 
Battalion. 


1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
o 

2 

10 

2H 

240 

130 

(> 

6 

8 


435 


Company. 


1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
5 
14 
120 

m 

3 
3 
4 


214 


BUSSIAN  AEMT. 


HO', 


KUSSIAN  ABUT. 


3S 


S   »   4   -•  D 


Sin 
5  5- 


i;S3 


3  9 

0 


en  d  Ci  -»  o  ■ 

»U  CS  1^  -f  ^c 


Vl  •-'  C»  A  X  ■ 


fO  *»  W  '.D  hi 
O  X  X  -I     ■ 


:    o?  4*  o  ->  /' 


OCTi-^QDOd:      ODCTtf^Ca^OD 


»u  ci  c.*T  Ci  o  -]  ^  (O  ~i  w  !:c  i*: 

00  ►-  **  CC'  rf^  -.1  CO  O  00  00  -1 


o»Ocni-^ODO&aoc;ir<k.c^^< 


ii 


<W  »  3  ^ 


c 


O 
5 


00  00  CO  "-* .  rf*. .  00  C5  en  »t.  tK 


to  -^  tC  00  •   I—  .   to  ►-»  X  CI  - 


«-» :  t-k  •-*  M  CO  ** 

-500oo?DH-i.  ^  00  oi  c;t  1^  K 


i^ro^tooo:  —'toi-'OOiT- 


c:  c;i  o  —*  X  -J  C5 


CDC&tC^tOODl-'tOc^aDOc 


o 


h^  CO  U  CO 

»  •-  —  —  f^ 
CO  en  C71  en 


o  > 
z  a 


o 

^ 

td 

ft 

•-« 

a 

ii 

o 

=r 

B 

o 

5 

.s 

a. 

re  o 

|- 

£.1 
X  a 

ocs'j'^a 

ocra 

=    p£    K 

■^  o 

B    = 

t3 

'4^'t, 
"^§1 

c  3 

2  3 

••    3 

Q. 

to 

K>    ^ 

^ 

=» 

t9  O 

aoooiC''  w: 


give  a 

182H  2'.).  To  tin-  iiiililury  Hliidcnl,  it  will  \>i:  a  proof 
Unit  it  (Iocs  not  (III  ill  iIichc  <l:iyM  uf  tin-  bri'ccli-JMiidcr 
anil  till'  »i)ailr  to  rrlii-arHc  llir  tailiiH  of  our  fiilhiTg; 
anil  lliiil.  uftir  all  as  Napoleon  |>illiily  (•xi)rcss(;<l  it, 
"(Joil  f;ivorMllii-  liiavicHt  hallalions."  In  l)i-(-cnil)ir, 
IH27.  Russia  linn  l)iin(;at  war  with  I'rr-ia,  tin-  find 
l)i-lwi-(ii  till-  SiilTan  and  till'  Czar  that  liail  bcniHlum- 
birrini;  for  inanv  vrars  brolii-  out.  Hastily  conclud- 
ini;  a  praii-  witlilln-  Sliali  on  llii-(l;li  Krbruup',  Pa»- 
kiewil«-li,  Governor  (ii-ncral  and  Cimiinanili-r-in-Cliii-f 
of  till)  Cancasns,  <,-iiinincn<-ril  prrparalions  for  the 
siil)jii;;ation  of  Arnifnia.  Irri-spi-clivc  of  tint  natural 
wisli  to  rxti-nd  lirr  coiKiiKstH  roinplclrly  round  tlie 
Black  Sra,  a  campaiL'n  in  Analolia  nicissarily  must 
forma  portion  of  llii-  plan  of  any  war  wa(r<;d  b(> 
tween  tlii'  Porte  and  Knssia.  Tlir  vast  ri;sonrcf8 
Turkey  possesses  in  her  Asialii'  provinies  enable  the 
Sultan  to  reeruit  his  forces  lo  an  almost  unlimited 
extent  from  the  hardy  mountaineers  of  Armenja, 
eonseipienlly  the  aim  andolijeet  of  the  Hnssian  War 
Jlinister  is,  by  decisively  allackini;  the  Ottoman  .m 
this  side,  to  hinder  men  from  beinir  despatched  lo 
I'^urope  to  swell  the  armies  there.  The  forces  at  the 
disposal  of  Faskiewitch  for  his  o|ieralions  amounted 
at  this  time  tn.'jl  battalions  of  infantry,  11  si|uadron» 
of  cavalry,  IT  rei;iinents  of  Cossacks,  12^  balterieB 
of  artillery,  numberinj!;  l.')4  guns.  The  policy  of 
Persia,  in  spite  of  the  recent  peace,  was  still  unde- 
fined, anil  it  was  thouiiht  more  than  jirobable  she 
would  lake  advantaire  of  the  fad  of  Prussia's  compli- 
cations, and  once  more  declare  war.  She  had  only 
just  ceded  to  the  Czar  two  rich  provinces,  and  paid 
a  very  heavy  war  contribution,  so  Paskicwitcli 
deemed  it  advisable  to  be  quite  prepared  for  her  en- 
terins;  into  an  alliance  offensive  and  defensive  with 
j  tue  Turk.  To  guard  against  any  coalition  of  troops, 
the  Russian  General  organised  a  corps  under  Pank- 
ratielT,  consisting  of  six  battalions, two  regiments  of 
Cossacks,  and  sixteen  guns,  which  he  posted  at 
Khoi,  in  Persian  territory,  be  it  minded.  Another 
evil  has  to  be  guarded  against  in  all  wars  between 
Russia  and  Turkey,  and  that  is  insurrection  in  the 
Caucasian  provinces.  They  were,  it  was  known, 
ripe  for  revolt,  and  it  was  rumored  Mahoinedan 
emissaries  had  been  travelling  through  the  Abkha- 
sian  and  Mingreliaii  country,  endeavoring  to  incite 
the  people  'o  rise.  To  guard  against  this,  Faskie- 
witch occupied  the  Caucasian  country  with  fifteen 
battalions,  three  squadrons  of  cavaliy,  forty-two 
guns,  and  four  regiments  of  Cossacks.  Thus  there 
were  left  for  the  expeditionary  army— 30  battalions, 
8  squadrons  of  cavalry,  11  regiments  of  Cossacks, 
9(5  guns.  The  ports  of  Poll  and  Uatouni  were,  as 
for  many  years  they  had  been,  the  object  of  Russia's 
desire  ;  consequently,  Paskicwitcli  detailed  one  col- 
umn to  act  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  whilst, 
with  the  remainder  of  his  army,  he  determined  to 
operate  in  two  columns  :  the  main  or  central  one  ad- 
vancing bv  the  Allaghoz  chain  was  to  reduce  the 
frontier  towns  of  Ak'halzik,  Akhalkalaki,  Hertwitz, 
Kars,  and  Ardahan :  whilst  the  left  corps,  jiushing 
across  the  Ararat  range,  was  to  subjugate  the  pro- 
vince of  Bavazid.  ami  guard  the  (lank  against  the 
attacks  of  the  Kurds,  who,  it  was  known,  attracted 
by  "  loot,"  would  swoop  down  from  Van  and  Moosh. 
In  fact,  tlic  corps  operating  on  Poti  and  on  Bayazid 
were  acting  as  win  ;s  of  the  main  army  advancing 
into  Armenia.  The  right,  or  Batoum  army,  was 
placed  uniler  the  command  of  Major  (ieneral  Hesse, 
and  consisted  of —8  battalions  of  infantry,  14  field 
guns,  1  resiiment  of  Cossacks. 

The  leftT  or  Bayazid  column,  was  under  the  order 
of  Tchavachavadzi,  the  reigning  prince  of  the  Abk- 
basians,  and  numbered-  3  battalions  of  infantry,  8 
field  pieces,  1  regiment  of  Cossacks.  Whilst  at  Kat- 
schevan  keeping  open  free  communication  between 
the  left  wing  and  main  army  were  posted  2  batta- 
lions. Paskicwitcli  himself  commanded  the  main 
column,  which  v.as  to  be  massed  in   the   neighbor- 


KOSSIAN  ARMY. 


808 


BUSSIAN  ARMY. 


Pay  of  Non-commissioned  Officers  and  Men. 


Sergeant  Major 

Senior  Non-commissioned  Officer 
Junior  Non-commissioned  Officer 
Bombardier  and  Lance  Corporal.. 
Private,  Drummer,  and  Busrler... 


GCABD. 


Annual 
Pay. 


£  s.  d. 
5  15  11 
3  15  7 
2  14  8 
1  0  9 
0  13    Oi 


Daily  Pay, 


£  .«.  d. 

0  0  3f 

0  0    IJ 

0  0     15 

0  0  OJ 

0  0  Of 


Line. 


Annual 
Pay. 


£    ».  d. 

.8  17  3 

0  14  9 

0  13  3 

0    9  2 


0    8    8 


Daily  Pay. 


£  s.  d. 

0  0  2J 

0  0  Oi 

0  0  0^ 

0  0  0^ 

0  0  OJ 


Autlsorized  Establishment  of  Infantry  Regiment,  Battalion,  and  Company  of  the  Russian  Army. 


Regiment. 


Battalion. 


Company. 


Regimental  Stuff. 

Major  General 

Field  Officer  for  Interior  Economy 

Executive  Field  Officer 

Regimental  Adjutants 

Paymaster 

Quartermaster 

Instructor  in  Arms 

Officer  in  command  of  Non-combatants 

Regimental  Dru mmer 

'■  Bugler 

Senior  Surgeon 

Junior  Surgeons 

Chaplains 

BattaU'in.  Stnff. 

Colonels 

Battalion  Adjutants 

' '         Drummers 

"         Buglers 

Captains 

Lieutenants 

Sub-Lieutenants 

Ensigns 

Cadets 

Sergeants  Major < 

Senior  Non-commissioned  Officers 

Junior  '  "       

Corporals 

Privates 

Druniniers 

Buglers 

Officers'  Servants 


N.B. — Each  Company  is  provided  with  the  following  tools : — 12  hatchets,  6  shovels,  3  picks,  3  axes,  1 

scythe. 


1 

... 

1 

... 

4 

... 

2 

4  • 

1 

4 

1 

... 

4 

1 

... 

4 

1 

.  . 

20 

5 

1 

20 

5 

1 

20 

5 

1 

30 

5 

1 

20 

5 

1 

20 

5 

1 

80 

20 

4 

240 

60 

13 

400 

100 

30 

2,960 

740 

148 

fiO 

15 

3 

60 

15 

3 

80 

30 

4 

4.034 

1,004 

200 

hood  of  Goomri,  and  amounted  to  18  battalions  of 
infantry,  9  squadrons  of  cavalry,  7  regiments  of  Cos- 
sacks, 56  field  guns.  The  Russian  conniiander  felt 
that  his  forces  were  too  weak  for  liiiu  to  hope  to  re- 
duce Erzeroimi  in  one  campaign,  for  prior  to  an  ad- 
vance across  tlu^  Soglianly  range,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  seize  all  the  fortiiicd  jilaccs,  many  of  them 
very  strongly  garrisoned,  in  the  ])rovinees  of  Kars, 
of  Akhalzik,  and  of  Bayazid.  lie  therefore  deter- 
mined to  devot(!  his  whole  time  to  subjugate  these 
districts,  leaving  the  conquest  of  Armenia  to  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Tlierc  were  many  reasons  in  favor  of 
Ooomri  being  chosen  as  the  base  of  operations  in 
Armenia.  In  tlu^  first  ])laee,  the  ground  between  it 
and  Kars  was  ojjcn,  and  feasilile  for  the  movements 
of  large  bodies  of  troops ;  in  the  second  place,  it  en- 


abled a  blow  to  be  struck  at  one  of  the  main  Turk- 
ish fortresses,  without  exposing  the  Russian  frontier 
to  the  danger  of  an  attack  ;  and  tliirdly,  it  threaten- 
ed the  liaiiU  of  any  army  advancing  by  the  Soglianly 
range  to  the  relief  of  Ardahan  or  Akhalzik.  There 
were  other  minor  reasons,  too,  which  led  to  the  sel- 
ection of  (ioomri:  it  was  in  a  central  position,  and 
easily  furnished  with  supplies;  the  siege  train,  quar- 
tered at  Erivan,  could  more  easily  be  moved  by  this 
road  tlinii  any  other;  and  lastly,  the  subjugation  of 
Kars  gave  thi'  Russians  possession  of  the  largo  val- 
ley watered  by  the  Kars  ami  Arpa  rivers,  with  an 
abimdance  of  grain  and  forage.  Then,  as  now,  the 
Ottoman  organisation  was  ill  lulajited  for  olTensive 
warfare,  and  it  never  seemed  to  have  struck  Paskie- 
witeh  that  the  Turks  could  plan  a  counter-stroke. 


BUSSIAN  ARHT. 


SO!) 


RUSSIAN  ARHT. 


Prior  to  commencing  operationB,  the  Riinman  Com-   croBflcd  the  Ari)ii'IVIini,(;arryinK  witli  him  in  Iuh  vhbI 
maiKicr-iii-CMiicf  Ihrcw  furwanl  ii  (IctiichriicMl  iiiiilcr  I  (:')imriiHsaria1  Iniiri  forty  davH' provJHlonH.    He  halted 

..t   .1 ,    'I'M,  1. ..;....    *;..    'i' i,:..i.    « :, i  *i.-. 


Majdi'  Oi'iicral  l*(i|i(ilT  In  Siiiiiin,  In  ;.'iiaril  lljc  ilclilcs 
of  j{(.ril|iiiii.  'I'liis  fririi'  niiiiilicn-d  :i  luillalidiis,  COM 
(.'()MMai:Us,  A  ;;uiiH,  luiil  fdruiid  a  cniiMccliii'j;  link  with 
Hesse's  Iroops  oil  llic  l!ali>iiiii  line.  'I'lins  on  the 
I21I1  of  .hiiie,  all  preparations  lieiiii;  eoniplele,  Pask- 
iewili'li  massed  his  Iroops  at  Oooiiiri,  wliieli  now 
consisled  of  bill  15  lialtalions  of  infantry,  8  s(pmd- 
rons  of  cavalry,  (i  regiineiitM  of  (Jossaeks,  5'.i  i;uns. 


that  day  at  'rikliiiiss,  in  'I  urkish  territory,  and  the 
next  iiiorniii'.'  moved  to  Maskni,  eneoiinleriii)j;  slifjht 
opposilioii  from  a  small  parly  of 'I'urkisli  horse.  A 
brief  reeoniiaissanee  of  the  forlrc-ss  nf  Kars  induced 
the  KuMsian  General  to  d<:termine  on  atlackin;^  Kara 
on  the  southern  face,  the  northern  and  eastern  being 
too  preeipilous  to  admit  of  assault,  or,  of  the  con- 
struction of  regular  siege  works.     Moreover,  the  oc- 


DlHTMliUTION      OK      liUBHIAN      AkMY,       12th       luNE,       1825. 


Designation  of  Coliiiiin. 

Inf. 

Cav. 

Guns. 

Major  Oonernl  llesse.     l?lack  Sea  Coliimii 

Major  ( iiiici'.al  I'opol'f.      Kordjom  l^'lankiiiLT  Column        

Oeucral  I'askii'wilcli.     Ceiilrul  or  .Main  (  olumii. 
Chief  of  the  .Stall     (Jenera!  Von  Sackeii. 
(Juarlerniaster  Oeiieral     ('(rlonel  Valkliovski. 

1st  IJrigade  InfaiiliT.  .Major  (Jeiieral  MouravielT        

2d       "                 "             "             "        HerLtiiiaiin        

3d       "                ••             '■             "        KorolkolV        

Cavalry  Brigade;,  Colonel  Uarev.sky 

Artillery       "         (ieneral  Gillensc'hmidel         

Major  (Jriicral  I'riiiee 'rehavacliavad/i.      Left  or  .Armenian  Column       .... 

General  Merlini.     l,eft  Central  or  Naisehcvan 

General  Pankratiefl.     Corps  of  Observation  on  I'ersian  Frontier 

4,541 
1,180 

2,511 
2..562 
3,488 

2,151 
1,730 
3,091 

402 

008 

3,340 

330 

47 

715 

14 
4 

70 
8 
2 

16 

Total 

20,854 

5,514 

114 

,  Great  pains  were  taken  to  arrange  a  good  com- 
missariat estatilishnienl.  the  organization  of  which 
the  ('oiumander-in-Cliief  himself  took  in  hand;  and 
in  May  he  had  already  suceeeile<l  in  collecting  at 
Goomri — tiovernment  wagons.  530  ;  liired  arabas, 
540;  pack  animals, '.J, 1250  ;  whilst  in  the  vast  store- 
houses at  (Joomri  and  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  he 
had  stored  for  transport  1'..'.0(I0  sacks  of  bi.scuits, 
1 ,0011  sacks  of  li;Lrlev,  four  thousand  sacks  of  wheat, 
4,000  casks  of  salt  "meat.  1,1110  gallons  of  brandy. 
More  than  3,0U0  men  were  hired  to  assist  in  the 
commissariat  train  ;  an  exlreniely  liberal  scale  of 
wages,  coupled  with  tirm  supervision,  ensured  good 
work.  Field  hospitals  were  established,  one  at 
Goomri  for  300  ;  one  at  Tsalki  for  200  sick.  An 
ambulance  train  for  the  movable  columns  was  or- 
ganized, miinbering  sixty-six  siieciiilly-constructed 
foiiri/i'tis;  there  were  two  companies  of  trained  hos- 
pital orderlies  to  aid  the  surgeons  in  their  work, 
whilst  a  large  corps  of  litter-bearers  were  also  organ- 
ized. Let  us  now  turn  to  the  Turkish  Army,  of 
which, we  regret  to  say, we  can  find  no  such  detailed 
Recount  as  of  the  Kussian,  The  most  strenuous  ex- 
ertions were  made,  not  only  to  strengthen  the  garri- 
sons of  all  the  fortresses,  but  also  to  organize  an 
army  for  olTcusive  operations.  For  this  purpose — 
during  the  early  spring — the  chief  of  the  ICaraka- 
paks  reeonnoitereci  the  whole  course  of  the  Arpa 
River,  as  well  as  the  passi's  through  the  Hordjom 
range,  all  of  which  were  held  liy  strong  detachments 
of  irregular  troops.  Akhalkiilaki  was  held  by  1,000 
Liizi  volunteers;  Ardahan  was  occupied  by  ujiwards 
of  2,000  regulxr  soldiers:  Akhalzik  was  reinforced 
by  a  large  detachment  of  cavalrx :  and  Kars,  consid- 
ered the  key  of  Armenia,  besides  being  furnished 
with  a  garrison  of  l.">,000  infantry  to  man  the  walls, 
was  further  strengthened  by  a  brigade  of  :i,000  cav- 
alry, with  fourteen  tield  suns.  Van  was  sjarriscmed 
by'l5,000  men;  Hayazid  by  1,001);  whifst  a  corps 
of  40,000  was  being  organized  by  llalib  Paslni  with 
which  to  take  the  ofTcnsive.  The  religious  feeling 
of  the  multitude  being  workeil  u])  by  the  Jloolalis. 
recruits  came  forwiird  in  great  numbers, and  it  seem- 
ed evident  that  the  Porte  would  be  able  to  crush  the 
Russian  forces  by  slu'cr  dint  of  numbers.  On  the 
14lh  of  .lune.  I'.iskii'witch,  advancing  from  (ioomri. 


cupation  of  ground  on  the  south-cast  face  cuts  off 
communication  more  completely  with  Krzeroum. 
Conse(|ueutlv,  on  the  ITtli,  Paskiewitcli  moved  via 
Azatkui  to  .Aiagardjik, where  he  halted  for  the  night, 
and  the  following  day  advanced  to  Kitcik-kui  ;  but 
during  this  inarch  his  Hank  was  exposed  to  attack, 
and  the  Turkish  commander  was  not  slow  to  take 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  pie.scnted  him:  he 
made  a  vigorous  sortie,  which  for  some  time  promised 
success;  but  the  conduct  of  his  irreguhir  Kurds  and 
Karakapaks  threw  the  main  force  into  confusion, 
and  he  was  eventually  compelled  to  ret  ire  with  heavy 
loss,  the  casualties  amongst  the  Russians  amounting 
to  twelve  killed  and  thirty-nine  wounded.  On  the 
20th  of  June  the  siege  park  reached  Paskiewitch, 
and  enabled  him  to  commence  his  offensive  oi)era- 
tions  against  the  city.  At  the  same  time  he  was 
aware  that  Kiossa  Jlahomecl  Pasha  was  advancing 
in  all  li;iste  to  relieve  the  fortress,  so  he  threw  up 
smne  tield  works  on  the  b;iiiks  of  the  Kars  river  to 
guard  his  left  tiank.  On  the  22nd  of  June,  covering 
the  work  by  a  feigned  attack  on  the  citadel,  Paskie- 
witch opened  his  first  parallel,  and  on  the  23rd  as- 
Siiulted  the  place  on  the  south  and  south-western 
faces  with  numerous  columns.  At  H  a.  m.  he  was  in 
possession  of  the  enceinte,  when  the  Paslui  surren- 
dered the  citadel  with  151  guns,  and  ll.OllOmen  be- 
came prisoners  of  war.  Kiossa  Mahomed  Pasha, 
hearing  of  the  fall  of  Kars.  abandoned  his  intention 
of  crossing  the  Soghanly.  and  moved  north  towards 
Hooukiar-Dooz.  Paskiewitch  now  determined  to 
capture  Akhalkalaki.  Fortius  i)urposehe  left  Kars, 
with  a  stronir  garrismi.  under  General  Bergmann, 
and  on  the  ITtli  of  July, moving  to  Zaim,  and  thence, 
by  the  eastern  shore  of  L;ike  Tehildar,  lo  Ghegli 
liagli.  On  the  22nd.  he  sent  Colonel  Abukoff  'i)  the 
commander  of  the  fortress  of  .\khalkalaki  with  a 
flag  of  truce,  to  demand  the  svirrcndcr  of  the  place. 
This  was  tired  on.  and  that  officer  killed.  On  the 
24th,  Paskiewitch  assaulted  the  town  and  captured 
it,  with  fourteen  guns  and  300  men.  The  Russian 
soldiers,  infuri;iteil  at  the  conduct  of  the  Turks  for 
having  fij-ed  on  their  flag  of  truce,  slew  upwards  of 
OtM)  men.  Without  losing  a  moment  of  time,  the 
Russian  General  detached  The  chief  of  his  staff.Gen- 
eral  Sacken.  lo  Ilertweiz.  which  surrendered  with- 


BUSSIAN  ARMY. 


810 


RUSSIAN  ASMT. 


out  firing  a  sliot.  Tliirteen  guns  and  3(10  men  fell 
with  tlie  place.  General  Hesse,  in  the  meantime, 
with  the  right  column, had  captured  Poti, with  forty- 
three  guns,  thirteen  standards,  and  2,000  men.  By 
the  capture  of  Aklialkalaki  and  Kars  the  routes  by 
the  Bordjom  mountains  and  Arpa-Tchai  were  now 
opened  to  the  Kussiaus;  and  on  tlie  30th  of  July  the 
much  needed  reinforcements  reached  Paskievvitch 
from  Tsalki  aud  (xonmri.  On  the  1st  of  August,  the 
Russian  Commander  learned  that  the(_)smanli  forces 
had  reached  Ardahan  and  were  moving  forward 
intending  to  attack  him.  The  Russians,  nothing 
loath  to  accept  battle,  advanced  towards  Akhai- 
zik,  reaching  Koltchi-kui  on  the  3d  iust.  On  the  .oth, 
he  attacked  the  troops  and  drove  them  back,  but  Ki- 
ossa  Mahomed  Pasha  was  able  to  effect  his  junction 
with  the  garrison  of  Akhalzik,  wliere  now  were  en- 
camped 30,000  men.  On  the  nintli,  after  a  hard  bat- 
tle, in  which  the  Russians  were  victorious,  the  Turks 
abandoned  their  guns  and  fled  towards  Ardahan.  On 
the  10th,  Paskiewitch  commenced  the  siege  of  Akhal- 
zik. and  by  the  12th  had  completed  the  investment 
of  the  place.  On  the  15th,  breach-batteries  were 
opened,  and  on  the  IGth  of  August,  after  a  desperate 
fight,  the  place  was  captured.  The  garrison  fought 
with  the  most  determined  valor,  and  it  is  computed 
that  upwards  of  5,000  men  were  slain  in  the  defence. 
Out  of  400  artillerymen  wlio  manned  the  guns  on  its 
walls,  but  50  were  left  to  tell  the  tale.  Thirteen  hun- 
dred Lazis  out  of  a  body  of  1,800  recently  raised  were 
slain.  Sixty-seven  guns,  and  tifty-two  standards, 
were  captured ;  the  Russian  loss  being  onl}-  12)S  killed 
and  405  wotmded.  In  consequence  of  the  heroism 
displayed  by  the  defence,  Paskiewitch  permitted  the 
garrison  of  the  citailel  to  march  out  with  all  the  hon- 
ors of  war.  On  the  18th  the  Russian  Marshal  deter- 
mined to  reduce  Aitzkui,  and  despatched  Colonel 
Vidbelski,  witli  five  companies  and  si-x  guns,  to  efl'ect 
this.  The  place  surrendered,  with  twenty-four  pieces 
of  artillery,  without  attempting  a  defence. 

In  the  meantime  orders  had  been  sent  toBergmann, 
in  Kars,  to  move  on  Ardahan,  and  the  Commander-in- 
Cliief,  on  the  18th  iust.,  directed  Mouravicff  to  march 
for  the  same  place.  This  officer,  however,  learned 
on  his  road  there  tliat  tlie  fortress  had  capitulated  to 
Bergmann  on  the  IGth  inst.  The  left  column  in  the 
meantime  had  been  equally  successful.  Having  sub- 
jugated the  whole  province  of  Bayazid,  with  tlie  ex- 
ception of  the  citadel,  which  was  left  masked.  Prince 
Tcliavachavadzi  had  marched  as  far  as  Toprak  Kale. 
He  had  been  reinforced  by  two  battalions  and  four 
guns  from  Khoi,  and  Bergmann  had  also  sent  a  force 
down  from  Kars  to  keep  open  commuuication  with 
him.  On  the  20th  September,  the  Prince,  finding 
that  Ills  flank  was  threatened  by  the  Pasha  of  ]\Ioosh, 
at  tlie  head  of  a  large  body  of  Kurds,  determined  to 
recapture  Bayazid,  and  hold  it.  For  this  purpose  he 
returned,  and  attacked  a  body  of  3,000  Kurds,  who 
were  covering  the  place,  when  the  garrison  fled,  and 
witli  tlie  loss  of  but  ten  men  Bayazid,  with  liis  twelve 
guns,  and  three  standards,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Russians. 

Early  in  September,  the  Prince,  having  made  all  ar- 
rangements for  Ihe  government  of  the  province,  ad- 
vanc<'<l  into  Alasligird  ])laiii,  seized  llie  fort  of  Top- 
rak Kale  which  was  occupied  by  Kurds  during  his 
absence,  and  liusied  himself  with  collecting  supplies 
on  the  fertile  district. 

On  the  lOtli  inst.,  tlie  Paslia  of  Moosli  having  ad- 
vanced to  (Jrakon;  the  Prince  delermined  to  attack 
him,  and  on  Ihc  folltjvving  day  dcfealeil  him,  witli  a 
lossof  liOOiuen.hisowii  casuallies  aiuouiiliiiglo  sixty- 
seven.  On  tlic  2Hlli,linding  that  the  I'asha  of  Van  was 
rousing  all  the  Kurds  in  tliedistrict,  and  fearing  thai 
his  coiiiiuunicalions  might  be  cut  off,  he  retired  on 
Bayazid.  Winter  now  setting  in,  Paskiewilch  felt 
llial  liis  forces  were  far  too  weak  toatleinpt  the  sub- 
jugation of  lOrzeroum  in  one  campaign.  Me  there- 
fore left  strong  garri.sons  in  tlie  princijial  towns,  and 
returned  with  the  main  portion  of  his  armv  to  Rus- 


sian territory.  General  Berbutoff  was  left  in  com- 
mand at  Akhalzik  with  2,300  infantry.  32(5  cavalry, 
and  four  guns.  Bergmann  was  left"at  Kars  with 
2,400  infantry,  and  280  cavalry,  and  twelve  guns ; 
whilst  Pankratielf  occupied  Bayazid  aud  the  neigh- 
boring towns  with  8,000  men,  376  cavalry,  and 
eighteen  guns.  Thus,  with  a  force  of  20,0()0"infant- 
ry,  5,000  cavalry,  and  ninety-six  guns,  Paskiewitch 
had  completely  conquered  the  provinces  of  Kars, 
Akhalzik,  Bayazid,  anil  Poti  in  the  short  space  of 
five  months,  had  captured  three  fortresses  antl  sev. 
eral  fortified  towns,  313  guns,  and  8,(J00  prisoners 
graced  the  Russian  General's  triumph,  whilst  his  own 
casualties  only  amounted  to  3,200  killed  and  wound- 
ed. As  may  be  imagined,  the  greatest  consterna- 
tion reigned  at  Constantinople.  (Jn  learning  of  the 
reverses  in  Armenia,  the  Generals  in  command  were 
immediately  disgraced,  and  two  new  officers  who 
were  in  favor  at  court  were  sent  to  supersede  them. 
Every  effort  was  made  to  raise  the  army  in  Anato- 
lia. Envoys  were  sent  to  Persia  to  endeavor  to 
draw  her  into  the  war,  and  emissaries  were  de- 
spatched to  Abkhasia,  Gliuriel,  and  Mingrelia,  to  stir 
up  revolt  there. 

The  plan  of  the  new  Turkish  Generals,  Salegh  and 
Hakkl  Pashas  was  as  follows.  An  army  of  80,000 
men  and  6(5  guns  was  to  be  massed  at  Erzeroum, 
and  advanced  ria  the  Soghauly  range  on  Kars;  whilst 
a  second  army  of  50,000  men  and  50  guns  was  to  be 
massed  on  Van  to  act  on  the  Russian  flank. 

In  February,  Paskiewitch  heard  that  the  Turks 
were  advancing  on  Akhalzik,  and  he  at  once  de- 
tached Mouraviefl  to  Surani  with  six  battalions  and 
eighteen  guns  to  cover  that  fortress,  whilst  General 
Hesse  was  directed  to  suppress  the  insurrection  in 
Ghuriel  as  promptly  as  possible. 

On  the  28th  of  February,  Osman  Bey  entered  the 
city  of  Akhalzik.  The  garrison  retired  into  the  cita- 
del, and  there  succeeded  in  keeping  him  at  bay. 
The  Turks,  with  tlieir  usual  ferocity,  commenced" a 
.system  of  carnage,  and,  as  at  Bayazid  in  these  latter 
days,  so  at  Akhalzik  in  1829,  every  Christian  mhabi- 
tant  was  slain. 

Mouravicff  in  the  meantime  pushed  forward  with 
vigor  to  relieve  the  place,  and  on  the  28tli  attacked  the 
Turks,  defeated  them  with  a  loss  of  3,000  men,  and 
relieved  the  garrison. 

Hesse,  after  some  sharp  skirmishes  in  wliich  his 
casualties  amounted  to  187  men,  succeeded  in  sup- 
pressing the  rebellion  in  Ghuriel.  The  snow  having 
cleared  away,  and  the  roads  being  tolerably  practi- 
cable for  troops,  in  April  Paskiewitch  determined  to 
renew  his  operations  for  the  subjugation  of  Erze- 
roum. Paukratieff.  at  Bayazid,  was  directed  to 
proceed  with  four  battalions  and  twelve  guns  to 
Katchewenk  on  the  Arpa-Tchai,  wliilst  Paskiewitch, 
on  the  19th  of  May  having  settled  the  difficulty  with 
Persia,  rejoined  head-quarters  at  Aklialkalaki,  and 
none  too  soon,  for  he  here  learned  that  the  Turks  had 
15,000  men  near  Ardahan,  marching  to  the  relief  of 
tliat  fortress,  whilst  50.000  men  were  at  Hassan 
Kale,  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Soghanly  Dagli. 
On  I  he  25th  May,  Pankratieff  was  directed  to  march  on 
Karadjuran,  near  Kars,  to  cover  that  fortress  Paskie- 
witch at  the  same  time  ])uslied  forward  to  Beglili 
Ahmed.  Salegh  Paslia  had  now  reached  the  Sogh- 
anly. Finding  that  tlie  majority  of  the  Russians 
were  at  Kars,  he  determined  to  move  towards 
Akhalzik,  jMoiiravieff  was  sent  to  counteract  this 
moveiuenl  to  Tsurskab ;  and  on  the  2d  of  .June  this 
General  attacked  the  Turkish  forces,  defeated  Ihem, 
and  look  one  ^un  ami  1,201' iirisouers.  The  Osmanli 
being  llius  checked  in  tlieir  advance  on  the  northern 
road,  I'askicwitch  felt  free  to  concentrate  all  liis 
troops  and  advance  on  Erzeroum.  This  movement 
was  carried  out  in  three  columns,  the  right  under 
the  coiiimand  of  MouravielT,  Ihe  left  under  Ihc  com- 
mand  of  PaiikralielT,  and  Ihc  Ihird  under  the  Com- 
mander-in-Chief; the  I  wo  roads  leading  from  Kars  and 
Krzenium    iliverge    at    Kol:uili    and    meet   iigain    at 


BUSSIAN  BERDAN  RIFLE. 


811 


BDSSIAN  GOVERNMERT. 


Kuipri  Kiii,  tlin  fir.it  or  soulliornniosl  rf)ii(l  passinp 
tliroiij^li  Hani  ICniiiysli,  MclliiloDZ,  ami  KlioraHHiiii, 
■vvliilsl  tlie  scconil  or  iKirllicriimusI  ruad  paHHcH  by 
Deli  MuKHa,  Kara  Ori^lian,  ami  Zi'wiii.  Silcj^Ii 
Pufllia,  al  tlic  licad  of  tin-  iiiaiii  Inxiy  of  tlic  Tiirl^isli 
army,  l)arrc(l  tlic  iiorlliirninost  roail  on  llii-  Zcwin 
Dooz ;  wliilst  Hal<l<i  I'aMlia.  willi  1,. '!(»()  infantry, 
7,001)  cavalry,  and  sixteen  iiuiis.  took  up  the  en- 
treucliiMl  position  on  IIk!  Mellidoo/  phileuii.  Just 
where  llic  mail  ascends  from  llie  Sara  Kamysli  de. 
file,  a  kn<jll  in  Die  eenlre  of  (lie  plateau  commamls 
all  the  roads,  and  this  was  slroniily  inlrenelied  hy 
the  Turks.  On  the  lllh  of  Juni',  I'askievvileh,  who 
determined  (o  advance  by  {he  northern  road,  sent 
forward  strf>n!;  parlies  of  cavalry  to  patrol  the  Sara 
Kamysh  delile,  and  thus  draw  olf  allenlion  from  his 
main  attack.  linrlsolV.  with  ;J.(lO  infantry,  was  now 
sent  into  the  delile,  whilst  the  Commander-in-Chief, 
with  14,0(10  men  ami  liflv  t;nns,  moved  towards  the 
Tchakir  Itaha.  On  the  l":iih  of  .June,  liurlsoll  made 
a  threatened  attack  on  llakki  I'asha's  camp.  Fear- 
ing assault,  this  (Jencral  drew  in  all  the  oul])osts,  and 
tliU8  the  Russian  Conunander-in-Clilef  was  enabled 
to  cross  the  Sof^hanly  Kanije  without  lirini;  a  shot. 
On  th(^  ITtli  iiist..  however,  Osnian  I'aslia,  with 
1,200  men,  was  detached  to  Bardez  to  recoimoilre. 
and  on  the  ITth  he  was  attacked  by  MonravietT  and 
driven  back,  not  on  his  own  army,  but  on  .Saleiili 
Pasha's  forces  atZewin.  Further  concealment  now 
was  useless,  and  I'askiewitch  delermined  to  attack 
the  Turkish  Commander-in-Chief,  who  was  posted 
on  the  Zewin  plateau  with  40,000  men.  PankratietT 
was  sent  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Chansu  to  jjrevent 
Ilakki  I'asha  fallini;  back  and  joinini?  his  chief, 
and  liurtsolf  was  warned  1o  attack  the  .Mellidooz 
position  directly  the  Turks  showed  a  disposition  to 
abandon  it.  On  the  l!)th,  I'askiewitch,  passinj^ 
Kauli,  descended  towards  Zowin  ;  Salei;h  Pasha  ad- 
vanced to  meet  him,  but  was  driven  back  into  his 
entreiiclicd  positiim,  which  was  immediately  at- 
tacked by  the  Russians,  who  drove  the  Turks  ofT  in 
complete  disorder,  captured  .''lOO  prisoners  and  twelve 
guns.  The  following  day,  Paskiewitch,  leaviii};  a 
lorc<'  at  Zewin.  and  crossing  the  Chansu,  ascended 
the  Kara  Orphan  to  attack  llakki  Pasha  at  Melli- 
dooz. After  a  sharp  fiiiht.  the  Turks  were  defeated, 
the  commander  and  tifteen  guns  being  taken. 

Being  aware  that  promptitude  conslituti's  half  the 
battle  in  lighting  wiih  Oriental  nations,  Pa>kicwit<-h 
set  oil  in  pursuit  of  the  Turks,  and  on  the  2;id 
iust.  reached  Kuipri  Kui,  whicli  he  found  to  have 
been  abandoned.  He  at  once  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  Hying  column  of  cavalry,  eighteen  horse- 
artillery  guns,  and  dasiied  on  Hassan  Kale.  So 
close  was  the  pursuit,  that  Selegh  Pasha  had  onlj' 
jtist  time  to  escape  from  the  place,'  leaving  twenty- 
nine  guns  in  the  hands  of  the  Russians.  On  the  24th 
the  whole  of  the  Russian  army  concentrated  at 
Hassan  Kale,  and  a  pdrleiiuiUnirt  was  sent  in  to  the 
Governor  of  Krzeroum,  demanding  its  surrender. 
This  was  refused  ;  so  on  the  25th  Paskiewitch  ad- 
vanced to  the  Nabitchai  stream,  and  on  the  27th 
seized  the  Devi  Boyun  heights  unmolested.  On  the 
2Sth  the  city  surrendered,  a  slight  skirmish  taking 
place  between  the  e.xcited  soldiery  in  the  citadel  and 
the  Russian  troops  as  they  entered  the  town,  l.')0 
guns,  four  Pashas,  ami  about  eight  thousand  pris- 
oners falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Russian  General. 
Thus,  in  five  short  weeks  from  the  commencement 
of  the  campaign,  Paskiewitch  had  been  enabled  to 
effect  his  object.  He  subsecpiently  moved  towards 
Trehizond,  and  occupied  Baiboort.  Insurrections 
among  the  Laziz,  however,  broke  out,  and  this, 
coupled  with  the  badness  of  the  roads, prevented  him 
advancing  further  than  Gumish  Khane.  In  August 
the  Treaty  of  Adrianople  having  been  duly  signed, 
the  Russians  evacuatecl  all  the  conquered  provinces 
with  the  exception  of  Akhalzik.  AkIaUkalaki.  and 
Kars. 

The  frontier  line  was  laid  down  afresh,  and  oas  re- 


mained tmaltfred  nince  those  da^'s.  In  the  war  of 
IH.W,  Kars  ca|)itulated  to  .MouravietT,  Paskiewiteh'B 
LieutiMiant ;  but  b}-  the  Treaty  of  I'aris,  in  IN.W,  it 
was  again  ceded  to  the  Turks.  It  is  not  our  pro. 
vinci-  to  speculate  on  the  fuluri;  of  Armenia,  but  we 
doubt  if  an  instaiu-e  has  occurred  in  the  history  of 
any  nation,  of  a  |irovince,  twice  conipiered  at  tlie 
point  of  the  sword,  having  been  twice  ceded  by  a 
stroke-  of  Ihr-  pen. 

BUSSIAN  BEBDAN  BIFLE.  A  breech-loading 
small-arm  having  a  li.xed  chamber  closed  by  a  mov- 
able breech-block,  which  rotates  about  a  horizontal 
axis  at  '.10'^  to  the  axis  of  the  barril,  lying  above  the 
axis<jf  the  barrel,  and  in  front.  The  piece  is  opened 
by  drawing  back  the  locking-bolt  to  ils  full  extent, 
tiierehy  coiking  the  piece,  and  then  throwing  Ihe 
breech-block  upward  and  forward  by  the  handle  on 
its  side.  Itisclosi'd  by  shutting  the  hreecli-block, 
and  is  locked  by  the  friction  of  the  rear  face  of  the 
breech-block  against  the  recoil-should('r  on  the  lock- 
ing-bolt guide,  against  whiih  the  longitudinal  motion 
of  the  hinge-stra])  slide,  to  which  Ihe  block  is  at- 
tached, allows  it  bodily  to  slide  under  Ihe  intluence 
of  the  discharge.  It  is  also  held  in  pla(  e  by  llur  en- 
trance of  Ihe  locking-boll  into  lh(^  counler-hore  of 
Ihe  liring-pin  hole  when  the  piece  is  tired.  In  draw- 
ing  back  the  hjcking-holt  to  open  the  piec-e  it  com- 
presses the  spiral  mainspring  which  surrounds  it, 
and  riding  over  the  point  of  I  lie  .spring-sear  is  caught 
by  it  and  retaineil  against  the  tension  of  the  main- 
sjiriug  when  the  sui)porl  of  the  hand  is  withdrawn. 
When  releiused  through  the  trigger  in  Ihe  usual  way 
it  is  impelled  against  the  tiring-pin,  and  so  <lischarg- 
es  the  piece,  Extraction  is  accomplished  by  an  ex- 
tractor swinging  on  the  joint-.screw  and  struck  above 
ilseeuterof  motion  by  the  forward  end  of  the  breech- 
block near  the  completion  of  its  movement  in  open- 
ing. Ejcf-tion  is  caused  by  accelerating  the  move- 
ment of  the  extractor  by  the  ejector-spring,  one  end 
of  wi.ichliasa  solid  bearing  on  the  hinge-strap  slide, 
and  Ihe  other  resting  on  the  extractor  above  the  cen- 
ter |uf  motion;  as  the  shell  pas.ses  (jnt  it  is  detiected 
by  the  beveled  surface  of  the  ejector-stud,  and  is 
thrown  clear  of  the  jiiece. 

BUSSIAN  BRIDGE. -The  Rtissians  use  in  their 
bridge  equipages  a  very  light  kinil  of  ponton  formed 
of  a  frame-work  covered  with  canvas.  The  frame 
is  composed  of  two  side-frames,  constructed  of  4" 
scantling.  These  two  frames  are  connected  below 
by  movalile  transoms, with  tenons  at  each  end  which 
tit  into  mortises  in  the  bollom  sills,  and  above  by 
two  transoms,  one  at  each  end, whicli  are  laid  on  the 
top  string-pieces,  about  2  feet  froju  tiie  ends,  and 
lashed  to  them.  The  canvas  cover  is  stretched  over 
the  bottom,  sides,  and  ends,  brought  over  the  ends, 
and  lashed  to  the  top  transoms.  It  is  secured  along 
the  sides  of  the  top  string-pieces  by  small  nails, pa.s.s- 
ing  through  eyelet  holes  along  the  edges  of  the  cloth. 
It  is  10|'  wide,  30'  long  in  the  middle,  23'  long  along 
theedges,and  is  painted  black  on  both  sides.  A  plank 
is  laid  along  the  bottom  for  the  pontoneers  to  stand 
on.  and  the  cables  are  attached  to  the  top  transoms. 
There  are  special  supports  for  the  hand-ropes.  The 
Hirayti  trestle  and  abutments  are  used  with  these 
pontons. 

BUSSIAN  FUSE. — This  fuse  consists  of  a  fuse-plug 
made  of  a  mixture  of  lead  and  tin,  conical  in  shape, 
the  head  of  which  projects  beyond  the  external  sur- 
face of  the  shell,  and  of  a  paper  fuse,  filled  with  fine 
powder  rammed  hard,  which  is  introduced  into  the 
fuse-plug  just  before  firing.  There  are  two  sets  of 
these  fuses,  and  three  lengths  in  each,  which  bum 
in  the  first  set,  25",  4",  and  5",  and  in  the  second 
'i\' ,  4y',and  5i". 

These  were  the  fuses  used  by  the  Russians  in  the 
Crimea,  since  which  a  new  system  has  been  adopt- 
ed, in  which  the  fuse-plug  is  made  of  papier  miiche, 
and  till'  fiisi'-lulie  of  lead. 

I      BUSSIAN  GOVEENMENT.— With  the  abolition    of 
j  serfdom,  Old  Russia  disappeared  for  ever,  and  New 


StJSSIAH  GOVERNMENT. 


811^ 


EUSSIAN  GOVERNMENT. 


Russia  arose  from  its  grave.  Tlie  old  distinction  of 
classes  into  nobles  and  bondsmen  was  merged  into 
that  beautiful  weapon  of  constitutional  despotism, 
known  on  the  Continent  as  universal  compulsory  ser- 
vice in  the  army.  Henceforth,  instead  of  fishting 
for  their  King,  Emperor,  or  Czar,  the  people  of  such 
happy  lands  now  tight  for  their  country  only.  It  is 
true,  the  common  pnpuiace  is  so  blinded  by  its  pre- 
judices, that  it  is  apt  not  to  understand  the  differ- 
ence as  long  as  the  country  is  under  the  immediate 
and  irresponsible  control  of  its  whilom  Sovereign; 
and  Russia  forms  no  exception  to  this  rule.  Conse- 
quently, thougli  the  form  has  somewhat  changed, 
the  material  remains  the  same;  and  where  it  has  al- 
tered it  has  been  sagaciously  made  use  of  to  fit  into 
the  new  order  of  things,  and  to  form  an  integral  por- 
tion of  the  new  sj'stem.  Tluis  the  result  of  abolisli- 
ing  serfage  was  the  creation  of  a  fresli  national  feel- 
ing; the  ex-bondsmen  felt  tliat  lie  liad  a  stalic  iu  his 
newly-acquired  soil;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
noble  felt  that  a  new  danger  was  threatening  him  by 
the  growth  of  this  national  consciousness  and  the 
growing  conviction  in  tlie  ex-serf  that  he  really  was 
a  unit  in  the  empire,  and  that  man}'  units  piled  up 
on  the  top  of  the  other,  amounted  to  a  very  consid- 
erable sum,  and  no  mean  force  if  united  iu  action. 
To  counterbalance  these  ideas  it  was  necessary  to 
shape  certain  grooves  for  the  new  national  feeling  to 
run  in.  Thus  three  principal  channels  were  fashioned. 
1.  Compulsory  jnilitary  service.  2.  The  institution 
of  communal  self-government.  3.  The  reunion  of 
the  Schismatics  and  other  dissidents  under  the  pater- 
nal care  of  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church,  as  repre- 
sented by  the  Holy  Synod,  as  represented  by  the 
Czar,  wlio  in  turn  represents  the  Diety  himself, 
in  Russia.  These  grooves  having  been  duly  fashion- 
ed, the  next  thing  to  be  done  was  to  furnish  a  reser- 
voir for  them  to  run  into — a  vast  reservoir  that  would 
contain  the  national  food  for  long  years  to  come,  and 
prevent  its  overflowing  the  channels  cut  for  it,  and 
causing  serious  damage  at  home.  This  great  goal 
was  set  up  in  the  shape  of  Panslavism  ;  the  object  of 
Panslavism  being  the  reunion  of  all  the  various  Slav 
races  in  Austria,  in  Prussia,  and  in  Turkey,  under 
the  sceptre  of  liim  who  rules  at  St.  Petersburg.  The 
attention  of  the  freshlj'-made  freeman  was  tlius  to  be 
diverted  from  home  matters  to  foreign  affairs,  and 
his  black  bread  spread  with  the  butter  of  glcy  abroad 
rather  than  with  the  fat  of  the  land  at  home,for  which 
it  appears  that  the  noble  has  a  remarkable  fancy.  Of 
the  working  of  this  new  system,  of  the  bad  that 
exists,  and  the  good  that  is  latent  in  the  communal 
system  ;  of  the  atrocities  of  the  Ilolj-  Synod ;  of  the 
burden  the  armj's  imposes  upon  the  nation, we  shall 
speak  in  the  proper  place.  The  above  rapid  sketch 
is  simply  designed  to  give  in  a  few  words  the  char- 
acter of  the  change  that  has  come  over  Russia,  and 
made  her  again  an  enemy  and  a  slauding  menace  to 
the  peace  of  Europe,  and  the  cause  of  liberty,  com- 
merce, and  progress.  And  if,  as  Goethe  says,  "  The 
gods  against  ignorance  battle  in  vain,"  it  may  well  be 
imagined  what  a  very  formidable  task  Europe  has  ! 
before  her,  when  she  shall  be  called  upon  to  wage  } 
war  against  the  bottomless  ignorance  of  eighty  mil- 1 
lion  souls,  all  well  armed  with  breech-loaders  and 
Krupp  guns.  Under  such  circumstances,  it  may 
well  l)e  asked  why  Europe  shoulil  siilmiit  to  a  coii- 
liiiiial  threat  in  order  to  enable  a  jMiiscovite  nobility 
to  preserve  their  station  against  those  jiriiiciples  of 
individual  liberty  and  local  self-government  they  are 
80  proud  of  pointing  to  as  the  lever  that  is  to  raise 
Slavonic  Russia  on  t  iie  ruins  of  an  elTele  western  civ- 
ilization, and  to  regenerate  the  slugLrish  lilood  of 
worn-out  ICiirope?  In  short,  wiiy  slioidd  lOuropeaU 
low  the  Russian  U'aders  and  rulers  to  impede  the; 
development  of  liberty  at  home,  by  imposing  a  ty-  \ 
Tannic  rule  on  rac(\s  abroad,  under  tlie  catch-penny 
title  of  national  glory  ?  Is  the  country  too  small  anil 
too  poor  to  support  its  teeming  ixipiilalion  ?  Is  it  a 
kind  of  magnitied  Montenegro,  that  must  perforce 


extend  its  boundaries  to  feed  its  .starving  population? 
If  so,  there  would,  perhaps,  be  some  excuse  for  its 
periodical  attacks  on  somebody  or  other — on  the 
Khan  of  Khiva  yesterday,  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  to- 
day, and  probably  the  Shah  of  Persia  to-morrow. 
But  we  find  exactly  the  contrary  to  be  the  case;  for 
whilst  Europeans  count  their  inliabitants  to  the 
square  mile  in  some  cases  by  thousands,  and  inamost 
cases  by  the  hundred,  we  find  in  Russia  a  population 
of  about  ten  to  the  square  mile.  Let  any  one  try  to 
stretch  his  imagination  to  the  wonderful  extent  of 
fancying  himself  in  the  possession  of  309,760  square 
yards  of  soil — or  the  use  of  it — and  he  will  have  an 
accurate  idea  of  the  position  of  the  Russian  in  his 
native  laud.  Is  there  any  biped,  be  lie  white,  yel- 
low, or  black,  belonging  to  the  working  ciasses — to 
the  classes  to  whom  labor  is  a  necessity— who  would 
not  be  satisfied  with  such  a  possession,  or  at  any 
rate  be  content  to  increase  it  by  legitimate  means, 
and  thus  in  possession  of  material  independence, 
would  not  also  be  in  possession  of  his  moral  indepen- 
dence, and  defy  the  intrigues  of  those  who  will  not 
work  themselves,  but  buyup  streams  of  living  blood 
and  liushels  of  money  in  exchange  for  a  few  tinsel 
tatters  of  impalpable,  evanescent  glory? 

The  reply  is  self-evident ;  so  self-evident  that  the 
Russian  government  has  never  propounded  the  ques- 
tion, and  works  upon  a  system  by  which  tliey  hope 
it  will  never  Ije  proposed.  What  this  system  is  we 
now  propose  showing,  for  it  is  the  most  important 
element  foreign  nations  have  to  consider  in  their  re- 
lations with  Russia.  It  is  the  government  that  does 
everj'thing,  without  consulting  the  people.  There 
is  no  appeal  to  the  nation.  What  the  Czar  and  his 
Nobles  decree  has  to  be  performed,  and  is  performed 
in  the  same  unreasoning,  slavish  spirit  of  obedience, 
which  the  liberation  of  the  serfs  has  in  no  way  chang- 
ed. In  dealing  with  Russia,  we  have  to  deal  with  a 
craft)',  unprincipled.  Asiatic  government,  and  a  mass 
of  ignorance  in  all  things  that  concern  the  Russian's 
relations  with  foreign  nations  and  ideas.  Not  that 
then'  are  not  communities  upon  communities  who 
cultivate  the  soil  iu  peace,  and  successfully  ;  whose 
villages  are  all  that  could  be  desired  from  an  agri- 
cultural and  social  point  of  vie'.v.  Of  these  there  are 
many ;  and  there  is  an  amount  of  good  nature  and 
common  sense  in  the  Russian  peasant  that  only  needs 
time  and  opportunity  for  develojjment  to  make  him 
one  of  the  most  peaceable  and  industrious  of  men. 
But  just  for  this  very  reason,  heenuse  lie  has  the  capa- 
city for  attaining  material  and  moral  independence, 
the  vast  army  of  drones  do  all  they  can  to  stifle  these 
good  qualities  ia  a  mass  of  bigotry,  ignorance,  and 
superstition.  Be  it  well  understood — what  we  find 
to  protest  against  is  not  the  mere  existence  of  the 
people  of  Russia,  but  of  the  Russian  government, 
which  is  a  great  deal  worse  than  the  Turkish  rule, 
and  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  Russian  gov- 
ernmeut  h:is  not  the  same  excuse  which  the  Turkish 
has,  of  being  a  weak  government  that  has  fallen  in- 
to the  hands  of  the  Jews  and  <;reeks.  The  Russians 
discovered  that  the  Crimean  war  had  opened  the 
eyes  of  the  people  to  the  fact,  that  Russia  was  not 
altogether  the  blessed  ji.'iradise  her  rulers  tried  to 
make  them  believe,  and  that  an  entire  re-constitution 
of  the  government  system  was  necessarj'  to  satisfy 
the  glowing  discontent.  How  to  do  this  and  yet  al- 
ter nothing  ;  how  to  give  liberty  and  yet  at  the  same 
time  to  curtail  it,  was  no  easy  task.  But  it  was  ac- 
complished. The  Czar,  whose  official  title  is  Auto- 
crat—Self-ruler — of  all  the  Russias,  is  the  fountain- 
head  of  all  legislation.  Ail  laws  proceed  from  him; 
he  alone  makes  them  ;  he  alone  can  unmake  them. 
This  is  done  as  follows:  —  All  decrees  of  the  Czar 
published  by  the  Senate  are  Laws;  :ill  decrees  pub- 
lished by  other  departments  of  the  State  arc  only 
to  be  regarded  as  decrees  ;  and  theoretically,  diso- 
bedieuee  to  these  decrees,  or  ukases,  can  only  be 
liunished  when  such  punishment  can  be  legally  jus- 
litied,  and  it  is  proved  th:it  the  ukase  in  (juestion  was 


BUSSLAN  GOVERNMENT. 


s  1 :', 


BUBSIAN  OOVERRICEHT. 


known  to  the  culprit.  As  a  mutter  of  fuel,  there  in, 
priuli<'iillv',  no  distinction  hclvvccn  llic  two.  Ad- 
niinislriilivc  uliasc,  ur  iiii|iciiiil  Kciiiilnriiil  liiw.  Ihcy 
hotli  itinount  to  Ihcauniu  tiling;,  uuu  ci-nlcr  in  tin-  ir- 
rcsponsihle  C/.tiT. 

Tlie  executive  power  is  also  in  tlie  lumdH  of  tlic 
Czar,  and  all  departments  act  in  his  name.  The 
Minister  of  I'olic'e,  for  instance,  is  respfnisihht  to  no 
one  liul  the  C'/.ar.  A  man  disappears;  and  in(|iiirics 
sJKiw  that  he  has  lici'n  arirslcd  hy  the  p(iH<'c  ;  there 
tile  mall.r  eniis,  and  it   di'peiiils  entirely  npnn  tlie 

Eoliei'  (ir  the  C/.ar  uhether  or  not  he  <-ver  reappears, 
ife  under  sn(-h  cir(-nmslances  would  he  unsupport- 
able,  were  it  not  that  the  coininuni'S  retain  a  speeii'S 
of  self-government  that  invests  them  with  n  show  of 
liberty.  Of  the  natiin^  of  such  liherly  sulllec^  it  to 
say  that  the  system  is  Imsed  on  the  principle,  not  of 
a  division  of  ])ropiTly,  as  the  SucialistH  try  to  make 
out.  hut  upon  the  ilivisiiin  of  the  use  of  the  soil, 
which  is  a  very  (liiyer<'nt  matter  alto{;ether.  It  is,  in 
short,  a  system  that  fully  employs  the  s|)ar.^  linu-and 
a.11  the  spare  hrains  of  the  peasantry  to  carry  out, 
and  prevents  tiieni  from  agitatini;  for  that  represen- 
tation of  the  people  in  the  councils  of  the  nation, 
wiich  is  the  first  step  to  liberty.  To  keep  the  pea- 
santry in  this  cir<'umscrihed  oasis  of  local  liherly  in 
the  commune,  or  !i)ir,  and  prevent  their  imion  with 
each  otiier  in  the  cause  of  universal  and  j;eneral  li- 
berty, is,  of  course,  the  chief  object  and  !iim  of  the 
nobility.  Compulsory  service  is  one  of  these  means. 
The  church  altords  another.  To  brim;  all  the  vari- 
ous sects  of  Russia  under  the  control  of  the  ])arish 
priest  and  Holy  Synod,  who  can  command  tlie  a.s- 
sistauce  of  the  civil  authorities  and  of  the  military 
authorities, is  the  ureat  object, for  the  iirompt  allain- 
ment  of  wliich  such  measures  have  been  taken  as 
those  that  furnished  the  material  for  the  lilue  Book 
publislied  recently  by  the  British  Government.  An 
imperial  ukase  was  published  in  1M71,  subjectinij  all 
the  hetenxlox,  or  disscutinff,  churches  to  the  autho- 
rity of  the  Holy  Synod.  This  is  eipiivalent  to  an  act 
of  parliament,  in  Enj;land,  placing  all  the  Noncon- 
formists, Catholics  and  Jews  under  the  administra- 
tion and  authority  of  the  Church  of  England.  Thus 
the  Uniates  wen^  ordered  to  conform  in  all  respects 
to  the  habits  of  the  Orthodox  clergy — to  alter  their 
churches  in  conformity  with  the  system  adopted  by 
the  Orthodox  church.  Priests  who  complied  with 
these  instructions  were  to  be  compensated  for  any 
pecainiary  losses  ;  disobedient  |)riests  to  be  transfer- 
red to  some  other  place,  or  banished.  An  incpiisi- 
torial  eanimission  sat  in  permanence  at  Siedlce,  be- 
fore which  the  clergy  were  summoned  from  time  to 
time,  and  examined  as  to  their  conduct.  These 
measures  were  energetically  enforced,  but  met  with 
great  resisUmce,  especially  on  the  ptirt  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Chelm,  I.ublin,  Popil,  and  Siedlce.  On  hear- 
ing of  this.  Count  Tolstoi  gave  strict  orders  that  the 
necessary  measures  were  to  be  enforced  with  the  ut- 
most rigor,  and  no  benches,  organs,  rosaries,  mass- 
bells,  etc.,  to  be  allowed  in  the  churches  under  any 
pretense  whatever.  Most  of  the  clergy  yielded  :  the 
peasantry,  however,  refused  to  obey  the  tyrannical 
order,  and  many  conflicts,  resulting  in  loss  of  life, 
occurrwl  in  many  places.  At  Jlyncievicz,  the  peas- 
ants defended  their  church  by  force,  but  were  de- 
fealtul  by  the  Cossacks,  and  every  one  of  the  congre- 
gation summoned  to  sign  forthwith  a  declaration  of 
Lis  conversion  to  the  Orthodox  church.  On  their  re- 
fusing, every  man  received  tifty  strokes  of  the  knout, 
every  woman  twenty-five,  and  every  child,  irrespec- 
tive of  age  or  sex,  ten  blows.  One  woman,  who  was 
especially  energetic  in  her  refusal,  received  more 
than  one  hundred  blows,  and  is  dcfcrihed  as  liavini; 
lier  tl»'sh completely  mashed.  These  brutalities  were 
taking  place  just  at  the  same  time  of  the  wedding  of 
the  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Edinburgh,  and  created  so 
painful  a  feeling  at  St.  Petersbnrgh  that  they  were 
suspended  for  a  time.  In  fact,  so  great  \ras  the  in- 
dignation aroused  amongst  the  foreigu  commimity, 


that  it  was  openly  wondered  at  that  an  ICnglish  prince 
could  ally  him.self  with  a  power  guilty  of  such  atro- 
cities :  and  it  is  said,  on  apparently  gofid  authority, 
t  hat  till-  coolness  hi'tween  t  he  I  )uke  of  Edinhi'.rgh  and 
the  Russian  royal  family  is  due  to  a  very  energetic 
expression  of  opinion  by  the  Duke  on  the  subject. 
This  was  in  .January,  1x74.  In  February  the  atroci- 
ties recoinmi-nceil ;  villages  were  occupied  bytro')ps 
of  Cossaiks  who  jilundered  llii:  wretched  peasants, 
and  ■'hunted  them  down"  when  they  took  refuge 
and  bivoua(rked  in  the  forests.  Pines  to  a  large 
amount  were  imposed  upon  the  congregation,  their 
crops  lrani|)led  down,  and,  in  one  case,  six  hundred 
married  men  banishid  to  Cherson  (on  the  14th  of 
Peliruary,  lH7(i),  andem|)loyed  in  hard  labor — stone- 
breaking  all  day  long,  whilst  their  wives  and  fami- 
lies remained  at  home,  with  .a  number  of  Cossacks 
iiuarlereil  upon  them.  I'nder  such  circumstances, 
it  is  not  surprising  to  read,  in  ('ount  Tolstoi's  report 
(lS77),that  no  less  than  a:i7,l)(J0  Russian  subjects  .saw 
the  error  of  their  ways  in  1870,  and  were  converted 
to  the  Orthodox  faith. 

Having  thus  undergone  a  preliminary  preparation 
for  their  subsequi^nt  complete  subji:ction  to  the  au- 
tocrat government,  which  is  supposed  to  represent 
paternal  solicitude  .•iiid  authority,  the  Russian  is  then 
|)ut  into  the  drilling  machine  provided  hy  the  mili- 
tary system,  and  which  ever  afterwards  holds  him 
in  its  ij'on  grasp.  When  the  man  who  stole  a  loaf 
excused  the  act  by  saying  he  must  live,  the  Magis- 
trate appropriately  repliecl  that  he  did  not  see  the 
necessity  at  all.  On  tlu'  same  principle,  the  existence 
of  the  Russian  is  only  regarded  as  a  necessity  in  so 
far  as  he  forms  an  element  in  the  army  which  keeps 
the  goverununt  and  its  friends  on  its  legs.  Con- 
secpiently  it  is  necessary  that  the  army  shcmld  be 
subjected  to  the  strictest  discipline,  and  be  as  per- 
fect as  possible.  A  sketch  of  the  machine  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  understand  the  working  of  the  sys- 
tem.    See  Jiuxmin  Ariiiy. 

There  is,  uiuiuestionably,  a  falling-ofT  in  the  rigid 
bearing,  in  the  smart  performance  of  movements 
that  used  formerly  to  be  a  characteristic  feature  of 
Russian  infantry.  There  is.  perhaps,  a  little  too  much 
of  the  french  laisser^ilier;  and  as  regards  the  drill  for 
act  ion  in  loose  order,it  is  performed  without  either  the 
precision  or  dash  of  the  Prussian  or  Austrian  armies. 
Itespecting  the  cavalry,  all  that  can  be  said  is,  that 
the  addition  of  the  Cossacks  has  deprived  it,  to  some 
extent,  of  its  gallant  and  soldierly  bearing.  The  reg- 
ulars have  learnt  from  the  Cossacks  their  bad  hab- 
its. The  teams  of  the  artillery  are  excellent,  and 
the  movements  rapid.  There  is,  however,  a  great 
dearth  of  men  able  to  lay  a  gun.  The  distinction 
between  divisional  and  corps  artillery  appears  to  be 
unknown.— The  most  important  element  in  an  army 
is  its  ofticers;  and  here  great  changes  have  been  ef- 
fected of  late  years.  Formerly,  a  great  many  ofli- 
cers  got  a  commission  through  mere  favor ;  but  this 
abuse  has  been  reformed  by  the  able  War  Minister, 
General  Milutine.  No  man  can  now  obtain  a  com- 
mission without  undergoing  a  strict  examination. 
To  promote  the  means  of  military  education.  Gen- 
eral Milutine 'Created  -'Junker,"  or,  as  we  should 
say,  Cadet  Schools.  These  schools,  since  their  crea- 
tion, have  turned  out  upwards  of  10,000  candidates 
for  commissions,  and  2,000  cadets  duly  qualified  for 
commissions  now  pass  through  tliein  every  year; 
they  remain  at  the  disposition  ot  the  State,  and  get 
appointments  as  vacancies  occur.  In  spite  of  many 
praiseworthy  efforts  to  raise  it,  the  intellectual  level 
of  the  oflicefs  is  not  high  ;  but  they  know  the  rou- 
tine of  their  business  "thoroughly  well,  and  are  re- 
garded generall}-  with  respect  and  affection  by  their 
men.  As  to  the  question,  ■'Has  Russia  a  Generall'" 
it  would  be  difficult  to  answer  it.  The  march  to 
Khiva,  and  the  more  recent  campaign  in  Central 
Asia,  has  not  revealeil  the  existence  of  any  man  of 
genius  in  the  Russian  ranks. 

In  time  of  peace  the  Russian  infantrj'  has  no  ready- 


EUSSIAN  GOVERNMENT. 


SI  4 


RUSSIAN  GOVERNMENT. 


formed  reserve,  with  the  exception  of  the  skeletr>n  of 
a  battalion  of  the  Reserve  Kejiiiiient  of  the  Guard, 
which  has  to  be  created  iu  time  of  war.  There  is 
something  quite  peculiar  about  this  regiment  which 
requires  little  detail  to  be  made  intelligible.  When 
the  decree  is  issued  for  the  mobilisation  of  the  armv, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  create  16i  battalions  of  re- 
serves— that  is  to  say,  one  battalion  for  each  infantrj- 
regime'^t,  witli  the  exception  of  the  Guards  and  the 
Grenadiers.  This  latter  is  the  sole  four-battalion  re- 
serve regiment  to  be  created  in  case  of  war  :  it  con- 
sists of  twelve  line  companies  and  four  companies  of 
Rifles,  the  reserve  battalions  having  no  Ritle  compa- 
nies. Up  to  the  present  time,  there  exists  no  ma- 
chinery in  the  Russian  service  for  the  formation  of 
infantry  reserves  in  peace-time  :  all  that  is  provided 
is,  that,  in  tlie  event  of  the  formation  of  a  reserve 
Tieing  deemed  aiivisable,  a  Field-ofticer,  and  four 
officers  of  lower  rank,  together  with  a  Quartermas- 
ter and  two  clerks  belonging  to  the  active  or  lo- 
cal troops,  should  be  transferred  to  these  reserve 
battalions.  An  intention,  however,  is  entertained 
of  drawing  up  the  cadres  thoroughly  on  paper  in 
time  of  peace  ;  but  as  there  are  realTy  no  cadres  at  the 
command  of  the  government , the  question  yet  remains 
unsettled.  The  strengtli  of  the  reserve  battalions  of 
the  line  and  the  Guards  is  estimated  at  960  men.  To 
pr(.)vide  the  requisite  reserves  in  the  event  of  mobil- 
isation would  require  168  battalions,  and  an  effective 
of  168,000  men.  When  the  mobilisation  is  decreed, 
193  depot  battalions  are  created  for  the  supply  of 
men  to  the  line,  and  nine  depot  battalions  for  the 
Rifles.  But  a  mobilization  in  Russia  is  a  matter  of 
no  very  small  difficulty,  on  account  of  the  extent 
and  scanty  population  of  the  territoiy,  as  well  as 
the  scarcity  of  eommimicatiou,  and  the  precautions 
which  require  to  be  taken  against  the  populatiim  in 
Poland  and  other  provinces.  The  country,  indeed, 
is  divided  into  a  certain  number  of  recruiting  dis- 
tricts :  but  as  the  corps  belonging  to  these  districts 
are  generally  quartered  elsewere,  when  the  order  for 
mobilisation  goes  forth,  there  is  a  chmsez-croinfz  of 
men  and  horses  all  over  the  empire.  As  regards  the 
artillery,  its  mobilisation  requires  a  supplement  of 
40,000  horses.  Under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances, the  mobilisation  of  the  Russian  army  cannot 
be  effected  under  from  five  to  six  weeks.  Such,  in 
few  words,  is  the  character  of  official  Russia.  But 
there  is  another  Russia — the  Russia  of  the  masses, — 
unofficial  Russia,  which  slowly,  but  surely,  is  mo- 
difying and  influencing  the  government  and  its  prin- 
ciples; so  that,  even  in  the  army,  there  is  a  marked 
difference  between  the  old  generation  and  the 
younger,  that  is  much  in  favor  of  the  latter. 

Down  to  the  time  of  the  Crimean  war,  Russia  was 
an  earthly  rparadise  for  all  diplomatists  of  the  old 
school.  Enjoying  great  social  consideration,  and 
living  in  an  almost  constant  round  of  splendid  festi- 
vities, they  had  only  very  light  and  very  simple  du- 
ties to  jierform.  Thej'  never  required  to  under- 
take such  complicated  operations  as  calculating  the 
strength  of  political  parties  or  the  force  of  public 
opinion.  All  the  springs  of  government  were  lo  be 
found  within  a  radius  of  a  mile  from  the  Winter  Pal- 
ace; and  beyond  this  small  enchanted  circle  there 
was  nothing  for  a  diplomatist  to  observe.  The  Czar 
and  his  Ministers  worked  the  great  machine  as  they 
pleased,  free  from  control  and  extraneous  advice, 
and  the  nation  confined  itself  to  uii(|uestioning  obe- 
dience. If  any  voice  did  happen  to  rise  from  the 
crowd,  it  was  very  soon  silenced.  Once,  in  a  mo- 
ment of  heroic  self-forgetfulness,  a  rash  newspajier 
editor  ventured  timidly  to  hint  that  some  new  seats 
in  tlie  imperial  garden  were  not  (|uile  iu  perfect 
taste;  l)Ut  the  all-seeing  eye  of  the  press-censor  was 
upon  him,  and  he  was  severely  puiiislicil  for  ventur- 
ing to  criticise  seats  that  had  i)een  fcjrtunate  enougli 
to  obtain  the  imperial  ajiproval !  These  halcyon  days 
for  old-fashioned  diplomatists  and  statesmen  of  liie 
Metlernich  type  are  now  beginning  to  be  numbered 


amongst  the  things  of  the  past.  The  Czar,  though 
still  as  autocratic  as  ever  in  the  legal  sense  of  the 
term,  no  longer  drives  the  macliine  by  his  own  un- 
aided energy.  There  are  still,  it  is  true,  no  regular- 
ly constituted  political  parties,  no  National  Assem- 
bly; but  the  great  silent  inert  mass,  composed  of 
eighty  millions  of  human  beings,  has  begun  to  show, 
here  and  there  symptoms  of  human  intelligence  and 
human  will,  and  the  government  is  no  longer  at  lib- 
erty to  act  entirely  as  it  pleases.  Russia  has  now,  in 
fact,  many  of  the  blessings  which  belong  to  advanc- 
ed pulitical  development,  and  which  complicate  enor- 
mously the  art  of  government.  There  is  a  press  which, 
though  liable  to  be  gagged  occasionally,  criticises 
things  much  more  important  than  rustic  seats  in  im- 
perial gardens  ;  and  a  public  which,  though  enthusi- 
astically loyal  to  the  head  of  the  State,  insists  some- 
times on  having  opinions  of  its  own.  There  was  a 
Slavonic  Committee  which  supplied  the  Servians  with 
a  Commander-in-Chief, and  sent  several  thousand  vol- 
unteers to  fight  the  Turks  ;  and  there  are  even  secret 
societies  which  aim  at  overthrowing  the  government 
and  inaugurating  a  Socialistic  millennium.  In  a 
word,  this  is  the  unofficial  Russia,  which  exercises  a 
certain  influence  on  the  government,  and  which  must 
therefore  be  taken  into  consideration  by  diplomatists 
and  statesmen  in  their  endeavors  to  forecast  the  poli- 
cy of  the  country. 

Between  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  their  exists 
an  antagonism  of  long  standing.  Ever  since  its 
foundation,  St.  Petersburg  hai  striven  to  be  a  Euro- 
pean city  and  to  adopt  all  the  products  of  West- 
European  civilization.  Moscow,  on  the  contrary, 
strives  to  be  distinctively  Russian,  and  affects  to  look 
down  on  her  younger  rival  as  a  half-caste  jtnrrenu. 
Abandoned  by  the  imperial  family  anil  the  heads  of 
administration,  she  glories  in  her  ancient  monuments 
and  her  ancient  spirit,  and  boasts  that  she  still  holds 
the  first  place  in  the  veneration  and  love  of  the  Rus- 
sian people.  All  Moscovites  are  more  or  less  imbued 
with  this  Platonic  hostility  to  the  capital  on  the  Neva, 
and  love  to  reproach  its  inhabitants — the  Ministers 
and  other  official  dignitaries  not  excepted — with 
gross  ignorance  of  Russia  and  the  true  Russian  char- 
acter, but  when  they  come  to  discuss  the  present 
and  future  of  their  country,  they  are  by  no  means 
unanimous.  We  easily  distinguish  amongst  them 
two  groups  or  Cdteries.  holding  peculiar  view^s, which 
distinguish  them  from  each  other.  The  one  is 
composed  of  the  Slavophils,  the  other  ma)'  be  called 
the  iloscovites  proper.  These  groups  are  often  con- 
founded, and  the  confusion  is  excusable,  for  many 
worthy  Moscovites  themselves  do  not  clearly  distin- 
guish between  the  two  and  consider  that  they  belong 
to  both:  but  in  reality  there  is  a  decided  distinction, 
for  the  leaders  are  by  no  means  at  one,  and  do  not 
generally  entertain  very  friendly  relations.  The 
chief  difference  may  be  briefly  stated.  The  Slavo- 
phils are  the  representatives  of  the  old  Rtissian  or- 
thodox spirit.  They  idealize  and  admire  ancient  Rus- 
sia condemn  the  sweeijing  reforms  of  Peter  the  Great, 
and  the  foreign  principles  of  administration  in  vogue 
since  his  time,  profess  an  inordinate  admiration  for 
the  uneducated,  uncorrupted  peasantry,  aspire  to 
the  creation  of  a  specifically  Russian  culture  on  the 
basis  of  the  Slavonic  character  and  Eastern  ortho- 
doxy, are  deeply  imbued  with  Slavonic  patriotism, 
and  hope  to  see  someday  a  great  Slavonic  federation 
or  P.-mslavunic  empire.  VVith  regard  to  questions 
of  honu>  policy,  tiny  are  adherents  of  the  Jlir,  or 
Rural  Conuuune,  w'ith  its  periodical  reallotment  of 
the  sand,  advocate  the  fostering  of  native  industries 
by  means  of  ))rotective  t;irilTs.  desire  the  elimiuation 
of  the  German  element  and  (ierman  infiuence  from 
the  adminislratiiin,  and  would  liketo  sec  the  church 
emancipated  from  tin-  supiTvision  and  control  of  the 
State.  The  party  of  the  Moscovites  proper  isatonce 
more  modern  iu  its  conceptions  and  more  modest  in 
its  aims.  Tliough  (h^sirinir  equally  to  see  the  Ger- 
man influence  eliminated  from  the   administration, 


RUSSIAN  GOVERNMENT. 


«li 


RUSSIAN  OOVEENMEHT. 


it  hiiM  no  fc^elinf;  of  liostility  to  I'ctcr  tlu'  Great  iiiul 
Wf.Mtcrii  ciilliirc,  iukI  no  scntinicnliil  love  of  nncii'nl 
liuMsia.  Il  lliinks  tliMl  Uiis;'iiL  <jii'_'ljt  li>  <iil<>|it  all 
miinncrof  civili/atioii  ami  ctili^^lilrninciil  from  Wi-M- 
crn  Kuropc,  and  hIiows  no  syniputhv  willi  inslilii- 
tions  Hiniply  Ijccausc  llicy  arc  specially  Hiissian.  On 
the  contrary,  it  lioliU  that  the  social  ami  polilical  <lc. 
velo])nicnt  of  tlic  coiinlry  must  be  fiimlami'iilally  the 
same  as  I  hat  of  the  West- European  nalions.  ami  hails 
with  (Iclifjhl  all  reforms  concciveil  in  llic  Wesl-Kiiro- 
pean  spirit.  Whilst  the  Slavophils  believe  Ihai  Ihi' 
mission  of  Russia  is  lo  develop  eerlain  very  abslruse 
prin<'ii)U'S  whieli  are  supposed  lo  be  hidden  in  Ihe 
Slavonic  natur<-  and  in  (ireek  orlhodoxy,  this  parly 
— less  dreamy  and  wiser  in  its  generation  tlilnKthat 
Kiissia  shoulddevelop  her  instilnlions  by  the  li^ht  of 
modern  experience,  and  extend  her  political  ilillu- 
ence  1)V  the  same  means  as  other  nalions. 

In  ordinary  limes  the  iiitlueiiee  of  the  MoscoviU; 
Hl)irit,  as  representi'd  by  Ihese  two  parties,  is  very 
Hmall.  The  I'elersliurnians  look  upon  il  with  kindly 
con<lescensions  as  an  amiable  provincialism,  and 
Koine  Hussians  are  rather  prbud  of  it,  as  thiy  arc  of 
the  old  picturesque  bnildinjis  of  Ihe  Ivr<-inlin ;  but 
it  has  little  practical  siijnificanee.  The  Slavophils, 
with  their  mystical  i)rinci|)les,  which  have  an  inter- 
<'st  for  those  who  study  the  philosophy  of  history 
rather  than  for  ])raelical  admiinstral<irs  stand  apart 
from  the  busy  crowd  in  a  region  of  pbihisophieal  ab- 
straction. If  they  indulge  in  ain'  practical  activity, 
it  takes  the  form  of  educatiuj^  younij  Bulgarians  or 
sending  ecdcsiaslical  vestments  and  sacred  vessels 
to  the  Slavs  of  Turkey  and  Austria.  All  this,  how- 
evcr,i3  changed  when  certain  political  coinplicalions 
arise.  As  soon  as  Ihe  Eastern  (jnestion  is  raised, 
and  Russia  finds  herself  iuanlaijonism  with  Western 
Europe,  Moscow  always  comes  prominently  to  Ihe 
front, as  the  representative  of  Holy  Itnssia  and  of  the 
j;enuine  national  spirit.  Words  which  at  ordinary 
seasons  would  only  provoke  a  smile  are  now  listened 
to  with  attention  and  respect.  For  the  moment  the 
two  sections  of  Jlosrovitc  society  condiine.  The 
Slavophils  declare  that  the  time  has  come  for  eman- 
cipating Ihe  Slavonic  brethren,  and  protecting  them 
against  the  insidious  inlluenccsof  Western  Europe; 
whilst  the  more  moderate  parly  urge  Uie  government 
to  uphold  the  honor  of  the  countrj',  and  maintain 
legitimate  Uussian  intluence  in  the  Slavonic  world. 
In  view  of  the  national  danger, the  goverinnent  well 
thinks  it  necessary  to  know  the  real  sentiments  of 
the  people,  and  considers  that  .Moscow  is  Ihe  truest 
representative  of  these  sentiments.  The  C'/ar  visits 
the  ancient  capital,  and  the  inhabitants  show  him 
unbounded  devotion— humbly  urging  him,  in  more 
or  less  disguised  language,  to  impregnate  himself 
with  the  genuine  national  spirit,  to  close  his  ears  to 
theseductive  voice  of  foreign  counsellors, and  to  act  as 
a  Czar  who  can  rely  implicitly  on  the  boundless  devo- 
tion and  self-sacrilice  of  his  loyal  subjects.  Though 
Ills  Majesty  may  be  a  man  of  cool  head  and  miim- 
piilsive  character,  he  cannot  remain  wholly  imper- 
vious to  the  patriotic  excitement.  It  wasduring  one 
of  those  visits  that  Alexander  II.  pronounced  the 
famous  speech,  in  which  he  pledged  himself  to  act 
independently,  if  thepov.-ers  would  nol  act  with  him, 
i^>T  the  protection  of  Ihe  Christians  in  Turkey. 

Thus  we  see,  though  autocracy  is  still  unshaken 
in  Russia,  that  section  of  unoHieial  Russia  which  is 
represented  by  SIoscow  exercises  a  certain  inflnence 
on  the  imperial  government,  and  consequently  its 
views  and  aims  arc  worthy  of  attention.  Now  the 
bulwark  of  luiofficial  Russia  -of  Ihe  masses — is  nn- 
doubtedly  the  Zemstvo.  It  is  impossible  lo  trans- 
late this  word  Zemstvo  by  any  other  jihrase  than 
local  governmcnl.  Hul  Ihe  very  exisleitce  of  such 
an  institution,  hedged  in  as  it  is,  and  as  we  have  al- 
ready seen,  by  Ihe  goverimient  and  its  autocratic 
principles,  is  in  itself  a  most  remarkable  feature:  and 
it  is  from  this  institution  that  the  future,  not  only  of 
Russia,  but  of  all  tiie  Slavonic  races,  is  expected  lo 


blossom  forth  in  a  perfection  ho  fur  distant  that  it 
must  he  regarded  as  Utopian-  at  any  rate,  as  far  as 
Europe-  is  concernr-d,  as  il  presupposes  the  possesBion 
of  an  abundance  of  grounil  that  does  not  exist  in 
Kuropc  In  sulllcient  quant ily  to  allow  of  each  indi- 
vidual holding  his  own  acres,  wlietlier  personally  or 
coniinunally. 

'I'he  Zemstvo  was  instituted  in  1804.  There  is  a 
provincial  Zemstvo  and  a  district  Zemstvo.  Each  dis- 
Iricl  Zeuislvo  consists  of  a  Zemstvo  As.sendjly  and  a 
Zemstvo  Kxecutive.  The  Assembly  consists  of  the 
landowners  of  Ihe  dislrici  and  members  chosen  by 
Ihe  municipal  and  country  communities.  Keither 
the  (iovenifir  nor  Yice-Governor  rif  the  district  can 
he  a  member  of  Ihe  Zemstvo.  Nor  can  any  member 
of  the  government  nor  lawyers  be  circled.  The  term 
of  otHce  is  three  years.  The  Execnlive  is  cho.sen  by 
the  ,\ssembly,  and  consists  of  a  I'residenl  and  two 
Assistants,  who  are  ])aid  by  Ihe  Assembly.  The  Ex- 
ecnlive thus  has  lo  carry  out  the  orders  of  Ihe  A.s- 
sembly,  and  depends  upon  il  entirely.  The  provin- 
cial Zemstvo  is  coustiluled  in  a  precisely  similar 
manncr.divided  into  an  Assend)ly  and  an  Executive. 
Both  Zemstvos  meet  once  a  year. 

By  this  means  the  govt  nnneni  has  transferred  a 
great  burden  from  its  own  shoulders  lo  those  of  Ihe 
people,  which  has  accordingly  no  small  sum  to  pay 
for  the  privilege.  The  people  are  placed  in  a  condi- 
tionlhereby— and  it  i.-.  part  of  their  duty— to  provide 
for  their  material  and  moral  progress ;  but  at  the 
same  time,  in  making  these  concessions,  the  govern- 
ment has  not  ceded  (me  jot  of  its  own  rights.  The 
Zemstvo  may  build  hospitals,  appoint  surgeons  and 
doctors,  construct  roads,  and  open  schools,  all  at  its 
own  expense.  But  further  than  this  it  cannot  go. 
On  the  policy  of  the  central  government,  it  has  but 
the  smallest",  if  indeed  any.  intluence.'  Still,  as  we 
said  before,  the  development  of  Ihe  Zemstvo  is  the 
only  hope  the  Russian  has  of  progressing  ;  and, 
though  slowly,  it  is  doing  its  work.  Thus  there  was 
a  debate  recently  in  one  of  the  Ural  Zemstvos,  when 
a  ])roposal  was  brought  forward  by  a  Colonel  Stein- 
feldl,  to  award  an  increase  to  the  school  funds  of 
I.'),()00  roubles.  The  proposal  was  supported  by  one 
peasant  only,  and  that  peasant  an  ex-serf.  He  said 
—  "It  has  been  fully  proved  that,  with  the  education 
of  the  laborer,  his  wealth  also  increases.  Even  for 
this  reas(m  alone,  it  would  be  the  dut)'  of  Ihe  Zemst- 
vo to  promote  the  cause  of  education  by  all  the 
means  in  its  power.  Those  who  say  that  the  exist- 
ing town  schools  suffice,  and  that  we  have  no  need 
of  primary  village  schools,  forget  that  the  case  is  the 
same  for  us  as  with  the  bujfel  lure  in  the  ante-cham- 
ber. It  is  open  to  all  :  quite  true  !  But,  il  does  not 
suit  our  pockets.  We  do  not  want  champagne  and 
Strasburg  pies."  But,  in  spile  of  the  sturdy  ])easant'8 
good  common  sense,  the  proposition  was  almost 
unanimously  rejected.  Nor  are  such  matters  con- 
lined  to  theremote  districts  of  Ihe  Ural.  The  Zemst- 
vo of  Odessa,  for  instance,  can  only  boast  of  thirteen 
schools,  with  .'JOO  ptipils  upon  which  it  expends  a 
sum  of  0,000  to  7,000  roubles;  whilst  the  sale  of  play- 
ing-cards,  which  is  a  monopoly  of  the  Zemstvo, 
brought  in  a  net  prolii,  of  IW.OUO "roubles.  But  then 
gambling  is  a  vice  lo  which  the  Russians,  especially 
the  higher  classes,  are  noloriou.sly  addicted,  more 
so  than  in  any  other  country.  Slill  it  is  satisfactory 
to  lind  even  one  peasant  endeavoring  to  promote  the 
cause  of  education.  Some  of  the  seed  has  fallen  on 
good  groiuid.  On  the  other  hand,  nothing  exem- 
plifies the  spirit  in  which  the  government  instituted 
and  regards  the  Zemstvo  so  much  as  the  fact,  that 
when  several  Zemstvos  endeavored  to  introduce 
compulsory  education,  the  home  ministry  placed  its 
veto  on  Ihe  proposal,  saying — "All  compulsion  pre- 
vents, but  does  not  forward,  the  development  of  the 
good  !"' 

Of  tlie  country  which  i.i  thus  governed,  we  find 
tliat  European  Russia  comprises  2,261,657  sq.  miles, 
with   a  poiiulaticm  of  78,281,447;    Asiatic  Russia, 


BUSSIAN  GUN. 


81(i 


EUSSIAN  LIFE  SAVING  HOCKST. 


6,170,883  sq.  miles,  with  a  population  of  7,229,495  : 
forming  a  total  of  8,432,549  sq.  miles,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  85,510,942.  Gifted  with  an  almost  boundless 
territory, with  enormous  tracts  of  laud  yet  unreclaim- 
ed from  the  primitive  wilderness,  with  mines  which 
yield  prolific  stores  of  wealth,  what  a  power  of  e.\- 
pansion  such  a  population  must  necessarily  po.ssess ! 
What  will  that  population  be  within  a  century? 
What,  even  in  the  year  1900  ?  Evidently  an  enor- 
mous, perhaps  irresistible,  power  for  good  or  for 
evil.  A  solid  foundation  for  European  despotism, 
or  a  glorious  aid  to  that  rationally  free  and  constitu- 
tional government  which  appears  to  he  so  safe  and 
wise  in  action.  Russia  may  abandon  a  policy  which 
exhausts  the  energies  of  the  people,  in  adding  to  its 
already  overgrown  dominions  countries  it  cannot 
benefit  by ;  but  its  present  Czar  does  not  seem  to 
have  forgotten  the  ambitious  lessons  of  Peter  and 
Catherine,  whilst  directing  his  attention  to  promot- 
ing the  prosperity  of  the  vast  empire  he  possesses. 
Russia,  with  all  her  craft  and  crime,  has  yet  been 
the  pioneer  of  civilization  in  the  sterile  and  savage 
north:  it  is  now  time  that  she  should  rest  in  her  daz- 
zling and  feverish  progress,  and,  turning  back  her 
eyes  on  the  lands  and  peoples  she  has  subdued,  de- 
vote herself  to  cultivating  the  one,  and  elevating 
the  other.  Her  nobles  and  officers  are  among  the 
most  polished  gentlemen  of  Europe:  but  her  people 
are  yet  scarcely  more  than  semi- Asiatic  hordes, deep- 
ly plunged  in  barbarism  and  superstition, and  almost 
as  much  an  anomaly  in  Europe  as  the  Turks.  In 
political,  as  well  as  in  social  progress,  it  may  be  cer- 
tainly pronounced  that  "  The  bells  of  time  are  ring- 
ing changes  fast." 

The  present  age  is  one  of  transition  for  Russia.  She 
cannot  continue  into  the  future  that  which  she  was 
in  the  past.  Nature  cries  aloud,  in  tones  of  com- 
manding eloquence,  to  empires  as  well  as  to  men — 
"Advance,  or  perish  !"  The  statesmen  of  Russia  are 
too  wise  to  remain  insensible  to  an  injunction  which 
is  as  unalterable  as  destiny,  as  "  unshunnable  as 
death."  Shoulil  their  successors  be  blind  to  the 
great  problem  which  will  stand  before  them  for  so- 
lution, the  works  of  an  empire's  progress  and  re- 
demption will  be  done  in  other  ways.  Czardom  is 
not  necessarily  eternal;  and  revolution  may  accom- 
plish what  the  slow  and  silent  progress  of  genial  re- 
forms could  not  effect.  In  spite  of  political  statistics 
and  ominous  inferences,  we  have  great  hope  for  the 
future  of  Russia.  The  young  giant  is  wilful  and 
sullen,  but  we  think  he  is  growing  wiser,  though  it 
mav  not  appear  so  at  the  present  momeut. 

RUSSIAN  GUN.— The  Russian  artillery  may  be  said 
til  lie  in  a  transition  state,  experiments  being  contin- 
ually carried  on  if  not  to  change  its  materiel, lo  modi- 
fy the  present  ordnance  so  as  to  allow  that  branch 
of  the  arm}'  at  least  to  bear  comparison  with  that 
adopted  or  on  the  jioint  of  being  adopted  by  other 
armies.  The  guns  of  tlie  Russian  artillery  are  4-pr. 
and  9-pr.  B.  L.  R.  guns  for  the  most  part  of  bronze. 
The4-pr.,of  3.3  inch  caliber  tires  a  projectile  weigh- 
ing 121bs.  The  9-pr.  gun  which  forms  Ihree-liflhs 
of  its  actual  armament,  fires  a  shell  weighing  24  lbs. 
with  a  charge  of  2.09  lbs.,  and  possesses  an  initial 
velocity  of  lOGO  feet  only.  Expcrinunts  have  been 
made  of  late  with  steel  ginis  of  the  Krupp  system, 
as  well  as  with  the  9-pr,  modified.  Tlie  improve- 
ment made  in  that  gun  b.v  means  of  easting  the  meUd 
in  metallic  molds  and  then  chilling  it,  have  enabled 
it  to  obtain  an  initial  velocity  of  i;!09  feet.  It  dilTers 
slightly  from  the  old  9-pr.,  the  dimensioDs  of  tlu' 
chambers  being  made  to  allow  the  use  of  a  charge 
of  7.23  lbs.  of  powder.  The  projectile  is  provided 
with  2  belts  of  copper  in  lieu  of  a  leaden  coat.  In 
order  to  obtain  a  Hatter  trajectory  in  long  ranges,  a 
trunctated  shol-lioltom  similar  to  one  proposed  by 
Whitworth  has  been  tried.  The  weight  of  tlie  gun 
and  that  of  the  projectile  are  the  same  as  in  the  old 
9-pr.     See  llunniitu  Wllinq. 

BUSSIAN   LITE  SAVING   EOCKIT,— The   Kussian 


Life-saving  Rocket  is  made  of  sheet  iron,  about  one- 
tenth  (0".l.)  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  body  is  a 
cylindrical  tube, closed  at  the  front  end  by  a  metallic 
head,licld  in  position  by  four  short  screws.  The  rear 
end  is  closed  by  a  diaphragm,  which  is  perforated 
by  six  vents  or  fuse  holes,  equidistant  circumferen- 
tially,  whose  centers  are  on  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  concentric  with  the  diaphragm.  An  axial  hole 
in  the  diaphragm  has  a  female  screw  thread  cut  on 
Its  interior  surface  to  engage  the  male  thread  on  the 
rocket  stick.  The  body  is  fastened  to  the  perforated 
disk  by  crimping  and  by  short  iron  pins.  The  cylin- 
der is  filled  with  rocket  composition.  The  body  of 
the  stick  is  made  of  light  wood,  cylindrical  near  the 
b:ise  and  tapering  to  the  front,  forming  the  frustum 
of  a  cone.  The  front  end  of  the  stick, which  screws 
into  the  rocket,  is  made  of  WTought  iron,  hollow 
at  its  base  for  the  insertionof  the  wooden  body.  The 
latter  is  held  in  place  bj'  screws.  The  rear  end  of 
the  body  is  rounded, and  on  one  side  carries  a  strong 
iron  hook,  about  five  (5")  inches  in  length,  with  its 
point  turned  towards  the  front,  and  curved  slightly 
outwards  from'the  axis  of  the  stick.  A  curved  steel 
spring  is  placed  between  the  point  of  the  hook  and 
the  shank  strap  to  prevent  the  egress  of  the  ring  of 
the  rocket  chain  after  firing.  This  hook  is  bolted 
to  the  wooden  body  of  the  rocket  stick.  When  pre- 
pared for  packing,  the  rocket  sticks  are  screwed  in- 
to the  rockets  and  the  fuse  holes  or  vents  are  cov- 
ered by  disks  of  water-proof  tarred  cloth.  The  dia- 
meter of  the  disk  is  enough  larger  than  that  of  the 
rocket  to  admit  of  its  being  folded  over  the  end  of 
the  rocket  and  secured  by  several  turns  of  twine, 
tied  tightly  around  it.  The  whole  rocket,  except 
the  wooden  body, is  then  treated  with  a  coat  of  black 
paint.  The  cap  or  disk  must  be  cut  away  before  fir- 
ing, in  order  to  expose  the  fuse  holes. 

The  principal  dimensions  and  weights  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

Centi- 

Inches,    meters. 

(Length     ....     25.25        64.12 

Rocket  body -j  Exterior  diameter     .       3.2  8.13 

(interior  diameter     .       3.0  7.63 

Total   length  of  rocket     ....     27.3  69.08 

Total  lenglh  of  rocket  stick     .     .     .     29.3  74.10 

Total  length  of  rocket  and  stick      .     55.5        140.97 

Length  filled   with  composition     .     23.1  58.67 

Maximum   diameter  of  stick     ,     .       2.8  7.11 

Diameter  of  vents  or  fuse  holes     .       0.6  1.52 

Number  of  vents,  six 

Poiuids.         Kilos. 
Average  weight  of  rocket  and  stick     25,5  11.56 

The  rocket  stand  is  a  rectangular  tube  of  sheet- 
iron  mounted  upon  a  wooden  tripod.  The  cross- 
section  of  the  tube  is  square  with  one  of  its  diagonals 
situated  in  a  vertical  jilane  when  the  stand  is  in  posi- 
tion for  use.  This  hollow  parallelopipedonal  tube 
is  formed  from  a  single  piece  of  sheet-iron.  The 
longitudinal  faces  forming  the  lower  edge  do  not 
join  to  complete  the  regular  figure,  except  for  two 
(2"j  inches  at  the  lower  end,  but  are  bent  outwards 
from  each  other, forming  two  parallel  flanges.  These 
flanges  are  1".7  wide,  and  have  a  sjiace  half  an  inch 
wide  between  them  throughout  their  length,  which 
serves  as  a  channel  for  the  grappling  hook  on  the 
under  side  of  the  rocket-stick  to  slide  in  when  the 
rocket  is  tired.  It  is  also  necessary  for  the  .same 
purpose  in  placing  the  rocket  in  position  l)efore  fir- 
ing. The  rear  end  of  the  scpiarc  lube  is  bound  and 
I  strengthened  by  a  band  of  strap  iron 2"  wide  and 
one-tenth  (1)",1)  of  an  inch  thick.  The  fror.t  end  of 
the  tube  is  reinforced  in  a  similar  manner,  but  with 
this  dilTerenee:  Theliand  al  its  lower  edge  has  a  cyl- 
indrical lube  r'.~  in  diameter,  ])rojeeling  to  the  front 
3". 3,  for  the  jiuriiose  of  holding  the  ring  of  the  rock- 
et chain.  This  short  tube  euiliraces  tlie  front  ends 
of  the  flanges  of  the  body,  and  has  a  longitudinal 
slot,  corresponding  in  width  to  the  space  between  tlio 
flanges  along  its  upper  surface  lo  permit  the  passage 


HU8SIAN  PRINCIPALITIES. 


817 


RUSSIAN  PRINCIPALITIES. 


of  the  rocket  hook.  A  rcctangiilnr  notch  I'M  dicp 
is  cut  hi  the  hiwcr  Hhh^  to  uccdimiiiKhilc  thr  upiii-r 
link  iif  thij  niclict  chiiiii  whrii  Ihi'  riri;;  isphici'il  nvrr 
lh<'  priijrctiiii;  luhc  Nciir  Ihi'  iiiiihlli'  of  the  lorif^i- 
tiidhiiil  hiiltom  lhiii!;(M)ii  the  rif^hl-hiinil  Hi(hM;f  the 
hudy  liiliir  is  iitlachi'il  ii  rccliuinuhir  lin  ss  plati',  10" 
l<)ii;jC  and  1".(>  \vi(h',  wilh  a  hii;  and  cyc-hoh'  projcct- 
in>;fnini  its  utulcr  cdijc  near  tin- iiii(hll<-.  'l'!:roiiKli 
this  cyi'-hoic  pa-isi'H  Ihc  linri/Dnlal  axis.  In  a  cor- 
rcspdndiiiu;  pn.silidii  (jii  tljc  left  side  is  a  scinic'irciilar 
liniss  philc  atlaclicd  In  the  (jihcr  llaii^rc.  The  arc  of 
tliis  pluti'  is  j;ia(hiul('d  Into  lU'firccs,  in  order  to  indi- 
cate tlie  elevation  of  the  axis  of  the  main  tiihc.  A 
\ng  anil  eye-hole  at  Ihc  <cnler  of  this  arc  adniils  of 
the  ins<rlioii  of  the  horizontal  axis.  A  slotted  brass 
snpport  with  holes  |iiereed  through  the  upper  ends 
of  tlu!  vertical  arms  sustains  thir  hori/,on<al  axis  thai 
carrii'S  thc^  rocket  tube  and  its  ijradnaled  arc.  A 
clamp  screw  jiasses  throuijli  this  support  from  Ihc 
rii;hl  side  an<i  clamps  tlu!  arc  in  any  fiiven  position. 
All  motion  in  altilndc  within  the  limits  of  the  scale 
is  govcrneil  by  Ihis  screw.  The  lower  end  of  the 
support  terminates  in  a  cylindrical  tenon  3". 3  in 
lcni;th  and  1  ".3  in  diameter,  which  Ills  in  a  corrcs- 
pondinL'  hole  in  Ihe  lrip<id  head.  Two  ellipli<al 
openiii;j;s  ojiposite  lo  eacli  oilier, are  made  in  the  u|)- 
I)er  sides  of  the  tube  for  Ihe  inserlion  of  the  port-tire 
to  ijfnitc  Ihc  rocket  coni|)osition. 
The  following  are  the  principal  dimensions,  weights, 
etc.,  of  the  stand: 

Inches.  Centimeters. 
Total  length  of  rocket-tnbc 53.3         13.5.38 

Cross-section,  s-iuare.    ' Kx'*'"'"--  •  ^-jl  10.93 

'     '  (Interior. .  .  4.1  10.41 

Weight  of  rocket  stand :il».0  IT.O'J 

Weight  of  rocket  chain 4.lJ3.'i         3.17 

Weight  of  port  lire  handle 0.5(i3r)       0.35 

Total  weight  without  iiacking  box  .44.187.5=  30.13 

Weight  of  coil  of  rocket  line" f,3.0  38.13 

A  port-lire  holder  or  tiring  staff  accompanies  the 


extended,  and  the  Btand  placed  at  th<!  firing  point. 
Th(!  index  being  clanincd  at  zero  on  the  graiMiutfil 
arc,  lh<:  tripod  is  levi-led  by  th<-  eye-  by  making  the 
axis  of  Utr  rocket  tube  horizontal.  This  can  only  be 
done  approximately;  then  loosen  the  lower  clamp 
screw  and  swing  the  stand  around  until  it  points  in 
the  desired  diri'dion.  Clamp  tlie  vertical  spindle 
and  by  turning  Ihc  u|ipi-r  clamp  screw  to  the  left  the 
required  clevalhm  may  br'  given;  after  which  the 
screw  must  be  liglileiied.  in  order  to  retain  the 
tub(!  in  plac'c.  Take  a  rocket  from  its  box,  tear  of! 
the  cap  over  the  vents,  insert  th(!  rocket,  hafc  first 
into  the  rectangular  tub(!  with  the  hook  on  the  stick 
gliillng  down  between  the  Hangr-s  on  Ihe  lower  side 
of  the  lube.  When  the  hook  strikes  the  band  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  rocket  tube,  the  rorkel  is  in  posi- 
tion for  tiring.  Place  tin;  fakes  or  the  faking  box  in 
front  of  the  stand,  put  the  ring  af  l\u-  chain  over  the 
cylindrical  tulmlar  projection  on  Ihc  front  end  of  Ihe 
stand,  lelliiig  the  chain  atlached  to  the  line  hang  be- 
low. Stand  clear  of  the  line,  and,  wilh  a  port-fire 
inserted  In  the  holder,  advance  and  Ignite  the  rocket 
by  thrusling  Ihc  portfire  gently  through  one  of  the 
elliiitical  openings  in  Ihc  rocket  tube.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  lo  dislnrb  the  aim.  An  Instant  after  the 
compositiou  in  Ihc  base  of  Ihe  nickct  is  ignited,  the 
latter  leaps  forward  guided  by  the  rocket  tube,  and 
as  it  leaves  Ihe  lube  the  hook  engages  the  ring  of  the 
chain  atlached  to  Ihe  line  and  carries  out  the  chain 
and  line.  The  chain  should  be  fastened  to  the  line 
before  wanted  for  use.     ,See  Liff-Kfiving  liocketx. 

RUSSIAN  PRINCIPALITIES.-  The  period  that  ex- 
tends from  icu  hundred  and  lifty-fonr,  the  year  of 
Iarosl:if's  dialli.  lo  twelve  hundred  and  twenty-four 
the  year  (^f  the  lirsi  appearance  of  the  Tatars,  yr,  to 
take  the  French  chronology,  from  the  reign  of  Henry 
the  First  to  the  death  of  Philip  .Vngustus,  is  one  of 
the  most  confused  and  troubled  in  Kussian  history. 
As  the  barbarian  custom  of  division  continued  to 
prevail  over  the  Byzantine  ideal  of  political  unity, 


rocket  st.ind.  It  is  a  simple  wooden  handle  with  a 
hcnl  head  of  brass.  The  brass  head  is  hollow  and  is 
slilled  on  the  sides  so  as  to  form  a  rude  clamp.  The 
port-tire  is  inserted  in  tlu'  splil  end  of  the  head  an<l 
then  ignited  in  the  usual  iminner.  The  rocket-chain 
is  a  hand-ma<le  iron  cluun,  six  feet  in  length,  ter- 
minated at  one  end  by  a  ring  two  inches  in  diameter. 
The  ring  is  placed  over  the  tubular  projection  on  the 
front  end  of  the  rocket  stand  in  tiring.  The  other 
end  of  the  chain  is  fastened  to  the  end  of  the  rocket 
line.  The  rocket  line  is  a  loosely-twisted  hemp-line 
about  Ihc  size  of  the  No.  8  or  No.  0  .service  lines. 
The  following  is  the  method  of  using:— The  rock- 
et stand  is  taken  from  the  box,  the  legs  of  the  tripod 


the  n:itional  territory  was  ca«?elessly  partitioned. 
The  princely  anarchy  of  Eastern  Europe  ha.«  lis  par- 
allel in  the  feudal  anarchy  of  the  West.  M.  Pogodin 
reckons  during  this  period  sixty-four  principalities 
which  had  an  existrnce  more  or  less  prolonged,  two 
hundred  and  ninety-three  princes  who  disputed  the 
throne  of  Kief  and  other  domains,  and  eighty-three 
civil  wars,  in  some  of  which  the  whole  country  was 
engaged.  There  were,  besides,  foreign  wars  to 
augment  this  enormous  mass  of  historical  facts. 
Against  the  Polovtsui  alone  the  chroniclers  mentioa 
eighteen  campaigns,  while  these  barliarians  made 
no  less  than  forty-six  invasions  of  Russia.  It  is 
impossible  to  follow  the  national  chroniclers  in  the 


RUSSIAN  PKINCIPALITIES. 


818 


RUSSIAN  PKINCIPALITIES. 


minute  details  of  their  aniials  ;  we  will  only  treat  of 
the  principalities  which  lasted  some  time,  and  of  the 
facts  which  were  most  important.  The  ancient 
names  of  the  Slav  tribes  have  everywliere  disap- 
peared, or  remain  only  in  the  names  of  some  of  the 
to  wns.for  example  tliat  of  the  Polotchane  in  Polotsk, 
and  that  of  the  Severiani?  in  Novgorod-Severski. 
The  elements  of  which  Russia  was  now  composed 
were  no  longer  tribes,  but  principalities.  We  hear 
no  more  of  the  Krivitchi  or  tlie  Drevliane,  but  of  the 
principalities  of  Smolensk  and  Volhyuia.  These 
'  little  states  were  perpetually  dismembered  at  each 
new  partition  between  the  sons  of  a  prince,  and  then 
■were  reconstituted  to  be  divided  anew  into  appan- 
ages. Notwithstanding  all  these  vicissitudes,  some 
of  them  maintained  a  steady  existence,  correspond- 
ing to  certain  topographical  or  ethnographical  con- 
ditions- Without  speaking  of  the  distant  principal- 
ity of  Tmutorakan,  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Cau- 
casus in  the  center  of  Turkish  and  Circassian  tribes, 
and  reckoning  eight  successive  princes,  tlie  follow- 
ing are  the  great  divisions  of  Russia  from  the  eleventh 
to  the  thirteenth  ccntur)- : — 

The  principalit}-  of  Smolensk  occupied  the  impor- 
tant lerritorj'  which  is,  as  it  were,  the  central  point 
in  the  moimtain  .system  of  Russia.  It  compreliends 
the  ancient  forest  of  Okof,  where  three  of  the  largest 
Russian  rivers,  the  Volga,  the  Dnieper,  and  the 
Dwina,  take  tlieir  rise.  Hence  the  political  import- 
ance of  Smolensk,  attested  b}'  all  the  wars  to  gain 
possession  of  it ;  hence  also,  its  commercial  prosper. 
ity.  It  is  noticeable  that  all  its  towns  were  built  on 
one  or  other  of  these  three  great  rivers  ;  therefore 
the  entire  commerce  of  ancient  Russia  passed 
tlirough  its  hands.  Besides  Smolensk  we  must  men- 
tion Mojaisk.  Viasma,  and  Toropets.  which  "was  the 
capital  of  a  secondary  principality,  the  property  of 
two  celebrated  princes, Mstislaf  the  Brave  anil  Mstis- 
laf  the  Bold.  The  principality  of  Kief  was  Jiti». 
Russia  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word.  Its  situation 
on  the  Dnieper,  tlie  neighborhood  of  the  Greek  Em- 
pire, the  fertility  of  the  Black  Land,  long  secured 
to  this  state  the  supremacy  over  the  Russian  prin- 
cipalities. On  the  south  it  bordered  directly  on  the 
nomads  of  the  steppe,  against  whom  her  princes 
were  forced  to  raise  a  barrier  of  frontier  towns. 
The}'  often  took  these  barbarians  into  their  pay, 
g;ranted  them  lands,  and  constituted  them  into  mili- 
tary colonies.  The  principality  of  Pereiaslavl  was  a 
dependence  of  Kief;  Vuishegorod,  Bielgorod,  Tri- 
poli. Torshok,  were  at  times  erected  into  principal- 
ities for  princes  of  the  same  famih.  On  the  tribu- 
taries of  tlie  riglit  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  notably  the 
Soja.tlie  Desna,  and  the  Sei'm, extended  the  twoprin- 
<'ipalities  of  Tchernigof,with  Starodub  anil  Lubetch; 
and  also  of  Novgorod-Severski,  witli  Putivl,  Kursk, 
and  Briansk.  Tlie  principality  of  Tchernigof.  which 
reached  towards  tlie  I'pper  Oka,  had  therefore  one 
foot  in  the  basin  of  the  Volga  ;  its  princes,  the  Olgo- 
vitclii,  were  tlie  most  formidable  rivals  of  Kief.  The 
jirinces  of  Severski  were  always  engaged  in  war 
with  tlie  Polovtsiii,  their  neighbors  on  the  south.  It 
was  a  princeof  .Severski  wlio-se  exploits  against  these 
barbarians  formed  the  subject  of  a  sort  of  epic  poem, 
called  till;  Song  of  Igor,  or  the  Account  of  Igor's 
Expedition. 

Another  principality,  whose  very  existence  con- 
sisted in  (•■idless  war  against  thi;  nomads,  was  the 
doiilili'  princi]iality  of  |{iii/au  and  .Murorii.  Ilir  priii 
cipal  towns  of  whicli  were  |{ia/aii,  Miiroiii.  J'ereias- 
lavl-Ria/.anski,  situated  on  tlie  (_)ka,  Kolomna  at  the 
junction  of  the  Jloskova  with  the  Oka,  and  I'roiisk 
on  the  Prona.  The  Ijiper  Don  formed  its  western 
boundary.  This  principality  was  ))laced  in  the  very 
lieart  of  till- .'\Iuromi;ins  and  .Meslililiciaki,  Finnish 
tribes.  The  reputation  of  itsinlialiitaiits.  who  were 
reckoned  extremely  warlike  in  their  iharaelir,  and 
rough  and  brutal  in  their  maimers,  was  no  doubt 
partly  the  result  of  the  mixture  of  the  Kussiaii  race 
with  the  ancient  iuliabitants  of  tlie  country,  and  of 


their  perpetual  and  bloody  struggle  with  the  nomad 
tribes.  The  double  principalities  of  Suzdal,  with 
their  towns  of  Suzdal,  Roslof.  lurief-Polski  on  the 
Kolosha,  Vladimir  on  the  Kliazma,  laroslavl,  and 
Pereiaslavl-Zalieski,  were  situated  on  the  Volga  and 
the  Oka  amimgst  the  thickest  of  northern  forests, and 
in  the  middle  of  the  Finnish  tribes  of  Muromians, 
3Ieria,  Vesui,  and  Tcheremisa.  Although  placed  at 
the  farthest  extremity  of  the  Russian  world,  Suzdal 
exercised,  an  important  influence  over  it.  We  shall 
find  its  princes  now  establishing  a  certain  political 
authority  over  Novgorod  and  the  Russia  of  t  he  La kes, 
the  result  of  a  double  economic  dependence  ;  now 
intervening  victoriously  in  the  quarrels  of  the  Russia 
of  the  Dnieper.  The  Suzdalians  were  rough  and 
warlike,  like  the  Riazanese.  Already  we  can  distin- 
guish among  these  two  people  the  characteristics  of 
a  new  nationality.  That  which  divides  them  from  the 
Kievansand  the  men  of  Novgorod-Severski, occupied 
like  themselves  in  the  great  war  with  the  barbarians, 
is  the  fact  that  the  Russians  of  the  Dnieper  some- 
times mingled  their  blood  with  that  of  their  enemies 
and  becamed  fused  with  the  nomad,  essentially  mo- 
bile Turkish  races,  whilst  the  Russians  of  the  Oka 
and  the  Volga  united  with  the  Finnish  tribes,  who 
were  agricultural  and  essentially  sedentary.  This 
distinction  lietween  the  two  foreign  elements  that 
entered  the  Slav  blood  has  doubtless  contributed  to 
the  difference  in  the  characters  of  the  two  branches 
of  the  Russian  race.  From  the  eleventh  to  the 
thirteenth  century,  in  passing  from  the  basin  of  the 
Dnieper  to  the  basin  of  the  Volga,  we  can  already 
watch  the  formation  of  Great  and  Little  Russia. 

The  principalities  of  Kief,  Tchernigof,  Novgorod- 
Severski,  Riazan,  Murom,  and  Suzdal,  situated  on 
the  side  of  the  steppe  with  its  devastating  hordes, 
formed  the  frontier  states  of  Russia.  The  same  part 
to  play  on  the  northwest,  opposite  the  Lithuanians, 
Letts,  and  Tchudi,  fell  to  the  principality  of  Polotsk 
which  occupied  the  basin  of  the  Dwina  ;  and  to  the 
republican  principalities  of  Novgorod  and  Pskof  on 
the  Lakes  Ilmen  and  Peipus.  To  the  principality  of 
Polotsk,  that  of  Jliusk  was  attached  which  lay  in 
the  basin  of  the  Dnieper.  The  possession  of  Jlinsk  was 
often  disputed  by  the  Grand  Princes  of  Kief.  To 
Novgorod  belonged  the  towns  of  Torjok,  Volok- 
Lamski,  Izborsk,  and  Veliki-Luki,  which  were  at 
times  capitals  of  particular  states.  Southeast  Russia 
comprehended  :  Volhynia,  in  the  fan-shaped  distri- 
bution of  rivers  formed  by  the  Pripet  and  its  tribu- 
taries, with  \nadimir-iu-Volhynia,  Lutsk, Turof. Brest 
and  even  Lublin,  which  is  certainl}-  Polish  ;  Gallicia 
proper,  or  Red  Russia,  in  the  basins  of  the  San,  the 
Dniester,  and  the  Pripet,  whose  ancient  inliabitants, 
the  White  Kroats,  seem  to  have  sprung  from  the 
stock  of  the  Danubian  Slavs.  Her.chief  towns  were 
Galitch.  founded  by  Vladimirko  about  eleven  hun- 
dred and  forty-four,  Pereniuisl,  Terebovl,  and  Zveui- 
gorod.  Tlie  neighborhood  of  Hungary  and  Poland 
gave  a  special  character  to  these  principalities,  as 
well  as  a  more  advanced  civilizution.  The  epic  songs 
speak  of  Gallicia,  the  native  land  of  the  hero  Diuk 
Stepanovitch,  as  a  fabulously  rich  country.  The 
Account  of  Igor's  Expedition  gives  us  a  high  idea  of 
the  power  of  these  princes.  "  laroslaf  Osmomuisl 
of  (iallicia  I  "  cried  the  poet  to  one  of  them,  "  thou 
art  seated  very  high  on  thy  throne  of  wrought  gold; 
with  thy  regiments  of  iron  Ihou  suslaiiiest  the  Car- 
jialhiaiis  :  thou  closest  the  gates  of  tlir  Danube  ;  tlioii 
iiarrest  the  way  to  the  King  of  Hungary;  thou  open- 
est  at  thy  will  the  gates  of  Kief,  and  with  thine  ar- 
rows thou  strikestfnnn  afar!  " 

The  disposition  of  these  lifteen  or  sixteen  princi- 
palities confirms  all  that  we  liave  said  about  the  es- 
sential  unity  of  the  conliguralion  of  the  Russian  soil. 
Not  one  of  the  river  basins  forms  an  isolated  and 
closed  region.  Tliere  is  no  line  of  heights  to  estab- 
lish liarriers  bet  ween  tliem  or  polilic;il  froiitii'i's.  The 
greater  niiiiiber  of  the  Russian  piineipalities  belong 
io  the  Ijasin  of  the  Dnieper,  but   extend  everywhere 


KU88IAN  PHINCIPALITIE8. 


819 


RUSSIAN  FBINCIFALITIE8. 


beyond  itn  limits.  Tim  prinripalily  nf  Kiff,  with 
iVrciasliivl,  in  uciirly  the  (jrily  one  i(iiM))lrlcly  t-oii- 
liiicd  within  il ;  Imt  Volliyiiiii  puis  llic  Ijiisiii  of  \lw 
Duicpcr  ill  (■<)nimiiiii(iilii>ii  willi  llinHcof  I  lie  Bu;iiiiiil 
tlic  VIhIuIu,  I'olotnk  Willi  the  liiisiiix  of  llic  Dnieper 
und  llie  Dwina,  Novnorod-Severski  willi  the  liusin  of 
the  Don,  TehiTnij;of  and  Snioleiisk  with  llie  hiisin  of 
the  Volj^ii.  WahTconrses  everywhere  eslal)li>hed 
coininunicatioiiM  hetwein  Ihe  priiieipalilies.  Already 
Itussia,  Ihownh  liroki'ii  U|i  into  appiuia;;es,  had  the 
germH  of  a  jjreat  united  empire.  The  Hliu;ht  eohesion 
of  nearly  uU  the  Hiales,  and  their  frei|uenl  disinein- 
bermenls.  jirevented  them  from  ever  lieeominj;  the 
homes  of  real  nationalities.  The  prineipalilies  of 
Smolensk,  Tehernii;of,  and  Uiazan  liave  never  jhis- 
sessed  as  delinite  an  historic  existence  as  the  duchy 
of  Hreta^'iie  or  the  county  of  Toulouse  in  France,  or 
the  duchies  of  fSii.vony,  iSuahia,  aii<l  IJavaria  in  Ger- 
many. 

The  interests  of  the  prinees,  their  desire  to  create 
appana^jes  for  each  of  their  children,  caused  a  fresh 
division  of  the  Kussiiin  territory  at  the  death  of  every 
sovereign.  There  was,  however,  a  certain  cohesion 
in  the  midst  of  all  these  vicissitudes.  'I'herc  was  a 
nnily  of  race  and  lansuajre,  the  more  sensible,  not- 
witllslandinjj;  all  dialectic  dilTerences,  bcQause  the 
Russian  i)eople  was  surrounded  everywhere,  except 
at  the  southwest,  by  entirely  strange  races,  Lithuan- 
ians, Tchudi,  Finns,  Turks,  Magyars.  There  was  a 
unity  of  religion  :  Hk;  Hussians  (iilTered  from  near!}' 
all  tiieir  neiiihlHirs,  for  in  contrast  with  the  Western 
Slavs,  l'olis,Teh<-ki,  and  Moravians,  they  rejiresent- 
ed  a  particular  form  of  C'hristianit}',  not  ownini;  any 
tie  to  l{ome,  and  rejecting  I.atiu  as  the  language  of 
the  Church.  There  was  tlie  nnily  of  liistorical  devel- 
opment, as  up  to  that  time  the  Kusso-Slavs  had  all 
followe<l  the  same  road,  had  accepted  Greek  civili- 
zation, submitted  to  the  Variagi,  pursued  certain 
great  enterprises  in  common. — such  as  the  expedi- 
tions against  Hy/aiitiuin  aii<l  the  war  with  the  no- 
mads. Finally  there  was  jiolitical  unity,  since  after 
all,  in  Gallicia  as  in  Novgorod,  on  the  t)iiieper  as  in 
the  forests  of  Suzdal,  it  was  the  same  family  that 
tilled  the  thrones.  All  these  princes  descended  from 
Kurik,  Saint  Vladimir,  and  laroslaf  the  (ireat.  The 
fact  that  the  wars  that  laid  waste  the  country  were 
civil  wars,  was  a  new  proof  of  this  unity.  The  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Russia  could  not  consider  themselves 
strangers  one  to  the  other,  when  they  saw  thcFrinces 
of  Tchernigof  and  Suzdal  taking  up  arms  to  prove 
which  of  them  was  the  eldest,  and  which  consequ- 
ently had  mo?t  right  to  the  title  of  Grand  I'rinceand 
the  throne  of  Kief.  There  were  descendants  of  Uurik 
wdio  governed,  successively,  the  remotest  States  of 
Russia,  and  who,  after  having  reigned  at  Tmntora- 
kan  on  the  Straits  of  lenikale,  at  Novgorod  the 
Great,  at  Toropets,  in  the  country  of  Smolensk,  end- 
ed by  establishing  their  right  to  reign  at  Kief.  In 
spite  of  the  division  into  appanages.  Kief  continued 
to  be  the  center  of  Russia,  Il  was  there  that  Oleg 
and  Igor  had  reigned,  that  Vladimir  luul  baptized 
his  peojile,  and  laroslaf  had  established  the  metrop- 
olis of  the  faith,  of  arts,  and  of  national  civilization. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  it  should  have  been  more 
tiercely  disputed  tliau  all  the  other  Russian  cities. 
Russia  had  in:'.iiy  princes ;  but  she  had  only  one 
Grand  Prince, — the  one  that  reigned  at  Kief.  lie  had 
a  recognized  supremacy  over  the  others  which  he 
owed  not  onlj'  to  the  importance  of  his  capital,  but 
to  his  position  as  eldest  of  the  royal  family.  Kief, 
the  mother  of  all  cities,  was  always  to  belong  !o  the 
eldest  of  the  descendants  of  litirik  ;  this  was  the  con- 
sequence of  the  patriarchal  svstem  of  the  Slavs,  as 
was  the  custom  of  division.  \Vhen  the  Grand  Prince 
of  Kief  died,  his  son  was  not  his  rightful  heir  ;  but 
Uis  uncle  or  brother,or  whichever  of  the  Princes  was 
the  eldest.  Then  the  whole  of  Russia,  from  the 
Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea,  held  itself  in  readiness  to 
.support  the  claims  of  this  or  that  candidate.  It  was 
the  same  with  the  other  principalities,  where  the 


posse.ssors  fif  dilTerent  appanageH  aspired  to  reign  in 
the  metropolis  of  the  reirion.  The  civil  wars,  then, 
theniHelves  strenglhenid  the  sentiment  of  the  l{im. 
siaii  unity.  What  were  they,  after  all,  but  family 
(pi.'irri'ls  ? 

'I'hi'  persistent  conflict  liet  ween  the  Byzantine  law, 
by  w  hich  the  son  inherited  the  jiossi-ssions  of  the 
father,  and  the  olil  national  laws  of  the  Slavs  which 
caused  them  to  ]>ass  to  the  eldirst  of  all  th<-  family, 
was  an  inexhaustible  source  of  civil  wars.  Kven  had 
the  law  Ix'cn  perfectly  clear,  the  jirinccs  were  not  al- 
ways dis|)osed  to  recognize  it.  Thus,  although  the 
eldest  of  laroslaPs  s'lns  had  in  his  favor  the  formal 
will  of  his  father,  giving  him  the  throne  of  Kief,  and 
though  laroslaf  on  his  di-ath-beil  had  desired  his  other 
sons  to  resj)ect  their  elder  brother  as  they  hail  done 
their  parent,  and  look  on  him  as  their  father,  Isias- 
hif  at  once  found  his  l)rother  Sviatoslaf  ready  to  take 
up  arms  and  overturn  his  throne.  He  was  obliged 
in  ten  hundre<laiid  seventv-three  to  seek  refuge  at 
the  Court  of  Henry  the  l'"ourtli  of  Germany,  who 
sent  an  embassy  to  Kief,  commanding  Sviatoslaf  to 
restore  the  throne  to  Isiaslaf.  Sviatoslaf  rec<-iverl 
the  (Jerman  envoys  with  such  courtesy,  made  them 
such  a  display  of  his  treasures  and  riches,  that,  ilaz- 
zled  by  the  gold,  they  adopted  a  pacific  policy.  Hen- 
rj' tilt"  Fourth  himself,  disarmed  by  the  liberalities 
of  the  Russian  Prince,  spoke  no  more  of  chastising 
the  usurper.  Isiaslaf  did  not  return  to  Kief  till  af- 
ter the  deaili  of  his  rival  in  ten  hundred  and  seventy. 
six.  When  his  own  death  took  ])lace.  in  ten  hundred 
and  seventy-eight,  his  son  Sviatopolk  did  not  suc- 
ceed him  immediately.  It  was  necessarj-  that  all 
the  heirs  of  laroslaf  should  be  exhausted.  Vsevolod, 
a  brother  of  Isiaslaf,  whose  daughter  married  the 
Emperor  Henry  the  Fourth  or  Henrj-  the  Fifth — it 
is  not  quite  certain  which — reigned  for  fifteen  years, 
from  ten  hundred  and  seventy-eight  until  ten  hun- 
dred and  ninety-three.  In  accordance  with  the  same 
principle,  it  was  not  the  son  of  Vsevolod,  Vladimir 
Monomakh,  who  succeeded  his  father  :  but  after  the 
j  crown  had  been  worn  b_v  a  new  generation  of  princes, 
!  it  returned  to  the  blood  of  Isiaslaf.  Vladimir  Mono- 
j  makh  made  no  opposition  to  the  claims  of  Sviato- 
polk Isiaslavitch.  "His  father  was  older  than  mine," 
'  he  said,  "and  reigned  first  in  Kief,"  so  he  quitted 
I  the  principality  which  he  had  governed  with  his  fa- 
!  thcr,  and  valiantly  defended  against  the  barbarians. 
1  But  every  one  was  not  so  respectful  to  the  Dational 
I  law  as  Vladimir  Monomakh. 

]  Two  terrible  civil  wars  desolated  Russia  in  the 
reign  of  the  Grand  Prince  Sviatopolk,  between  ten 
hundred  and  ninety-three  and  eleven  hundred  and 
thirteen:  one  about  the  principality  of  Tchernigof, 
the  other  about  Volhynia  and  Red  Russia.  Sviatos- 
laf had  enjoyed  Tchernigof  as  his  share,  to  which 
Tmutorakan  in  the  Taurid,  Shironi  and  Riazan  in 
the  Finn  country,  were  annexed.  Isiaslaf  and  Vse- 
volod, Grand  Princes  of  Kief,  had  despoiled  the  sons 
of  Sviatoslaf,  their  brotlier,  depriving  them  of  the 
rich  territory  of  Tchernigof.  and  only  leaving  them 
Tmutorakan  and  the  Finnish  country.  Even  Vladi- 
mir Jlonomakh,  whom  we  have  seen  so  disinterested, 
had  accepted  a  share  of  the  spoil.  The  injured 
princes  were  not  people  to  bear  this  meekly,  especi- 
ally the  elder,  Oleg  Sviatoslavitch,  one  of  the  most 
energetic  men  of  the  eleventh  century.  He  called 
the  terrible  Polovtsui  to  his  aid,  and  subjected  Rus- 
sia to  frightful  ravages.  Vladimir  Monomakh  was 
moved  by  these  misfortunes :  he  wrote  a  touching 
letter  to  Oleg,  expressing  liis  sorrow  for  having  ac- 
cepted Tchernigof.  .^t  his  instigation  a  Congress  of 
Princes  met  at  Lutbetcli.on  the  Dnieper,  in  ten  hun- 
dred  and  ninety -seven.  Seated  on  the  same  carpet, 
they  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  the  civil  wars  that 
handed  the  country  as  a  prey  to  the  barbarians.  Oleg 
recovered  Tchernigof.  and  promised  to  unite  with 
the  Grand  Prince  of  Kief  and  Vladimir  Monomakh 
against  the  Polovtsui.  The  treaty  was  ratified  by 
the  oath  of  each  prince,  who  kissed  the  cross  and 


BBSSIAN  PHINCIPALITIES. 


820 


RUSSIAN  PKINCIPALITIES. 


swore,  "that  henceforth  the  Russian  hmd  shall  be 
considered  as  the  country  of  all ;  and  wlioso  shall 
dare  to  arm  himself  against  liis  brother  becomes  our 
common  enemy." 

In  VoUiynia  the  prince,  David,  was  at  war  with 
his  nephews,  Yasilko  and  Volodar.  The  Congress 
of  Lubetch  had  divided  the  disputed  territories  be- 
tween tliem,  but  scarcely  was  the  treaty  ratified 
than  David  went  to  the  Grand  Prince  Sviatopnlk  and 
persuaded  Inm  that  Yasilko  had  a  desiirn  on  his  life. 
With  tlie  lislit  faith  liahitual  to  the  men  of  that  date, 
the  Grand  Prince  joined  David  in  framing  a  ])lot  to 
attract  Yasilko  to  Kief  on  tlie  occasion  of  a  religious 
festival.  Wlien  he  arrived  he  was  loaded  with 
chains,  and  the  Grand  Prince  convoked  the  boyars 
and  citizens  of  Kief,  to  denounce  the  projects  of  Ya- 
silko. "Prince,"  replied  tlie  boyars,  nuich  embar- 
rassed, "thy  tranquility  is  dear  to  us.  Yasilko 
merits  death,  if  it  is  true  that  he  is  tliine  enemy:  but 
if  lie  is  calumniated  by  David,  God  will  avenge  on 
David  the  blood  of  the  innocent."  Thereon  the 
Grand  I'rince  delivered  Yasilko  to  his  enemy  David 
who  put  out  his  eyes.  The  other  descendants  of 
Taroslaf  the  First  were  indignant  at  this  crime. 
Yladimir  Monomakh  united  with  Oleg  of  Tcherni- 
gof,  his  ancient  enemy,  and  marched  against  Sviato- 
polk.  The  people  and  clergy  of  Kief  succeeded  in 
preventing  a  civil  war  between  the  Grand  Prince 
and  the  confederates  of  Lubetch.  Sviatopolk  was 
forced  to  disavow  David,  and  swear  to  join  the 
avengers  of  Yasilko.  David  defended  himself  with 
vigor,  and  summoned  to  his  help,  tirst  the  Poles, 
and  then  the  Hungarians.  At  last  a  new  congress 
was  assembled  at  Yititchevo  in  the  year  eleven  hun- 
dred, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  a  town  of 
which  a  deserted  ruin  is  all  that  now  remains.  As 
a  punishment  for  his  crime,  David  was  deprived  of 
his  principality  of  Yladimir  in  Yolhynia,  and  had  to 
content  himself  with  four  small  towns.  After  the 
new  settlement  of  this  afEair,Mouomakh  led  the  other 
princes  against  the  Polovtsui,  and  inflicted  on  them 
a  bloody  defeat;  seventeen  of  their  khans  remained 
on  the  field  of  battle.  One  khan  who  was  made 
prisoner  offered  a  ransom  to  Monomakh;  hut  the 
prince  showed  how  deeply  he  felt  the  injuries  of  the 
Christians, — he  refused  the  gold,  and  cut  the  brig, 
and  chief  in  pieces. 

When  Sviatopolk  died,  the  Kievans  unanimous- 
ly declared  they  would  have  no  Grand  I*rince  but 
Vladimir  Monomakh.  Vladimir  declined  the  hon- 
or, alleging  the  claims  of  Oleg  and  his  brothers  to 
the  throne  of  Kief.  During  these  negotiations  a 
sedition  broke  out  in  the  city,  and  the  Jews,  whom 
Sviatopolk  liad  made  the  instruments  of  his  fiscal 
exactions,  were  pillaged.  Monomakh  was  forced  to 
yield  to  the  prayers  of  the  citizens.  During  his 
reign,  from  eleven  hundred  and  thirteen  until  eleven 
hundred  and  twenty-five,  he  obtained  great  successes 
against  the  Polovtsui,  iind  Petchcnegi.  the  Torki, 
the  Tcherkesui,  and  otlier  nomads.  lie  gave  an 
asylum  lo  the  remains  of  the  Kliazarui,  who  built  on 
the  Oster,  not  far  from  Tchernigof,  the  town  of  Bel- 
ovega.  The  ruins  of  this  city  that  remain  to-day 
prove  that  this  Finnish  people,  eminently  capable  of 
culture,  and  already  civilized  by  the  Greeks,  were 
furtlier  advanced  in  the  arts  of  cciustruetionand  for- 
tirK-aion  than  even  the  Russians  themselves.  Ac- 
cording to  one  tradition,  Momimakh  also  made  war 
on  tlie  ICmperor  Alexis  C'omnciius,  a  Kiissian  army 
invaded  Tlirace,  and  the  Hisliop  of  Eiihesus  is  saiii 
to  have  brought  gifts  to  Kief,  among  others  a  cup 
of  carnelian  tiiat  iiad  belonged  to  Augustus,  besides 
a  crown  and  a  throne,  still  preserved  in  the  Museum 
at  Moscow,  under  the  name  of  the  crown  .and  tlirone 
of  Monomakli.  It  is  now  known  that  they  never  be- 
longed to  Yladimir,  but  it  was  the  policy  of  liis  de- 
scendants, tli(^  Tsars  of  Moscow,  lo  proj)iigale  this 
legend.  It  was  of  consecpience  to  them  to  i)rov(^ 
that  these  tokens  of  their  jiower  were  traceable  to 
their  Kievan  ancestor,  and  that  the  Russian  Mono- 


makh, grandson  of  the  Greek  Monomachus,  had 
been  solemnly  crowned  by  the  Bishop  of  Ephesus 
as  Sovereign  of  Russia.  The  Grand  Prince  made 
his  authority  felt  in  other  parts  of  Russia.  A  Prince 
of  Minsk,  who  had  the  temerity  to  kindle  a  civil 
war,  was  promptly  dethroned,  and  died  in  captivity 
at  Kief.  The  Novgorodians  saw  many  of  their  boy- 
ars kept  as  hostages,  or  else  exiled.  The  Prince  of 
Yladimir  in  Yolhynia  was  deposed,  and  his  states- 
given  to  a  son  of  the  Grand  Prince. 

Monomakh  has  left  us  a  curious  paper  of  instruc- 
tions that  he  compiled  for  his  sons,  and  in  which  he 
gives  them  much  good  advice,  enforced  by  e.\ami)le3 
drawn  from  his  own  life.  "It  is  neither  fasting,  nor 
solitude,  nor  the  monastic  life,  that  will  procure  you 
the  life  eternal, — it  is  well-doing.  Do  not  forget  the- 
poor,  but  nourish  them.  Do  not  bury  your  riches, 
in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  for  that  is  contrary  to  the 
precepts  of  Christianity.     Be  a  father  to  the  orphans, 

j.udge  the  cause  of  widows  v-ourself Put  to- 

death  no  one,  be  he  innocent  or  guilty,  for  nothing- 
is  more  sacred  than  the  soul  of  a  Christian 

Love  your  wives,  but  beware  lest  they  get  the 
power  over  you.  When  you  have  learnt  anything 
useful,  try  to  preserve  it  in  your  memory,  and  strive- 
ceaselessly  to  get  knowledge.  Without  ever  leaving 
his  palace,  my  father  spoke  five  languages,  a  thing 
that  foreigners  admire  in  us I  have  made  al- 
together twenty -three  campaigns  without  counting 
those  of  minor  importance.  I  have  concluded  nine- 
teen treaties  of  peace  with  the  Polovtsui,  taken  at 
least  a  hundred  of  their  princes  prisoners,  and  after- 
wards restored  them  to  liberty  :  besides  more  than 
two  hundred  whom  I  threw  into  the  rivers.  No  one 
has  travelled  more  rapidly  that  I.  If  Heft  Tcherni- 
gof very  early  in  the  morning,  I  arrived  at  Kief  be- 
fore vespers.  Sometimes  in  the  middle  of  the  thick- 
est forest  I  caught  wild  horses  myself,  and  bound 
them  together  with  my  own  hands.  How  many 
times  I  have  been  thrown  from  the  saddle  by  bulTa- 
loes,  struck  by  the  horns  of  the  deer,  trampled  un- 
der foot  by  the  elands !  A  furious  boar  once  tore  my 
sword  from  my  belt ;  my  saddle  was  rent  by  a  bear, 
which  threw  my  horse  down  under  me  !  How  many 
falls  I  had  from  my  horse  in  my  youth,  when,  heed- 
less of  danger,  I  broke  my  head,  I  wounded  my 
arms  and  legs  !  But  the  Lord  watched  over  me  !"' 
Yladimir  completed  the  establishment  of  the  Slav 
race  in  Suzdal,  and  founded  a  city  on  the  Kliazma 
that  bore  his  name,  and  that  was  destined  to  play  a 
great  part.  Such,  in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century,  when  Louis  the  Si.\th  was  fighting  with  his. 
barons"  of  the  Isle  de  France,  was  the  ideal  of  a 
Grand  Prince  of  Russia. 

Of  the  sons  of  Yladimir  Monomakh,  luri  Dolgoru- 
ki  became  the  father  of  the  princes  of  Suzdal  and 
Moscow,  and  Mstislaf  the  father  of  the  princes  of 
Galitch  and  Kief.  The.se  two  branches  were  ofteu  ■ 
at  enniitv,  and  it  was  their  rivalry  that  struck  the- 
final  blow  at  the  prosperity  of  Kief.  AVhen  Isiaslaf, 
son  of  Jlstislaf,  was  called  to  tlie  throne  in  eleven 
hundred  and  forty-six  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  cap- 
ital, his  uncle,  luriDolgornki,  put  forward  his  rights^ 
as  the  eldest  of  the  family.  Kief,  which  had  been 
already  many  times  taken  and  retaken  in  the  strife 
between  the'deseendants  of  Oleg  of  Tchernigof  and 
the  descendants  of  Vladimir  Mcmomakh,  was  fated 
to  be  disputed  anew  between  the  uncle  and  the  ne- 
jiliew.  It  was  almost  a  war  between  the  Old  and 
A'ew  Russia,  the  Russia  of  the  Dnieper  and  that  of 
the  Volga.  The  princes  of  Suzilal,  who  dwelt  afar 
in  the  forests  in  the  northw<'st,  establishing  their  rule 
over  the  remnants  of  the  Finnish  races,  were  to  be- 
come greater  >ind  greater  strangers  to  Kievan  Rus- 
sia, if  they  still  'coveted  the""molher  of  Rus- 
sian  cities," "because  the  title  of  Grand  Prince  was 
attached  to  it.  they  at  least  began  to  obey  and  to  ven- 
erate it  less  than  the  other  princes, 

luri  Dolgoruki  found  an  ally  against  Isiaslaf  in 
one  of  the  Olgovitchi,  Sviatos"laf,"who  thirsted  to 


SUSSIAN  REPUBLICS. 


S-_>| 


RUSSIAN  REPUBLICS. 


avptii;!'  Ills  lifdiliir  Ii^or,  (Iptliroiu'il  iiml  kept  prmon- 
cr  ill  Kief  li.v  llir  (iriiiid  I'riiici'.     The  KirviiiiH  licsi-  | 
l'ilc<l  111  sii|i|iiirl  tlir  sovirrii;ii  IIh'V  IiihI  clinsi-ii;  llicy 
Imtcil  llir  lll'.;nvil(lli.   lllll   III  lilrir   lllliicllllirlll   III  llir 
1)1 1  (if  .Moiiiiinnlili  llicv   rcsprclril   Ills  sun  mill  his 

friinil-sDii  i'i|iiiilly.  "NVc  iirc  rnidy"  lliry  ^-niil  'i> 
siiisliif,  "wr  mil  iiiir  cliililn-ii,  lo  iimUc  war  mi  llii' 
80I1M  (if  Oli'ir.  Hill  I  mi  is  your  iiiicic,  iinil  ciiii  we 
(liirc  to  raise  our  liaiiils  a'.'iiiiist  llio  Him  (if  Moiki. 
liiaUli  ?"  Aflcr  llic  war  had  laslfil  some  tiiiii-,  a  de- 
cisive liallle  wasfdinrhl.  Al  the  liattle  (pf  I'creias- 
lavl  Isiashif  was  cuiiiiiletely  dcfcaled,  and  Imik  re- 
fiii;c.  Willi  twii  aKcndanls.  in  Kief.  The  iiilialiilmils, 
wild  had  lnsl  many  cilizins  in  this  war.  declared  Ihey 
were  iiiiiilile  Id  sliiiid  a  s'.cLre.  The  (Iraiid  I'rincc 
then  alianddiied  his  capilal  Id  Iiiri  ndli^nniki.  anil 
retired  In  Vladimir  in  Vdlliynia,  wlienc  hedemaiid- 
<m1  help  fnim  his  lirnlhcr  in-law,  the  Kini;  (if  Hiin- 
fiary.  midllie  l<iiii;s(if  I'lilaiid  and  Hiihemia.  With 
these  rciiifdrceineiits  lie  surprised  Kief,  and  nearly- 
liiiide  his  uncle  |>risdiier.  Inderslmidinir  that  the 
lialidiial  law  wasaiiainsl  him,  he  (ip]idsed  eldeslwith 
eldesi,  and  declared  himself  llie  partisan  (if  uiidther 
son  of  Mdiidiiiakh.llie  dlil  Viatcheslaf,  Prince  (if  Tu- 
rof.  He  was  ])riiclaimed  (irand  I'rince  of  Kief.iiddpt- 
cil  his  nephew  Isiaslaf  as  his  heir,  and  diirini;  his 
reii^n,  fnim  eleven  hiiiiilred  and  tifty  to  eleven  hun- 
dred and  tifly-fciur,  i^iivc  sidendid  fetes  to  the  Hiis- 
sians  mid  lliiiiijariiiiis.  Iiiri  returned  to  the  chars^e, 
ami  was  lieatcn  under  the  walls  of  Kief.  Kaeli  (if 
these  princes  had  taken  tiai-barians  into  his  jiay:  Iii- 
ri, the  Poldvtsiii;  Isiaslaf,  the  ISIiick  Caps,  that  is,  the 
Torki  the  I'i'lchenei;i,  and  the   Berendians. 

The  olistinate  Prince  of  Suzdal  did  not  allow  him- 
self to  be  discourai;e(l  by  this  check.  The  old  Via- 
tcheslaf. wild  (inly  desired  ]ieacp  and  (piiet.  in  vain 
addressed  him  letters,  setliiv;;  furlli  liis  ritrhts  as  the 
eldest.  "I  had  already  a  beard  when  ymi  eiitcred 
the  wdrld."  he  said.  luri  proved  himself  intract- 
able, and  went  inlii  (iailicia  to  elTect  a  jiinclidii  with 
his  ally.  Vladimirkd, Prince  of  Galitch.  This  Vladimir- 
ko  had  violated  the  oath  he  had  taken  and  cdiitirm- 
ed  by  kissini;  the  cross.  When  they  rcpniachcd  him, 
be  said,  willi  a  sneer,  "It  was  such  a  lillle  cross!" 
To  prevent  this  dani;erous  co-operation. Isiaslaf. with- 
out waitim;  the  expected  arrival  of  the  Iliiiijjariaiis, 
bcfian  the  pursuit  of  luri,  and  came  up  with  liim  on 
the  borders  of  the  Hut,  a  small  tributary  of  the  Dnie- 
per. A  bloody  battle  was  fousht.  where  he  liimself 
was  woundeil  and  thrown  from  his  lior.se,  but  the 
Sii/.daliaiis  and  their  allies  the  Polovtsui  were  com- 
pletely defeated  ill  eleven  hundred  and  titty-one. 
Isiaslaf  survived  this  victorv  only  three  years.  Af- 
ter his  death  and  that  of  Viatcheslaf,  Kief  passed 
from  hand  tolcuid.  luri  (inally  reached  the  supreme 
object  of  his  desires.  He  made  his  entry  into  the  cap- 
ital in  eleven  hundred  and  tifly-tive,  and  had  the 
consoliilidn  of  dyiii;;  Grand  Prince  of  Kief,  at  the 
inonienl  that  a  leaL'ue  was  beinir  formed  for  his  ex- 
pulsion, in  eleven  hundred  and  tifty-seveii.  "I  thank 
thee,  irreat  (iod,"  cried  one  of  the  confederates  on 
Icarniiii;  the  news,  "for  haviiiff  spared  us,  by  the 
sudden  death  of  our  enemy,  the  obligation  of  slied- 
tlins;  liisblood  !"  The  confederates  entered  the  town." 
one  of  them  assumed  the  title  of  Grand  Prince,  the 
others  divided  his  territories.  Ilenceforlh  there  ex- 
isted no  jrrand  principality.  pro|)erly  speaking  and 
witli  the  growing  power  of  .'>iizdal.  Kief  ceased  to  be 
the  cajiilal  of  Hussia.  A  final  disaster  was  still  re- 
served fdr  it. 

In  eleven  hundred  and  sixty-nine  Andrei  Hogo- 
liubski,  son  of  luri  Dolgoruki,  and  Prince  of  Suz- 
dal, being  disatTected  to  Mstislaf,  Prince  of  Kief, 
formed  against  him  a  coalition  of  eleven  princes.  He 
<>oiilide(l  lo  his  son  Jlstislaf  and  his  voievod  Boris 
an  iiiimcnse  army  of  Uostovians,  Vladimirians,  and 
Suzdaliaiis  to  march  against  Kief.  This  time  the 
Hussia  of  the  forests  triumphed  over  the  Russia  of 
the  steppes,  and  after  a  three  days'  siege  Kief  was 
4akeu  by  assault.     "This  mother  of  Russian  cities," 


HayH  KurnmHin,  "had  hcen  many  tiincB  bt-Biegcd  and 
o|)preHsed.  She  bud  often  opened  lier  Golden  (iutc 
to  her  eneinicH,  but  none  had  ever  yet  entered  by 
forie.  To  their  clernal  shame,  the  victors  forgot 
thai  Ihi'V  loo  were  Hiissians  I  During  three  duyg 
not  only  the  bouses,  but  the  iiionasterieH,  cliiirche», 
and  even  the  teiiiplcM  of  Saint  Sophia  and  the  Titi'C, 
werif  givi'U  over  lo  pillage.  The  precious  jiiiiigeB, 
the  prieslly  ornaments,  the  books,  and  the  hells,  all 
were  taken  away." 

From  lliis  lime  llic  lot  of  the  capital  of  Saint  Vla- 
dimir, pillaged  and  dishonored  by  his  dcseendanls, 
ceases  lo  have  a  general  iiilercsl  for  I{ussia.  l.ike 
oilier  parts  of  Slavoiii.'!.  il  has  ils  princes,  but  the 
beads  of  I  he  reigning  families  of  Smolensk,  Tclier- 
nigof.  and  Galitch  assume  I  he  once  iiniijiie  title  of 
(iraiid  Prince.  The  center  of  Russia  is  changed.  It 
is  now  ill  the  Imsin  of  the  Volga,  at  Suzdal.  Many 
causes  conspired  lo  render  the  disaster  of  eleven 
liiindred  and  sixty-nine  irnniediable.  The  chroniit 
civil  wars  of  this  part  of  Russia,  and  the  miilliludes 
mid  growing  power  of  the  nomad  hordes,  rendered 
the  banks  of  the  Dnieper  uninhabitable.  In  twelve 
hundred  and  three  Kief  was  again  sacked  by  the  Po- 
lovtsui, whom  tlii^  Olgovitchi  of  Tchernigof  had 
taken  into  thi-ir  pay.  On  this  soil,  incessantly  the 
prey  of  war  and  in  asion,  it  was  impossible  to  found 
a  lasting  order  iJi  lliings;  il  was  iinpossilile  that  a 
regular  system  of  government  should  be  established. 
-  that  <-ivilizatidn  slioiild  develop  and  maintain  it- 
self. Less  richly  enddwed  by  nature,  and  less  civil- 
ized, the  Russia  of  the  forests  was  at  least  more 
Iraniiuil.  It  was  there  that  a  grand  principality  was 
formed,  called  to  fiillil  high  destinies,  but  which,  un- 
liap|)ily,  was  lo  be  sejiaraleil  for  three  hundred  years, 
by  the  soiilhern  steppes  and  the  nomads  who  dwelt 
there,  from  the  lilaek  Sea:  that  is,  from  Byzaniine 
and  Western  civilization.  See  Rnnximi  liepuldicn. 

RUSSIAN  REPUBLICS.- Novgorod  has  been,  from 
the  most  remole  aiilii|uity,  the  political  center  of 
the  Russia  of  the  northwest.  The  origin  of  the 
Slavs  of  the  Ilinen,  who  laid  the  foundations  of  it,  is 
still  uncertain.  Some  learned  Russians,  such  as  j\I. 
Kostomai'of,  suppose  them  to  belong  to  the  Slavs  of 
llie  south,  others  to  the  Slavs  of  the  Baltic:  others, 
again,  like  .M.  Bielaef  and  M.  Ilovaiski,  make  them 
a  branch  of  the  Kriviich  or  Smolensk  Slavs.  We 
find  the  Novgorodians,  at  the  opening  of  Russian 
history,  at  the  head  of  the  confederal  ion  of  tribes 
which  first  expelled  and  then  recalled  the  Variagi  to 
reign  over  Russia.  Novgorod,  from  very  ancient 
times,  was  divided  into  two  jxirts,  separated  liy  the 
course  of  the  Volkliof,  which  rises  in  Lake  Ilnicn  and 
falls  into  the  Ladoga.  On  the  right  bank  was  the 
side  of  SI.  Sophia,  where  laroslaf  the  Great  built  his 
(•(debrated  cathedral;  where  the  Novgorod  kreiiil 
was  situated,  enclosing  both  the  palaces  of  the  Arch- 
bisliop  and  the  Prince;  and  where  the  famous  Rus- 
sian monument  was  consecrated  in  eighteen  hundred 
and  sixty-two.  On  tlic  left  bank  is  the  side  of  com- 
merce, with  its  Court  of  laroslaf  :  the  bridge  which 
joins  the  two  halves  of  the  city  is  celebrated  in  the  an- 
nals of  Novgorod.  The  side  of  Saint  Sophia  includes 
the  Nerevsky  or  Nerevian  quarter,  as  well  as  those 
of  Zagorodni,  or  the  suburbs,  and  of  the  pollers. 
The  side  of  commerce  comprised  the  quarters  of 
the  carpenters  and  Slavs.  Ancient  documents  also 
speak  of  a  Prussian  or  Lithuanian  quarter.  Some  of 
these  names  seem  to  indicate  that  many  races  have 
concurred,  as  in  ancient  Rome,  to  form  the  city  of 
Novgorod.  Gilbert  of  Lannov.who  visited  the  repub- 
lic about  fourteen  hundred  and  Ihirleen,  has  left  us 
this  description  of  il :  "  Novgorod  is  a  prodigious- 
ly large  town,  situated  in  a  beautiful  plain,  in  the 
midst  of  vast  forests.  The  soil  is  low,  subject  to  in- 
undations, marshy  in  places.  The  town  is  surround- 
ed by  imperfect  ramparts,  formed  of  gabions;  the 
towers  are  of  stone."  Portions  of  these  ramparta 
still  exist,  and  allow  us  to  form  an  idea  of  the  im- 
mense extent  of  the  ancient  city.    The  kreml  forma 


BUSSIAN  EEPTTBLICS. 


822 


RUSSIAN  REPUBLICS. 


its  acropolis.  The  cathedral  has  preserved  its  fres- 
coes of  the  twelfth  ceuturj-;  the  pillars  painted  with 
images  of  saints  on  a  golden  ground  :  the  imposing 
figure  of  Christ  on  the  cupola;  the  banner  of  tlie 
Virgin,  which  was  to  revive  the  courage  of  the  be- 
sieged, on  tlie  ramparts  ;  the  tomb  of  "St.  Vladimir 
laroslavilch,  of  tlie  Archbishop  Xikita.  by  whose 
praj'ers  a  tire  was  extinguished,  of  Mstislaf  tlie 
Brave,  the  devoted  defender  of  Novgorod,  and  of 
many  other  saints  and  illustrious  people.  Without 
counting  the  tributary  cities  of  Kovgorod,  such  as 
Pskof,  Ladoga,  Izborsk,  Veliki-Luki,  Staraia-Rusa, 
or  Old  Russia,  Torjok,  Biejitchi,  its  primitive  terri- 
torj'  was  divided  into  five  counties,  which  included 
the  land  to  the  soutli  of  the  lakes  Ladoga  and  Onega. 
Its  conquests  formed  five  bailiwicks  or  cantons,  oc- 
cupying the  whole  of  Northern  Russia,  and  extend- 
ing as  far  as  Siberia.  These  bailiwicks  were  tli3 
Zavolotchi^,  or  the  land  lying  beyond  the  canton,  be- 
tween the  Onega  and  the  Mezen  :  Russian  Lapland  : 
Perniia.  on  the  Upper  Kama  ;  Petciiora,  on  the  river 
of  the  same  name  :  and  lugria,  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Ural  Mountains  To  these  we  must  add  Ingria, 
Karelia.and  part  of  Livonia  and  Esthonia. 

Novgorod,  which  had  sumuiDned  the  Variag 
Princes,  was  too  powerful,  with  one  hundred  thou- 
sand inhabitants  and  three  hundred  thousand  sub- 
jects, to  allow  itself  to  be  tyrannized  over.  An  an- 
cient tradition  speaks  vaguely  of  a  revolt  against 
Rurik  the  Old  under  the  hero  Vadim.  Sviatoslaf, 
the  conqueror  of  the  Bulgaria  of  the  Danube,  under- 
took to  govern  it  b}'  mere  agents,  but  Novgorod  in- 
sisted on  having  one  of  his  sous  for  its  prince.  "If 
you  do  not  come  to  reign  over  us,"  said  the  citizens, 
"we  shall  know  how  to  tind  ourselves  other  princes." 
laroslaf  the  Great,  as  a  reward  for  their  devotion, 
accorded  them  immense  privileges,  of  which  no  rec- 
ord can  be  found,  but  which  are  constantly  invoked 
by  the  Novgorodians,  as  were  the  true  or  false  char- 
ters of  Charles  the  Great  by  the  German  cities.  These 
republicans  could  not  exist  without  a  prince,  but  they 
rarely  kept  one  long.  The  assembly  of  the  citizeu.s. 
the  vetche,  convoked  by  the  bell  in  the  Court  of  la- 
roslaf, was  the  real  sovereign.  The  republic  called 
itself  "My  Lord  Novgorodlhe  Great."  "Who  can 
equal  God  and  the  great  Novgorod  ?"  was  a  nopular 
saying.  From  the  distance  of  the  city  from  the 
Russia  of  the  Dnieper,  and  its  position  towards  the 
Baltic  and  AVestern  Europe,  it  took  little  part  in  the 
civil  wars  of  which  Kief  was  the  object  and  the  cen- 
ter. The  Novgorodians  profited  by  this  in  a  certain 
sense;  for,  in  the  midst  of  the  strifes  of  princes  and 
ol  frequent  changes  in  the  gr;ind  principality,  no  sov- 
ereign was  strong  enough  to  give  them  a  nia.ster. 
They  could  choose  between  princes  of  the  rival  fa- 
milies. It  could  impose  conditions  on  him  whom 
they  chose  to  reign  over  them.  It  discontented  with 
his  management,  they  expelled  the  prince  and  his 
band  of  autrustions.  According  to  the  accustomed 
formula,  "they  made  a  reverence,  and  showed  him 
the  way"  to  leave  Novgorod.  Sometimes,  to  hin- 
der his  evil  designs,  tliey  kept  him  prisoner  in  the 
Archbishop's  palace,  and  it  Wiis  left  to  his  successor 
to  set  him  iit  lilierly.  Often  a  revolution  was  ;ie- 
compauied  by  a  general  pillage  of  the  ]iarlis;uis  of 
the  fallen  prince,  an<l  they  were  even  drowned  in 
the  Volkhof.  A  Grand  Prince  of  Kief,  Svialojiolk 
wished  to  force  his  son  on  them.  "Send  him  here." 
said  the  Novgorodians,  "if  he  has  a  spare  head." 
The  princes  themselves  contribnied  to  the  frequent 
changes  of  reign.  They  felt  themselves  only  half- 
rulers  in  Novgorod,  so  they  accepted  any  oilier 
appanage  with  joy.  Tims,  in  eleven  hundred  and 
thirty-two,  Vsevolod  Gabriel  abandoned  Novgorod 
tc  reign  at  Pereiaslavl.  When  hishojiesof  Kief  were 
crushed,  and  he  wished  to  return  to  Novgonxl,  the 
citizens  rejected  him.  "You  forgot  your  oath  to  die 
with  ns,  you  have  sought  anotjier  principality;  go 
were  you'  will."  Presently  they  thought  betler"of  it, 
and  took  him  back.     Poiir  years  afterwartls  he  was 


again  obliged  to  fly.  In  a  great  vetche'.  to  which 
the  citizens  of  Pskof  and  Ladoga  were  summoned, 
the^-  solemnly  condemned  the  exile,  after  reading 
the  heads  of  very  characteristic  accusations  :  "He 
took  no  care  of  the  poorer  people;  lie  desired  to  es- 
tablish himself  at  Pereiaslavl;  at  the  battle  of  Mount 
Idanof.  against  the  men  of  Suzdal,  he  and  his  druji- 
na  were  the  first  to  leave  the  battle-field  ;  he  was 
fickle  in  the  quarrels  of  the  priucs,  sometimes  unit- 
ing with  the  Prince  of  Tchernigof,  sometimes  with 
the  opposite  party." 

The  power  of  a  Prince  of  Novgorod  rested  not  on 
ly  on  his  drujina,  which  always  followed  his  for- 
tunes,  and  on  his  family  relations  with  this  or  that, 
powerful  principality,  but  also  on  a  party  formed 
for  him  in  the  heart  of  the  republic.  It  was  when 
the  opposing  party  grew  too  strong  that  he  was  de- 
throned, and  popular  vengeance  exercised  on  his 
adherents.  Novgorod  being  above  all  a  great  com- 
mercial city,  its  divisions  were  frequently  caused  by 
diverging  economic  interests.  Among  the  citizens, 
some  were  occupied  in  trade  witli  the  Volga  and  the 
East,  others  with  the  Dnieper  and  Greece.  The 
former  naturally  sought  the  alliance  of  the  Princes 
of  Suzdal,  masters  of  the  great  Oriental  artery  :  the 
latter  that  of  the  Princes  of  Kief  or  Tchernigof, 
masters  of  the  road  to  the  south.  Each  of  the  two 
parties  tried  to  establish  a  prince  of  the  family 
whose  protection  they  sought.  If  he  fell,  yet  suc- 
ceeded in  escaping  from  the  town,  he  would  try  to 
regain  his  throne  by  the  arms  of  his  family,  or  to 
install  himself  and  his  drujina  either  at  Pskof,  like 
Vsevolod-Gabriel,  who  became  prince  of  that  town, 
or  at  Torjok,  like  laroslaf  of  Suzdal,  and  thence  he 
would  blockade  and  starve  the  great  city.  The 
Prince  of  Suzdal  was  soon  the  most  formidable  neigli- 
bor  of  Novgorod.  We  have  seen  that  Andrei  Bogo- 
liuli.ski  sent  an  army  against  it,  then  that  his  nephew 
laroslaf  besieged  his  ancient  subjects  till  Mstislaf 
the  Bold  freed  them  by  the  battle  of  Lipetsk  in 
twelve  hundred  and  sixteen.  He  was  the  son  of 
Mstislaf  the  Brave,  who  had  defended  them  againsi; 
Vsevolod  Big-Nest,  and  against  Suzdal  and  the  Tchu- 
di.  The  remains  of  "the  Brave"  rest  at  Saint  So- 
phia, in  a  lironze  sarcophagus.  His  son,  "the  Bold," 
was  of  far  too  restless  a  nature  to  die  also  at  Nov- 
gorod. He  reduced  the  principality  to  order,  and 
Flien  assembled  the  citizens  in  the  court  of  laros- 
laf and  said  to  them,  "I  salute  Saint  Sophia,  the 
tomb  of  my  father,  and  you,  Novgorodians.  I  am 
going  to  recon([uer  Galitch  from  the  strangers,  but 
I  shall  never  forget  you.  I  hope  I  may  lie  by  the 
tomb  of  my  father,  in  Saint  Sophia."  The  Novgoro- 
dians in  vain  entreated  him  to  sta_v.  This  was  in 
twelve  hundred  and  eighteen.  We  have  seen  him 
use  his  last  armies  in  the  troubles  of  the  southeast, 
and  die  Prince  of  Galitch. 

After  his  departure  the  republic  summoned  his 
nephew,  Sviatoslaf  to  the  throne ;  but  he  could  not 
come  to  terms  with  the  magistrates  and  a  populace 
equally  turbulent.  The  posadnik,  Tverdislaf.  caused 
one  of  tlie  boyars  of  Novgorod  to  be  arrested.  This 
was  the  signal  for  a  general  rising;  some  took  the 
part  of  the  boyar,  others  tliat  of  the  posadnik. 
During  eight  days  the  bell  of  the  krenil  sounded.  Fi- 
nally both  factions  buckled  on  their  cuirasses  and 
drew  their  swords.  Tverdislaf  raised  his  eyes  to 
Saint  Sophia,  and  cried,  "I  sliiill  fall  first  in  the  bat- 
tle, or  God  will  justify  me  by  giving  the  victory  to 
my  brothers."  Ten  men  only  perished  in  this  skir- 
mish, and  then  |ieaee  W!is  re.establish<'d.  The  prince, 
who  jiceused  Tverdislaf  of  being  llie  cause  of  the 
trouble,  demanded  IhiLt  he  sliduld  be  deposed.  The 
vetche  inquired  what  crime  he  had  committed. 
"None,"  replied  the  prince,  "but  it  is  my  will."  "I 
am  satisfied,"  exclamed  the  posadnik,  "as  they  do 
not  accuse  me  of  any  fault;  as  to  you,  my  brotliers, 
you  can  dispose  alike  of  posadniki  and  princes." 
The  assembly  then  gave  their  deeisiim.  "Prince,  as 
you  do  not  accuse  tlie  posadnik  of  any  fault, remem- 


B088IAN  REPUBLICS. 


823 


HnSSIAN  REPUBLICS. 


bcT  that  Jim  Iiiivc  sworn  Id  dcpimc  no  inu^fiHlratc 
willioiil  trial.  Ill' will  remain  our  posailnik,  we 
will  not  deliver  him  to  V""-"  *•"  this  Svialoslaf 
(|uitte(l  Novirorod,  in  twelve  hundred  and  nineteen. 
lie  was  rei)lae<-d  liy  VKevolod,  one  of  his  hrotliers, 
who  was  e.vpelleil  two  yearn  latir.  'llw  Sn/ilalian 
parly  having  made  some  pro'_'ress,  they  recalled  Ihe 
same  laroslaf  who  was  oealen  al  l.ipilsk,  liiit  Ihi' 
I'rineesof  Su/.dal  were  loo  ahsolnle  iji  Iheir  ideas  to 
bo  able  to  aijree  with  the  Novjrorodians.  laroslaf 
was  ajjain  pnt  to  flifiht,  and  replaced  by  Vsevolod 
of  Smolensk,  who  was  expelleil  in  his  turn.  The 
Granil  I'rinee  of  Sn/.dal  now  interposed,  li'vied  a 
conlribniion  on  Novf;orod,  and  a  ])rinee  of  Teherni- 
fjof  was  imposeil  on  them, who  liastened  in  twelve 
hundred  and  twenty-live  to  relnrn  to  the  south  of 
HiiHsia.  In  seven  years  the  Nov;rorodians  hail  livi^ 
times  changed  Iheir  rulers.  laroslaf  himself  eame 
back  for  a  third  and  even  a  fourth  time.  A  famine 
HO  much  reduced  the  Novfjorodians  that  forty-two 
thousand  corpses  were  buried  in  two  cenieleries 
alone.  These  jiroud  citizens  implored  stran{;ers  to 
take  them  as  slaves  for  the  price  of  a  morsel  of 
bread.  The  same  year  a  tire  destroyed  the  whole 
of  oneipiarter  of  Novirorod.  The  ciilamities  subdued 
their  turbulence.  laroslaf  succeeded  in  j;overniiij; 
them  despotically  till  he  was  called  to  fill  Ihe  throne 
of  the  Grand  Prince  in  twelve  himdred  and  thirty- 
si.i.  lie  left  them,  as  their  jirince,  his  son,  Alt.x- 
ander  Xevski. 

From  the  fact  that  no  dynasty  of  princes  could  es- 
tablish itself  at  Novgorod,  that  no  princely  band 
could  take  a  ))lace  among  the  native  aristocracy,  it 
follows  that  the  republic  kept  its  ancient  liberties 
and  customs  intact  under  the  short  reigns  of  its 
rulers.  In  all  Russian  cities,  it  is  true,  the  country 
existed  side  by  side  with  the  I'rinee  and  boyars,  the 
assembly  of  c-ilizens  side  by  side  with  the  I'rince's 
men,  and  the  native  militia  side  by  side  with  the 
foreign  drujiua  :  but  at  Novgorod  the  country,  tlie 
vctche,  and  the  inunici|)al  militia  had  retaineil  more 
vigor  than  elsewhere.  The  town  was  more  power- 
ful than  the  Prince,  who  reigned  by  virtue  of  a  con- 
stitution, traces  of  which  may  be  observed,  no  doubt, 
in  other  regions  of  Russia,  but  which  is  found  in  its 
original  form  at  Novgorod  alone.  Each  new  nuin- 
arch  was  compelled  to  take  an  oath,  by  winch  he 
bound  himself  to  observe  the  biws  and  jirivileges  of 
laroslaf  the  (ireat.  This  constitution,  like  llu'  iKH-td 
eoiirentd  of  Poland,  signified  distrust,  and  was  in- 
tended to  limit  the  power  of  the  Prince  and  his  men. 
The  revenues  to  which  he  had  a  right,  and  which 
formed  his  civil  list,  were  carefully  limited,  as  also 
w:ere  his  judicial  and  political  functions.  He  levied 
tribute  on  certain  cantons,  and  was  entitled  to  the 
commutation  for  crimes  as  well  as  to  certain  lines. 
In  some  bailiwicks  he  had  his  lieutenant,  and  Nov- 
gorod had  its  own.  He  could  not  execute  justice 
without  help  of  the  posaduik,  nor  reverse  any  judg- 
ment: nor,  above  all.  take  the  suit  beyond  Novgo- 
rod. This  was  what  the  Novgorodians  feared  most, 
and  with  reason.  The  day  when  the  people  of  Nov- 
gorod bethought  themselves  of  appealing  to  the  tri- 
bunal of  the  Grand  Prince  of  Moscow  was  fatal  "o 
the  indepeuileuce  of  the  republic.  In  the  coiillirts 
between  the  men  of  the  prince  and  those  of  Ihe  city, 
a  mixed  court  delivered  judgment.  The  Prince,  no 
more  than  his  men,  could  acquire  villages  in  the 
territory  of  Novgorod,  nor  create  colonies.  lie  was 
forbidden  to  hunt  in  the  woods  of  Staraia  Kusa  ex- 
cept in  the  autumn,  and  had  to  rea])  his  harvests  at 
a  specified  season.  Though  they  thus  mistrusted 
their  Prince,  Ihe  Novgorodians  hail  need  of  him  to 
moderate  the  ancient  i^lav  anarchy.  As  in  the  days 
of  Hurik.  "family  armed  itself  against  family,  and 
there  was  no  justice."  In  Novgorod  the  verdu^  had 
more  extensive  powers,  and  acted  more  regularly 
than  in  the  other  Russian  cities.  It  was  the  vetche 
which  nonunated  and  expelled  princes,  imprisoned 
llicm  in  the  arcbiepiscopal  palace,  and  formallv  ac- 


cused them  ;  elected  and  deposed  the  ArchbishopH, 
decided  peace  and  war,  }(irlged  the  Stale  criminulH. 
According  to  Ihe  old  Slav  custom,  preserved  in  Po- 
land lill  the  fall  of  Ihe  republic,  the  decisions  were 
always  niuih-,  not  by  a  majority,  but  by  unanimity 
of  voices.  It  was  a  kinil  of  lil,irtnii  rilo.  The  niii- 
Jorilv  had  the  ri'soune  of  drowning  the  minority  ia 
the  Volkhof.  Tlie  Prince  as  well  as  Ihe  posadnik, 
the  boyars  as  well  as  the  people,  had  the  right  of 
convoking  the  vetihe.  It  met  sometimes  in  the 
('ourt  of  laroslaf,  sometimes  in  Saint  Sophia's.  As 
Poland  had  its  confederations,  its  "  diets  under  the 
shiild."  Novgorod  occasionally  saw  on  tin-  banks  of 
Ihe  Volkhof  two  rival  and  hostile  assernbliis,  which 
often  came  to  bl.ows  on  the  bridge.  Hefore  being 
submitted  to  the  general  assembly,  the  tjuestions 
were  sometimes  delibirati'd  in  a  snialler  council, 
composed  of  notable  citizens,  of  acting  or  past  ma- 
gistrates. 

The  chief  Novgorodian  magistrates  were,  first,  the 
posadnik,  called  by  contemporary  German  vvTiters 
the  burgomaster,  who  was  changeil  nearly  us  oftea 
as  the  Piince.  Thi'  (xisadnik  was  chosen  from  some 
of  th<'  inlluenlial  families,  one  of  which  alone  gave 
a  dozen  (josadniki  to  Novgorod.  The  first  magis- 
trate was  charged  to  defend  civic  privileges,  and 
shared  with  the  Prince  the  judicial  power  and  the 
right  of  distributing  the  ta.xes.  lie  governed  the 
city,  commanded  its  army,  directed  its  diplomacj', 
sealed  the  acts  with  its  seal.  The  second  officer  was 
the  tiiiMiUki,  who  was  a  military  chief.a  Colonel  who 
had  the  Captains  of  the  town  ndlitia  under  his  orders, 
lie  had  a  special  tribunal,  and  seems  to  have  been 
specially  intrusted  with  the  defence  of  the  rights  of 
the  people,  thus  recalling  the  R(jman Tribunes.  And 
besides  the  Captains  there  was  a  uliirmUi,  a  sort  of 
district  ]Mayor,  for  each  ((uarter  of  the  town. 

The  chirf  document  of  Ihe  Novgorodian  law  is 
the  Lttter  nf  ,hi!<tice,  of  which  the  delinite  publica- 
tion may  be  placed  at  fourteen  hundred  and  seventy- 
one.  It"  contains  the  same  principles  as  the  Code  of 
laroslaf  the  Great.  As  in  all  the  early  Germanic 
and  Scandinavian  laws,  we  find  the  right  of  private 
revenge,  the  fixed  price  of  blood,  the  "boot,"  or 
fine  for  injury  inflicted,  the  oath  adnutted  as  evi- 
dence, the  judgment  of  God,  the  judicial  duel, 
which  was  still  resorted  to  by  Novgorod  even  after 
its  decadence,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  We  also 
find  records  of  corporal  iiiniishments.  The  thiet 
was  to  be  branded  ;  on  the  second  relapse  into  crime, 
he  was  to  be  hung.  Territorial  property  acquires  a 
greater  importance,  and,  a  sure  evidence  of  JIusco- 
vite  influence,  a  second  court  of  appeal  is  admitted, 
— Ihe  appeal  to  the  tribunal  of  the  Grand  Prince. 

From  a  social  point  of  view,  the  constitution  of 
Novgorod  presents  other  analogies  with  the  consti- 
tution of  Poland.  Great  inequality  then  existed  be- 
tween the  different  classes  of  society.  An  aristoc- 
racy of  boyars  had  ulliinately  formed  itself,  whose 
internal  quarrels  agitated  the  town.  Below  the 
boyars  came  the  dii'ti  hnyarskie,  a  kind  of  inferior 
nobility  ;  then  the  <lifTerent  classes  of  citizens,  the 
merchantmen,  the  black  peirple,  and  the  pea.sants. 
The  merchants  formed  an  association  of  their  own, 
a  sort  of  guild,  romid  the  Church  of  .Saint  John. 
Jlilitary  societies  also  existed,  bands  of  independent 
adventurers  or  followers  of  some  boyar  who,  im- 
pelled by  hunger  or  a  restless  spirit,  sought  adven- 
tures afar  on  the  great  rivers  of  Northern  Russia, 
pillaging  alike  friends  and  enemies,  or  establishing 
military  colonies  in  the  midst  of  Tchud  or  Finnish 
tribes. 

The  soil  of  Novgorod  was  sandy,  marshy,  and  un- 
productive :  hence  the  famines  and  pestilences  that 
so  often  depopulated  the  country.  Novgorod  was 
forced  to  extend  itself  in  order  to  live ;  it  became 
therefore  a  connuercial  and  colonizing  city.  In  the 
tenth  century  Konstanlin  relates  how  the  Slavs  left 
Nemoirard.  or  Noviroroil,  descended  the  Dnieper  by 
Miliuisca,  or  Smolensk,  Teliutza,  orLubetch,  Teller- 


KTJSSIAN  REPUBLICS. 


824 


E0SSIAN  EEPUBLICS. 


nigof,  Vuishcgorod,  Kief,  anrl  Yititchevo ;  crossed 
the  Cataracts  of  tlie  Dnic]XT.  passed  the  naval  sta- 
tions of  Saiut  Gregory  and  Saint  Etherius,  at  the 
mouth  of  tlie  river,  aud  spread  themselves  over  all 
the  shores  of  the  Greek  Empire.  The  Oriental  coins 
and  jewels  found  in  the  barrows  of  the  Ilmcn  show 
that  the  Novgorodians  had  an  early  and  extensive 
commerce  with  the  East.  We  see  them  exchange 
iron  and  weapons  for  the  precious  metals  found  by 
the  lugrians  in  the  mines  of  the  Urals.  They  tra.leil 
with  the  Baltic  Slavs ;  and  whea  tlie  latter  lost  their 
indepen<leuce.  and  a  Hourishiug  center,  Wisbj',  was 
formed  in  tlie  Isle  of  Gotlilaud,  Novgorod  turned  to 
this  side  also.  In  the  twelfth  century  there  was  a 
Gothic  market  and  a  Variag  Church  at  Novgorod, 
and  a  Novgorodian  Church  in  Gothland.  When  the 
Germans  began  to  dispute  the  commerce  of  the  Bal- 
tic with  the  Scandinavians,  Novgorod  became  the 
seat  of  a  German  market,  which  finally  alisorbed 
the  Gothic  one.  When  the  Hause  League  became 
the  mistress  of  the  North,  we  find  the  Germans  es- 
tablished not  only  at  Novgorod,  but  at  Pskof  aud 
Ladoga,  at  all  the  outlets  of  the  network  of  Novgo- 
rodian  lakes.  There  they  obtained  considerable 
privileges,  even  the  right  to  acquire  pasture-land. 
They  were  masters,  aud  at  home  in  tlieir  fortified 
markets,  In  their  stockade  of  thick  planks,  where  no 
Russian  had  the  right  to  penetrate  without  their 
leave.  This  German  trading  companj-  was  governed 
hy  the  most  narrow  and  exclusive  ideas.  No  Rus- 
sian was  allowed  to  belong  to  the  company,  nor  to 
carry  the  wares  of  a  Gernian,an  Englishman,  a  Wal- 
loon, or  a  Fleming.  The  company  authorized  a 
wholesale  commerce  only,  and,  to  maintain  its  goods 
at  a  high  price,  it  forbade  imports  beyond  a  certain 
amount.  ■'  In  a  word,"  says  a  German  writer,  Kie- 
senkampf,  in  "  Der  Deutsche  Hof,"  "during  three 
centuries  the  Ilanse  League  held  a  monopoly  of  all 
the  external  commerce  of  Northern  Russia.  If  we 
inquire  what  profit  or  loss  it  brought  this  country, 
we  must  recognize  that,  thanks  to  it,  Novgorod  and 
Pskof  were  deprived  of  a  free  commerce  witli  the 
West.  Ru.ssia,  in  order  to  satisfy  the  first  wants  of 
civilization,  fell  into  a  state  of  complete  indepen- 
dence. It  was  aliandoned  to  the  good  pleasure  aud 
pitiless  egotism  of  the  German  merchants." 

The  ecclesiastical  constitution  of  Novgorod  jire- 
sents  a  special  character.  In  the  rest  of  Russia  the 
clergy  was  Russian  orthodox.  At  Novgorod  it  was 
Noygorodian  before  e\'erything.  It  was  only  in 
the  twelfth  century  lliat  the  Slavs  of  Ilnien.who  had 
been  the  last  to  be  converted,  could  have  an  Arch- 
bishop that  was  neither  Greek  nor  Kievan,  but  of 
their  own  race.  From  that  time  the  Archbishop  was 
elected  by  the  citizens,  by  the  vetche.  Without 
■waiting  to  be  invested  by  the  metropolitan  bishop 
at  Kief,  he  was  at  once  installed  in  his  episcopal 
palace.  He  was  one  of  the  great  personages,  the 
first  dignitary  of  tlie  republic.  In  public  acts  his 
name  was  placed  before  the  others.  "  With  the 
blessing  of  Archbishop  Moses,"  says  one  letter- 
patent,  "  posadnik  Daniel  and  tuisatski  Abraham 
salute  you."  He  had  a  superiority  over  the  Prince 
on  the  ground  of  being  a  native  of  the  country, 
whilst  the  descendant  of  Rurik  was  a  foreigner.  In 
return,  the  revenues  of  the  Archbishop, the  treasures 
of  Saint  S<i|)liia,  were  at  the  service  of  the  republic. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  we  find  an  Archbishop 
building  at  his  own  expense  a  kreml  of  stone.  In 
the  fifteenth  century  the  riches  of  the  cathedral  were 
employed  to  ransom  the  Russian  jirisoners  captured 
by  the  Litliiianians.  The  ('luirch  of  Novgorod  was 
essentially  a  national  cliurcli;  the  ecclesiastics  louk 
])arl  in  the  temporal  alTairs,  the  laity  in  tlie  spiritual. 
In  the  fiiiirteenth  century  the  vetche  put  to  death  the 
heretical  Ktn'f/i/lniki,  proscribed  ancient  superstitions, 
and  burnt  the  sorcerers.  As  the  citizens  of  Novgo- 
rod nominated  their  Archbishop, Ihey  could  also  de- 
pose him.  The  orthodox  religion  extended  with  the 
Novgorod  colonization   among  the    Fiimish   tribes. 


In  opposition  to  the  Finns,  the  interests  of  the  Church 
and  the  republic  were  identical.  It  was  religion  that 
contributed  to  the  splendor  of  the  city,  and  that 
specially  profited  by  its  wealth.  Novgorod  was  full 
of  churches  and  monasteries,  founded  by  the  pietj' 
of  private  individuals.  Novgorod,  which  had  shaken 
off  the  political  supremacy  of  Kief,  wished  also  to 
free  itself  from  its  religious  domination. and  no  longer 
to  be  obliged  to  seek  on  the  Dnieper  the  investiture 
of  its  Archbishop,  but  to  make  him  an  independent 
metropolitan.  It  failed.  When  Moscow  became  of 
importance,  she  threatened  not  only  the  political, 
but  the  religious  supremacy  of  Novgorod.  Religion 
was,  in  the  hands  of  the  Muscovitc"Princes,  an  in- 
strument of  government.  The  Novgorodian  prelate 
always  made  common  cause  with  his  fellow-citizens, 
and  endured  with  them  tlieir  master's  bursts  of  ansjer. 

The  literature  of  Novgorod  was  as  national  as  the 
Church  herself.  The  pious  chronicles  of  the  Nov- 
gorodian convents  shared  all  the  quarrels  and  all  the 
passions  of  their  fellow-citizens.  "Eventheir  style." 
says  jM.  Bestujef,  "reflects  vividly  the  active,  busi- 
ness-like character  of  the  Novgorodians.  It  is  short, 
and  sparing  of  words  ;  but  their  narratives  embrace 
more  completely  than  those  of  other  Russian  coun- 
tries all  the  jihases  of  actual  life.  They  are  the  his- 
torians, not  merely  of  the  princes,  and  boj'ars,  but 
of  the  whole  city.  The  lives  of  the  saints 'are  the 
lives  of  Novgorodian  saints;  the  miracles  they  relate 
are  to  the  glory  of  the  city.  They  tell  for  e.\ami)le, 
that  Christ  appeared  to  the  artist  charged  with  the 
paintings  under  the  dome  of  Saint  Sopliia.  aud  said 
to  him:  •  Do  not  represent  me  with  my  hand  ex- 
tended for  blessing,  but  with  my  hand  closed,  be- 
cause in  it  I  hold  Novgorod,  and  when  it  is  opened 
it  will  be  the  end  of  the  city.'  "  Tlie  tale  of  the 
panic  excited  among  the  soldiers  of  Andrei  Bogo- 
liubski  by  the  image  of  the  Virgin  wounded  by  a 
Suzdaliau  ai»row  was  spread  abroad.  Novgorod  has 
its  own  C3'cle  of  epic  songs.  Its  heroes  are  not 
those  of  the  Kievan  poems.  There  is  Yasili  Buslae- 
vitcli ;  the  bold  boyar.who  with  his  faithful  drujina 
stood  up  to  his  knees  in  blood  on  the  bridge  of  Volk- 
hof,  holdim;  in  check  all  the  muzhiki  of  Novgorod, 
whom  he  had  defied  to  combat.  Vasili  Buslaevitch 
is  the  true  type  of  these  proud  adventurers,  who 
knew  neither  friend  nor  enemy, — a  true  Novgorodian 
oligarch,  a  hero  of  civil  war.  Still  more  popular 
wasSadko,  the  rich  merchant.a  kind  of  Novgorodian 
Sindbad  or  Ulysses,  a  worth}'  representative  of  a 
pe<iple  of  merchants  and  adventurers,  who  sought 
his  fortune  on  the  waves.  A  tempest  rose,  and  men 
drew  lots  to  decide  who  should  be  sacrificed  to  the 
wrath  of  the  gods.  Sadko  threw  a  little  wooden 
ring  into  the  water,  the  others  Hung  in  iron  rings  : 
O  prodigy  !  the  others  swam,  his  sank.  He  obeyed 
his  destiny,  and  threw  himself  into  the  waves,  but 
he  was  received  in  thi'  palace  of  the  king  nf  the  sea, 
who  tested  him  in  various  ways  and  wished  lii'ii  to 
marry  his  daughter.  Then  suddenly  Saiiko  found 
himself  on  the  sliore  witli  great  treasures,  but  what 
were  these  compared  to  the  treasures  of  the  city  ? 
"They  see  that  I  am  a  rich  merchant  of  Novgorod, 
but  Novgorod  is  still  richer  than  I." 

Of  all  the  towns  subject  to  Novgorod.  Pskof  was 
the  most  important.  On  the  pcunt  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Pskuva  and  the  Velikaia  rises  its 
kreml,  with  its  crumbling  ramparts,  its  ruined  gates 
and  towers.  These  once  famous  Wiills  are  to-day  a 
mass  of  ruins,  and  the  street-boys  amuse  themselves 
by  tiirowing  stones  in  the  Pskova  to  frighten  the 
laundresses.  Pskof  is  only  a  poor  little  place  with 
ten  thousand  souls.  Scarcely  anything  remains  of 
its  past  s])leudor  save  the  Cathedral  of  I  lie  Trinity  at 
one  end  of  the  kreml.  There  r<'sl  in  metal  coifins 
the  bones  of  the  best-loved  iiriuees,  Vsevolod-Ga- 
briel  and  Dovinont,  a  converted  Lithuanian  who  came 
in  the  thirteenth  century  to  defend  the  rei-ublic 
against  his  own  compatriots.  The  old  town  still 
has  maiiv  churches  and  uionas'ei'ies:  the  distant  view 


SUB8I&N  BEFUBLIC8. 


82r 


RUSSIAN  REPUBUCS.- 


of  it  is  t)ciiulifiil.nnil  on  fcMi'rliiy.s  tlicdcml  city  s<'<'Iiih 
to  uwiikc  at  till'  cliiincs  <if  iln  iiinuiuiniblc  bi'lls, 
■which  rini;  iih  merrily  lis  in  I  he  ihiys  (if  ils  nlorinuH 
piist.  N<'sliir  iiiiiUi'S  IVkiil' III  '  iiiilivc  liiiiil  of  Saint 
()l^a.  lis  wliolc  hislorv  is  siiniiiii'il  up  in  lliosc  two 
fads:  first,  till'  slniiji^lc  ai.r;iiiisl  Ihr  'I'chiiili,  anil, 
later,  a;jainsl  the  (ierniansol  Livonia;  seroiiil,  ils 
elTorls  to  Ihcdiih'  free  from  Novf;oroil.  The  iiiili'- 
IH'iKleiiec  of  the  city  was  ultimately  sec^ireil  by  its 
wealth  anil  eoiiiinerce.  'I'lie  lirst  I'rinee  who  ruled 
it  as  a  se|iara1e  State,  Vsevoloil-tJaliriel.  win  expell- 
0(1  by  his  siilijeets,  and  therefore  was  welcomed  with 
the  jirealer  eai.'erness  by  the  I'skoviaiis.  When  the 
Rnzdalian  party  ruled  at  Nov!;oroil,  it  was  ^r,.nerally 
the  conlraiy  party  that  Iriiimphed  in  I'skof.  Alioiit 
twelve  himdred  and  loiirlecii  the  little  republic  coii- 
trncted  an  olTensive  and  ilefcnsive  alliance  with  the 
G(?rinans  ;  I'skof  undertook  to  help  lliem  ai;ainsl  the 
Lithuanians, and  they  were  to  support  I'skof  aj;ainst 
Kov^orod.  Tlii-i  was  iilayini;  rather  a  dangerous 
game.  In  twelve  Inindred  ami  forty,  one  Tverdillo 
delivered  the  city  up  toihe  1/ivonians.  and  it  was  not 
set  free  till  twelve  Inindred  and  forly-two.  From 
this  moment  I'skof  reased  lo  mix  in  the  civil  wars 
of  Novijorod.  It  bad  cnous;li  lo  do  with  its  own  af- 
fairs and  its  striisiirle  against  the  (lermans.  Swedes 
and  lathuanians.  It  also  elaiine(l  the  title  "My  Lord 
I'skof  Ihe  (treat:"  but  il  was  only  in  thirtel'ii  hun- 
dred and  fiirty-eii;lit  that  the  Novirorodians,  nccdiiii; 
its  help  iiiiainst  Nlaiinus,  Kins^  of  Sweden,  formally 
recoi;ni/ed  its  independence,  by  the  treaty  of  Hol- 
slof,  and  concluded  a  bond  of  fraternal  friendshi]). 
Novgorod  became  Ihe  elder  brother,  and  I'skof  the. 
younger.  The  or',;!\nization  of  I'skof  is  almost  that 
of  its  ancient  metropolis.  We  ajjain  find  the  Prince, 
Ihe  Vetelh',  the  division  into  (|uarters,  up  lo  the 
number  of  six,  e;icli  one  having;  its  Mayor. 

In  llie  twelfth  century  !i  new  Novjjorodian  colony 
was  founded  between  Ihe  Kama  and  the  Viatka, 
wdiich  remained  a  republic  \intil  the  lifteentli  century. 
"This  distant  eoiintry,"  says  INI.  liestujef-Hiimun, 
"is  still  (piile  Novj;orodian.  When  the  traveller  has 
jjas.sed  the  Viatka,  he  meets  with  a  peculiar  mode  of 
const ructini;  Ihe  huls.  There  are  no  lonjrer  whole 
lines  of  hovels  joined  one  to  the  other,  as  on  this 
side  of  the  river,  but  there  is  a  hii;h  house,  where 
the  court,  rooms,  and  olliecs  are  surrounded  liy  a 
rampart  of  ])alcs.and  united  under  Ihe  same  roof;  in 
a  word,  it  is  a  Novgorodian  house.  You  hear  the 
Novgorodian  dialect:  you  see  the  Novgorodian  cap. 
It  isthe  Novgorod  colonization  still  livinj;."  In  eleven 
hundred  and  seventy-foursome  a  Iventiircrs  from  (he 
lireat  l{epublie  came  from  the  Kama  *o  the  Viatkji, 
■and  advanced  from  cast  to  west,  and  founded  a  col- 
ony on  this  river,  which  is  to-day  the  villiige  of  Ni- 
kulitsuin.  Another  band  defealed  Ihe  Tcheremisa. 
and  on  their  territory  raised  Ko.-.hkarof,  at  present 
called  Kotelnilch.  Then  the  two  bands  reunited. 
and  penetrated  into  the  Votiak  country.  On  (he 
riirht  liank  of  (he  Viatka,  on  Ihe  summit  of  a  hi,!;li 
mountain,  they  perceived  a  cily  surrounded  l)v  a 
rampart  and  a  ditch,  which  contained  one  of  (lie 
sanctuaries  of  the  people.  As  pious  as  Ihe  com- 
panions of  Cortez  and  I'izarro,  tlie  Hussian  adven- 
turers prepared  themselves  for  the  assault  by  a  fast 
of  several  days,  then  invoked  Saints  I5oris  and  Gleb, 
and  captured  the  town.  Ne.\t,  at  (he  mouth  of  (he 
Kliluinovitsa,  in  (he  Vialkii,  not  very  far  ofT,  they 
Imill  (he  ci(y  of  Khluinof,  which  became,  under  (he 
name  of  Via(k;i,  the  ("ipil;d  of  all  the  colonies.  It 
had  no  walls,  but  the  houses,  built  close  together, 
formed  an  unbroken  rampart  against  the  enemy,  a 
wall  and  defence.  At  the  news  of  this  siicces.s,  other 
colonists  Hocked  from  Novgorod  and  (he  forests  of 
the  north,  and  founded  other  centers  of  population. 
These  bold  pioneers  had  more  lli;inonce  to  reunite, 
.-iomeiimes  against  the  aboriginal  Finns  or  the  Tatar 
invaders,  sometimes  against  the  jiretensions  of  Nov- 
gorod, or  Ihe  Orand  Prince  of  Moscow.  We  tind 
among  tliem,  as  in  the  metropolis,  boyars,  mercliauts  , 


and  citizens.  They  had  voievodiii  or  atamans  for 
their  military  chiefs.  'I'lieir  spirit  of  religious  ind(^- 
pendcnee  eipialled  their  political  inde|ieiideiice.  Jo- 
nas. .Metropolitan  of  .Mosi  ow,  writes  angrily  about 
the  indoeiliiy  of  I  heir  clergy,  and  avenges  himself 
by  blaming  lliiir  morals.  "Voiir  spiritual  sons,"  \n: 
writes  to  Ihe  priests  of  Viatka,  "live  contrary  lo  tin; 
law.  They  hav(!  live,  Hix,«or  even  Beveii  wives.  And 
you  dare  lo  blesi*  these  marriages." 

In  this  conneclion.  we  will  liriiMy  review  llie  li;it- 
tles  of  Ihe  Kalka,  of  Kiazan,  of  Kolomna,  and  of  the 
Sit,  and  the  inlliience  of  the  Tatars  on  Hussian  do 
velopmi  111.  I'p  lo  this  lime  Ihe  history  of  Hiissia 
has  presented  some  analogy  with  that  of  the  West. 
Slavonia,  like  (!aul,  had  received  Homan  civiliza- 
tion and  Christianily  from  the  South.  The  North- 
men bad  brought  it  an  organization  which  n callH 
that  of  the  Cermans;  and  it  had  enjoyed  a  certain 
sendilancc  of  unity  under  laroslaf,  like  I  he  West  un- 
der (Miarles  Ihe  (Ireat,  while  it  was  afterwards  dis- 
membercd  and  divided  like  prance  in  feudal  times, 
lint  in  llie  tliirlcenlh  century  Kiissia suffercil  an  un- 
precedented misfortune  ;  it  was  invaded  and  subju- 
gated by  Asiatic  hordes.  This  fatal  event  contribut- 
ed fpiite  as  much  as  the  disadvantage  of  the  soil  and 
the  climale  lo  retarc'  ils  development  by  many  centu- 
ries.  "Nadire,"  as  M.  Soloviof  .says, "has  beenastcp- 
modier  (o  Hiissia";  fa(e  was  anodier  step-modicr. 

"In  (hose  (imes,"  say  the  Hussian  chroniclers, 
"(here  came  upon  us  for  our  sins,  unknown  nation.s. 
No  one  could  tell  Iheir  origin,  whence  they  came, 
whiit  religion  (hey  professed.  God  alone  knew  why 
they  were,  God  and  jierhajis  wise  men  learned  in 
books."  When  we  think  of  (he  horror  of  Ihe  whole 
of  Europe  at  Ihe  arrival  of  Ihe  Mongols,  and  (he  an- 
guish of  a  Frederick,  of  a  Saint  Louis,  an  Innocent 
the  Fourth,  we  may  imagine  the  terror  of  the  Uus- 
sians.  They  bore  tiie  lirst  shock  of  (hose  mys(erioii.s 
foemen.  who  were,  so  the  people  whispered.  Gog 
and  Magog,  who,  according  to  Joinville,  "were  to 
come  at  the  end  of  the  world,  when  jVnlicbrist  is  to 
destroy  everything."  The  Ta-ta,  or  Tatars,  seem 
to  have  been  a  tribe  of  the  great  Mongol  race,  living 
at  Ihe  fool  of  the  Altai,  wi.o  in  spite  of  Iheir  long- 
continued  discords  freqiiindy  found  means  to  lay 
was(e  China  by  (heir  invasions.  The  por(rai(  drawn 
of  (hem  recalls  in  many  ways  (hose  already  traced 
by  Chinese,  Ladn,  and  Greek  audiors,  of  tlie  Huns, 
the  Avars,  and  other  nomad  peoples  of  former  inva- 
sions. "The  Ta-(zis,  or  (he  Das,"  says  a  Chinese 
wri(er  of  (he  (liir(een(h  century,  "occupy  themselves 
exclusively  with  their  flocks  ;  they  g(j  wandering 
ceaselessly  from  pasture  to  pasture,  from  river  to 
river.  They  are  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  a  town 
or  a  wall.  They  are  unac(juainted  with  writing  and 
books  :  their  treaties  are  concluded  orally.  From 
infancy  they  are  accustomed  to  ride,  to  iiim  their 
arrows  at  rats  and  liirds,  and  thus  acqinre  the  c(mr- 
age  essential  lo  their  life  of  wars  and  rapine.  They 
have  neither  religious  ceremonies  nor  judicial  insti- 
tutions. From  the  Prince  to  (he  lowest  among  the 
people  all  feed  upon  (he  Hesh  of  the  animal.s  the 
skins  of  which  they  use  for  clothing.  The  strongest 
among  them  have  (he  larges(  and  fadest  morsels  at 
feasts;  Ihe  old  men  are  put  olT  with  the  frasrments 
that  are  left.  They  respect  nothing  but  .strength  and 
bravery  :  age  and  weakness  they  despise.  'W'lienthe 
father  dies,  the  son  marries  bis  youngest  wives."  A 
Mussulman  writer  adds,  that  ihey  "adore  the  sun, 
and  practise  polygamy  and  the  community  of  wives. 
This  pastoral  people  did  no(  (ake  an  in(ercst  in  any 
phenomenon  of  na(ure  except  the  growth  of  grass. 
The  names  (hey  gave  (o  their  months  were  susrgest- 
ed  by  (he  dilTerent  aspects  of  (he  prairie.  Born  iiorse- 
men,  they  had  no  infantry  in  war.  They  were  ig- 
norant of  the  art  of  sieges.  "But,"  says  "a  Chinese 
author,  "when  th(\v  wish  to  take  a  town,  they  fall 
on  the  suburban  villages.  Each  leader  seizes  ten 
men.  and  every  prisoner  is  forced  to  carry  a  ceilain 
ciuantity  of  wood,  stones,  and  other  materials.    The 


BTTSSIAN  REPUBLICS. 


826 


RUSSIAN  BEPUBLICS. 


use  these  for  filling  up  fosses,  or  digging  trendies. 
In  the  capture  of  a  town  the  loss  of  ten  thousanti 
men  was  thought  nothing.  No  place  could  resist 
them.  After  a  siege  all  the  population  was  massacr- 
ed, without  distinction  of  old  or  young,  rich  or 
poor,  lieautiful  or  ugly,  those  who  resisted  or  those 
who  j'ielded;  no  distinguished  person  escaped  death, 
if  a  defence  was  attempted. "  It  was  these  rough 
tribes  that  Temutchin,  or  Genghis  Khan,  who  ruled 
from  eleven  hundred  and  fifty-four  until  twelve  hun- 
dred and  twenty-seven,  succeeded  in  imiting  into 
one  nation  after  forty  years  of  obscure  struggles. 
Then  in  a  general  congress  of  their  princes  he  "pro- 
claimed himself  Emperor,  and  declared  that,  as  there 
was  only  one  sun  in  heaven,  there  ought  to  be  only 
one  Emperor  on  the  earth.  At  the  headOf  their  forces 
he  conquered  Mantchuria,  the  kiugdoni  of  Tanirut, 
Northern  China,  Turkestan,  and  Great  Bokhara, 
which  never  recovered  from  this  disaster,  and  the 
plains  of  Western  Asia  as  far  as  the  Crimea.  When 
he  died,  he  left  to  be  divided  between  his  four  sons 
the  largest  empire  that  ever  existed.  It  was  during 
his  conquest  of  Bokhara  that  his  Lieutenant  Tchep 
and  Subudai-bagadur  subdued  in  their  passage  a 
multitude  of  Turkish  peoples,  passed  the  Caspian  by 
its  southern  shore,  invaded  Georgia  and  the  Caucas- 
us, and  in  the  southern  steppes'of  Russia  came  in 
contact  with  the  Polovtsui. 

The  hereditary  enemies  of  the  Russians  proper, 
the  Polovtsui,  asked  the  Christian  Princes  for  help 
against  these  Mongols  and  Turks,  who  were  their 
brothers  by  a  common  origin.  "They  have  taken 
our  country,"  said  they  to  the  descendants  of  Saint 
Vladimir:  "to-morrow  they  will  take  yours."  Jlstis- 
laf  the  Bold,  then  Prince  of  Galitch,"persuaded  all 
the  dynasties  of  Southern  Russia  to  take  up  arms 
against  the  Tatars ;  his  nephew  Daniel,  Prince  of 
VoUiyn^a,  AFstislaf  I{omauovitch,  Grand  Prince  of 
Kief.  Oleg  of  Kursk,  Mstislaf  of  Tchernigof,  Vladi- 
mir of  Smolensk,  Vsevolod,  for  a  short  time  Prince 
of  Novgorod,  responded  to  his  appeal.  To  cement 
Ids  alliance  with  the  Russians,  Basti,  khan  of  the 
Polovtsui,  embraced  orthodoxy.  The  Russian  ar- 
my had  already  arrived  on  the  Lower  Dnieper,  when 
the  Tatar  ambassadors  made  their  appearance.  "We 
have  come  by  God's  command  against  our  slaves  and 
grooms,  the  accursed  Polovtsui.  Be  at  peace  with 
US;  we  have  no  ([uarrel  with  you."  The  Russians 
with  the  promptitude  and  thouglitles.suess  1i;at  eliar- 
aoterized  the  men  of  that  timc'jiut  the  amliassadors 
to  death.  Tliey  then  went  farther  into  the  steppe, 
and  encountered  the  Asiatic  hordes  on  the  Kalka,  a 
small  river  ruuning  into  the  Sea  of  Azof.  Tlie  Ru.s- 
sian  cliivalry  on  this  memorable  day  showed  the 
sam  •  ilisorder  and  the  same  ill-advised  eagerness  as 
tlie  French  cliivalry  at  the  opeidni;  of  the  Enfflish 
wars.  Mstislaf  the 'Bold,  Daniel  of  Galitch,  and  Oleg 
of  Kursk  were  the  first  to  rush  into  the  midst  of  the 
infidels,  wilhoul  waiting  for  the  Princes  of  Kief,  and 
even  without  givir.g  Iheni  warning,  in  order  to  gain 
for  themselves  the  jionors  of  victory.  In  the  middle 
of  the  combat  the  Polovtsui  were  s'eized  with  a  pan- 
ic and  fell  l)uck  on  the  Russian  ranks,  thus  throw- 
ing them  iiitci  dis^'riler.  The  rout  became  general, 
and  the  leaders  spurred  on  their  steeds  in  luspes  of 
reaching  the  Dnieper. 

Six  princes  and  seventy  of  the  chief  boyars,  or 
voievodui,  remained  on  the  field  of  battle.  It  was 
tlie  Crecy  "and  Poitiers  of  the  Russian  chivalry. 
Hardly  a  tenth  of  the  army  escaped;  the  Kievaiis 
alone  left  ten  tliousand  dciul".  The  (Irand  Prince  of 
Kief,  liowever,  Mslishif  Uomanovilch,  still  occupied 
a  fortified  camp  on  flic  biuiks  of  the  Ivalka.  Aban- 
doned by  file  rest  of  the  iirmy,  he  tried  to  definil 
liimself.  The  Tatars  offered  fo'make  terms;  he  iiii;;ht 
retire  on  paymeiil  of  a  ransom  for  himself  and  Tiis 
drujina.  He  capitulated,  and  tlie  conditions  were 
broken.  His  u'liard  was  massacred,  and  he  and  his 
two  sons-in-law  were  slilled  under  |ilaiiks.  The  Ta- 
tars held  their  festivals  over  the  iuanimate  bodies  in  i 


twelve  liundred  and  twenty-four.  After  this  thun- 
derbolt, which  struck  terror  into  the  whole  of  Rus- 
sia.  the  Tatars  paused  and  returned  to  the  East.  No- 
thing more  was  heard  of  them.  Thirteen  years  pass- 
ed, during  which  the  princes  reverted  to  their  per- 
petual discords.  Those  in  the  northeast  had  given 
no  help  to  the  Russians  of  the  Dnieper;  perhaps 
the  Grand  Prince,  luri  flic  Second  of  Suzdal,  may 
have  rejoiced  over  the  humiliation  of  the  Kievans 
and  Gallicians.  The  Mongols  were  forgotten;  the 
chronicles,  however,  are  filled  with  fatal  presages 
in  the  midst  of  scarcit}',  famine  and  pestilence,  of 
incendiaries  in  the  towns  and  calamities  of  all  sorts, 
they  remark  on  the  comet  of  twelve  hundred  and 
twenty-four,  the  earthquake  and  eclipse  of  tlie  sun 
of  twelve  hundred  and  thirty. 

The  Tatars  were  busy  finishing  the  conquest  of 
China, but  presently  one  of  the  sous  of  Genghis, Ugu- 
dei  or  Oktai,  sent  his  nephew  Batui  to  the  West. "As 
the  reflux  of  the  Polovtsui  liad  announced  the  inva- 
siou  of  tweh-e  hundred  and  twentv-four,  that  of  the 
Saxin  nomads, a  tribe  akin  to  the  Ivhirghiz.who  took 
refuge  on  the  lands  of  the  Bulgariaus  of  the  Volga, 
warned  men  of  a  new  irruption  of  the  Tatars,  and 
indicated  its  direction.  It  was  no  longer  Soutli  Rus- 
sia, but  Suzdalian  Russia  that  was  threatened.  In 
twelve  hundred  and  thirty-seven  Batui  conquered 
the  Great  City, capital  of  the  half-civilized  Bulgarui, 
who  were,  like  the  Polovtsui,  ancient  enemies  of 
Russia,and  who  were  to  be  included  in  its  ruin.  Bol- 
gary  was  given  up  to  the  flames,  and  its  inhabitants 
were  put  to  the  sword.  The  Tat;irs  next  plunged 
into  the  deep  forests  of  the  Volga,  and  sent  a  sorcer- 
er and  two  officers  as  envoys  to  "the  Princes  of  Ria- 
zan.  The  three  princes  of  Riazan,  those  of  Pronsk, 
Ivolomna,  Moscow,  and  !Murom  advanced  to  meet 
them.  "  If  j-ou  want  peace,"  said  the  Tatars,  "give 
us  the  tenth  of  your  goods."  "  When  we  are  dead," 
replied  the  Russian  Princes,  "3-011  can  have  the 
whole."  Though  abandoned  by  the  princes  of  Tcher- 
nigof and  the  Grand  Prince  luri  the  Second,  of 
whom  they  had  implored  help,  the  dynasty  of  Ria- 
zan accepted  the  unequal  struggle.  They  were  com- 
pletely crushed;  nearly  all  their  princes  remained  on 
the  field  of  battle.  Legend  has  embellished  their  fate. 
It  is  told  how  Feoihu-  preferred  to  die  rather  than 
see  his  young  wife, Euphrasia,  the  spoil  of  Batui, and 
how,  on  learning  his  fate,  she  threw  herself  and  her 
son  from  the  window  of  her  cbainlier.  Oleg  the 
Handsome, found  .still  alive  im  the  battle-field,  repell- 
ed the  caresses,  the  attention,  and  religion  of  the 
khan,  and  was  cut  in  pieces.  Riazan  was  immedi- 
ately taken  by  assault,  sacked,  and  burned.  All  the 
towns  of  the  principality  suffered  the  same  fate.  It 
was  now  the  turn  of  tlie  Grand  Prince,  for  the  Rus- 
sia of  the  northeast  had  not  even  the  honor  of  falling 
in  a  grcid.  battle  like  the  Russia  of  the  southwest, 
uniled  for  once  against  the  common  enemy.  Tlie 
Suzdalian  army, commanded  by  a  son  of  luri  the  Sec- 
ond,was  beaten  on  the  day  of  Kolomna,  on  the  Oka. 
The  Tatars  burned  Moscow,  then  besieged  Vladi- 
mir on  the  Kliazma,  which  luri  the  Second  had 
abandoned  to  seek  for  hel])  in  the  North.  His  two 
sons  were  charged  wilh  the  defence  of  the  capital. 
Princes  iind  boyars.  feeling  there  was  no  alternative 
but  death  or  servitude,  ])re])arcd  to  die.  The  prin 
cesses  and  all  the  nobles  i)raye{l  Bishop  Metroplianes 
to  give  them  tli(Uonsure;  and  when  tlu'  Tiitars rush- 
ed into  the  town  by  all  its  gates,  the  ViUi(|uislied  re- 
tired info  the  cathedral,  where  they  perished,  men 
and  women,  in  a  general  confiagniliim.  Suzd;d,Ros- 
tof,  laroslavl,  fourleen  towns,  a  multitude  of  vill;iges 
ill  the  (iniiid  Principality,  were  all  given  over  to  the 
flames  in  iwelve  i:undnMl  and  f bii-ty-eight.  The 
Tiilars  then  went  to  seek  the  Graii<l  I'rince,  who 
was  encamped  on  the  Sit,  almost  on  tjie  frontier  of 
the  possessions  of  Novgorod.  luri  the  Second  could 
neither  avenge  bis  peojile  nor  liis  family.  After  the 
battle  the  Bisho])  of  Uostof  found  his  headless  corjise. 
His  nephew  Vasilko,  who  was  taken  prisoner,  was 


SUSBIAH  REPUBLICS. 


827 


BUS8IAN  BEPUBLIC8. 


Blabbed  for  refusing  to  nerve  lialiii.  'I'hi'  immense 
Talararmy,  after  jiaviii;;  saekeil  Tver,  loiik  'I'orjoli; 
tliere  "  liie  Kwssiaii  lieails  fell  lienealii  the  sw<inl  of 
the 'Palarn  as  grass  Ix'iiealb  llie  seyllie."  Tlie  lerri- 
torv  of  Novgoniil  was  iiivaileil;  the  great  re|>\iblic 
treinl)leil,l)ilt  tile  ileep  forests  and  llie  swollen  rivers 
delayed  IJaliii.  The  invailiiig  Hood  reachc'd  the  Cross 
of  lgii;Miiis,  ahoiil  Hfly  miles  from  Novgorod.  Ilieii 
reltinied  lo  the  Soiilhi'ast.  On  the  way  the  small 
town  of  l\o/<'lsU.  near  Is'ahiga.  checked  the  Tatars 
for  so  long  and  inllicled  on  them  so  nuich  loss,  that 
it  was  called  by  llieni  the  wicked  town.  lis  popula- 
tion was  exterminated,  and  the  prince,  Vasili,  still  a 
child,  was  "  drowned  in  blood." 

The  two  following  years  were  spent  by  the  Tatars 
in  ravaging  Southern  Kurojje.  Tliey  burnt  I'ereias- 
hif,  and  Tchernigof,  defended  with  rlesperation  by 
its  princes.  Next  .Malign,  grandson  of  (iengiiis 
Khan,  inarched  against  the  famous  town  of  Kief, 
whose  name  resoundi'd  through  llic  east  and  in  the 
books  of  iIm'  Aral)  writers,  l>'rom  the  left  bank  of 
the  Dnieper  the  barbarian  admired  the  great  city  on 
the  heights  of  tin'  right  bank,  lowering  over  the  wide 
river  with  its  white  walls  and  lowers  adorned  hy  |{y- 
zantine  artists,  and  innumeralilechurches  wilhcu|io- 
las  of  gold  and  silvvr.  .Mangii  olVered  Ihc  Kicvans 
terms  of  surrender;  the  fate  of  Hiazan.  of  Tcherni- j 
gof,  of  Vladimir,  the  capitals  of  powerful  states,  an- 
nounced to  tliem  the  lot  that  awaited  them  in  case 
of  refusal,  yet  the  Kicvans  dan'd  to  massacre  the  en- 
voys of  the  klian.  Mikhail,  their  (irand  I'rincc.  lied: 
his  rival,  Daniel  of  (ialilch,  did  not  care  to  remain. 
On  hearing  the  report  of  Mangu,  lialui  came  to  as. 
sault  liief  with  the  bulk  of  Ids  army.  Tiie  grinding 
ol  the  wooden  chariots,  the  bcllowings  of  the  bulVa- 
loes,  the  cries  of  the  camels,  the  neighing  of  the 
horses,  the  bowlings  of  the  Tatars,  rendered  it  im- 
possible, says  the  amialist,  to  hear  your  own  voice 
m  the  town".  The  Tatars  assailed  the  I'olisli  (iate. 
and  knocked  down  the  walls  with  a  battering-ram. 
"The  Kicvans.  supported  by  the  l)rave  Dmitri,  a 
Gallician  boyar,  defended  the  fallen  ramparts  till  the 
end  ot  the  day,  then  retreated  lo  the  Church  of  the 
Tithe,  which  they  surrounded  l)y  a  palisade.  The 
last  defenders  of  Kief  found  themselves  gronped  a- 
round  llie  tondiof  larosl.'if.  Next  day  they  perislied. 
The  khan  gave  the  boyar  his  life,  but  Mhc  Mother 
ol  Russian  cities'  was  sacked.  This  tliird  iiillage, 
which  took  jilace  in  twelve  hundred  and  forty,  was 
the  most  terrilile,  Even  the  tombs  were  not  respect- 
ed. All  that  remains  of  the  Church  of  the  Tithe  is 
1)  tew  fragments  of  mosaic  in  the^Iuseum  at  Kief. 
Saint  Sophia  and  the  Jlonastery  of  the  Catacombs 
Wert  delivered  up  to  be  plundered."  Volbynia  and 
Gallieia  still  reniaiiu'd,  bnt  their  princes  could  not 
defend  them,  and  Unssia  found  itself,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Novgorod  anil  the  northwest  country,  un- 
der  the  Tatar  yoke.  The  princes  had  lied  or  were 
dead;  lunidreds  of  thousands  of  Knssians  were  drag- 
ged into  captivity.  Men  saw  the  wives  of  boyars, 
•'  who  had  never  known  work,  who  a  short  time  ago 
had  been  clothed  in  rich  garments,  adorned  with  jew- 
els and  collars  of  gold,  surrounded  with  slaves,  now 
reduced  lobe  the  slaves  of  barbarians  and  their  wives, 
turning  the  wheel  of  the  mill,  and  ])reparing  their 
coarse  food." 

If  we  look  for  the  causes  which  rendered  the  de- 
feat of  the   brave  Russian  nation  so  complete,  we 

may,   with    Karamsin,   indicate   the   following: 

Though  the  Tatars  were  not  more  advanced,  from 
a  military  point  of  view,  than  the  Unssians,  who  had 
made  war  in  (Ireece  and  in  tlie  West  against  the 
most  warlike  and  civilized  people  of  Kurope.  yet  tiiey 
had  iin  enormous  su|)eriorily  of  numbers.  Matiii 
probably  had  with  him  live  hundred  llnaisand  war- 
riors. This  immense  army  moved  like  one  man:  it 
could  successively  aimihihite  the  small  arniies  of  the 
princes,  or  the  ndlitiaof  the  towns,  which  presented 
themselves  one  at  a  time  to  its  blows.  The  Tatars 
had   found   Russia   divided   against    itself.       Jiven 


though  Russia  hail  wished  lo  form  a  confederation, 
the  sudden  irruption  of  an  army  entirely  composed 
of  horsi'iiiiMi  did  not  leave  it  time.  In  the  tribes 
ruled  by  lialui  every  man  vsax  u  soldier:  in  RiisHia 
the  nobles  and  citizen'- alonr'  liorearinM;  tlie  peasant)), 
who  formed  Ihc  bulk  of  the  population,  allowed 
Ihemselvesto  be  stalibed  or  bound  without  resist- 
ance. It  was  not  by  a  weak  nation  llial  Russia  WUB 
<oiii|uered.  The  'I'alar-.Mongols,  under  (lenghiH 
Khan,  bad  lilled  the  Kiist  with  the  glory  of  their 
name,  and  subdued  nearly  all  Asia.  I'liey  arriverl, 
proud  of  llnir  exploits,  aninialed  by  the  recollection 
of  a  hundri'd  victories,  and  reinforced  by  the  num- 
erous peoples  they  had  vani|iiislicd,  and  hurried  with 
them  to  the  West.  \\  hen  the  Princes  of  Calitch.  of 
Volbynia.  and  fif  Kief  arrived  as  fugitives  in  Po- 
land and  lliingiiry.  Kurope  wiis  terror-stricken.  The 
I'ope,  whose  support  had  been  claimed  by  the  Prince 
of  (ialilch,  summoned  Christendom  to  arms.  Louis 
the  Ninth  pr<'])ared  for  a  crusade.  Frederick  the 
Second,  as  l';mperor,  wrote  to  the  sovereigns  of  the 
West:  "  This  is  the  moment  to  open  the  eyes  of  body 
and  sold,  now  that  the  brave  |iriiices  on  whom  we 
reckoned  are  dead  or  in  shivery."  The  Tatars  in- 
vaded llnngary.  gave  battle  to  the  Poles  in  Liegnitz 
in  Silesia,  bad  their  progress  a  long  while  arrested 
by  the  courageous  defense  of  Olmulz  in  Moravia,  by 
the  Tchek  voievod,  laroslaf,  and  stopped  finally, 
learning  that  a  larg(^  army,  commanded  by  the  King 
of  Bohemi;i  and  the  Diikcsof  Austriaand  Karintbia, 
was  approaching.  The  news  of  the  death  of  Oktai, 
second  Knqieror  of  all  the  Tatars,  in  C'himi,  recalled 
lialui  from  the  West,  and  during  tin-  long  march 
from  Germany  his  army  necessarily  diminished  in 
number.  The  Tatars  were  no  longer  in  the  vast 
jilains  of  Asia  and  Eastern  Europe,  but  in  a.  broken 
liilly  country,  bristling  with  fortresses,  defended  b)' 
a  population  more  dense  and  a  chivaln,-  more  num- 
erous tlam  those  of  Russia,  To  sum  up.  all  the  fury 
of  the  .Mongol  teni]iest  spent  itself  on  the  Slavonic 
race.  It  was  the  Russians  who  fought  at  the  Kalka, 
at  Kolomna,  at  the  Sit;  the  Poles  and  Silesians  at 
liiegnitz;  the  Bohemians  and  Moravians  at  Olmutz. 
The  Germans  suffered  nothnig  from  the  invasion  of 
the  Mongols  but  the  fear  of  it.  It  exhausted  itself 
principally  on  tbo.se  plains  of  Russia  which  seem  a 
continuation  of  the  steppes  of  Asia.  Only  in  Rus- 
sian history  did  the  invasion  produce  great  results. 
About  Ihe  same  lime  Balui  built  on  f)iie  ol  the  arms 
of  the  Lower  Volga  a  city  c:illed  Sarai,  orihe  Castle, 
which  became  thi'  capital  of  a  powerful  Tatar  Em- 
pire, tlicGolden  Horde,  extending  from  the  I'ral  and 
Caspian  to  the  mouth  of  the  Danube.  The  Golden 
Horde  was  formed  not  only  of  Tatar-Mongols,  or 
Nogais,  who  evi-n  now  survive  in  the  Northern  Cri- 
mea, bnt  ])ar',iciilarly  of  the  remains  of  ancient  no- 
mads, such  as  Ihe  Petchenegi  and  Pok'Vtsui.  whrj.se 
descendants  si'cm  lo  be  the  present  Kalmucks  and 
Bashkirs;  of  Turkish  tribes  tending  to  be  sedentary, 
like  the  Tatars  of  Astrakhan  in  the  present  day; 
and  of  the  Finnish  ]io|)iilations  already  established  in 
the  country,  and  which  mixed  with  the  invaders. 
Oktai,  Kuiuk,  and  .Mangu,  the  first  three  successors 
of  Genghis  Khan,  elected  by  all  the  Mongol  Princes, 
took  the  title  of  Great  Khans,  and  the  (iolden  Horde 
recognized  their  :iulliorily;  but  under  his  fourth  suc- 
cessor. Khubulai.  who  usurped  the  throne  and  es- 
tablished himself  in  China,  this  bond  of  vassalage 
was  broken.  The  Gohlen  Horde  became  an  inde- 
pendent state  in  twelve  hundred  and  sixty.  Tnited 
and  poweri'ul  under  the  terrible  Batui.  who  died  in 
twelve  hundred  and  fifty-tive.  it  fell  to  pieces  under 
l\is  successors;  but  in  the  fourteenth  centur_v  the 
Khan  I'zbek  reunited  it  anew,  and  gave  the  Horde  a 
i  second  period  of  prosperity.  The  Tatars,  who 
1  were  jiagans  when  they  entered  Russia,  embraced 
the  failli  of  Islam  about  twelve  hundred  and  seven- 
ty-two. anil  became  its  most  formidable  apostles. 

laroslaf.  after  his  defeat  at  Lipetsk,  entered  Suz- 
dal on  the  tragic  death  of  his  brother,  the  Grand 


BUSSI&N  REPUBLICS. 


828 


RUSSIAN  R£FUBLICS. 


Prince  luri  the  Second,  in  twelve  hundred  and  thir- 
tj'-eiglit,  and  found  his  inheritance  in  the  most  de- 
plorable condition.  The  towns  and  villages  were 
burnt,  the  country  and  roads  covered  with  unburied 
corpses ;  the  survivors  were  hiding  in  the  woods. 
He  recalled  the  fugitives  and  began  to  rebuild.  Ba- 
tui,  who  had  completed  the  devastation  of  South 
Russia,  summoned  laroslaf  to  do  him  homage  at 
Sarai,  on  the  Volga.  laroslaf  was  received  tliere 
withdistinclion.  Batui  confirmed  his  title  of  Grand 
Prince,  but  invited  him  to  go  in  person  to  the  Great 
Khan,  supreme  chief  of  the  Mongol  nation,  wlio 
lived  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Sakhalian,  or  Amur. 
To  do  this  was  to  cross  the  whole  of  Russia  and 
Asia.  laroslaf  bent  Ills  knees  to  the  new  master  of 
the  world,  Oktai,  succeeded  in  refuting  the  accusa- 
tions brought  against  him  bj'  a  Russian  boyar,  and 
obtained  a  new  confirmation  of  his  title.  On  his  re- 
turn, in  twelve  hundred  and  fortv-fi.x,  he  died  in  tlie 
<lesert  of  exhaustion,  and  his  faithful  servants  brought 
his  body  back  to  Vladimir.  His  son  Andrei  succeed- 
ed him  at  Suzdal,  and  ruled  until  twelve  hundred 
and  fifty-two.  His  other  son,  Alexander,  reigned  at 
Novgorod  the  (Jreat.  Alexander  was  as  brave  as  he 
was  intelligent.  He  was  the  hero  of  the  North,  and 
yet  he  forced  himself  to  accept  the  necessary  humili- 
ations of  his  terrible  situation.  In  his  youth  we  see 
him  fighting  witli  all  the  enemies  of  Novgorod,  Li- 
vonian  kniglits  and  Tchudi,  Swedes  and  Finns.  The 
Novgorodians  found  themselves  at  issue  with  the 
Scandinavians  on  the  subject  of  their  possessions  on 
the  Neva  and  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  As  they  had 
lielped  till'  natives  to  resist  the  Latin  faith.  King 
John  obtained  the  promise  of  Gregory  the  Ninth  that 
a  crusade,  with  plenary  indulgences, should  be  preach- 
ed against  the  Great  Republic  and  its  proteges,  the 
pagans  of  the  Baltic.  His  son-in-law.  Birger,  with 
an  army  of  Scandinavians,  Finns,  and  Western  Crus- 
aders, look  the  command  of  the  forces,  and  sent 
word  to  the  Prince  of  Novgorod,  "Defend  yourself, 
if  you  can:  and  know  that  I  am  already-  in  your  prov- 
inces." The  Russians  on  their  side,  feeling  that 
thej"  were  fighting  for  orthodoxy,  opposed  the  Latin 
crusade  with  a  Greek  one.  Alexander  humbled  him- 
self in  Saint  Sopliia,  received  the  benediction  of  the 
Archbishop  Spiridion,  and  addressed  an  energetic 
harangue  to  Ins  warriors.  He  had  no  time  to  await 
reinforcemenis  from  Suzdal.  He  attacked  the  Swed- 
ish camp,  which  was  situated  on  the  Ijora,  one  of 
the  southern  iifHuents  of  the  Neva,  which  had  given 
its  name  to  Ingria.  Alexander  won  a  brilliant  vic- 
tory, which  gained  him  his  surname  of  Nevski.  and 
the  honor  of  becoming  one  of  the  patrons  of  Saint 
Petersburg  under  Peter  the  Great,  the  second  con- 
queror of  the  Swedes.  By  the  orders  of  his  great 
successor,  his  bones  repose  in  the  Monastery  of  Alex- 
ander Nevski.  Tlie  battle  of  the  Neva  was  preserved 
in  a  dramatic  legend.  An  Ingriau  chief  told  Alex- 
ander liow,  on  the  eve  of  the  combat,  he  had  seen  a 
mysterious  bari.|ue,  manned  b}'  two  warriors  with 
shining  Ijrows,  glide  tlirough  the  night.  They  were 
Boris  and  (!lei).  who  came  to  the  rescue  of  their 
young  kinsman.  Other  accounts  liave  preserved  to 
us  the  individual  exploits  of  tlie  Russian  heroes — 
<Tabriel,Skuilaf  of  Novgorod, .lames  of  l'olotsk,Sabas, 
who  threw  down  the  ieiil  of  Birger.  and  Alexander 
Nevski  himself,  who  with  a  stroke  of  tlie  lance  "im- 
lirinted  his  seal  on  his  face."  Notwithstanding  the 
triumph  of  such  a  service,  Alexander  and  tlie  Nov- 
gorodians could  not  agree;  a  short  time  after  he  re- 
tired to  Pereiaslavl-Zalicski.  The  proud  repulilieaus 
soon  had  reason  to  regret  tlie  exih'  of  lliis  seeoml 
Camilliis.  The  Order  of  the  Swordbearers,  the  in- 
defatigable enemy  of  orthodoxy,  took  J'skof,  Iheir 
alley:  th(^  Germans  imposed  tribiile  on  the  VojaiK', 
vassals  of  Novgorod,  constructed  the  fortress  of  Ko- 
porie  on  the  territory  of  the  Neva,  look  the  Ilussian 
town  of  Tessof  In  Ksthonia,  and  iilllaged  the  mer- 
<-liants  of  Novgorod  wilhin  seventeen  luiles  of  their 
ramparts.     During   this   time    IIk'   Tchudi   imd  the 


Lithuanians  captured  the  peasant?,  and  the  cattle  of 
tiie  citizens.  At  last  Alexander  allowed  himself  to 
be  touched  bj'  the  prayers  of  the  Archbishop  and  th<; 
people,assembled  an  army, expelled  the  Germans  from 
Koporie,  and  next  from  Pskof,  hung  as  traitors  the 
captive  Vojane  and  Tchudi,  and  put  to  death  six 
knights  wlio  fell  into  his  hands.  This  war  between 
the  two  races  and  two  religions  was  cruel  and  piti- 
less. The  law  of  nations  was  hardly  recognized, 
More  than  once  Germans  and  Russians  slew  the  am- 
bassadors of  the  other  side.  Alexander  Nevski  fin- 
ally gave  battle  to  the  Livonian  knights  on  the  ice  of 
Lake  Peipus,  killed  four  hundred  of  them,  took  fifty 
prisoners,  and  exterminated  a  multitude  of  Tchudi. 
Such  was  the  Battle  of  the  Ice,  which  took  place  in 
twelve  hundred  and  forty-two.  He  returned  in  tri- 
umph to  Novgorod,  dragging  with  him  his  jjrisoners 
loaded  with  irons.  Tiie  Grand  Master  expected  to 
see  Alexander  at  the  gates  of  Riga,  and  implored 
help  of  Denmark.  The  Prince  of  Novgorod,  satisfied 
with  having  delivered  Pskof,  concluded  peace,  re- 
covered certain  districts,  and  consented  to  the  ex- 
change of  prisoners.  At  this  time  Innocent  the 
Fourth,  deceived  by  false  information,  aildressed  a 
bull  to  Alexander,  as  a  devoted  son  of  the  Church, 
assuring  him  that  his  father  laroslaf,  while  dying 
among  the  Horde,  had  desired  to  submit  himself  to 
the  throne  of  Saint  Peter.  Two  Cardinals  brought 
him  tills  letter  from  the  Pope  in  twelve  hundred  and 
fifty-one. 

It  is  this  liero  of  the  Neva  and  Lake  Peipus,  this 
vanquisher  of  the  Scandinavians  and  the  Livonian 
knights,  that  we  are  presently  to  see  grovelling  at 
the  feet  of  a  barbarian.  Alexander  Nevski  perceived 
that  in  presence  of  this  immense  and  brutal  force  of 
the  Mongols,  all  resistance  was  madness,  all  pride 
ruin.  To  brave  them  was  to  complete  the  overthrow 
oi  Russia.  His  conduct  maj'  not  have  been  chival- 
rous, but  it  was  wise  and  humane.  Alexander  dis- 
dained to  play  the  hero  at  the  expense  of  his  people, 
like  his  brother  Andrei  of  Suzdal,  who  was  immedi- 
ately obliged  to  fly,  abandoning  his  country  to  the 
vengeance  of  the  Tatars.  The  Prince  of  Novgorod 
was  the  only  prince  in  Russia  who  had  kept  his  in- 
dependence, but  he  knew  Batui's  hands  could  ex- 
tend as  far  as  the  Ilmen.  "God  has  subjected  many 
peoples  to  me,"  wrote  the  barbarian  to  him  :  "will 
you  alone  refuse  to  recognize  my  power  ?  If  you 
wish  to  keep  your  land  come  to  me  :  you  will  see 
the  splendor  and  glor}-  of  my  swa}'."  Then  Alex- 
ander went  to  Sarai  with  his  brother  Andrei,  who 
was  disputing  the  Grand  Principality  of  Vladimir 
with  his  uncle,  Sviatoslaf.  Batui  declared  that  fame 
had  not  exaggerated  the  merit  of  Alexander,  that  he 
far  excelled  the  common  run  of  Russian  Princes. 
He  enjoined  the  two  brothers  to  show  themselves, 
like  Iheir  father  laroslaf,  at  the  Great  Horde  ;  they 
returned  from  it  in  twelve  hundred  and  fifty  seven. 
Kuiuk  had  confirmed  the  one  in  the  po.ssession  of 
Vladimir,  and  tlie  other  in  that  of  Novgorod,  a<Iding 
to  it  all  South  Russia  and  Kief.  The  year  twelve 
hundred  and  sixty  jtut  Alexander's  patience  and  also 
his  politic  obedience  to  the  Tatars  to  the  proof. 
Ulavtclii,  to  whom  llie  Khnii  Birkai  had  confided 
llie  all'airs  of  ;ill  Russia,  deniimdid  that  N<ivgorod 
should  submit  lo  llie  census  and  pay  tribute,  ll  was 
the  hero  of  the  Neva  who  was  charged  with  the 
huniilialing  and  dangerous  mission  of  persuading 
Novgorod,  When  the  posadnik  expressed  in  the 
vetciu?  the  opinion  that  it  was  necessary  to  submit 
to  the  slrongesl,  the  jieople  nosed  a  terrible  cry  and 
j  munlered  him.  Vasili  hiiiisi'If.  Alexinider's  son,  de- 
1  elared  against  a  f:ither  "who  brought  servitude  to 
t  free  men,"  ;uid  rdiied  lo  the  Pskovians.  It  needed 
a  soul  of  iron  temper  to  resist  the  universal  disa|)- 
probation  ami  counsel  the  Novgorodians  to  tliecom- 
;  mission  of  the  cowardly  though  necessary  act .  Alex- 
ander  arrested  his  son,  and  |iuiiislied  with  death  or 
I  mutilation  the  boyars  wlio  had  led  him  into  the  rc- 
1  volt.     The  velehe  decided  lo  refuse  the  tribute,  and 


RUSSIAN  REPUBLICS. 


829 


RUSSIAN  REPUBLICS. 


Bent  buck  tlie  Mongol  ambassador»  with  prpHcnts. 
However, nil  tlieriiiiiDr  of  I  lie  iipprdiicli  of  I  he  'I'aliirx, 
llicv  repi'Mlcilaiiil  Ali-.\:inilir  coulil  ;iririniiiicc  to  llii^ 
eiieiiiy  llial  NoVfj;ijroil  Mjljiiiilliil  lo  tlic-  cciisiis.  IJiil 
when  they  saw   tlie  ollieer  of  th(^  Uhan  at  work,  the 

ftopiihilion  rev.illed  at;aiii,  and  the  I'rince  was  ol)- 
i;^e(l  to  keep  };uar(l  on  tlie  ollicer.s  iiii;ht  and  (hiy. 
In  v.'dn  the  hoyars  advised  the  eiti/.eiis  lo  j;ive  in  : 
usseiiihlcd  around  Saint  Sophia,  the  pi-npie  <li-elared 
Ihey  would  die  for  lilurly  and  honor.  Alexan<ler 
tlieii  IhrealcTiril  lo  (|iiil  llie  eily  wiih  his  men,  and 
abandon  il  lo  the  full  veni;(  anee  nf  tin'  khan.  This 
menace  eonipiered  the  pride  cif  th<-  Nov;;orodians. 
The  Mongols  anil  their  agents  were  allowed  to  jjo, 
register  in  hiimi,  from  honse  to  honse  in  the  humili- 
ated and  silent  city  to  make  the  list  of  the  in  habit  finis. 
"The  hoyars,"  says  Karanisin,  "might  si  ill  he  vain 
of  their  rank  and  their  rielies.lmt  the  simple  <'ili/,ens 
had  lost  with  their  national  honor  their  most  precious 
possession." 

In  Suzdal  also  Alexander  found  liimself  in  the 
presence  of  insolent  victors  and  exasperatixl  siilijects. 
in  twelve  hundred  and  sixty-two  the  inhabitants  of 
Vladimir,  of  Suzdal,  and  of  Kostof  all  arose  against 
the  collectors  of  the  Tatar  inipnsl.  The  people  of 
laroslavl  slew  one  renegade  named  Zozim  a  former 
monk,  who  had  become  a  .Moslem  fanatic.  Terribh^ 
reprisals  wi're  sure  to  follow.  Alexander  set  out 
with  presents  for  tlie  Horde  at  the  risk  of  leaving  his 
head  there.  He  had  likewise  to  excuse  himself  for 
having  refused  tlie  Mongols  a  body  of  the  auxiliary 
Russians,  wishing  at  least  to  spare  the  blood  and  the 
religious  scruples  of  his  subjects.  It  is  a  remarkable 
factUiat,  over  the  most  piofonnd  humiliations  of 
the  Kussian  nationality,  Ihi^  contenipHrary  history 
always  throws  a  ray  of  glory.  At  the  moment  that 
Alexiuider  w-ent  to  prostrate  himself  at  Sarai,  tiie 
Su/.dalian  army,  united  to  that  of  Novgorod,  and 
eonuniuided  by  his  son  Dmitri,  defeated  the  Livon- 
ian  knights,  and  look  Dorpat  by  assault.  The  Khan 
Bp.rluii  gave  Alexander  a  kind  greeting,  accepted  his 
explanations,  dispensed  with  the  promise<l  contin- 
gent, but  kept  him  for  a  year  near  his  Coiirl.  Alex- 
luuler's  health  broke  down;  on  his  return  he  died 
before  reaching  Vladimir.  When  the  news  arrived 
at  his  Capital,  the  Metropolitan  Kirill,  who  was  tin- 
jsbing  tile  liturgy,  turned  towards  the  faithful,  and 
said  :  "Learn,  my  dear  children,  that  the  Sun  of 
Russia  18  set."  "We  are  lost,"  cried  the  people, 
brmUiing  forth  into  sobs.  Alexander  by  this  policy 
of  resignation,  which  his  chivalrous  heroism  does 
not  iHTinit  us  to  despise,  had  secured  some  repose 
for  exhausted  Russia.  By  his  victories  over  his 
enemies  of  the  West  he  had  given  it  some  glory, 
and  hindered  it  from  despairing  under  the  most 
crushing  tyranny,  material  and  moral,  which  a  Eu- 
ropean people  had  ever  siilTered. 

The  Mongol  khans,  after  having  devastated  and 
abased  Russia,  did  not  introduce  any  direct  political 
change.  They  left  to  each  coun'ry  its  laws,  its  courts 
of  justice,  its  natural  chiefs.  The  house  of  Andrei 
Bogoliuliski  continued  to  reign  in  Suzdal,  that  of 
Daniel  Homanovilch  in  Galitch  and  Volhynia,  the 
Olgovitchi  in  Tcliernigof,  and  the  descendants  of 
Rogvolod  the  Variag  at  Polotsk.  Novgorod  might 
continue  to  expel  and  recall  its  priiKcs,  and  the  dy- 
nasties of  the  South  to  dispute  the  throne  of  Kief. 
The  Russian  states  found  themselves  under  the 
Mongol  yoke,  in  much  the  same  situation  as  that  of 
the  (.'hrislians  of  the  Greco-Slav  peninsula  three  cen- 
turies later,  under  the  Ottomans.  The  Russians 
remained  in  possession  of  all  their  lands,  which  their 
nomad  concpierors.  encamped  <ni  the  steppes  of  the 
East  and  South,  disdained.  They  were  like  their 
Danubian  kinsmen,  a  sort  of  rayahs.  over  whom  the 
authority  of  the  khans  was  exerted  with  more  or 
le.ss  rigor,  but  whom  their  conquerors  never  tried 
in  any.  way  to  Tatarize.  Let  us  see  in  w  hat  consisted 
ed  the  oliligations  of  the  vanquished,  and  their  rela- 
tions with  their  conquerorsjduriug  the  Mongol  yoke. 


The  Riisnian  Princes  were  forced  to  visit  the  Horde 
either  as  evidence  of  their  HiibiiiiKsion,  or  to  give  the 
khan  opporlunity   of  judging  tlii'ir  ilispiites.     We 
have  seiii  how  they  iiail  to  go,  not  only  to  (he  khaii 
of  the  (loldin  Horde,  but  often  also  to  the  Grand 
Khan  at  the  extremity  of  .Asia,  rui  the  borders  of  the 
Sakli.iliaii  or  Amur.     They  met  there  Ibi-  chiefH  of 
the  Mongol,  Tatar,  Thibetan,  and  Hokharian  liordcB, 
iiikI  sometimes  llie  ambassador  of  tlieCaliph  of  Bag- 
dad, of  Ihc  I 'ope,  or  of  the  King  of  F.'-aiici-.  rin;  Grand 
Khans  tried  tr)  play  oil'  against  each  oilier  lliese  uin- 
bassadois,  who  were  aslounded  to  meet  at  lii»  Court. 
Malign  Khan  ilesired  Saint  Louis  to  recognize  him 
as  the  master  of  the  world,  "for,"  said  he.  "whcB 
the  universe  has  saluted  me  as  sovereign,  a  happy 
traiKpiillity  will  reign  on  the  earth."     In  the  case  of 
refusal,  "neither  deep  seas  nor  inaccessible  moun- 
tains" wouhl  place  the  King  of  Prance  beyond  the 
power  of  his  wrath.  To  Ihi^  princes  of  Asia  an<l  Itus- 
sia  he  displayed  the  presents  of  the  King  of  France, 
alVecling  lo  consider  Ihem  as  tributes  and  signs  of 
submission.     "We  will  send  for  him  to  confound 
you,"  he  said  to  theiii.  and  Joinville  assures  us  that 
this  threat,  and  "the  fear  of  the    King  of  France," 
decided  many   lo  throw   themselves   (Jii  his  mercy. 
This  journey  to  the  Grand  Horde  was  terrible.    The 
road  went  tliroiigh  deserts;  or  countries   once   rich, 
but  changed  by  the  Tatars  into  vast  wastes.     Few 
who  went  returned.     I'lanus  Carpinus,  envoy  of  In- 
nocent the  Fourth,  saw  in  the  steppes  of  the  Kirghiz 
the  dry  bones  of  the  hoyars   of  tlie   unhappy   laros- 
laf,  who  had  dieil  of  thiVsl  in  the  sand.  Planus  C'ar- 
jiinus  thus  describes  the  H:ilui's  Court  on  the  Volga: 
"It  is  crowded  and  brilliant.     His  army  consists  of 
six    hundred    lliousand   men,  one   hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  of  wliom  are  Tatars,  and  four  hundn  d  and 
lifty  thousand  strangers.  Christians  as  well  as  infi- 
dels.    On  Gc  od  Friday  we  were  conducted  to  his 
tent,  between  two  tires,  becau.ie  the  Tatars  pretend 
that  a  fire  purifies  everything,  and  robs  even  poison 
of  its  danger.     We  had  lo  make  many  prostrations, 
and  enter'the  tent  without    loiiching  the  threshold, 
lialiii  was  in  his  throne  with  one  of  his  wives;   his 
brothers,  his  children,  and  the  Tatar  lords  were  seat- 
ed on  benches  ;   the  rest  of  the  assembly  were  on  the 
ground,  the  men  on   the  right,  the  women  on  the 
left....  The  klian  and  the  lords  of  the  Court  emptied 
from  time  to  lime  cups  of  gold  and  silver,  while  the 
musicians  made  the  air  ring  with   their  melodies. 
l!;itiii  has  a  bright  complexion;  he  isalTable  with  his 
men.  but  inspires  general  terror."    The  Court  of  the 
(irand  Khan  was  still  more  magnificent.  Planus  Car- 
pinus found  there  a  Russian  named  Kum,  who  was 
the  f;ivorite  and  special  goldsmilh  of  Gaiuk  or  Kuuik, 
anil  Rul)ruqius  discovered  a  Parisian  goldsmilh,  nam- 
ed Guillaume.  Much  money  was  needed  for  success 
either  at  the  Court  of  the  Grand  Khan  or  of  Batui. 
Presents  had  to  be  distributed  to  the  Tatar  Princes, 
to  the  favorites  above  all, to  the  wives  and  the  mother 
of  the  khan.     .Vl  this  terrible  tribunal  the  Russian 
Princes  had  to  struggle  with  intrigues  and  corrup- 
tion; the  heads  of  the" pleaders  were  often  the  slakes 
of  these  dreadful  trials.     The  most  dangerous  ene- 
mies they  encountered  at  the  Tatar  Court  were  not 
the  barbarians,  but  the  Russians,  their  rivals.     The 
history  of  the  Russian  Princes  at  the  Horde  of  Sa- 
rai in  "twelve  hundred  and  forty-six,  and  Mikhail  of 
Tver  in  thirteen  hundred  and  nineteen,  the  one  as- 
sassinated by  the  renegade  Doman,  Ihe  other  by  the 
renegade  Romaneis,  at  the  instigation  and  under  the 
eyes'of  the  Grand  Prince  of  Moscow. 
"  The  conquered  people  were  obliged  to  pay  a  capi- 
tation lax,  which  weisrlii-d  as  heavily  on  Ihe  poor  as 
on  the  rich.     The  tribute  was  paid  "either  in  money 
or  in  furs;  those  who  were  unable  lo  furnish  it  be- 
came slaves.     The  khans  Inid  for  some  lime  farmed 
out  this  revenue  lo  some  Khiva  merchants,  who  col- 
I  lected  it  with  the  utmost  rigor,  and  whom  they  pro- 
tected by  appointing  superior  agents  called  batka/ii, 
I  with  strong  guardsto  support  them.    The  excesses 


BUSSIAN  REPUBLICS. 


830 


KUSSIAN  KEPCBLICS. 


of  these  tax-gatherers  excited  many  revolts:  in  twelve 
hundred  and  sixtj'-two,  that  of  Suzdal;  in  twelve 
hundred  and  eighty -four,  that  of  Kiirsk;  in  thirteen 
hundred  and  eighteen,  that  of  Kolomna;  in  thirteen 
hundred  and  twentj'-seveu,  that  of  Tver,  where  the 
inhabitants  slew  tlie  haskak  Shevkal,  and  brought 
upon  themselves  frightful  reprisals.  Later, the  Princes 
of  Moscow  themselves  farmed  not  only  tlie  tax  from 
their  own  subjects,  but  also  from  neighboring  coun- 
tries. Tliev  became  the  farmers-general  of  the  in- 
vaders. Tills  was  the  origin  of  both  their  riches  and 
their  power. 

Besides  the  tribute,  the  Russians  had  to  furnish  to 
their  master  the  blood-tax,  a  military  contingent. 
Already  at  the  time  of  the  Huns  and  Avars,  we  have 
seen   Slavs    and   Goths   accompanying  tlie   Asiatic 
hordes,   forming  their  vanguards,  and  being  as  it 
were  the  hounds  of  Baian.      In  the  thirteentli  cen- 
tury the   Kussiau  Princes  furnislied  to   the  Tatars 
select  troops,  especially  a  solid  infantry,  and  march- 
ed in  their  armies  each  at  the  head  of  his  drujiua. 
It  was  thus  that  in  twelve  hundred  and  seventy-six 
Boris  of  Rostof,  Gleb  of  Bielozersk,  Feodor  of  laro- 
slavl,  and  Andrei  of  Gorodets  followed  Mangu  Khan 
in   a   war  against   the  tribes   of  tlie  Caucasus,  and 
sacked   Dediakof  in  Daghestau,  the  capital  of  the 
lasui.     The  Mongols  scrupulously  reserved  to  them 
their  part  of  the  booty.      The  same  Russian  Princes 
took  part  in  an  expedition  against   an  adventurer 
named  Lachan  by  the  Greek  historians,  formerly  a 
keeper  of  pigs,  who  had  raised  Bulgaria.      The  "de- 
scendants of  Monomakh  behaved  still  more  dishon- 
orably in  the  trouble^  in  the  interior  of  Russia.   They 
excited  the  Mongols  against  tlieir  countrymen  and 
aided  the  invaders.      Prince  Andrei,  son"  of  ifUex- 
ander  Nevski,  in  twelve  hundred  and  eighty-one,  in 
■concert  with  the  Tatars,  pillaged  the  provinces  of 
Vladimir,  Suzdal,  Murom.  Moscow,  and  Pereiaslavl, 
which  be  was  disputing  witli  Dmitri,  his  elder  broth- 
■er.      He  helped  the  barbarians  to  profane  churches 
and  convents.     In  thirteen  hundred  and  twenty-sev- 
en it  was  the  Prmces  of  Moscow  and  Suzdal  who 
directed  the  military  execution  against  Tver.      In 
twelve  hundred  and  eighty-four  two  of  the  Olgovitclii 
reigned  in  the  land  of  Kursk;  one  of  them,  Oleg,  put 
the  other  to  death  in  the  name  of  tlie  khan.      Servi- 
tude had  so  much  abased  all  characters,  that  even 
the  annalists  share  the  general  degradation.      They 
blame,  not  Oleg  the  murderer,  but  Sviatoslaf  the  vic- 
tim.     Was  it  not  his  unbridled  conduct  that  caused 
the  anger  of  the  klian  ?     No  prince  could  ascend  the 
throne  without  having  received  the  investiture  and 
the  iarluik,  or  letters";patent,  from  the  khan.      Tlie 
proud  Novgorodians  themselves  rejected  Mikhail, 
their  Prince,  saying,  "It  is  true  that  we  have  chosen 
Mikhail,  but  on  the  condition  that  he  sliould  show 
us  the  iarluik."     No  Russian  State  dared  to  make 
war  without  being  authorized   by  the  klian.       In 
twelve  hundred   and  sixty-nine  the   Novgorodians 
asked  leave  to  march  against  Revel.      In  thirteen 
hundred  and  three,  in  an  assembly  of  princes,  and 
in  the  presence  of  the  Metropolitan  Maximus,  a  de- 
cree of  the  Khan  Tokhta  was  read,   enjoining  tlie 
princes  to  put  an  end  to  their  dissensions,  and  to 
content   themselves  with  their  apjianages,  it  being 
the  will  of  the  Grand  Klian  that  the  Grand  Princi- 
pality should  enjoy  peace.      "When  the  Jlonsrol  am- 
bassadors brought  a  letter  from  their  sovereign,  the 
Russian  Princes  were  oliliged  to  meet  them  on  foot, 
prostrate  themselves,  spread  precious  cariiets  under 
their  feet,  present  them  with  a  cuii  tilled  with  gold 
pieces,  and  listen,  kneeling, while  the  iarluik  was  be- 
ing read. 

Even  when  tlic  Tatars  had  conquered  the  Russians, 
they  respected  their  bravery.  Matrimonial  alliances 
were  contracted  between  their  princes.  Aboul  twelve 
hundred  and  seventy-two  (Jleli,  Prince  of  IJii'lozersk, 
took  a  wife  out  of  the  khan's  family,  which  already 
professed  Clirislianity,  and  Feodor  of  Riazau  became 
the  son-in-law  of  the  khan  of  tlie  Nogais,  who  as- 


signed to  the  young  couple  a  palace  -in  Sarai.    In 
thirteen  hundred  and  eighteen  the  Grand  Prince  luri 
married  a  sister  of  Uzbek  Khan,    Koutchaka,   wlio 
was  baptized  by  the  name  of  Agatha.     Towards  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  Tatars  were  no 
longer  the  rude  shepherds  of  the  steppes.     Mingled 
with  sedentary  and  more  cultivated  races,  they  re- 
built fresh  cities  on  the  ruins  of  those  they  had  de- 
stroyed :  Kruim  in  the  Crimea,  Kazan,  Astrakhan, 
and  Sarai.     They  had  acquired  a  taste  for  luxury 
and  magnificence,  honored  the  national  poets  who 
sang  their  exploits,  piqued  themselves  on  their  chiv- 
alry and  even  on  their  gallantry.     Notwithstanding 
the  difference  of  religion,  a  reconciliation  was  taking 
place  between  the  aristocracy  of  the  two  countries, 
between  the  Russian  and  the  Tatar  Princes.     The 
Russian  historians  are  not  entirely  agreed  as  to  the 
nature  and  degree  of  influence  exerted  by  the  Mon- 
gol yoke  on  the  Russian  development.     Karamsin 
and  M.  Kostomarof  believe  it  to  have  been  consider- 
able.    "Perhaps,"  says  the  former,    "our   national 
character  still  presents  some  blots  which  are  derived 
from  the  Mongol  barbarism."     M.  Soloviof,  on  the 
contrary,  affirms  that  the  Tatars  hardly  intlueuced  it 
more  than  the  Petchcuegi  or  Polovtsui.     31.  Bestu- 
jef-Riumin  estimates  the  influence  to  have  been  spe- 
cially  exerted  on  the  financial  administration  and 
military  organization.     On  one  side  the  Tatars  es- 
tablished the  capitation-tax,  which  has  remained  in 
the  financial  system  of  Russia  ;  on  the  other,  the  con- 
quered race  had  a  natural  tendency  toadopt  the  mil- 
itary system  of  the  victors.     The  Russian  or  Mon- 
gol Princes   formed  a  caste   of  soldiers  henceforth 
quite  distinct  from  Western  chivalry,  to  which  the 
Russian  heroes   of  the   twelfth   century   belonged. 
The  warriors  of  Daniel  of  Galitch,  it  is  said,  astound- 
ed the  Poles  and  Hungarians  by  the  Oriental  char- 
acter of  their  equipment.     Short  stirrups,  very  high 
saddles,  a  long  caftan,   or  floating  dress,  a  sort  of 
turban  surmounted  by  an  aigret,  sabers  and  poniards 
in  their  belts,  a  bow  and  arrows, — such  was  the  mili- 
tary costume  of  a  Russian  Prince  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury.    On  the  other  side,  many  of  the  peculiarities  in 
which  the  Mongol  influence  is  thought  traceable  may 
be  attributed  as  well  or  better  to  purely  Slav  tradi- 
tions,  or  imitations  of  Byzantine   manners.     If  the 
Muscovite  Princes  inclined  to  autocracj',  it  was  not 
that  they  formed  themselves   on  the  model  of  the 
Grand  Khans,  but  that  they  naturally  adopted  im- 
perial  ideas  of  absolutism  imported  from  Constanti- 
nople.    It  is  always  the  Roman  Emperor  of  Tsar, 
grad,  and  not  the  leader  of  Asiatic  shepherds,  who  is 
their  typical  monarch.     If  from  this  time  the  Rus- 
sian penal  law  makes  more  frequent  use  of  the  pain 
of  death  and  corporal  punishment,  it  is  not  only  the 
result  of  imitation  of  the  Tatars,  but  of  the  ever, 
growing  influence  of  Byzantine  laws,  and  the  pro- 
gressive triumph  of  their  principles  over  those  of  the 
ancient  Code  of  laroslaf.     Now  these  laws  so  very 
easily  admitted  torture,   flogging,    mutilation,  and 
the  stake,  that  there  is  no  need  to  explain  anything 
by  Mongol  usages.    The  habit  of  prostration,  that  of 
beating  the  forehead,  of  affecting  a  servile  submis-- 
sion,  is  certainly  Oriental,  but  it  is  also  Byzantine. 
The  seclusion  of  women  was  common  in  ancient 
Russia,  the   customs   of   which   were  moulded   by 
Greek  missionaries,  and  tlie  Russian  terem  was  de- 
rived from  the  Hellenic  plan  of  women's  quarters, 
rather  than  from  the  Oriental  harem;    all   the  more 
because  the  Tatar  women,  before  the  conversion  of 
the  Jlongols  to  I>hiinism,  do  not  ajijiear  to  have  been 
secluded.     If  the  Russians  of  the  seventeenlh  century 
seem  strange  to  us  in  their  long  robes  and  Oriental 
fashions,  we  must  remember  that   the  French   and 
Italians  of  the  (ifleenlh  century,  dressed  by  Venetian 
merchants,  dis|)layed  the  same  taste.     But  in  France 
fashions  made  advances,   while  in  Russia,   isolated 
from  the  rest  of  Kurope,  they  remained  stationary. 

From  a  social  point  of  view,  two  Russian  expres- 
sions seem  to  date  from  the  Tatar  invasion :  tchernuL 


BUSSIAN  RIFLING. 


831 


BUBT. 


or  the  black  prnplo,  to  dopmnilto  Ihr  lowor  orders 
a.ni\  k nut idiii II. ,  sifiiiifyiiif^  tiic  pciisiint,  Uial  is,  tin 
typiciil  ('liriHtiun,  who  wus  always  a  si  ranker  to  Hit- 
Moiifjnl  ciistoiiis  adopted  for  a  smirl  time  oy  the  ar- 
istoeracy.  As  to  the  ainouiil  of  Moiifjol  or  Tatar 
blood  mixed  with  the  blood  of  the  Hiissians,  it  must 
have  belli  very  small  :  the  aristoeraey  of  the  two 
K'nuiUries  may  have  eoiilraeted  iiiarriai^es,  a  eerlaiii 
lUiiuber  of  Tatar  I'riiiees  may  have  bectome  Russian 
Princes  by  their  conversion  to  orthodoxy,  but  the 
two  races,  as  ii  whole,  remained  straii<;ers.  Even  to- 
day, while  the  native  Finns  conliiiu<Mo  be  Kussilied, 
the  Tatar  cantons,  even  thoiij;h  converted  to  Chris- 
tianily,  an^  still  Tatar.  If  the  Monjfol  yoke  iiilhi- 
cnceil  ICiissian  development,  it  is  very  indirectly. 
By  separatini;  Russia  from  the  West,  by  inakiii'^  it  a 
political  dependency  of  Asia,  it  perpetuated  in  the 
country  that  Byzantine  half-civili/alion  wlmse  infe- 
riority to  European  civilization  became  daily  more 
obvious.  If  the  Russians  of  the  seventeenth  centu- 
ry differ  so  much  from  Western  nations,  it  is  above 
all  because  the}'  have  remained  at  the  jKiint  whence 
ull  set  out.  Ai;ain.  the  Tatar  ciiii(|uest  also  favored 
imlirectly  the  estalilisliinent  of  absolute  jiower.  The 
IMuscovite  I'riiices,  respdiisiblc  to  the  kahii  for  the 
public  tranipiility  and  the  collection  of  the  Uix,  be- 
ing-all the  while  watched  andsupported  by  the  baska- 
ki,  could  the  more  easily  annihilate  the  independ- 
ence of  the  towns,  the  resistance  of  the  suliordinate 
princes,  the  turbulence  of  the  boyars,  and  tin-  priv- 
ileges of  the  free  peasants.  The  (iraiid  Prince  of 
Moscow  had  no  consideration  for  his  subjects  be- 
cause no  man  had  any  consideration  for  him,  and 
because  his  life  was  always  at  stake.  The  .Mongol 
tyranny  bore  with  a  terrible  weight  upon  all  tlie 
Hussian  hierarchy,  and  subjected  more  closely  the 
nobles  to  the  princes  and  the  peasants  to  the  nobles. 
"The  Princes  of  Moscow,"  says  Karamsin,  "took 
the  humble  title  of  servants  of  the  khans,  and  it  was 
by  this  means  that  they  became  powerful  moiiarchs." 
No  doubt  under  any  circiiinstances  the  Russian  prin- 
cipalities would  have  ended  by  losing  themselves  in 
tlie  same  dominion,  but  Russian  unity  would  have 
been  made  like  French  unity,  without  the  entire  de- 
struction of  local  autonomies,  the  privileges  of  the 
towns,  and  the  rights  of  the  subjects,  it  was  the 
crushing  weight  of  the  Mongol  domination  that  sti- 
fled all  the  germs  of  political  liberty.  \Ve  may  say, 
with  .Mr.  Wallace,  tliat  "  the  first  Tsars  of  Muscovy 
were  the  jiolitical  descendants, not  of  Russian  Princes, 
but  of  Tatar  khans."  The  third  indirect  result  of 
the  conquest  was  the  giowtli  of  the  power  and  riches 
of  the  Church.  In  spite  of  the  saintly  legends  about 
the  martyrdom  of  certain  princes,  the  Tatars  were  a 
tolerant  nation.  Rubnniuis  saw  in  the  presence  of 
the  (Jrand  Khan  .Mangii.  Nestorians,  Mussulmans, 
and  Shamans  celebrating  their  own  particular  form 
of  worship.  Kuiuk  had  a  Christian  chapel  near  his 
palace  ;  Ivhubilai  regularly  took  part  in  the  feast  of 
Easter.  In  twelve  hundred  and  .sixty-one  the  Khan 
of  Sariii  authorized  the  erection  of  a  church  and  an 
orthodox  bishopric  in  his  Capital.  The  Mongols  ha<l 
no  sectarian  haired  against  liisliops  andjiriests. 
AVith  a  sure  political  instinct, tlu^  Tatars, very  like  the 
Sultans  of  Stanibul.  understood  that  all  these  men 
could  excite  or  ca'.m  the  people.  After  the  lirst  fiirv 
of  the  conciuest  was  passed,  they  applied  themselves 
to  gaining  them  over.  They  excepted  priests  and 
monks  from  the  capitation-tax  ;  they  received  them 
well  at  the  Horde,  and  gave  pardons  at  their  inter- 
cession. They  settled  disputes  of  orthodox  prelates, 
and  established  peace  in  ilieCliurch  as  well  as  in  the 
State.  In  thirteen  hundred  and  thirteen  the  Khan 
Uzbek,  at  the  prayer  of  Peter.  .Metropolitan  of  Mos- 
cow, confirmed  the  privileges  of  the  Church,  and  for- 
bade that  it  should  be  deprived  of  its  possessions, 
"  for,"  says  the  edict,  "these  possessions  are  sacred, 
because  they  belong  to  men  whose  prayers  preserve 
our  lives  and  slrengtluii  our  armies."  The  riirht  of 
justice  was  formally  graiiteil  to  the  Clinrcli.     Sacri- 


lege was  iiunished  by  death.  The  conventH  also  In- 
creased in  numbers  and  riches.  Tliey  tilled  enor- 
mously: were  tlii'y  not  the  safest  asylumH?  Tlicip 
peasants  and  servants  multiplied  :  was  not  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Church  the  surest  ?  Gifts  of  land  were 
showered  on  them,  as  in  France  in  the  year  ten  liun- 
dred.  It  was  thus  that  the  great  ecclesiastical  patri- 
mony of  Russia  was  founded,  a  wealthy  reserve  of 
revenues  and  capital,  on  which  more  than  once  in 
national  crises  the  Russian  sovereigns  were  glad  to 
draw.  The  Cliiircli,  which,  even  in  its  weakness, 
had  Hteadil}'  tended  to  unity  and  autocracy,  was  to 
place;  at  the  service  of  the  crown  a  power  which  had 
become  enormous.  The  Metropolitans  of  Moscow 
were  almost  always  the  faithful  allies  of  the  Grand 
Princes.  Sei'  Itimninn  Army,  JtnuHiau  Ot/ternmeni, 
and  ItiinHi'dii  I'riiiriiiitlitii'H. 

RUSSIAN  RIFLING.- The  Russians  have  adopted 
the  French  ritiing  for  heavy  ordnance.  They  have, 
however,  had  rilled  several  of  their  smaller  fortress- 
guns  with  six  grooves,  and  their  field-pieces  have 
been  ritlcd  in  a  similar  manner  ;  but,  instead  of  plac- 
ing the  stmls  in  pairs,  and  having  twelve  of  them, 
they  use  only  six  placed  alternately.  Their  rifling 
has  an  equal  twist,  and  the  grooves  are  slightly  nar- 
rowed at  the  bottom.  In  the  lield-pieces  they  are 
sloped  otr.  on  one  side  to  allow  the  projectile,  the 
bearings  of  which  are  also  sloped  off,  to  wedge  it- 
self tightly  ;  but  these  slight  modifications  pos.sess 
no  advantage  over  the  fittings  adopted  for  the  French 
.service. 

Jlore  recently  the  Russians  have  adopted  both  the 
ceniering  and  the  compressing  systems  of  rifling  with 
their  steel  ordnance. 

BUST. — Oxide  of  iron,  which  forms  on  the  surface 
of  iron  from  exposure  to  atmospheric  influence  or 
contact  with  acid.  The  following  fonnsagood  pre- 
servative against  rust,  and  is  a  good  composition  for 
guns  when  packed  in  boxes  for  transit, viz.,  one  part 
while  lead,  seven  jiarts  tallow. 

Among  metal-workers  and  particularly  among  the 
skilled  artisans  engaged  in  the  production  of  small- 
arms  the  perfection  of  a  cheap,  simple  and.  at  the 
same  time,  reliable,  process  of  coating  the  smaller 
parts — as  for  instance,  in  the  guns,  the  functional 
pieces  of  the  systems — for  the  prevention  of  rust, 
has  been  the  subject  of  study  and  experiment  for 
very  many  years.  When  it  is  considered  that  so  in- 
considerable a  WarKstablishment  asthatof  the  Unit- 
ed States  demands  the  manufacture  of  some  30,000 
Springfield  rifles  ;><  r  annum  to  keep  up  the  reason- 
able complement  in  reserve,  and  that  private  manu- 
factures year  by  year  average  an  aggregate  of  ten 
times  that  number  of  military  and  sporting  arms, 
the  value  of  the  sugMstcd  improvement  is  most  sen- 
siblj-  appreciated.  The  essays  which  have  been  made 
in  tills  country  and  Europe,  in  the  direction  of  pro- 
tecting steel  and  iron  against  the  corroding  effects 
of  air  and  moisture, have  involved  experiments  with 
paints,  varnishes,  glazes,  enamels,  galvanizing,  elec- 
tro-depositing, and  finalh',  the  magnetic-oxide  coat- 
ing process,  which  up  to  the  present  time  seems  to 
cliiim  the  best  results.  This  last  named  process  was 
the  discover)-,  some  ten  years  back,  of  Prof.  Barff, 
and  is  generally  termed  the  "  Barff-ina;."  The  Barfl 
theory  suljjects  the  parts  to  be  treated  to  the  action 
of  super-heated  steam,  in  a  retort  or  chamber,  until 
such  a  temperature  is  reached  as  will  assure  the  ox- 
ydization  demanded.  The  discovery  is  now  con- 
trolled by  the  Bower-Barff  Co.,  an  English  organiza- 
tion which  has  an  agency  in  the  United  States.  Be- 
sides the  Bower-Barff  there  iiave  been  two  or  three 
processes,  in  the  direction  of  anti-rust  coating  by 
oxide,  practically  developed  in  this  countrj-,  bul,  we 
understand,  without  satisfactory  results.  Though 
there  is  no  quest  ion  of  the  value  of  theBarff-ing  pro- 
cess as  applied  to  large  bodies  of  iron  and  steel,  its 
diflieulties  and  uncertainties  in  treating  small  pieces, 
like  the  action  and  the  limb-work  of  gun  systems, 
have  thus  far, we  believe, deterred  the  manufacturers 


BU8TS£. 


832 


BY8WICE. 


from  its  adoption.  Tlie  interchangeable  theory  of 
small-arms  production  demands  a  mathematically 
correct  and  uniform  preservation  of  the  contour, 
proportion  and  volume  of  each  part,  and  such  possi- 
ble incidents  as  the  erection  of  scale  on  the  metal, 
the  distortion  of  lines,  or  the  expansion  or  shrinkage 
of  volume,  through  too  great  heat  or  inexpert  hand- 
ling, are  of  course  not  to  be  entertained.  For  .some 
months  past  it  has  been  not  altogether  a  secret  in 
ordnance  circles  that  the  very  vexatious  problem  of 
coating  gun  parts  with  oxide,  in  such  manner  as  to 
assure  not  onlj'  au  excellent  color  but  entire  protec- 
tion against  corrosive  influences,  has  been  solved 
through  the  verj'  intelliiient  and  patient  experiment- 
ing of  Colonel  A.  R.  liiilhiiLiton,  Commandant  of  the 
National  Armory  at  Spriugtield. 

The  information  in  our  possession  at  present  as 
to  Colonel  Buttington's  process,  from  the  Army  and 
Navy  Jiiurnal.  is  derived  from  a  correspondent  who 
has  been  for  many  years  a  manufacturer  of  machine 
plant  and  special  tools  for  gun-making  and  an  ex- 
pert in  the  selection  and  treatment  of  metals.  We 
learn  that  the  experiments,  which  have  proceeded 
by  slow  degrees  from  the  plane  of  investigation  to 
that  of  practical  application,  have  been  of  long  con- 
tinuance, and  that  the  testing  has  been  of  a  charac- 
ter exceptionally  severe  and  thorough.  In  pursuing 
his  experiments  Colonel  Buffiugtou  has  always  kept 
in  view  the  practical  rather  ^liau  the  theoretical, 
and  the  result  of  his  work  is  the  formulated  .system 
of  an  industrial  expert  rather  than  the  more  ambi- 
tious but  less  available  scheme  of  a  consulting  en- 
gineer. "  Every  one  skilled  in  the  art  of  ash  or 
baked  bluing  processes  and  the  time  and  care  re- 
quired for  the  acid  process  of  barrel  browning," 
says  the  correspondent,  "will  be  pleased  to  learn  that 
by  immersing  and  keeping  the  parts  in  such  a  con- 
dition for  si.\  minutes,  in  a  bath  of  saltpeter,  10 
parts,  and  of  black  oxide  of  manganese.  1  part,  heat- 
ed to  about  600  degrees  Far.,  a  beautiful  blue  black 
color  will  be  secured  which  will  wear  equal  to,  if 
not  better  thau,  the  best  acid  process."  The  opera- 
tion requires  no  skilled  labor,  a  cast-iron  pot  deep 
enough  to  cover  the  parts  to  be  treated,  arranged  in 
such  manner  that  a  uniform  heat  can  be  maintained, 
being  the  only  apparatus  needed.  At  the  National 
Armory,  they  are  using  this  process  for  all  the  gun- 
parts  formerly  blued — such  as  butt-plates,  trigger- 
guards,  bands,  tips,  etc.  They  are  also  treating  the 
bayonets,  aud  are  about  to  try  the  process  with  the 


barrels.  Especially  notable  is  the  fact  that  this  pro- 
cess will  not  prejudicially  affect  the  spring  temper, 
and  will  draw  case-hardened  parts,  requiring  tough- 
ness, to  the  proper  spring  teniper.  The  economical 
advantage  is  thus  differentiated  between  the  old 
process  and  the  new — the  old  barrel  browning  by 
acid  requires  at  least  four  and  better  six  days  time, 
while  the  new  process  consumes  six  minutes — the 
former  demaudiug  an  expert  and  the  latter  a  laborer. 
The  Barffing  process,  as  is  well  known,  takes  from 
ten  to  fourteen  hours,  with  the  constant  liability  of 
doing  a  positive  or  permanent  damage  to  pieces  thus 
treated. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  that,  though 
Colonel  Buttington's  process  is  applicable  both  for 
browning  and  anti-corrosive  purposes,  it  has  not  yet 
been  applied  to  the  parts  of  the  action,  other  than 
the  springs.  The  very  economical  results  of  the  new 
process  are  thus  far  most  pronounced,  the  saving  of 
time  and  labor  being  considerable.  We  now  look 
for  a  trial  of  the  anti-rust  virtues  or  the  process  upon 
the  holt-action  and  lindj-work  of  the  several  repeat- 
ing rifles.  Should  Colonel  BiifBngton  have  merely 
succeeded  in  substituting  a  new  formula  for  the  old 
uncertain  bluing  and  browning  processes,  he  will 
have  scored  a  success;  if  he  has  at  last  hit  upon  a 
real  anti-rust  treatment  he  has  gained  a  victorj'. 

EBSTEE.— In  Heraldry,  one  of  the  sub- 
ordinaries,  consisting  of  a  lozenge  with 
0\        a  circular  opening  pferced  in  its  center. 
\      Ancient  armor  w  as  i-ometimes  composed 
/       of  ruslres  sewed  on  cloth. 

rUSTEED  AEMOK.— Armor  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages, composed  of  flat  oval  rings  sew- 
ed on  quilted  leather  or  linen  and  over- 
lapping each  other  half  way. 
EYSWICK.— The  Peace  of  Ryswick  was  a  treaty 
concluded  in  1097  at  Ryswick,  a  Dutch  village  be- 
tween Delft  aud  the  Hague,  which  was  signed  by 
France,  England,  and  Spain  on  Sept.  20,  anil  by  Ger- 
many on  Oct.  30.  It  put  an  end  to  the  sanguinary 
contest  in  which  England  had  been  engaged  with 
France.  It  has  been  often  said  that  the  only  equiv- 
alent then  received  by  England  for  all  the  treasure 
she  had  transmitted  to  the  Continent, and  for  all  the 
blood  which  had  been  shed  there,  was  an  acknowl- 
edgment of  William's  title  by  the  King  of  France; 
but  it  must  not  be  forgot  how  much  the  Allies  were 
benefited  by  the  check  given  to  the  gigantic  power 
and  overweeuiug  ambition  of  France. 


Unstie. 


END  OF  VOL.  II. 


REFERENCES  TO  ADDITIONS  OK  SUBJECTS  COMPILED  SINCE  THE  PUBMCATION  OP 
THIS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  AltE  FOUND  IN  ALI'HAIJETICAL  ARRANGEMENT  IN 
THE   SUPPLEMENTS, 


Article. 

Numheu  of 
Supplement. 

Yeah. 

Paob. 

Reuabkb. 

.       .                   1 

1 

--- 

— 

• 



^ 

1 

'    ■ 

1 

REFERENCES  TO  ADDITIONS  OR  SUBJECTS  COMPILED  SINCE  THE  PUBLICATION  OP 
THIS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  ARE  FOUND  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ARRANGEMENT  IN 
THE  SUPPLEMENTS. 


ABTICIiE. 

NUMBEat  OF 

Supplement. 

Year. 

Page. 

Remabks. 

i 

( 

1 

1 

^ 

• 

KKFKHKNCKS  TO  ADDITIONS  OH  SUIUKCTS  COMI'H.KD  SINCK  TIIK  I'l  IfMCATlON  OK 
THIS  VOLUMK,  AND  WHICH  AUK  KOUND  IN  A  M'll  A  UKTICAI,  AKRANOEMENT  IN 
THE  SUPPLEMENTS, 


Akticlk. 

NlIMHKK   OF 
HlII'I'I.EMKNT. 

Ye  An. 

Pagk. 

Ukmaukh. 

1 

1 

i 

i 

, 

' 

REFERENCES  TO  ADDITIONS  OR  SUBJECTS  COMPILED  SINCE  THE  PUBLICATION  OF 
THIS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  ARE  FOUND  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ARRANGEMENT  IN 
THE  SUPPLEMENTS. 


Article. 

Number  op 
Supplement. 

Tear. 

Page. 

Remarks. 

]{i:Ki:i!KNt;i;s  to  addiiions  oh  suiue(;ts  compiled  sinck  the  pubmcation  of 

rillS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  AKK  FOUND    IN  AU'lIAIilCTICAI,  ARRANGEMKNT  IN 
THE  SUPPLEMENTS. 


AUTICI-Ii. 

Ntl.MDEIl  OF 
SUI'I'LKMENT. 

Ybar. 

Pa<ik. 

1 
1 

Hkmakkh. 

1 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 
! 

REFERENCES  TO  ADDITIONS  OR  SUBJECTS  COMPILED  SINCE  THE  PUBLICATION  OP 
THIS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  ARE  FOUND  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ARRANGEMENT  IN 
THE  SUPPLEMENTS. 


Abticle. 

Number  of 
Supplement. 

Year. 

Page. 

Remarks. 

refehp:nces  to  additions  or  subjects  compiled  since  the  publication  op 
this  volume,  and  which  are  pound  in  alphabetical  arrangement  in 
the  supplements. 


Article. 

NUMIIEU   OF 
SUITI.KMENT. 

Ykau. 

PAOE. 

Remahkb. 

1 

- 

• 

• 

i 
1 

.RKFERBNCES  TO  ADDITIONS  OR  SUBJECTS  COMPILED  SINCE  THE  PUBLICATION  OF 
THIS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  ARE  FOUND  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ARRANGEMENT  IN 
THE   SUPPLEMENTS. 


Abticle. 

Ntimbek  of 
Supplement. 

Year. 

Page. 

Bemabks. 

■ 

1 

1 

nEPERENCES  TO  ADDITIONS  OR  SUBJECTS  COMPILED  SINCE  THE  PUBLICATION  OF 
THIS  VOLUME.  AND  WHICH  ARE  FOUND  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ARRANGEMENT  IN 
THE  SUPPLEMENTS. 


AllTICLB. 

NUMIiEIl   OF 

Supplement. 

Yeah.                  Paoe. 

Rkmarkh. 

, 

-- 

1 

• 

i 
1 

1 

REFERENCES  TO  ADDITIONS  OR  SUBJECTS  COMPILED  SINCE  THE  PUBLICATION  OP 
THIS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  ARE  FOUND  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ARRANGEMENT  IN 
THE  SUPPLEMENTS. 


Abtiolb. 

NUMBEB  OF 

Supplement. 

Year.                  Page. 

Remarks. 

1 

. 

\ 

RKFERENCES  TO  ADDITIONS  Oil  SUBJECTS  COMPILED'  SINCE  THE  PUBLICATION  OF 
THIS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  XUK  FOUND  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ARUANGEMKNT  IN 
THE   SUPPLEMENTS. 


Autiom;. 

NlIMUEU  Ol' 
SUI'I'I.EMENT. 

Ykaic                   Paok. 

Ukmahkh. 

1 

—  - 







1 

! 

1 

1 
i 

1 

i 

1 

REFERENCES  TO  ADDITIONS  OR  SUBJECTS  COMPILED  SINCE  THE  PUBLICATION  OP 
THIS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  ARE  FOUND  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ARRANGEMENT  IN 
THE  SUPPLEMENTS. 


Abticus. 

Number  op 
Supplement. 

Yeab. 

Page. 

Rkmakks. 

1 

--  - 

i 

-      -  - 

V 

i 

1 

REFERENCES  TO  ADDITIONS  OR  SUBJECTS'  COMPILED  SINCE  THE  PUBLICATION  OP 
THIS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  ARE  FOUND  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ARRANGEMENT  IN 
THE  SUPPLEMENTS. 


AiiTiri.t':, 

NlIMHUIl   OK 
Sui'l'l.KMKNT. 

YuAit.                   I'Aor,. 

Kemahkh. 



-' 

■     '     •                          1 

. 

-     - 

1 

! 

-» 

REFERENCES  TO  ADDITIONS  OR  SUBJECTS  COMPILED  SINCE  THE  PUBLICATION  OF 
THIS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  ARE  FOUND  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ARRANGEMENT  IN 
THE  SUPPLEMENTS. 


Abticle. 

Number  of 
scpplement. 

Yeab. 

Page. 

Rkmarkb. 

—    - 





1 

REFERENCteS  TO  ADDITIONS  OR  8UBJECTR  COMPILED  SINCE  THE  PUBLICATION  OF 
THIS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  ARE  FOUND  IN  ALPHABETICAI-  ARRANGEMENT  IN 
THE  SUPPLEMENTS. 


Article. 

NUMIIKU   OK 
SUl'PLEMENT. 

Ykak. 

Paok. 

Remaukk. 

i 

1 

1 

• 

1 

1 

- 



—           -                     ' 

• 

1 

i 

REFERENCES  TO  ADDITIONS  OR  SUBJECTS  COMPILED  SINCE  THE  PUBLICATION  OF 
THIS  VOLUME,  AND  WHICH  ARE  FOUND  IN  ALPHABETICAL  ARRANGEMENT  IN 
THE   SUPPLEMENTS. 


Article. 

Number  op 
Supplement. 

Tear.                  Page. 

Remarks. 

1 

1 

r 

.  \\«  UNIVER%         ^^clOSANCflfr. 


j^. 


7-t: 


1^^ 


P   6  '-  '^^ 


^-TJlDWSOl^^ 


,  \WE  UNIVER% 


"^/.jajMNn- 


^lOSANCEl/ 


%a3AiNn-3V 


i     5  1' 


^^tllBRARYQ<^ 


»vlt  l-l'IV'tDC/ 


1  AC   I  urn  r  „ 


University  of  California 
,  _,        ^      ^  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

>J0'^        'w/n  *°5  Hilgard  Avenue,  Los  Angeles,  CA  90024-1388 


.*si' 


Return  this  material  to  the  library 
from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


^vNtllBBARYQ^ 

'  in  i 

iTvi  irvV' 


ilM 


OCT  3  0  1998 
2  WEEK  LO/HN 


^  5|pf  g    1  6 


I1V3-J0- 


AllfOff^ 


^OJIIVJJO 
^OFCAIIFOft 


^OAavaaiii 


NVSOT 


■^AaaAiNn-jK 


^lOSANCElfj 


f 


"^AaiAiNn^tf 


IRARYQc         ^^tLIBRARY<3 


!S1I 


ALIFO% 


^AOFCAllFOff^ 


^^^Aavaaiii^"^ 


^<?Aava8iii'J 


Y(7/^       ^^^l•lIBRARYQ/^ 


1     1  r'"'  ^ 


ANCEIfx^ 


IIFOff^ 


'^Aavaani'^ 


.^WE■UNIVER% 


_A^lOSANCEl/: 

Or 


•.'JlJ■Jf,v^ul•-*■         '^/iaJAINdJUV  -'^aOJllVJ-JOr-'        '''faOJIlVJ-JO'i^         %J13DNV-S01^ 


.^WE•UNIVER5//, 


c?  — 

"^/^ajAiNn-iwv 


^lOSANCElfx^ 

Cte 
o 


^J'ilJDNVSOl^ 


"^/iajAiNfl-iwv 


■'%         ^>MllBRARYO/^       ^^^^tlBRARY/?/^  ^^\\F 


ANCElfrj. 


^^llIBRARYQf         ^j^tllBRARYQ/ 


.,OfCAllF0% 


7     ^  '--^'    •-  ?? 


^\UUNIVERy/A.        vvlOSANCflfj;* 


^ 


% 


,  -< 


-fAliFOffi,,        .<.0f  CAllfO% 


3  1158  01064   1024 


o 


oslOSANCflfj> 


'''^/iaiAiNnji. 


'^''^ 


§^    r. 


D     000  450  998     o 


1  irr^ 


c? 


^lOSANCFlfj. 


"^/iSIAINdJWV 


.af.rMimff^^         .QF-CAllFO^' 


o      £5  \J^< 


Bdi  ir 


ynviVy 


.\ic,iiMr\;rnr/» 


)^ 


I  i^V 


^ 


-J  ij  jii » j'j  1 


.„j.'.^ 


,  fNt.rAMcriD 


•  2         fe 


'^^ 


^^^\l  LIBRARY/)/ 


'^'(i/ojnvjjo'^ 


^.OfCAllFOff^ 


^OAavaaiii'^ 


\\\[^ 


!:^ 


m 


U 


";.;:)MfS.oi^~^ 


<^^HIBRARYQ/:^ 

5^1   fr-  ^ 


5    ^ 


.^OFCAIIFO%.        ,-;;0f  CAllfO% 


>&Aavaani^ 


.^\^E•lHlv[RJ/A 


=0 


,^\\[l)NIVERJ/A 


vvlOS-ANCflfj> 


■^/5a3AIN(l]\\^ 


% 


^ 


,  ^VU ' 


'i  1^ 


^vMUBRARYO/: 


x^lOSAHCfLfj> 


<'/ia3AiNn-3\Vi 


''CFlfjv 


-p      o 

11^ 


-< 

$5 


^OFCAllFOff^ 


%avaani^     ^OAavaaiH^^        ■<rii]3NVS0i^'^     ^a^AiNnjwv^       '^^OAavaaiii'^'^ 


^^^lllBRARY(9/r 

■Si  1 1-'  ^ 


.^\«■UNIVER5/A 


^lOSAN'CElfjv 


^tllBRARYOy:         ^^lllBRARYQr 

'^TOJiivjjo"^       <ri]3Df(vsoi^     "^/saiAiNnjwv^       '-''iojnvjjo'f^     %ojnvjjo>^ 


.^Mf•UNIVERVA 


A^OFCAllFORi^ 


^CAavaaiHv^ 


.^WEUNIVERJ/A 


^■lOSAfCElfj^ 
o 


^J^HDNVSOl^        ■^/JSIAINn-JWV 


\      ^OFCAIIFO/?^^ 

O 


"^^^ "■""'^    '^^'Aavaaiii^S^ 


^OAavaani'^ 


.^1rtEUNIVFRS/A 


<ril3DNVS01^ 


-^lOSMElfXx  ^vXtUBRARYQc.       aAIUBRARYQc 


^ 


<S 


^WE■UNIVER5■/A 


\  -^- 


A^^lllBRARYQc 


§  1    1 


ii 


